[vii]

The English language is uniquely rich in synonyms, which is not surprising given its history. Since the time of Julius Caesar, the Britons, Romans, Northmen, Saxons, Danes, and Normans have all fought, fortified, and settled in England, while the Scots and Irish have contested for dominance across the mountain border and the Channel, all surrounded by the sea, inevitably influencing each other’s speech. English merchants, sailors, soldiers, and travelers, involved in trade, war, and exploration in various regions, naturally returned with new terms related to the sea, land, shops, camps, and battlefields. English scholars have studied Greek and Latin for centuries, and in more recent times, the languages of the Continent and the East. English church leaders have incorporated words from Hebrew, Greek, and Latin through the Bible, prayer books, sermons, and tracts. As a result, there is hardly a language ever spoken that doesn’t have some representation in English. The spirit of the Anglo-Saxon race, dominant in language as well as in war and commerce, has merged all these diverse elements into one idiom, creating not a patchwork, but a composite language. Anglo-Saxon practicality, often discovering multiple words that originally expressed the same idea, has allocated them to different contexts or functions, so that we have an unmatched variety of words, related in meaning but distinct in usage, to express almost every nuance of human thought.

Hardly any two words that we call synonyms are exactly the same in meaning and usage. They share some common ground where they can be swapped, but outside of that area, each one has its own unique space, where any other word feels out of place. These two qualities highlight the great value of synonyms in enhancing the beauty and effectiveness of expression. When they can be interchanged, they allow for the freedom and variety that distinguishes the language of a skilled writer or speaker from the rigid uniformity of a legal document. When they are distinct and specific, they enable a style expert to choose the term that best reflects their thoughts. To write or speak effectively, one should first be familiar with all the available words and then understand precisely why a specific word is chosen in each situation. A thesaurus serves the purpose of providing knowledge in these two areas.

Macaulay writes about Milton's language:

Macaulay's writings are filled with examples of that exquisite precision in word choice, which never feels forced but has the appearance of total freedom. His language conveys his ideas as clearly and beautifully as a landscape viewed instantly from a mountain peak. A bit of ambiguity in thought or a slight misstep in word choice would be like a cloud on the mountain, obscuring the view with a cold, damp mist. Anyone can try substituting different words in a poem like Gray's "Elegy" or Goldsmith's "Traveller" or "Deserted Village" and quickly see how much of the beauty of the lines relies on their precise expression.

In our time, when so many people are eager to write and confident they can do it, and when the press is cranking out tons of what’s called literature that somehow lacks a lasting impact, it’s crucial to bring back the study of synonyms as a distinct part of learning about rhetoric. Common mistakes need to be pointed out and corrected from time to time, but teaching pure English is the best way to defend against everything that’s inferior, inappropriate, or off-putting. The most effective way to criticize a word or phrase that doesn’t work is to show that it’s not found in credible sources, and a student who’s learned the rich variety of strong, beautiful, precise, and expressive words that make up our wonderful language is, by that very fact, shielded from any temptation toward poor language use.[ix]

Special instruction in using synonyms is crucial because few students have the analytical skills and mindset needed to hold multiple definitions in their minds at once, compare them, and figure out where and how they differ. Ironically, those who struggle the most with this are often the ones who need the information the most. The distinctions between words that are similar in meaning can be so subtle and elusive that they challenge even skilled scholars. However, when understood, these nuances are just as important for language as the slight differences between similar substances are for chemistry. Often, we can best define a term by comparing it with related words and identifying their differences. We understand and remember what each word means more clearly when we see how it diverges from others with similar meanings, just as we have a better grasp of the shape and location of neighboring countries by viewing them in relation to one another rather than by simply citing their latitude and longitude as separate areas on the globe.

The large group of untrained speakers and writers needs to be reminded, first and foremost, that there are synonyms—a point they wouldn't gain from any precise definitions in a dictionary. The unfortunate way many slightly educated people use words like "elegant," "splendid," "clever," "awful," "horrid," etc., to indicate (as they can't really be said to express) almost any nuance of certain favored or disliked qualities shows a limited vocabulary, a lack of language skills, which is crucial to correct. Many who don't misuse words so blatantly would still be surprised to realize how often they use a very limited number of words to express thoughts and feelings that are so different that what works as the right word in one situation must be the wrong word many other times. These people are simply unaware that there are other words with similar meanings that they could choose; just like the U.S. surveyors in Alaska found "the shuddering tenant of the frigid zone" wrapped in furs and huddled over a fire of sticks with untouched coal mines beneath him.

Such limited language always comes with limited thinking. Someone who is okay with using the same word for very different ideas either hasn’t noticed or quickly forgets that there’s any difference between the ideas; or maybe he has a vague sense of a difference that he never tries to define for himself, and he hints at this to others by adding phrases like "you see" or "you know," in a struggling attempt to communicate what better words could convey clearly and simply. Such a mind is like old maps of Africa, which were filled with blurry areas, while modern exploration has uncovered great lakes, fertile lands, and powerful rivers. One important purpose of a thesaurus is to show these individuals the hidden richness of their own language; and when they are given a list of words to choose from, intelligent choices lead to a clearer understanding of the differences among the ideas those words express. Therefore, having a rich and clear vocabulary directly promotes a wealth of precise thinking.

Therefore, there's a valuable role for simple lists of categorized synonyms, like Roget's Thesaurus and the works of Soule and Fallows. Not one in a thousand average students would ever figure out, by studying the dictionary on their own, that there are fifteen synonyms for beautiful, twenty-one for beginning, fifteen for benevolence, twenty for friendly, and thirty-seven for pure. Just mentioning such numbers opens up possibilities for richness, freedom, and variety of expression, which will feel like a revelation for many people.

But it’s just as important to teach that synonyms are not identical and to explain why and how they differ. A well-read person with a good instinct for language can often find what they need just by looking at a list, which jogs their memory for the right word. However, for most people, it’s necessary to do some work that compares or contrasts synonyms, explains their differences in meaning or usage, and shows in which situations one word might be more appropriate than another. That’s the goal of this work: to serve as a guide for selecting from the rich variety of English language treasures.

This book covers over 7,500 synonyms in 375 pages. The author focused on providing each definition or distinction in the fewest words possible while ensuring clarity. This approach not only saves space but also makes the condensed information easier to understand and remember.

The approach taken has been to choose one word, or two opposing words, from each group of synonyms, the meaning of which[xi] can be clearly defined. This way, we secure a fixed point or points to which all the other words in the group can relate. A major cause of confusion, mistakes, and frustration in many discussions about synonyms is that the writer just links random ideas loosely related to different words, moving from one synonym to another without a clear starting point or return, leading to a smooth but ultimately unsatisfying statement that offers no clear conclusion or solid footing. A true discussion of synonyms involves definitions by comparison, and this requires something specific to compare against. Once the standard is established, approximations or differences can be clearly and definitely identified. It’s not enough to simply describe each word; the key is explaining how each word relates to others in that particular group. When a word has multiple main meanings, the synonyms for one meaning are grouped together, and a reference is made to another group for synonyms of a different meaning, as can be seen by looking at the synonyms listed under APPARENT, and following the reference to EVIDENT.

It has been impossible within the limits of this volume to cover all the words in each group of synonyms in detail. Sometimes, it has been necessary to limit the explanation to just a suggestion of the correct usage; in some cases, only the main words of a group could be addressed, providing the key to the discussion and leaving the student to explore the principle for other words by referring to the definitive statements in the dictionary. It's hoped that someday a dictionary of synonyms may be created, offering as comprehensive a list as that of Roget or Soule, along with insightful comments on every word. Such a work would be extremely valuable, but clearly beyond the scope of a textbook for the classroom.

The author has included, with permission from the publishers of the Standard Dictionary, a lot of the synonym content he prepared for that work. Everything has been completely revised or restructured, and a lot of entirely new material has been added.

The book also includes over 3,700 antonyms. These are valuable for providing definitions through contrast or negation, which is often one of the most effective ways to define something by explaining what it isn’t. For speakers and writers, antonyms are helpful because they often create strong oppositions.

Young writers will find a lot of help in understanding how to use prepositions correctly, as their misuse is one of the most common errors and one of the hardest to avoid. Using prepositions correctly adds cohesion, strength, and clarity to writing, which is essential for good communication. The text on synonyms includes a set of Questions and Examples to make it suitable for use as a textbook. Beyond classroom use, this section will also be valuable to individual students. Most people, except those who have studied language thoroughly, will be surprised at how difficult it is to answer any of the Questions or fill in the blanks in the Examples without referring back to the synonym section in Part I or using a dictionary. Rarely can they provide an intelligent reason for preferring one familiar word over another. Few can engage with such a work without having to correct some mistakes they didn’t even realize they made, and without finding new joy in using language through a deeper understanding of its resources and a clearer awareness of its various possibilities.

West New Brighton, NY, Sept. 4, 1896.

The Synonyms of the Century and International Dictionaries have also been checked and compared.

The Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dictionary has been used as the reference throughout.

[1]

Abandon is a term with a broad meaning, referring to people or things of any kind; abdicate and resign refer to positions, authority, or power; cede pertains to land ownership; surrender especially relates to military force and more generally to any demand, claim, passion, etc. Quit implies suddenness or abruptness that isn’t necessarily present in abandon, and it may not carry the same sense of finality. The king abdicates his throne, cedes his territory, deserts his followers, renounces his religion, relinquishes his titles, abandons his plans. A cowardly officer deserts his ship; the helpless passengers abandon it. We quit business, give up property, resign our position, abandon a habit or trust. Relinquish usually indicates reluctance; the weak hand relinquishes its grip; the creditor relinquishes his claim. Abandon suggests a prior connection with responsibility or control; forsake implies a previous connection with inclination or attachment, whether real or perceived; a man can abandon or forsake a house or friends; he abandons a project; forsakes God. Abandon can refer to both good and bad actions; a thief abandons his plans, a man his principles. Forsake, like abandon, can be used in a positive or negative sense; desert is always negative, involving a breach of duty unless referring to mere locations, as in "the Deserted Village." While a monarch abdicates, a president or other elected or appointed official resigns. It was considered that James II. abdicated his throne by deserting it.

Abase relates only to external circumstances. "Lift up the one who is low, and abase the one who is high." Ezek. xxi, 26. Debase is about the quality or character. The coin is debased by too much alloy, and a person is debased by immoral behavior. Humble today mostly refers to one's feelings; humiliate pertains to external situations; even when someone is said to humble themselves, they either genuinely have or pretend to have a humble heart. To disgrace can involve bringing shame onto others, but the term is mainly and increasingly used for the moral shame that one brings upon themselves through their own actions; the noun disgrace carries more of a passive sense than the verb; he disgraced himself through his actions; he brought disgrace to his family. To dishonor someone means to take away the honor that should or could be given. To discredit someone means to harm their reputation, especially regarding truthfulness or financial trustworthiness. A feeling of unworthiness humbles; a shameful insult humiliates; being imprisoned for a crime disgraces. Degrade can refer to either someone's position or character. An officer is degraded by being reduced to the rank-and-file, disgraced by cowardice; immoral actions degrade; alcoholism is a degrading vice. Misfortune or injustice may abase the good; nothing but their own wrongdoings can debase or disgrace them.

[3]

Any feeling of inferiority embarrasses, whether or not there's a sense of wrong. The poor are embarrassed by the splendor of wealth, and the ignorant feel embarrassed by the knowledge of the wise. "I might have been embarrassed by their authority." Gladstone Homeric Synchron., p. 72. [H. '76.] To confuse means to put someone in a state of mental bewilderment; to confound means to completely overwhelm the mind; to daunt is to induce a certain level of fear. Embarrass is a strong term, primarily meaning to hamper or hinder. A solitary thinker might be confused by a tricky subject or some mental shortcoming; one is embarrassed in front of others, and because of their presence. Confusion relates to the intellect, while embarrassment is about feelings. A witness might feel embarrassed by annoying individuals, leading to confusion in their statements. To mortify someone is to make them feel a painful sense of humiliation, whether due to their own mistakes or someone else's failures. A student may be confused by a tricky question, while a general is confounded by a devastating loss. A hostess feels discomposed by guests running late, and a speaker is disconcerted by a memory lapse. The criminal who isn’t embarrassed at being caught may be daunted by the officer's weapon. Sudden joy may bewilder, but it won’t embarrass. The true worshiper feels humbled rather than embarrassed before God. The parent feels mortified by the child's rudeness, while the child is embarrassed by the parent's reprimand. The embarrassed speaker struggles to continue. The mob feels overawed by the military, while the hypocrite feels shamed by being exposed. "A man whom no denial, no scorn could embarrass." Fielding Amelia bk. iii, ch. 9, p. 300. [B. & S. '71.] Compare CHAGRIN; HINDER.

The storm, the fever, the pain lessens. Interest falls. Misfortunes may be lessened, desires calmed, intense anger[4] lessened, population shrunk, taxes cut. We reduce a nuisance, end a controversy, suppress a rebellion. See ALLEVIATE.

Calm down in fury; reduced by law.

An abbreviation is a way of shortening something; a contraction is when parts are tightened together. A contraction of a word is created by dropping certain letters or syllables and joining the first and last letters or elements; an abbreviation can be made by either omitting parts from the middle or cutting off a section; a contraction is a type of abbreviation, but an abbreviation isn't always a contraction; rec't for receipt, mdse. for merchandise, and Dr. for debtor are all contractions; they are also abbreviations; Am. for American is an abbreviation, but not a contraction. Abbreviation and contraction refer to words and phrases, while abridgment relates to books, paragraphs, sentences, etc. Compare ABRIDGMENT.

Abet and instigate are now almost exclusively used in a negative context; one can incite both good and evil actions. To incite or instigate means to encourage someone to do something that hasn't been done yet, or to motivate increased activity or further progress in doing it; to abet means to provide support, encouragement, or significant help for something that is already planned or in progress. Abet and instigate can refer to people or actions, while incite refers only to people; you incite a person to take an action. A clergyman will advocate for justice, help the needy, encourage the[5] discouraged, support the vulnerable, uplift the established authorities; but he will not incite a fight, instigate a riot, or abet a crime. The person who commits a crime often instigates or incites others to abet them in it, or someone may instigate or incite others to commit a crime without being actively involved themselves. Compare HELP.

Abhor is stronger than despise, suggesting a deep moral repulsion. "How many shun evil for its inconvenience who do not abhor it for being hateful." Trench Serm. in Westm. Abbey xxvi, 297. [M.] Detest shows indignation combined with some contempt. Loathe indicates a feeling of disgust, either physical or moral. We abhor a traitor, despise a coward, detest a liar. We dislike an impolite person. We abhor cruelty, hate tyranny. We loathe a snake or a flatterer. We abhor Milton's heroic Satan, but we cannot despise him.

To abide means to continually remain without a time limit unless specified by the context: "Today I must abide at your house," Luke xix, 5; "a permanent place for you to abide in forever," 1 Kings viii, 13; "Abide with me! the evening is falling fast," Lyte Hymn. Terms like lodge, sojourn, stay, tarry, and wait suggest a limited duration; lodge means to spend the night; sojourn means to remain temporarily; while live, dwell, and reside indicate having a permanent home. The use of stop in the sense of stay or sojourn is informal and not generally accepted. Compare ENDURE; REST.

Stay in a place, for a time, with a person, by a statement.

Abolish, to eliminate or completely end something, especially if it is harmful or obstructive, used to apply to people and physical objects, but that usage is now outdated except in poetry or very creative language. Today, abolish refers to institutions, customs, and conditions, particularly those that are widespread and have existed for a long time; for example, to abolish slavery, ignorance, intemperance, and poverty. A building that is completely burned down is said to be destroyed by fire. The term annihilate, in philosophical terms, means to completely put something out of existence. As far as we know, matter is never annihilated, only transformed into a different form. Some people believe that the wicked will be annihilated. Abolish is not used for laws; instead, we say repeal, abrogate, nullify, and so on: repeal is done by the body that enacted the law, nullify is through revolutionary actions; a later statute can abrogate an earlier law it conflicts with, even without formally repealing it. An appellate court can reverse or set aside a lower court's decision. Overthrow can have both positive and negative meanings; suppress is usually positive, while subvert always has a negative connotation, as in subvert our freedoms or suppress a rebellion. The law prohibits things that may not have ever existed; it abolishes an existing harm. We abate a nuisance and terminate a dispute. Compare CANCEL; DEMOLISH; EXTERMINATE.

[7]

Abomination (from the L. ab omen, a thing of bad omen) was originally used to describe anything seen as religiously or ceremonially offensive or detestable; for example, "The things which are highly esteemed among men are abomination in the sight of God." Luke xvi, 15. The term is often applied more to the thing that is so viewed than to the mindset that holds such a view; in everyday language, abomination signifies something that is very much disliked or hated, or that deserves to be. Choice food might be something a sick person finds offensive and unpleasant; terrible food would be considered an abomination. A toad is repulsive to many; a foul sewer is an abomination. When referring to crimes, abomination is used for those that are particularly brutal, shameful, or revolting; theft is a wrongdoing; infanticide is an abomination.

An abridgment provides the key parts of a work pretty much as they are. An outline or synopsis is a kind of sketch that closely follows the plan. An abstract or digest is a standalone statement of what the book contains. An analysis highlights the main thoughts or arguments, whether they're stated outright or suggested. A summary gives the most concise version of the results or conclusions. An epitome, compend, or compendium offers a condensed view of a subject, regardless of whether it comes from a previous publication. We can have an abridgment of a dictionary, but not an analysis, abstract, digest, or summary. We can have an epitome of religion, a compendium of English literature, but not an abridgment. Compare ABBREVIATION.

[8]

In strict terms, absolute means free from all limitations or control, and supreme means superior to everything else; these can only truly apply to the divine. However, both terms are also used in a modified sense for human authorities; absolute then means free from limitations by other authorities, and supreme means elevated above all others; for example, an absolute monarch or the supreme court. In this context, absolute doesn’t necessarily have a negative connotation, but since absolute power in human hands is often abused, the negative meaning tends to dominate. Autocratic power has no limits beyond the ruler’s own self; arbitrary power has no limits outside the ruler’s will or judgment, with arbitrary implying a sense of willfulness and unpredictability. Despotic usually refers to a harsh or severe use of power, which is more definitively described as tyrannical. The term arbitrary can be used positively; for example, the pronunciation of names is arbitrary; however, its negative connotation is more common, as seen in an arbitrary procedure. Irresponsible power isn’t necessarily bad, but it is definitely dangerous; an executor or trustee shouldn’t be irresponsible; an irresponsible ruler is likely to be tyrannical. A perfect ruler might be irresponsible without being tyrannical. The term authoritative is always positive, implying the rightful claim to authority; imperative, peremptory, and positive are usually seen as positive as well; for example, an authoritative definition, an imperative demand, a peremptory command, or positive instructions. Imperious means assuming and determined to command, and fiercely requiring obedience. An imperious demand may not be offensive; it simply insists on compliance and won’t accept refusal; an arrogant demand is offensive because of its superior tone, while an arbitrary demand is unreasonable; an imperious nature can easily become arbitrary and arrogant. A person with an independent spirit tends to resent an imperious attitude, especially from someone whose superiority isn’t clearly established. Commanding is always used positively; for example, a commanding presence or a commanding status. Compare DOGMATIC; INFINITE; PERFECT.

To absolve, in the strict sense, means to set free from any bond. Someone can be absolved from a promise if the person to whom the promise was made breaks faith. To absolve from sins formally means to remove their condemnation and penalty, seen as a bond on the soul. "Almighty God ... pardoneth and absolveth all those who truly repent and sincerely believe in his holy Gospel." Book of Common Prayer, Declar. of Absol. To acquit someone of sin or crime is to free them from that accusation, declaring them innocent; the innocent are justly acquitted; the guilty may be mercifully absolved. Compare PARDON.

One is freed from (rarely of) a promise, a sin, etc.

A fluid that is absorbed is taken up into the mass of the absorbing body, with which it may or may not permanently combine. Wood expands when it absorbs moisture, and iron expands when it absorbs heat, the substance remaining mostly unchanged; quicklime, when it absorbs water, becomes a new substance with different qualities, known as hydrated or slaked lime. A substance is consumed when it is destructively taken on by another substance, being, or agency, so that it ceases to exist or to be recognized as it originally was; fuel is consumed by fire, and food is consumed in the body; consume is also used for anything removed from the market for personal use, like silk and woolen goods that are consumed. A great talker engrosses the conversation. A gullible person swallows the most ridiculous[10] statement. A busy student imbibes or drinks in knowledge; he is absorbed in a subject that captures all his attention. "I only postponed it because I happened to get absorbed in a book." Kane Grinnell Exped. ch. 43, page 403. [H. '54.]

Plants take in moisture from the air; the student is deep in thought; nutrients can be absorbed into the system through the skin.

Abstinence from food usually means not eating; abstemiousness means eating in moderation; abstinence can be for just one occasion, while abstemiousness is a regular practice of moderation. Self-denial involves giving up what you want; abstinence can mean avoiding what you don’t want. Fasting is abstinence from food for a set time, often for religious reasons. Sobriety and temperance mean keeping a calm, balanced demeanor through moderate indulgence in some things and complete abstinence from others. We talk about temperance in eating but abstinence from vice. Total abstinence has come to mean completely avoiding alcoholic drinks.

The downside of virtue is staying away from vice.

The main idea of withdrawing makes abstract in everyday language a nicer way to say appropriate (illegally), purloin, steal. In our thinking, we discriminate between objects by distinguishing their differences; we separate one element from everything that doesn't necessarily apply to it, abstract it, and focus on it alone. We can separate two ideas and keep both in mind for comparison or contrast; but when we abstract one of them, we drop the other out of our thoughts. The mind is abstracted when it is withdrawn from all other subjects and focused on one, diverted when it is drawn away from what it wants or should focus on by some other interest, and distracted when attention is split among different subjects, making it impossible to give proper focus to any. The issue with a distracted person is that they are not abstracted. Compare DISCERN.

The purse can be taken out of the pocket; the substance separated from the accidents; a book turned into a summary.

When it comes to mental action, absorbed, abstracted, and preoccupied refer to the cause, while absent or absent-minded refer to the effect. A person who is absorbed in one thing will seem absent in other matters. Someone who is preoccupied might come across as listless and thoughtless, but those who are truly listless and thoughtless lack the mental energy to be preoccupied. The absent-minded person is oblivious to everyday things because their thoughts are focused elsewhere. A person who is preoccupied is deeply engaged in their thoughts; one can be absent-minded either due to intense focus or simply a lack of attention, leading to erratic and aimless thinking. Compare ABSTRACT.

That is absurd which goes against the basic principles of reasoning; for example, the idea that a part can be greater than the whole is absurd. A paradoxical statement may seem contradictory or absurd at first, but it can actually be true. Anything is irrational[12] when it clearly contradicts sound reasoning, foolish when it goes against common sense, silly when it is petty and contemptible in its foolishness, erroneous when it contains mistakes that undermine the outcome, and unreasonable when there appears to be a deliberate intent to err. Monstrous and preposterous describe what is overwhelmingly absurd; as in, "O monstrous! eleven buckram men grown out of two," Shakespeare 1 King Henry IV, act ii, sc. 4. The ridiculous or nonsensical is only worthy of laughter. The lunatic's claim to be a king is ridiculous; the Mother Goose rhymes are nonsensical. Compare INCONGRUOUS.

Abuse refers to all unreasonable or improper use or treatment through words or actions. A tenant does not abuse rented property through "reasonable wear," even if it may damage the property and hurt its resale value; however, they may abuse it by unnecessary defacement or negligence. It's possible to abuse someone without harming them, like when a criminal insults the judge; or to harm someone without abusing them, as when a witness tells the truth about the criminal. Terms like defame, malign, attack, revile, slander, vilify, and insult always carry negative connotations. Someone might be justifiably reproached. To deceive or exploit someone is to injure them by misusing their trust. To persecute someone means to mistreat them for their beliefs, often based on religion; to oppress usually relates to political or financial motives. "You shall not oppress a hired servant who is poor and needy," Deut. xxiv, 14. Misemploy, misuse, and pervert are often used in reference to things rather than people. A reckless youth misemploys their time, misuses their money[13] and opportunities, hurts their peers, perverts their talents, wrongs their parents, ruins themselves, and abuses every good gift of God.

Colleague is always used positively, associate and coadjutor are generally positive too; ally, assistant, associate, attendant, companion, helper can have either a good or bad connotation; abetter, accessory, accomplice, confederate are almost always negative. Ally is most often used in the context of national or military matters, or other significant connections, such as allies of tyranny. Colleague refers to civil and church connections; members of Congress from the same state are colleagues, even if they're fierce political and personal rivals. An Associate Justice of the Supreme Court ranks just below the Chief Justice. A surgeon's assistant is a doctor or medical student involved in patient care; a surgeon's attendant handles tasks like rolling bandages. Follower, henchman, retainer are individuals closely loyal to a leader, usually tied by necessity, payment, or reward. Partner has become nearly exclusive to business relationships. In legal terms, an abettor (the standard legal spelling) is always present, either actively or in theory, during the crime; an accessory is never there. An accomplice typically acts as a main participant; an accessory does not. If they are present, even just to keep watch outside, they are an abettor, not an accessory. Under common law, an accessory implies the existence of a main offender and cannot be convicted until the main offender is convicted; the accomplice or abettor can be convicted as a main offender. Accomplice and abettor are nearly synonymous, but the former is more commonly used while the latter is more distinctly legal. Compare APPENDAGE; AUXILIARY.

[14]

An accessory to the crime; before or after the fact; the accessories of a figure in a painting.

An accident is something that happens without anyone's direct intention; a chance is something that occurs without any known cause. If the direct cause of a railroad accident is identified, we can't call it a chance. To a theist, technically, there is no chance, as everything is by divine causation and control; however, chance is referenced when no specific cause is evident: "By chance there came down a certain priest that way," Luke x, 31. We can talk about a game of chance, but not a game of accident. An incident is seen as happening in the usual course of things, but secondary to the main purpose, or aside from the primary design. Fortune is the result of mysterious controlling forces. Fortune and chance are nearly the same, but chance can apply to human effort and endeavor in a way that fortune cannot; we say "he has a chance of success," or "there is one chance in a thousand," where we couldn't replace it with fortune; personified, Fortune is seen as having a random purpose, while Chance is viewed as purposeless; we talk about fickle Fortune, blind Chance; "Fortune favors the brave." The killing of people is an incident of battle; unexpected defeat is the fortune of war. Since the unintended is often the unwanted, accident tends to mean some calamity or disaster, unless stated otherwise, like when we say a fortunate or happy accident. An adventure is something that might turn out badly, while a misadventure is something that does turn out badly. A minor disturbing accident is a mishap. Compare EVENT; HAZARD.

The accident of birth; a machinery fault.

[15]

Acquaintance between people means that each person knows the other; we might know a public figure through their writings or speeches and recognize them by sight, but we can't claim acquaintance unless they personally know us. There might be a pleasant acquaintance with little companionship, and on the flip side, there can be a lot of companionship with little acquaintance, like busy coworkers sitting at adjacent desks. Similarly, there can be association in business without intimacy or friendship. Acquaintance has many levels, from a brief or casual connection to a close or intimate acquaintance; however, acquaintance by itself usually means less than familiarity or intimacy. When it comes to people, familiarity is increasingly used in a negative way, as in the saying, "Familiarity breeds contempt;" therefore, in personal relationships, the term intimacy, which indicates a deep understanding of each other's thoughts and feelings, is now commonly preferred. Friendship includes acquaintance with a certain level of intimacy, and usually also companionship, although more broadly, friendship can exist between people who have never met and only know each other through words and actions. Acquaintance doesn't imply friendship, since it's possible to be well acquainted with an enemy. Fellowship requires not just acquaintance and companionship, but also sympathy. There can be significant friendship without a lot of fellowship, particularly between those whose lives or interests are very different. There can be enjoyable fellowship that doesn't quite reach the depth of friendship. Compare ATTACHMENT; FRIENDSHIP; LOVE. In terms of studies, activities, etc., acquaintance is less than familiarity, which implies detailed knowledge of specifics, often gained through long experience or association.

Familiarity with a subject; of one person with another; between persons.

[16]Acerbity refers to a sharpness, with a hint of bitterness, which can come from a brief annoyance or ongoing impatience; asperity is sharper and more pronounced, indicating clear irritation or frustration; in conversation, asperity often shows through the tone of voice rather than the actual words used. Acrimony in speech or attitude is comparable to a corrosive acid; it arises from a settled temperament or deep-seated feelings of dislike or unkindness. Someone might speak with momentary asperity to their child, but not with acrimony, unless a rift had begun. Malignity represents the utmost of ingrained ill will; virulence signifies a poisonous hostility. Virulence in speech is a characteristic that makes language seem toxic. Virulence is direct; malignity can be cloaked in smooth and polite language. We speak of intense virulence and deep malignity. Severity is always painful, and can be severe, but usually suggests, whether rightly or wrongly, a sense of justice. Compare ANGER; BITTER; ENMITY.

An act is originally something done through the use of power, which makes it similar to deed or effect. Action is a doing. An act is therefore single, individual, and momentary; action is a combination of acts, or a process, state, or habit of exercising power. We refer to a virtuous act, but more often a virtuous course of action. We talk about the action of acid on metal, not its act. Act is also used for the simple exertion of power, like an act of will. In this way, an act doesn’t necessarily imply an external effect, while an action does. Morally, the act of murder is in the intent to kill; legally, the act isn't complete without actually delivering the fatal blow. Both act and deed refer to something done, but act focuses on the power exerted, while deed emphasizes the result achieved; for example, a voluntary act, a bad deed. When combined with other words, act is often qualified by another noun, while action is typically preceded by an adjective; we might say a kind act, though more commonly an act of kindness,[17] but only a kind action, not an action of kindness. Between act and deed, deed is usually reserved for significant, noteworthy, and impressive acts, much like achievement, exploit, and feat.

A feat shows strength, skill, and personal power, whether mental or physical, especially the physical; like a feat of arms or a feat of memory. An exploit is a notable or glorious deed, involving bravery or heroism, typically combined with strength, skill, high-mindedness, and quick thinking; an achievement is accomplishing something significant and noteworthy; an exploit is impressive, but its impact might be short-lived; an achievement is substantial, and its impact lasts. Act and action stand in contrast to everything that is just passive and receptive. The most intense action is easier than just enduring passively.

Active refers to both quickness and consistency of action; in the first sense, it’s similar to agile, alert, brisk, and so on; in the second, it aligns with busy, diligent, and industrious. The active love to engage in work, the busy are currently working, and the diligent and industrious are usually busy. The restless are active because they struggle to stay still; their activity might lack purpose or be excessive compared to the intended goal. The officious are unhelpfully active in other people's affairs. Compare ALERT; ALIVE; MEDDLESOME.

Active in work, in a cause; for a purpose, like for justice; with people or tools; around something, like around other people's affairs.

[18]

Sharpness, acuteness, and insight, no matter how keen, and penetration, no matter how deep, don't fully capture the meaning of acumen, which also suggests the ability to effectively use these qualities. There are people with keen insight and great penetration whose abilities are mostly useless. Acumen is sharpness with a purpose and comes from a mind that is both comprehensive and insightful. Cleverness refers to a practical skill in studying or learning. Insight and discernment are often related to judging character; penetration and perspicacity are directed towards other areas of knowledge. Sagacity is an unrefined skill in quickly using perceptions to achieve a goal, usually in practical matters; acumen can grow with study and concerns highly specialized fields. Shrewdness is keenness or sagacity, often with a slightly negative inclination, ready to exploit those with duller minds. Perspicacity is the ability to see clearly through difficult or complex situations. We talk about the acuteness of an observer or a reasoner, the insight and discernment of a student, a clergyman, or a merchant, the sagacity of a hound, the keenness of a debater, the shrewdness of a loan shark, and the penetration, perspicacity, and acumen of a philosopher.

To add means to increase by joining or combining: unlike multiply, which means to increase by repeating. To augment something is to increase it by any means, but this word isn't usually used for physical objects; we don’t augment a house, a farm, or a nation, etc. We might enlarge a house, a farm, or an empire, extend influence or control, augment wealth, power, or influence, attach or annex a building to one it adjoins or add papers to the document they refer to, annex a clause or a codicil, affix a seal or signature, annex a territory, attach a condition to a promise. A speaker may amplify a talk by providing a more detailed treatment[19] than was originally planned, or he may append or subjoin certain comments without changing what was said before. We cast up or sum up an account, though add up and make up are now more common expressions.

Other items are to be added to the account.

One is addicted to whatever has taken a strong, habitual, and lasting grip on one's actions, interests, or involuntary tendencies, much like a habit or indulgence. A person can be used to work, attached to their career, devoted to their faith, or given to studying or overeating (in a negative way, given over or given up implies a stronger and more hopeless situation, similar to abandoned). Someone inclined to luxury might become accustomed to living in poverty. One may be wedded to what has become second nature; for instance, being wedded to science or art. Prone is only used negatively and generally refers to natural tendencies; for example, our hearts are prone to evil. Abandoned indicates a deep moral decline in someone who has surrendered to wickedness. Addicted can have a positive connotation sometimes, but is more often used negatively; for instance, addicted to studying or addicted to drinking. Devoted is mainly used in a positive light; for example, a mother's devoted love.

Addicted to bad habits.

To accost means to speak first, whether to a friend or a stranger, usually with the intention of starting a conversation; greet isn't as strictly defined, since you can respond to someone else's greeting; greet and hail might just involve a quick word; a greeting can be completely silent; to hail is to greet loudly and often in a cheerful and friendly manner, as shown in the phrase "hail fellow, well met." To salute is to greet with a sign of respect, like a soldier does with their commander. To apostrophize means to formally address someone or something personified, separate from the audience you are speaking to; for example, a preacher might apostrophize virtue, saints from the past, or even God. To appeal specifically means to ask for help or support in some way. Address is a bit more formal than accost or greet, although it can often be used interchangeably with them. You can address someone at length or in writing; you accost them verbally and briefly.

Address the memorial to the legislature; the president spoke to the people in an eloquent speech; he confronted an intruder with anger.

Address is that unique quality that allows a person to achieve their goals without apparent effort or struggle, often with the support and approval of those involved. It’s a broad ability to apply whatever qualities are most needed for a situation at that moment. It includes skill and judgment to understand what to do or say and what to avoid; creativity to come up with solutions; readiness to speak or act; the skillfulness that comes from practice; and sensitivity, which is the ability to navigate human character and emotions with care. Civility and politeness are essential components of effective address. Compare SPEECH.

Address when dealing with opponents; the address of a skilled strategist; an address to the audience.

[21]

Adequate, commensurate, and sufficient mean equal to a specific situation or task; for example, a sum sufficient to cover expenses; an adequate solution for the problem. Commensurate is the more precise and sophisticated term, indicating something that precisely matches the issue at hand. Adapted, fit, suitable, and qualified refer to the characteristics that align with or are appropriate for the situation. A clergyman might have strength adequate for the job of a porter, but that wouldn’t be a fit or suitable role for him. Work is satisfactory if it meets the needs of those for whom it is done, even if it may be considered poor quality by a higher standard. Qualified relates to skills gained through experience; competent involves both natural and learned abilities; a qualified teacher may no longer be competent due to health issues. Able and capable suggest general skill and potential, with able being the stronger of the two. An able person will excel in any role, while a capable person can meet any usual requirement. We say an able speaker, a capable accountant.

Sufficient for the demand; for the purpose.

An adherent is someone who is dedicated or attached to a person, group, principle, cause, belief, or something similar. A person might be an aider and supporter of a party or church without being an adherent to all its beliefs or claims. An ally is even more independent, as they can disagree on almost everything except for the specific reason they are united. The Allies who defeated Napoleon were collectively only against him. Allies are seen as equals; adherents and disciples are followers. The adherent relies more on their personal judgment, while the disciple is more under authority and guidance; that’s why we refer to the disciples of Christ rather than the adherents. Partisan has a negative and narrow connotation of sticking to a party, right or wrong. A person may be an adherent or supporter of a party but not necessarily a partisan. Backer is a term from sports and theater, personal in its application, and not commonly favored. Compare ACCESSORY.

Supporters of principle; supporters of Luther.

Adhesive is the scientific term, while sticking or sticky is the common word. Something that is adhesive tends to bond to the surface of any other object it comes into contact with; cohesive describes the tendency of particles of the same substance to stick together. Polished plate glass is not adhesive, but when such plates are packed together, they are highly cohesive. An adhesive plaster is commonly known as a sticking-plaster. Sticky refers to a more limited and usually annoying level of the same property. Glutinous, gummy, viscid, and viscous are terms used for fluid or semi-fluid substances, like pitch or tar.

The hard, wet clay stuck to the foot, slowing things down.

Adjacent farms might not be connected; if they are adjoining, they meet at the property line. Conterminous means their dimensions are exactly equal on the side where they connect. Contiguous can refer to either adjacent or adjoining. Abutting is used more for one building or estate touching the end of another than for its proximity. Buildings can be adjacent or adjoining without being attached. Near is a relative term; places might be called near on the railroad that would seem far away elsewhere. Neighboring always suggests such closeness that the inhabitants[23] can be neighbors. Next refers to the closest object among several; next neighbor indicates a neighborhood.

The farm was next to the village.

In today's sense of wonder, admire is almost outdated; the word now conveys joy and approval, where the feeling of wonder subtly blends in. We admire beauty in nature and art, delight in the innocent joy of children, enjoy books or hanging out with friends, a walk, or a meal. We approve of what is outstanding, applaud heroic actions, esteem the good, and love our friends. We honor and respect noble character wherever we find it; we revere and venerate it in the elderly. We extol goodness and adore the majesty and power of God.

Admire at may still be found very rarely in the old sense of wonder at.

To embellish means to enhance and bring to life by adding something that isn’t necessarily closely related to what it’s added to; to illustrate means to add something similar enough to shed light on the main subject. An author embellishes their story with vivid descriptions, the artist illustrates it with beautiful drawings, and the binder gilds and decorates the book. Garnish is on a simpler level; for example, the feast was garnished with flowers. Deck and bedeck usually refer to clothing; a mother bedecks her daughter with silk and jewels. To adorn and to ornament both mean to add what makes something beautiful and appealing, but ornament is more about physical decoration; for instance, the gateway was ornamented with delicate carving. Adorn has a more elevated and spiritual connotation, referring to a beauty that’s not physical and can't be achieved through decorations, but rather seems in perfect harmony with what it enhances; if we say the gateway was adorned with beautiful carving, we imply a unity and grandeur of design that ornamented cannot convey. We might say of some admirable scholar or statesman, "he touched nothing that he did not adorn."

Adorn his temples with a crown.

One might feel annoyed by the well-meaning awkwardness of a servant, irritated by a tight shoe or a thoughtless comment, vexed by some careless neglect or pointless misfortune, wounded by the ingratitude of a child or friend. To tease is to cause some minor and maybe playful annoyance. Aggravate in the sense of offend is casual. To provoke, literally to challenge or call out, means to start a conflict; one provokes another to violence. To affront is to present some bold offense or indignity directly to someone; it’s a bit less offensive than to insult. Compare PIQUE.

In strict philosophical terms, the main mover or doer of an action is the agent. So we refer to a person as a voluntary agent, a free agent. However, in everyday language, especially in business, an agent is not the primary actor, but rather just an instrument or factor, acting based on orders or instructions. Compare CAUSE.

A company sales agent.

[25]

Agree is the broadest term in this group, meaning to have similar qualities, proportions, views, or inclinations, so as to be free from discord, conflict, or contradiction in a given relationship. To concur means to agree in general; to coincide means to agree in every detail. Whether referring to people or things, concur tends to express itself in action more than coincide; we can either concur or coincide in an opinion, but we concur in a decision; views coincide, causes concur. One accepts another's terms, complies with his wishes, admits his statement, approves his plan, conforms to his views of doctrine or duty, accedes or consents to his proposal. Accede shows a more formal agreement, while consent indicates a more complete agreement. To assent is an act of understanding; to consent, an act of will. We can concur or agree with others, either in opinion or decision. Someone might silently acquiesce in something they don’t agree with, but aren’t willing to contest. They admit the charge or statement made by someone else—admit always implying a hint of reluctance. Assent is sometimes used as a gentler form of consent, as if agreeing with the opinion guarantees approval of the decision.

I agree with the speaker; to the proposed terms; people agree on a statement of principles, rules, etc.; we must agree among ourselves.

Agriculture is a broad term that encompasses the science, art, and process of meeting human needs by producing soil products and related industries; farming is the practical application of agriculture as a business. There can be theoretical agriculture, but there is no theoretical farming; we refer to the science of agriculture and the business of farming; scientific agriculture can exist entirely in books, while scientific farming happens on the land. We use the term agricultural college instead of a college of farming. Farming involves the cultivation of large areas of land and the production of more substantial crops; gardening focuses on the intensive cultivation of a smaller area for fruits, flowers, vegetables, etc., and while it can occur on a farm, it is a separate industry. Gardening in general, kitchen-gardening for household vegetables, market-gardening for produce sold, floriculture for flowers, and horticulture for fruits, flowers, or vegetables are all branches of agriculture, but not specifically or typically of farming; farming itself is one area of agriculture. Husbandry is a general term for any form of practical agriculture, but it is mostly used poetically now. Tillage specifically refers to the work done on the land, like plowing and fertilizing; cultivation focuses on the processes that promote crop growth; we talk about the tillage of the soil and the cultivation of corn, and we also describe land as in a state of cultivation, or under cultivation, etc. Culture now refers to the careful development of any product to achieve perfection, particularly through careful attention over generations; the improved varieties of strawberries have been developed through careful culture; a successful crop in any year results from good cultivation.

The aim is the direction in which someone shoots, or sometimes what they're aiming at. The mark is what they shoot at; the goal is what they run toward. All of these denote the direction of endeavor. The end is the point where someone expects or hopes to finish their efforts; the object is what they want to achieve as a reward for their work. Aspiration, design, endeavor, and purpose, which refer to the mental processes by which the aim is achieved, are often used interchangeably with aim. Aspiration relates to what are seen as noble aims; endeavor, design, intention, and purpose can refer to both good and bad. Aspiration is less about commitment than the other terms; someone may aspire to an object and yet lack the determination of purpose needed to achieve it. Purpose is stronger than intention. Design specifically refers to the careful planning of means to achieve an end; endeavor refers to the efforts taken to get there. Someone whose aims are noble, whose aspirations are high, whose designs are wise, and whose purposes are firm, can hope to reach the goal of their ambitions and will certainly achieve some object worthy of a lifetime's endeavor. Compare AMBITION; DESIGN.

Air is the mix of qualities that creates the overall impression we get when we’re around someone; for example, we say he has the air of a scholar, or the air of a villain. Appearance focuses more on clothing and other outward traits. We might say of a travel-worn pedestrian that he has the appearance of a tramp, but the air of a gentleman. Expression and look are particularly related to the face. Expression usually refers to something consistent; for example, he has a pleasant expression on his face; look can be fleeting; for instance, a look of dismay crossed his face. However, we can also talk about the look or looks as representing everything we observe; for instance, he had the look of an adventurer; I didn’t like his looks. Bearing is a somewhat elevated term; for example, he has a noble bearing; port is nearly the same in meaning as bearing, but is more commonly seen in literature. Carriage is usually used positively; like, that lady has a good carriage. Mien closely relates to air, but isn’t often used negatively. We say a rakish air instead of a rakish mien. Mien can reflect a dominant feeling; for example, “an indignant mien.” Demeanor refers to more than just appearance, encompassing conduct and behavior; like, a modest demeanor. Manner and style are, in large part at least, learned behaviors. Compare BEHAVIOR.

Aerial and airy both mean related to the air, but airy also refers to things that seem light and ethereal; we talk about airy shapes and airy nothings, where we wouldn't typically use aerial; ethereal describes something that belongs to the upper air, the pure ether, and can often have a heavenly connotation. Sprightly, meaning spirited, is about light, free, and cheerful activity of mind and body. Things that are lively or animated can be either enjoyable or not; for example, an animated discussion or a lively group.

Alarm, derived from all'arme, meaning "to arms," is a call to confront and fend off danger, and can coexist with genuine courage. Affright and fright signify sudden fear that, at least momentarily, overwhelms bravery. The sentinel detects the enemy’s sudden approach with alarm; the unarmed villagers react with affright. Apprehension, disquietude, dread, misgiving, and solicitude involve anticipating danger; consternation, dismay, and terror represent overwhelming fear, usually in the direct presence of something frightening, though these terms can also carry anticipatory meaning. Timidity is a trait, habit, or state characterized by a tendency to be affected by fear. Someone who is very timid is prone to unnecessary alarm and even terror. Compare FEAR.

Alarm spread through the camp, among the soldiers, at the news.

Alert, ready, and wakeful refer to being watchful and prompt for action. Ready suggests thoughtful preparation; the wandering Indian is alert, while the trained soldier is ready. Ready conveys more energy and vitality than prepared. The gun is prepared; the person is ready. Prompt indicates readiness for an appointment or [29] demand at the right moment. The good general is ready for emergencies, alert to notice opportunity or danger, and prompt to take action. The meaning of brisk and nimble is the secondary and now less common interpretation of alert. Compare ACTIVE; ALIVE; NIMBLE; VIGILANT.

Foreign means being different in terms of origin, while alien refers to a difference in loyalty. In a figurative sense, foreign describes something that is distant, different, or unrelated; whereas alien describes something that is conflicting, hostile, or opposed. Impertinent and irrelevant matters cannot be taken into account in a certain context; inappropriate matters also shouldn't be considered. Compare ALIEN, n.; CONTRAST, v.

Such a purpose was foreign to my thoughts: to be preferable.

A naturalized citizen is not an alien, even though they are a foreigner by birth and might feel like a stranger in the place where they live. A person who was born abroad but hasn't been naturalized is considered an alien, even if they have lived in the country for most of their life and are no longer a stranger to its people or institutions. They are an alien in one country if their loyalty lies with another. People of any country who still live in their homeland are, strictly speaking, foreigners to the people of all other countries, rather than aliens; however, alien and foreigner are often used interchangeably.

Aliens to (less commonly from) our nation and laws; aliens in our land, among our people.

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Alike is a broad term that means two or more objects share some or all of each other's qualities. By using modifiers, alike can convey differing degrees of resemblance; for example, these houses are somewhat (i.e., partially) alike; or, these houses are exactly (i.e., in all respects) alike. Cotton and wool are alike because they can both be woven into cloth. Substances are homogeneous when they consist of elements of the same type or have the same structure. Two pieces of iron can be homogeneous in material but not alike in size or shape. In geometry, two triangles are equal when you can overlay them, matching line for line and angle for angle; they are equivalent when they simply occupy the same area. An identical proposition states exactly the same thing in subject and predicate. Similar refers to a close resemblance that allows for questioning or disputing complete likeness or identity. To say "this is the identical man" means he is not just similar to the person I have in mind, but that he is the very same individual. Things are analogous when they are similar in concept, design, use, or nature, even if they look quite different; for instance, the gills of fishes are said to be analogous to the lungs of land animals.

The specimens are similar in type; they all seem the same to me.

Alive refers to all levels of life, from simply being existing or existent as a living being, as when we say he is just alive, to the fullest sense of vitality and energy, like in the phrases "he is all alive," "thoroughly alive." The word quick, which originally meant "having life," is now mostly used to describe the energy of life as shown through quickness of movement. Breathing can also convey this contrast. We say of a dying[31] man that he is still breathing; or we might refer to a breathing statue, or "breathing and sounding, beauteous battle," Tennyson Princess can. v, l. 155, where it means having, or seeming to have, full and vigorous breath, abundant life. Compare ACTIVE; ALERT; NIMBLE.

Alive in every nerve; alive to every noble impulse; alive with passion, hope, determination; alive through all his being.

Allay and alleviate are closely related in meaning and have often been used interchangeably. However, strictly speaking, to allay means to calm down, quiet, or soothe something that is stirred up; whereas alleviate means to lessen a burden. We allay suffering by using methods to soothe and calm the person who is suffering; we alleviate suffering by doing something to address the cause, so there’s less to endure. When the issue is mainly about the agitation, to allay that agitation is essentially to remove the problem; for example, to allay anger or panic. We alleviate poverty, but do not allay it. Pacify, which comes directly from Latin, and appease, which comes from Latin through French, mean to bring peace; to mollify means to soften; to calm, quiet, or soothe means to make still; compose means to bring together, unite, or adjust to a calm state; to soothe (originally meaning to agree with or humor) means to bring to a pleasant quiet state. We allay excitement, appease a disturbance, calm agitation, compose our feelings or expression, pacify those who argue, quiet the loud or noisy, and soothe sadness or distress. Compare ALLEVIATE.

To allege means to formally claim something is true or can be proven, without actually proving it. To adduce, which literally means to lead to, is to present the[32] evidence that supports what has been alleged. Adduce is a secondary term; nothing can be adduced in evidence until something has been stated or alleged, which the evidence aims to support. An alleged fact is subject to question or doubt. Referring to an alleged document, an alleged will, or an alleged crime either raises questions or, at the very least, suggests reluctance to accept that the document exists, the will is authentic, or that the crime actually happened. Using alleged is still respectful; calling something a "so-called" will or deed implies discredit and suggests the speaker is ready to label it as unquestionably fake; alleged simply doesn't take a stance and keeps the question open. To produce means to present, like bringing forward documents or people. We don't use adduce for people; we say introduce or produce them. When an alleged criminal goes to trial, both sides usually advance a theory and adduce the strongest evidence to support it; they will produce documents and witnesses, cite precedents, assign reasons, introduce suggestions, and offer pleas. The accused will typically assert his innocence. Compare STATE.

Allegiance is the duty of loyalty and obedience that a person owes to their government or leader in exchange for the protection they receive. The feudal meanings of these terms have mostly faded away with the society that created them, but their origins still influence their current meanings. A patriotic American feels a strong loyalty to the republic; they sometimes take an oath of allegiance to the government, but their loyalty inspires them to do more than what mere allegiance requires; they honor God alone as the only king and lord, or those principles of justice that are spiritually supreme; they recognize the duty of obedience to all legitimate authority; they reject the idea of subjection. Fealty is becoming somewhat rare, except in formal or poetic language. We prefer to talk about the faithfulness of a citizen, spouse, or friend rather than fealty.

We respect the loyalty of the citizen to the government; the government has the right to loyalty from the citizen.

[33]

In contemporary language, we can say that an allegory is an extended simile, while a metaphor is a shortened simile often found in a phrase or even a single word. The simile makes its comparison clear through words like as, like, or similar terms; the metaphor presents it directly without any comparison markers. The allegory, parable, or fable tells its story as if it were true, leaving the reader or listener to realize its fictional nature and learn its lesson. All of these are, in a strict sense, fictions; however, the term fiction is now mostly used to describe novels or romances. An allegory is a moral or religious story, where the moral lesson is the main point, and all descriptions and events are just supporting details, like in "The Pilgrim's Progress." A fable is usually shorter, featuring animals as the speakers and characters, and typically imparts some practical wisdom or cleverness, as seen in "The Fables of Æsop." A parable is strictly moral or religious, shorter and simpler than an allegory, with its lesson being more immediately obvious, delivered almost instantly. Any comparison, analogy, example, story, anecdote, or something similar that sheds light on a subject can be called an illustration, this term encompassing all the others in broader usage. Compare FICTION; STORY.

Etymologically, to alleviate means to lift a burden towards oneself, making it easier for the person carrying it; to relieve means to take it away from the person, almost completely; to remove means to get rid of it entirely. So, alleviate is less than relieve; relieve is usually less than remove. We alleviate, relieve, or remove the problem; we relieve, not alleviate, the person suffering. Assuage means to sweeten; mitigate means to make mild; moderate means to keep within limits; abate means to reduce, thus making something less. We abate a fever; lessen anxiety; moderate passions or desires; lighten burdens; mitigate or alleviate pain; reduce inflammation;[34] soften, assuage, or moderate grief; we lighten or mitigate punishments; we relieve any suffering of body or mind that can be helped, comforted, or remedied. Alleviate has often been confused with allay. Compare ALLAY.

Alliance most commonly refers to a connection formed by treaty between sovereign states for mutual aid in war. Partnership is a business term; alliance is primarily political or matrimonial. Coalition is often used to describe political parties; fusion is now the more common term in this context. In an alliance between nations, there is no surrender of sovereignty, and no union except for a specified time and purpose. League and alliance are used with hardly any difference in meaning. In a confederacy or confederation, there is an attempt to unite separate states under a general government without surrendering sovereignty. Union implies enough concessions to effectively make the separate states one. Federation is mainly a poetic and rhetorical term expressing a similar idea, as in Tennyson's "federation of the world," Locksley Hall, l. 128. The United States is neither a confederacy nor an alliance; the nation might be called a federation, but prefers to be referred to as a federal union.

Alliance with a neighboring people; against the common enemy; for offense and defense; alliance of, between, or among nations.

Allot, originally meaning to assign by lot, refers to giving a specific thing to someone. A certain amount of time is allotted; for example, I expect to live out my allotted time. A specific period is appointed; for instance, the audience gathered at the appointed hour. Allot can also relate to space; for example, to allot a piece of land for a cemetery, but we more often use select, set apart, or assign now. Allot is no longer used to refer to people. Appoint can refer to time, space, or people; for instance, the appointed day; the appointed place; an officer was appointed to this position. Destine can also refer to time, place, or people, but it always indicates something significantly in the future; a man appoints to meet his friend in five minutes; he destines his son to pursue his own profession. Assign is seldom used for time, but more for places, people, or things. We assign a task to be completed and assign a person to do it, who, if he fails, must assign a reason for not accomplishing it. What is allotted, appointed, or assigned is somewhat arbitrary; what is awarded is the rightful return for something the recipient has done, and they have the right to it; for example, the medal was awarded for valor. Compare APPORTION.

Allot to a company for a purpose.

We allow things we don't try to stop; we permit things when we give explicit approval. When this approval is given verbally, it's called permission; when it’s in writing, it’s usually called a permit. Some places anyone can visit without question or obstruction; others require a permit from the manager to visit; and there are those where visitors are admitted at certain times without needing a formal permit. We allow a child's innocent interruption; we concede a right; grant a request; consent to sell a property; permit an inspection of accounts; sanction a marriage; tolerate the rudeness of a well-meaning servant; submit to a surgery; yield to a demand or necessity even if we don’t want to, or yield something under pressure; for example, the sheriff yielded the keys at gunpoint and allowed the mob to enter. Suffer, in the sense of mild concession, is becoming rare, being replaced by allow, permit, or tolerate. Compare PERMISSION.

See also synonyms for PROHIBIT.

To allow of (in the best recent usage, simply to allow) such an action; allow one in such a course; allow for spending money.

Alloy can be a mixture of common metals with precious ones, like to make coins harder, or it can be a combination of two or more metals. Adulteration, debasement, and deterioration always have negative connotations; admixture is neutral and can be either good or bad; alloy is usually seen as positive in a literal sense. Too much alloy basically means adulteration; however, adulteration is now primarily associated with food, drink, medicine, and related products. In a figurative sense, when referring to character and such, alloy has a negative implication because the only standard there is perfection.

Advert, mention, and refer are used for language that clearly communicates a specific thought; the others refer to language from which it can be inferred. We allude to a topic subtly, perhaps through a word or phrase, as if in passing; we advert to it when we divert our attention to address it; we refer to it through any clear statement that directs the mind or attention towards it; for example, marginal figures refer to a related passage; we mention something explicitly, as in naming it. The speaker adverted to the recent unrest and the negligence of some public officials; though he mentioned no names, it was easy to understand whom he alluded to. One can hint at something in a friendly manner, but what is insinuated is always negative, often both hostile and cowardly. One can indicate his wishes, intimate his plans, imply[37] his opinion, signify his will, suggest a course of action. Compare SUGGESTION.

The passage clearly refers to the Jewish Passover.

To allure means to draw in like a lure, using some charm or the prospect of pleasure or advantage. We can attract others to something without meaning to; for instance, good people can unconsciously attract others to virtue. We can allure people to either something bad or something good and noble with intention and effort, as in the famous line, "Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way," Goldsmithing Deserted Village, l. 170. Lure is more about the physical aspect. It’s what we’d use to describe drawing in an animal. Coax reflects the attraction of the person, not the thing. A person can be coaxed into something that isn’t at all alluring. Cajole and decoy imply deceiving and trapping someone. To inveigle means to lead someone in blindly. To tempt is to try to lead someone astray; to seduce is to succeed in wining someone from good to bad. Win can be used in either a negative or positive sense, and in the positive sense, it goes beyond the highest meaning of allure, because it achieves what allure tries to do; as in, "He that winneth souls is wise," Prov. xi, 30.

Allure to a course; allure by hopes; allure from evil to good.

While some differences between these words and phrases may be noticeable to a careful student, in practice, the choice between them mostly comes down to achieving a pleasing sound and avoiding repetition. The words can be divided into two groups: as well as, besides, in addition, too, withal simply add a fact or thought; also (all so), in like manner, likewise, similarly confirm that what is being added is similar to what it is being added to. As well comes after the word or phrase it is linked to. We can say the singers as well as the players, or the players, and the singers as well.

A choice can be many things; an alternative is strictly a choice between two things. More often, it's one of two things from which a choice needs to be made, and either of those is the alternative to the other. For example, the alternative to surrender is death. The two things between which there is a choice can be called the alternatives; both Mill and Gladstone are noted for broadening the meaning of alternative to include several options, with Gladstone even referring to "the fourth and last of these alternatives." An option is the right or privilege to choose; choice can refer to the right to choose, the act of choosing, or the thing chosen. A capable and willing person often has many resources. Pick, from the Saxon, and election, from the Latin, suggest having options laid out before you, with the freedom and ability to choose what you want; for instance, there were twelve horses among which I could take my pick. A choice, pick, election, or preference is what best suits someone; an alternative is what one is limited to; a resource is what one comfortably turns to.

To amass means to gather things together to create a large amount or quantity. Generally, accumulate is used for a slower process, while amass refers to a quicker collection of money or materials, with amass focusing on the overall result or bulk and accumulate highlighting the specific process or rate of collection. We say interest is accumulated (or accumulates) instead of is amassed; he accumulated a fortune over the years; he quickly amassed a fortune through smart investments. Goods or money meant for immediate use are considered to be collected rather than amassed. They might be stored up for longer or shorter periods; however, to hoard always implies an intention for permanent keeping, usually in a selfish manner. Aggregate is now most often used with numbers and amounts; for example, the expenses will aggregate to a round million.

Gather for oneself; for a purpose; from afar; with great effort; by means of industry.

Etymologically, an amateur is someone who loves, while a connoisseur is someone who knows. In practice, the term amateur refers to someone who pursues any study or art simply for the love of it; the word implies a certain level of superficiality, although noticeable excellence can sometimes be achieved by amateurs. A connoisseur is expected to be so well-informed about any art or work that they can criticize or choose intelligently and authoritatively; there are many incompetent critics, but there can't truly be an incompetent connoisseur. The amateur practices something without necessarily being well-informed about it; the connoisseur is well-informed about something they may not practice at all. A novice or tyro can be a professional; an amateur never is, although an amateur can be as skilled and experienced as a novice or tyro never is. Dilettante, which originally meant amateur, has somewhat evolved to refer to someone who is superficial, pretentious, and affected, whether in theory or practice.

An art hobbyist.

Amazement and astonishment both describe the overwhelming feeling of the mind when faced with something unexpected. Astonishment especially affects our emotions, while amazement engages the intellect. Awe is when the mind surrenders to something immensely grand or powerful, ranging from feelings of fear or dread to profound reverence. Admiration encompasses delight and respect. Surprise exists between astonishment and amazement, typically related to less significant or less shocking subjects. Amazement can be either enjoyable or distressing, as experienced with the beauty of mountains or the rage of a storm. We can say pleased surprise, but it’s rare to say pleased astonishment. Amazement involves some level of confusion or bewilderment; however, confusion and bewilderment can happen without amazement, such as when dealing with numerous urgent details. You can experience astonishment without feeling bewildered or confused. Wonder is often enjoyable and can persist when reflecting on things that exceed our understanding, like the vastness, order, and beauty of the universe, which continually fill us with increasing wonder. Compare PERPLEXITY.

I was amazed by such reckless bravery.

Aspiration is simply the desire to achieve excellence. Ambition, originally referring to the act of canvassing for votes, primarily relates to seeking approval or recognition from others, driven by a strong desire for power, fame, or something considered significant and valuable. The rewards of aspiration are virtue, nobility, skill, and other admirable qualities. The rewards of ambition include advancement, fame, and honor. There is a noble, wise form of ambition as well as an ignoble, selfish, and harmful version. Emulation is less about achieving excellence or success for its own sake and more about trying to equal or surpass others. Noble emulation occurs when our role models are admirable, and the means we employ are worthy. However, at its core, emulation is a lesser motivator than aspiration, which seeks high qualities or character purely for their own sake, independent of comparison to others. Competition involves striving for something that others also seek at the same time. Emulation deals with ideals, while competition involves tangible goals; rivalry, which shares a similar meaning with competition, differs in the nature of what is contested, often involving nobler aims that are less easily measured. We talk about competition in business, emulation in academics, and rivalry in love, politics, etc.; emulation relates to excellence, success, and achievements; competition is for a prize; rivalry occurs between individuals or nations. Competition can be friendly, while rivalry is typically adversarial. Opposition is increasingly replacing competition in business terminology; it suggests that the competitor is an adversary and an obstacle.

To amend is to make improvements by removing flaws, mistakes, or shortcomings, and it always refers to something that, at some point, doesn't meet a standard of excellence. Advance, better, and improve can refer to things that are quite imperfect or to those that have achieved a high level of excellence; we advance the kingdom of God, improve our children's minds, and better the morals of society. However, we rarely use these terms for things that are below ordinary approval; we don’t say we’re bettering a miserable alley or improving a disgusting sewer. In those cases, we use words like cleanse, purify, or similar terms. We correct wrongs, reform abuses, rectify specific problems of wrongdoing or mistakes; we ameliorate poverty and suffering, which we cannot completely eliminate. We mend a tool, repair a building, correct proofs; we amend faulty character or behavior, or a flawed statement or law. A text, manuscript, or statement is amended by the author or some appropriate authority; it is often emended through speculation. A motion is amended by the proposer or by the assembly; a constitution is amended by the people; an ancient text is emended by a critic who believes that what seems to him the better version is what the author intended. Compare ALLEVIATE.

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Amiable combines the meanings of lovable or lovely and loving; an amiable person has a natural affection and kindness for others, with qualities that help them win people’s love. Amiable is a stronger and more elevated word than good-natured or agreeable. Lovely often refers to appearances, such as a lovely face. Amiable describes a disposition that wants to cheer, please, and make others happy. A selfish person may know how to be agreeable; a handsome, brilliant, and witty individual may be charming or even attractive, but that doesn’t necessarily make them amiable. The words engaging, winning, and winsome add elements of beauty, skill, and grace to amiability. The benignant are calmly kind, standing back and observing from a distance. Kind, good-natured people can sometimes be rough and discourteous, failing to be agreeable or pleasing; truly amiable individuals are likely to avoid those faults due to their genuine desire to please. Good-natured people find it easy to get along with everyone in any situation. A sweet disposition is very likely to be amiable, with a loving heart bringing out all that is lovable and lovely in one’s character.

Amid or amidst means surrounded by; among or amongst means mixed with. Between (old-fashioned or poetic, betwixt) is used for two people or objects, or for two groups of people or objects. "Let there be no conflict, I ask you, between me and you, and between my herdsmen and your herdsmen," Gen. xiii, 9; referring to two groups of herdsmen. Amid suggests just position; among indicates some active connection, like companionship, hostility, etc. Lowell's "Among my Books" sees the books as companions; amid my books would imply packing, storing, or some other incidental situation. We say among friends or among enemies, amidst the woods, amid the shadows. In the[43] midst of might just have the local meaning; for example, I found myself in the midst of a crowd; or it might express an even closer connection than among; for instance, "I found myself in the midst of friends" suggests they are surrounding me closely, with me as the focus; similarly, "where two or three are gathered in my name, there am I in the midst of them," Matt. xviii, 20; in that case, it would be weaker to say "among them," impossible to say "amid them," and not as effective to say "amidst them."

Amplify is now rarely used to mean increase, to add material substance, bulk, volume, or similar; it is almost exclusively used in relation to speech or writing, meaning to make a statement fuller, whether by adding important details or simply by stating clearly what was previously implied, or by including examples to make the meaning easier to understand, etc. The main challenge for very young writers is to amplify, to move beyond a brief, direct statement by developing, expanding, or unfolding their thoughts. For those who have more experience, the main challenge is to condense their ideas sufficiently. In the early days of our literature, amplify had a positive connotation; however, this word and many similar words are now taking on the negative meaning that has long been associated with expatiate. We can develop a thought, expand an illustration, extend a discussion, expatiate on a hobby, dilate on something happy or sad, enlarge a volume, unfold a plan, widen the range of discussion.

To elaborate on the subject is unnecessary. Explain this matter with illustrations.

Analogy is specifically a similarity of relationships; a similarity[44] that can be reasoned from, so that from the similarity in certain ways we can infer that other and possibly deeper relationships exist. Affinity is a mutual attraction, whether or not there’s an apparent similarity; for example, the affinity of iron for oxygen. Coincidence refers to complete agreement in one or more respects; there may be a coincidence in the timing of very different events. Parity of reasoning applies to an argument that is equally conclusive on topics that are not strictly analogous. Similitude is a rhetorical comparison of one thing to another that shares some common points. Resemblance and similarity are external or superficial and may not involve any deeper connection; for instance, the resemblance of a cloud to a distant mountain. Compare ALLEGORY.

The comparison between (or of) nature and revelation; the comparison of sound to light; a family has some comparison with (or to) a state.

Displeasure is the mildest and most general term. Choler and ire, now rare except in poetry or highly formal language, refer to a deeper, and the latter a lingering, anger. Temper used alone in the sense of anger is informal, though we can correctly say a hot temper, a fiery temper, etc. Passion, while a broader term, can be used to mean anger in singular form; "did put me in a towering passion," Shakespeare Hamlet act v, sc. 2. Anger is a violent and vengeful emotion, which is sharp, sudden, and, like all intense feelings, usually brief. Resentment (feeling back or feeling again) is ongoing, a bitter dwelling on past hurts. Exasperation, a roughening, is an intense, surface-level anger that demands immediate expression. Rage drives someone beyond the limits of reason; fury is even stronger, sweeping one away into uncontrollable violence. Anger is personal and typically selfish, provoked by real or perceived wrongs against oneself, and directed specifically and intensely at the person considered at fault. Indignation is impersonal and selfless displeasure in response to unworthy actions (L. indigna), that is, at wrong as wrong. Pure indignation isn’t followed by regret and doesn’t require repentance; it is also more controlled than anger. Anger is often a sin, while indignation can be a duty. Wrath is deep and possibly vengeful displeasure, like when the people of Nazareth were "filled with wrath" at Jesus' straightforward words (Luke iv, 28); however, it can also simply express the peak of righteous indignation without malice in a pure being, as seen in the wrath of God. Impatience, fretfulness, irritation, peevishness, pettishness, petulance, and vexation represent the milder forms of anger. Irritation, petulance, and vexation are temporary and triggered by immediate causes. Fretfulness, pettishness, and peevishness are chronic states that find a reason to surface in any trivial matter. Compare ACRIMONY; ENMITY; HATRED.

Anger at the insult led to the response. Anger toward the offender amplifies the offense.

An animal is a sentient being, different from inanimate objects and plant life on one side, and from mental and spiritual existence on the other. So, humans are accurately classified as animals. However, because animal life is the most basic and primitive part of human existence that we share with lesser creatures, calling a person an animal suggests that their animal nature is overly dominant, which is a serious condemnation or complete insult. The brute is the animal seen as lacking higher emotions; the beast is regarded as a being driven by desires. Referring to someone as a brute implies they are unfeeling and cruel; calling them a beast suggests they are excessively sensual. We describe a cruel father as a brute to his children and a drunkard as making a beast of himself. These figurative meanings are so established that we tend to avoid using brute or beast for any animal we feel affection for, preferring to use the word animal instead. The term creature has a broad meaning, encompassing everything that God[46] has created, including inanimate objects, plants, animals, angels, and humans. The animals in a certain area are collectively known as its fauna.

To announce means to share information in a formal or public way. We can announce something that has happened or something that will happen, though the term is mostly used in a future context; we announce a book when it's being printed, a guest when they arrive. We advertise our business, communicate our intentions, enunciate our views; we notify someone, give notice to the public. Declare often carries an authoritative tone; to declare war means to officially start a conflict that may have begun with hostilities; we say declare war, proclaim peace. We propound a question or argument, promulgate the beliefs of a sect or party, or the decision of a court, etc. We report on an interview, reveal a secret, herald the arrival of a distinguished person or major event. In everyday use, publish is becoming mainly focused on the idea of issuing something through the press; we announce a book that is going to be published.

The event was announced to the family by text.

A verbal answer is a response given with words to something that seems to need it, and it can be made to a charge as well as to a question; an answer can even be directed at an unspoken implication or expression; see Luke v, 22. More broadly, anything said or done in response to someone else's words, actions, or suggestions can be called an answer. The blow from an angry person, the whinny of a horse, the howling of the wind, the movement of a bolt in a lock, an echo, etc., may all serve as an answer to some word[47] or movement. A reply is an unfolding and typically implies thought and intelligence. A rejoinder is specifically an answer to a reply, although it’s often used more broadly to mean answer, yet always with the implication of something somewhat controversial or opposing, though it lacks the finality implied in an answer; an answer, in the fullest sense, to a charge, an argument, or an objection is sufficient, and ultimately refutes and settles it; a reply or rejoinder may be quite insufficient, so one might say, "This reply is not an answer;" "I am ready with an answer" carries much more weight than "I am ready with a reply." A response is in agreement or harmony, intentionally designed to continue the thought of the words that prompted it, like the responses in a liturgical service, or to meet the expectation of the person seeking it; for example, the call for help received a swift and enthusiastic response. Repartee is a quick, clever, and generally good-natured answer to some argument or attack; a retort can also be witty but tends to be harsh and may even be brutal in its intensity.

An answer in writing, or by word of mouth, to the question.

To anticipate can mean either to take something beforehand in reality or to think about it in advance; when used in the first way, it connects with prevent; in the second, it relates to the synonyms mentioned earlier. This has become the most common and preferred use. We expect something that we have good reason to believe will happen, like a boy expects to grow up. We hope for things we really desire and somewhat expect. We apprehend what we both expect and fear. Anticipate is often used now, similar to foretaste, to mean what we expect with both confidence and pleasure. In this context, it’s a stronger word than hope, where often "the wish is the father of the thought." I hope for a visit from my friend, even though I haven’t heard from him; I expect it when he writes that he’s coming; and as the time gets closer, I anticipate it with pleasure. Compare ABIDE; PREVENT.

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Expectation can be about good or bad; presentiment is usually about bad, while apprehension and foreboding are always about bad; anticipation and antepast are generally about good. That's why we talk about the joys of anticipation. A foretaste can be about good or bad and is more than just a thought; it’s something we actually experience ahead of time. Foresight and forethought help avoid future bad things and ensure future good things by looking ahead in a timely manner and acting on what is predicted. Compare ANTICIPATE.

Antipathy, repugnance, and uncongeniality are instinctive; other types of dislike can be learned or developed for specific reasons. Uncongeniality is negative, lacking connection or empathy. An antipathy toward someone or something is an instinctive withdrawal from any connection or association with that person or thing, and can be physical, mental, or both. Antagonism can result from the necessity of circumstances; opposition may arise from conflicting views or interests; abhorrence and detestation may stem from religious and moral upbringing; distaste and disgust can be learned; aversion denotes a deep and lasting dislike. A natural antipathy can lead to opposition, which can escalate into hatred and hostility. Compare ACRIMONY; ANGER; ENMITY; HATRED.

Antipathy to (less often for or against) a person or thing; antipathy between or betwixt two people or things.