WOOD-BLOCK
PRINTING

LONDON
SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD.
PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2
BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK

Printed by
Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.
Bath, England

[Pg v]

In releasing these volumes of a series of Handbooks on the Artistic Crafts, it's important to outline our general goals.

First of all, we aim to provide reliable textbooks on workshop practices, from the perspective of experts who have carefully evaluated the methods used in workshops. They have discarded outdated practices and are ready to identify what constitutes good workmanship and establish a quality standard in the crafts particularly related to design. Secondly, in this process, we hope to regard design itself as a crucial aspect of good workmanship. Over the last century, most arts, except for academic painting and sculpture, were often overlooked, and there was a tendency to treat "design" as just a matter of appearance. The limited "ornamentation" that existed was generally achieved by mechanically following a drawing produced by an artist who often knew little about the technical processes involved in its creation. Thanks to the critical attention that Ruskin and Morris brought to the crafts, it became evident that design cannot be separated from craft like that. In the broadest sense, true design is an integral part of good quality, as it involves choosing good and appropriate materials, functionality for specific purposes, expert workmanship, proper finishing, and more, rather than just superficial decoration. In fact, ornamentation is more an overflow of excellent workmanship than merely abstract lines. When workmanship is too far removed from innovative thinking—that is, from design—it inevitably deteriorates. On the other hand, ornamentation that is disconnected from workmanship is inherently false and quickly becomes pretentious. Proper ornamentation can be defined as a visual language; it’s pleasing thought expressed in the dialect of tools.

In the third place, we want this series to prioritize artistic craftsmanship as a way to provide reasonable jobs for those looking to make a living. While competition in academic art is so intense that only a small percentage can realistically expect to succeed as painters and sculptors, there’s a good chance that almost anyone who undergoes enough training in workmanship and design will achieve a level of success as artistic craftsmen.

In the mix of hands-on work and creative thought in the arts we plan to discuss, fulfilling careers can be found that are far from the dull grind of boring labor and also away from the unpredictable nature of academic art. It’s important[Pg viii] that well-educated individuals return to skilled trades: there are plenty of us "in the city," and it’s likely that this century will pay more attention to Design and Workmanship than the last one did.

There are two common ways to study old and foreign arts—the connoisseur’s approach and the craftsman’s approach. The collector might appreciate these arts for their uniqueness and rarity, while the artist sees them as inspiration for their own work and ideas for new developments.

The following account of color printing from woodblocks is based on a study of methods that were recently practiced in Japan but were also somewhat used in Europe at an earlier time. The main principles of the art were actually well known in the West long before color prints were created in Japan, and there’s some reason to believe that the[Pg ix] Japanese may have developed their methods by imitating prints brought from Europe by missionaries. Major Strange states: "The European art of chiaroscuro engraving is in all essentials identical with that of Japanese color printing.... It seems, therefore, not unreasonable to suggest that the chance sight of one of the Italian color prints may have inspired the Japanese." The Italians focused more on expressing "relief," while the Japanese concentrated on flat color arrangements; the former used oily colors, and the latter preferred lighter tempera tints; these are the main differences. In both the West and the East, the design was carved on the flat surface of the wood with a knife, not against the grain with a graver, as is common in most modern wood engraving, although large woodcuts were produced by Walter Crane and Herkomer about thirty years ago, as posters.

The old woodcuts from the fifteenth century were created as images and also to illustrate books;[Pg x] they were often quite large. They were often colored using stencil plates or painted by hand.

At the same time, books were being printed in color using wooden blocks for letters and other simple designs. A book printed in St. Albans in 1486 features numerous coats of arms made this way, with some shields displaying two or three different colors.[1]

Around the year 1500, a technique for printing woodcuts in various flat tones was developed in Germany and used by Lucas Cranach and others. A beautiful print of Adam and Eve by Hans Baldung in the Victoria and Albert Museum features, in addition to the strong black "drawing," a warm brown over-tint, from which sharp highlights are created; this print has three tones.

Ugo da Carpo (c. 1480-1530), who worked in Venice, brought this new type of tone woodcut to Italy; he even claimed to have invented the method. "This was called chiaroscuro, a name[Pg xi] that is still used today, and it was actually a simple version of our modern chromo printing." His woodcuts feature a straightforward, energetic style; one of them, based on Raphael's "Death of Ananias," printed in brown, has a depth and brightness that can remind us of the mezzo-tints in Turner's Liber Studiorum. This piece is proudly signed, "Per Ugo da Carpo," and some versions are said to be dated 1518.

Andrea Andreani (c. 1560-1623), who is better known but not necessarily a better artist, created a large number of these tone woodcuts. Several prints inspired by Mantegna's "Triumphs of Caesar" possess a unique charm due to the beauty of the originals; they are printed in three shades of grey in addition to the "drawing"; the lightest of these shades covers the surface, except for highlights that are carved out of it. A beautiful print of a Holy Family, approximately 15×18 inches, features a middle tone of light blue and a shadow tint of deep, rich green. Copies of two large woodcuts at the Victoria and Albert Museum, depicting Biblical subjects, seem to have[Pg xii], appear to restrict the hand and strain the eyes of all but the most talented artists. It's important to develop the skill to quickly and accurately capture the "map-form" of any object. Some practice in basic color printing would definitely be beneficial overall, and simpler exercises can be created by cutting shapes from black or colored paper without any pattern.

Finally, we hope that the beautiful art of wood-cutting, which was perfected in Western Europe just a generation ago, is only paused for now, and that it will have another chance to thrive.

W. R. Lethaby.

September 1916.

[Pg xiii]

This short book provides an overview of one of the basic crafts, where only simple tools and materials are used. The techniques involved can express creativity for artist-craftspeople, or can be studied as a preparation for or a guide to more advanced printing work, where the foundational principles are most clearly demonstrated through this basic craft.

In today's world, the importance of traditional crafts hasn't disappeared with the rise of machines. The finest results from handcrafting will always serve as benchmarks, and machine craftsmanship[Pg xiv] should be rooted in their study. Machines can only enhance the capabilities and scale of crafts that have already been refined by hand. The foundational principles and design art of these crafts don’t change with machines. If machines ignore these principles, their output becomes inferior. It’s under the straightforward conditions of handcrafting that the principles of art can be most clearly understood.

The best of all the amazing and outstanding work produced today by machinery is that which reflects its origins in the arts created under the pure standards of classic craftsmanship, and demonstrates the influence of studying those traditions.

The series this book belongs to represents the principles and essence of classic examples. Being associated with fellow creators who have had the privilege of contributing to the Series is a significant honor in the eyes of the author. If this book adds even a bit to the value of the series, then the[Pg xv] experiments shared here will have been worthwhile.

To my friend Mr. J. D. Batten goes all the credit for the initial work. He started the search for a pure style of color printing and generously supported and encouraged my own experiments with the Japanese method.

To my former colleague Mr. A. W. Seaby, I want to express my gratitude for his helpfulness and advice.

F. M. F.

Edinburgh College of Art,
September 1916.

[Pg xvii]

[Pg xvi]

[Pg xix]

[Pg xx]

[Pg xxii]

[Pg xxiii]

The few woodblock prints occasionally displayed by the Society of Graver Printers in Colour, and the rare appearance of a woodblock print in the Graver Section of the International Society's Exhibitions, or in those of the Society of Arts and Crafts, result from the experiments of a small[Pg 2] group of English artists creating prints using the Japanese technique, or methods inspired by Japanese practices.

My interest was first piqued in 1897 by experiments being conducted by Mr. J. D. Batten, who had attempted for two years prior to that to create a print from wood and metal blocks using color mixed with glycerin and dextrin, with the glycerin later removed by washing the prints in alcohol. Since the Japanese method seemed to offer greater advantages and simplicity, we started working on experiments together, using the pamphlet by T. Tokuno, published by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, as our guide, and soon abandoned the dextrin and glycerin method. The edition of prints of Eve and the Serpent, designed by J. D. Batten, printed by me, and published at that time, was created using a combination of the earlier method and the simpler Japanese technique.

Familiar as everyone is with Japanese prints, it's not widely known that[Pg 3] they are made using a very simple technique. No machinery is needed, just a few tools for carving the designs into cherry wood planks from which the prints are taken. Instead of a press, a round flat pad is used, which is rubbed on the back of the print while it’s resting on the blocks. The colors are mixed with water and a paste made from rice flour. The details of the technique and photos of the tools were thoroughly covered in the Smithsonian Institution pamphlet previously mentioned.

It's a slow and frustrating process to learn manipulation from a book, and a few technical challenges that seemed impossible to overcome became clear through a lucky encounter in London with a Japanese printseller. While he wasn’t a printer, he knew enough about the work to offer some priceless tips and demonstrations.

Further encouragement was given to the work by the institution, a little later, of a class in color woodcuts under[Pg 4] my supervision, at the L.C.C. Central School of Arts and Crafts, which for several years became the main hub of the movement.

These are the basic historical facts about how this craft, imported from the Far East, developed in our country.

At first glance, Japanese block-printing might seem like just a simple but delicate way to reproduce colors, something that modern techniques have overtaken, even in its home country. It may seem that studying such a narrow form of expression wouldn’t hold much practical value for an artist. Additionally, the craft has the drawback that the artist must handle every step of the process, from creating the initial design to making the final prints. This includes intricately carving the lines, planning the color blocks, and preparing the inks and paper. In Japan, skilled artisans specialized in each aspect of the craft, working under the artist’s guidance, so only the design was created by the artist. This creates a fundamental difference in the nature of the work. Today, however, the artist has to manage the entire craft, along with all its intricate details.

As simple as the process seems, there’s a lot of hard work involved in planning, cutting, and printing before a satisfactory set of prints is produced. After several tries at having well-trained students do the printing, I’ve realized it’s impossible to get the best results that way. However, the cutting of the color blocks and the clearing of the key block after the initial line cutting can definitely be done by assistant craftsmen.

A higher demand for the prints could lead to commercial growth, resulting in the hiring of skilled craftsmen or craftswomen. However, the outcome would be different from what the artists who are[Pg 6] willing to handle all aspects of their work have achieved.

The true value of wood-block prints for decoration depends on personal taste and experience.

In my opinion, there’s always something foreign about the prints of Japanese masters, but I know of no other type of art that has the same impact on a wall or the same decorative appeal in modern living spaces as the woodblock print. A single print, positioned well in a room with calm colors, can enhance and take over an entire wall.

The current trend still prefers more expensive, albeit less flashy, forms of art or colorless reproductions, yet there's an art form accessible to anyone who values expressive design and color, and it's affordable for the many people for whom buying artwork can be too costly. This art serves as a decorative means of expression that meets our modern needs, and there's a unique[Pg 7] charm in the way color prints from wood on already high-quality paper. There's no doubt about the possibilities and opportunities this art offers.

But just like how new wine needs new bottles, we first need to create a simple style for furniture and use pure colors in decoration. A wood-block print won't stand out well in a cluttered space filled with knick-knacks or against a flashy wallpaper.

From a different perspective, the art of block-cutting and color-printing holds unique and significant value. For any student of visual art, particularly for those interested in designing for contemporary printed decor, no other work offers such valuable lessons in design efficiency, the potential of line and its expressive growth, and the use and characteristics of color. Many who have pursued a course in wood-block printing have highlighted this specific benefit.

The same opinion is strongly[Pg 8] expressed by Professor Emil Orlik, whose prints are well-known in contemporary exhibitions. During a visit to the Kunstgewerbeschule in Berlin, I saw him teaching a class for designers focusing on printed decoration, where the Japanese craft of block-printing was the foundation of their training. He believed that this traditional craft teaches students the essential economy and simplicity that are crucial for effectively using the modern resources of color printing. However, these lessons can only be learned by first working under simpler conditions and more limited constraints before tackling the broader possibilities offered by machines.

My own experience also convinces me that no matter what the ultimate value of Eastern craftsmanship is for our artists as a way of personal expression, there’s no doubt about its impact and usefulness in teaching students to design with efficiency and simplicity for modern printing methods.[Pg 9]

The early stages of any skill are more engaging when we know what the final outcome looks like. For this reason, it's often helpful to start with the end.

To look at a few impressions made from a set of blocks in color printing, or to print them yourself, gives the best understanding of the quality and true nature of print-making. Similarly, when describing the work, it might help to clarify the different stages if the final act of printing is explained first.

The most striking characteristic of this craft is the basic simplicity of[Pg 10] printing. No press or machinery is needed.

A block is placed flat on the table with its cut surface facing up, and is held steady by a small wad of damp paper under each corner. A stack of slightly damp paper, prepared for printing, is within reach just beyond the wood block, so the printer can easily lift a sheet of paper onto the block as needed.

In Japan, it's common to work while squatting on the floor, with the blocks and tools laid out in front of the craftsman. Our habit of working at a table is a bit more complicated, but it has its advantages. However, there's one Japanese practice that should be followed with special care. No description can fully capture the sense of extreme orderliness and careful thoughtfulness in their work. Everything is placed for maximum convenience, and this order is maintained throughout the day. Their elegant tools and vessels are handled with a skill that puts our clumsiness to shame, and everything they use is kept very clean. This skilled orderliness is essential for fine craftsmanship and demonstrates mastery.

The setup of tools and containers on a worktable can be seen in the following plan:

[Pg 12]

When printing on a table set up like this, the board resting on the damp sheets of paper at B is first picked up and moved to C to catch the sheets as they’re done. If the block A is completely dry, it’s thoroughly moistened with a damp sponge and wiped down. Color from a saucer, E, is then brushed over the printing surface in a thin layer, and a little bit of paste from F is also brushed into the color. (It’s best to do this after the color is roughly spread on the block.) The brush is placed back in its spot, D, and the top sheet of paper from the stack is quickly lifted to align with its registration marks (notches to keep the paper in place) on the block. The way to hold the paper is explained on page 70. This needs to be done quickly, as it’s crucial not to waste any time; otherwise, the color will dry on the exposed block and print poorly.

Pressure is applied to the back of the paper while it rests on the wet block. This is done using a round pad called a baren in Japanese. It consists of a coil of cord covered in a bamboo sheath, as shown later on page 62. The pad is rubbed by hand with significant pressure, moving back and forth across the block, working from left to right. Once is enough for the entire block. The paper is then lifted off and placed face up on the board at C. The block is then reloaded with color for another print, and the entire process is repeated as many times as there are sheets to be printed.

Once this is done, all the sheets will have received a single impression, which can be either a spot of color or a line from part of the print's design. The block A is then taken out, cleaned, and put away; and the block for the second impression is placed in its spot.

It's common to print the outline or key-block of a design first, as this allows you to spot any misalignment or issues with the blocks and fix them immediately. However, there are situations in which[Pg 14] a graduated tone, like a sky, might need to be printed before the outline block.

The full design of a print might need multiple blocks for color in addition to the key block that prints the outline. The prints from all these blocks can be applied one after the other without waiting for the color on the paper to dry.

As soon as the batch of damp sheets has gone through the first block, the sheets are placed at B between boards, and if needed, damped again with damping sheets (as explained later in Chapter V) to prepare for the next impression, which can be done immediately without worrying about the color running. It's interesting to note that patches of wet color that touch each other don't run if they are printed correctly.

For the second printing, fresh ink is mixed and clean paste is used, and the printing goes ahead as described earlier, with careful attention to ensure that each impression is properly aligned with its position in the design.[Pg 15]

There are many details and subtleties to consider in the printing of both line and color blocks.[Pg 16] These will be covered in the special chapters that follow. This overview of the main printing process will help provide a general understanding of the final step before we go into the details of the earlier stages.[Pg 17]

The wood that the Japanese primarily use for their printing blocks is a type of cherry wood that's very similar to what’s grown in England. The Canadian cherry wood, which is easier to find than English cherry, has too open a grain to be suitable. The more slowly grown English wood has a tighter grain and is the best choice for block cutting and printing. Well-seasoned planks should be sourced and kept ready for cutting as needed.

When cutting a set of blocks for a specific design, the printing surface of each block should match the size of the design plus[Pg 18] 1 inch or, for larger prints, an additional 1½ inches lengthwise, and ¼ or ½ inch widthwise. The thickness of the plank should be no more than ⅝ or ¾ inch. To protect the surfaces of the printing blocks and prevent warping, as well as for ease of storage and handling, it's recommended to attach a piece of wood slightly thicker than the plank itself across each end. These cross-ends should be mounted as shown in fig. 2.

Both sides of the plank should be planed smooth and then finished with a steel scraper, but should not be touched with sandpaper.

It is understood that the face of the[Pg 19] plank is used for the printing surface, and not the end of the grain like in blocks for modern wood engraving.

The tools you need to cut the blocks are as follows:

With this knife, the most important and delicate work is done. All the lines of the key block, as well as the edges of the color areas, are cut with it before removing the spaces in between.

The blade is positioned in a slot and secured tightly by the tapered ferrule. You can pull[Pg 20] it off by hand, and you can extend the blade by pulling it forward in the slot.

These are used to remove the wood between the cut lines or color sections and should be standard carvers' chisels in the following sizes:

except those under No. 9, which are short-handled chisels for small work.

The Japanese toolmakers fit these small chisels into a split handle, as shown in fig. 5. The blade is held securely in place by the tapered ferrule when the handle is closed, or it can be extended by opening the handle and pulling the blade forward in its slot. This way, the blade can be used down to its last inch.[Pg 21]

This is necessary for using the bigger chisels.

These are all the tools required for block cutting. To keep them organized, it's helpful to have oilstones in three different grades:

1. A carborundum stone for quickly[Pg 22] reshaping a chipped or dull tool.

2. A decent, standard oil stone.

3. A tough stone for maintaining a sharp edge on the knife when cutting line blocks. The American "Washita" stone works well for this.

[Pg 23]

Cutting a line block takes patience, care, and skill, but it's not the toughest part of printmaking, nor is it as hopeless as it seems at first to someone who hasn't tried using the block-cutter's knife.

In Japan, this work is a highly specialized craft, never done by the artist himself, but carried out by skilled craftsmen who exclusively focus on this aspect of creating color prints. Even clearing the spaces between the cut lines is done by assistant craftsmen or craftswomen.

The incredible precision of the linework in the best Japanese prints, like the profile of a[Pg 24] face in a design by Outamaro, has taken the dedicated training and tradition of generations of artisans.

The knife, however, isn't a hard weapon for an artist with skilled hands and an trained sense of form. While doing his own work, he may express a quality that's even more valuable than just technical perfection.

Right now, we don't have any craftsmen available for this work—nor can we safely rely on Japanese block-cutters to interpret our designs. Until we train our own craftsmen, we will have to keep cutting our own blocks.

A set of blocks includes a key block and several color blocks. The block that needs to be cut first is the one that prints the line or "key" of the design. Using impressions from this key block, the other blocks for printing the colored parts of[Pg 25] the design are created. The key block is the most important in the set and contains the essential part of the design.

A drawing of the part of the design that will be cut on the key block should be created first. This is done on the thinnest Japanese tissue paper using black indelible ink. The drawing is then pasted face down on the prepared first block with good starch paste. It's best to lay the drawing flat on its back on a pad of a few sheets of paper of about the same size and to apply the paste to the surface of the block, not on the paper. The block is then pressed down firmly with its pasted side on the drawing, which immediately sticks to the block. Next, flip the block over and place a dry sheet of paper over the damp drawing to protect it. Using the baren or printing rubber, rub the drawing flat and well onto the block all over.

The drawing should then be left to dry completely on the block.[Pg 26]

When it comes to designing the key block, it's a common mistake to think of it as just an outline drawing of the print shapes. A lot of what’s considered modern decorative printing has been lacking in this area. Often, a flat, lifeless line—having no more character than a bent gas pipe—is printed around the shapes of a design, followed by patches of flat color, resulting in a distorted version of "flat" decorative treatment.

The main design should act as a framework for all types of print, conveying much more than just physical boundaries. It can suggest form so effectively that even if the color is printed with a flat tint, the result still appears dimensional. When someone doesn’t notice any flatness in the final outcome, even though it’s achieved through flat printing, it means the flat treatment has been used correctly. The superficial flatness seen in poor color printing and posters comes from a misunderstanding of the fundamental principle behind flat treatment.[Pg 27]

[Pg 28]

To illustrate the wide variety of shapes that can be created by the key-block, a reproduction is provided (page 33) of an impression from a Japanese key-block. You’ll notice that the lines and spots convey much more than just the outlines of shapes. For the lighter tree foliage, the outlines are left to be defined entirely by the later color blocks, suggesting only the inner shape or character of the foliage. The type of line also changes depending on what is being depicted, whether it’s a tree, rock, sea, or the small boat. The design itself is beautiful and captures the essential form of the whole print.

The study of the drawings from any of the key-blocks created by Japanese masters will show their incredible skill in suggesting essential forms using black lines, dots, and solid areas of black or gray. Developing this type of expressive drawing is crucial for anyone designing printed[Pg 29] decorations, whether using wood blocks, lithography, or any other printing method.

Other good types of drawings for key-blocks in wood are shown on Plate V, facing page 26 and Plate XVI, p. 110 in the Appendix.

When the key block with its design is completely dry, a little sweet oil should be rubbed with your finger on the area where you'll start cutting, to make the paper transparent and the black line clear.

To keep the block from sliding around on the worktable, you should attach one or two strips of wood securely as stops to prevent the block from slipping. However, the block should rest freely on the table, so it can be easily turned while cutting when needed. It's important to learn how to use the cutting knife in all directions and to move the block as little as possible.

The knife is held and guided by the right hand but is pushed along by the[Pg 30] middle finger of the left hand placed at the back of the blade, close to the tip. The left hand should be generally flat on the work table, palm down, and the nail of the middle finger must be kept short. This position is shown (fig. 7) on p. 30.

The flat side of the knife should always be facing the line that needs to be cut.

Sometimes it's easier to move the knife from right to left, but in this situation, the right hand applies the pressure, and the left middle finger is used to guide and stabilize the knife, pressing against it just above the cutting edge.

A good way to cut a long straight line towards yourself on the block is shown below (fig. 8). The left hand is on its side, and the middle finger is hooked around and pulls the knife while the right hand guides it.

[Pg 31]

In every case, the middle finger of the left hand either pushes or steadies the knife, or serves as a pivot.

A beginner with the knife usually[Pg 32] applies too much pressure or tends to place their left finger too high on the blade, which makes it hard to control. The finger should be as close to the wood as possible, where control is most effective. A small piece of rubber tubing around the knife blade helps protect the finger.

With practice, the knife quickly becomes[Pg 33] an easy and very precise tool, capable of great expressiveness in drawing. Remember that both sides of a line are created by the knife. The unique ability to develop the expressive form of a line on both sides is a valuable resource that can significantly enhance drawing in designs for wood-block prints. The line can take on various forms, shifting from silhouette to pure line as needed to best express the design. It should never just be a simple diagram.

The actual cutting goes like this: Starting at a point where the surface of the key-block design has been oiled and defined, a shallow cut is made along one side of any shape in the design, with the knife held at an angle so that the cut angles away from the edge of the shape. A second outer parallel cut is then made with the knife held at an angle in the opposite direction from the first, so that the two cuts create a V-shaped trench along the line of the shape. The small strip of wood that gets cut out should detach itself as the second cut[Pg 34] is made and shouldn't require any picking out or additional cutting if the first two cuts are clean. This shallow V-shaped trench is continued all around the masses and along both sides of all the lines of the design. No clearing of the spaces in between should be attempted until this is completed. It's immediately clear that the V-shaped cuts provide great strength to the printing lines, allowing a fine line between two cuts to have a strong, wide base (fig. 9). The depth of the cut would be slightly shallower than what's shown in this diagram. When cutting fine line work, a cut is first made slightly beyond the line, then the cut is made directly on the line itself (fig. 10).

Where a very fine line needs to be cut, especially if it's on a curve, the outer[Pg 35] cut of the V trench should be made first, followed by the cut that touches the line. This way, there’s less disruption to the wood and a lower risk of damaging the edge of the line.

When the V cut has been made outside all the lines, you move on to clear the spaces between the lines of the design using tool No. 1 (fig. 5). Start by clearing the larger spaces first. The quickest and safest way to do this is to make a small gouge cut with the No. 1 round tool around all the large spaces, close to the first cut. Then, use one of the shallower chisels, Nos. 5, 6, or 7 (fig. 5), along with the mallet, to remove the wood between the gouge cuts.

For all light cuts where a mallet isn’t necessary, the Japanese hold the chisels as shown in fig. 11. With some practice, this grip will prove to be very comfortable and stable for the right hand. It also has the benefit of allowing the chisel to be positioned at the center of the body and directly in line with one’s eyesight.

In the diagram (fig. 12), if the wood[Pg 36] from A to A¹ needs to be removed, gouge cuts are made at b and b¹. Then, the area between b and b¹ can be quickly cleared without damaging the edge of the form at A. Once the rough work is finished, the small ridge between A and b can be cleaned up with small round or flat tools, depending on what’s easiest. However, this final cleanup[Pg 37] shouldn’t be done until all the large areas are roughly finished.

The depth that needs to be cleared in the spaces will depend on their width, since in printing, the paper will sag more in a wider space than in a narrower one. For spaces of half an inch, the depth of the first V-cuts is enough, but the proportional depth is similar to the diagram above. The small spaces are cleared using small flat or round chisels without a mallet or the initial gouge cut; this is only necessary when a larger space needs to be cleared.

There are now just the placement and cutting of the two registration marks or notches to control the paper's position in printing.

These are positioned in relation to the design as shown in fig. 13.

The corner of the print goes into the notch at A, and one edge of the print rests against the straight notch at B.

The register marks can be closer to the area covered by the design, but they must not actually touch it, since some[Pg 38] margin is needed on the paper for printing. They should also always be cut on the longer side of the printing block. From the drawing on page 70, you can see that these register marks align with where the thumb of each hand will be when placing the paper on the block for printing.

The corner mark, ABC, is created by[Pg 39] cutting from A to B and B to C, with the knife held straight up, its flat side against the line. Then, the shaded area is cut with a flat chisel, sloping down from the surface of the block at AC to about a 1/16 inch depth along AB and BC. The straight notch, EF, is cut in the same way, first using a vertical knife along EF, and then the shaded area is chiseled, sloping down to the EF line.

In section, the two registration marks would be as shown above.

The register marks need to be cut smoothly and evenly so that the paper can slide easily into its exact position during printing.

When the design of the key block and the two registration marks have been cut and cleaned, the residue of paper and paste on the uncut areas of the wood should be carefully washed off with a[Pg 40] sponge and warm water. The block is then complete and ready to use. However, the key block is just one of the set of blocks needed for a color print, but the color blocks are easier and generally require much less effort.

The color blocks are created using prints from the key-block. For this, the registration marks are inked[2] for printing along with the design on the block, and the prints must include both. These prints are made on thin Japanese paper, but it doesn't have to be the thinnest. If the thinnest is used, it should be glued at the corners to a sturdier sheet of paper for easier handling.

It’s pretty straightforward to take one of these key-block impressions and create a plan for the different color blocks needed. Obviously, there should be as few as possible.

It’s not necessary to provide a[Pg 41] full block for every color area, just the size of the surface needed for each colored part of the print, along with its pair of registration marks. Different color patches that aren’t next to each other in the print design can be cut on the same block, as long as they’re not too close together for easy coloring in printing. Each block can also be cut on both sides, allowing for a lot of flexibility in arranging and planning the color blocks.

Once the color plan has been simplified as much as possible, a new block is prepared as previously mentioned, and a sheet of thin, unsized Japanese paper is cut large enough to cover the print design and its registration marks. The clean surface of the new block is thinly coated with starch paste, well rubbed into the grain. While this is still wet, an impression of the entire key block, including its registration marks in black, is taken on the thin Japanese paper and laid[Pg 42] before it dries, face down on the pasted surface of the new block. This should be done as described on page 25. It should be rubbed flat with the printing pad and left to dry.

This task needs careful attention, but it should be done smoothly and methodically, without rushing.

Each side of the set of color planks should be treated the same way—a light impression of the key block and its registration marks laid on each one. It’s best to paste down a freshly taken impression each time while the ink is still wet because if these are allowed to dry, the paper shrinks and can lead to registration errors.

When these new blocks are dry, the area to be cut on each surface should be clearly marked with a light wash of diluted ink or color, but not so much that it obscures the printed key line.

The blocks can then be cut. A V-shaped cut is made around each shape, just like with the key-block, and the clearing continues in the same manner, but[Pg 43] it's only necessary to clear about an inch around each shape: the rest of the wood should stay intact. A section of the printing surface of a color block would look like this:

When the register marks for these color forms have also been cut, and the paper has been washed off the blocks, the clear areas can be used to paste down new key impressions for the smaller color patches and their corresponding register marks. This way, one side of a color plank can hold several different color forms and sets of register marks. Typically, the different color patches are printed separately, although in some cases, two colors can be printed in one impression if they are small and share the same register marks.

When the blocks have been cut and cleared, it's a good idea to smooth the edge of the depression where it meets the uncut surface of the wood with[Pg 44] sandpaper; otherwise, a sharp edge could leave a mark on the print.

For any details you might be unsure about, the block sets at the South Kensington Museum or in the Print Room at the British Museum are open for inspection. In one of the sets at the British Museum, it's fascinating to observe the temporary corrections made in the registration marks during printing using small wooden plugs inserted into the registration notches.

In almost all cases, the Japanese blocks were made of cherry wood, but it’s said that planks of box wood were sometimes used for very fine work.

However accurately the registration marks may be carved into a new set of blocks, confusing errors can sometimes occur during printing, especially if the boards are made from thin wood.[Pg 45]

Some blocks need to be printed drier than others. For example, the key block is printed with very little ink and paste. Other blocks might be even drier, like those that print small shapes or details in a design. However, the blocks used for large areas of color or for gradients are moistened over the entire surface or a significant part of it, and if the wood is thin and not properly secured at the ends, the block will quickly expand enough to disrupt the alignment. If the block isn't secured at the ends, it can also warp, which will increase the registration errors. But if the blocks are made of fairly thick wood and are properly mounted, the registration will remain very accurate.

Usually, the key block is printed first. If the following blocks aren't perfectly aligned, the mistake is obvious right away, and small adjustments can be made to fix it. However, in situations where the key block is printed last[Pg 46] (which is sometimes necessary), each color block needs to be tested before a batch of prints is done. For this purpose, the first few prints of every batch should have a light impression of the key block, so the alignment of the color impression can be checked before continuing with the entire batch.

If these precautions are followed, and the whole set of blocks is kept as close as possible to the same level of dryness or moisture, all printing registration issues will be easily resolved.

When cutting a new set of blocks, there’s another potential source of error that needs to be closely monitored. Most of the time spent designing a new print goes into planning and cutting the key-block, which can take a significant amount of time, especially if there’s other work to do as well. If new wood is used, or wood that hasn’t been seasoned indoors for long, it will dry and shrink quite a bit across the grain before the work[Pg 47] is finished. Then, if newer planks are prepared and cut for the color blocks, and impressions from the key-block are pasted onto them for cutting, it will be found that as the newer wood of the color blocks dries, it will shrink out of alignment, causing the color impressions not to fit the lines perfectly. It’s easy to run into this problem, but there’s no risk if the planks used for both the key-block and the color blocks are all equally seasoned and in the same condition.[Pg 48]

The paper created by the Japanese from the inner bark of young mulberry shoots and other similar plants is by far the best for wood-block printing. It’s a truly remarkable material and is used in Japan for many different purposes because of its strength and durability thanks to its long, silky fibers.

You can get good quality printing paper directly from Japan or through trading agents who work with Japan. The smallest amount you can buy directly is a case of five reams, but this is definitely the cheapest and most reliable way to purchase it. In[Pg 49] smaller amounts, you can find the paper at many art supply dealers. There are several types of this paper available, but you'll need unsized sheets that are similar in quality to the print on page 95 and a thin Japanese tissue paper for color printing.

In its unprepared state, the paper absorbs too much for use, so it should be sized fresh as necessary for work. This is done by brushing a thin solution of gelatin over the smooth surface of the sheets of paper.

A drawing board that's slightly bigger than the sheets of paper, positioned as shown in fig. 17, with its lower edge resting on a basin of warm size, will be a handy setup.

[Pg 50]

The sheet gelatin sold by grocery stores for cooking makes a great sizing agent. Six thin sheets per pint of water provide a good strength. The gelatin dissolves in hot water but shouldn't be boiled, as that partially destroys the size. Once dissolved, stir in a bit of powdered alum, about the amount that would balance on a shilling for a pint of water. Adding the alum is important because it acts as a mordant and enhances color quality.

To apply the size to the paper, use a four-inch wide flat paste brush. Place the paper on the slanted board and brush the size back and forth across the paper from the top down. Be careful not to create creases in the paper, as these will become permanent. To prevent this, you can hold the bottom end of the sheet with your left hand and lift it when needed as the brush moves down. Any excess size will flow into the basin, but the paper shouldn't be soaked, and its surface shouldn't be brushed too much; it just needs to be fully and evenly coated with size. Then, pick up the sheet by the two upper corners (which can conveniently be left unsized) and pin each corner over a cord stretched across the workroom. The sheets are left hanging until they dry. The Japanese lay the paper on the cord,[Pg 52] allowing the two halves of the sheet to hang down evenly on both sides.

The process of sizing and drying the sheets of paper is shown in a print displayed in the collection at the South Kensington Museum.

When the paper is completely dry, it is taken down, and if it’s needed right away for printing, it should be cut into sheets of the necessary size, allowing enough margin to reach the registration marks. It's advisable to create a gauge or template out of cardboard to ensure that the sheets are cut to a consistent size.

A few sheets of unsized paper are needed as dampening sheets, using one for every three printing sheets. The dampening sheets should be cut at least an inch wider and longer than the printing sheets. Two wooden boards are also required. The sheets of printing paper are kept between these while dampening before work.

To get ready for work, take a dampening sheet and evenly brush it with water using a broad brush (like the one used for sizing). The sheet shouldn't be soaked but should be thoroughly moistened all over. Then, it’s placed on one[Pg 53] of the two boards, and on top of it, with the printing side (the smoother side) facing down, three sized sheets of printing paper are laid. Next, another moist dampening sheet is placed on these, followed by three dry sheets of printing paper, face down, and this pattern continues alternately for the number of sheets to be printed. Finally, a board is placed on top of the pile.

The number of prints attempted in one session will depend on the type of work and the printer's expertise. Printing can span over three days, but if the paper stays damp for too long, there's a risk of mold and spotting. For projects needing subtle color gradation and multiple block impressions, twenty or thirty sheets will typically be enough for three days of intensive work. However, professional printers in Japan often produce batches of two hundred to three hundred prints at once, but in those cases, the work tends to become mostly mechanical.[4]

[Pg 54]

The stack of paper and damping sheets should stay between the boards for at least 30 minutes when the new sheets are being dampened for the first time. The damping sheets, except for the top and bottom ones, should then be taken out, and the printing sheets should remain together between the boards for a while before printing. Letting them sit for an hour really helps, as the moisture spreads evenly throughout the stack of sheets. Before printing, they should be flat and soft, but not damp to the touch. If the sheets are new, they can even be left overnight after the first dampening, and they’ll be in perfect shape for printing in the morning without needing more dampening. No weight should be placed on the boards.

Although no paper has been found so far that can take such perfect impressions from color blocks as the long-fibered Japanese paper, all craftsmen should aim to become as independent of foreign materials as possible. There’s no doubt that[Pg 55] our paper makers should be able to create a good quality paper that is absorbent enough to take color from the wet block and yet durable enough to handle when slightly damp.

If paper with short fibers is made without sizing, it falls apart when it gets damp for printing. However, the level of absorbency needed isn’t enough to completely eliminate the use of sizing. This is a challenge our paper makers can definitely tackle. We need a soft, slightly absorbent, white paper. Right now, nothing has matched the long mulberry fiber from Japan, which prints perfectly, but it isn’t completely white. A white paper would be a big advantage for printing intricate and vibrant color designs.

Next in importance is the preparation of the ink for printing the key block or any black or gray parts of a design. Usually, the key block is printed in black,[Pg 56] slightly diluted with paste; in fact, the key block is often printed very lightly using paste that's just barely tinted with a hint of black.

The use of color for the key block is discussed in Chapter VII. The ink is prepared as follows. Take a stick of solid, high-quality Chinese ink and break it into pieces with a hammer; soak these pieces in a pot of water for three or four days. (The quality of Chinese ink sticks varies significantly. Cheaper sticks produce a coarse and gritty ink that doesn't print well.) Each day, pour off the water and add fresh water to remove the glue that seeps out of the softened black pieces. Three days is usually enough for this. If left too long, the entire mixture can spoil. When the black mass is soft and clean, drain off the water and smooth the ink in a dish with a bone palette knife. It's then ready to use, but it would quickly spoil if not used immediately, so a preservative is needed to keep a supply[Pg 57] of ink in good condition. An effective method is to place the ink into a well-corked, wide-mouthed bottle. A small wad of unsized paper soaked in creosote is nailed to the underside of the cork. This way, the ink can be kept in perfect condition for weeks or months. Occasionally, add a drop of fresh creosote to the wad attached to the cork.

Fresh ink can be quickly made in small amounts by grinding a stick of Chinese ink on a slab in the usual way, but this is quite labor-intensive. It’s only worthwhile if you need a small amount of shiny black ink, as the ground ink with all its glue is the best for that.

Any color that can be made into a fine dry powder can be used in wood-[Pg 58]block printing. Some artists have managed to use regular watercolors sold in tubes by mixing the color with the rice paste before printing; however, the best results come from using pure, finely ground dry color mixed only with water, with the rice paste applied directly onto the block.

Most artists' paint suppliers offer colors by weight as dry powder: any color that's commonly used in oil or watercolor painting can be found this way. It's a good idea to keep a stock of essential colors in wide-necked bottles.

A few shallow plates or small dishes are needed to hold paint, along with a bone or horn palette knife for mixing and blending the paint into a smooth paste in the dishes. Small bone paper knives are handy for scooping paint from the bottles.

When the color scheme of a print is finalized—and the best way to do this is by printing small test batches—it’s a smart idea to have a number of[Pg 59] covered containers equal to the number of different color prints, and to fill these with a portion of each shade, mixing the color or colors smoothly with water to a thick cream-like consistency.

Some colors tend to print more smoothly and easily than others. Yellow ochre, for example, prints perfectly smooth and easy, while heavier or grittier colors tend to separate and are harder to work with. For very heavy colors like vermilion, adding a drop of glue solution can help keep the color smooth for printing, and you’ll need less paste. But most colors will print well using only rice paste. However, it’s crucial to use only finely ground, high-quality colors.

A paste should be used with the color to keep it on the surface of the paper and to enhance its brightness. If the color is printed without paste,[Pg 60] it would dry to a powder again. The paste also maintains the matte quality that is typical of Japanese prints.

You can get finely ground rice flour from grocery stores. A great French product called Crême de Riz, sold in packets, is perfect for making paste for printing. Follow these steps to prepare it carefully: Boil half a pint of water in a saucepan over a small spirit lamp or gas burner. In a cup, mix about two teaspoons of rice flour with water, adding it little by little until you have a smooth cream with no lumps. A bone spoon works well for this. Pour the mixture into the boiling water in the saucepan all at once, and stir well until it comes to a boil again. Then, let it simmer over a low flame for five minutes.

When the paste has cooled, it should be smooth and almost liquid enough to pour; not thick like a pudding.[Pg 61]

While printing, a small amount of paste is placed in a saucer and topped up as needed.

Fresh paste should be made every day.

Success in printing relies heavily on attention to detail and organization. It's essential to maintain a consistent layout for everything on the work table and to keep everything as clean as possible. Watching a skilled and calm Japanese craftsman at work in printing offers a significant lesson and highlights the clumsiness often found in Western methods.

The positions shown in the diagram on page 11 are practical and convenient.

The special tools used in printing are the "baren" or printing pad, which is the only tool for applying pressure, and the printing brushes.

[Pg 62]Made by the Japanese, the baren has a diameter of about five inches and consists of a circular board with a flat coil of cord or twisted fiber on top. This is secured by a covering made from a strip of bamboo sheath, with the two ends twisted together at the back of the board to form a handle. When the handle is on top, the flat side of the bamboo sheath is underneath the pad. The ribbed bamboo sheath keeps out moisture from the paper during printing, allowing the pad to be used to rub and press directly against the damp paper on the block without needing a protective backing sheet. The collotype reproduction facing page 12 shows the shape and features of the baren.

Japanese printing pads can be purchased from some paint suppliers or sourced from Japan through various agencies. They are by far the best tool for the job. A pad lasts[Pg 63] a long time, and when the bamboo cover wears out, it can be replaced as described below. If a new bamboo cover isn’t available, the baren can be re-covered with a sheet of vegetable parchment (the kind used for covering jars of jam), placed on when wet, and twisted and tied at the end like the original bamboo cover. A baren that has been used and re-covered when worn can last indefinitely this way.

Dampen the new leaf with a brush on both sides using water completely.

Wipe both sides dry. Place it on a flat surface and stretch it wider with your fingers on the inside, keeping the leaf flat with the palm of your hand[Pg 64].

Rub the inside of the leaf with a hard, smooth object along both sides.

1. Cut AG, BG with the leaf folded.

2. Position the round pad on the flat leaf.[Pg 65]

3. Stretch the leaf to touch the sides EF.

4. Fold in EA and BF one side at a time, starting with one side and then the other.

5. Pull firmly before starting on the other end.

6. Cut away CH, DH, while firmly holding down the finished end.

7. Twist the ends tightly, pull them toward the center, and tie them together securely; trim the excess ends.

8. Polish the surface and apply a little oil.

Twist the inner part of the baren from time to time to reduce wear by shifting its position inside the sheath.

Several substitutes have been used[Pg 66] instead of the Japanese baren, including covers made of leather, shark skin, celluloid, and various other materials. However, these require a backing sheet to protect the paper from their rough surfaces.

An innovative eraser made of ribbed glass that works directly on paper has been created by Mr. William Giles, who has achieved stunning results using it.

If you're using the Japanese baren, its surface should be kept just a bit oiled so it can move smoothly over the damp paper. A small pad of paper with a drop of light oil is enough for this and can be placed to the right of the printing block where the baren is set after each print is made.

An even simpler method is that of the Japanese craftsman who occasionally rubs the baren on the back of his head.

Japanese printing brushes are available from some artists' color dealers, but these[Pg 67] are not necessary, nor do they have any practical advantage over high-quality Western brushes.

A great type of brush is made from black Siberian bear hair for fine varnishing. You can get these from reputable brush makers, and the hair is secured to endure soaking in water. Drawings of this type of brush are shown above.[Pg 68]

Three or four brushes are enough; one wide brush, about three inches for larger areas, one two-inch brush, and two one-inch brushes will cover almost everything you need. Sometimes, a smaller brush might come in handy.

To start printing, first take the key-block and place it on a wet sheet of unsized paper, or on damp wads of paper under each corner of the block, which will keep it steady on the work table. A stack of printing paper, prepared and moistened as described in Chapter V, lies between boards just beyond the block. The inking pad is positioned near the block on the right, on oily paper pinned to the table. Also on the right are a dish or plate with a little ink, the printing brush (wide for the key-block), a saucer with fresh paste, a bowl of water, a small sponge, and a cloth. Nothing else is needed, and it's best to keep the table free of unnecessary pots or paint bottles.

When everything is ready, one[Pg 69] should ensure that the paper is in good condition. It should be drier for a key block than for other blocks, as a fine line will print thickly if the paper is too wet and soft. In fact, it can hardly be too dry for the key block, as long as it is perfectly smooth and still flexible enough to make complete contact with the block. However, it must not be dry or damp in patches.

If the paper is good to go, you lift off the top board and the top damping sheet, setting them aside on the left to get ready for the printed sheets.

The key-block, if completely dry, should be moistened with a damp sponge and then brushed over with the broad printing brush and ink. If a gray line is desired, the brush should be dipped in a bit of paste and barely touched with ink. For a light gray line, the key-block should also be thoroughly washed before printing. Even if the line is meant to be black, a little paste should be used. This is best added after brushing the black ink onto[Pg 70] the block, not mixed in beforehand. The ink and paste are then blended smoothly and completely over the entire surface of the block. The final few brush strokes should be done the full length or width of the block and applied lightly with the brush held upright. The inking of the block must be done thoroughly, but only as much brushing as is necessary to spread the color evenly. When properly inked, the block should not be wet at all, but just covered with a very thin and nearly dry layer of ink and paste.

[Pg 71]

No time should be wasted lifting the top sheet of printing paper onto the block, starting by placing its right corner in the register notch and holding it there with your thumb. Then, align the edge of the paper with the other notch, holding it with your left thumb while your right hand goes free to pick up the baren (fig. 21). Starting from the left, rub the baren back and forth in a full stroke each time, reaching the outer limits of the block with moderate, [Pg 72] even pressure, moving the stroke in a zigzag toward the right end of the block (fig. 22). Once is usually enough. A second rub can create darker impressions of the finer lines. Then, lift the paper from the block and place it on the board to the left.

[Pg 73]

Particular attention must be given to carefully placing the paper home in the register notches and holding it there until the rubber has gripped the paper on the block.

Sheet by sheet, all the printing paper is passed over the key-block and stacked together. There's no worry about the ink smudging or marking the print placed on top. As the process continues, the block will produce better and better impressions. Any spoiled or defective impressions should be placed at the top of the pile when it's ready for the next round of printing, because the first few impressions are always a bit unpredictable, and it's best to use the faulty prints as a test run so that the good ones aren’t ruined.

When the block has been printed on[Pg 74] the entire batch, the sheets should be replaced immediately between the boards before preparing for the color impressions. By this time, the paper is usually too dry for color. If that’s the case, the damping sheets should be moistened and placed back in as before, one for every three printing sheets. After a minute or two, they will have dampened the paper enough and need to be taken out, leaving the printing sheets resting between the boards, ready for the first color block.

In color printing, the paper might be slightly wetter than ideal for key-block prints, requiring more pressure on the baren if the color areas are large. If the baren is pressed lightly, the color won't fully cover the paper, resulting in a dry, grainy texture. Sometimes this effect can be beneficial, but generally, a smooth, evenly printed surface is preferable. You'll find that smooth, even printing isn’t achieved by loading the block with a lot of color or paste, but rather by using a minimal amount of both and nearly dry paper.[Pg 75]

In starting to print from a color block, you should make sure to moisten the block completely before printing, or it won't release the color from its surface; however, the block must be wiped and not used while it’s still wet.

The printing process is just like with the key-block, except you use the baren more heavily. You should add the paste after roughly brushing the color onto the block, then smoothly mix the two together. Japanese printers apply the paste to the block using a small stick kept in the paste dish. With experience, you'll quickly learn how much paste is needed. It's crucial not to use too much or too little paste, since the quality of the dry color relies on the paste. Using too little paste can result in a flat appearance.

Some colors print more easily[Pg 76] than others. For a sticky color, it's best to wipe the block with a nearly dry sponge between each impression, so the wood releases its color more easily. For very thick colors like vermilion, adding a drop of glue and water might help; however, for almost all the colors that are usually used, rice paste and careful printing are sufficient.

The amount of sizing in the paper is another important factor in color printing. If the paper is lightly sized, the fibers will pull away and stick to the damp block. If it's too heavily sized, the paper won’t absorb the color smoothly from the block, and it will look harsh when dry. You quickly develop an instinct for the right quality and condition of the block, color, and paper that are essential for good printing; to print well, you need to be attuned to these elements.

Along with printing solid blocks of color, one of the key advantages of block printing is its ability to create delicate gradations in color. The easiest way to achieve a shift from strong to light color is to dip one corner of a wide brush into the color and the opposite corner into water, allowing the water to blend into the color. By squeezing the entire width of the brush evenly between your thumb and forefinger, most of the water is removed, leaving the brush with a gradient from one side to the other. Next, dip the brush lightly into paste along its edge, then brush it a few times back and forth across the block where you want the gradation. This method allows you to print a beautifully subtle tint that transitions from full color to white. If you want the lighter edge of the tint to fade out, you should moisten the block's surface with a sponge where the color should end.

A soft edge can be achieved with a brush that's usually loaded with paint if the area where the color should fade is dampened with a clean sponge. [Pg 78] This effect is commonly seen at the top of the sky in a Japanese landscape print, where a dark blue band of color transitions smoothly to white, or sometimes in the feathers of birds that feature sudden gradations. In fact, the technique can be adapted in many different ways. It’s often beneficial to print a gradient first and then apply a flat color over the gradient in a second pass.

No special care is needed to avoid "offsetting" the color while printing. The prints can be stacked on top of each other right after being lifted from the block without worrying about them marking each other. Only when there’s too much color used, or if heavy streaks of color are left at the edges of the block due to careless brushing, might the next print in the pile get marked. Just like with printing the key block, it's important to hold the brush straight up for the final strokes across the block and always to make a full stroke across the entire length or width of the area being colored.[Pg 79]

As soon as one color block has been printed, the next can be taken and printed right away, without worrying about the color bleeding, even if the new color touches the areas that have already been printed.

One by one, each color block is printed like this until the entire batch of paper has gone over all the blocks that make up the design of the print. Sometimes, it might actually be better not to print the key block first, but generally, it should be printed first to keep the later blocks aligned properly. If the key block isn’t printed, you can’t see how the color blocks are fitting together. However, in cases where the sky has maybe two or even three printings—a gradient and a flat tone or two gradients—there’s a risk of smudging the lines of the key block. So in those cases, the sky should be printed first, then the key block, followed by the remaining color blocks.

At the end of a day's printing, the prints can be safely left stacked together between the boards until the next day[Pg 80]. For three days, the damp paper is fine, except in hot weather, but by the fourth day, small red spots of mold start to appear and spread. It's important to remember to use freshly boiled paste each day.

When the prints are done, they should be dried as quickly as possible. If they are laid out and left open to the air, they'll dry soon but can warp, making it difficult to press them flat later. It's better to have several millboards or absorbent "pulp" boards that are slightly larger than the prints, and to stack the prints and boards alternately, one by one, putting a weight on top of the stack. The absorbent boards will dry the prints quickly and keep them nice and flat.

Finished prints should be numbered for reference, and if printed by the artist themselves, they should also have their signature[Pg 81] —or some printed indication of that. It's hard to estimate how many prints can be made from a set of blocks. Japanese printers are known to have produced editions of several thousands from a single set of blocks. The actual wear from printing even a fine line block is barely noticeable, since the pressure used is very light. Certainly, hundreds of prints can be produced without any significant decline in quality. However, an artist who is both designing and producing their own work is unlikely to want to print large editions.[5]

[Pg 82]

Until you’re really familiar with the craft of wood-block printing, you can’t create a good design for a print, nor can you grasp all the resources available or the limits that are set.

At the start, it's best to take on a small project, so you don’t use up too much material or time while getting your first experience. However, it's important to see this small task through to completion, no matter how imperfect it turns out at any point. You can cut a small key-block and a couple of color patches on[Pg 83] both sides of a single plank for this.

There is a wide range of opinions about the conventions suitable for designing color prints. In the works of Japanese masters, the convention remains consistent. A descriptive black or gray line is used throughout the design, outlining all forms or applied as flat spots or patches. The line isn’t always uniform, but it is developed with great finesse to suggest the character of the form expressed, making the subsequent flat mass of color printed within the line appear to have depth. This approach to the line is one of the key strengths of the work and is unique to this style of design, where the line must be cut with the knife on both sides, allowing for exceptional development in its ability to convey form. Indeed, the knife is the ultimate tool in creating the design.

Typical examples of key-block prints are shown on pages 26 and 33:[Pg 84] they illustrate the range of styles and quality that can be achieved in the lines and dark areas of key-blocks.

The design of a print relies heavily on the development of line and black mass in the key-block. It holds the color pattern of the print together and suggests the form. In Japanese prints, the key-block is always printed in black or grey. Areas meant to be a solid black in the final print are first printed in a flat grey by the key-block and then printed in full black from a color-block, just like any other color patch. This double printing is necessary to achieve the richness of the black.

Although several modern prints have been created based on different principles, and sometimes a colored key block is successfully used, the convention adopted by the Japanese remains the simplest and most fundamental of all. Outside of its safe boundaries, the technical challenges increase, leading to compromises that stretch the proper resources of block printing and provide questionable benefits.

The temptation to use color with the key-block arises when you try to use the key-block to show light and shadow. Japanese masters typically used it to express the contours of objects, completely ignoring their shadows or any effects of light and shade, unless a shadow was an essential part of the design pattern. Generally, as seen in almost all of Hiroshige's landscape prints, the lines are descriptive or suggestive of the essential form, not focused on light and shade effects.

If the key-block is used for light and shadow, the issue of relative tones and values of shadows comes up, and these will be distorted unless a key-block is created for each individual plane or section of the design. This also risks creating confusion or compromises that go beyond the genuine intent of the work.

It’s generally safest to print the key-block in a tone that blends with the[Pg 86] overall tone of the print, rather than using it as part of the color pattern. Its main purpose is to define the form, while the color-blocks are responsible for the color pattern. Of course, there are exceptions, and sometimes a design can successfully do without the key-block entirely, using just a few color silhouettes, one of which defines the main form of the print and acts as the key-block. Additionally, the key-block may be used to convey the internal form or character of a part of the design, leaving the color-block to express the outer shape or contour; for instance, in the spots that suggest foliage on the print on page 114. The shapes of the tree forms are partially completed by the color-block, with the key providing only an indication of the general fragmented look of the foliage, not the outer edges of the branches. The outer shape of a tree or branch is rarely defined by an enclosing line in any Japanese prints. The key-block is often used to detail the internal form when a silhouette[Pg 87] of color suffices for the contour. The expressive depiction of the rough texture of tree trunks and rock formations, as well as the detailing of plants and the suggestion of objects in atmospheric distance or fog, should be studied in quality prints by Japanese masters. In modern prints by contemporary masters—like the work of notable French poster designers—much can be learned about the use and development of expressive line.

The Japanese training method is thoroughly explained in a book by Henry P. Bowie titled "The Laws of Japanese Painting," which offers many helpful tips regarding graphic brush drawing and the effective use of lines and brush strokes.

As part of a designer's training in modern decorative printing, the insights and sense of economy gained from studying wood-block printing are invaluable. No other work addresses the fundamentals of decorative design for printed materials as directly. Wood blocks not only require efficient design but also encourage it.

Even as a way to get general training in the basics of decorative pictorial composition, wood blocks have great potential as a supplement to the courses that art students take. The same challenges that come up in all decoration can be addressed using them on a smaller scale, but in ways that are very educational. Color schemes can be explored and developed freely by printing and reprinting until the issue is completely resolved. A color design can be studied and developed just as fully with a small set of blocks, allowing for more freedom to experiment and make changes than with traditional methods of study, like painting and repainting on paper, canvas, or wall; once the form is established by the blocks, the color can be reconstructed over and over without limits.[Pg 89]

The craft not only serves as a unique form of personal expression but also has a broader purpose as a way to train and prepare for the vast possibilities and almost limitless resources of modern printing. The most effective use of those resources will come from artists who have learned under simpler conditions and have gradually gained an understanding of the principles of aesthetic efficiency in printing. One of the various ways to gain that experience is through the craft of wood-block printing.[Pg 90]

A print is shown at the end of this book (page 95) as an example of an initial experiment in cooperative printing. An actual print was needed to demonstrate the method of block printing, and the required number was too high for a single printer to manage. So, the work was split among four printers (including the author), collaborating together. Each of us was used to printing our own pieces in small batches of a dozen or so at a time, giving individual attention to each print. Printing 2000 prints in a fixed type was a completely different challenge and turned out to be an informative and valuable experience. It was discovered that creating a large number of successive impressions gave us increasingly precise control over a block, resulting in a high percentage of flawless prints. After the initial trials and practice, the mistakes in the later batches were reduced to only 4 or 5 percent of the completed prints. The work was done in batches of 250 prints, with each print receiving eight impressions, as shown on pages 98-109. Each of the four printers was responsible for a specific series of blocks, which were printed in a consistent order. It was found to be most convenient to print the key block last, as the heavy blacks in it tended to smudge under the pressure of the baren and slightly dirty the color blocks if the key block was printed first, as is typically done.

The color blocks were printed in the order they appear in the Appendix.

The highest quality work was done on almost dry paper. The damping sheets were inserted among the new paper at the end of the day and taken out after ten to fifteen minutes. The printing[Pg 92] paper was then left to sit overnight between boards, ready for use in the morning, and wasn’t dampened again until after getting several impressions. After that, it was only slightly dampened again with a damping sheet for every ten to twelve prints, and this was done for just a few minutes.

As one printer completed the prints from his block, the stack of papers was handed off to the others, one after another. This way, three batches of 250 were printed without rushing over the course of a week, working eight hours a day for five and a half days.

The main challenge faced was maintaining the exact color and quality of the type print, as each printer tended to make adjustments based on personal preferences. To address this issue, it's essential for one person to supervise and manage the others in these areas.

Otherwise, the work moved along smoothly and clearly demonstrated the potential of the craft for producing large quantities of prints for specific purposes where the needed qualities can’t be achieved through machine printing. Clearly, the best results will always come from an artist printing their own work. However, this can only be done in relatively small numbers, yet the blocks can print very large quantities without losing quality. The set of blocks used for the example here showed very little wear after 4000 impressions were made. The key block was less worn than the others, as the pressure on this block was minimal and the ink was perfectly smooth. The impression shown on page 109 was made after 4000 had been printed from the key block. Block No. 2 was more worn due to the gritty nature of the burnt sienna used in its printing. However, it would be easy to replace any specific color block that might show signs of wear after extensive printing.

Other examples provided in the Appendix[Pg 94] illustrate qualities and treatment methods that are educational or inspiring.

No. 6 is the key impression of a Japanese print that showcases an impressive variety of resources through its design; the nature of each type of form is expressed with such simple yet highly effective hints. It's insightful to examine how this is achieved and to observe how the inner form is sometimes suggested by clusters of spots or irregular black marks, while the outer form is completely determined by the shape of the color block that will be printed later.

Plate XVI is a reproduction of a print by Hiroshigé and illustrates the effective use of the key-block in depicting tree shapes. Plates XVII and XVIII provide a more detailed view of this technique.

Plates XXIII-XXIV are essential blocks for modern print designs.[Pg 95]

An original color print, created and carved by the author and printed by hand on Japanese paper, followed by collotype reproductions showcasing the individual impressions of the color blocks used for this print, along with other collotype reproductions of various examples of printing and design.

[Pg 96]

[Pg 98][Pg 97]

[Pg 99]

[Pg 100]

[Pg 102][Pg 101]

[Pg 104][Pg 103]

[Pg 105]

[Pg 107][Pg 106]

[Pg 109][Pg 108]

[Pg 111][Pg 110]

[Pg 114][Pg 113][Pg 112]

[Pg 116][Pg 115]

[Pg 118][Pg 117]

[Pg 120][Pg 119]

[Pg 121]

[Pg 123][Pg 122]

[Pg 125][Pg 124]

[Pg 127][Pg 126]

[Pg 129][Pg 128]

"Tools and Materials showcasing the Japanese Method of Color Printing." A descriptive catalog of a collection displayed at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Price Two Pence. Victoria and Albert Museum Catalogs. 1913.

"The Colour Prints of Japan." By Edward F. Strange. The Langham Series of Art Monographs. London.

"Japanese Colour Prints." By Edward F. Strange. (3rd

"Japanese Wood Engravings." By William Anderson, F. R. C. S. London, Seeley & Co., Ltd. New York, Macmillan & Co. 1895.

"Japanese Wood-cutting and Wood-cut Printing." By T. Tokuno. Edited and annotated by S. R. Kochler. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for the year ending June 30, 1892. Issued in pamphlet form by the U.S.A. National Museum, Washington. 1893.

Other works that describe and reference the craft of wood-block printing in the Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, include the following:—

"The Industries of Japan." By J. J. Rein. (Paper, pp. 389.) London. 1889.

"Bungei Ruisan," by Yoshino Sakakibara. Essays on Japanese literature, with extra chapters detailing how paper is made and the methods of printing and engraving. (The museum copy includes handwritten translations of the parts about engraving.) Tokyo. 1878.[Pg 130]

Alumni, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Andreani, Andrea, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Baldung, Hans, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Bamboo sheath, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Barless, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_2__

Baren, method of use, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Baren, to recover, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Baren, to re-cover (diagram), __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Batch size, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Batten, J. D., __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Block cutting, materials, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Cutting blocks, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Mounting blocks, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Planning blocks, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Reference books, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Bowie, Henry P., __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

British Museum Print Room, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Brushes, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Drawing brushes, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Carborundum stone, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Cherry wood, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Chiaroscuro, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Chinese ink, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Chisel, grip of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Chisels, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Clearing spaces, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Removing wood between knife cuts, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Color, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Color block, section diagram, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Color blocks, design of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Color blocks, planning, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Color blocks, printing from, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Color design, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Commercial development, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Design conventions, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Co-op printing, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Craft in Japan, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Training of craftsmen, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Cranach, Lucas, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Crane, Walter, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Creosote, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Cutting-edge, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Da Carpo, Ugo, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Damping, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Damping sheets, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Design, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Design conventions in __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Designing, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Principles of wood-block print design, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Key-block design, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Knife cuts diagram, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Color drying, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Drying prints, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Errors in register, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

[Pg 131]Eve and the Serpent, print of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Flat treatment, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Foliage, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Gelatin, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Giles, William, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Colored glue solution, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Gouge, gripping technique, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Gradations, printing of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Grip of chisel, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__


Hand placement for cutting, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Herkomer, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Hiroshige, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Possible number of impressions, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Ink, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Inking the block, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Ink, a preservative for, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Italian woodcuts, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Jackson, T. B., __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Japan, craft in, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Japanese blocks, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Japanese artisans, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Japanese art, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Japanese key-block, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

"Japanese Painting, The Laws of," __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Japanese paper, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Japanese printers, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Japanese prints, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Key-block, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_2__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_3__

Key-block prints, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_2__

Knife, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Knife drawing, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Knife use, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Knife cuts diagram, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


"Laws of Japanese Painting," __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Light and shadow, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Line block, cutting off, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Line, development of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Line of key block, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Mallet, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Mallet drawing, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Mantegna, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Drying millboards, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Modern prints, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Mordant, alum, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Mold, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Mulberry fiber, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Museums, block sets at, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Impressions count, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Offsetting, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Oils stones, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Orlik, Prof. Emil, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Outamaro, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Pad, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paper, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paper damping, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paper, how to hold it, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paper, mold in, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

White paper needed, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Sizing paper, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paper sizing (drawing), __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paste, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paste, amount used in printing, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paste preparation, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Plank preparation, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Block planning, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Position of hands, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Posters, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Printing, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Printing, collaborative, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Printing, a detailed method of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Printing from color blocks, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Printing, overview of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

[Pg 132]Printing of gradations, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_2__

Printing pad, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Prints, design, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Drying prints, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Register, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Register, errors of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Register marks, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_2__

Position of register marks, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Registration marks, part of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Rice flour, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Rice flour, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Rubber, glass, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Rubber, printing, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Shadows, management of, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Shallow cuts, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Shrinking paper, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Siberian bear hair brushes, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paper size and amount, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Excess size, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Paper sizing, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__

Smithsonian pamphlet, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

South Kensington Museum, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Spots on paper, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Table, ___A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ plan

Tokuno, T., __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Block-cutting tools, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Designer training, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Treatment of form, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Tree shapes, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__


Variety of styles, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__


Washita oil stone, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Wood, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

Italian woodcuts, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.

Work table plan, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__

(1) Only pigments of the HIGHEST ORDER OF PERMANENCE are included in the Cambridge Palette

(2) All the Pigments can be SAFELY MIXED TOGETHER without any risk of them harming one another.

(3) All the pigments are PURE and free from harmful impurities

Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England[Pg 133]