This is a modern-English version of The Old English Physiologus, originally written by Cynewulf.
It has been thoroughly updated, including changes to sentence structure, words, spelling,
and grammar—to ensure clarity for contemporary readers, while preserving the original spirit and nuance. If
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Old English Physiologus
Preface
The Old English Physiologus, or Bestiary, is a series of three brief poems, dealing with the mythical traits of a land-animal, a sea-beast, and a bird respectively, and deducing from them certain moral or religious lessons. These three creatures are selected from a much larger number treated in a work of the same name which was compiled at Alexandria before 140 B. C., originally in Greek, and afterwards translated into a variety of languages—into Latin before 431. The standard form of the Physiologus has 49 chapters, each dealing with a separate animal (sometimes imaginary) or other natural object, beginning with the lion, and ending with the ostrich; examples of these are the pelican, the eagle, the phoenix, the ant (cf. Prov. 6.6), the fox, the unicorn, and the salamander. In this standard text, the Old English poems are represented by chapters 16, 17, and 18, dealing in succession with the panther, a mythical sea-monster called the asp-turtle (usually denominated the whale), and the partridge. Of these three poems, the third is so fragmentary that little is left except eight lines of religious application, and four of exhortation by the poet, so that the outline of the poem, and especially the part descriptive of the partridge, must be conjecturally restored by reference to the treatment in the fuller versions, which are based upon Jer. 17. 11 (the texts drawn upon for the application in lines 5–11 are 2 Cor. 6. 17, 18; Isa. 55.7; Heb. 2. 10, 11).
The Old English Physiologus, or Bestiary, is a collection of three short poems that explore the mythical characteristics of a land animal, a sea creature, and a bird, respectively, and draw moral or religious lessons from them. These three animals are chosen from a much larger number discussed in a work of the same name compiled in Alexandria before 140 B.C., originally written in Greek, and later translated into various languages, including Latin before 431. The standard version of the Physiologus consists of 49 chapters, each focusing on a different animal (sometimes fictional) or other natural objects, starting with the lion and ending with the ostrich; examples include the pelican, the eagle, the phoenix, the ant (cf. Prov. 6.6), the fox, the unicorn, and the salamander. In this standard text, the Old English poems correspond to chapters 16, 17, and 18, which discuss the panther, a mythical sea monster called the asp-turtle (commonly referred to as the whale), and the partridge, in that order. Of these three poems, the third is so fragmentary that only eight lines of religious application and four lines of exhortation from the poet remain, necessitating that the structure of the poem—especially the part describing the partridge—be partly reconstructed by referencing the more complete versions, which are based on Jer. 17.11 (the texts used for the application in lines 5–11 are 2 Cor. 6.17, 18; Isa. 55.7; Heb. 2.10, 11).
It has been said: ‘With the exception of the Bible, there is perhaps no other book in all literature that has been more widely current in every cultivated tongue and among every class of people.’ Such currency might be illustrated from many English authors. Two passages from Elizabethan literature may serve as specimens—the one from Spenser, the other from Shakespeare. The former is from the Faerie Queene (1. 11.34):
It has been said: ‘Except for the Bible, there might not be any other book in all literature that has been more widely read in every educated language and among every class of people.’ This widespread influence can be shown through many English authors. Two excerpts from Elizabethan literature can act as examples—the first from Spenser, the second from Shakespeare. The first is from the Faerie Queene (1. 11.34):
At last she saw, where he upstarted brave
Out of the well, wherein he drenched lay;
As Eagle fresh out of the Ocean wave,
Where he hath left his plumes all hoary gray,
And deckt himselfe with feathers youthly gay,
Like Eyas hauke up mounts unto the skies,
His newly budded pineons to assay,
And marveiles at himselfe, still as he flies:
So new this new-borne knight to battell new did rise.Finally, she saw him leap up boldly
Out of the well, where he had been drenched;
Like an eagle just coming out of the ocean waves,
Leaving behind his dull gray feathers,
And putting on bright, colorful plumage,
Like a young hawk soaring into the sky,
Testing his newly grown wings,
And admiring himself as he flies:
So the newly minted knight rose up ready for battle once more.
The other is from Hamlet (Laertes to the King):
The other is from Hamlet (Laertes to the King):
However widely diffused, the symbolism exemplified by the Physiologus is peculiarly at home in the East. Thus Egypt symbolized the sun, with his death at night passing into a rebirth, by the phœnix, which, by a natural extension, came to signify the resurrection. And the Bible not only sends the sluggard to the ant, and bids men consider the lilies of the field, but with a large sweep commands (Job 12.7,8): ‘Ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee; and the fowls of the air, and they shall tell thee; or speak to the earth, and it shall teach thee; and the fishes of the sea shall declare unto thee.’
However widespread the symbolism found in the Physiologus is, it really feels at home in the East. For example, Egypt symbolized the sun, associating its death at night with a rebirth represented by the phoenix, which naturally came to signify resurrection. The Bible not only instructs the lazy to learn from the ant and urges people to reflect on the lilies of the field, but also broadly commands (Job 12.7,8): ‘Ask the animals, and they will teach you; the birds of the air, and they will tell you; or talk to the earth, and it will teach you; and the fish of the sea will declare it to you.’
The text as here printed is extracted from my edition, The Old English Elenc, Phœnix, and Physiologus (Yale University Press, 1919), where a critical apparatus may be found; here it may be sufficient to say that Italic letters in square brackets denote my emendations, and Roman letters those of previous editors. The translations have not hitherto been published, and no complete ones are extant in any language, save those contained in Thorpe’s edition of the Codex Exoniensis, which appeared in 1842. The long conjectural passage in the Partridge is due wholly to Mr. Pitman.
The text printed here is taken from my edition, The Old English Elenc, Phœnix, and Physiologus (Yale University Press, 1919), which includes a critical apparatus; here, it's enough to mention that italic letters in square brackets indicate my edits, while Roman letters represent those of earlier editors. The translations have not been published before, and there are no complete versions in any language, except for those found in Thorpe’s edition of the Codex Exoniensis, which was released in 1842. The lengthy speculated passage in the Partridge is entirely credited to Mr. Pitman.
Physiologus
I
The Panther
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Monge sindon geond middangeard Monks wander through the world
wrǣtlīc[um] gecynd[e] wildra secgan, wrathful creatures wild are told, |
Of living creatures many are the kinds Of living creatures, there are many kinds
From men of wider lore of one wild beast, From knowledgeable men about one wild animal, |
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Many, yea numberless, are the tribes throughout the world whose natures we can not rightly expound nor their multitudes reckon, so immense are the swarms of birds and earth-treading animals wherever water, the roaring ocean, the surge of salt billows, encompasses the smiling bosom of earth. Many, indeed countless, are the tribes around the world whose natures we cannot accurately describe or whose numbers we can’t count, so immense are the flocks of birds and land-dwelling animals wherever water, the roaring ocean, and the crashing waves surround the welcoming surface of the earth. We have heard about one marvelous kind of wild beast which inhabits, in lands far off, a domain renowned among men, rejoicing there in his home amid the mountain-caves. This beast is called panther, as the learned We’ve heard about an amazing type of wild animal that lives in distant lands, a place famous among people, thriving in its home among the mountain caves. This animal is called a panther, as the experts | |
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wīsfæste weras, on gewritum cȳþa[ð] wiseness of men, in writings reveal[th]
duguða ēstig, būtan dracan ānum; duguða èstig, but without a single dragon;
Ðæt is wrǣtlīc dēor, wundrum scȳne, That is a remarkable creature, wonderfully beautiful, |
The panther, and in books have told of him, The panther, as described in books,
A bounteous friend to every living thing A generous friend to every creature
And wonderful of hue. The holy scribes And beautiful in color. The holy writers His wondrous character is mild, and free His amazing personality is gentle and carefree. |
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among the children of men report in their books concerning that lonely wanderer. among the children of men report in their books about that lonely wanderer. He is a friend, bountiful in kindness, to every one save only the dragon; with him he always lives at enmity by means of every injury he can inflict. He is a friend, generous in kindness, to everyone except the dragon; with him, he is always at odds, doing everything he can to cause harm. He is a bewitching animal, marvelously beautiful with every color. Just as, according to men holy in spirit, Joseph’s coat was variegated with hues of every shade, each shining before the sons of men brighter and more perfect than another, so does the color of this beast blaze with every diversity, gleaming in wondrous wise so clear and fair that each tint is ever lovelier than the next, glows more enchanting in its splendor, more rare, more beauteous, and more strange. He is an enchanting creature, wonderfully beautiful with every color. Just like how, according to spiritually enlightened people, Joseph's coat was a mix of all shades, each one shining before mankind brighter and more perfect than the others, this beast's color shines with every variety, sparkling in such a remarkable way that each hue is always lovelier than the next, glowing more captivating in its brilliance, more unique, more beautiful, and more extraordinary. He has a nature all his own, so gentle and so calm is He has a personality all his own, so gentle and so calm is | |
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milde, gemetfæst. Hē is monþwǣre, mild, steadfast. He is wise,
35 Symle, fylle fægen, þonne fōddor þigeð, 35 With pleasure, the happy one, when the food is shared, |
From all disturbing passion. Gracious, kind, From all troubling emotions. Gracious, kind,
His heart with feasting, straight he finds a nook His heart full from feasting, he quickly finds a spot |
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it. Kind, attractive, and friendly, he has no thought of doing harm to any save the envenomed foe, his ancient adversary of whom I spoke. it. Kind, attractive, and friendly, he has no intention of harming anyone except his toxic enemy, the old opponent I mentioned. When, delighting in a feast, he has partaken of food, ever at the end of the meal he betakes himself to his resting-place, a hidden retreat among the mountain-caves; there the champion of his race, overcome by sleep, abandons himself to slumber for the space of three nights. Then the dauntless one, replenished with vigor, straightway arises from sleep when the third day has come. A melody, the most ravishing of strains, flows from the wild beast’s mouth; and, following the music, there issues a fragrance from the place—a fume more transporting, sweet, and strong than any odor whatever, than blossoms of plants or fruits of the forest, choicer When he enjoys a feast and has eaten his fill, he heads to his sleeping spot, a hidden retreat in the mountain caves. There, the champion of his people, overcome by exhaustion, falls into a deep sleep for three nights. On the morning of the third day, he awakens refreshed and full of energy. A beautiful melody flows from the wild beast’s mouth, and following the music, an enticing fragrance fills the air—sweeter and stronger than any scent from flowers or fruits in the forest. | |
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Þonne of ceastrum and cynestōlum Þanne from the cities and royal halls
55 Swā is Dryhten God, drēama Rǣdend, 55 God is our Lord, the source of joy, |
Than all this world’s adornments. Then from town Than all the decorations of this world. Then from town
Such as this creature is the Lord our God, Such is the Lord our God, |
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than aught that clothes the earth with beauty. Thereupon from cities, courts, and castle-halls many companies of heroes flock along the highways of earth; the wielders of the spear press forward in hurrying throngs to that perfume—and so also do animals—when once the music has ceased. than anything that covers the earth with beauty. Then from cities, courts, and castle halls, many groups of heroes gather along the highways of the world; the warriors with spears rush forward in eager crowds towards that scent—and so do the animals—once the music has stopped. Even so the Lord God, the Giver of joy, is gracious to all creatures, to every order of them, save only the dragon, the source of venom, that ancient enemy whom he bound in the abyss of torments; shackling him with fiery fetters, and loading him with dire constraints, he arose from darkness on the third day after he, the Lord of angels, the Bestower of victory, had for three nights endured death on our behalf. That was a sweet perfume throughout the world, winsome and entrancing. Henceforth, Even so, the Lord God, the Giver of joy, is gracious to all creatures and all kinds of them, except for the dragon, the source of poison, that ancient enemy whom He imprisoned in the abyss of torment. He bound him with fiery chains and placed heavy restrictions on him. Then, on the third day, He rose from darkness after enduring death on our behalf for three nights, the Lord of angels, the Bestower of victory. That became a sweet fragrance throughout the world, charming and captivating. From now on, | |
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on healfa gehwone, hēapum þrungon on ordinary healing, they press heavily |
From every side all men whose hearts were true, From every direction, all the true-hearted men, |
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through the whole extent of earth’s regions, righteous men have streamed in multitudes from every side to that fragrance. As said the wise St. Paul: ‘Manifold over the world are the lavish bounties which the Father almighty, the Hope of all creatures above and below, bestows on us as grace and salvation.’ That, too, is a sweet odor. throughout the entire world, good people have come in great numbers from every direction to that fragrance. As the wise St. Paul said: ‘There are countless generous gifts throughout the world that the Almighty Father, the Hope of all beings above and below, gives us as grace and salvation.’ That, too, is a sweet scent. | |
II
The Whale (Asp-Turtle)
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Nū ic fitte gēn ymb fisca cynn Nū ic fitte gēn ymb fisca cynn
Is þæs hīw gelīc hrēofum stāne, Is like the bright stone, |
Now will I spur again my wit, and use Now I will sharpen my mind once more and use
Dun, like rough stone in color, as he floats Dun, like dark stone in color, as he floats |
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This time I will with poetic art rehearse, by means of words and wit, a poem about a kind of fish, the great sea-monster which is often unwillingly met, terrible and cruel-hearted to seafarers, yea, to every man; this swimmer of the ocean-streams is known as the asp-turtle. This time I will use poetic skill to share a poem about a type of fish, the great sea monster that is often encountered unwillingly, fearsome and cruel to sailors, and indeed, to everyone; this swimmer of the ocean is known as the asp-turtle. His appearance is like that of a rough boulder, as if there were tossing by the shore a great ocean-reedbank begirt with sand-dunes, so that seamen imagine they are gazing upon an island, and moor their high-prowed ships with cables to that false land, make fast the ocean-coursers at the sea’s end, and, bold of heart, climb up His appearance is like that of a rugged boulder, as if there were a large seaweed bank surrounded by sand dunes, so that sailors think they are looking at an island, and tie their ships with high prows to that fake land, secure their ocean-going vessels at the edge of the sea, and, filled with courage, climb up. | |
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and þonne in þæt ēglond ūp gewītað and then in the isle will go
On þām ēalonde ǣled weccað, On the island they lead a life,
dēofla wīse, þæt hī droht[i]ende demon wise, that they deceive |
The weary-hearted sailors mount the isle, The tired sailors climb the island,
Elated, on the sands they build a fire, Overjoyed, they build a fire on the beach,
Of demons, devils’ wiles: to hide their power, Of demons and the tricks of devils: to conceal their power, |
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on that island; the vessels stand by the beach, enringed by the flood. The weary-hearted sailors then encamp, dreaming not of peril. on that island; the boats are anchored by the shore, surrounded by the tide. The tired sailors then set up camp, not thinking about danger. On the island they start a fire, kindle a mounting flame. The dispirited heroes, eager for repose, are flushed with joy. Now when the cunning plotter feels that the seamen are firmly established upon him, and have settled down to enjoy the weather, the guest of ocean sinks without warning into the salt wave with his prey (?), and makes for the bottom, thus whelming ships and men in that abode of death. On the island, they start a fire, creating a growing flame. The weary heroes, wanting to rest, feel a rush of joy. Now, when the clever schemer realizes that the sailors are firmly in his grasp and have settled in to enjoy the weather, the ocean's guest suddenly sinks into the salty waves with his catch and heads for the depths, pulling ships and men into that place of death. Such is the way of demons, the wont of devils: they spend their lives in outwitting men by their secret power, inciting them to the corruption of good deeds, misguiding Such is the nature of demons, the habit of devils: they spend their lives trying to outsmart people with their hidden power, pushing them towards the corruption of good deeds, misleading | |
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frōfre tō fēondum, oþþæt hy fæste ðǣr frōfre to foes, until they firmly there
50 wæterþisa wlonc, wrǣtlīcran gīen. 50 water's splendor, more beautifully green. |
From unsuspected foes, until at last From unexpected enemies, until finally
This proud sea-swimmer, still more marvelous. This proud sea-swimmer, even more amazing. |
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them at will so that they seek help and support from fiends, until they end by making their fixed abode with the betrayer. When, from out his living torture, the crafty, malicious enemy perceives that any one is firmly settled within his domain, he proceeds, by his malignant wiles, to become the slayer of that man, be he rich or poor, who sinfully does his will; and, covered by his cap of darkness, suddenly betakes himself with them to hell, where naught of good is found, a bottomless abyss shrouded in misty gloom—like that monster which engulfs the ocean-traversing men and ships.' them at will so that they seek help and support from their demons, until they end up making their permanent home with the traitor. When, from his living torment, the cunning, malicious enemy sees that someone is firmly established within his territory, he starts, through his wicked tricks, to become the destroyer of that person, whether they are rich or poor, who foolishly follows his wishes; and, hidden under his dark cloak, suddenly takes them with him to hell, where nothing good is found, a bottomless abyss shrouded in misty darkness—like that monster that swallows sea-faring men and ships. This proud tosser of the waves has another and still more wonderful trait. When hunger plagues him on the deep, and the monster longs for food, this haunter of the sea opens his mouth, and sets his lips agape; This proud thrower of the waves has another, even more amazing trait. When hunger torments him in the depths, and the beast yearns for food, this dweller of the sea opens his mouth and gapes wide; | |
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wīde weleras; cymeð wynsum stenc wide welcomes; comes a pleasant scent
se þe oftost his unwærlīce, se þe oftast his unwærlich, |
His monstrous lips; and from his cavernous maw His huge lips, and from his deep mouth
So, in this fleeting earthly time, each man So, in this brief time on Earth, each person |
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whereupon there issues a ravishing perfume from his inwards, by which other kinds of fish are beguiled. With lively motions they swim to where the sweet odor comes forth, and there enter in, a heedless host, until the wide gorge is full; then, in one instant, he snaps his fierce jaws together about the swarming prey. whereupon a captivating scent comes from within him, which lures other types of fish. With lively movements, they swim toward the source of the sweet smell and enter in, an unwitting crowd, until the large mouth is filled; then, in an instant, he closes his fierce jaws around the swarming prey. Thus it is with any one who, in this fleeting time, full oft neglects to take heed to his life, and allows himself to be enticed by sweet fragrance, a lying lure, so that he becomes hostile to the King of glory by reason of his sins. The accursed one will, when they die, throw wide the doors of hell to those who, in their folly, have wrought the treacherous delights of the body, contrary to the wise guidance of the soul. When the deceiver, skilful in wrongdoing, hath brought into that fastness, Thus it is with anyone who, in this brief time, often neglects to pay attention to their life and allows themselves to be tempted by sweet allure, a deceiving trap, making them turn against the King of Glory because of their sins. The cursed one will, at the time of death, swing open the doors of hell to those who, in their foolishness, have pursued the treacherous pleasures of the body, against the wise guidance of the soul. When the deceiver, skilled in wrongdoing, has led them into that stronghold, | |
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æt þām [ā]dwylme, þā þe him on cleofiað, At that torment, those who cry out to him, burdened with guilt, and eagerly in their lifetime remembered his lessons, when he then fiercely pushes down the grim power after mortal demise, tightly bound together, the gates of hell. No one can shift or escape, no one can ever leave, those who come in there, more so than the fish, traveling swiftly, must turn away from the grasp of that whale.
Forþon is eallinga . . . . . . . . . . . For this reason, we should all together... |
With evil craft has led those erring ones With wicked tricks, he has led those lost souls
And[2]] altogether [right for each of us And[2]] altogether [right for each of us |
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the lake of fire, those that cleave to him and are laden with guilt, such as had eagerly followed his teachings in the days of their life, he then, after their death, snaps tight together his fierce jaws, the gates of hell. They who enter there have neither relief nor escape, no means of flight, any more than the fishes that swim the sea can escape from the clutch of the monster. the lake of fire, those who cling to him and are burdened with guilt, just like those who eagerly followed his teachings during their lives, he then, after their death, snaps tight his fierce jaws, the gates of hell. Those who enter there have no relief or escape, no way to flee, just like the fish that swim in the sea can't escape the grip of the monster. Therefore is it by all means [best for every one of us to serve[2]] the Lord of lords, and strive against devils with words and works, that so we may come to behold the King of glory. Let us ever, now in this fleeting time, seek from him grace and salvation, that so with the Beloved we may in worship enjoy the bliss of heaven for evermore. Therefore, it’s absolutely best for all of us to serve[2] the Lord of lords and fight against evil with our words and actions, so that we can see the King of glory. Let’s always, in this fleeting time, seek grace and salvation from Him, so that we can worship and enjoy the bliss of heaven forever with the Beloved. | |
III
The Partridge[3]
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Hȳrde ic secgan gēn bi sumum fugle Hȳrde ic secgan gēn bi sumum fugle |
About another creature have I heard I've heard about another creature
Fair is that word the Lord of glory spoke: Fair is that word the Lord of glory spoke: |
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So, too, I have heard tell a wondrous [tale[4]] about a certain bird.[5] … fair the word[6] spoken by the King of glory: ‘At whatsoever time ye turn to me with faith in your soul, and forsake the black iniquities of hell, I will turn straightway to you with love, in the gentleness of my heart; and thenceforth ye shall be reckoned to So, too, I have heard a wonderful tale[4] about a certain bird.[5] … fair the word[6] spoken by the King of Glory: ‘Whenever you turn to me with faith in your soul and leave behind the dark sins of hell, I will immediately turn to you with love, in the gentleness of my heart; and from then on, you shall be counted as | |
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10 torhte, tīrēadge, talade and rīmde, 10 force, strengthen, talked and rhymed,
Uton wē þȳ geornor Gode ōliccan, Uton we then desire God's grace, Finit.
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Refulgent, glorious, numbered with the host Refulgent, glorious, numbered with the host
Be taught to please God better, hating sin, Learn to please God more, avoiding sin, Finit.
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me as glorious and renowned, as my illustrious brethren, yea, in the place of children.’ me as glorious and renowned, as my illustrious brothers, yes, in the place of children.’ Let us therefore propitiate God with all zeal, abhor evil, and gain forgiveness and salvation from the Lord while for us the day still shines, so that thus we may, in glorious beauty, inhabit a dwelling excellent beyond compare. Finit. Let’s therefore appeal to God with all our passion, hate what is evil, and seek forgiveness and salvation from the Lord while we still have the light of day, so that we may, in glorious beauty, live in a dwelling that is truly unmatched. Done. | |
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