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1917

With the best intention of justifying Messrs. PITMAN'S confidence in entrusting me with the compilation of a Spanish Grammar to form part of the series of "Commercial Grammars," I set to work to produce a book which, while avoiding pedantry and the agglomeration of superfluous and intricate rules which puzzle the student, should equally avoid falling into the extreme of coarseness which debases the subject under study, or the scrappiness resulting in gaps that perplex and discourage him. I have tried to be brief and clear in the rules given.

The vocabulary has been chosen carefully, avoiding the artificiality of too much commercial technology, but keeping constantly in view the object of the Series, viz., to produce grammars specially suitable for students preparing for a commercial career.

Whether I have succeeded in my efforts it is for the public to judge. I can only say that, after more than twenty-five years' teaching of Spanish in all its stages, privately, at the Manchester University and in the large classes of our public Institutions, I have tried my best to give the fruits of my experience to any interested young people who may be eager to learn a language beautiful, noble, and most useful.

I do not claim to have reached perfection. I only trust the book, such as it presents itself, will be of real help to the student.

A (a) G (ge) M (eme) Rr (erre)
B (be) H (hache) N (ene) S (ese)
C (ce) I (i) Ñ (eñe) T (te)
Ch (che) J (jota) O (o) U (u)
D (de) K (ka) P (pe) V (ve)
E (e) L (ele) Q (cu) X (equis)
F (efe) Ll (elle) R (ere) Y (y griega or ye)
Z (zeta)

K (ka) and W (doble ve) are only found in foreign words used in Spanish.

a as English a in f_a_ther e[1] " a " f_a_te[2] i " i " magaz_i_ne o[1] " o " n_o_te[2] u " u " r_u_le

These five sounds never vary, except that they are a little longer when they are stressed and shorter when they are not, as Yo amo (I love),[3] Amigo (friend), El cielo (heaven), Celeste (heavenly), Un recibo (a receipt), Interés (interest), Yo como (I eat), Contar (to count), Un buque (a ship), Una butaca (an armchair).

Y is considered a vowel in the conjunction y (and), and at the end of a word, as Rey (king), Hoy (to-day).

[Footnote 1: E and o are sounded a little more open when they form a diphthong with i and when they precede r followed by a consonant or r or l final, as Fernando (Ferdinand), Un tercio (a third), El tercer año (the third year), Porfiar (to insist), Amor (love), Español (Spanish).]

[Footnote 2: The a and o of "fate" and "note" are not pure vowel sounds. In English the a is distinctly pronounced a-ee and o is pronounced o-oo.

In Spanish the first part only of the two sounds is permissible.]

[Footnote 3: The examples given with their English equivalents should be learnt.

There are no Diphthongs or Triphthongs in the English sense of two or three vowels meeting in one syllable and blending into a different sound, as "pause," "plough."

Every vowel is pronounced separately and each with its alphabetical sound, only the two or three vowels occurring in one syllable are pronounced rapidly, as Pausa (pause), Reino (kingdom), Cuenta (account), Buey (ox).

A, E and O never form diphthongs together. They may form diphthongs and triphthongs only in combination with I and U.

The Consonants are pronounced as in English with the following exceptions:

B is pronounced much more lightly than in English, with no pressure of the lips, as Libro (book), Brevedad (brevity).

C before E and I—th in "theatre," as La Cena (the supper), La Cerveza (the beer). Otherwise pronounced K as in English, as Caja (case, box), Color (colour), Cúbico (cubic).

Ch always as ch in "church" (never hard as in "monarch"), as
Chocolate (chocolate), Charla (prattle).

D at the end of a word or after a vowel is pronounced very softly and lightly, with a tinge of th in "they," as Madrid, Amado (loved), Encarnado (red).

G before E and I is pronounced guttural, as El general (the general), El giro (the draft, bill). This sound is equal to ch in the Scotch word "loch." In all other cases G is pronounced hard, as in the English word "gay"; as Gato (cat), Gobierno (government), Gusto (pleasure, taste).

H is a mute letter. (Although in Andalusia it is aspirated in certain words.)

J is always guttural, as Juan (John), Jornalero (day labourer), Junio
(June), Reloj (watch, clock).

Ll—ly, stronger than li in "pavilion," as Belleza (beauty), Folleto (leaflet).

Ñ—ny, stronger than ni in "pinion," as Niño (child), Caña (cane), El otoño (autumn).

Q is only used before ue and ui (and the u is then mute), as
Querido (dear, beloved), Yo quiero (I want).

R as in English, but it is always rolled, as Caro (dear, expensive), Pérdida (loss). At the beginning of a word or when preceded by a consonant it is rolled more strongly, as La rosa (the rose), Deshonra (dishonour).

Rr always rolled strongly, as Carro (cart), El ferrocarril (the railway).

S always pronounced as s in "soap," and never as in "as" or "sure."

T as in "tea," but never as t in "nation." It must be pronounced softly, not explosive, as Fortuna (fortune), Cuatro (four).

V is pronounced much more lightly than in English, as Vino (wine), Vivir (to live). By the common people V is often confounded with B, but educated Spaniards will always make the proper distinction.

Y—Spanish I.

Z—th in "theatre," as Zarazas (cotton prints), Zorra (fox).

NOTE.—In modern Spanish Z is not used before E or I, its place being supplied by C.

RULE I.—Every letter is pronounced. There are no mute letters as b in "lamb" or n in "autumn."

EXCEPTIONS—H is not sounded as already explained in the alphabet. U is not sounded in the following syllables: que, qui, gue and gui, as Quedar (to remain), Quinta (villa), Guerra (war), Águila (eagle), unless the u in gue and gui has the diaeresis, as Argüir (to argue), Vergüenza (shame).

RULE II.—No consonant is doubled except C and N. C is found doubled in words like Acceder (to accede) when one C is hard—k and the other soft—th.

N is found doubled in words having the prefix in, as Innoble (ignoble), Innavegable (unnavigable). Also in Perenne (perennial) and a very few more words.

Ll and Rr are treated as single letters.

RULE III.—The stress of the voice falls on the last syllable but one in all words ending in a vowel or S or N; otherwise it falls on the last syllable, as Una factura (an invoice), Facturas (invoices), Hermano (brother), Cartas (letters), Ellos tienen (they have), Azul (blue), Abril (April), Labor (labour), Feliz (happy).

In diphthongs and triphthongs the stress is not on i or u, but falls on a, e or o, as Reina (queen), Gracia (grace), Igual (equal), Cielo (heaven).

When the diphthong is formed by i and u the last one bears the stress, as Un viudo (a widower), La ciudad (the city), Luisa (Louise).

The numerous exceptions to the above rule are all marked by the written accent (´), as Facturó (he invoiced), Escribirá (he will write), Háblame (speak to me), Inglés (English), Alemán (German), Útil (useful), Jóvenes (young men).

The stress of the voice should fall distinctly on the proper syllable according to the above rule, and the attention of the student must be earnestly called to this very important point.

A word in the plural maintains the stress on the same syllable as in its singular, as El océano (the ocean), Océanos (oceans), Cálculo (calculation), Cálculos (calculations), Inglés (Englishman), Ingleses (Englishmen); except Carácter (character), Caracteres (characters), Régimen (regime or rule), Regímenes (regimes or rules)—the latter hardly ever used in the plural.

The Written Accent.

The only accent in Spanish is (´). It is used—

(1) To mark the exceptions to the Rule of Stress.

(2) To distinguish between two meanings of the same word, as El (the), Él (he); De (of), Que él dé (that he may give); Se (3rd person reflexive pronoun, "himself," etc.), Yo sé (I know); Más (more), Mas (but).

(3) In the following words established by use, as "ó" or "ú" (or), "é" (and), "á" (to).[4]

(4) In some words when used interrogatively, as Quién? (who?), Qué? (what?), Cuál? (which?), Cúyo? (whose?), Dónde? (where?).

(5) On I and U when they occur together with A, E or O, the I or U not belonging to the same syllable, viz., not forming diphthong with A, E or O, as Filosofía (philosophy), El continúa (he continues).

(6) On I following U when the I does not form a diphthong, but stands as a separate syllable, as Concluído (concluded), Imbuído (imbued).

(7) On Éste (this), Ése and Aquél (that) when these words are stressed.

[Footnote 4: According to the last edition of the Grammar of the
Spanish Academy, these words may now be written without the accent.]

Crema (Diaeresis).

The diaeresis is placed over u in "güe" and "güi" when the u is to be sounded.[5]

[Footnote 5: In poetry also to divide an ordinary diphthong into two syllables for the sake of rhythm.]

Tilde.

The tilde (~) is used on the letter N to turn it into Ñ, as Mañana (morning) (in old Spanish spelt Mannana).

Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation.

These are used in Spanish both at the beginning and at the end of the question or exclamation, as ¿Qué quiere V.? (what do you want?), ¡Cuántos sufrimientos! (how much suffering!). Note that at the beginning they are reversed.

The other signs of punctuation are used as in English.

Capital letters are used as in English with the following exceptions—

(1) Adjectives of nationality are written with small letters, as Un libro inglés (an English book).

(2) Days of the week generally (and sometimes the months of the year) are written with small letters.

After the first syllable each succeeding one commences with a consonant, as a-for-tu-na-da-men-te (fortunately), except when a prefix occurs before a primitive word,[6] as Organizar (to organise).

[Footnote 6: A few minor exceptions will be learnt by practice.]

Des-or-ga-ni-zar (to disorganise).

When two consonants occur together one letter belongs to one syllable and the other to the next, as—

Ac-ci-den-te (accident) Pe-ren-ne (perennial) Tem-po-ral-men-te (temporarily) In-me-dia-to (immediate)

EXCEPTION—bl, br, pl, pr, cl, cr, dr, fl, fr, gl, gr and tr are not divided, as—

A-blan-dar (to soften)
Li-bro (book)
A-pla-zar (to postpone)
A-pre-ciar (to appreciate)
De-cla-mar (to declaim)
De-cre-tar (to decree)
A-me-dren-tar (to frighten)
Con-fla-gra-ción (conflagration)
Re-fren-dar (to countersign)
A-glo-me-rar (to agglomerate)
A-gran-dar (to enlarge)
En-con-trar (to meet)

If any of these combinations occur together with a third consonant, this of course will belong to the previous syllable, as

Em-bro-llar (to entangle).

If four consonants come together, two belong to the first syllable and two to the next, as Obs-tru-ir (to obstruct).

Ll and Rr, being treated as single letters, must not be divided, as—

Ba-lle-na (whale)
Una ca-lle (a street)
A-lla-nar (to level)
Tie-rra (earth)

The =Definite Article= in Spanish is

=El= before a masculine[7] noun singular
=La= " feminine[7] " "

[Footnote 7: Spanish nouns are all masculine or feminine. There are no neuter nouns.]

as—

El hombre (the man)—La mujer (the woman)
El libro (the book)—La pluma (the pen)

El recibo (the receipt)—La cuenta (the account)

=Los= before a masculine noun plural
=Las= " feminine " "

as—

Los muchachos (the boys)—Las señoras (the ladies)
Los géneros (the goods)—Las facturas (the invoices)
Los lápices (the pencils)—Las cartas (the letters).

The =Indefinite Article= is—

=Un= before a masculine noun singular
=Una= " feminine " "

as—

Un amigo (a friend)—Una amiga (a lady-friend)
Un padre (a father)—Una madre (a mother)

The Indefinite Article has no plural, but the Spanish plural forms "unos" (masc.) and "unas" (fem.) translate the English words "some" or "any," as Unos hermanos (some brothers), Unas hermanas (some sisters), Unos tinteros (some inkstands), Unas mesas (some tables). (The Spanish words "Algunos," "Algunas," are also used for the same purpose.)

NOTE 1.—Before a feminine noun singular commencing with a or ha use =El= and =Un= instead of La and Una if such nouns are stressed on the first syllable, as El águila (the eagle), El agua (the water), El alma (the soul). (The plural is regular, as Las águilas (the eagles).)

NOTE 2.—The Definite Article has a "neuter form" which is =Lo=. It cannot be used before a noun but before other parts of speech used to represent an abstract idea, as Yo amo lo bello (I love the beautiful, viz., all that which is beautiful), Lo sublime (the sublime, viz., all that which is sublime).

1st Conjugation. Hablar (to speak). Pres. Part. Hablando (speaking). Past Part. Hablado (spoken).

Present Tense, Indicative Mood.

Yo hablo (I speak) Nosotros (m.) hablamos (we speak)
                                   Nosotras (f.) hablamos (we speak)

Tú hablas[8] (thou speakest) Vosotros (m.) habláis (you speak)
                                   Vosotras (f.) habláis (you speak)

Él or Ella habla (he or she speaks) Ellos (m.) hablan (they speak)
                                      Ellas (f.) hablan (they speak)
Usted habla (you speak)[9]. Ustedes hablan (you speak).[9]

[Footnote 8: The second person is only used in the familiar style, practically when in English the 2nd person would be addressed as "John" or "Frank" and not as "Mr. Smith" or "Mr. Brown."]

[Footnote 9: This is called the polite way of addressing and is the form in use. Note that the verb after it is in the 3rd person, because "Usted," "Ustedes" (which can be abbreviated as V. Vs.) are contractions of Vuestra merced (your grace), Vuestras mercedes (your graces). V. ama = your grace loves.]

2nd Conjugation. Temer (to fear). Pres. Part. Temiendo. Past Part. Temido.

Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Yo temo Nosotros (m.) temenos
                Nosotras (f.) temenos

Tú temes Vosotros (m.) teméis
                Vosotras (f.) teméis

Él teme Ellos (m.) temen
Ella teme Ellas (f.) temen

V. teme Vs. temen

3rd Conjugation. Partir (to depart, to set out). Pres. Part. Partiendo. Past Part. Partido.

Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Yo parto Nosotros (m.) partimos
               Nosotras (f.) partimos

Tú partes Vosotros (m.) partís
               Vosotras (f.) partís

Él parte Ellos (m.) parten
Ella parte Ellas (f.) parten

V. parte Vs. parten

=á=, to, at =amar=[10], to love =el árbol=, the tree =las botas=, the boots =el capitán=, the captain =la camisa=, the shirt =la casaca=[11], the coat =comprar=, to buy =la flor=, the flower =el hombre=, the man =el hermano=, the brother =la hermana=, the sister =el joven=, the young man =la joven=, the young woman =el lápiz=, the pencil =el libro=, the book =la madre=, the mother =mas=, but =más=, more =la mujer=, the woman =nosotros tenemos=, we have =el oro=, gold =el padre=, the father =los pantalones=, the trousers =el papel=, the paper =para=, for =la plata=, silver =la pluma=, the pen =el sombrero=, the hat =él tiene=, he has =V. tiene=, you (sing.) have =Vs. tienen=, you (pl.) have =la tinta=, the ink =el tintero=, the inkstand =*tener=,[10] to have, to possess =yo tengo=, I have =el viejo=, the old man =la vieja=, the old woman =la virtud=, virtue

[Footnote 10: The verbs given in this vocabulary and the following are regular (i.e., they are conjugated respectively as the model verbs given) unless they are marked with an asterisk.]

[Footnote 11: Or americana, more used now.]

Translate into English—

1. El hombre tiene una pluma.

2. La mujer tiene un libro.

3. ¿Tiene el padre un sombrero?

4. Nosotros tenemos el tintero del (of the) joven.

5. V. tiene el papel y (and) el lápiz de la madre.

6. Vs. tienen la tinta y el papel.

7. Las hermanas aman.

8. El oro y la plata son preciosos (are precious) mas la virtud es (is) más preciosa.

9. La vieja y la joven compran flores (flowers).

10. V. vende sombreros.

11. Vs. tienen las cartas.

12. ¿Compra[12] V. los pantalones?

13. El Señor (Mr.) Brown es hermano de Juan (John).

14. El sombrero, la americana, y las botas son míos (mine).

15. ¿Habla V.?

16. ¿Teme ella?

17. Ellos parten.

18. V. parte.

19. Nosotros compramos géneros (goods) y vendemos flores.

[Footnote 12: The auxiliary "Do" and "Did," used in English in interrogative and negative sentences, are not translated in Spanish.]

Translate into Spanish—

1. The father, the mother, and the brother.

2. A pencil, a pen, and an inkstand.

3. The old man and the old woman.

4. A hat and some boots.

5. The shirt and the trousers.

6. I buy the tree.

7. He sells some flowers (flores).

8. I fear.

9. He fears.

10. We sell.

11. We set out.

12. You (sing.) set out.

13. I buy.

14. He sells.

15. The brother and the sister sell.

16. They speak to the (al) man.

17. We set out for London (Londres).

18. The old woman has the hat.

19. The old man has the flower.

20. Who (quién) has the ink and a pen?

21. The father has the coat.

22. Gold is precious (es precioso) but virtue is more precious (preciosa).

23. I sell paper to the woman.

24. You (sing.) fear.

25. You (plu.) buy some flowers.

26. She speaks to the sister.

27. The father and the mother of the captain.

                             LESSON II.
                         (Lección segunda.)

THE ARTICLE (contd.).

The definite article El is contracted with the preposition de (of or from) into =Del= and with the preposition A, into al as—

Del extranjero: Of or from the foreigner.
Al caballero español: To the Spanish gentleman.

These are the only contractions that occur in Spanish; with the other prepositions the article simply follows, as—

By, for, with, in, on, without, behind, the father:
Por, Para, Con, En, Sobre, Sin, Tras, el padre.

The following are the principal cases in which the definite article is used in Spanish and not in English—

1. Before nouns taken in a general sense, as—

El oro y la plata: Gold and silver.
Los hombres ó las mujeres: Men or women.

2. Before titles denoting dignity and profession,[13] as—

El Señor Fulano: Mr. So-and-So.
El Rey Jorge V.: King George V.
El Profesor Rosales: Professor Rosales.

The only exception is "Don" (Mr.), only used before Christian names, as
Don Francisco (Mr. Francis).

3. Generally before each of several nouns following each other when they are material possessions, as—

La casa y el jardín de mi hijo: My son's[14] house and garden. Las puertas y las ventanas de mi casa: The doors and windows of my house.

But—

La diligencia, devoción, y virtud de mi primo: the diligence, devotion and virtue of my cousin.

4. Before a proper noun qualified by an adjective, as—

El valiente Juan: Brave John.[15]

The following are the principal cases in which the indefinite article is used in English and not in Spanish—

1. Before a noun following the verb "to be," or other similar verbs, as—

Es capitán[16]: He is a captain.
Soy francés: I am a Frenchman.
Se hizo actor: He became an actor.
Le elegimos miembro de esta sociedad: We elect him a member of this
society.
Fué elegido miembro: He was elected a member.

2. After "what" used in exclamations, as: Qué hermosa vista: What a fine view!

3. Before "hundred" and "thousand": 100—ciento, 1,000—mil.

[Footnote 13: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 14: The 's = possessive does not exist in Spanish. "My son's house" must always be translated as "the house of my son."]

[Footnote 15: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 16: Except, of course, when we particularize, as—Es un capitán que conocí en Paris: He is a captain I knew in Paris.]

Imperfect Tense,[17] Indicative Mood.

+———————————————————————————————————+ | =Hablar=. | =Temer=. | =Partir=. | +———————————————————————————————————+ |Yo hablaba | Yo temía | Yo partía | | (I spoke), etc. | (I feared), etc. | (I departed),etc. | |Tú hablabas | Tú temías | Tú partías | |Él or Ella | Él or Ella | Él or Ella | | hablaba | temía | partía | |Nosotros) hablábamos | Nosotros) temíamos | Nosotros) partíamos | |Nosotras) | Nosotras) | Nosotras) | |Vosotros) hablabais | Vosotros) temíais | Vosotros) partíais | |Vosotras) | Vosotras) | Vosotras) | |Ellos) hablaban | Ellos) temían | Ellos) partían | |Ellas) | Ellas) | Ellas) | |V. hablaba (you | V. temía (you | V. partía (you | | (s.) spoke) | (s.) feared) | (s.) parted) | |Vs. hablaban (you | Vs. temían (you | Vs. partían (you | | (pl.) spoke) | (pl.) feared) | (pl.) parted) | +———————————————————————————————————+

Past Definite,[17] Indicative Mood.

+———————————————————————————————————+ | =Hablar=. | =Temer=. | =Partir=. | +———————————————————————————————————+ |Hablé[18] | Temí[18] | Partí[18] | | (I spoke), etc. | (I feared), etc. | (I departed), etc.| |Hablaste | Temiste | Partiste | |Habló | Temió | Partió | |Hablamos | Temimos | Partimos | |Hablasteis | Temisteis | Partisteis | |Hablaron | Temieron | Partieron | | | | | |V. habló | V. temió | V. partió | |Vs. hablaron | Vs. temieron | Vs. partieron | +———————————————————————————————————+

[Footnote 17: The Imperfect tense describes a past action or state in progress; the Past Definite narrates an event. Ex.: I met (past def.)] Charles, who wore (imp.) a black hat: Encontré á Carlos quien llevaba sombrero negro.]

[Footnote 18: The Subject-Pronoun may be left understood, and is generally omitted unless special stress is laid upon it.]

=alemán=[19], German =beber=, to drink =bien=, well =café=, coffee =cerveza=, beer =clavel=, carnation =cliente=, client, customer =comer=, to eat =escribir=[20], to write =estudiar=, to study =exportar=, to export =extranjero=, foreigner =ferretería=, ironware =grande= (pl. =grandes=), large =hijo=, son =hija=, daughter =italiano=, Italian =jardinero=, gardener =leer=, to read =mañana=, morning, to-morrow =manzana=, apple =máquina=, machine =mesa=, table =mi=, my =mucho= (m.), much =mucha= (f.), much =muy=, very =pera=, pear =pero=, but =pobre=, poor =¿qué?= what? =que=, that, who, which =rosa=, rose =su=, his, her, their =su … de V=., your =té=, tea =el … de V=., your =vino=, wine =violeta=, violet

[Footnote 19: Adjectives of nationality are written with small letters.]

[Footnote 20: Past Participle is "Escrito," otherwise regular.]

Translate into English—

1. Mi hermano habla español (or castellano).

2. V. no habla francés.

3. ¿Habla bien el alemán el primo de su amigo de V. (your friend)?

4. No, Señor, el primo de mi amigo no habla bien el alemán pero habla muy bien el inglés.

5. ¿Cómo está (how is) su hermana de V.?

6. Está muy bien, gracias (thank you).

7. ¿Compra V. papel y tinta?

8. Sí, Señor, y compro lápices y plumas.

9. ¿Quién (who) compra zarazas (prints) y géneros blancos (whites)?

10. El comerciante (merchant) que vino (came) de la Habana.

11. ¿Quién vende máquinas y ferretería?

12. Nosotros exportamos máquinas muy buenas al extranjero (abroad).

13. Estos géneros son para los clientes de V. que parten mañana.

14. ¿Ha hablado V. con Don Francisco?

15. Sí, Señor, le hablé en la ciudad (in town).

16. Las rosas, los claveles y las violetas del jardinero.

17. El amor y respeto de mi hijo y de mi hija.

18. Juan es francés y yo soy inglés.

19. Le han elegido miembro de esta (this) sociedad.

20. Las hermosas rosas sobre la mesa.

21. V. tiene mil libras (£1,000) y yo tengo ciento.

Translate into Spanish—

1. Do you speak Spanish?

2. No, but I speak Italian well.

3. Do your customers buy (any) goods?

4. They buy machines and ironware, but my correspondent in Havana buys prints in very large quantities (cantidades).

5. Who sells paper and ink?

6. The old man sells them (los vende).

7. Who writes a letter?

8. I write letters.

9. Who drinks wine?

10. I do not drink wine.

11. Do you drink beer?

12. I do not drink beer but I like (me gustan) coffee and tea.

13. Poor John is my friend.

14. What a beautiful (hermosa) rose!

15. Do your brothers study French?

16. Yes, and they study German.

17. Who studies Italian?

18. My sister-in-law studies Italian and French.

19. The merchant (comerciante) was elected a member of your society.

20. Mr. Brown is a captain.

21. John set out for America.

22. I like (me gusta) to study foreign languages (lenguas extranjeras).

                              LESSON III.
                          (Lección tercera.)

The noun in Spanish has only two genders.

=Nouns= denoting =male= beings are =Masculine=.
   " " =female= " " =Feminine=.

When there is no real gender, nouns are called masculine or feminine according to their terminations.

GENERAL RULE.—All nouns that terminate in a, ión, d, also abstract nouns ending in ez, are feminine, as—

La villa: The town. La nación[21]: The nation.
La ciudad: The city or large town. La honradez: Honesty.
The other terminations are masculine.

There are many exceptions to the above rule, principally in nouns ending in E.[22]

[Footnote 21: English words ending in "tion" end in ción in Spanish.
(Note the accent.)]

[Footnote 22: Appendix I—for reference only at this stage.]

=Formation of the Plural of Nouns=.

Nouns ending in a vowel which is not stressed and also nouns ending in E bearing the stress, add =S= to form the plural.

All others add =Es=.

1. Nouns ending in Z in the sing. change it into =Ces=. 2. Nouns ending in S do not change unless the last syllable is stressed.

El amo: The master. Los amos: The masters.
El cuñado: The brother-in-law. Los cuñados: The brothers-in-law.
La cuñada: The sister-in-law. Las cuñadas: The sisters-in-law.
El yerno: The son-in-law. Los yernos: The sons-in-law.
La nuera: The daughter-in-law. Las nueras: The daughters-in-law.
El árbol: The tree. Los árboles: The trees.
El examen: The examination. Los exámenes: The examinations.
El lápiz: The pencil. Los lápices: The pencils.
El ómnibus: The omnibus. Los ómnibus: The omnibuses.
El jabalí: The boar. Los jabalíes: The boars.

3. Nouns ending in Y add =Es=, as—

El rey: The king. Los reyes: The kings.
La ley: The law. Las leyes: The laws.

4. The following add only =S= to form the plural—

Papá, Mamá, Bajá (a pasha), Sofá (sofa).[23]

[Footnote 23: Words ending in accented vowels are very few and the rule for those ending in á, ó, ú is not very strict.]

=Compound Nouns= form their plural according to sense, as—

Hijodalgo (a gentleman by birth), literally, "son of something"; Plu.,
Hijosdalgo (literally, "sons of something ").
Ferrocarril (railway), literally, "iron railroad"; Plu., Ferrocarriles
(literally, "iron railroads").

Such nouns are rare.[24]

[Footnote 24: A verb as a component part does not change, as El portabandera (the standard-bearer), Los portabanderas (the standard-bearers).]

=Haber= (to have), auxiliary.[25] =Tener= (to have, to possess).

[Footnote 25: Viz. used only before the past participle of another verb, as (Yo) he hablado (I have spoken).]

Pres. Part., Habiendo. Pres. Part., Teniendo. Past Part., Habido. Past Part., Tenido.

Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood. Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood.

He (I have), etc. Tengo (I have, I possess), etc.
Has Tienes
Ha Tiene
Hemos Tenemos
Habéis Tenéis
Han Tienen

Imperf. Tense, Indic. Mood. Imperf. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Había (I had), etc. Tenía (I had, I possessed, etc.)
Habías Tenías
Había Tenía
Habíamos Teníamos
Habíais Teníais
Habían Tenían

Past Def. Tense, Indic. Mood. Past Def. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Hube (I had), etc. Tuve (I had, I possessed), etc.
Hubiste Tuviste
Hubo Tuvo
Hubimos Tuvimos
Hubisteis Tuvisteis
Hubieron Tuvieron

=allí=, there =aquí=, here =buscar=[26], to look for =caballo=, horse =caja=, box, case =el capital=, the capital, money =la capital=, the capital, town =comprender=, to understand =copiador=, copybook =creer=, to believe, to think =dependiente=, clerk =factura=, invoice =fardo=, bale =Francés=, Frenchman =girar=, to draw, (a bill of exchange) =el idioma=, the language =Inglés=, Englishman =inteligencia=, intelligence =mal=, badly =muselina=, muslin =nunca=, never =país=, country =pequeño=, little (adj.) =poco=, little (adv. and subs.) =el porta-ramillete= or =florero=, the flower-stand =¿quién?= who? whom? =seda=, silk =socio=, partner =solamente=, only =sólo=, (adv.) only =el tema=, the exercise

[Footnote 26: Changes c into qu before e; otherwise regular.]

Translate into English—

1. ¿Comprende V. el español?

2. No, Señor, estudio el portugués y mi hermano comprende el español perfectamente (perfectly).

3. ¿Quien escribe cartas?

4. Los comerciantes escriben cartas y sus dependientes escriben las facturas y algunas cosas más.

5. Mi socio ha girado una letra (bill) desde (from) Viena (Vienna.)

6. París, Berlín, Roma, y Petrograd son las capitales de Francia, Alemania, Italia y Rusia.

7. ¿Cómo se llaman (what are the names of) las capitales de España y Portugal? Madrid y Lisboa.

8. ¿Ha estado (been) V. en Holanda?

9. No Señor, nunca he estado en aquel país.

10. En este tema hay palabras que no se dan (are not given) en el vocabulario.

11. ¿Cuáles (which) son? Holanda, Portugal etcétera.

12. Estas se dejan (are left) á la inteligencia de Vs.

13. ¿No creen Vs. que son muy fáciles de comprender? (to understand).

14. Sí, Señor, V. tiene razón[27] (you are right).

15. Entonces, debemos (we must) continuar la lección.

16. Muy bien.

17. Debemos leer buenos libros y hablar en el idioma que estudiamos.

[27] Lit. "you have reason."

Translate into Spanish—

1. Do you study German?

2. We study French and Italian, but my cousin studies English.

3. Does he understand English?

4. He understands English perfectly (perfectamente), but he speaks Spanish badly.

5. Does your sister speak Italian?

6. No, she speaks only English.

7. What does the Englishman buy?

8. He buys a horse from the (al)[28] Frenchman.

9. My cousin sold (past. def.) his horse to Peter (Pedro).

10. John looks for his book and his paper.

11. The copy book is (está) on the table.

12. Henry (Enrique) must (debe) copy some letters.

13. Who copies the letters here?

14. Peter copies them (las copia).[29]

15. Has Henry much paper?

16. Yes, he has much paper but little ink.

17. The roses and violets are in the flower-stand.

18. The merchant has received (recibido) four bales of silk handkerchiefs (pañuelo) and three cases of prints and muslins.

[Footnote 28: "To buy from" is translated by "Comprar á."]

[Footnote 29: The object pronoun precedes the verb in the indicative mood.]

                           LESSON IV.
                       (Lección cuarta.)

The Adjective in Spanish agrees with the noun it qualifies, in gender and number, as—

El periódico italiano: The Italian newspaper.
La prensa americana: The American press.

It generally follows the nouns as in the above examples, although exceptions will be found, e.g., when the adjective recalls to our mind a quality which is already known to belong to it, it generally precedes the noun, as—

He visto sus hermosas flores: I have seen his beautiful flowers.[30]
Adjectives form their plural in the same way as nouns.

[Footnote 30: His flowers are known (or supposed) to be beautiful, before we say it.]

=Formation of the Feminine of Adjectives=.

Adjectives ending in O change O into =A=, as—

El sombrero blanco: The white hat.
La casaca blanca: The white coat.

Adjectives of NATIONALITY which end in a consonant add =A= to form the feminine, as—

El sastre francés: The French tailor.
La modista francesa: The French milliner.

Adjectives ending in N add =A= for the feminine, as—

Un hombre socarrón: A sly or cunning man.
Una sonrisa socarrona: A cunning smile.

EXCEPT Joven (young), Común (common), and Ruin (base, sordid), which do not change for the feminine.

Adjectives ending in or add =A= to form the feminine, as—

Un comerciante emprendedor: An enterprising merchant.
Una casa emprendedora: An enterprising firm.

EXCEPT =Comparative= adjectives ending in or, as Mejor (better), Peor (worse), which do not change for the feminine.

There are a very few adjectives ending in ete and ote. These change into =eta= and =ota= for the feminine.

Other adjectives do not change.

+———————————————+——————————+—————————+ | Ser[31] (to be). | Estar[32] (to be). | +———————————————+——————————+—————————+ |Pres. Part., Siendo (being) | Pres. Part., | Estando (being) | |Past Part., Sido (been) | Past Part., | Estado (been) | +———————————————+——————————+—————————+ |Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood. | Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood. | |Soy (I am), etc. Somos | Estoy (I am), etc. | Estamos | |Eres Sois | Estás | Estáis | |Es Son | Está | Están | +———————————————+——————————+—————————+ |Imperf. Tense, Indic. Mood | Imperf. Tense, Indic. Mood. | |Era (I was), etc. Éramos | Estaba (I was) etc.| Estábamos | |Eras Erais | Estabas | Estabais | |Era Eran | Estaba | Estaban | +———————————————+——————————+—————————+ |_Past Def. Tense, Indic. Mood.| Past Def. Tense, Indic. Mood. | |Fuí (I was), etc. Fuimos | Estuve (I was), etc.| Estuvimos | |Fuiste Fuisteis | Estuviste | Estuvisteis | |Fué Fueron | Estuvo | Estuvieron | +———————————————+——————————-+————————-+

[Footnote 31: =Ser= is used—

(1) To form the Passive voice as, Le amo (I love him), Soy amado de él (I am loved by him).

(2) To denote an inherent quality, viz., forming part and parcel with the subject, as Este hombre es hábil (this man is clever).]

[Footnote 32: Estar is used—

(1) To denote state in locality, viz., to be in a place, as Estoy aquí (I am here), Manchester está en Inglaterra (Manchester is in England)

(2) To denote condition (as opposed to an inherent quality), as Este hombre está cansado (this man is tired).]

=activo=, active =ahora=, now =un año=, a year =aquel, ese= (m.), that =aquella, esa= (f.), that =bayeta=, baize =célebre=, celebrated =cima=, top =criados=, men-servants =criadas=, maid-servants =el día=, the day =ejército=, army =encuadernado=, bound, (of books) =escritorio=, writing-desk =los fósforos=, the matches =Gales=, Wales =juventud=, youth, young age. =el lacre=, the sealing-wax =lectura=, reading =limpiar=, to clean =limpio=, clean =mayormente=, especially =médico=, doctor =el monte=, the mountain =la nieve=, the snow =por tanto=, therefore =puerta=, door =siempre=, always =sincero=, sincere =soldado=, soldier =terciopelo=, velvet =vela=, candle =ventana=, window

Translate into English—

1. Pedro es médico.[33] Él es buen médico.

2. Era un célebre médico de la ciudad de París.

3. Juan está[34] cansado y yo estoy enfermo.

4. La lectura es útil[33] siempre y mayormente en la juventud.

5. Aquel tintero es[33] de V.

6. Este es un libro famoso[33] y está muy bien encuadernado.[34]

7. Mi hermano es soldado.[35]

8. Se ha alistado (he has enlisted) en el ejército inglés por cinco (five) años.

9. El Monte Snowdon está[36] en Gales.

10. La ciudad del Cairo está[36] en Egipto.

11. Las cimas de algunos montes están[37] cubiertas (covered) siempre de nieve.

12. ¿Siempre?

13. Sí, siempre.

14. Estos tinteros son limpiados todos los días (every day) por los dependientes ó por las criadas.

15. Estos tinteros están limpios ahora y siempre.

16. Aquella ventana está rota (broken).

17. Mi hermano está escribiendo.

18. Es necesario.

[Footnote 33: Quality.]

[Footnote 34: A condition.]

[Footnote 35: A quality (for the time being).]

[Footnote 36: State in locality.]

[Footnote 37: A condition.]

Translate into Spanish—

1. Who is a good clerk?

2. My brother-in-law is a good clerk but he is tired of working (de trabajar).[38]

3. The windows and doors are clean.

4. Yes, they are cleaned every (cada) morning by the servants.

5. He is speaking to his French friend.

6. He is writing a letter to his mother.

7. They are looking for some handkerchiefs.

8. Have the merchants sold the velvet and the baize?

9. Yes, they sold them (los vendieron) yesterday (ayer); also the muslin and prints.

10. Who bought them? (las compró).

11. The Germans are a very active and hard-working (trabajador) nation, and they deserve (merecen) therefore our sincere admiration.

12. Where are the sealing-wax, the candle and the matches?

13. Here they are on the writing-desk.

14. Does the clerk understand German?

15. Yes, very well.

16. My partner and I will dine at (en) the Royal Hotel (Fonda Real).

[Footnote 38: After a preposition the verb is in the infinitive mood.]

                               LESSON V.
                           (Lección quinta.)

THE ADJECTIVE (Contd.).

The =positive degree= expresses the quality without any further idea of comparison, as Feliz (happy), Rico (rich).

+—————————————————+—————————————————+ | Comparative. | Superlative Relative. | +—————————————————+—————————————————+ |Más feliz que (happier than). | El más feliz (the happiest). | |Menos feliz que (less happy than).| El menos feliz (the least happy).| |Tan rico como (as or so rich as). | | +—————————————————+—————————————————+

Mi tío es más pobre que su hermano: My uncle is poorer than his brother.
Su mujer es menos rica que él: His wife is less rich than he.
Soy tan feliz como V.: I am as happy as you.
No es tan amable como su primo: He is not so amiable as his cousin.

Superlative Absolute.

Muy largo: Very long. Muy corto: Very short.

Another way to form the Superlative Absolute[39] is by adding =ísimo= instead of using muy. If the adjective ends in a vowel, this is elided before adding ísimo.

[Footnote 39: More rarely used and much more emphatic.]

Estas frutas son muy maduras: These fruits are very ripe.
Estas frutas son madurísimas: These fruits are very ripe indeed.
Estos tenderos son muy ricos: These shopkeepers are very rich.
Aquellos son riquísimos: Those (others) are very rich indeed.

Before adding ísimo, adjectives ending in

ble change it into =bil=, as Amable, amabilísimo. co " " =qu=, as Rico, riquísimo. go " " =gu=, as Largo, larguísimo.

Adjectives of more than three syllables ending in ble, adjectives ending in two vowels, or in one vowel accented, should always take =muy= and not add ísimo for the Superlative Absolute.

Besides the regular forms of the Comparative and Superlative degrees, there are the following irregular forms—

Mejor (better). Óptimo (very good or best). Peor (worse). Pésimo (very bad or worst). Mayor (larger). Máximo (very large or largest). Menor (smaller). Mínimo (very small or smallest). Superior (higher). Supremo (very high or highest). Inferior (lower). Ínfimo (very low or lowest).

+——————————————————————————————————+ | Future Tense,[40] Indic. Mood. | |——————————————————————————————————| | Hablar. | Temer. | Partir | |——————————————————————————————————| | Hablaré | Temeré | Partiré | | (I shall speak) | (I shall fear) | (I shall depart) | | Hablarás | Temerás | Partirás | | (thou wilt speak) | (thou wilt fear) | (thou wilt depart) | | Hablará | Temerá | Partirá | | (he/she will speak) | (he/she will fear) | (he/she will depart)| | Hablaremos | Temeremos | Partiremos | | (we shall speak) | (we shall fear) | (we shall depart) | | Hablaréis | Temeréis | Partiréis | | (you will speak) | (you will fear) | (you will depart) | | Hablarán | Temerán | Partirán | | (they will speak) | (they will fear) | (they will depart) | +——————————————————————————————————+

+——————————————————————————————————+ | Conditional Mood.[40] | |——————————————————————————————————| | Hablar. | Temer. | Partir | |——————————————————————————————————| | Hablaría | Temería | Partiría | | (I should speak) | (I should fear) | (I should depart) | | Hablarías | Temerías | Partirías | | (thou wouldst speak) | (thou wouldst fear) | (thou wouldst…) | | Hablaría | Temería | Partiría | | (he/she would speak) | (he/she would fear) | (he/she would…) | | Hablaríamos | Temeríamos | Partiríamos | | (we should speak) | (we should fear) | (we should depart) | | Hablaríais | Temeríais | Partiríais | | (you would speak) | (you would fear) | (you would depart) | | Hablarían | Temerían | Partirían | | (they would speak) | (they would fear) | (they would depart)| +——————————————————————————————————+

[Footnote 40: The Future Tense Indicative Mood and the Conditional Mood are formed from the Infinitive Mood by adding to the Infinitive the terminations: é, ás, á, emos, éis, án for the future; and ía, ías, ía, íamos, íais, ían for the conditional mood.]

=alguno,-a=,[41] some or any (s.) =algunos,-as=,[42] some or any (pl.) =amarillo=, yellow =barba, barbas=, beard =barbilla, barba=, chin =blanco=, white =boca=, mouth =cabello=, hair =cabeza=, head =café, castaño=, brown, (dyed) =cepillo=, brush =cualquiera= (s.),[43] any (affirmative) =cualesquiera= (pl.) any (affirmative) =dientes=, teeth =dinero=, money =encarnado=, red =escoba=, broom =estampar=, to print (calico) =la frente=, the forehead =lengua=, tongue =malo=,[44] bad, wicked =manteca=, butter =moreno=, brown, (natural colour) =(la) nariz=, nose =necesitar=, to want, to need, to be in want of. =ninguno,-a= (s.) any (after a negative) =ningunos,-as= (pl.) any (after a negative) =el ojo=, the eye. =padres=,[45] parents =percal=, calico =queremos=, we want *=querer=, to want, to wish to have =ellos quieren=, they want =yo quiero=, I want =V. quiere=, you want =regla=, ruler =si=, if =la tez=, complexion =un poco de=,[46] a little, some, or any =verde=, green

[Footnote 41: Before a masculine noun "Alguno" and "Ninguno" drop the o, as Algún dinero (some money). The feminine "Alguna" and "Ninguna" never changes.]

[Footnote 42: Also unos, unas.]

[Footnote 43: "Cualquiera" generally drops the a before a noun, as
Cualquier libro (any book).]

[Footnote 44: Before a masculine noun it drops the o, as Un mal muchacho (a bad boy). The feminine is always "mala."]

[Footnote 45: The masculine plural includes the plural of both genders, as Los padres (the parents, father and mother), Los hermanos (the brothers or the brother(s) and sister(s).)]

[Footnote 46: Used for both genders, as Un poco de vino (a little wine),
Un poco de cerveza (a little beer).]

Translate into English—

1. Los percales estampados y los blancos están todos prontos para el vapor (steamer) que partirá mañana.

2. Necesitamos bayeta verde, amarilla y encarnada.

3. Aquí tenemos una buena partida (lot) de zarazas café.

4. Hemos hablado á una Señora de tez morena, cabeza hermosa y ojos inteligentes.

5. La frente, la boca, y la nariz forman parte de la cara (face).

6. La barba ó barbilla es el remate (end) de la cara.

7. También se llama barba ó barbas el pelo (hair) que crece (grows) en ella (on it) á los hombres.

8. Tengo un poco de dinero y algunos libros.

9. Tenemos algunas cajas de pañuelos.

10. El mal muchacho no tiene ninguna gana (inclination, desire) de estudiar.

11. Ningunos padres quieren comprar malos libros para sus hijos (children).

12. Si tiene V. algún azúcar (sugar) yo lo compraré.

13. ¿Quiere su hermano (de V.) vender algunos libros?

14. No, no quiere vender ningunos de sus libros.

15. Mi cuñado no necesita comprar libros; tiene muchísimos, algunos viejos (old), otros nuevos (new), y tres ó cuatro (three or four) novísimos,[47] uno de ellos (of them) es bonísimo.[47]

16. Cualquier libro es útil.

[Footnote 47: Adjectives containing ie or ue change them into e and o before adding ísimo, as Nuevo, novísimo; cierto, certísimo.]

Translate into Spanish—

1. I have some money.

2. What goods do you want (wish to have)?

3. I want some brown prints and some red calico.

4. I have no (not any) red calico, but I must buy some (debo comprar).[48]

5. Do you want to sell me any? (venderme).

6. There are (hay) many inkstands in this shop (tienda); do you want any? (quiere V. alguno? or algunos?).

7. Yes, I want some (alguno or algunos).

8. Have you any[49] bread (pan)?

9. Yes, I have some bread and cheese (tengo pan y queso).

10. Any book will be useful.

11. The teeth and the tongue are inside (dentro de) the mouth.

12. The teeth want great attention.

13. Yes, they must always be clean.

14. We want to study Spanish because it is (es) very necessary in commerce (en el comercio).

15. If you study with attention you will soon (pronto) speak and write Spanish very well.

16. John speaks French very badly but he is studying it (lo está estudiando) with much attention.

17. Do you understand this lesson?

18. Yes, I understand this lesson well; it is not very difficult.

19. No lesson is difficult if we study with care (con cuidado).

[Footnote 48: "Some" and "any," following a verb and referring to a singular noun previously mentioned, are not to be translated.]

[Footnote 49: "Some" and "any" are generally not translated when they are not used in a partitive sense, i.e., with an idea of a limited quantity.]

                               LESSON VI.
                            (Lección sexta.)

Uno,[50] una 1 Cuarenta 40
Dos 2 Cuarenta y uno or Cuarentiuno 41
Tres 3 etc. etc.
Cuatro 4 Cincuenta 50
Cinco 5 Sesenta 60
Seis 6 Setenta 70
Siete 7 Ochenta 80
Ocho 8 Noventa 90
Nueve 9 Ciento[52] 100
Diez 10 Ciento y uno or Cientiuno 101
Once 11 Ciento y dos or Cientidós, 102
Doce 12 etc. etc.
Trece 13 Ciento diez 110
Catorce 14 Doscientos,-as 200
Quince 15 Trescientos,-as 300
Diez y seis or Dieciséis 16 Cuatrocientos,-as 400
Diez y siete or Diecisiete 17 Quinientos,-as 500
Diez y ocho or Dieciocho 18 Seiscientos,-as 600
Diez y nueve or Diecinueve 19 Setecientos,-as 700
Veinte 20 Ochocientos,-as 800
Veinte y uno or Veintiuno[51] 21 Novecientos,-as 900
Veinte y dos or Veintidós, 22 Mil 1,000
    etc. etc. Dos mil, etc. 2,000
Treinta 30 Cien[53] mil 100,000
Treinta y uno or Treintiuno, 31 Cien mil y uno 100,001
    etc. etc. Cien mil y diez 100,010
                                     Un millón 1,000,000

[Footnote 50: When immediately preceding a noun, "uno" becomes "un"]

[Footnote 51: "Ciento" becomes "cien." ("Cien" is found instead of "ciento," even standing alone.)]

[Footnote 52: The duplicate forms are common to all the tens.]

[Footnote 53: "Ciento" drops the to also before "mil"; and of course before "millón" (a noun).]

The conjunction "and" is always used between tens and units, as—

Veinte y una or veintiuna manzanas (21 apples).

But it is generally omitted between hundreds and tens, as—

Doscientas treinta peras (230 pears).

"Ciento" and "mil" are not preceded by "uno" except in 101,000, 201,000, etc., to avoid ambiguity, as—

Doscientos mil soldados (200,000 soldiers).
Doscientas y un mil millas (201,000 miles).

"One million inhabitants" is translated by Un millón de habitantes. (Note.—The de cannot be omitted.)

In the case of more than one million the word "millón" must be plural—millones, as—

Cien millones de hombres (one hundred million men).

As will have been observed, besides "uno," "doscientos," "trescientos," etc., change the os into =as= for the feminine.

Future Tense, Indicative Mood. +————————-+————————+———————-+————————+ |Haber.[54] |Tener.[54] |Ser.[55] | Estar. | |Habré (I shall |Tendré (I shall |Seré (I shall | Estaré (I shall| |have, etc., |have, etc., |be, etc.) | be, etc.) | |auxiliary, to |denoting |(See foot-note,| (See foot-note,| |be used with |possession) |Lesson IV.) | Lesson IV.) | |past participles)| | | | |Habrás |Tendrás |Serás | Estarás | |Habrá |Tendrá |Será | Estará | |Habremos |Tendremos |Seremos | Estaremos | |Habréis |Tendréis |Seréis | Estaréis | |Habrán |Tendrán |Serán | Estarán | +————————-+————————+———————-+————————+

Conditional Mood. +————————-+————————+———————-+————————+ |Habría (I |Tendría (I |Sería | Estaría | |(I should have, | (I should have,| (I should be) | (I should be) | | etc.) | etc.) | | | |Habrías |Tendrías |Serías | Estarías | |Habría |Tendría |Sería | Estaría | |Habríamos |Tendríamos |Seríamos | Estaríamos | |Habríais |Tendríais |Seríais | Estaríais | |Habrían |Tendrían |Serían | Estarían | +————————-+————————+———————-+————————+

[Footnote 54: The Future Indic. and the Cond. mood of "Haber" and "Tener" are formed irregularly from the Infinitive mood, the e after the root Hab being dropped, and after the root Ten being changed to d.]

[Footnote 55: For reference only—
     Ser (and not Estar) must be used:

      (1) Before nouns; (3) When denoting possession;
      (2) When used impersonally; (4) Before Feliz, Infeliz, Rico,
                                        Pobre.]

=acabar de=,[56] to have just =almacén=, warehouse =aprender=, to learn =ayudar=, to help =bañar=, to wet, to bathe, to water =bicicleta=, bicycle =certísimo=, most certain =discípulo=, pupil =disfrutar=, to enjoy =él es, ella es=,[57] it is =ello= (neuter),[57] it =este= (m.), =esta= (f.), this =esto= (neuter),[58] this =estos= (m.), =estas= (f.), these =la fecha=, the date =la gente=, the people =hermosamente=, beautifully =importancia=, importance =La India=, India =libre=, free =maestro=, master, teacher =la mayor parte=, most, the majority =el mes=, the month =mismo=, same =novísimo=, brand new =otro=, other, another =el Sena=,[59] River Seine =el Tajo=, River Tagus =el Támesis=, River Thames =también=, also, too =tienda=, shop =ventaja=, advantage

[Footnote 56: Followed by the verb in the infinitive mood, as Acabar de escribir (to have just written).]

[Footnote 57: "It" (subject) is most generally left understood, as "It is useful" (Él, ella, or ello) es útil.]

[Footnote 58: Referring to a whole statement, as Esto or ello es justo. This or it (what you have just said) is right.]

[Footnote 59: Names of rivers are masculine because the word "río" (river) is understood.]

Translate into English—

1. La India es una posesión inglesa de grande importancia.

2. El Sena es un río de Francia[60] y el Támesis es un río de Inglaterra.

3. Toledo, ciudad interesantísima de España bañada por el Tajo.

4. La mayor parte de estos Españoles comen en esta fonda.

5. Este año las tiendas están hermosamente decoradas.

6. Es certísimo que los almacenes y las tiendas de esta calle disfrutan de grandes ventajas.

7. ¿De quién es esta regla? Es mía.

8. ¿En que fecha escribió V. la carta?

9. La escribí (I wrote it) ayer.

10. Juan acaba de comprar una bicicleta novísima.

11. Yo acabo de comprar cepillos de dientes y de cabello.

12. La criada compró esta mañana una escoba.

13. Necesitamos comprar manteca pero no la compramos porque no queremos gastar dinero.

14. La mayor parte de la gente no quiere gastarlo (to spend it).

15. ¿Es bueno este vino?

16. Es muy bueno y también no es caro.

[Footnote 60: Names of countries should not take the article (the rule is not very strict, however). EXCEPTIONS: La India, El Perú, El Japón (Japan).]

Translate into Spanish—

1. Foreigners in England enjoy many advantages.

2. Yes, because England is a free country.

3. Englishmen also enjoy the same advantages in other free countries.

4. Does the teacher help his pupils?

5. He does (Sí, Señor), but the pupils must study and learn their lessons well and work diligently (diligentemente).[61]

6. This morning I was writing a letter when my sister spoke of the bicycle (which [62]) she wants to buy.

7. Did you sell the muslins and prints (which) you bought last year (el año pasado)?

8. The merchant has drawn a bill at three months' date for (por) the velvets (which [62]) he sold to the Spanish customer.

9. Little and good is better than much and bad.

10. John is a partner in that firm (casa).

11. It is necessary to work.

12. This is George's beautiful garden.

13. It is a large garden with many flowers, roses, carnations, violets and other plants (plantas).

14. Who is here?

15. Charles and Henry are here.

[Footnote 61: To form an adverb from an adjective add mente as you add "ly" in English. If the adjective changes for the feminine add mente to the feminine form, as rico (m.), rica (f.)—ricamente (richly).]

[Footnote 62: Cannot be left understood in Spanish.]

                             LESSON VII.
                         (Lección séptima.)

+———————————————-+——————————————-+ |Primero[63] 1st |Décimo sexto, etc. 16th| |Segundo 2nd |Vigésimo 20th| |Tercero 3rd |Trigésimo 30th| |Cuarto 4th |Cuadragésimo 40th| |Quinto 5th |Quincuagésimo 50th| |Sexto 6th |Sexagésimo 60th| |Séptimo (Sétimo) 7th |Septuagésimo 70th| |Octavo 8th |Octogésimo 80th| |Noveno (Nono) 9th |Nonagésimo 90th| |Décimo 10th |Centésimo 100th| |Décimo primero, Décimo |Ducentésimo 200th| | primo, Undécimo, |Tricentésimo 300th| | Onceno 11th |Cuadrigentésimo 400th| |Décimo segundo, duodécimo, |Quingentésimo 500th| | Doceno 12th |Sexcentésimo 600th| |Décimo tercero, décimo |Septingentésimo 700th| | tercio, Treceno 13th |Octingentésimo 800th| |Décimo cuarto, |Novingentésimo 900th| | catorceno 14th |Milésimo 1,000th| |Décimo quinto, |Millonésimo 1,000,000th| | quinceno 15th |Postrero, ultimo Last| +———————————————-+————————-+—————-+

[Footnote 63: Ordinal adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they accompany or for which they stand. Final o changes into a for the feminine, and the plural is formed by adding s.]

"Primero," "tercero," and "Postrero" drop the =O= before a masculine noun singular,[64] as—

El primer pedido: The first order.
El tercer lote: The third lot.
El postrer envío: The last shipment.

But—

La primera entrega (fem.): The first delivery.

[Footnote 64: Eight words in all present this peculiarity, viz., uno, alguno, ninguno, bueno, malo, primero, tercero, postrero (these last two not always).]

After "vigésimo" ordinal numbers are generally substituted by cardinal numbers, as—

La página veintidós: Page 22nd.

Dates are expressed by cardinal numbers instead of ordinal, as—

Madrid, 20 (de) Agosto (de) 1911: Madrid, 20th of August, 1911.

EXCEPTION: El primero, as—

El 1° (primero) de Septiembre (1st September).

Numbers following names of kings, etc., are ordinal up to the tenth; then generally cardinal, as—

Felipe II. (segundo): Philip II.
Alfonso XIII. (trece): Alphonso XIII.

Fractional numbers up to 1/10th are the same as ordinal numbers, except—

(Un) medio: one half.
Un tercio (not tercero): one-third.

From 1/11th upwards, fractions are formed from cardinal numbers adding to them the termination =avo=, as—

Un dieciseisavo[65]: 1/16.

Un need not be used before the fractions 1/2, 1/3 and 1/4, preceded by an integer, as—

Uno y cuarto: One and a quarter.
Cuatro y tercio: Four and a third.
La mitad: The half.
La tercera parte: The 3rd part.
La cuarta parte: The 4th part.
La duodécima parte: The 12th part.

[Footnote 65: If the cardinal number ends in a vowel, this is elided, as veinte—un veintavo (1/20th). If it ends in ce the c is changed into z as, doce—un dozavo (1/12th).]

Collective Numbers.

Un par: A pair. Una treintena: A set of 30.[66]
Una decena (half a score).[66] Una centena: A set of 100.[66]
Una docena (a dozen).[66] Un centenar: A set of 100.[66]
Una veintena: A score.[66] Un ciento: A set of 100.[66]
                                Un millar: A set of 1,000.[66]

[Footnote 66: Also the number approximately, as: Una treintena de libros: (about 30 books).]

Subjunctive Mood,[67] Present Tense. +——————————-+——————————+———————————+ | =Hablar=. | =Temer=. | =Partir=. | +——————————-+——————————+———————————+ |Que yo hable (That I |Que tema (that I may|Que parta (that I may | | may or shall | or shall fear).| or shall depart).| | speak). | | | | " tu hables | " temas | " partas | | " él hable | " tema | " parta | | " nosotros hablemos| " temamos | " partamos | | " vosotros habléis | " temáis | " partáis | | " ellos hablen | " teman | " partan | +——————————-+——————————+———————————+

[Footnote 67: This tense is formed from the first person singular of the present indicative by changing the last vowel into =e= for the 1st conjugation and into =a= for the 2nd and 3rd conjugations. These remain the ruling vowels throughout the tense.

N.B.—The Subjunctive Mood occurs only in dependent sentences when the action is not expressed in a positive manner but is doubtful or merely contingent.]

=actual=, present =al por mayor, por menor=, wholesale, retail =arroz=, rice =artículo=, article =asociación de obreros=, trade union =blanquear=, to bleach =ya caigo=, I understand, I see =colocar=, to place =*conseguir=, to get =consignación=, consignment =contenido=, contents =decadencia=, decadence =delegado=, delegate =demasiado=, too, too much =difícil=, difficult =driles labrados=, figured drills =driles lisos=, plain drills =entrar á reinar=, to begin to reign =escoger, *elegir=, to choose, to select =extraño=, strange, queer, funny =el germen=, the germ =grueso=, thick, stout =hallar=, to find =ilustrado=, enlightened =incluyendo=, enclosing =limitar=, to limit =mientrastanto=, meanwhile =*obtener=, to get =peso=, weight =poder=, power =podríamos=, we should be able to, might, could =próximo=, next =rebaja=, abatement =rebajar, *reducir=, reduce, to abate =reducción=, abatement, reduction =reunión=, meeting =*salir=, to come, to go, out =*salir en=, to come to =solo= (adj.), alone =sólo, solamente= (adv.), only =sujeto á=, subject to =sumar=, to add =tocino=, bacon =tomar=, to take =varios=, several =verificarse=, to take place[68] =*verse obligado á=, to be compelled to[69]

[Footnote 68: Lit.: to verify itself.]

[Footnote 69: Lit.: to see oneself obliged.]

Translate into English—

1. ¿Cuál envío han recibido Vs.?

2. Nos han llegado el primero y el cuarto, pero el tercer lote no ha llegado todavía.

3. El postrer hombre á entrar en la reunión fué el delegado de la asociación de obreros.

4. ¿(A) cuánto por libra cuesta este tocino?

5. Al por menor sale en seis peniques y cuarto, pero al por mayor podríamos darlo á cinco y tercio ó talvez un poquito menos, digamos (say) cinco y cinco dieciseisavos.

6. ¿Puede V. sumar tres dozavos y siete quinzavos?

7. Sí, Señor, esto hace ciento veintinueve cientiochentavos.

8. ¡Qué fracción tan extraña!

9. Lo es en efecto pero se da (it is given)[70] sólo por ejemplo.

10. ¡Ah, ya caigo!

11. Felipe II entró á reinar en 1556. Ningún soberano (sovereign) de Europa podía competir en poder y en Estados con él, pero ya desde ese tiempo se observan (are observed)[70] los gérmenes de la decadencia que se verificó después.

12. Alfonso XIII actual rey de España es un monarca ilustrado y constitucional.

13. La nueva España espera mucho de él.

14. El primero y el quince de cada (each) mes, la Compañía efectúa (effects) sus pagos.

15. Hoy estamos á (to-day is) cinco de Junio de 1911.

[Footnote 70: The verb with SE is reflexive or passive: se da, it gives itself or it is given; se observan, they observe themselves or are observed.]

Translate into Spanish—

1. I shall be compelled (me veré obligado á) to abandon this undertaking. It is too difficult.

2. We received a consignment of rice, but the price demanded (pedido), 2-15/16d. a lb., is too dear; we shall never be able (nunca podremos) to get it; a better quality (calidad), whiter and stouter, was placed at 2-29/32d. but (sólo) a few days ago (hace algunos días).

3. If you cannot sell your plain and figured drills at the figures quoted it will be necessary to abate the price.

4. I shall accept those bleached linens subject to an abatement of 5 per cent.

5. We shall consult our partners; meanwhile let us leave (dejemos)[71] the matter in abeyance (en suspenso).

6. He has chosen several designs (diseños, dibujos) for his lot of prints, but he finds that three of them are wrong (están equivocados).

7. Some firms always give wrong (falsos, inexactos) weights in their declarations.

8. He ordered the wrong article (un … por otro).

9. You are wrong (V. se equivoca), it is the right (justo, exacto) article.

10. This cloth is finished on the wrong side (al revés).

11. We received your favour (su atenta) of 10th instant (del corriente), enclosing copy of your previous letter 1st ult. (p°, p°.) and have taken note of its contents.

12. By next mail (mala) we shall send you all the details required (que Vs. necesitan).

[Footnote 71: The Imperative Mood is like the Pres. Subj., except in the 2nd Person.]

                                LESSON VIII.
                             (Lección octava.)

We shall divide the Personal Pronouns into Subject Pronouns and Object
Pronouns.[72]

[Footnote 72: Grammarians often give the names—
          Nominative case for the Subject pronouns
          Accusative " " " Direct object pronouns
          Dative " " " Indirect object pronouns]

+——————————————————————————+ | Subject Pronouns. | +—————————————+————————————-+ |Yo (I) |Nosotros,-as (we) | |Tú (thou) |Vosotros,-as (you) | |Él (he, or it, m.) |Ellos,-as (they) | |Ella (she, or it, f.) |Ello (neuter), | | |(it, referring to a | | | whole statement) | +—————————————+————————————-+

Instead of "Tú" or "Vosotros,-as," =V=. and =Vs=. are used in general conversation as already stated (the verb following in the 3rd person).

N.B.—These pronouns are left understood when no emphasis is required or where no ambiguity is possible, as—

(Yo) compro las telas: I buy the cloths.
(Él) gira las letras y firma las cartas: He draws the bills and signs
the letters.
(Ella) ha tenido una entrevista con su abogado: She has had an interview
with her barrister, lawyer or solicitor.

But—

Yo he comprado la partida de ferretería y quincalla y no V.: I have bought the lot of ironware and small ware and not you.

=Object Pronouns=.

These are divided into two classes—1. =Disjunctive=, viz., following a preposition—

  Mí (me) Nosotros-as (us)
  Tí (thee) Vosotros-as (you)
  Él (him, it, m.) Ellos-as (them)
  Ella (her, it, f.) Ello (neuter) (it, referring
                               to a whole statement)
  V. (you, sing.) Vs. (you, pl.)

Ellos hablan de mí: They speak of me.
Nosotros trabajamos para él: We work for him.
Ella confía en tí, en V.: She trusts thee, you.
V. se declara contra ellos: You declare against them.

2. =Conjunctive=, viz., direct or indirect object of verb (without a preposition).

  Él me[73] ama (he loves me) Él nos ama (he loves us)
  Él te ama (he loves thee) Él os ama (he loves you)
  Él lo or le ama (he loves Él los ama (he loves them,
          him, it, m.) m.)
  Él la ama (he loves her, Él las ama (he loves them,
          or it, f.) f.)

[Footnote 73: N.B.—In the conjunctive form the 1st and 2nd persons are the same for both direct and indirect objects, but the 3rd pers. differs.]

EXAMPLES of Indirect Object—

Él me da he gives me (to me)
Él te da he gives thee (to thee)
Él le da he gives him (to him), her (to her), it (to it)
Él nos da he gives us (to us)
Él os da he gives you (to you)
Él les da he gives them (to them, m. and f.)

The direct and indirect object of verb may also be rendered by the pronoun in the Disjunctive form preceded by =á=, as—

á mí me or to me direct and indirect object á tí thee or to thee " " " " á él him or to him, " " " " it (m.) or " " " " to it (m.) " " " " á ella her or to her, " " " " it (f.) or " " " " to it (f.) " " " " á nosotros-as us or to us " " " " á vosotros-as you or to you " " " " á ellos them or " " " " to them (m.) " " " " á ellas them or " " " " to them (f.) " " " "

We have then a double form for the pronouns used as direct and indirect object of verb—one Conjunctive, the other Disjunctive.

The =Conjunctive= form is that in general use.

The =Disjunctive= form is employed when emphasis or distinctness is required. It is seldom used alone,[74] Spaniards preferring to use it as a repetition after having used the Conjunctive form, as—

Él me ama á mí: He loves me.

Él nos vende á nosotros géneros estampados y á V. géneros de fantasía: He sells to us printed cloth and to you fancies.

Yo le quiero ver á él y no á ella: I wish to see him and not her.

Déle V. el dinero á él y los libros á ella.
Give him the money and her the books.

Dé V. el dinero á él y los libros á ella.
Give him the money and her the books.

[Footnote 74: In sentences like "Le pagarán más que á mí" (they will pay him more than me), "me pagarán" is understood after que.]

=acero=, steel =antes=, before—in point of time =asunto= (not =sujeto=), the subject-matter =Bolsa=, the Exchange =calcular=, to calculate =celebrarse=, to be celebrated, to take place =compañía anónima=, limited company =*concebir=, to conceive =conjunción=, conjunction =desfavorable=, unfavourable =donde=, where =emisión=, issue, of loans, etc. =emplearse=, to be employed, to be used =espalda=, shoulder (back) =explicar= to explain =explanar= to explain =falta de aceptación=, non-acceptance =falta de pago=, non-payment =la frase=, the phrase, sentence =ganancias y pérdidas=, profits and losses =el gerente=, the manager =*gobernar=, to govern =*haber=, there to be[75] =hay=, there is[75] =hay=, there are =el hecho=, the fact =la ley=, the law =llamar=, to call =más adelante=, later on =la mente=, the mind =los negocios=, the business =Pascua=, Easter =posición=, position =proyecto=, scheme, plan =pues, entonces=, then =regresar=, to come or go back =*saber=, to know =la semana pasada=, last week =sírvase V=., please =tenga la bondad de=, please =tratar=, to try =*valer=, to be worth =valor=, courage =*volver=, to turn, to go back, to turn back

[Footnote 75: As an impersonal verb, "haber" makes "hay" instead of "ha" in the Pres. Indicative.]

Translate into English—

1. ¿Usamos nunca el modo subjuntivo en una frase principal?

2. No, Señor, aunque hay quien lo diga (some who say so).

3. ¿Dónde lo empleamos pues?

4. En frases dependientes de ciertos verbos y conjunciones.

5. ¿Y cómo sabemos que después de éstos se debe emplear el verbo (must be used) en subjuntivo?

6. Porque entonces la acción del verbo es representada[76] sólo como concebida en la mente y no se habla de ella como de un hecho.

7. ¿Nos explicará V. esta regla otra vez más adelante?

8. Sí. No hago más que introducir (I only introduce) el asunto.

9. Tan pronto como (as soon as) volvemos la espalda, nuestros negocios principian á sufrir.

10. Un caballero no hace nunca nada en espalda de otro, sino que (but) habla claro, y tiene el valor de sus opiniones.

11. ¿Cuándo regresará el gerente del Banco?

12. Estará de vuelta (he will be back) hoy en quince.

13. Debe asistir á (attend) la reunión de Directores que se celebrará en Londres á primeros del mes que viene (at the beginning of next month).

14. El mercado de Coloniales (Colonial produce) carece de (lacks) animación.

15. Carecemos de noticias del vapor en que van los granos (carrying the grain).

16. ¿Cómo han salido Vs. de aquella especulación en las minas de cobre (copper mines)?

17. Hemos salido muy mal, la relación semestral (half-yearly report) de la compañía hace constar (shows) una situación muy desfavorable y no habrá dividendo este año.

18. Talvez se remedien las cosas (things) el año próximo.

19. Hay que esperarlo (let us hope so).

[Footnote 76: Or se representa.]

Translate into Spanish—

1. We beg to confirm (confirmamos)[77] our cable (cable) of last week.

2. They calculated their profits and losses.

3. I calculate upon doing it (cuento con hacerlo) before Easter.

4. This is not calculated to produce (no se cree que esto producirá) any bad impression.

5. He called him to his house.

6. We take the liberty to call your attention to the position of your account (nos tomamos la libertad de dirigir …).

7. The creditors were called (convocados) to a meeting.

8. I was called away (tuve que ausentarme).

9. I shall call at (pasaré por) the exchange.

10. All the old issues were called in (se recogieron).

11. The "Shannon" will call at (hará escala en) Cádiz.

12. They will make a call (pedirán una cuota) of £1 per share.

13. This steel is worth much less than that.

14. It is not worth (no vale la pena de) buying.

15. This limited company is worth (posee) £50,000.

16. This scheme is worthy of study (merece ser estudiado).

17. Please protest the bill in case of non-acceptance and then again for non-payment.

18. The law of supply and demand (demanda y oferta) governs the markets of the world (mundo).

19. The deeds (las actas) were all signed by a notary (notario).

20. Kindly take due note (debida or buena nota) of our signature at foot (firma al pie).

21. All our efforts (esfuerzos) have been of no avail (en balde, en vano).

22. In vain (en balde, en vano) we tried.

[Footnote 77: Do not translate "beg" before an infinitive.

                              LESSON IX.
                          (Lección novena.)

PERSONAL PRONOUNS (contd.).

Pronouns in the Disjunctive form occupy the same position in the sentence as they do in English.

Pronouns in the Conjunctive form precede the verb, as—

Él los compró: He bought them.

Yo le mostraré á V. mi libro mayor y mi diario: I shall show you my ledger and journal or day-book.

Mi cajero les pagará lo que les debo: My cashier will pay you what I owe you.

Nos ha exhibido su libro de facturas: He showed us his invoice book.

Me cedió los valores y efectos en cartera: He made over to me his stock of securities and bills.

El corredor le vió en la agencia de los vapores: The broker saw him at the steamship agent's.

1. When a sentence begins with a verb, especially if the sentence is a long one, the Conjunctive pronoun may follow the verb, except when this is in the Subjunctive Mood, as—

Bonificóle esta cantidad en cuenta corriente para no perder el cliente: He credited him the amount in A/c current in order not to lose his customer.

N.B.—Students should not indulge in this liberty until they have acquired practice in the language. In conversation this change seldom occurs. When the change is used the Subject Pronoun is generally left understood.

2. When the verb is in the Infinitive Mood, Gerund, or Imperative Mood,[78] the Conjunctive Pronoun must follow, and is joined to the verb to form one word: as—

Lo mejor con estos géneros es venderlos en subasta:
The best thing with these goods is to sell them by auction.

Abandonándole la ganancia acabaremos con el asunto:
By giving up the profit to him, we shall end the matter.

Refiéralos V. á los armadores: Refer them to the shipowners.

Hágannos Vs. esta bonificación: Make us this allowance.

Cárguenos en cuenta este renglón: Debit this line to our account.

Abónenle la suma que reclama: Credit him with the amount he claims.

[Footnote 78: By Imperative Mood, we mean Imperative Mood Affirmative. In Spanish there is no imperative mood negative, its place being taken by the Present Subjunctive, as—

     Háblale tú: Speak to him.
     No le hables tú: Do not speak to him.]

If two Conjunctive pronouns meet, contrary to the English general rule, the pronoun which stands as indirect object precedes the pronoun standing as direct object,[79] as—

Ellos nos lo garantizan: They guarantee it to us.

If these two pronouns are both in the 3rd person, the indirect object is changed into =Se=, as—

Nosotros se lo vendimos: We sold it to him.
V. se lo mandó (á ella)[80]: You sent it to her.
Nosotros se lo aconsejamos (á ellos)[80]: We gave them that advice.
Yo se lo digo (á V.)[80]: I tell it to you.

[Footnote 79: Combinations of me and te are very rare, and then te precedes whether direct or indirect object, the context clearly showing the meaning. In such cases it is better, however, to use a disjunctive form, for the indirect object, as—

     Él te da á mí: He gives thee to me.
     Él me da á tí: He gives me to thee.]

[Footnote 80: Á él, á ella, á V., etc., may be added for clearness, when otherwise ambiguity might occur.]

=administrador=, manager (of a branch house, etc.) =arancel=, custom-house tariff =aviso=, advice, notice =confianza=, trust, confidence =constantemente=, constantly =conveniente=, convenient, suitable =correo=, post, post office =*dar aviso=, to inform, to give notice to leave =*dar aviso de despedida=, to give notice of dismissal =de moda=, fashionable =devolver=, to give or send back =efectuar=, to effect =favorable=, favourable =fijar=, to fix =holgazán, haragán=, lazy =honrar=, to honour =indicar=, to indicate, to point out =largo=, long =noticia, noticias=, news =*poner en condiciones=, to enable =por=, or =de, su cuenta=, on his account =el sobre=, the envelope =tomar nota=, to take note, to notice =venta=, sale

Translate into English—

1. Me aprecia. Te necesita. Le manda. Lo cree. Nos halla. Os busca.

2. Son géneros de moda, los vende muy bien.

3. Son buenas plumas, las usamos constantemente.

4. Me escribe que te envía los sobres.

5. Le indica el medio más conveniente.

6. Nos honra con (with) su confianza.

7. Os fija sus límites.

8. Les da su cotización.

9. Creernos.

10. Mandarnos los presupuestos (estimates).

11. Venderles á crédito.

12. Dándonos sus instrucciones tan claras, nos pone en condiciones de servirle á toda su satisfacción (his entire satisfaction).

13. Dígannos Vs. (tell us) la verdad.

14. Él me lo escribió.

15. Nosotros te lo mandaremos.

16. Él nos lo explicó.

17. Yo os lo enviaré.

18. Se lo escribiremos á él.

19. Se lo explicaremos á ella.

20. Compraron los géneros y se los vendieron á ellos.

21. Vendieron las telas y se las mandaron á ellas.

22. ¿Me lo dice V. (do you say) á mí?

23. Sí, Señor, se lo digo á V. mismo (I say it to you yourself)

24. Yo mismo lo mandé.

25. V. mismo me lo ha escrito.

26. Nosotros mismos no podríamos (could not) hacerlo mejor.

27. Él me lo dió (gave) á mí, y yo se lo entregué á él.

28. Su socio es mejor que él, y él es mejor que ella.

Translate into Spanish—

1. Did you see (vió V.) the new Custom House tariff?

2. Yes, I saw (ví) it.

3. It is more favourable to us than the old.

4. We sent it to the manager of our Liverpool branch (sucursal).

5. We sent it to him yesterday; he will return it to us after he has read it (después que lo haya leído).

6. Did you give (dió V.) it (m.) to me or to him?

7. I gave (dí) it to you, not to him.

8. Well (bien)! he says (dice) that he will not give it to me until you tell him to do so (hasta que V. se lo diga).

9. He took it with him, and we took it with us.

10. I shall take it (f.) with me.[81]

11. Take it with thee.[81]

12. It is a long letter, but it is necessary to write it to-day.

13. Writing it to-day you are in time (á tiempo) for the post.

14. Mr. So-and-So gave more money to you than to me.

15. We have taken notice of it.

16. Take due notice of the contents (del contenido) of the letter.

17. Give him notice (aviso) of the sales you effected on (por) his account.

18. There is nothing worthy of notice (no hay nada de particular) in our market to-day.

19. I gave him notice because he is very lazy.

20. This circumstance (circunstancia) must have escaped your notice (debe habérsele pasado por alto).

21. Do not take any notice of him (no le haga V. caso).

22. I gave notice to my landlord (propietario).

[Footnote 81: See next note.]

                             LESSON X.
                         (Lección décima.)

These pronouns are not, of course, used as subject of the verb. They are used as the object of the verb when this and the subject are the same.

They are the same as the other personal pronouns, as—

Conjunctive form. Disjunctive form.

myself me mí thyself te tí

EXCEPTION— 3rd person for both genders & numbers: se sí

Él se ama: He loves himself.

Ella se atribuye la culpa: She attributes the fault to herself.

María habla siempre de sí[82]: Mary is always talking about herself.

Nosotros nos divertimos al mismo tiempo que hacemos negocios: We enjoy ourselves at the same time as we do business.

Ellos se respetan á sí y á otros también: They respect themselves and others too.

Mismo-a,-os,-as, may be added to the disjunctive form for emphasis, as—

María habla siempre de sí misma: Mary always speaks of herself.

Ella se atribuye la culpa: She attributes the fault to herself.

Ella se atribuye la culpa á sí: She attributes the fault to herself. (more emphatic).

Ella se atribuye la culpa á sí misma: She attributes the fault to herself (still more emphatic).

[Footnote 82: After con (with) si becomes Sigo; same change with mí and tí: conmigo, contigo, consigo, written in one word.]

The pronoun =Se= with any verb in the 3rd pers. sing. or plural may be used to form the passive voice, as—

Se ha cerrado el almacén: The warehouse has been closed.

Se han encaminado las reclamaciones á la Compañía de Seguros[83]:
The claims have been referred to the Insurance Company.

[ootnote 83: This form is preferable when the "doer" is not mentioned.]

=Se= followed by a verb in the 3rd pers. sing.[84] translates the English "one," "people," "they" (indefinite), as the French "on" and the German "man," as—-

Se dice que habrá un alza[85] en el mercado: They say, or it is said, that there will be a rise in the market.

Se cree que no habrá Reforma Arancelaria en Inglaterra: People think, or it is thought, that there will not be Tariff Reform in England.

En la vejez se goza el fruto de una juventud laboriosa: In old age one enjoys the fruits of active youth or The fruits of active youth are enjoyed in old age.

[Footnote 84: Or we can use the 3rd pers. plur. of the verb without the pronoun.]

[Footnote 85: Or "una alza" (both used).]

As will be seen, this is really a form of the passive voice rendered by "se," as "se goza" instead of "es gozado." But there are more typical examples, as—

Los géneros se han fabricado en Irlanda y se los ha (not han) plegado como lienzos irlandeses: The goods were made in Ireland and they folded them as Irish Linens.

A Conjunctive Reflexive Pronoun, whether direct or indirect object, always precedes any other conjunctive pronoun, as—-

Yo me lo reservo: I reserve it for myself.
Nosotros nos lo guardamos: We keep it for ourselves.
Se me dice: It is said to me (it says itself to me).
Se les venden las telas: The cloths are sold to them.
Nosotros nos le confiamos: We entrust ourselves to him.
Vosotros os les empeñasteis en £1,000: You pledged yourselves to them
for £1,000.

Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense.[86] +——————————————————————————————————+ | =Hablar=. | =Temer=. | =Partir=. | +——————————————————————————————————+ |Que yo hablase (that |Temiese (that I |Partiese (that I might,| | I might, should or | might, should, or | should or would | | would speak, etc.) | would fear, etc.) | depart, etc.) | | " tú hablases |Temieses |Partieses | | " él hablase |Temiese |Partiese | | " nosotros hablásemos|Temiésemos |Partiésemos | | " vosotros hablaseis |Temieseis |Partieseis | | " ellos hablasen |Temiesen |Partiesen | +——————————————————————————————————+

[Footnote 86: This tense is formed from the Past Def. by changing the termination ron of the 3rd pers. pl. into se, ses, se, semos, seis sen, in all the three conjugations.]

=en la actualidad, al momento=, at present =á menudo=, often =acostumbrarse=, to accustom oneself =admitir=, to acknowledge =aparecer=, to appear =aplicarse=, to apply oneself =ayuda=, help =boletín=, form, slip, price list =caucho seco=, dry rubber =cebada y avena=, barley and oats =cifras=, figures =la compra=, the purchase =*contar (con)=, to count, to rely on =la costumbre=, custom =cualquiera=, any (affirm.) =cuidadosamente=, carefully =declararse en quiebra=, to file one's petition in bankruptcy =dedicarse=, to devote oneself =dirigirse=, to address oneself =escribirse=, to write to each other, to one another =escuchar=, to listen to =exacto=, exact, accurate =firmeza=, firmness =industria azucarera=, sugar industry =los informes=, information =lisonjearse=, to flatter oneself =llamarse=, to be called =el montaje=, the erection of machinery, etc. =*moverse=, to be moved, driven (machinery) =operadores=, dealers (on 'Change) =partida=, lot (of goods) =perfeccionar=, to perfect, improve (machinery) =*reconocer=, to acknowledge =recursos=, means = respetar=, to respect =sección=, section =tacharse=, to censure, to blame, oneself =tejidos=, textiles, cloths =últimamente=, lately =únicamente=, solely, only

Translate into English—

1. Nos dirigimos á Vs. por informes sobre la casa cuyo (whose) nombre aparece en el boletín adjunto.

2. Se aplicaron á la industria azucarera y consiguieron buenos resultados.

3. Me he acostumbrado á este trabajo.

4. Te has dedicado al comercio.

5. Tiene mucha opinión de sí (mismo).

6. Cuenta (he relies) consigo únicamente.

7. Se debe pensar á sí y también á los otros.

8. Estos tejidos se llaman "uniones."

9. Las dos casas se escriben[87] en francés.

10. Estos tornos y estas sierras mecánicas (these lathes and sawing machines) se mueven por motor eléctrico.

11. Se los ha perfeccionado mucho últimamente.

12. ¿Se envían las máquinas en secciones?

13. Sí, Señor, y se las marca cuidadosamente para facilitar el montaje.

14. Se dice que llegaron grandes partidas de Cebada y Avena, ¿piensa V. que influirán en los precios?

15. Así se cree.

16. Entonces resultará (or resultará pues) alguna ventaja para los consumidores (consumers).

17. No puedo tacharme de imprevidencia (want of foresight) por no haberme abastecido (supplied, stocked) á tiempo, pues (because) carecía de los recursos necesarios para hacerlo (to do so).

[Footnote 87: Reflexive Pronouns in the plural are also Reciprocal.]

Translate into Spanish—

1. I flatter myself that you will be pleased with (le gustarán) my purchases seeing (visto) the firmness of prices at present.

2. We consider ourselves lucky (dichosos de) not to have listened to their advice (consejo).

3. He is always speaking of himself and of his business.

4. He found himself a loser (á perder).

5. They declared themselves bankrupts (they filed their petition in bankruptcy).

6. They wrote to each other often.

7. He respects himself.

8. He himself respects old customs.

9. We acknowledge we are wrong.

10. We acknowledge receipt of your favour (acusamos recibo de).

11. We shall gratefully acknowledge (agradeceremos infinito) any help you may render (preste) to our friend.

12. We hope you will be very accurate in your figures.

13. The output (producto) for the first two months of the current year was 18,668 lbs. dry rubber.

14. The bill market (los cambios) was very firm to-day but there was little doing (poco se hizo).

15. Dealers were reluctant (se mostraron contrarios) to do business in the securities.

16. Rubber shares were lifeless (muy desanimadas), but prices were maintained (se mantuvieron).

                             LESSON XI.
                     (Lección décima primera.)

A Possessive Adjective accompanies a noun; a Possessive pronoun stands for a noun.

The =Possessive Adjectives= are—

+————————————-+——————————————+ |Mi (m. & f., sing.) |my | |Mis (m. & f., plu.) |my | |Tu (m. & f., sing.) |thy | |Tus (m. & f., plu.) |thy | |Su (m. & f., sing.) |his, her, its, one's, their,| | | your, (polite) | |Sus (m. & f., plu.) |his, her, its, one's, their,| | | your, (polite) | |Nuestro-a, os-a |our | |Vuestro-a, os-as |your (familiar) | +————————————-+——————————————+

Mi embarque: My shipment.
Nuestro arreglo: Our arrangement.
Su sinceridad: His, her, or their sincerity.
Tu beneficio: Thy benefit.
Sus fondos: His funds, capital.

De él, de ella, de ellos, de V., etc., may be added for the sake of clearness, but are not needed when the sense is clear without them.[88]

In the 3rd person (but not in the 1st and 2nd) instead of "su … de él," "su … de V.," etc., we may say "el … de él," "el … de V.," etc.

[Footnote 88: "De V." is added also for politeness ("V." being a title in itself—your grace).]

The =Possessive Pronouns= are—

El mío, la mía, los míos, las mías (mine).
El tuyo, la tuya, los tuyos, las tuyas (thine).
El suyo, la suya, los suyos, las suyas (his, hers, theirs, yours,
polite).
El nuestro, la nuestra, los nuestros, las nuestras (ours).
El vuestro, la vuestra, los vuestros, las vuestras (yours familiar).

The Possessive Pronoun must be preceded by the definite article except when it follows the verb "to be" ("Ser") and ownership is asserted.

Su casa es más importante que la mía: His firm is more important than mine.

V. ha acabado su trabajo, pero yo no he principiado el mío: You have finished your work, but I have not started mine.

Estos títulos y acciones son míos: These bonds and shares are mine (viz., belong to me).[89]

[Footnote 89: If the intention is only to distinguish between one object and another the article is maintained; as, Estas son mis acciones, aquellas son las de V. (these are my shares, those are yours).]

=Possessive Adjectives Emphatic=. If any emphasis is placed on the possessive adjectives, the forms of the possessive pronouns are used, following the noun, as—

Quiero la maleta mía y no la de su amigo: I want my portmanteau, not your friend's.

"A friend of mine," "a customer of yours" will be translated "un amigo de los míos," "un cliente de los suyos," or also "un amigo mío," "un cliente suyo," without the preposition de.

The Possessive Pronoun preceded by the neuter article =lo= denotes "property in general," as—

Lo mío (mine—that which is mine).
Lo nuestro (ours—that which belongs to us).
Lo suyo or lo propio (one's own property).
Lo ajeno (other people's property (that which belongs to others)).

In addressing a person translate "my," etc., by "mío," etc., as—

Amigo mío: My friend.
Muy Señor mío (usual introduction to a Spanish letter).

But if the noun is qualified by an adjective, both "mi" and "mío" are used ("mi" is more general), as Mi querido amigo (my dear friend).

+————————————————————————————————+ | Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense (2nd Form).[90] | +————————————+—————————+——————————+ | Hablar. | Temer. | Partir. | +————————————+—————————+——————————+ | Que yo hablara |Temiera |Partiera Partieras | | " tu hablaras |Temieras |Partiera | | " el hablara |Temiera |Partiéramos | | " nosotros habláramos|Temiéramos |Partierais | | " vosotros hablarais |Temierais |Partieran | | " ellos-as hablaran |Temieran | | +————————————+—————————+——————————+

[Footnote 90: Used just the same as the 1st form; but it may also be used instead of the Conditional Mood.]

+———————————-+—————————-+——————————-+ | Subjunctive Mood, Future Tense.[91] | +———————————-+—————————-+——————————-+ |Que yo hablare (that I |Temiere (that I |Partiere (that I | | shall speak, etc.) | shall fear, etc.)| shall depart, etc.)| | " tú hablares |Temieres |Partieres | | " él hablare |Temiere |Partiere | | " nosotros habláremos|Temiéremos |Partiéremos | | " vosotros hablareis |Temiereis |Partiereis | | " ellos-as hablaren |Temieren |Partieren | +———————————-+—————————-+——————————-+

[Footnote 91: Refers to a future doubtful action; little used. Its place is generally supplied by the Present Subjunctive, and, after si (if), by the Present Indicative.]

=*atenerse á= to adhere to =*adherir á= to adhere to =ajustar=, to adjust =apresurarse á=, to hasten to. =asegurar=, to secure =avería=, average (damage by sea-water, etc.) =buque=, ship =buque de vapor=, steamer =buque de vela=, sailing vessel =cabida=, room, space =codiciar=, to covet =deber=, to owe, must =debido á=, owing to =dirección=, address =encaminar=, to forward =hierro=, iron =mensual=, monthly =mercado de granos=, grain market =muestra=, sample =petición=, request =pormenores, detalles=, particulars, details =por tanto=, =por eso=, therefore =proporcionado=, =adecuado=, adequate =puerto=, port =relación=, report =representante=, representative =resto, restante=, remainder =resultado=, result =riesgo=, risk (=á= or =por) saldo=, (in) settlement =satisfecho=, satisfied =siguiente=, following =someter=, to submit =(la) sucursal=, branch house =surtido=, assortment, selection =vigas=, beams

Translate into English—

1. Su representante de V. me ha sometido sus (his) muestras y dentro de pocos días haré un surtido.

2. En seno (herewith) les enviamos nuestro precio corriente.

3. Sírvase V. consignar los géneros á la orden mía y no á la (orden) del Sr. Fulano, como lo hacía V. antes.

4. Su casa y la mía están ambas (both) interesadas en esta especulación.

5. Les embarcaremos sus vigas de hierro por el próximo vapor y las (vigas) de su sucursal de Rosario con el buque siguiente.

6. Nuestro buque de vela el "Nerón" saldrá (will leave) en breve (shortly).

7. Queremos lo nuestro pero no codiciamos lo ajeno.

8. Nuestro catálogo contiene todos los pormenores necesarios.

9. Debemos su nombre de V. al Sr. Fulano.

10. Nos tomamos la libertad de solicitar sus apreciables órdenes.

11. Á nuestro parecer (in our opinion) su clientela de V. es mejor que la suya de él.

Translate into Spanish—

1. We beg (tenemos el gusto de) to inform you that your order has been placed at your prices owing to the fall experienced (que tuvimos) in our market.

2. In our monthly report, which we beg to enclose, we have stated (consignado) the present position of our grain market.

3. Please forward the enclosed letters to their address.

4. Our risk would be great and therefore we must adhere to our request of an adequate commission.

5. The average having been adjusted we now hasten to enclose our cheque for £59 16s. 9d. in settlement of your claim as per statement enclosed.

6. Trusting (en la confianza que) you will be satisfied with (con or de) this result, we are, yours faithfully (somos de Vs. attos. y S.S.Q.B.S.M.[92]).

7. We have secured room for the remainder of your machinery in the steamer leaving (que saldrá de) our port on the 10th prox.

[Footnote 92: Atentos y seguros servidores (que besan sus manos). The words in brackets are not used in South America and some Spanish firms also omit them. Instead of q.b.s.m., Spaniards have lately adopted: q.e.s.m. (que estrechan sus manos).]

                               LESSON XII.
                       (Lección décima segunda.)

A demonstrative adjective accompanies a noun and a demonstrative pronoun stands for a noun.

The =Demonstrative Adjectives= are—

+———————————+————————————————————-+ |Este, esta (this). |Estos, estas[93] (these). | |Ese, esa (that). |Esos, esas_[93]_ (those—near to the | | | person addressed). | |Aquel, aquella (that).|Aquellos, aquellas (those—removed | | | from both speaker and addressee). | +———————————+————————————————————-+

[Footnote 93: Sometimes "estotro," "estotra," "esotro," "esotra," but these and other forms are obsolete.]

The difference between Ese and Aquel is not strictly observed. However, in cases like "this box," "that table," "that cupboard yonder," use ese for the nearer of the two removed from the speaker: "Esta caja," "esa mesa," "aquel armario."

The =Demonstrative Pronouns= are the same as the above, with the addition of—

Neuter form Esto, eso, aquello[94] (this, that). This has no plural and is used—

1. In reference to a whole sentence, as—

El mercado del algodón está muy abatido; esto me desanima: The cotton market is very flat; this disconcerts me.

2. In reference to something pointed at, without referring to what the thing is,[95] as—

¿Qué es eso? What is that? (thing there, whatever it may be.)

Este, ese, aquel, etc., are accented when a stress is placed on them; Éste is also used for "the latter" and Aquél for "the former."[96]

Instead of ese, etc., aquel, etc., before que and de, the definite article is generally used, as—

El aumento de precio de hoy y el[97] que tuvimos ayer: The increase in price to-day and that we had yesterday.

La remesa anterior y la que haremos hoy: The previous shipment and that we are sending to-day.

El flete del aceite y el de los vinos: The freight on oil, and that on wine.

Mis documentos y los de mi jefe: My documents and those of my chief (employer).

Lo que (instead of "aquello que") escribo es la pura verdad: That which (what) I write is the honest truth.

[Footnote 94: "Eso" and "aquello" are used practically indiscriminately.]

[Footnote 95: French "ceci," "cela."]

[Footnote 96: Esto es—namely, that is …]

[Footnote 97: It might appear to be an abbreviation of "aquel," but it is not] so.

A preposition may precede que, as—

¿Qué libro es ese? Es el en que escribimos ayer: What book is that? It is that in which we wrote yesterday.

¿Qué carta quiere V.? La á que me referí ayer: What letter do you want?
That to which I referred yesterday.

¿Qué plumas son estas? Son las con que yo escribía: What pens are these?
They are those with which I wrote.

Esta translates the commercial phrase, "our place," "our market."

Esa translates the commercial phrase, "your place," "your market."

As—

El mercado en esta está muy flojo: The market here is very slack.

Nos dicen los armadores que el cargamento llegará á esa el 15 del mes entrante: The shipowners inform us that the cargo will reach your town on the 15th prox.

+——————————————————————————————————-+ | Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense. | +—————————-+————————-+———————-+———————-+ | =Haber=. | =Tener=. | =Ser=. | =Estar=. | +—————————-+————————-+———————-+———————-+ |Que yo haya (that I|Tenga (that I |Sea (that I |Esté (that I | | may have, etc.) | may have, etc.)| may be, etc.)| may be, etc.)| | " tú hayas |Tengas |Seas |Estés | | " el haya |Tenga |Sea |Esté | | " nosotros |Tengamos |Seamos |Estemos | | hayamos | | | | | " vosotros |Tengáis |Seáis |Estéis | | hayáis | | | | | " ellos hayan |Tengan |Sean |Estén | +—————————-+————————-+———————-+———————-+

=á ese respecto=, in that respect =acusar=, to accuse, to show =al menos=, at least =barca á motor= motor-boat =barca automóvil= motor-boat =carriles, rieles, railes=, rails =competidor, contrincante=, competitor, neighbour[98] =condiciones=, terms =contra=, against =deprimir=, to depress =descarga=, discharge, the discharging =desgracia=, misfortune =días de estadía=, lay days =dificultad=, difficulty =elevar=, to raise, to enhance =está visto=, it is obvious =evitar=, to avoid =fletar=, to freight =mar alborotada=, heavy sea =mercado algodonero=, cotton market =mina de carbón=, colliery =*ofrecer=, to offer =oscilación=, uncertainty, wavering, ups and downs =perturbar=, to disturb =sorprendente=, surprising =suma redonda=, lump sum =*volcar=, to capsize, to overturn

[Footnote 98: Neighbour, person living near: vecino.]

Translate into English—

1. Debido á la última baja que se ha verificado en este mercado, podemos ofrecerles una reducción de diez por ciento en los precios de esos géneros.

2. Está visto que el gobierno de aquella república no sólo no se ocupa de elevar el crédito sino que tiene la desgracia de deprimirlo y de perturbar el mercado bursátil (the money market).

3. Se ha repetido en ésta la oscilación que hubo en la semana pasada.

4. Los consolidados (the consolidated) han abierto á 82 y la Renta Italiana á 101, habiendo bajado más tarde aquéllos á 81 1/2 y ésta á 100.

5. El Amortizable 5% (the 5% Redeemable) subió hasta (to) 103.

6. La revista del mercado algodonero acusa una baja en los futures y la de la Bolsa un alza en todos los valores extranjeros.

7. Esto es muy natural, aquéllo es sorprendente.

8. Yo le digo ésto: lo haré.

9. Eso me conviene.

Translate into Spanish—

1. We shall ship these iron beams and those steel rails by a sailing vessel which we intend to (intentamos) freight at (por) a lump sum, with at least ten lay days for discharging.

2. This will avoid any (toda) difficulty in that respect.

3. A German motor-boat was making this week a trial run (excursión de prueba) in a (con la) heavy sea when she capsized (y se volcó).

4. The net profits of this year show (muestran, acusan) an increase of £1,000.

5. The working (la explotación) of those collieries has resulted in a loss.

6. Messrs. Brown & Co. of your city (de esa) have sent their agent over (aquí) to make considerable purchases.

7. We hastened to submit to them our best terms offering a credit of nine months against their acceptances.

8. These terms are better than those of our competitors. This is certain.

                              LESSON XIII.
                       (Lección décima tercera.)

+——————+—————-+——————————————————+ | Sing. | Plu. | | +——————+—————-+——————————————————+ |Quien |Quienes |(who, whom) | |El cual |Los cuales |(who, whom or which) | |La cual |Las cuales | | |Que | |(that) | |Cuyo |Cuyos |(whose, or of which (denoting | |Cuya |Cuyas | possession)) | +——————+—————-+——————————————————+

Quien is used for persons only. El cual and que are used for persons and things.

El agente á quien (or al cual) hemos escrito: The agent to whom we have written.

¿Son aquéllas las partidas de azúcares de las cuales me habló V. ayer?
Are those the lots of sugar of which you spoke to me yesterday?

Me acuerdo de las personas y las cosas que V. ha mencionado: I remember the people and things that you mentioned.

El buque cuya tripulación ha desembarcado: The ship whose crew has landed.

El comerciante á cuyo hijo hemos conocido: The merchant whose son we have known.

Que is used very often instead of quien and el cual. Que is to be preferred when the clause following is a mere complement of the principal clause (preceding), and Quien or El cual only when the following clause is considered not less in importance than the clause preceding, viz., when it introduces _a new idea,[99] as—

¿Ha visto V. al viajante que nos visitó esta mañana?
Have you seen the traveller who called on us this morning?

He conocido al banquero quien era hombre muy juicioso y prudente: I knew the banker who was a very wise and prudent man.

[Footnote 99: This is practically saying: after a comma, only the use of the comma is so arbitrary that we preferred to explain the rule fully.]

After ser and a noun or pronoun, translate "who" by quien, as—

Es él (Carlos) quien me lo ha dicho: It is he (Charles) who told it to me.

After a preposition translate "whom" by quien (pl., quienes)[100], and "which" by el cual (la cual, etc.).

[Footnote 100: "Que" is found but rarely.]

After á, con, de, en, we can also translate "which" equally well by que, or el que, la que, los que, las que.[101]

[Footnote 101: "Que" or "El que" is found also after other prepositions but rarely.]

"Which" relating to a whole sentence is lo cual or lo que (naturally, because a whole sentence has no gender).

Instead of cuyo we may use de quien, del cual, de que, del que, as—

El buque, la tripulación del cual, de que, or del que ha desembarcado:
The ship whose crew has landed.

El comerciante al hijo de quien, or del cual hemos conocido: The merchant whose son we have known.

"He who" is translated by aquel que, el que,[102] also quien.

"She who" is translated by aquella que, la[102] que, also quien.

"Those who" is translated by aquellos que, los[102] que, also quienes.

[Footnote 102: See Lesson XII.]

=Relative Pronouns= cannot be left out, understood, in Spanish, as—

El hombre á quien, or que ví: The man I saw.

Expressions as "The man I spoke to" must, of course, be rendered "The man to whom I spoke" (El hombre á quien hablé).

Expressions as "I recommend you Messrs. So-and-So than which no better firm exists," are rendered "Le recomiendo á V. la casa de los Srs. Fulanos de Tal que no la hay mejor (or de la cual, or de la que no hay otra mejor)".

+——————————————————————————————————-+ | Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense. | +—————————-+———————-+———————-+————————-+ | =Haber=. | =Tener=. | =Ser=. | =Estar=. | |Que yo hubiese |Tuviese (that I|Fuese (that I |Estuviese (that I| | (that I might, | might, would,| might, would,| might, would, | | would, or should| or should | or should | or should | | have, etc.) | have, etc.) | be, etc.) | be, etc.) | | " tú hubieses |Tuvieses |Fueses |Estuvieses | | " él hubiese |Tuviese |Fuese |Estuviese | | " nosotros |Tuviésemos |Fuésemos |Estuviésemos | | hubiésemos | | | | | " vosotros |Tuvieseis |Fueseis |Estuvieseis | | hubieseis | | | | | " ellos hubiesen |Tuviesen |Fuesen |Estuviesen | +—————————-+———————-+———————-+————————-+

=amargo=, bitter =armador de buques=, shipowner =arreglar=, to arrange =el bien=, the good =buque, barco, navio=, boat =cauto=, cautious =*conocer=, to know through the senses, to be acquainted with =deuda=, debt =doloroso=, painful =endosar=, to endorse =enseñar=, to teach, to show =esperar=, to expect, to hope, to wait =estadísticas=, statistics =falta=, want, absence of =flojo=, slack =fundar=, to found =gratitud=, gratitude =*hacer mención=, to mention =herida=, wound, sting =informar (de)=, to inform of, to acquaint with =llevar chasco=, to be disappointed, to be baffled =*negar=, to deny =periódico=, newspaper =premio=, reward, prize, premium =robar=, to rob, to steal =simpático=, pleasant, winsome, taking =*tener empeño=, to be earnest, anxious about anything

Translate into English—

1. El hombre que me habló no es el á quien hemos escrito.

2. Hé aquí (here is) el libro que me enseñó esta regla.

3. He escrito al hombre que nos endosó la letra.

4. He comprado el periódico que contiene aquellas estadísticas.

5. He arreglado con el negociante quien (or el cual) parece hombre muy simpático.

6. El corredor, quien (or el cual) tiene mucho empeño en concluir la transacción, me vino á ver otra vez (again) esta mañana.

7. El capital, el cual se ha destinado á la explotación de las minas, es intangible (cannot be touched).

8. El hombre á quien (or al cual) me refiero es armador de buques.

9. El negociante de quien (or del cual) le hablaba es integérrimo (most upright).

10. El asunto á que me refería (or de que trataba).

11. La pluma con que escribía y con la cual (or con la que) puede escribir V.

12. La mina en que (or en la cual) fundaba sus esperanzas.

13. El dinero sobre el cual contaba.

14. Los géneros para los cuales se dió (was given) la orden.

15. ¿Es él quien lo quiere y á cuyo hijo (or al hijo de quien) V. conoce?

Translate into Spanish—

1. He who robs you of (roba) money robs you of little, but he who denies you a debt of well-deserved gratitude robs you of more, which is obvious.

2. Those who deny this (nieguen, (subj.)) have not experienced how (cuán) painful is the sting of ingratitude.

3. Those who do good should do it expecting ingratitude for (por) their reward, then they will not be disappointed.

4. It is a truth than which no bitterer exists.

5. The steamer I have bought is a first-class boat.

6. The little (pequeña) house I paid for.

7. The firm I made mention of enjoys good credit.

8. I wonder (me pregunto yo) if this is the engineer whose son is a lawyer.

9. Their market is very slack at present, which accounts for (explica) the want of their remittances.

10. I acquainted them with all the facts, which made them very cautious.

11. We are acquainted with Mr. McIntyre (conocemos al), who is a Scotchman.

12. He is only an acquaintance (un conocido or un conocimiento).

                              LESSON XIV.
                       (Lección décima cuarta.)

These are the same as the relative pronouns, only they are written with an accent—

¿Quién,-es? (who, whom?)
¿Cuál,-es? (which?)
¿Qué? (what?)
¿Cúyo,-a,-os,-as? (whose?)
¿De quién,-es[103]? (whose?)
¿Cuánto,-a,-os,-as? (how much, how many?)

[Footnote 103: "De quién" is more usual than "Cúyo" in interrogations.]

Cuál when interrogative is used without the definite article which must accompany it when it is a relative pronoun. Quién, interrogative, is never an adjective.

¿Quién vino a verme? Who came to see me?

¿Cuál arreglo le gusta á V. más? Which arrangement do you prefer?

¿Cúyo es este lápiz? Whose is this pencil? or Whose
¿Cúyo lápiz es este? pencil is this?
¿De quién es este lápiz?

¿De quién recibió V. la consignación de madera? From whom did you receive the consignment of timber?

¿A quiénes nos refieren Vs. para informes? To whom do you refer us for information?

¿Cuánto me cobrará V.? How much will you charge me?

Cuál (which) is often used instead of the English "what", as—

¿Cuáles son sus intenciones? What are your intentions?

Qué is used in exclamatory sentences—"what a", as—

¡Qué lástima! What a pity!
¡Qué bonitos paños! What nice suitings![104]

[Footnote 104: Before an adjective without a noun following "qué" translates the English "how":—¡Qué bonito! how nice!]

An emphatic tan or más may be inserted, thus—

¡Qué paño tan bonito! What a very nice suiting!
¡Qué hombre más rico! What a very rich man!

Cuál is used in exclamatory clauses instead of cómo (how), as—

¡Cuál le han reducido las desgracias! How (or to what a state) misfortunes have reduced him! ¡Cuál la ví! How (or in what a state) did I see her!

Cuánto is also used in exclamations, as—

¡Cuánto le agradezco su amabilidad! How much obliged I am for your kindness!

Cual without article and without accent is used for "as," as—

Una casa (tal) cual yo la deseaba: A house (such) as I liked.

Such expressions as "He wrote me a letter, which letter I still possess," are translated "Me escribió una carta, cuya carta aun tengo."

Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense (2nd form).

+———————————-+——————-+—————-+——————-+ =Haber=. | =Tener=. | =Ser=. | =Estar=. | +———————————-+——————-+—————-+——————-+ |Que yo hubiera |Tuviera |Fuera |Estuviera | | " tú hubieras |Tuvieras |Fueras |Estuvieras | | " él hubiera |Tuviera |Fuera |Estuviera | | " nosotros hubiéramos|Tuviéramos |Fuéramos |Estuviéramos | | " vosotros hubierais |Tuvierais |Fuerais |Estuvierais | | " ellos hubieran |Tuvieran |Fueran |Estuvieran | +———————————-+——————-+—————-+——————-+

Subjunctive Mood, Future Tense.

+———————————-+———————+——————+———————+ |Que yo hubiere (that |Tuviere (that |Fuere (that |Estuviere | | I shall have, | I shall have,| I shall be,| (that I shall| | etc.) | etc.) | etc.) | be, etc.) | | " tú hubieres |Tuvieres |Fueres |Estuvieres | | " él hubiere |Tuviere |Fuere |Estuviere | | " nosotros hubiéremos|Tuviéremos |Fuéremos |Estuviéremos | | " vosotros hubiereis |Tuviereis |Fuereis |Estuviereis | | " ellos hubieren |Tuvieren |Fueren |Estuvieren | +———————————-+———————+——————+———————+

Imperative Mood. (This mood is used to command or beg.)

+————+————————————————-+—————————————-+
|Hablar |Habla[105](speak thou, sing.) |Hablad (speak you, plu.) |
|Temer |Teme (fear " ) |Temed (fear " ) |
|Partir |Parte (depart " ) |Partid (depart " ) |
|Haber |Hé[106] (have " ) |Habed (have " ) |
|Tener |Ten ( " " ) |Tened ( " " ) |
|Ser |Sé (be " ) |Sed (be " ) |
|Estar |Está ( " " ) |Estad ( " " ) |
+————+————————————————-+—————————————-+

[Footnote 105: The Imperative Mood has only a separate form for the 2nd pers. sing. and plu. It has no 1st pers. sing. and the 1st pers. pl. and 3rd pers. sing. and pl. are taken from the Pres. Subj.

The 2nd pers. pl. is derived from the Infinitive Mood by changing the final r into d—no exception.

The 2nd pers. sing. is the same as the 3rd pers. sing. of the Pres.
Indicative, with a few exceptions (among which are Haber, Tener, Ser).]

[Footnote 106: Given as a form only, as Haber has no Imperative Mood in modern Spanish, except in Héme, héte, héle, aquí, etc. (here I am, here thou art, here he is, etc.), and in some other rare cases.

N.B.—In Spanish there is no imperative negative, the Pres. Subj. negative being used instead, as—

        =Hablar=. No hables (do not (thou) speak).
                  No habléis (do not (you) speak).]

=*acordarse=, to remember =me acuerdo=, I remember =se acuerda=, he remembers =cartera=, pocket-book, portfolio =contestar á, responder á=, to answer =*decir=, to say =*devolver=, to return, give back =devuelto=, given back =devuelvo=, I return, give back =digo=, I say =dice=, he says =dije=, I said =dijo=, he said =disgustado=, annoyed, disgusted, displeased =flojedad=, slackness =*hacer escala=, to call at (steamers) =mucho me gusta=, I am very glad =negativa=, refusal =notas (billetes) de banco=, bank notes =*oir=, to hear =*perder=, to lose =perdiendo=, losing =*querer=, to want, to be willing to have =quiero=, I want, I am willing to have =quiere=, he wants, he is willing to have =responder=,[107] to answer =*seguir=, to continue =sorpresa=, surprise

[Footnote 107: "Responder"; past part., "respuesto"—otherwise regular.]

Translate into English—

1. ¿Quién respeta las leyes?

2. ¿Cuáles leyes?

3. Las de este país. ¿Qué dice V.?

4. Lo que V. oye (you hear).

5. Estos pañuelos y zarazas son cuales V. deseaba.

6. Mucho me gusta saberlo.

7. ¡Qué hermosas telas! ¡y baratas!

8. ¡Cuánto pide V. por ellas?

9 ¿Cuántos dividendos ha pagado esa Compañía? Tres.

10. ¿Cuántos dijo V. (did you say)?

11. Tres ó cuatro, no me acuerdo exactamente.

12. ¿Cúya cartera es esta?

13. Es la cartera de mi hermano, cuya cartera, como V. habrá sabido, la perdió con £500 en notas de banco y le fué devuelta.

14. ¿De quién es el cargamento cuyo conocimiento ha llegado?

15. Es mío.

16. ¿Qué libro es este? Es el mío.

17. Ha seguido la flojedad en los valores, perdiendo mucho el amortizable.

18. Hubo pocas (few) transacciones en general.

19. ¡Cuál lo hallamos!

20. ¡Absolutamente desanimado! ¡Qué lastima!

Translate into Spanish—

1. What reduction can you make?

2. Twopence a yard.

3. Which of the two will you have (quiere V.)?

4. What orders did you give?

5. Whose goods are these?

6. What a surprise!

7. How much money did you receive?

8. How many lots of white shirting have you placed?

9. Did you answer all his letters?

10. If we bought (si comprásemos) the (colonial) produce dearer than the figure you indicated we should have to answer for it (seríamos responsables).

11. The cotton prints and union drills we sent you will answer your requirements (corresponderán a sus necesidades).

12. Mr. Pérez seems annoyed by your refusal.

13. I am very sorry (lo siento mucho or infinito) but it is not my fault.

14. I could not accept the rebate under (en) the circumstances.

15. Has the steamer called at Málaga?

16. I believe she has (que sí).

                              LESSON XV.
                      (Lección décima quinta.)

(Those marked with an asterisk are Pronouns only.)

Alguno, *alguien (pronounced álguien), (some, somebody, anybody)
*Algo, alguna cosa (something, anything)
*Uno-a,-os-as (one, a person, some, some persons)
Uno á otro (one another, each other)
Uno ú otro (one or the other, either)
Uno y otro, ambos, entrambos (both)
Ni uno ni otro (neither the one nor the other)
Ni uno (not a single one)
Los otros, los demás (the others)
Mismo (same, self)
Cierto-a,-os-as (a certain, certain)
Cada (each)
*Cada uno, *cada cual (each, each one)
Otro (other, another[108])
Todo (all, everything, every)
Todos (everybody, all)
Poco (little)
Pocos (few)
Unos pocos, unos cuantos (a few)
Mucho-a,-os-as (much, many)
Varios (several)
Cualquiera (sing.), Cualesquiera (pl.), (any, whichever)
*Quienquiera (sing.), quienesquiera (pl.), (any, whoever, whomever)
*Cualquiera cosa (anything, whatever)
Propio-a, os-as (own, self, same)
Tal (sing.), tales (pl. such a, such)
*Fulano, zutano, mengano (So-and-So)
Cuanto (todo lo que), (all that which)
Cuantos (todos los que), (all those who)
Ninguno (no one, nobody, not any)
*Nada (nothing), *nadie (no one, nobody)
*Quien … quien, *cual … cual (some … some)

[Footnote 108: "Another" is "otro," not "un otro."]

Cada is an adjective only, as—

Cada huelga de obreros daña la industria nacional: Each workmen's strike injures national industry.

Alguien, algo, cada, nada, nadie are invariable, and the verb accompanying them is always singular, as—

Alguien hizo un error de pluma: Somebody made a slip of the pen.

Algo es mejor que el dinero, el honor: There is something better than money, honour.

¿Hay algo peor que la ingratitud? Is there anything worse than ingratitude?

Nada es absolutamente perfecto y nadie es infalible: Nothing is absolutely perfect and nobody is infallible.

Further difference in meaning between alguien and alguno—

Alguien refers to persons only, and cannot be followed by de. Alguno to persons or things, and may be followed by de,[109] as—

Alguien or Alguno se ha quejado: Somebody has complained.

Quiere naranjas y melocotones y yo tengo algunos: He wants oranges and peaches, and I have some.

Alguno de ellos lo hará: Someone amongst them will do it.

The English "any," "anything," are translated by alguno, alguna cosa (algo) when interrogative; ninguno, ninguna cosa (nada) when negative; and cualquiera, cualquiera cosa when affirmative, as—

¿Quiere V. algún refresco ó algo que comer? Do you want any refreshments[110] or anything to eat?

No quiero ningunos Holandillos: I do not want any Hollands.

Cualquier(a) muchacho de escuela echaría de ver que estas Batistas
Victoria son más ordinarias: Any schoolboy could see that these Victoria
Lawns are of lower quality.

Alguno and Ninguno are left understood oftener than in English, as—

¿Comprará V. (algunos) títulos de la nueva emisión? Will you buy any stock of the new issue?

Él no pide consejos: He does not ask any advice.

When nadie and ninguno, or any other =negative word=, as the adverb nunca (never), etc., precede a verb, no other negative is required; but when they =follow= it, =no= (not) must precede the verb, as: No he visto á nadie or á nadie he visto: I have seen nobody.

[Footnote 109: Same difference between nadie and ninguno.]

[Footnote 110: In Spanish the singular is found instead of the plural, as: ¿Tiene V. algún libro que prestarme? (have you any books to lend me?).]

Verbs ending in car or gar change the c and g into =qu= and =gu= respectively before =e=, as—

+—————————+——————————-+——————————-+ | | =Embarcar=[111] | =Cargar=[111] | | |(to embark, to ship) | (to load) | | Past Def. |Embarqué |Cargué | | Pres. Subj. |Embarque,-ques, que, |Cargue,-gues,-gue, | | |-quemos,-quéis,-quen.|-guemos,-guéis,-guen.| +—————————+——————————-+——————————-+

[Footnote 111: The primary parts (except, of course, the Infinitive) will be omitted in future when they are regular. The derivative parts will also be omitted when they are regularly formed from their primary parts according to the rules given. See synopsis at the end of the book.]

=agricola=, agricultural =amontonar=, to pile up =apertura=, opening =bajar=, to lower, to go or come down =bonito=, pretty =comarca=, region, district (of a country) =detenidamente=, at length =duplicar=, to double, to duplicate =exigua=, slight, trifling =fábricas de algodón=, cotton mills =géneros alimenticios=, food stuffs =*hacer caso=, to take notice =hilador=, spinner =impuesto=, tax =(la) incertidumbre=, uncertainty =industria=, industry =legislatura=, parliamentary session =ligero=, light (adj.), slight, small =limitación=, curtailment =(la) luz=, light (n.) =*mantener=, to hold up, to maintain =mejora=, improvement =ministerio=, ministry =obligaciones=, debentures =olvidar=, to forget =para que=, so that =patria=, country, fatherland =preferible=, preferable =*prevalecer, reinar=, to prevail, to rule =subir=, to go or come up =tejedor=, weaver =timbre=, stamp =tomar la delantera á=, to take the start on. =trigo=, wheat =varios=, several =vinícola=, wine (adj.)

Translate into English—

1. Alguien pretende que se duplicará el impuesto del timbre sobre las acciones y obligaciones de las compañías anónimas y que habrá algunos que protestarán enérgicamente.

2. Algo hay de eso y uno y otro partido político se interesan de la cuestión pero ni uno de los periódicos locales echa luz sobre las intenciones del ministerio.

3. Los demás proyectos de ley con ciertas modificaciones se presentarán (will be introduced) en esta misma legislatura, y cada uno se discutirá detenidamente.

4. Se anuncian varias empresas industriales en grande escala.

5. Cuanto se hace es poco cuando se piensa en lo que se debería hacer para que nuestros competidores no nos tomen la delantera.

6. Cualquiera echa de ver (can see) eso.

7. Cuantos hay que miran al verdadero interés de su patria deben olvidar sus propios intereses en favor del fomento de la industria vinícola y agrícola de esta comarca.

8. Cada casa tiene su sistema propio.

9. Yo no imito á Fulano, Zutano y Mengano, soy cauto y evito los riesgos.

10. Negocio papel extranjero, pero sólo letras bancarias, ó de firmas de primera clase y con dos endosos, nada más.

Translate into Spanish—

1. Somebody thinks that the imports of food-stuffs will increase.

2. Some wheat buyers take little notice of the higher American cable advices (las subidas que se han telegrafiado desde América).

3. Weavers and spinners are all holding up their prices.

4. Each week shows an improvement.

5. We hear the same reports (noticias) from all quarters (partes).

6. Neither of these machines will suit (conviene á) our requirements.

7. We accept these bills but refuse the others.

8. Anybody who has his own interests at heart will contribute to the realisation of the scheme.

9. I did all I could (podía) so that nothing should be lost (no se perdiera nada).

10. Some say the market will go up, some say it will go down, and such is the position that one does not know (no sabe) what to do.

11. Anything is preferable to this uncertainty.

12. I have not seen anything so pretty before.

13. Mail advices (los anuncios por la mala) from America report an abnormal (anormal) curtailment of production in the United States Cotton Mills.

14. They cannot take the risk of piling up stocks when the demand is so slight (exigua).

15. Foreign Bourses.—Berlin. A weak tone ruled at the opening. During the later dealings (operaciones posteriores) a slight (ligera) improvement was noticeable (se observó).

                              LESSON XVI.
                        (Lección décima sexta.)

The verb is a word by which we affirm something. It is the essential word in a sentence: without it (expressed or understood) no sentence can be construed.

Verbs are divided into Auxiliary, Transitive and Intransitive.

The Auxiliary verbs in Spanish are: Haber, Tener, Ser, Estar.

Haber is a true auxiliary because it helps to form compound tenses[112] but it presents the following peculiarities—

1. It is used as an impersonal verb (as well as the verb hacer which is given here for the sake of completeness) for expressions of time, as—

Dos años ha (or ha dos años) or hace dos años la exportación de los Caldos españoles estaba muy floreciente: Two years ago the exportation of Spanish wines and oils was very flourishing.

Ha dos años (or hace dos años) que la casa Guillermo Fernandez y Cía está establecida en La Coruña como Comisionistas: The firm, G.F. & Co., has been established in Corunna as Commission Agents these last two years.

¿Cuanto tiempo ha (or hace) que estudia V. el castellano? How long have you been studying Spanish?

[Footnote 112: The Past Part. following "haber" IS ALWAYS INVARIABLE.]

2. It is also used impersonally as "there to be" (French, "y avoir"), as—

Hay mucha pimienta, clavos, y canela en el mercado de Londres: There are much pepper, cloves, and cinnamon in the London market.

Sí, hubo muchas especias el año pasado también: Yes, there were many spices last year also.

Cuando estaba en El Cairo había miedo de que estallara algún motín: When
I was in Cairo there was the fear of some riots breaking out.

(N.B.—Impersonal verbs are only used in the 3rd pers. singular.)

In English we have "there is" and "there are," because "there to be" is not used impersonally, the meaning being, e.g., "a man is there"; "two men are there." In Spanish, however, haber is used impersonally and both "there is a man" and "there are two men" are translated "Hay un hombre," "Hay dos hombres."

It will be noticed that Haber used for "there to be" makes Hay instead of Ha for the present indicative. All its other tenses remain unchanged: había, hubo, habrá, habría, etc.

Hay que followed by an Infinitive (French "il faut"), it is necessary to …, as—

Hay que tener mucho cuidado: It is necessary to be very careful. I, you, etc., must be very careful.

Tener is generally a =principal= (viz., not an auxiliary) verb, used to denote possession; but it is used sometimes as an =auxiliary= instead of haber, as—

Tengo recibido su catálogo ilustrado y lista (or boletín) de precios: I have received your illustrated catalogue with price list.

Tenemos recibida[113] su apreciable carta de 20 del que rige (or del corriente): We have received your favour of the 20th inst.

¿Tiene V. recibidas las cotizaciones? Have you received the quotations?

Los presupuestos, que tenemos recibidos del Trapiche para nuestro
Ingenio de la Habana: The estimates which we have received for the Sugar
Mill for our Factory in Havana.

In all the preceding examples tener used instead of haber introduces an additional idea of "=possession=".

"He recibido su carta" might be followed, in Spanish, by "pero la he perdido" (but I have lost it). "Tengo recibida su carta" implies that the receiver holds it now.

[Footnote 113: The Past Part. following "tener" agrees in gender and number with the direct object.]

Sometimes this idea of possession is very distantly implied, as—

¿Qué me dice V.? tengo leído ese proyecto de Ley: What are you talking about? I have read that (Parliamentary) Bill.

Meaning that the effect of the reading is extant in the mind.

Colloquially the people will use tener for haber without any allusion to possession, but this should be avoided.

=anteayer=, the day before yesterday =apresurar=, to hasten, to urge (a.) =apresurarse=, to hasten (n.) =apresurarse con sus órdenes=, to rush one's orders =árbol de eje=, axle shaft =cámara de comercio=, chamber of commerce =cigüeña, árbol de cigüeña, cigüeñal=, crank-shaft =compañía de ferrocarril=, railway company =con manchas=, (designs)—spot =con puntitas, con bolitas=, (designs) spot =contestar=, to answer, to reply =cuadritos=, (designs) checks =cuenta simulada=, pro forma account =culpa=, blame, fault =daño=, damage, injury, breakdown =de buena tinta=, from a good source =derecho=, right =duda=, doubt =equivocarse=, to be mistaken =existencias=, stocks of goods =expedidor=, sender =fecha de=, dated =listados=, (designs) striped =á listas, á rayas=, (designs) striped =malcontento=, uneasiness, discontent =mundial=, world (adj.) =próximamente=, about, approximately =pues=, well =redactar=, to write out =repentinamente=, suddenly =representación exclusiva=, sole agency =responsabilidad=, responsibility =retardar=, to delay, to be delayed =*romperse=, to break (n.) =roto=, broken =todavía=, yet =vivir=, to live, to reside =ya=, already

Translate into English—

1. En la Asociación de Agricultores de España (Society of Spanish Agriculturists) dará mañana viernes á las seis y media de la tarde una conferencia (lecture) el ilustrado Sr. Fulano.

2. ¿Como mañana? ya la ha dado esta mañana.

3. No sabía que la había dado ya.

4. Pues tengo esta noticia de buena tinta y no hay duda que así es.

5. Tenemos recibida su estimada, fecha de anteayer.

6. Mucho tiempo ha que tengo proyectadas estas empresas.

7. Habrá un mes que me escribió y no le he contestado todavía.

8. La Cámara de Comercio de Londres votó, después de larga discusión, una protesta contra el nuevo Tratado de Comercio con Cuba y redactó una petición que será dirigida al gobierno.

9. El vapor inglés "Raleigh" que sale para Montevideo ha recibido un marconigrama anunciando que reina allí el malcontento político.

10. El aviador acaba de batir el "record" mundial de velocidad y distancia recorriendo (covering) ciento veintidós kilómetros en hora y media, á saber (namely) próximamente 80 kilómetros por hora.

11. No se equivoca V. en la interpretación de lo que hemos escrito acerca de las facturas simuladas.

12. El árbol de eje y el cigüeñal se han roto.

Translate into Spanish—

1. Have you obtained the sole agency for (de) that firm?

2. Not yet, but I hope to get it.

3. How long have you been living in England?

4. Two weeks ago prices were so high that buyers were rushing their orders; now they have suddenly fallen to an unprecedented level (nivel sin precedente).

5. He has examined the samples and found that the designs of the light grounds (fondos claros) are not as ordered.

6. He also complains of the checks and stripes.

7. The spot muslins have been delayed owing to a breakdown in the works (la fábrica).

8. The senders are trying to throw the blame on (á) the Railway Company, but we have no right of claim (derecho de reclamar) against the latter (ésta); it is they who (son ellos quienes) must indemnify us for the loss.

9. It is a well-founded (bien establecida) and respectable firm and they will not deny their responsibility—there is no doubt about (de) that.

10. Is it long since you received their last (última) letter?

11. Have they been long established? (Hace mucho tiempo que….)

12. They have been for 15 years.

13. Our friends have large stocks but they say the market is looking up (mejorando).

                              LESSON XVII.
                       (Lección décima séptima.)

=Ser= is used as a true auxiliary, when it forms the passive voice.

=Estar= is an auxiliary when it forms the progressive tenses, as

Estoy escribiendo (I am writing).
Estaba escribiendo (he was writing).

The difficulty in the employment of ser and estar is, by some, unduly magnified. Others give the following rule—

Ser denotes a permanent state. Estar "temporary"

This rule should not be adopted because often it would not apply, as the following two examples will show—

Él es soldado porque se ha alistado por dos años: He is a soldier as he has enlisted for two years.

Aquellos montes están eternamente cubiertos de nieve: Those mountains are perpetually covered with snow.

The following simple and true rules will enable the student to understand the difference between ser and estar and to apply them correctly.

Ser is used—

1. To form the Passive Voice, as—

El cartero trajo las cartas—Active: The postman brought the letters.

La carta fué traída[114] por el cartero—Passive[115]: The letter was brought by the postman.

[Footnote 114: The Past Part. following "Ser" and "Estar" agrees in gender and number with the subject of these verbs.]

[Footnote 115: Este cuarto es barrido todos los días (this room is swept every day) is passive voice, because we speak of the action of sweeping, viz., somebody sweeps the room every day. Este cuarto está barrido—no voice; "barrido" is used as an adjective to denote state or condition.]

2. To denote an inherent[116] quality, as—

La nieve es blanca: Snow is white.
El hombre es mortal: Man is mortal.

[Footnote 116: Inherence = a fixed state of being in another body. A quality may be inherent "for the time being," as: Juan se ha alistado por dos años, entonces es soldado: John has enlisted for two years, then he is a soldier.]

Estar is used to denote—

1. State in locality, viz., to be in a place, as—

Estoy aquí I am here.
Londres está en Inglaterra: London is in England.

2. A condition, as—

Estoy candado: I am tired.
Está enfermo: He is ill.

Ser must be used—

1. Before any noun (even if an adjective or article intervenes), as—

Soy negociante: I am a merchant.

Es un corredor de cambios bien conocido: He is a well-known exchange broker.

Son buenos valores: They are good securities.