THE MUSHROOM

EDIBLE AND NON-EDIBLE

ITS HABITAT AND ITS GROWTH PERIOD

I agree with those who think this book on mushrooms doesn't need an introduction. Still, it’s worth mentioning that the beginning of this work is quite unique. Mr. Hard didn’t decide that a book was necessary and then start studying these fascinating plants. Instead, he observed them, collected them, and got many friends to join him in tasting the ones that turned out to be tasty and delicious—he's been experimenting with different kinds, both edible and not, for years. Recently, he decided to publish a book about his favorite subject. His interesting hobby of photographing mushrooms and toadstools has certainly played a big role in his decision to create this book.

If I understand the background and the reasons behind it correctly, we can expect this book to be different from other mushroom books—not in purpose or scope; but in the guidance and suggestions provided, the descriptions and overall insights, the variety of forms shown in words and images, essentially the whole composition of the book, will cater to a general audience rather than just college students. The author writes not for a select group of highly educated individuals, but for the many intelligent readers—those who engage in reading and learning, but who pay more attention to the world around them; those who like to connect with nature as it appears in the valleys and clearings, in the fields and forests, and who spend little or no time examining the details visible under a microscope.

The book is aimed at beginners, and for everyone who is just starting out. College students will find this to be the perfect guide when they're ready to start studying mushrooms. Teachers should also start learning about mushrooms now, and they'll find this book useful for that purpose. People who frequently encounter mushrooms but aren't familiar with them may discover that this book is truly helpful.

We might wish for color photography when the subject is a beautifully colored mushroom; but if it compromises the detail of its structure, then we would give up that wish. Colors can be described reasonably well, but the distinctive markings, shapes, and forms often cannot. We believe that the halftones in the photographs will be a valuable aspect of the book, especially if the plants are examined closely before looking at the pictures. You could flip through the pages for half an hour and enjoy the illustrations, but that wouldn’t give you any real understanding of mushrooms. If the pictures are only used in that way, it would have been better if Mr. Hard and his friends hadn’t prepared them at all. But if a lovely little toadstool, a beautifully colored mushroom, or an impressive agaric is carefully taken from the soil, a decaying stump, or an old tree trunk, and then examined from every angle, with each part looked at closely—not with disgust, but with a genuine interest in all living things on our planet—then when you finally look at the picture in the book, it will surely bring both enjoyment and insight. Consider this suggestion. In conclusion, if Mr. Hard’s book encourages people to learn and appreciate the mushrooms we have, it will be a success and he will reap great rewards.

W. A. Kellerman, PhD

In Memory

It is with deep sadness that I feel compelled to add a brief tribute to the memory of that kind gentleman and lovable friend, as well as passionate scientist, the late Dr. W. A. Kellerman.

Spending his life pursuing science, the Angel of Death caught up with him while he was still searching for a deeper understanding of Nature and her creations, and with cold fingers closed the lids over eyes that were always eager to uncover hidden truths.

Quiet, reserved, and humble, only a few truly understood the kind-hearted and selfless nature that defined his entire life. However, the scientific community as a whole, particularly those who study Nature, see Dr. Kellerman's passing as a significant loss that will be felt for a long time and not easily replaced.

The "Introduction" above was one of his most recent, if not the last of his public writings, completed just a few weeks before he was hit by the deadly fever in the forests of Guatemala, which quickly dashed his earthly hopes and dreams.

It feels even sadder that someone who was so well-known and loved in their life has to give up their burdens and joys while being so far away from all the people who truly cared about them; and to finally find rest among strangers in an unfamiliar place.

To this dear friend and companion of so many enjoyable days in the woods and fields, the author of this book wants to express a heartfelt tribute and deep appreciation.

The Author.

Botany and geology have been favorite subjects of mine since I left college, all thanks to Dr. Nelson, who is remembered fondly by all his students. His teaching made these topics so appealing and engaging that I dedicated nearly every spare moment to studying botany and paleontology. However, I became particularly interested in the mycological aspect of botany through the Bohemian children in Salem, Ohio. This experience sparked my curiosity to learn the scientific side of the subject, allowing me to assist those seeking a deeper understanding of these fascinating plants.

Every teacher should be able to open the doors of Nature to their students so they can appreciate her diverse creations, and, as much as possible, help clear the fog from their eyes so they can clearly see the beauty of meadows, woods, or hillsides.

In starting a deeper study of the topic, the writer faced significant challenges because, for several years, there was very little literature available. Every book published on this subject in this country was bought as soon as it was released, and all have been extremely helpful.

The study has been a real pleasure, and I’ve formed some wonderful friendships while searching for as many different species as possible.

For several years, the goal was just to get to know the different types and species, and no photos of the specimens were taken. This was a big mistake; when it was decided to publish this work, it turned out to be impossible to find many of the plants that the author had previously located in other areas of the state.

However, this setback has been largely overcome thanks to the generous kindness of his valued friends—Mr. C. G. Lloyd from Cincinnati; Dr. Fisher from Detroit; Prof. Beardslee from Asheville, N.C.; Prof. B. O. Longyear from Ft. Collins, Colo.; and Dr. Kellerman from Ohio State University—who have kindly provided photographs of those species previously found in other parts of the state. The species shown here have all been discovered in this state within the last few years.[Pg x]

The writer is deeply grateful to Prof. Atkinson from Cornell University for his tremendous help and encouragement in the study of mycology. His patience in examining and identifying the plants I sent him is more appreciated than I can express here. Dr. William Herbst from Trexlertown, Pa., has also been instrumental in solving many challenging problems; as have Mr. Lloyd, Prof. Morgan, Capt. McIlvaine, and Dr. Charles H. Peck, the State Botanist of New York.

The goal of this book is to explain the species in a way that the average reader can easily understand. We hope that the greater number of illustrations will make this book useful for those eager to learn about a part of botany that isn’t often taught in our schools and colleges.

No effort has been spared to find the most representative specimens possible. A close examination of the plant illustrations will, in most cases, greatly help the student in classifying the plant when found; however, the illustrations should not be solely relied upon, especially when studying Boleti. The description should be carefully reviewed to ensure it matches the characteristics of the plant at hand.

In many places where notes weren’t taken or had been misplaced, the descriptions provided by those who identified the plants were relied upon. This is especially the case for many of the Boleti. The author believed that Dr. Peck's descriptions would be more precise and thorough, so they were used, and credit was given to him.

Care has been taken to translate the names and explain why the plant was named that way. It's always surprising to those unfamiliar with it how the Latin name is remembered, but when students realize that the name reflects a key characteristic of the plant, they find it much easier to remember.

The habitat and growth time of each plant are provided, along with its edibility. The author was encouraged by many friends across the state, during his work at the institute and often discussing this topic, to create a book that would help them learn about the common mushrooms in their area. The request has been fulfilled.

It is hoped that the work will be as helpful as it has been enjoyable to do.

M.E.H.

Chillicothe, Ohio, January 11, 1908.

WHY STUDY MUSHROOMS. A few years back, when I was overseeing the schools in Salem, Ohio, we developed a strong interest in studying botany. I made it a habit to go out daily to collect flowers, especially the rarer ones, which were abundant in this county, and bring them in as specimens for the classes. In the city, there was a wire nail mill that operated around the clock, and the owners frequently brought over many Bohemians to work at the mill. Often, while driving to the countryside early in the morning, I spotted the boys and girls from these Bohemian families foraging in the woods, fields, and pastures not far from town, even though they had only been in the country for a week or two and didn’t speak any English. I soon discovered that they were gathering different types of mushrooms to take home for food. They couldn’t explain how they recognized them, but I quickly realized they identified them by their general characteristics—essentially, they knew them as we know people and flowers.

I decided to learn a bit about the topic myself. I didn't have any books on mycology, and back then, there didn't seem to be much available. Around that time, an article by W. Hamilton Gibson about Edible Toadstools and Mushrooms was published in Harper's Monthly—an article I read eagerly, right after buying his book on the subject.

Salem, Ohio, was a really fertile area for mushrooms, and it didn't take long for me to be surprised by how many I actually knew. I remembered that where there's a will, there's a way.

In 1897, I relocated to Bowling Green, Ohio. There, I discovered many species that I had previously found around Salem, Ohio, but the abundant rich soil, dense forests, and numerous old lake beaches seemed to provide a greater variety, allowing me to add many more to my list. After spending three years in Bowling Green, where I formed wonderful friendships with the kind people of that city as well as with the flowers and mushrooms of Wood County, fate brought me to Sidney, Ohio, where I encountered many new species of fungi and reconnected with many I had met before.

Since arriving in Chillicothe, I've tried to have the plants photographed as I've discovered them, but since I had to rely on a photographer, I wasn't always able to do so. I haven't found many plants in this area that I’ve encountered elsewhere in the state, though I've discovered a lot of new species here, which I think is due to the hilly landscape of the county. I'm grateful to my friends for the prints of many types of fungi that I collected before coming here. I'd recommend to anyone planning to study this topic to have all specimens photographed as soon as they are identified, which will help establish the species for future reference.

It seems to me that every school teacher should know a bit about mycology.[Pg 2] Some of my teachers have spent quite a bit of time studying this fascinating subject over the past year, and I've noticed that their students kept them busy identifying their discoveries. The lists of genera and species they presented on the blackboards at the end of the season were quite extensive. I learned from my Bohemian classmates that their teachers back in their home country had opened the door to this valuable knowledge for them. Observation has clearly shown me that there is a growing interest in this subject across much of Ohio.

Every professional man needs a hobby to enjoy in his downtime, and I'm sure there's no better area to explore than botany, especially this specific branch of botanical work.

I have a friend, a professional guy who truly appreciates all the beauty of nature. After spending hours stuck in his office doing intense work, he always looks forward to a walk over the hills and through the woods. When we discover something new, he seems to enjoy it immensely.

Many pastors have gained recognition in the world of fungi. The names of Rev. Lewis Schweiwitz from Bethlehem, PA; Rev. M. J. Berkeley; and Rev. John Stevenson from England will be remembered as long as botany exists. Their positive impact and support for others will last forever.

With such inspiration, how easily one forgets all worries about work, and how refreshing and full of life are the fields, meadows, and woods, that one must exclaim with Prof. Henry Willey in his "Introduction to the Study of the Lichen":

HOW TO TELL MUSHROOMS FROM TOADSTOOLS. Most likely, no mycology student has faced a question more often or persistently than, "How do you tell a toadstool from a mushroom?"—or if they are in the woods or fields looking for new species, they often have to determine whether a certain specimen "is a mushroom or a toadstool." The belief that one type of fungus—the toadstools—are poisonous, while the other—the mushrooms—are safe and desirable is so deeply ingrained that these curious individuals often seem genuinely disappointed when told that they are essentially the same thing. There are edible toadstools and mushrooms, as well as poisonous mushrooms and toadstools; in short, a toadstool is really just a type of mushroom, and a mushroom is essentially a kind of toadstool after all.

Hence the beginner's question is how to distinguish a poisonous mushroom from an edible one. There's only one answer to this question: he must thoroughly learn both genera and species, studying each until he knows its specific traits as well as he knows those of his closest friends.

Certain species have been tested by several people and found to be completely safe and tasty; on the other hand, there are species in different genera that, while not necessarily poisonous, are at least harmful.

It’s the aim of all books on fungi to help students differentiate plants into genera and species; this work pays special attention to identifying which species are edible and which are toxic. There are a few species, like Gyromitra esculenta, Lepiota Morgani, Clitocybe illudens, etc., that can make some people sick soon after consumption, while others may experience no adverse effects. Chemically, they aren’t poisonous, but they just can’t be digested by some stomachs. It’s best to steer clear of all such varieties.

HOW MUSHROOMS GROW. There's a common belief that mushrooms grow incredibly fast, popping up overnight. This is a misconception. While it's true that once they reach the button stage they grow very quickly, or in the case of those that emerge from a mature egg, they develop so fast that you can actually see them growing upward, the process of forming the button from the mycelium or spawn takes time—weeks, months, or even years. It would be quite challenging to determine the age of many of our tree fungi.

HOW TO LEARN MUSHROOMS. If you're just starting out, you should steer clear of all Amanitas and maybe some of the Boleti. You don't need to worry too much about the safety of other types.

There are three ways for him to learn about the edible types. The first is the physiological test suggested by Mr. Gibson in his book. It involves chewing a small piece and then spitting it out without swallowing the juice; if no significant symptoms appear within twenty-four hours, you can chew another piece, this time swallowing a small amount of the juice. If you don’t experience any irritation after waiting again, you can try a larger piece. I always sample a new plant carefully, which often allows me to confirm its edibility before I can identify it by its species. This fall, I encountered Tricholoma columbetta for the first time; it was quite a while after I confirmed it was edible before I settled on its name. A better method, perhaps, is to cook them and feed them to your cat and observe the outcome.

Another way is to have a friend who knows the plants come with you, so you can learn from them like a student learns in school. This is the fastest way to gain knowledge about any kind of plants, but it’s hard to find a good teacher.

Another way, and one that’s available to everyone, is to learn about a few types of mushrooms and become familiar with the terms used to describe them. Once you do that, you're set if you have a book with illustrations and descriptions of the most common plants. Don’t rush to learn the names of all the plants, and only use the ones you are completely sure about. When gathering mushrooms to eat, don’t mix any mushrooms you’re uncertain about with those you intend to eat. If you have any doubts at all, throw it away or put it in a separate basket.

There are no set rules to tell a poisonous mushroom from an edible one. I saw a friend eating Lepiota naucina without even knowing what type it was, just because she could peel it. I told her that the deadliest mushrooms can also be peeled easily. The silver spoon test that Mr. Gibson's old lady relied on isn’t really useful either. Some say not to eat mushrooms that have a sharp taste, but many edible ones have quite a sharp flavor. Others caution against those with white juice or milk, but that would eliminate several good Lactarii. The idea that white gills and hollow stems are indicators isn't reliable. Sure, Amanita mushrooms have both, but they need to be identified by other features. We're also advised to steer clear of mushrooms with sticky caps or those that change color quickly; this is too general a warning and would exclude several excellent species. I think it's safe to say there’s no known rule to reliably distinguish good from bad. The only safe approach is to learn about each species through its unique characteristics—just like how we know our friends.

The mycology student has a description of each species in front of him, which needs to match the plant he has. This will quickly help him get familiar with the different characteristics of the various genera and species, so he can recognize them as easily as he does the features of his closest friends.

WHAT ANYONE MAY EAT. In the spring, with the first flowers, a mushroom appears that is so distinctive in all its forms that anyone can easily recognize it. It’s the common morel or sponge mushroom. None of them are known to be harmful, so beginners can trust their judgment safely here. While gathering morels to eat, they’ll soon start to tell apart the different species of the genera. From May until frost, various kinds of puffballs will show up. All puffballs are safe to eat while their insides remain white. They are never poisonous, but once the flesh begins to turn yellow, it becomes very bitter. The oyster mushroom can be found from March to December and is always a welcomed find. Fairy Rings are easy to spot and can be located in any old pasture during wet weather from June to October. They tend to be quite abundant in seasonable weather. The common meadow mushroom is located from September until frost. It’s identifiable by its pink gills and meaty cap. There’s also a mushroom with pink gills found on streets, along pavements, and among cobblestones. Its stems are short and the caps are very meaty. It’s A. rodmani, which can be found in May and June. The horse mushroom has pink gills and can be located from June to September. The Russulas, found from July to October, are generally safe to eat, but a few should be avoided due to their acrid taste or strong odor. There’s no point from early spring until freezing weather when you can’t find mushrooms, provided the weather is at all favorable. I've listed the habitat and the time when each species can be found. I recommend a careful study of these two aspects. Read the descriptions of plants that grow in certain places and at certain times, and you’ll generally be rewarded if you follow the descriptions and the season is right.

HOW TO PRESERVE MUSHROOMS. Many mushrooms can be dried for winter use, like Morels, Marasmius oreades, Boletus edulis, Boletus edulis va. clavipes, and several others. My wife has successfully canned various species, especially Lycoperdon pyriforme, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Tricholoma personatum. The mushrooms were carefully sorted and washed, soaked in salt water for about five minutes to remove any insects that may be in the gills, then drained and cut into small pieces to fit into the jars easily. Each jar was packed as full as possible with mushrooms and filled with salty water to properly flavor them. Then, they were placed in a kettle of cold water on the stove, with the lids loosely on top, and allowed to cook for an hour or more after the water in the kettle began to boil. The lids were then secured, and after checking for any leaks, the jars were stored in a cool, dark place.

In canning puffballs, you should wash and slice them carefully, making sure they are completely white all the way through. They don't need to sit in salt water before being packed in the jar like mushrooms that have gills do. Otherwise, they should be canned just like the Tricholoma and oyster mushrooms. Any edible mushroom can be easily preserved for winter use by canning. Use glass jars with glass lids.

SOME OF THE MOST COMMON TERMS USED. When talking about mushrooms, it's important to use specific terms, and anyone who wants to get familiar with this area of botany needs to fully understand the language used to describe these plants.[Pg 6]

The composition of all mushrooms is either fleshy, membranous, or cork-like. The pileus or cap is the expanded part, which can be either directly attached or supported by a stem. The pileus isn’t made of cellular tissue like in flowering plants, but instead consists of countless interwoven threads or hyphae. This structure of the pileus becomes clear immediately if a thin slice of the cap is examined under a microscope.

The gills or lamellæ are thin plates or membranes that stretch from the stem to the edge of the cap. When they are attached firmly to the stem, they are called adnate. If they're only attached by part of their width, they are adnexed. If they extend down the stem, they are decurrent. They are free when they aren't connected to the stem. Often, the lower edge is notched near the stem, and in this case, they are described as emarginate or sinuate.

In some genera, the underside of the cap is filled with pores instead of gills; in other genera, the underside is packed with teeth; and in others, the surface is smooth, like in the Stereums. The gills, pores, and teeth create a base for the hymenium or spore-producing surface. It's clear that the gills, pores, and teeth efficiently maximize the spore-bearing area.

If you look at a section of the gills under a microscope, you’ll notice that both sides of the surface have extended hymenial layers. The hymenium[Pg 7] is made up of elongated cells or basidia (singular: basidium) that are somewhat club-shaped. Figure 2 shows how these basidia look on the hymenial layer when magnified. You can see that they are lined up next to each other and are perpendicular to the surface of the gills. Each of these basidia has two, usually four, thin projections on which the spores develop. In Figure 2, you will also see several sterile cells that look like basidia, except the basidia have four sterigmata where the spores are attached. Among these basidia and sterile cells, you will often find an overgrown, bladder-like sterile basidium that sticks out from the rest of the hymenium, and its function is not yet fully understood. These are called cystidia (singular: cystidium). They aren’t very common, but they’re scattered across the entire surface, becoming more prevalent along the edges of the gills. When they are colored, they alter the appearance of the gills.

The spores are the seeds of the mushroom. They come in different sizes and shapes, with various surface patterns. They are very tiny, as fine as dust, and invisible to the naked eye, except when seen in groups on grass, on the ground, on logs, or in a spore print. Every fungus aims to produce spores. Some land on the parent host or the ground. Others are blown away by the wind and can travel for days, eventually settling down in different states and continents from where they originated. Millions fail to find a suitable resting place. Those spores[Pg 8] that do find a good spot, under the right conditions, will start to germinate by sending out a thin, thread-like filament called hyphae, which then branches out in search of food and forms a felted mass known as mycelium. When first formed, the hyphae are continuous and spread through the nourishing substrate, ultimately giving rise to a spore-bearing structure known as the sporocarp or young mushroom. This part of the fungus is usually hidden in the soil, decayed wood, or vegetable matter. In Figure 3, you can see a representation of the mycelium of the small pear-shaped puff-ball, with several small white knobs indicating the beginning of the puff-ball. The exposed mycelium here is very similar to that of all mushrooms.

In the pore-bearing genera, the hymenium lines the vertical pores; in teeth-bearing fungi, it lines the surface of each tooth or is spread out over the smooth surface of the Stereum.

The development of the spores is quite fascinating. The young basidia, as shown in Figure 2, are filled with a granular protoplasm. Soon, small projections called sterigma (plural: sterigmata) appear at the ends of the basidia, and the protoplasm moves into them. Each projection, or sterigma, quickly swells at its tip into a bladder-like structure, forming the young spore. As they grow, the protoplasm from the basidium is transferred into them. When the four spores are fully developed, they have taken in all the protoplasm from the basidium. The spores then separate by a cross partition and drop off. All spores of Hymenomycetous fungi are arranged and produced in a similar way, with their spore-bearing surface initially exposed through the rupture of the universal veil.

In puffballs, the spores are organized similarly,[Pg 9] but the hymenium is enclosed within an outer sac. When the spores are ready, the casing breaks open, and the spores are released into the air as a fine dust. Therefore, puffballs are classified as Gastromycetous fungi because their spores are held in a pouch until they mature.

Another very large group of fungi is the Ascomycetes, or sac fungi. It's easy to identify this group because all its members develop their spores inside small membranous sacs or asci. These asci are usually mixed in with slender, empty asci, or sterile cells, called paraphyses. The asci come in various shapes and are known by different names in different orders, such as ascoma, apothecium, perithecium, and receptacle. The Ascomycetes often include fungi that range in size from microscopic, single-celled organisms to much larger and more visually striking specimens. This group also includes a large number of small fungi that produce various plant diseases.

In a work like this, special attention is naturally given to the order of Discomycetes, or cup fungi. This order is quite large and is named so because many of the fungi have a cup shape. These cups vary significantly in size and form; some are so small that you need a lens to see them, while others are saucer-shaped, goblet-like, or resemble beakers in different shapes. The saddle fungi and morels are part of this order. In this case, the surface of the sac is often twisted, lobed, and ridged to provide more surface area for the sac.

In mushrooms, puffballs, and similar fungi, the spores are produced at the tips of basidia, typically with four spores on each. In this category, spores develop in tiny club-shaped sacs called asci (singular: ascus). These[Pg 10]asci are long, cylindrical sacs arranged side by side, standing upright relative to the fruiting surface. Figure 4 will show their location along with the sterile cells on the fruiting surface of one of the morels. Each sac, or ascus, usually contains eight spores.

The stem of the mushroom is typically located in the middle of the cap, but it can also be off-center or on the side; if there’s no stem, the cap is called sessile. The stem can be solid when it’s firm all the way through, hollow if it has a space in the middle, or stuffed if it’s filled with a spongy material. Stems can be either fleshy or cartilaginous. When they’re fleshy, they have the same texture as the cap. If they’re cartilaginous, their texture is always different from the cap, resembling cartilage. The stem of the Tricholoma is a good example of a fleshy-stemmed mushroom, while the Marasmius shows an example of a cartilaginous stem.

If you look at the cap or stem of a mushroom under a powerful microscope, you'll see that it's composed of a continuation of mycelial filaments that are interlaced and branched. The tubular filaments are often delicately divided, resembling cells. Figure 5 shows a small section of a Morel stem highly magnified, highlighting the cell filaments. In softer fungi, the mycelial threads are woven more loosely and have thin walls with fewer partitions.

The veil is a thin layer of fungal threads that cover the gills, sometimes staying on the stem and creating a ring or annulus. This can sometimes linger at the edge of the cap, which is referred to as appendiculate. At times, it looks like a spider’s web, which is called arachnoid.

The volva is a universal covering that surrounds the entire plant when it's young, but it quickly breaks apart, leaving behind scales on the cap and a sheath around the base of the stem, or breaking into scales or a scaly ring at the stem's base. All plants with this universal volva should be avoided, except for study purposes. Be careful not to confuse them with puff-balls when they’re in their young state. Often, they look like a small puff-ball when found in the egg stage. Figure 6 shows a section of an Amanita in the egg stage and also the Gemmed puff-ball. Once a section is made and carefully examined, the internal structure will reveal the plant immediately. There's little risk of mixing up the egg stage of an Amanita with the puff-ball, as they only look alike in their oval shape and not at all in their surface markings.

WHAT IS A FUNGUS OR A MUSHROOM? It is a cellular, flowerless plant that gets its nutrients from the mycelium, which spreads through the soil or other materials where the fungus or mushroom lives. All fungi are either parasites or saprophytes that have lost their chlorophyll and cannot survive independently.

There are a huge number of genera and species, many of which have a parasitic nature that leads them to invade the bodies of other plants and animals. Because of this, all fungi are economically significant, especially the microscopic forms classified as Bacteria. Some recent authors tend to separate Bacteria and slime molds from the fungus category, referring to them as[Pg 11]fungus animals. Regardless of this classification, they are true plants and share many traits with fungi. While they may differ from fungi in their growth functions, they have so many similarities that I’m inclined to group them together.

Many organisms, like yeast, different types of fermenting fungi, and the bacteria involved in decomposition, are actually very helpful. The way bacteria enrich and prepare soil for higher plants is an essential service.

Parasites get their nutrition from living plants and animals. They have evolved to respond to a certain trigger by sending out specialized threads when they come close to a host plant, wrapping around it and absorbing nutrients. Saprophytic plants don’t react this way with living plants. Instead, they must obtain their nourishment from decaying plant or animal matter, living in rich soil or leaf mold, on rotting wood, or on dung. Parasites are typically small because they are dependent on their host. Saprophytes, however, are not limited by food sources, allowing them to grow into larger organisms like common mushrooms, puffballs, and others.[Pg 12]

The spores are the seeds or reproductive parts of the mushroom. They are very tiny and invisible to the naked eye unless gathered in large amounts. Often, beneath mushrooms, the grass or wood will appear white or noticeably stained from the spores. The hymenium is the surface or section of the plant that holds the spores. The hymenophore is the part that supports the hymenium.

In common mushrooms, and many others, the spores grow on a specific club-shaped cell known as a basidium (plural: basidia), with usually four spores developing on each one. In morels, these cells are stretched into cylindrical membranous sacs called asci, in which usually eight spores develop. The spores come in various colors, shapes, and sizes, which will be very helpful for students trying to identify unfamiliar species and genera. When spores germinate, they produce slender threads that botanists refer to as mycelium, but what most people call spawn.

The way spores develop and where this happens provide a foundation for classifying fungi. The most effective way to gain a deep understanding of both edible and poisonous mushrooms is to examine them through the main features used in their classification and their natural connections to one another.

There is a significant difference of opinion regarding how to classify mushrooms. Probably the simplest and most satisfactory method is that of Underwood and Cook. They categorize them into six groups:

[Pg 13]

This class will cover all gill-bearing fungi, like Polyporus, Boletus, Hydnum, and others.

Fungi in this class are divided into four natural groups:

Under this group will be placed all fungi made up of membranes, fleshy, woody, or gelatinous structures, whether they grow on the ground or on wood. The hymenium, or spore-bearing surface, is located outside at an early stage in the life of the plant. The spores are produced on basidia as explained in Figure 2, page 6. When the spores mature, they fall to the ground or are carried by the wind to a host that has all the right conditions for germination; there they generate the mycelia or white thread-like vines that you might have noticed while plowing sod, in old chip piles, or decayed wood. If you examine these threads closely, you'll find small knots that will eventually develop into fully grown mushrooms. Hymenomycetes are divided into six families:

In the Agaricaceae, or common mushrooms, as well as in all others with a similar structure, the spore-producing membranes are located on the underside of the cap. They are made up of thin plates, or gills, that are attached to the cap by their upper edge and stretch from the stem to the edge of the cap. Often, that space can be fully occupied by shorter gills placed between the longer ones, especially near the edge of the cap. In some species that seem to lack a stem or where the stem connects to the side of the cap, the gills radiate from the point of attachment or from the side stem to other parts around the edge of the cap. Berkeley describes the following characteristics: Hymenium, located below, spread over easily separable gills or plates, radiating from a center or stem, which can be simple or branched.

This family includes the following genera:[Pg 14]

Therefore, the gill-bearing fungi are known by the family name Agaricaceae, or more generally as Agarics.

This family is categorized into five groups based on the color of their spores. The spores, when gathered in masses, exhibit distinct colors: white, pink, rusty, purple-brown, and black. So, the first and most crucial step in identifying a mushroom is to determine the color of the spores. To do this, take a fresh, intact, and fully developed specimen, and separate the stem from the cap. Place the cap with the gills facing down on a piece of dark, velvety paper if you think the spores are white. To prevent air from blowing the spores away, cover the cap with an inverted finger bowl or a bell jar. If the spores are colored, use white paper instead. If you leave the specimen for too long, the spore deposit can rise between the gills, potentially reaching up to an eighth of an inch in height. With careful removal of the cap, you'll see a perfect imprint of the gills along with the color of the spores.

There are two ways to make these spore prints quite permanent. First, take a piece of thin rice paper, apply some mucilage, and let it dry, then follow the steps mentioned earlier. This way, the print will hold up to some handling. Another method, used to prepare the spore prints in these photos, is to get the spore print on Japanese paper as described before, then gently spray the print with a fixative, like the kind used for charcoal drawings. Achieving successful spore prints takes both time and care, but the satisfaction they provide is well worth the effort. It's more challenging to get good prints from white-spored mushrooms compared to those with colored spores because it's hard to find black paper that has a dull, velvety surface, and the spores don’t stick well to smooth, glossy paper. For the prints illustrated, I owe thanks to Mrs. Blackford.

If the plant is dry, it's a good idea to moisten the inside of the fingerbowl or bell glass before placing it over the mushroom. The spores of Boleti, and all fungi for that matter, can be captured and secured in the same way.

From studying these spore prints, we'll discover five different colors of spores. This family is, therefore, divided into five series, based on the spore color, which remains consistent in color, size, and shape.

The five series will be addressed in this order:

This key is mostly based on Cooke's analytical key. Using it will help identify the plant you have in the genus it belongs to.

The first thing the student should do is figure out the color of the spore if it's not obvious. This is best done following the method outlined on page 15.

The plant should be fresh and fully grown. Careful attention should be paid to the various stages of development. The plant's growth pattern should be taken into account; then, once the color of the spores is identified, it will be simple to find the genus using the key.

Mycelium floccose, leading to a unique hymenium, fleshy fungus, membranous, woody, or gelatinous. Naked spores.

Hymenium below, cap more or less spread out, rounded, or bell-shaped. Gills extending from where the cap connects to the stem, or from a side stem to other areas of the cap, either simple or branched.[Pg 17]

The species that have white spores appear to be more advanced than those that produce colored spores. Most of the former tend to be sturdier, while the black-spored specimens quickly break down. The white spores are typically oval, occasionally round, and often quite spiky. All white-spored specimens are usually found in clean environments.

Amanita is believed to come from Mount Amanus, an old name for a mountain range that separates Cilicia from Syria. It is thought that Galen was the first to bring specimens of this fungus from that area.

The genus Amanita has both a bulb and a veil. The spores are white and the stem easily separates from the cap. The bulb is universal at first, surrounding the young mushroom, but is distinct and not attached to the skin of the cap.

This genus includes some of the deadliest poisonous mushrooms, although a few are known to be quite edible. There are many species—around 75 in total, with 42 found in this country, and a few that are fairly common in this state. All the Amanita are ground-dwelling plants, mostly growing alone, and primarily located in forests or well-wooded areas.

In the button stage, it looks like a small egg or puff-ball, as shown in Figure 6 on page 11. It's important to be careful not to confuse it with puff-balls if you're foraging for something to eat. However, the risk isn't high, since the volva usually breaks before the plant emerges from the ground.

The Dangerous Amanita.

Phalloides means phallus-like. This plant and its related species are extremely toxic. Because of this, every mushroom hunter should study it carefully and know it thoroughly. In various places, and sometimes even in the same area, the plant can show up in very different colors. There are also differences in how the volva breaks, as well as in the characteristics of the stem.

The beginner will often think he has discovered a new species until he becomes fully familiar with all the quirks of this plant.

The cap is smooth, even, and sticky when young and wet, often decorated[Pg 21] with some bits of the cup. It can be white, grayish-white, or sometimes smoky-brown; regardless of whether the cap is white, oyster-colored, or smoky-brown, the center of the cap will be several shades darker than the edge. The plant goes from a round or egg shape when young to almost flat when fully opened. Many plants have a noticeable bump on the top of the cap, and the edge of the cap may be slightly turned up.

The gills are always white, broad, bulbous, rounded next to the stem, and detached from it.

The stem is smooth, white unless the cap is dark, in which case the stem of those plants tends to be the same color, tapering upward like in the specimen (Fig. 11); filled, then hollow, likely to change color when touched.

The volva of this species varies a lot and is mostly buried in the ground, where you can spot it with a close look.

One should never confuse this species with the meadow mushroom, because the spores of the meadow mushroom are always purple-brown, while a spore print of this one will always show white spores. I have noticed a slight pink tint in the gills of A. phalloides, but the spores were always white. Until you are thoroughly familiar with both Lepiota naucina and A. phalloides, you should always carefully look for the remains of a volva and a bulbous base in the soil before eating the former.[Pg 22]

This plant is pretty noticeable and appealing in all its different colors. It grows in woods, along the edges of woods, and sometimes in lawns. It stands four to eight inches tall, and the cap measures three to five inches across. There's something distinctive about the plant that makes it easy to identify once you’ve learned it. It can be found from August to October.

The Fresh-skinned Amanita. Toxic.

Recutita, with a fresh or new surface. Cap rounded, then widened, dry, smooth, often covered with tiny scales or bits of the volva; edge nearly straight, gray or brownish.

The gills create stripes along the stem.

The stem is filled and then hollow, stretching upwards, smooth, white, with a distant ring, the edge of the volva not separate, often hidden.

Rather common where there are many pine woods. August to October.

This species differs from A. porphyria in that the ring is not brown or brownish.

The Toxic Amanita.

Virosa, full of poison. The cap is four to five inches wide; the whole plant is white, conical, then spreads out; sticky when wet; edges are often somewhat lobed, even.

The gills are open, packed.

The stem is usually six inches long, stuffed, round, with a swollen base, tapering upward, covered in scales, with a ring near the top, and a large, loose cup at the bottom.

The spores are nearly round, 8–10µ. This is likely just a variation of A. phalloides. It grows in damp forests from August to October.

Amanita muscaria. Toxic.

Muscaria, from musca, meaning fly. The fly Amanita is a striking and attractive fungus. It gets its name because infusions made from it are used to kill flies. I've often seen dead flies on the fully grown caps, where they had sipped the dew and, like the Lotos-eaters of old, had forgotten to fly away. This plant is very common in the woods of Columbiana County in this state. It's also frequently found in many areas around Chillicothe. It often stands out due to the bright colors of the cap contrasting with the white stem and gills, as well as the white scales on the cap's surface. These scales seem to behave a bit differently from those of other Amanita species. Instead of shriveling, curling, and falling off, they tend to stick tightly to the smooth skin of the cap, turning brownish, and in the fully developed plant, they look like scattered drops of mud that have dried on the cap, as shown in Figure 13.

The cap is three to five inches wide, round at first, then shaped like a dumbbell, rounded, and eventually almost flat as it ages; the edge on mature plants[Pg 24] is slightly lined; the surface of the cap is covered with white fluffy scales, remnants of the skin, and these scales can be easily removed, making older plants often look relatively smooth. The young plant is typically red, then changes to orange and pale yellow; later in the season, or in older plants, it can fade to nearly white. The flesh is white, sometimes tinged yellow near the outer layer.

The gills are bright white, very symmetrical, and vary in length. The shorter ones stop abruptly under the cap, are crowded, and free but extend to the stem, running down in lines that are a bit wider in the front. Occasionally, you might notice a slight yellow tint in the gills.

The stem is white, often yellowish as it ages, pithy and usually hollow, becoming rough and shaggy, and eventually turning scaly, with the scales at the bottom seeming to blend into an indistinct cup shape, the stem measuring four to six inches long.

The veil covers the gills of the young plant and later appears as a collar-like ring on the stem, soft, loose, and bent downwards. In older specimens, it is often gone. The spores are white and roughly oval.[Pg 25]

The history of this plant is as fascinating as a novel. Its lethal qualities were recognized by the Greeks and Romans. The history books note its destruction and its role in crime. Pliny mentions this species as "very conveniently adapted for poisoning." This was surely the species that Agrippina, Nero's mother, used to poison her husband, Emperor Claudius; and the same one that Nero employed at that infamous banquet where all his guests, his tribunes and centurions, and Agrippina herself, became victims of its toxic effects.

However, it’s said that some people regularly eat this mushroom as an intoxicant; in fact, it’s used in Kamchatka and across Asia, where the Amanita drinker replaces the opium addict and the alcohol consumer found in other countries. If you read Colonel George Kennan in his "Tent-life[Pg 26] in Siberia," and Cooke's "Seven Sisters of Sleep," you’ll find a detailed description of the toxic use of this fungus that far exceeds any imagination.

It led to the death of Czar Alexis of Russia, as well as Count de Vecchi and several of his friends, in Washington in 1896. He was looking for the Orange Amanita and ended up finding this, and the results were severe.

In terms of size, shape, and color of the cap, they are similar, but in other ways, the two are very different. They can be compared like this:

Orange Amanita, edible.—Cap smooth, gills yellow, stem yellow, wrapper persistent, membranous, white.

Fly Amanita, poisonous.—Cap warty, gills white, stem white, or slightly yellowish, wrapper quickly breaking into fragments or scales, white or sometimes yellowish brown.

Found along roadsides, at the edges of forests, and in sparse woods. It thrives in poor soil and is more common in areas where poplar and hemlock trees grow. From June until frost.[Pg 27]

Frost's Amanita. Toxic.

Frostiana, named after Charles C. Frost.

The cap is curved, wide, bright orange or yellow, bumpy, sometimes smooth, with lines around the edge, and measures one to three inches across.

The gills are free, white, or have a slight yellow tint.

The stem is white or yellow, filled, with a faint, sometimes temporary ring. It’s bulbous at the base, and the bulb is slightly bordered by the volva. The spores are round, 8–10µ in diameter. Peck.

Great care should be taken to distinguish this species from A. cæsarea because of its often yellow stem and gills. I found some beautiful examples on Cemetery Hill and Ralston's Run. It's very poisonous and should be carefully avoided, or rather, it should be well understood that it can be avoided. The striations on the edge of its yellow tinge might lead one to confuse it with the Orange Amanita. It's found in shady woods and sometimes in open areas where there's underbrush. June to October.

The Spring Amanita. Toxic.

Verna, related to spring. Some people view this species as just a white variety of Amanita phalloides. The plant is always a pure white. It can only be told apart from the white form of A. phalloides by its closer sheathing volva and possibly a more oval cap when it's young.

The cap starts off oval, then becomes wider, slightly depressed, and sticky when[Pg 28] it's moist, with a smooth, unadorned edge. The gills are not attached.

The stem is filled, becoming hollow with age, equal in thickness, fluffy and white, with a ring, the base bulbous. The volva tightly wraps around the stem with its free edge, and the ring creates a wide collar that bends backward. The spores are round, measuring 8µ in diameter.

This species is very common in the wooded hills of this part of the state. Its bright white color makes it a beautiful plant, and it should be studied carefully. I've found it before mid-June.

The Large Veiled Amanita. Poisonous.

Magnivelaris comes from magnus, meaning large; and velum, which means a veil.

The cap is rounded, often almost flat, with a smooth edge, smooth texture, slightly sticky when wet, white or yellowish-white.

The gills are free, tight, and white.

The stem is long, almost uniform in size, white, smooth, and has a large, membrane-like volva. The bulbous base tapers downwards and extends into the ground. The spores are oval-shaped.

This species looks very similar to Amanita verna, but you can tell them apart by its large, long-lasting ring, the bulb of its stem that narrows downwards, and especially by its oval spores.

It can be found alone and in the forest. I found several at Ralston's Run under beech trees. Available from July to October.

Pileus initially bell-shaped, then broadened, slightly sticky, firm in the center, tapering at the edge; color a smooth bright red, darker at the top, blending into clear transparent yellow at the edge; shiny, flesh white, unchanged.

The gills are swollen, separate, numerous, yellow.[Pg 29]

The stem is packed, ring going down, fleeting. Peck's 44th Report.

This species is different from Amanita cæsarea because it has a smooth margin and a white stem. It's just a variation of cæsarea. The white stem will catch the collector's eye.

The Lone Amanita.

Solitary, growing alone. I've found this plant in different parts of the state, and I've always noticed it growing by itself. In Poke Hollow, where I discovered the specimens in the illustrations, I saw several on the hillside on different occasions, but I've never seen them growing in groups. It's pretty large, white or whitish, and very woolly or floccose. Usually, the cap, stem, and gills are covered with a floccose substance that helps identify the species. This fluffy outer layer sticks easily to your hands or clothes. The cap can sometimes have a brown tint, but the flesh is white and has a strong smell, somewhat like chloride of lime. The ring is often torn from the stem and can be found sticking to the edge of the cap.

The cap is three to five inches wide, or more when fully expanded, initially round to hemispherical, as shown in Figures 17 and 18. It can be convex or flat, bumpy, white, or whitish, with the pointed scales easily rubbed or washed off by heavy rain. These scales vary in size from small granules to large conical flakes and differ in texture and color between different plants.

The gills are free, meaning they aren't attached at the top. The edges are often fuzzy where they break away from the slight connection with the[Pg 30]
[Pg 31] upper part of the veil; they are white or slightly cream-colored and broad.

The stem is four to eight inches tall, solid, and becomes packed when it's older, bulbous, and roots deeply in the soil. It's very scaly and sometimes swollen in younger plants, white and very powdery. The volva is crumbly. The ring is large, jagged, and usually hangs onto the edge of the cap, but in Figure 19, it sticks to the stem.

This is a large and beautiful plant in the woods, and it's easy to identify because of its fluffy texture and the big bulb at the base of the stem. It's not as warty, and the smell isn't nearly as strong as the Amanita strobiliformis. It is edible, but you should exercise extreme caution to ensure you have the right species. Found from July to October in woods and along roadsides.[Pg 32]

Radicata means having a root. The root of the specimen in Figure 20 was broken off when it was taken out of the ground.

The cap is roundish, becoming curved, dry, bumpy, white, with a smooth edge, the flesh is firm, white, and has a smell similar to chlorine.

The gills are nearby, separate, and white.

The stem is sturdy, deeply rooted, thickened at the base or bulbous, fluffy or powdery at the top, and white; the veil is thin, fluffy, or powdery, also white, quickly torn and hanging in pieces from the edge of the cap or fading away. The spores are broadly elliptical, measuring 7.5–10µ long and 6–7µ wide. Peck.

This is a pretty large and stunning plant, very closely related to Amanita strobiliformis, but it's easy to tell them apart because of its white color, its distinctly radiating stem, and small spores. The stem is bulbous, and the cap is covered with warts. I often found this plant in Poke Hollow and on Ralston's Run during July and August.

The Fir-cone Amanita.

Strobiliformis means fir-cone shape; it's named for how its undeveloped form resembles the strobile of the pine.

The cap is six to eight inches wide, starting off round, then becoming dome-shaped, spreading out to almost flat, with lasting bumps that are white, ash-colored, and sometimes yellow on the top. The edge is smooth and extends past the gills; the bumps are tough, angular, and pointed, and white; the flesh is white and firm.

The gills are free, crowded, rounded, white, and turning yellow.

The stem is 5 to 8 inches long, often longer, narrowing at the top, covered in fluffy scales, bulbous, and extending beyond the bulb; the ring is large and torn; the volva forms concentric rings. The spores are 13–14 x 8–9µ.

This is one of the most impressive plants in the woods. It’s said to be edible, but the strong, pungent smell, similar to bleach, has kept me from trying it. However, this odor is said to fade when cooked. It can grow quite large. Dr. Kellerman and I discovered a specimen in Haynes's Hollow with a stem measuring over eleven inches and a cap nine inches wide. It’s found in open woods and along the edges. Extreme caution should be taken before consuming this plant to ensure proper identification. Found from July to October.[Pg 34]

The Delicate Amanita. Toxic.

Mappa means a napkin, named after the volva. The pileus is two to three inches wide, initially convex, then flattened, level, blunt, or depressed, without a separable skin; the edge is mostly smooth; it’s white or yellowish, typically with dry patches of the volva.

The gills are attached, tight, slim, shiny, and white.

The stem is two to three inches long, filled in, then hollow, cylindrical, almost smooth, bulbous, nearly round at the base, white, and nearly the same thickness above the bulb.

The volva with its free edge is sharp and narrow. The ring is thin, located above, soft, loose, and frayed.

Its color is just as changeable, and its behaviors are similar to A. phalloides, from which it can only be recognized by its less developed volva, which, instead of being cup-shaped, is just a thin rim around the bulb. The smell can be quite strong at times. It grows in open woods and underbrush. Label it poisonous.

Crenulata means having notches, referring to the crenulate shape of the gills, which are very distinct.

The cap is thin, two to two and a half inches wide, broadly oval, becoming rounded or almost flat, slightly lined on the edge, decorated with a few thin white fluffy warts or with white fluffy patches, white or grayish, sometimes with a hint of yellow.

The gills are close to the stem and sometimes create downward lines on it, fluffy and notched along the edge, with the short ones being flat at the inner end, white.

The stem is straight, bulbous, and fuzzy with a mealy texture on top, either filled or hollow, white in color. The ring is minor and fades quickly. Spores are broadly oval or nearly round, measuring 7.5–10 long and almost as wide, typically containing one large nucleus. Peck, Bull. Tor. Bot. Club.

The base of the stem is thick, but the volva is rarely visible, although you often see small patches on the cap. The ring is very transient and quickly fades away. The samples I got from Mrs. Blackford look delicious, and she praises the edible qualities of this species. As far as I know, this plant is only found in the New England states. It's typically found from September to November and grows in low, damp areas under trees.

The Booted Amanita.

Cothurnata means buskined; derived from corthunus, a type of high shoe or buskin worn by actors. This species is easy to distinguish from other Amanitas. I’ll provide Prof. Atkinson's complete description: "The cap is fleshy and transitions from nearly round to hemispherical, convex, and flat, and when the specimens are very old, the edge is sometimes raised. It is usually white, although some specimens have a hint of citron yellow in the center or tawny yellow in the center of others. The cap is sticky, especially when wet. It has fine striations along the edge and is covered with numerous white, fluffy scales from the upper half of the volva, forming patchy patterns that may wash away in heavy rain."

The gills are rounded next to the stem and are quite far from it. The edge of the gills is often worn or frayed from the torn threads that loosely connected them to the upper side of the veil when they were in the young or button stage. The spores are round or almost round, with a large "nucleus" that nearly fills the spore.

The stem is cylindrical, straight, and flares out below into a large oval[Pg 38] bulb. Just above the bulb, the stem is edged by a snug roll of the volva, and the upper edge looks like it has been stitched at the top, similar to the rolled edge of a piece of clothing or a boot. The surface of the stem is very slightly fuzzy, scaly, or noticeably so, and it's definitely hollow even from a young stage, or sometimes when it's young, it has loose threads inside the cavity.

A. cothurnata looks similar to A. frostiana in many ways, and it will provide the collector with a fascinating opportunity to observe the differences. I found both species growing on Cemetery Hill. Figure 26 is from plants collected in Michigan and photographed by Dr. Fisher. Found in September and October.

The Reddish Amanita. Safe to eat.

Rubescens comes from rubesco, which means to turn red. It's named for the dull reddish color of the whole plant, and also because it quickly turns red when the plant is touched or bruised. It’s often a large, bulky plant and somewhat off-putting.

The cap is four to six inches wide, dirty reddish, often turning a light flesh color, thick, oval to rounded, then flattened; dotted with small pale bumps, uneven, powdery, scattered, white, and easily coming off; the edge is smooth, slightly lined, especially in wet weather; the flesh is soft, white, and turns red when broken.

The gills are white or off-white, not attached to the stem but extending to it and sometimes forming downward lines on it, thin and closely packed.

The stem is about four or five inches long, almost cylindrical and solid, although it tends to be soft inside. It tapers from the bottom upwards and has a bulbous base that usually narrows sharply below, covered in reddish, dull red scales. There’s rarely any clear sign of a volva at the base, but there’s plenty of evidence on the cap. The ring is large, located above, white, and fragile.

The plant varies a lot in color, occasionally appearing almost white with a hint of reddish or brownish tints. The main feature that sets this species apart is the almost complete lack of any remnants of the volva at the base of the stem. Because of this, along with the dull red shades and the way bruised areas quickly turn reddish, it can be easily distinguished from any of the harmful Amanitas.

According to Cordier, it's widely used as a food item in France. Stevenson and Cooke have good things to say about it. I noticed the small Bohemian boys picking it up around Salem, Ohio, having been in the country for less than a week and not able to speak a word of English. This convinced me that it’s part of the diet in Bohemia and that our species is similar to theirs. I've found the plants in the woods around Bowling Green and Sidney, Ohio. The plants in Figure 27 were collected on Johnson's Island, Sandusky, Ohio, and photographed by Dr. Kellerman. It can be found from June to September.

Rough Amanita.

Aspera means rough. The cap is rounded and then flat; the bumps are tiny, somewhat packed together, and almost last a long time; the edge is smooth, fairly thin, and gets thicker toward the stem; barely rounded on top, reddish with various shades of dull and gray; the flesh is fairly firm, white, with shades of reddish-brown right next to the skin.[Pg 40]

The gills are free, with a small tooth at the back, running down the stem, white, and wide at the front.

The stem is white, scaly, bulbous with wrinkles, has a ring at the top, and is whole. The spores are 8×6µ.

When the flesh is bruised or eaten by insects, it turns a reddish-brown color, making it similar to A. rubescens. The smell is strong, but the taste isn’t bad. You can find it in the woods from June to October. Collectors should be certain they can identify the plant before eating it.

The Orange Amanita. Safe to eat.

The Orange Amanita is a large, attractive, and beautiful fungus. I've marked it as edible, but no one should eat it unless they are completely familiar with all the species in the Amanita genus, and even then, they should proceed with great caution. It's said to have been Julius Caesar's favorite mushroom. The cap is smooth, hemispherical, bell-shaped, and convex, and when fully opened, it's nearly flat, with a slightly raised center and a margin that curves down a bit; it’s red or orange, fading to yellow at the edges. Generally, the larger and more developed specimens have a deeper and richer color, which is always more pronounced in the center of the cap; the margin is clearly striated. The gills are rounded at the stem end and not attached to the stem, yellow, free, and straight. The color of the gills in mature plants typically indicates the color of the spores, but this is an exception since the spores are white.

The stem and the soft, fleshy collar at the top are yellow, similar to the gills, with the color intensity varying more with the plant's size than with the cap's color. In smaller and lesser quality plants, both the stem and gills can appear almost white, and if the volva isn’t clearly defined, it can be hard to tell it apart from the deadly fly mushroom. The stem is hollow, filled with a soft, cotton-like material in young plants.

In very young plants, the edge of the collar is connected to the edge of the cap and hides the gills, but as the stem grows taller and the cap expands, the collar pulls away from the edge and stays attached to the stem, where it hangs down like a ruffle.

The expanded cap is typically three to six inches wide, and the stem is four to six inches long, narrowing as it goes up.

When the plant is in the button stage, it has an oval shape, and the white color of the volva, which completely encloses the plant, looks a lot like a hen's egg in size, color, and shape. As the internal parts grow, the volva breaks open at the top, the stem lengthens and lifts the cap upward, while[Pg 41] the leftover volva forms a cup around the base of the stem.

When the volva first breaks at the top, it shows the tip of the cap with its beautiful red color, and contrasting with the white volva, it creates quite a lovely plant. However, as it ages, the red or orange-red fades to yellow. When drying the specimens, the red often completely disappears. In both young and old plants, the edges are often distinctly marked with stripes, as shown in Figures 28 and 29. The flesh of the plant is white but is somewhat stained with yellow next to the skin and the gills, which are that color.

The plant grows in wet weather from July to October. It thrives in thin woods and seems to prefer pine forests and sandy soil. I've found it from the southern tier of counties to the north of our state. However, it is not a common plant in Ohio.

From its various names—Cæsar's Agaric, Imperial Mushroom, Cibus Deorum, Kaiserling—one would assume that for a long time it has been regarded as a highly valued food.

Too much caution should be taken to distinguish it from the highly toxic fly mushroom.[Pg 42]

Hated Amanita. Toxic.

Spreta, hated. The cap initially has an almost oval shape, slightly raised in the center, then becomes rounded, smooth, sometimes with bits of the outer layer stuck to it, the edge ribbed, white or light brown near and on the center, soft, dry, and somewhat grooved along the edge.

The flesh is white, thin at the edges, and getting thicker toward the center. The gills are closed, white, and extend to the stem.

The stem is straight, smooth, ringed, either solid or hollow, whitish, and has fine stripes at the top from the downward lines of the gills, not swollen at the base. The volva is quite large and tends to be yellowish. The spores are oval-shaped.

The plant looks similar to the dark shapes of the Amanitopsis because of its distinct striations and the complete, snug volva at the base, but it can be easily identified by its ring. I discovered it on Cemetery Hill alongside the Amanitopsis. It doesn't seem to have roots that go as deep into the ground as the Amanitopsis. It is highly toxic and should be studied carefully so that it can be easily recognized and avoided.

It can be found in open woods from July to September.

Amanitopsis comes from Amanita and opsis, meaning "resembling," because it looks like the Amanita. The main feature that sets this genus apart from Amanita is the lack of a collar on the stem. Many authors include its species within Amanita. The spores are white. The gills do not attach to the stem, and there is a universal veil that initially completely covers the young plant, which soon breaks apart, leaving remnants on the cap that appear as scattered bumps. It differs from Lepiota by having a volva.

The Sheathed Amanitopsis. Safe to eat.

Vaginata—from vagina, meaning sheath. The plant is edible but should be handled with extreme caution. Its color can vary significantly, ranging from white to grayish-brown or yellowish.

The cap starts off oval, then looks bell-shaped, before becoming convex and wider. It's thin, pretty delicate, and smooth when young, often having small bits of the veil stuck to its surface, and it has deep, clear stripes.[Pg 44]

The gills are free, white, then pale, bulbous, widest at the front, and uneven. The flesh is white, but in the darker varieties, it's stained beneath the easily separable skin. The spores are white and almost round, measuring 7–10µ.

The stem is cylindrical, straight or slightly narrowing at the top, hollow or filled, smooth or covered with soft scales, and not swollen at the base.

The volva is long, slender, fragile, creating a permanent casing that is quite soft and easily sticks to the bottom of the stem.

The grooves on the edge are deep and clear, similar to the Orange Amanita. The cup is fairly consistent but it's delicate, easily shattered and often buried in the ground. In some plants, a small bump forms at the center.

The mushroom enthusiast wants to be very careful in distinguishing between this species and Amanita spreta, which is highly toxic.

It can be found in forests, in open areas with a lot of plant debris, sometimes in fields and pastures, especially in meadows beneath trees. It appears from June to November.

The plant comes in a wide range of colors, and there are several types that can be distinguished by their colors:

A. vaginata, var. alba. The entire plant is white.

A. vaginata var. fulva. The cap is a tawny yellow or light ochre.

A. vaginata var. livida. The cap is a dull brown; the gills and stem have a hint of smoky brown.[Pg 45]

The Gray Amanitopsis. Safe to eat.

Strangulata means choked, referring to the stuffed stem. The cap is two to four inches wide, quickly becoming flat, livid-bay or gray, with patches of the volva, and the edge is striated or grooved.

The gills are free, white, and closely spaced.

The stem is filled, smooth on top, scaly on the bottom, and slightly narrowing as it goes up. The volva quickly breaks apart, creating several ring-like ridges on the stem. The spores are round, measuring 10–13µ.

This is a synonym for A. ceciliae. B. and Br., and it might just be a robust growth of Amanitopsis vaginata. It has very little smell and a sweet taste, making it delicious to cook.

Found in the woods and in open areas from August to October.

Lepiota means a scale. In Lepiota, the gills are usually free from the stem, similar to Amanita and Amanitopsis, but they are different because they don't have any superficial or removable warts on the cap, nor do they have any sheathing or scaly remains of a volva at the base of the stem. In some species, the outer layer of the cap breaks into scales that stick to the cap, and this characteristic is actually what inspired the name of the genus, which comes from the Latin word lepis, meaning a scale.

The stem is either hollow or filled, and its body is separate from the cap, easily coming apart from it. There are several edible species.

Parasol Mushroom. Edible.

Procera means tall.

The cap is thin, prominently umbonate, and covered in brown, spot-like scales.

The gills are white, occasionally yellowish-white, free, spaced away from the stem, broad and crowded, bulging, with edges that can sometimes appear brownish.

The stem is very long, cylindrical, and either hollow or solid. It's much longer compared to its thickness, hinting at the name, procera. The ring is quite thick and sturdy, but in mature plants, it becomes loose and can move up and down the stem. This, along with the shape of the plant, led to the name, parasol. The cap measures three to five inches wide, and the stem is five to nine inches tall. I found one specimen among fallen timber that was eleven inches tall and had a cap that was six inches wide.[Pg 47]

[Pg 48]

It has a wide distribution. It can be found throughout Ohio, but it's not common anywhere. People who have tried it really like it, and it’s truly a tasty treat when quickly grilled over coals, seasoned with salt and pepper, with melted butter poured over the gills and served on toast. This mushroom is particularly free of grubs, and it can be dried for use in the winter.

There’s no toxic species that could easily be mistaken for it. The tall, thin stem with a bulbous base, the unusual spotted cap with a noticeable dark umbo, and the movable ring on the stem are enough to clearly identify this species.

Spores are white and oval, measuring 14×10µ. Lloyd. It can be found in fields, stubble, and among fallen trees. From July to October.

I want to thank C. G. Lloyd for the photo shared here.

Smooth Lepiota. Edible.

Pileus soft, smooth, white or smoky-white; gills free, white, slowly changing with age to a dirty pinkish-brown color; stem with a ring, slightly thicker at the base, tapering upward, covered in pure white fibers. The Smooth Lepiota is usually very regular in shape and distinctly white. The center of the cap might sometimes have a yellow or smoky white tint. Its surface is almost always very smooth and level. The gills are somewhat narrower toward the stem than in the middle. They are rounded and not connected to the stem.

Cap two to four inches wide; stem two to three inches long. It grows in clean grassy areas in lawns, pastures, and along roadsides. I’ve seen the roadside white with this species around Sidney, Ohio. The specimens shown in the figure were found in Chillicothe, from August to November.

This is one of the best mushrooms, just as good as the meadow mushroom. It has the advantage that its gills stay white and don’t change from pink to an unpleasant black. The shading and description should help even the most casual reader recognize the plant.

The American Lepiota. Safe to eat.

This plant is pretty common around Chillicothe, especially on sawdust piles. It can grow both alone and in clusters. The cap is rounded and has reddish or reddish-brown scales on it, except for the center where the color is consistently reddish or reddish-brown because the surface isn’t covered in scales. The gills are close together, free, white, and slightly swollen; the stem is smooth and wider at the base. In some plants, the base of the stem is unusually large, and the ring is white and tends to be delicate.

Wounds and bruises tend to take on brownish-red colors. Dr. Herbst says: "This is definitely an American plant, not found in any other country. This is the pride of the family. There's nothing more beautiful than a cluster of this fungus. Looking at the lovely scaly cap is just as captivating as a group of quail."

Found in grassy lawns and on old sawdust piles, similar to Pluteus cervinus. It's found almost everywhere in the state. It's just as good as the Parasol mushroom in flavor. It tends to turn the milk or cream it’s cooked in a reddish color. It's found from June to October. Mr. Lloyd suggests the name Lepiota Bodhami. It's the same as the European plant L. hæmatosperma. Bull.

In Honor of Prof. Morgan.

Pileus fleshy, soft, initially rounded, then spread out or even sunken, white, with a brownish or yellowish skin that breaks into scales on the top; gills close together, lance-shaped, spaced apart, white, then turning green; stem solid, straight or narrowing upwards, slightly bulbous at the base, smooth, webby inside, whitish with a hint of brown; ring fairly large, movable as you can see in Figure 35. Flesh of both pileus and stem is white, changing to reddish, then yellowish when cut or bruised. Spores are oval or slightly elliptical, mostly single-nucleus, dirty green. 10–13×7–8. Peck.

This plant is very common around Chillicothe, and I found it just as plentiful in Sidney. I've seen several families eat it, leading to about half of the kids in each family getting sick. I consider it a dangerous plant to consume. It grows quite large, and I've noticed it forming distinct rings about a rod in diameter. If you're unsure whether the plant you have is Morgani or not, leave it in the basket overnight, and you'll clearly see that the gills start to turn green. The gills are white until the spores begin to drop. This plant is typically found in pastures and sometimes in wooded areas of pastures. June to October.[Pg 51]

Grainy Lepiota. Safe to eat.

Granulosa—from granosus, meaning full of grains. The cap is thin, convex or nearly flat, sometimes almost umbonate, rough, covered with numerous granular scales, often with radiating wrinkles, rusty-yellow or reddish-yellow, and often fading in color as it ages. The flesh is white or has a reddish tint. The gills are close, rounded at the back, and usually slightly attached, white in color. The stem is equal or slightly thicker at the base, either solid or hollow, white above the ring, colored and patterned like the cap below it. The ring is small and fleeting. Spores are elliptical, measuring .00016 to .0002 inch long and .00012 to .00014 inch wide.

Plant 1 to 2.2 inches high; cap 1 to 2.2 inches wide; stem 1 to 3 lines thick. Found commonly in woods, thickets, and abandoned areas. August to October.

"This is a small species with a short stem and a granular reddish-yellow cap, and gills that are slightly attached to the stem. The ring is very small and fleeting, barely more than a sudden end to the stem's covering. This species used to include several varieties that are now considered distinct."—Peck's Report.

Found in the open woods near Salem, Ohio. The plant is small but quite fleshy and of a nice quality.

Pileus thin, dome-shaped, slightly raised in the center, with a fine powdery texture, especially on the edge, white disk with a hint of pink.

Gills close, rounded at the back, free, and white; stem thin, whitish, and hollow; spores subelliptical, .0002 inch long.

Mossy spots in the woods. October.—Peck's Report. Anyone will instantly recognize the crested Lepiota the moment they see it. It has many of the identifying traits of the Lepiota family.

Granosa means covered in granules.

The cap is rounded, blunt, or slightly raised, smooth with radial wrinkles, usually consistent and regular around the edge, reddish-yellow or light brown.

The gills are connected to the stem, slightly downward sloping, a bit crowded, white at first, then turning reddish-yellow.

The stem is thick at the bottom and narrows towards the cap, with yellow flesh. The veil is like a membrane and creates a lasting ring on the stem.[Pg 53]

[Pg 54]

It grows on decayed wood. I found it in large amounts and tried to identify it as L. granulosa, but it actually matched L. amianthinus more closely, even though it's much larger and has a different growth habit. I wasn't happy with this description and sent the specimens to Prof. Atkinson, who helped clarify it for me. It's a beautiful plant found on decayed wood in September and October.

Onion Stemmed Lepiota. Edible.

Cepæstipes comes from "cepa," meaning onion, and "stipes," meaning stem. The pileus starts thin and ovate, then becomes bell-shaped or wider, with an umbo that quickly shows many tiny brownish scales, which can be granular or powdery, arranged in lines along the edges. The color is white or yellow, with the umbo being darker.

The gills are thin, closely spaced, free, white, and become dirty with age or when they dry out.

The stem is pretty long, narrowing at the top, usually thicker in the middle or near the bottom, and hollow. The ring is thin and tends to stick around for a while. The spores are somewhat oval, each with a single nucleus, measuring 8–10×5–8µ.[Pg 55]

The plants are usually clumped together, growing two to four inches tall. The cap is one to two inches wide. They thrive in nutrient-rich soil and decaying plant material. They can also be found in vineyards and greenhouses. Peck.

This plant gets its name because its stem looks like the seed-stalk of an onion. One variety has a yellow or yellowish cap, while the other has a white or light cap. It seems to enjoy growing in piles of well-rotted sawdust and in greenhouses. The examples shown in Figure 37 were collected in Cleveland and photographed by Prof. H. C. Beardslee.

The Squarrose Lepiota. Edible.

Acutesquamosa comes from acutus, meaning sharp, and squama, meaning scale; it's named for the many bristling, upright scales on the cap. The cap is two to three inches wide, fleshy, rounded, rounded at the top, or broadly umbonate; it's pale rusty with numerous small pointed scales, which are usually larger and more numerous at the center.

The gills are free, crowded, simple, white, or yellowish.[Pg 56]

The stem is two to three inches long or more; it can be filled or hollow, slightly tapering upward from a swollen base; below the ring, it's rough or silky, and it's frosted above, with a large ring. The spores measure 7–8×4µ.

They can be found in the woods, in gardens, and often in greenhouses. There's a slight difference between the specimens growing in the woods and those in the greenhouse. In the greenhouse, the fuzzy covering is less dense, and the upright scales are more numerous than in the woods. In older specimens, these scales fall off and leave small scars on the cap where they were attached. The specimens in Figure 38 were collected in Michigan and photographed by Dr. Fisher from Detroit.

Armillaria, which comes from the word "armilla," meaning bracelet—this refers to the ring on the stem. This genus is different from all the previously mentioned white-spored species because the gills are attached to the stem at their inner edge. The spores are white, and the stem has a collar, although it tends to be somewhat fleeting, and there is no wrapper at the base of the stem like in Amanita and Amanitopsis. The collar distinguishes this genus from the other genera that will come next.

[Pg 57]

The Amanita and Lepiota mushrooms have stems and caps that are not continuous, so their stems can be easily separated from the cap. In contrast, the Armillaria has gills that are attached to the stem and cap.

Honey-Colored Armillaria. Edible.

Mellea, from melleus, the color of honey. The cap is fleshy and honey-colored or ochre, with striations along the edge, darker brown shading towards the center, often with a central raised bump and occasionally a depression in fully grown specimens, covered with dark brown, fleeting hairs. The cap color varies depending on the weather and the type of habitat. Gills are spaced out, ending in a downward tooth, pale or dirty white, often showing brown or rust-colored spots when they are older. Spores are white and plentiful. Usually, the ground beneath a group of these mushrooms will be white from the fallen spores. The stem is flexible and scaly, measuring four inches or more in length. The ring is downy. The cap diameter ranges from two to five inches. They often grow in clusters and, like most Armillarias, are generally parasitic on old stumps.

The veil can vary a lot. It might be thin and membranous, or pretty thick, or it might not be there at all, as shown in Figure 39; in Figure 40, you can only see a faint trace of the ring. The two plants thrived in very different environments; the last one grew in the woods, while Figure 39 was found on a city lawn. This species is quite common and can be found in thin woods or cleared areas, on the ground or on decaying wood. It prefers to grow around stumps. It can grow alone, in groups, or in dense clusters. It’s very plentiful around Chillicothe, where I’ve seen stumps completely surrounded by it. When raw, it has a slight bitterness, which seems to disappear when cooked. Those who enjoy it can eat it without worry, as all varieties are edible.

Prof. Peck lists the following varieties:

Marginate-bulbed Armillaria.

Bulbigera comes from bulbus, meaning bulb, and gero, which means to bear.

The cap is thick, three to four inches wide, rounded at first and then flattened, dull, even, brownish-gray, sometimes reddish, dry, and fibrous at the edge.

The gills are notched at the stem, pale, initially crowded, then becoming more spaced out and taking on a bit of color.

The stem is clearly bulb-shaped, two to three inches long, filled, pale, fibrous, with an off-center ring, and short-lived. The spores measure 7–10×5µ.

I found some really nice examples in Poke Hollow, near Chillicothe. The stems were short and quite bulbous, showing hardly any signs of a ring on the older ones. The caps were rounded and had a grayish-red color. You can easily tell this species apart by the clearly defined bulb at the base of the stem. The examples shown in Figure 41 were collected in Poke Hollow, near Chillicothe, on October 2nd. I'm confident they're edible, but I haven't tried them.

Spikenard Scented Armillaria. Ellis.

Nardosmia comes from nardosmius, the scent of nardus or spikenard.

The cap is pretty thick, solid, and compact, getting thinner at the edges. When it's young, it has a strong inward curve, is grayish white, and has nice brown spots, resembling a pheasant's breast. It's somewhat tough, with a skin that can be pulled away, and the flesh is white.

The gills are crowded, slightly notched or indented, somewhat rounded, and white.

The stem is sturdy, short, and fibrous, covered by a veil that creates a ring that's somewhat fleeting. The spores are almost round, measuring 6µ in diameter.

This is the most beautiful species of its kind, and you can easily identify it by its pheasant-like spotted cap, along with its strong smell and taste resembling spikenard or almonds. The almond flavor and scent fade when cooked. I discovered some really nice specimens around a pond in Mr. Shriver's woods, east of Chillicothe. In older specimens, the skin of the caps often breaks into scales. It's typically found in the woods in September and October.

Appendiculata, featuring small appendages. The cap is broadly rounded, smooth to the touch, whitish, often with a hint of rust or brownish rust color on the top. The flesh is white or nearly white. The gills are close together, rounded at the back, and whitish. The stem is uniform or slightly narrower at the top, solid, bulbous, and whitish, with the veil either membranous or web-like, typically sticking in patches to the edge of the cap. Spores are oval-shaped, measuring 8×5.

Pileus two to four inches wide. Stem 1.5–3.5 inches long; 5–10 lines thick.

The overall look of this species resembles Tricholoma album, but the presence of a veil distinguishes it from that fungus and categorizes it under the genus Armillaria. However, the veil is often a bit torn or web-like and sticks to the edge of the cap. Peck's Report.

I have found this in Salem and Chillicothe.

Tricholoma comes from two Greek words meaning hair and fringe. This genus is recognized for its thick, fleshy stem, which has no ring, and for the gills that are attached to the stem and have a notch at their edges near or at the tip. The veil is either absent or, if present, it is fluffy and sticks to the edge of the cap. The cap is usually quite fleshy; the stem is uniform and merges with the cap, being central and almost fleshy, without any ring or volva, and lacking a distinct bark-like layer. The spores are white or grayish-white.

The key characteristics are the thick stem, which blends seamlessly with the flesh of the cap, and the wavy or notched gills. This genus is pretty widespread. To my knowledge, all the species grow on the ground.

There are many edible species in this genus, with only two that I know of being inedible, and no one is likely to try those due to their strong smell. They are T. sulphureum and T. saponaceum.

Changing Tricholoma. Edible.

Transmutans means changing, referring to the color changes in both the stem and gills at different stages of the plant. This species has a cap that is two to four inches wide, sticky when wet. It starts off tawny-brown, especially as it ages. The flesh is white and has a distinct floury smell and taste.

The gills are densely packed, fairly narrow, and can sometimes be branched, turning reddish-spotted as they age.

The stem is straight or slightly tapered at the top; it can be bare or have a slight silky texture; it can be solid or hollow; whitish, often with reddish marks or turning reddish-brown at the base, white on the inside. Spores are roughly spherical, 5µ.

The species grows in woods and open areas, as well as in clover fields, either alone or in clusters. I’ve seen large clusters of them, and when that happens, the caps are more or less irregular because they’re crowded together. I often found it around Salem, and this fall, 1905, I found it quite common in a clover pasture near Chillicothe. It appears in wet weather from August to September.

Knightly Tricholoma. Edible.

Equestre means belonging to a horse rider; named for its notable appearance in the woods.

The cap is three to five inches wide, thick, firm, rounded, spread out, blunt, sticky, scaly, with edges that curve inward at first, pale yellowish, sometimes with a slight green tint in both the cap and gills. The flesh is white or has a yellow tinge.

The gills are separate, dense, rounded at the back, and yellow.

The stem is thick, sturdy, pale yellow or white, and white on the inside. The spores measure 7–8×5µ.

It differs from T. coryphæum in having completely yellow gills, while only the edges of the latter are yellow. It differs from T. sejunctum because the latter has pure white gills and a thinner stem.

It’s only occasionally found here, and then just a specimen or two. It’s an attractive plant, and no one would walk past it in the woods without admiring it. It can be found from August to October.

Sordidum means shabby, dirty.

The cap is two to three inches wide, quite tough, fleshy, convex, bell-shaped, then flattened, slightly raised in the center, smooth, changes color when wet, with a slightly striped edge, brownish-lilac, then darkening.

The gills are rounded, fairly crowded, a dull violet color that then turns dark, and they have a notch with a downward tooth.

The stem has the same color as the cap, is fibrous and striped, usually slightly curved, solid, short, and often thickened at the base.

The spores are 7–8×3–4, slightly wrinkled.

This species is different from T. nudum because it is smaller, tougher, and often changes color when wet.[Pg 63]

It can be found in well-fertilized gardens, around manure piles, and in greenhouses. The samples in Figure 44 were collected from a greenhouse near Boston, Mass., and sent to me by Mrs. E. Blackford. They are typically found in September and October.

The Grooved Stem Tricholoma. Edible.

Grammopodium comes from two Greek words meaning line and foot.

The cap is three to six inches wide, thick in the center, thin at the edge, solid yet tender; brownish, dark umber, almost a dirty lavender when wet, white when dry; initially bell-shaped, then rounded, sometimes slightly wavy, with a rounded bump; the edge initially tends to roll inward and extends beyond the gills.

The gills are connected to the stem, with a wide notch as you can see in the specimen. They are closely packed, mostly whole, with many shorter ones, a few that are branched, and they are white or whitish.

The stem is three to four inches long, thicker at the base, smooth, firm, and has long grooves running along it, which is how it gets its specific name, whitish.

The spores are almost round, 5–6µ.

It looks a lot like T. fuligineum but can be told apart by its grooved [Pg 64] stem and closely spaced gills. The samples in Figure 45 were collected near Boston and were sent to me by Mrs. Blackford. The plants store well and dry easily. They were found in early June. They have a great flavor.

Paedidum means foul, smelly.

The cap is small, about one and a half inches wide, quite fleshy and tough; rounded, then flattened, soon indented around the conical bump; fibrous, becoming smooth; smoky gray, somewhat streaked; moist; edge curled inward and bare.

The gills are attached, crowded together, narrow, white, then turning grayish, somewhat wavy with a slight downward tooth.

The stem is short, slightly ribbed, dull gray, and thicker at the base. The spores are oval or spindle-shaped, measuring 10–11×5–6µ.

The name "nasty" or "stinking" doesn’t really fit the plant. It’s said to be really good when cooked. You can find it in well-fertilized gardens and fields, or near manure piles.

It differs from T. sordidum in that it has no hint of violet color. T. lixivium differs in its free, blunt gills.

Lixivium means turned into lye; thus, it has the color of ashes and water.

The cap is two to three inches wide; the flesh is thin; it starts out rounded then becomes flat; it has a knob at the top, never dips down; it’s even and smooth; grayish-brown when wet, then turns dark brown; the edge is thin and sometimes slightly ribbed or wavy.

The gills are rounded at the back, attached but free, soft, spaced apart, often frayed, and gray.

The stem is about two inches long, fibrous, hollow or filled, even, initially covered with a fragile white fuzz, and gray.

The spores are oval, 7×4–5µ.

The domed cap and the almost free, wide, gray gills will set it apart. They’re a late bloomer and are found under pine trees in November.

Sulfur Tricholoma. Poisonous.

Sulphureum, sulfur; named for the overall color of the plant.

The cap is one to three inches wide, thick, rounded, then flattened, slightly raised in the center, sometimes sunken or wavy and uneven, with edges that are initially rolled inwards, dull or reddish-yellow, silky at first, then becoming smooth and even.

The gills are fairly thick, tapered at the back, notched or sharply attached, and are yellowish in color.

The stem is 2 to 4 inches long, slightly bulbous, sometimes curved, and often has slight stripes; it's solid but can be hollow; it's sulfur-yellow on the outside and yellow on the inside; at the base, it sometimes has many strong, yellow, fibrous roots. The smell is strong and unpleasant. The flesh is thick and yellow. Spores measure 9–10×5µ.

It grows in mixed forests. I often find it where logs have rotted. The specimen in Figure 46 was discovered in Haynes' Hollow and photographed by Dr. Kellerman. Found in October and November.

Quinquepartitum means divided into five parts. There's no clear reason for the name. Fries couldn’t identify Linnæus' Agaricus quinquepartitus, so he gave this species that name.

The cap is three or four inches wide, a bit thick; rounded, somewhat rolled inwards, then flattened, with a slightly wavy edge; sticky, smooth, consistent, pale yellowish.

The gills are notched where they attach to the stem and are broad and white.

The stem is three to four inches long, solid, striped or grooved, and smooth. The spores are 5–6×3–4.

This species is different from T. portentosum because its cap isn't striped, and it differs from T. fucatum due to its smooth, striated, or grooved stem. This plant grows in sparse woods where old logs have rotted. I haven't tried eating this species, but I'm confident it's safe to eat. The flavor is nice. It's typically found in October and November.

Laterarium comes from later, which means brick; it's named this way because there's almost always a slight hint of brick red on the disk.

The cap is two to four inches wide, rounded, then flattened, sometimes slightly indented in the center; covered with a frosty white coating, the center often has a hint of red or brown, and the thin edge has faint, spaced-out, short, radiating lines.

The gills are narrow, crowded, white, extending in small downward lines on the stem. The stem is almost uniform, solid, and white. The spores are round, measuring .00018 inch in diameter. Peck's 26th Rep.

This plant is pretty common in the United States. You can often find it in Ohio, especially on the hills near Chillicothe, where it tends to be somewhat bulbous. The brownish-red tint on the disk and the short ridges along the edge of the cap will help you identify it. It’s edible and fairly tasty. It grows on leaf mold in damp woods from July to November.

Panæolum, all mixed colors. The cap is three to four inches wide, deeply depressed, dark with a grayish sheen, and changes as it dries out; the edge is initially curled in, sometimes wavy or irregular when fully opened.

The gills are quite packed, connected, curved, white at first,[Pg 68] turning to a light gray with a hint of red, and notched with a downward-facing tooth.

The stem is short, slightly bulb-shaped, tapering upward, solid, smooth, and about the same color as the cap. The spores are nearly round, measuring 5–6.

I found the specimens in Figure 48 under pine trees, growing on a bed of pine needles, on Cemetery Hill. They were found on November 9th.

Var. calceolum, Sterb., has a spongy, misshapen, thin, soft pileus that spreads out, with an inward-curving edge that is sooty-gray; the gills are smoky; the stem is off-center, spindle-shaped, and very short.

Dove-Colored Tricholoma. Edible.

Columbetta is the little version of columba, which means dove; it's named for the color of the plant. The cap is one to four inches wide, meaty, rounded, and then flattened; initially smooth, it becomes silky; white, with the center sometimes a light grayish color fading to white, often with a hint of pink on the edge, which starts curled, fuzzy in young plants, and sometimes splits.

The gills are notched at the base of the stem, crowded, thin, white, and fragile.

The stem is two inches or more long, solid, white, cylindrical, uneven, often compressed, smooth, crooked, and silky, especially in young plants, with a bulbous shape. Spores measure .00023 by .00018 inches. The flesh is white and has a mild taste.

This is a beautiful plant that appears to be free from insects and can stay fresh for several days on your desk. I had a lot of trouble with it until Dr. Herbst recommended this species. It's pretty common here. Dr. Peck lists several varieties. Curtis, McIlvaine, Stevenson, and Cooke all mention its edible qualities. It can be found in the woods in September and October.

The Variable Tricholoma.

Melaleuca, black and white; from the contrasting colors of the cap and gills.

This Tricholoma grows plentifully in northern Ohio. I've spotted it in the woods around Bowling Green, Ohio. The examples in the halftone were discovered near Sandusky, Ohio, and were photographed by Dr. Kellerman. It's typically found in sandy soil, growing alone in shaded woods.

The cap soft, thin, ranging from one to three inches wide, rounded, fairly broadly raised, slick, wet, with varying colors, typically light, almost white at first, then becoming much darker, occasionally slightly wavy.

The gills are notched, attached, swollen, crowded, and white.

The stem is stuffed, then hollow, elastic, two to four inches long, somewhat smooth, whitish, and sprinkled with a[Pg 70]few fibers, usually thickened at the base. The flesh is soft and white. There hasn't been any information, as far as I know, about whether it's edible, and I have no doubt about this, but I would recommend caution.

The Tarry Tricholoma.

Lascivum, playful, wanton; named for its many connections, none of which are very close. The cap is fleshy, rounded, then flattened, slightly blunt, somewhat sunken, silky at first, then smooth and even. The gills are notched, attached, crowded, and white; the stem is solid, uniform, stiff, rooting, white, and fuzzy at the base. Found in the woods, Haynes' Hollow near Chillicothe. September and October.

The Reddish Tricholoma. Edible.

Russula is named for its similar color to some species in the genus Russula.

The cap is three to four inches wide, fleshy, rounded, then flattened, sticky, either smooth or covered with small granular scales, red or a flesh color, the edge slightly lighter, curled inwards and a bit hairy in the young plant.

The gills are rounded or slightly hanging down, spaced apart, white, and often turn red-spotted as they get older.

The stem is about two to three inches long, solid, firm, and a whitish rosy-red color, nearly uniform, and scaly at the top. The spores are elliptical, measuring 10×5µ.

This plant shows a lot of variation in its unique characteristics, but it usually has enough features to tell it apart easily. The cap can be flesh-colored and the stem rosy-red, or the cap can be red with a white or whitish stem that has red spots. In wet weather, the caps of all these plants are sticky; when dry, they can be cracked to varying degrees. The stems might not have scales at the top and are often rosy when they are young. They can be found in the woods either alone, in groups, or often in dense clusters. The specimens in Figure 51 were collected in Michigan and photographed by Dr. Fischer.

I found this plant in Poke Hollow. The gills were pretty pronounced.

The Bitter Tricholoma.

Acerbum means bitter tasting.

The cap is three to four inches wide, rounded to flat, blunt, smooth, sometimes spotted, with a thin edge that is curled inward at first, wrinkled, grooved, sticky, whitish, often with a reddish or yellow tint, and has a very bitter taste.[Pg 71]

The gills are notched, crowded, pale or reddish, and narrow.

The stem is sturdy, fairly short, blunt, yellowish, and has scales near the top. The spores are almost spherical, measuring 5–6µ.

These plants were found growing in a dense layer of moss alongside Armillaria nardosmia. They weren't perfect specimens, but I thought they were T. acerbum based on their taste and rolled edges. I sent some to Prof. Atkinson, who confirmed my identification. They grow in open woods during October and November.

Cinerascens means turning the color of ashes.

The cap is two to three inches wide, thick, rounded to flat, even, blunt, smooth, white, then turning grayish, with a thin edge.[Pg 72]

The gills are notched, crowded, somewhat wavy, dull, reddish, often yellowish, and easily detach from the cap.

The stem is filled, even, smooth, and flexible.

They grow in groups in mixed woods. They have a mild flavor.

White Tricholoma. Edible.

Album means blank.

The cap is two to four inches wide, thick, completely white, rounded, then sunken, blunt, smooth, dry, often with a yellow tint on the surface, and the edge is initially rolled inward, eventually spreading out.

The gills are rounded at the back, quite crowded, thin, white, and wide.

The stem is 2 to 4 inches long, solid, firm, tapered at the top, and smooth.

This plant is abundant in our woods, usually growing in clusters. It thrives on the leaf litter and can often be quite large. It has a strong, bitter taste when raw, but this is mellowed out when cooked. It can be found from August to October.

These plants are pretty common on the wooded hillsides around Chillicothe. The ones shown in Figure 52 were discovered on Ralston's Run and photographed by Dr. Kellerman.

Imbricated Tricholoma. Edible.

Imbricatum means covered with tiles, imbreces, referring to the torn condition of the cap. This species is very closely related to T. transmutans in size, color, and taste. However, it can be easily distinguished by its dry cap and solid stem. Its cap is reddish-brown or cinnamon-brown, and its surface often has a somewhat scaly look because the outer layer becomes lacerated or torn into small irregular fragments that stick together and seem to overlap like shingles on a roof. The flesh is firm, white, and has a starchy taste and smell. The gills are white, turning red or rusty spotted, fairly close together, and notched. The stem is solid, firm, nearly uniform in thickness, [Pg 74] except slightly swollen at the base, colored similarly to the cap but usually lighter. When older, it can sometimes be hollow due to insect damage. The spores are white and elliptical, measuring .00025 inch long.

I found this mushroom near Salem, Ohio, Bowling Green, Ohio, and on Ralston's Run near Chillicothe. It grows in mixed woods from September to November.

Earth-Bearing Tricholoma. Edible.

Terriferum, earth-borne, referring to the sticky cap that holds onto bits of dirt and pine needles as it pushes through the ground. This is a hearty mushroom, and when cleaned properly, it makes a tasty dish.

The cap is curved, uneven, wavy at the edges and rolled inward, smooth, sticky, pale yellow, sometimes whitish, usually covered with soil due to the cap's sticky surface, and the flesh is white.

The gills are white, thin, close together, and slightly attached.

The stem is short, thick, solid, uniform, starchy, and just a bit bulbous at the base.

Found near Salem, Ohio, on Hon. J. Thwing Brooks' farm from September to October.

Smoky Tricholoma. Edible.

Fumidellum—smoky, due to the clay-colored caps covered with brown.

The cap is one to two inches wide, rounded, then flattened, slightly raised at the center, smooth, moist, dull white or clay-colored with some brown spots, and the center or bump is usually a smoky brown color.

The gills are packed together, slightly swollen, and white.

The stem is 1.5 to 2.5 inches long, straight, smooth, and solid whitish. The spores are tiny, roughly round, measuring 4–5×4µ. Peck, 44 Rep.

The samples I discovered grew in a mixed forest in the leaf litter. They only appear occasionally in our woods during September and October.

The White-capped Tricholoma. Edible.

Leucocephalum comes from two Greek words that mean white and head, referring to the white caps.

The cap is one and a half to two inches wide, rounded, then flat; smooth, moist, and even when the silky covering is gone, waterlogged after rain; the flesh is thin and tough, with a mealy smell and a mild, pleasant taste.[Pg 75]

The gills are rounded at the back, mostly free, crowded, and white.

The stem is about two inches long, hollow, solid at the base, smooth, cartilaginous, tough, and rooting. The spores are 9–10×7–8µ.

It differs from T. album by having a strong scent of fresh flour. It can be found in open woods during September and October.

Smoky Tricholoma. Safe to eat.

Fumescens means becoming smoky.

Pileus rounded or flattened, dry, covered with a very fine, flat fuzz, whitish.

The gills are narrow, crowded, rounded at the back, and have a whitish or pale cream color that turns to smoky blue or black where they're bruised.

The stem is short, cylindrical, and whitish. Spores are oblong-elliptical, measuring 5–6×5µ. The cap is one inch wide. The stem is one to one and a half inches tall. Peck, 44th Rep. N. Y. State Bot.

[Pg 76]

The caps are noticeably larger in the specimens found in Ohio compared to those described by Dr. Peck. So much so that I was unsure about the correct identification. I sent some specimens to Dr. Peck for his analysis. The species can easily be identified by the densely packed gills and the smoky blue or blackish tint they take on when bruised. The caps are often wavy, as shown in Figure 54.

I found the plants in Poke Hollow near Chillicothe from September to November.

The Gray Tricholoma. Edible.

Terreum comes from terra, meaning the earth; named for its color. This species varies greatly in color and size, as well as in how it grows.

The cap is one to three inches wide, dry, meaty, thin, rounded, flat, often with a central bump; fluffy-scaly, ash-brown, grayish-brown, or mouse-colored.

The gills are attached, somewhat spaced apart, white, turning grayish, with edges that are more or less worn down. Spores, 5–6µ.[Pg 77]

The stem is whitish, thread-like, uniform, lighter than the cap, and can be solid, stuffed, or hollow, measuring one to three inches tall.

I find this plant on the northern hillsides, in beech forests. It isn't common. There are several varieties:

Var. orirubens. Q. The edges of the gills are reddish.

Var. atrosquamosum. Chev. Cap is gray with small black scales; gills are whitish.

Var. argyraceum. Bull. Totally pure white, or the cap is grayish.

Var. chrysites. Jungh. Cap has a yellowish or greenish tint.

The plants in Figure 55 were discovered in Poke Hollow near Chillicothe. They were observed from September to November.

Saponaceum comes from sapo, meaning soap, named for its distinctive smell.

The cap is two to three inches wide, initially rounded and then flat, curled at the edges as shown in Figure 56, smooth, and moist in wet weather but not sticky. It often cracks into scales or has small dots, grayish or dull-brown, often with a hint of olive. The flesh is firm and turns more or less red when cut or damaged.

The gills are hook-shaped and notched, thin, whole, not crowded, white, sometimes tinged with green. Spores are roughly spherical, 5×4µ.

The stem is solid, uneven, rooting, smooth, and sometimes has a network of black fibers or scales.

This species is often found around Chillicothe. It varies quite a bit in size and color, but you can easily recognize it by its unique smell and the way the flesh turns reddish when damaged. It isn't poisonous, but the smell will keep anyone from wanting to eat it. It can be found in mixed woods from August to November.

The Cartilaginous Tricholoma. Edible.

Cartilagineum means gristly or cartilaginous.

The cap is two to three inches wide, flexible, thick, rounded, and soon flattens out, with a wavy shape, as shown in Figure 57. The edge curves inward, is smooth, tends to be dark at first, and then breaks into small black spots.

The gills are a bit notched, attached, somewhat crowded, and grayish.

The stem is one to two inches long, fairly firm, filled, even, smooth, white, often lined, and powdery. It has a pleasant taste and smell.

A few of my friends tried it because of its appealing taste and smell. It thrived in large amounts among the clover in our city park during the rainy weather at the end of May and the beginning of June.

Squarrulosum means covered in scales.

The cap is two to three inches wide, rounded, then flattened, knobbed on top, dry; dark brown then bright tan, with a black center and black scales; the edge is fibrous, overhanging the gills.

The gills are wide, densely packed, whitish-gray, and turn reddish when damaged.[Pg 79]

The stem is the same color as the cap, with a dotted and scaly texture. The spores are elliptical, measuring 7–9×4–5µ.

This is a beautiful plant that grows in mixed woods among the leaves. The stem is short and seems to match the color of the cap. The cap is covered with black scales, which is how the species got its name. I've only been able to find these plants in October. The specimens in Figure 58 were found in Poke Hollow, near Chillicothe.

Spotted Tricholoma.

Maculatescens means growing spotted; it's called that because when the specimen is dried, the cap turns out to be more or less spotted.

The cap is one and a half to three inches wide, compact, spongy, reddish-brown, convex, then flattened, blunt, smooth, slightly sticky when wet, becoming wrinkled and brown-spotted as it dries, with whitish flesh and a margin that curves inward, extending beyond the gills.

The gills are slightly notched, quite narrow, and ash-colored.[Pg 80]

The stem is soft and fleshy, uniform, sometimes suddenly tapered at the base, solid, thick, with fine fibers, pale or whitish. The spores are elongated or somewhat spindle-shaped, pointed at both ends, single-nucleus, .0003 inches long, .00016 inches wide. Peck.

I came across the plant a few times in November, but I couldn't properly identify it until Prof. Morgan stepped in to help me. The specimens shown in Figure 59 were found on Thanksgiving day in the Morton woods, in Gallia County, Ohio. I had already collected several specimens around Chillicothe before this.

This species appears to be quite close to T. flavobrunneum, T. graveolens, and T. Schumacheri, but can be identified from them by the spots on the cap as it dries and the distinctive shape of the spores.

It can be found among the leaves in mixed woods even in freezing weather. It's definitely edible, but I should try it carefully the first time.

The Yellow-Brown Tricholoma. Edible.

Flavobrunneum comes from flavus, meaning yellow, and brunneus, meaning brown; it’s named for its brown caps and yellow flesh.

The cap is three to four inches wide or more, thick, conical, then convex, widened, slightly uplifted at the center, sticky, brownish-bay, with scaly streaks, yellow flesh, which then has a hint of red.

The gills are pale yellow, notched, slightly extending down the stem, somewhat crowded, and often tinged with red.

The stem is 3 to 4 inches long, hollow, slightly bulging, brownish, with yellow flesh that is initially sticky and sometimes reddish-brown. The spores measure 6–7×4–5. It’s found in mixed woods among the leaves.

Schumacheri in honor of C. F. Schumacher, author of "Plantarum Sællandiæ." The cap is two to three inches wide, spongy, round at first, then flat with a blunt top, smooth, dull gray, moist, and the edge beyond the gills curves inward.

The gills are narrow, close together, bright white, and slightly notched.

The stem is three to four inches long, solid, with a fibrous texture, white, and fleshy.

This looks like a houseplant, commonly found in greenhouses.

The Large Tricholoma. Edible.

Grande, large, showy. This was pretty common in Haines' Hollow and on Ralston's Run during the rainy weather of fall 1905. It looks a lot like T. columbetta and is found in the same areas.

The cap is thick, firm, hemispherical, becoming convex, often uneven, dry, scaly, somewhat silky-fibrillose near the edge, white, with the edge initially curled inward. The flesh is grayish-white, with a starchy taste.

The gills are tightly packed, rounded at the back, attached, and white.

The stem is thick, solid, and fibrous, initially narrowing upward, then staying even or only slightly thickening at the base, pure white. The spores are oval, measuring 9–11×6µ.

The cap is four to five inches wide, the stem is two to four inches long, and it's one to one and a half inches thick. Peck, 44th Rep.

This is a very large and showy plant that grows among leaves after heavy rains. Both this and T. columbetta, along with a white variety of T. personatum,[Pg 82] were very common in the same woods. They grow in groups so closely packed that the caps are often quite irregular. The darker and scaly disk and the larger spores will help you tell it apart from T. columbetta. The really large specimens are too coarse to be good. They are found in damp woods, among leaves, from August to November.

The Separating Tricholoma. Edible.

Sejunctum means separated. It refers to the gills being detached from the stem. The cap is fleshy, rounded, then flattened, with a slight bump in the center, somewhat sticky, marked with natural brown or black fibers, white or yellow, and sometimes greenish-yellow. The flesh is white and delicate.

The gills are wide, spaced out, rounded at the back or notched, and white.

The stem is firm, thick, and usually not perfectly shaped, white in color. The spores are nearly round, [Pg 83] .00025 inches wide. The cap is one to three inches across; the stem is one to four inches long and four to eight lines thick. Peck's Report.

This is pretty common around Salem, Ohio; along the old Lake Shore line in Wood County near Bowling Green, Ohio; and I often find it close to Chillicothe. When cooked, it tastes great. It’s always a good-looking specimen. I discover it under beech trees in the woods from September to November.

United Tricholoma. Edible.

Unifactum means united or made into one, referring to the stems combined into a single base root or stem.

The cap is fleshy but thin, rounded; often uneven, sometimes off-center due to its growth pattern; whitish, with a light flesh color, and has a mild taste.

The gills are thin, narrow, closely spaced, rounded at the back, slightly attached, and occasionally forked near the base, white.

The stems are the same size or thicker at the base, solid, fibrous, white, and joined at the bottom in a large fleshy mass.

Spores are white, roundish, and measure between 0.00016 and 0.0002 inches wide. Peck.

I found a stunning specimen in Poke Hollow, in a beech forest mixed with some oak and chestnut trees. There was only one cluster growing from a large, whitish, fleshy mass. Fifteen caps were growing from this mass. I couldn't identify the species before it was too late to take a photo.

The Whitish Tricholoma. Edible.

The cap is two to three inches wide, turning pale white and then gray when dry, thick and fleshy at the center, thinner at the edges, conical then rounded, bumping up when fully opened, usually moist on the surface, marked like it has scales, with a thin, bare edge, and the flesh is soft, fluffy, white, and does not change color.

The gills are very narrow at the back, not notched, and widen at the front; they are tightly packed, completely intact, and white.

The stem is about one to two inches long, solid, thick-fleshed, bulb-shaped (conical in the middle, cylindrical at the top), with fine striations, and white. Spores are oval-shaped, measuring 6–7×4µ.

The Masked Tricholoma. Edible.

Personatum means wearing a mask; it's called that because of the variety of colors it displays. This mushroom is beautiful and has excellent flavor; it has a wide distribution and is often found in large quantities. I've seen it growing in nearly a straight line for over twenty feet, with caps so closely packed that they lost their shape. When it's young, the cap is rounded and quite firm, with edges tiny and fuzzy or covered with powdery particles, and curled inwards. In the mature version, it's softer, broadly rounded, or almost flat, with the thin edge spreading out and generally turned upward and wavy. When young, it is pale lilac, but as it ages, it turns a tawny or rusty color, especially in the center. Sometimes the cap appears white, pale, or gray, or in a light violet hue.

The gills are tightly packed, rounded next to the stem, and almost free but getting close to the stem, becoming narrower toward the edge, with a subtle hint of lilac or violet when young, but often white.

The stem is short and sturdy, covered with tiny fibers, fuzzy or powdery particles when it's young and fresh, but it becomes smooth as it ages. The stem's color is similar to the cap, but maybe a bit lighter.

The cap is one to five inches wide, and the stem is one to three inches tall. It grows alone or in clusters. You can find it in sparse woods and bushes. It especially thrives in places where an old sawmill used to be.

The best examples of this species I’ve ever seen grew on a heap of compost made from leftover green corn cobs from the canning factory. They had been sitting in the pile for around three years, and by late November, the compost was completely covered with this species, many of whose caps were over five inches wide, while the color and shape of the plants were very typical.

In English books, this plant is referred to as Blewits, and in France, it's called Blue-stems. However, in this country, the stems tend to be lilac or violet, and that's mostly in the younger plants.

The spores are almost oval and a dull white, but in groups on white paper, they take on a salmon color. Its smooth, almost shiny, unbroken surface and its unique peach-blossom hue set it apart from all other species of Tricholoma. There is a white variety, quite common in our forests, which is shown in Figure 62. They are only found in leaf mold in the woods, from September until it freezes.

The Naked Tricholoma. Edible.

Nudum, naked, bare; from the nature of the edge. The cap is two to three inches wide, fleshy, fairly thin, rounded, then spread out, slightly indented; smooth, moist, the entire plant is violet at first, then changes color, with a curled, thin, bare edge that is often wavy.

The gills are narrow, rounded at the back, slightly running down when the plant is flattened, crowded, violet at first, changing to a reddish-brown without any hint of violet.

The stem is two to three inches long, stuffed, flexible, and straight, initially purple, then turning pale, somewhat powdery. Spores 7×3.5µ

I found some really great specimens among the leaves in the woods at Haynes' Hollow, near Chillicothe. October and November.

St. George's Mushroom. Edible.

Gambosum, featuring a swollen hoof, gamba. The cap is three to six inches wide, sometimes even larger; very thick, rounded, flattened, often depressed, usually cracked in various spots; smooth, resembling soft kid leather; the edge is rolled inward at first, pale ochre or yellowish white.

The gills are notched, with an attached tooth, closely packed, bulbous, moist, varying in length, and yellowish white.

The stem is short, firm, and fluffy at the top, with a creamy white texture; slightly swollen at the base. The spores are white.

It’s called St. George's mushroom in England because it shows up around St. George's Day, April 23rd. It often grows in rings or crescents. It has a very strong smell. Its season is May and June.

The Odd Tricholoma. Edible.

Portentosum means weird or monstrous.

The cap is three to five inches wide, fleshy, rounded, then flattened, with a slight bump at the top, sticky, dark, often with a purple tint, frequently uneven and curled up, marked with dark lines, the thin edge bare, the flesh not dense, white, delicate, and mild.[Pg 87]

The gills are white, wide, rounded, almost free, spaced out, and often turning pale gray or yellowish.

The stem is three to six inches long, solid, very fibrous, sometimes equal, often tapering towards the base, white, thick, lined, and fuzzy at the base. The spores are roundish, measuring 4–5×4µ.

The plants grow in pine forests and along the edges of mixed woods, often by roadsides. They're typically seen in October and November. The plants in Figure 63 were found near Waltham, Massachusetts, and were sent to me by Mrs. E. B. Blackford. It's said to even surpass T. personatum in terms of edible qualities.

Clitocybe comes from two Greek words, meaning a hillside or slope and a head; it’s named for the central dip of the cap.

The genus Clitocybe is different from Tricholoma based on the gill structure. The gills are attached to the stem along their entire width and usually extend down the stem or are decurrent. This is the first genus known to have decurrent gills. It doesn't have a volva or a ring, and the spores are white. The stem is elastic, spongy on the inside, often hollow, and very fibrous, continuing seamlessly with the cap.

The cap is usually thick, tapering off towards the edge, flat or slightly depressed or shaped like a funnel, with a curled-in edge. The universal veil, if it exists, is only noticeable on the edge of the cap, resembling frost or silky dew.

These plants typically grow on the ground and often in clusters, although a few can be found on decomposed wood.

The Collybia, Mycena, and Omphalia have cartilaginous stems, while the stem of the Clitocybe is very fibrous, and the Tricholoma is recognized by its notched gills.

This genus, due to the differences in its species, will always be confusing for beginners, just as it is for experts. We can quickly determine it’s a Clitocybe because the gills meet the stem directly or run down it, and it has a fibrous stem, but identifying the specific species is a whole different story.

The Intermediate Clitocybe. Edible.

Media comes from medius, meaning middle; it's called that because it lies between C. nebularis and C. clavipes. It's not as common as either of the other two in our woods.

The cap is grayish-brown or blackish-brown, always darker than C. nebularis. The flesh is white and has a floury taste.

The gills are wide, not crowded, attached to the stem and extending downwards, white, with few cross ridges or veins in the gaps between them.

The stem is about one to two inches long, typically narrowing toward the top,[Pg 89]
[Pg 90] lighter in color than the cap, quite flexible, and smooth. The spores are clearly elliptical, measuring 8×5µ.

This is very similar to the two species mentioned earlier and is difficult to distinguish. I found the specimens in Figure 64 along Ralston's Run where the ground is mossy and wet. Found in September and October.

The Funnel-Formed Clitocybe. Edible.

Infundibuliformis means funnel-shaped. This is a beautiful plant and very common in woods after heavy rain. It grows on leaves and especially among pine needles.

The cap starts out rounded and slightly raised, and as the mushroom matures, the edges lift up until it takes on a funnel shape. The edges often curve inward and eventually become wavy. The flesh is soft and white. The cap is a light tan color. If you look closely at the cap, you'll notice it has a fine downy or silky texture, particularly along the edges. The color of the cap can fade, so you may find some specimens that are nearly white.

The gills are thin, tightly spaced, white or whitish, and very decurrent.

The stem is pretty smooth and usually narrows as it goes up from the base. It can sometimes be white or whitish, but is often similar to the cap. You’ll typically find mycelium at the base on the leaves, creating a soft white fuzz. I’ve spotted this species in various parts of the state. It often grows in clusters, causing the caps to be irregular due to the crowded conditions. They are very tender and have an excellent flavor. Found from August to October.

Sweet-smelling Clitocybe. Edible.

Odora means fragrant. This is one of the easiest Clitocybes to identify. Collectors will easily recognize it by its olive-green color and its smell.[Pg 91] The color in older plants can vary quite a bit, but in younger plants, it's very distinct. The cap is one to two and a half inches wide, with quite thick flesh; it starts off convex, then becomes flat, often depressed, and can sometimes have wavy edges; it's even and smooth, olive-green.

The gills are attached, fairly close together, sometimes slightly running down the stem, wide, and pale.

The stem is about one to one and a half inches long, usually a bit bulbous at the base.

These plants can be found from August to October, in the woods, on leaves. They're pretty common around Chillicothe after it rains. When cooked on their own, their flavor is a bit strong, but when mixed with other plants that aren't as strong in flavor, they're great.

The Deceiving Clitocybe. Not Safe to Eat.

Illudens means deceiving. The cap is a striking yellow, very eye-catching and inviting. Many baskets have been brought to me for identification with the hope that they are safe to eat. The cap is dome-shaped, bulbous, spreading, and smooth, often uneven because of crowded growth; in older and larger specimens, the edge of the cap is wavy. The flesh is thick in the center but tapers off toward the edges. In older mushrooms, the color turns brownish.

The gills are attached and varying in distance from each other; yellow; not crowded; wide.

The stem is sturdy, long, and firm, smoothly tapering towards the base, as shown in Figure 67; sometimes the stems can be quite large.

The cap is four to six inches wide. The stem is six to eight inches tall. It grows in large clusters, and the vibrant saffron color of the whole plant captivates us, reminding us that "not everything that shines is gold." It would be intriguing to collect a large cluster to demonstrate its glowing effect and the heat the plant generates. You can exhibit the glow by placing it in a dark room, and by putting a thermometer in the cluster, you can demonstrate the heat. It's often referred to as "Jack-o'-lantern."

I’ve seen people eat it without getting sick, but most people probably will. It should be good since it’s so plentiful and looks so rich. Available from July to October.[Pg 92]

The Many-Headed Clitocybe. Edible.

Multiceps means many heads; it's called that because many caps are found in one cluster. It’s a very common plant around Chillicothe. It has been found within the city limits. It’s also a pretty typical species, having all the characteristics of the genus. I’ve often seen over fifty caps in one cluster.

The cap is white or gray, brownish-gray, or buff; it’s smooth, thin at the edge, convex, and slightly damp during rainy weather.

The gills are white, packed together, narrow at both ends, and extend down the stem.

The stem is strong, flexible, meaty, solid, and has the same color as the cap.

The cap is one to three inches wide and grows in dense clusters. Spores are white, smooth, and round.

When they’re found in June, the plants are a bit whiter than in the fall. The fall plants have a strong oyster color. The early ones are more delicate and better for eating, but I don't think they’re great. You can find them in woods, old pastures near logs and stumps, and in lawns. June to October.

Clavipes comes from clava, meaning club, and pes, meaning foot.

The cap is one to two and a half inches wide, meaty, somewhat spongy, rounded to flat, blunt, smooth, gray or brownish, occasionally whitish toward the edge.

The gills are attached, sloping down, quite spaced apart, almost complete, fairly wide, and white.

The stem is two inches long, swollen at the base, narrowing towards the top, filled, spongy, fibrous, and dark sooty in color. Spores are oval, measuring 6–7×4µ.

I found samples on Cemetery Hill under the pine trees. I sent some to Dr. Herbst and Prof. Atkinson; both identified them as C. clavipes. They look very similar to C. nebularis. I have also found this plant in mixed woods. Edible and pretty good.

Tornata means turned on a lathe; it’s named for its neat and regular shape.

The cap is round, flat, slightly concave, thin, smooth, shiny, white, darker in the center, and very uniform.

The gills are decurrent and attached, somewhat crowded, and white.

The stem is packed, sturdy, slim, smooth, and fuzzy at the base.

The spores are oval, 4–6×3–4µ.

These are small, very regular, and odorless plants. They can be found in open fields among the grass surrounding elm stumps. From July to September. They are edible and cook easily.

The Obconic Clitocybe. Safe to eat.

Metachroa means changing color.

The cap is one to two and a half inches wide, somewhat soft, rounded, then flat, indented, smooth, changing color when wet, brownish-gray, then bluish, becoming lighter.

The gills are connected to the stem, tightly packed, pale gray, and slightly extending downwards.

The stem is one to two inches long, filled and then hollow, with a floury top that is uniform and gray.

It differs from C. ditopa in being odorless and having a thicker, flattened cap.

The caps are pretty smooth and often have concentric cracks or wrinkles, similar to Clitopilus noveboracensis.

It grows on leaves in mixed woods, after it rains, in August and September. When it's young, the edges are curved inward but become wavy as it ages. It's a pretty tough plant.

Adirondackensis, named so because the plant was first discovered in the Adirondack Mountains of New York.

The cap is thin, membrane-like, funnel-shaped, with a downward-curving edge, almost smooth, changing color with moisture, white, and the center is often darker.[Pg 96]

The gills are white, very narrow, barely wider than the flesh of the cap, crowded, long, running down the stem, slightly curved, and some of them are forked.

The stem is thin, roughly the same size throughout, solid, whitish, and thickened with mycelium at the base. Peck.

The cap is one to two inches wide and the stem is one to two and a half inches long. This is a really nice-looking mushroom and definitely has the Clitocybe look to it. The long, narrow, downward-reaching gills, sometimes with a hint of yellow and some that fork, along with the sometimes wavy edge of the cap, will help in identifying it. I’m certain it’s edible. It’s found among leaves in the woods after heavy rain. In our area, it’s mostly found on wooded hillsides. The specimens in Figure 71 were discovered in Michigan and photographed by Dr. Fischer. They appear in July and August.

The Clay-Purple Clitocybe. Safe to eat.

Ochropurpurea comes from ochra, meaning ocher or clay color, and purpureus, meaning purple. It gets its name because the caps are clay-colored and the gills are purple. The caps are rounded, fleshy, and very firm, with a clay color that sometimes has a purplish tint around the edge. The outer layer separates easily, and the edge is rolled inward, often fuzzy at first. Older specimens can appear wavy or irregular.

The gills are purple, sometimes whitish in older specimens due to the white spores, broad at the back, hanging down, and spaced apart.

The stem is lighter than the cap, often with a purple tint, solid, usually longer and thicker in the middle, and fibrous. The spores are white or pale yellow.

The first time I discovered this species, I never thought it was a Clitocybe. It was especially plentiful on the wooded clay banks or hillsides near Chillicothe during the wet months of July and August in 1905. It’s a tough plant and can last for days. Insects don’t seem to bother it much. When cooked properly, it’s quite tender and pretty good.[Pg 98]

Subditopoda gets its name because it’s almost (sub) like Fries' C. ditopus, which means living in two places, possibly indicating that the stem can be either central or eccentric at times.

The cap is thin, rounded or almost flat, with a small depression in the center, changes color when wet, grayish-brown, has striations on the edge when moist, lighter when dry, the flesh is the same color, and both the smell and taste are starchy.

The gills are wide, tightly spaced, attached to the stem, and are white or light gray.

The stem is straight, smooth, hollow, and has the same color as the cap. The spores are oval, measuring .0002 to .00025 inches long and .00012 to .00016 inches wide. Peck.

It grows on mossy ground in the woods. I’ve found them under pine trees on Cemetery Hill. Dr. Peck says he distinguished this species from C. ditopoda due to the "striped edge of the cap, lighter gills, longer stem, and oval spores." The plant is edible. September and October.

Ditopoda comes from two Greek words, di-totos, meaning living in two places, and pus or poda, meaning foot, which refers to the stem being central at times and sometimes eccentric.

The cap is quite thick, rounded, then flat, sunken, level, smooth, and changes color when wet.

The gills are attached, crowded, thin, dark, and ash-colored.

The stem is hollow, uniform, and nearly bare.

This species looks similar to C. metachroa, but you can tell them apart by its mild taste and floury smell. It prefers to grow on pine needles. I found this species in different spots around Chillicothe, and on Thanksgiving Day, I discovered it in a mixed woods in Gallia County, Ohio, alongside Hygrophorus lauræ and Tricholoma maculatescens. I sent some samples to Dr. Herbst, who identified it as C. ditopoda.

The Pine-Loving Clitocybe.

Pithyophila means pine-loving. This plant is common under pine trees on Cemetery Hill. They grow on a bed of pine needles. The cap varies a lot in size, is white, one to two inches wide; it's fleshy, thin, becoming flat, with a slight bump, smooth, turning pale, and eventually takes on an irregular shape, with wavy edges and sometimes slight stripes.[Pg 100]

The stem is hollow, round, then flattened, smooth, uniform, straight, and fuzzy at the base.

The gills are attached to the stem, slightly extending downwards, crowded, flat, and always white. The spores measure 6–7×4µ. The plants shown in Figure 73 are small, discovered during the chilly weather of November. They're said to be delicious, but I haven't tried them.

Candicans, whitish or shining white. The cap is one inch wide, completely white, somewhat fleshy, initially rounded, then flat or slightly depressed, smooth, shiny, with a uniformly downturned edge.

The gills are attached, crowded, thin, eventually extending downwards, and narrow.

The stem is almost hollow, smooth, shiny, nearly the same thickness throughout, cartilaginous, and curved inward at the base. The spores are broadly elliptical or slightly round, measuring 5–6×4µ. They are found in damp woods on leaves.

Beaker-Shaped Clitocybe. Edible.

Obbata means shaped like a cup or beaker.

The cap is somewhat thin and skin-like, with a central depression that is quite deep, smooth, and tends to change color when wet, a dark brown color, with a margin that eventually becomes lined.

The gills are attached, spaced apart, grayish-white, and covered in a fine powder.

The stem is hollow, grayish-brown, smooth, uniform, and pretty sturdy.

I found plants growing on Cemetery Hill under pine trees. I had a bit of trouble identifying the species until Professor Atkinson helped me out. August to September.

The Yellow Clitocybe. Edible.

Gilva means light yellow or reddish yellow.

The cap is two to four inches wide, thick, firm, soon becoming indented and wavy, smooth, damp, dull yellow-brown, with the flesh the same color, sometimes spotted, and the edge rolled inward.

The gills are attached downward, tightly packed, thin, occasionally branched, narrow but wider in the center, and a yellowish ochre color.

The stem is 2 to 3 inches long, solid, smooth, nearly the same thickness, somewhat lighter than the cap, and tends to be fuzzy at the base.

The spores are almost round, 4–5µ.

This plant is sometimes found in mixed forests, but it seems to prefer pine trees. It has a broad distribution, found in the east and south as well as the west. I've found it in several places in Ohio. It's found from July to September.

The Limp Clitocybe. Safe to eat.

Flaccida means soft, limp.

The cap is two to three inches wide, fairly thick, thin, flexible, with a slight dip in the center, then funnel-shaped, even, smooth, sometimes breaking into tiny scales, tawny or rust-colored, with a broadly turned-down edge.

The gills are prominently decurrent, yellowish to whitish, tightly spaced, and curved.

The stem is bunchy, uneven, rusty, a bit wavy, tough, bare, and hairy at the base. The spores are round or nearly round, measuring 4–5×3–4µ.[Pg 102]

This is very similar to C. infundibuliformis, both in looks and behavior. It grows among leaves in mixed forests during rainy weather. It's often found in groups, with several stems emerging from a single mass of mycelium. The plants in Figure 74 were collected in Ackerman's woods near Columbus, Ohio, and photographed by Dr. Kellerman. They can be seen on all the hillsides around Chillicothe. They are found from July to late October.

The One-Brotherhood Clitocybe. Edible.

Monadelphus comes from monos, meaning one, and adelphos, meaning brother.

Prof. Morgan from Preston, Ohio, provides the following description of the One-Brotherhood Clitocybe in the Mycological Flora of the Miami Valley: "Grows in dense clusters. The cap is thick, rounded, then flattened, initially smooth, then becoming scaly, in a honey color that can range to pale brown or reddish. The stem is long, solid, bent, twisted, fibrous, and narrows at the base, with a pale brownish or flesh color. Spores are white, slightly irregular, .0055MM."[Pg 103]

[Pg 104]

It could easily be mistaken for the ringless Armillaria mellea, but the clearly decurrent gills and the solid stem should clarify things. In very wet weather, it quickly becomes water-soaked and is then not good to eat. It's found in woods near stumps and in newly cleared fields around roots or stumps. From spring to October. See Plate XII, Figure 75, for an illustration. Bresadola in Europe has identified this as the same species described by Scoparius in 1772 as Agaricus (Clitocybe) tabescens. I’ve chosen to keep the name given by Prof. Morgan.

The White Clytocybe. Safe to eat.

Dealbata means whitewashed; it's named for its white color.

The cap is about one inch wide, fairly thick, rounded, then flat, raised and wavy, smooth, shiny, and consistent.

The gills are dense, white, and connected to the stem.

The stem is thin, fibrous, and uniform. The spores measure 4–5×2.5µ.

This is a beautiful plant that's found all over. It's often among the leaves and sometimes in the grass. It makes a tasty dish.

The Leaf-Loving Clitocybe. Edible.

Phyllophila means "loving leaves." It's called that because it's found on leaves in the woods when it's rainy.

The cap is one and a half to three inches wide, whitish-tan, quite fleshy, initially rounded, then flat, eventually becoming depressed, smooth, dry, and distinctly white around the edges.

The gills are connected to the stem, hanging down especially after the cap is flattened, somewhat spaced apart, quite wide, white, turning yellowish or having an ocher tint, and thin.

The stem is two to three inches long, filled, becoming hollow, silky, fairly tough, and whitish. The spores are elliptical, measuring 6×4µ.

The whitish-tan cap with its white, silvery area near the edge will help you identify the species. August to October.

Cup-Shaped Clitocybe. Edible.

Cyathiformis comes from cyathus, which means drinking cup; formis, meaning form or shape.

The cap is two to three inches wide, meaty, quite thin; it starts off sunken, then becomes funnel-shaped; it's even, smooth, moist, and changes color when it dries out; the edge is rolled inward, dark brown or blackish when wet, becoming lighter when dry, often a dull yellowish-brown or tan color, and tends to be wavy.

The gills are connected to the stem, extending down from the shallow shape of the cap, joined at the back, somewhat dull, and sparingly branched.

The stem is filled, stretchy, narrowing at the top, fibrous, and has a fuzzy base. The spores are oval-shaped, measuring 9×6µ.

This plant is widely distributed and can be found in forests or at the edges of woods. I discovered some really great specimens on Ralston's Run, near Chillicothe. September to October.

Waxy Clitocybe. Edible.

Laccata means made of shellac or sealing wax. This is a very common, variable plant. Sometimes it's a bright amethyst but usually reddish-brown. The cap is one to two inches wide, almost membranous, initially convex, then flat, with a depression in the center, covered in short hairs, either violet or reddish-brown.

The gills are broad, spaced apart, and connected to the stem[Pg 106] across their full width; they are a pale fleshy-red color, which is more consistent than the cap color and serves as a key feature for identifying the species; they are attached flat with a downward extension, and the white spores are very plentiful.

The stem is tough and fibrous, filled, crooked, and has white hairs at the base. It's relatively long and slender, with a dull reddish-yellow or reddish-flesh color, sometimes pale or a dull ochre. It has slight stripes, and during wet seasons, it can often appear watery.

This waxy Clitocybe is widely distributed and often very plentiful. It can be found throughout most of the season. It grows almost anywhere, including woods, pastures, and lawns, and sometimes in bare soil. The plants in Figure 76 were discovered in tall grass in a grove in August. Those in Figure 77 were found at the end of November on Cemetery Hill, under pine trees.

Prof. Peck lists the following varieties:

Collybia comes from a Greek word that means a small coin or a small round cake. This genus lacks both a ring and a volva. The cap is fleshy, usually thin, and when the mushroom is young, the edge of the cap is curved inward.

The gills are attached or almost free, soft, and membranous. Many species of Collybia will revive to some degree when wet, but they are not leathery.

The stem is different in structure from the cap; it's either cartilaginous or has a cartilaginous skin, while the inside is either solid or hollow. This is quite a large genus, containing fifty-four American species.

Rooting Collybia. Edible.

This mushroom is quite common in the woods during its season. It grows in the ground, often around old stumps, and sometimes on lawns.

Those in Figure 78 were discovered on the forest floor. One plant, as indicated by the square, is a foot tall.

It’s easily identified by its long root and flat cap. The root goes deep into the ground and often breaks before being pulled up. This root is what names the species.

The cap is fleshy, somewhat thin, dome-shaped, then flat, often with an upturned edge in older specimens as shown in Figure 78, and often wrinkled around the bump, smooth, and sticky when wet.

The color varies a lot, ranging from almost white to gray and grayish-brown; the flesh is thin, very white, and elastic.

The gills are typically pure white, wide, spaced apart, widest in the center, and attached to the stem at the top angle, showing some variation.

The stem is often long, matching the color of the cap, though it can be lighter at times; it's smooth, sturdy, sometimes ridged, often twisted, narrowing as it goes up, finishing in a long, thin root that is deeply embedded in the soil.

The spores are elliptical, 15×10 µm.

They grow individually, but usually have plenty of neighbors. They can be found in open woods and near old stumps. I rarely have trouble gathering enough for a large family and some to share with my neighbor, who may not know what to look for but does know how to enjoy them. They can be found from June to October and across the New England states and the Midwest. They are different from C. hariolarum in that the latter has a densely clustered growth habit.

Ingrata means unpleasant, due to its somewhat unpleasant smell.

The cap is one to two inches wide, round, bell-shaped, then curved upward, smooth, and brownish-tan.

The gills are loose, narrow, packed together, and pale.

The stem is twisted, slightly compressed, covered with a powdery fuzz on top, dark brown underneath, hollow, fairly long, and uneven.

I found this plant pretty common on Cemetery Hill, growing under pine trees, among the pile of pine needles. It was found in July and August.

Broad-gilled Collybia. Safe to eat.

Platyphylla comes from two Greek words that mean broad and leaf, which refers to its wide gills. It is a much larger and sturdier plant than Collybia radicata. You can find it in new ground on open pastures around stumps, as well as in woods, on decaying logs, and near tree stumps.

The cap is three to four inches wide, initially rounded, then flattened, with edges often curled upwards, smoky brown to grayish, marked with dark fibers, slimy when wet, and has white flesh.

The gills are attached, very wide, slanted notched at the back, spaced apart, soft, white, and as they age, they become more or less broken or cracked.

The stem is short, thick, often striped, whitish, soft, filled, sometimes slightly dusted at the top, and the root is blunt. The spores are white and oval-shaped.

It is easily recognized from C. radicata by the blunt base of the root and the very broad gills. Like C. radicata, they need to be cooked thoroughly; otherwise, there’s a slightly bitter taste. They are found from June to October.

Oak-loving Collybia. Edible.

Dryophila comes from two Greek words meaning oak and fond of. The cap is bay-brown, bay red, or tan, one to two inches wide, convex, flat, sometimes depressed with the edges raised, and the flesh is thin and white.

The gills are separate with a downward-facing tooth, packed together, narrow, white or whitish, and rarely yellow.

The stem is cartilaginous, smooth, hollow, yellow, or yellowish, and usually uniform in thickness, though it can be thicker at the base, as shown in Figure 80. The stem's color is typically similar to that of the cap. This plant is quite common around Chillicothe. They grow in woods, especially under oak trees, but can also be found in open areas. I discovered them on the High School lawn in Chillicothe. Some excellent specimens that were found growing in a well-defined ring in an old orchard were brought to me around the beginning of May. Their season runs from early May to October.

Zoned Collybia. Edible.

Zonata, zoned; referring to the concentric zones on the cap that are faintly visible in Figure 81.

The cap is about an inch wide, sometimes more, sometimes less; it's somewhat fleshy, thin, convex, and when fully spread out, it’s almost flat, with a slight depression in the center, covered in fibrous fuzz; it's a tawny or ochre tawny color, sometimes featuring faintly darker bands; even in very young specimens, the depressed center is usually noticeable.

The gills are narrow, closely spaced, free, and white or almost white, typically with a powdery edge.

The stem is about one to three inches long, fairly firm, straight, hollow, and covered like the cap with a fibrous down that is tawny or brownish tawny. The spores are broadly elliptical, measuring .0002 inches long and .00016 inches wide.

This species closely resembles C. stipitaria, but it's easy to tell them apart due to its growth habits, different gills, and shorter spores. It grows on or near decaying wood in mixed forests. I've often found it on Ralston's Run, but usually only a few specimens in one spot. It doesn’t grow in a bunching way around here. Found in August.

The Spotted Collybia. Safe to eat.

Maculata, spotted; referring to the reddish spots or stains on both the cap and the stem. The cap is two to three inches wide, initially white, then marked (along with the stem) with reddish-brown spots or stains. It's fleshy, very firm, convex, sometimes nearly flat, even, smooth, truly meaty, compact, initially dome-shaped with a curled edge, often wavy.

The gills are a bit crowded, narrow, attached, often free, linear, white or off-white, sometimes light brownish cream, and they do not extend to the edge of the cap.

The stem is three to four inches long, almost solid, somewhat grooved, thick, [Pg 113] uneven, sometimes swollen, often partly bulbous, lighter than the gills, and usually has spots as it ages, starting out white. The spores are roundish, measuring 4–6µ. The plant is very resilient. It can last for several days. The plants shown in Figure 82 grew in the woods where a log had decayed.

Var. immaculata, Cooke, is different from the typical form because it doesn't change color or have spots, and it has wider and serrated gills. This variety thrives in fir woods. September to November.

Charcoal Collybia.

Atrata, dressed in black; the cap is very dark when young. The cap measures one to two inches wide, initially uniform and dome-shaped, but as it spreads, it usually becomes irregular, sometimes partially lobed or wavy. In young plants, the cap appears a dull blackish-brown, while older specimens fade to a lighter brown, with a slightly depressed center, smooth, and shiny.

The gills are attached, slightly crowded, with many short, fairly broad, grayish-white ones.

The stem is smooth, uniform, straight, hollow, or solid, tough, short, brown on the inside and outside, but lighter than the cap. The plant grows in pastures where stumps have been burned out, always, as far as I have seen, on burned ground. Spores .00023×.00016.

The Scorched Collybia.

Ambusta, burned or scorched, from being found on burned soil.

The cap is almost membranous, rounded, then flattened, nearly level, with small bumps, streaked, smooth, dull brown, changes color when wet, and has a raised center.

The gills are attached, densely packed, lance-shaped, white, and then have a smoky hue.

The stem is a bit thick, firm, short, and dark in color. Spores measure 5–6×3–4.

This species is different from C. atrata because it has a raised cap.

The Tufted Collybia. Edible.

Confluens means coming together; it's named that because the stems often join or stick to one another.

The cap is about one to one and a quarter inches wide, reddish-brown,[Pg 115] often growing in clumps, somewhat thick, rounded at first, then flat, soft, smooth, sometimes watery, edges are thin, and in older specimens, slightly sunken and wavy.

The gills are free and in older plants far from the stem, somewhat crowded, narrow, flesh-colored, and then turning whitish.

The stem is 2 to 3 inches long, hollow, pale red, and covered with a powdery texture. The spores are slightly oval, with one end tapering to a point, measuring 5–6×3–4µ.

These plants grow among leaves in the woods after warm rains, forming tufts, sometimes in rows or lines. They are smaller than C. dryophylla, with a quite different stem, and the plants appear to have the ability to come back to life like a Marasmius. They can be dried for use in the winter.

Many-leaved Collybia.

Myriadophylla comes from two Greek words that mean many leaves. It refers to its numerous gills.

The cap is very thin, widely rounded, then flat or sunken in the center, sometimes with a small depression, changes color when wet, brown when moist, and ochre or tan when dry.

The gills are very numerous, narrow, linear, crowded, rounded at the back or slightly attached, and brownish-lilac.

The stem is thin, but usually short, uniform, smooth without hair, either solid or hollow, and reddish-brown. The spores are tiny, broadly oval, measuring .00012 to .00016 inches long and .0008 inches wide. Peck, 49th Rep.

I found just a few examples in Haynes's Hollow. The caps were about an inch wide and the stems were an inch and a half long. It can be easily identified if you have its description, thanks to its uniquely colored gills. I discovered my specimens on a rotting stump in August. In the dried samples, the gills take on a more brownish-red color, similar to the next species that follows.

Collybia colorea. Pk. They sometimes seem to have a bluish sheen, likely due to the large number of spores. The stem is somewhat rooted and often has a slight fuzzy coating near the base. The basidia are very short, measuring only .0006 to .0008 inches long.

The Blackish Collybia.

Atratoides means similar to the species atrata, which means black; it’s named that because the caps are pretty black when they're fresh. Atratoides lives in a different habitat and isn’t as dark.

The cap is thin, rounded, slightly depressed, smooth, changes color with moisture, dark brown when wet, and grayish-brown and shiny when dry.

The gills are quite broad, spaced apart, attached at the base, grayish-white, often with a crosswise veined appearance on top and connected by veins.

The stem is straight, hollow, smooth, grayish-brown with a whitish fuzzy covering at the base. The spores are almost spherical, around 0.0002 inches wide. The cap is six to ten lines wide, and the stem is about one inch long. Peck.

The plant grows in groups on decayed wood and mossy sticks in mixed forests. The edge of the cap is often jagged, as shown in Figure 86, but this doesn't seem to be a consistent feature of the species. It's closely related to C. atrata, but its habitat and the color of its cap and gills are quite different. I haven't eaten it, but I'm confident it has good qualities.

Found in August and September. Pretty common in all our woods.

The Tufted Collybia. Safe to eat.

Acervata, from acervus, which means a mass or a pile.

Pileus fleshy but thin, rounded, or almost flat, blunt, smooth, changes color when wet, pale, tan, or dull pinkish-red, and usually has stripes on the edge when moist, lighter or whitish when dry.

Gills narrow, attached or separate, white or shaded with a flesh tone.

The stem is thin, stiff, hollow, smooth, reddish, reddish-brown, or brown, often whitish at the top, especially when young, usually with a matted down area at the base. Spores are elliptical, measuring 6×3–4µ.

The plant grows in clumps. The cap is half an inch wide. The stem is two to three inches long. Peck's 49th Report.

This is a beautiful plant when it grows in large clusters. The whole plant is soft and has a mild flavor. I found the plant shown here on the Frankfort pike, where an old sawmill used to be. It grew abundantly there, alongside Lepiota Americana and Pluteus cervinus.

Available from August to October.

The Velvet-foot Collybia. Edible.

Velutipes, from "vellum," velvet and "pes," foot.

Pileus one to four inches wide, tawny yellow, fleshy in the center, thick at the edge, pretty sticky or gooey when wet, with a slightly striated margin, sometimes tends to be off-center.

Gills rounded at the back, wide, slightly attached, tan or light yellow, somewhat spaced apart.

The stem is flexible, sturdy, hollow, brownish, and then turns blackish, covered with a velvety texture. Spores are oval, measuring 7×3–3.5µ.

It grows on stumps, logs, and roots, in the ground. It grows almost year-round. I've picked it to eat in February. Plate XV gives a very accurate idea of the plant. It's most abundant in September, October, and November, but can be found throughout the winter months.

Mycena comes from a Greek word that means fungus. The plants in this genus are small and quite delicate.

Pileus somewhat thin and flexible, usually with lines or grooves, with the edge almost straight, initially pressed against the stem, never curled, spread out, bell-shaped, and often with a raised center.

The stem is made of cartilage on the outside, hollow, and not filled when young, connecting to the cap. The gills are never attached to the stem, although some species have a wide indentation near the stem.

Most species are small and odorless, but a few that have a strong alkaline smell probably aren't safe. Some are known to be edible.

A few species release a colored or watery juice when damaged. The Mycena looks like the Collybia, but it never has the curved edge of the latter. The plants are generally smaller, and the caps are somewhat conical.

This genus might be confused with Omphalia, where the gills are only slightly descending, but in Omphalia the cap has a central depression, while in Mycena, it bulges upward.

Their small size makes it somewhat challenging to determine their species. Some have distinct odors that really help in identifying them.[Pg 119]

The Small Peaked-cap Mushroom. Edible.

Galericulata, a small beanie.

The cap is bell-shaped, whitish or grayish, darker in the center and lighter toward the edge, smooth and dry, with a striated margin that goes almost to the top of the umbo, sometimes slightly depressed.

The gills are attached with a tooth, linked by veins, whitish, then gray, often flesh-colored, spaced apart, bulging, with edges that are sometimes smooth and sometimes jagged.

The stem is stiff, flexible, hollow, durable, straight, shiny, smooth, and hairy at the bottom.

It grows on logs and stumps in the woods. It is very common and sometimes found in large numbers. The plants often grow closely together, with multiple stems intertwined by a soft, hairy covering at the base. There are many varieties of this plant. It's found from September until frost. The plants in Figure 89 were photographed by Prof. G. D. Smith, Akron, O.

The Wrinkled Mycena. Edible.

Rugosa means wrinkled. The cap is somewhat fleshy, darker and smaller than the galericulata, pretty tough, bell-shaped, then expands, with uneven raised wrinkles, always dry, with grooves on the edge.

The gills are attached, with a tooth, joined at the back, linked by veins, somewhat spaced apart, white, then gray, the edge sometimes smooth, sometimes jagged.

The stem is short, tough, rooted with a hairy base, very cartilaginous, hollow, rigid, and smooth. It’s found on stumps or decayed logs during September and October.

The abundant Mycena. Edible.

Prolifera comes from proles, meaning offspring, and fero, meaning to bear. The pileus is somewhat fleshy, bell-shaped, then expanded, dry, with a wide, dark center; its edge eventually becomes grooved or furrowed and sometimes splits, appearing pale yellowish or turning brownish-tan.

The gills are attached, spaced apart, white, then fading to pale.

The stem is strong, stiff, smooth, shiny, slightly lined, and taking root. Fries.[Pg 121]

[Pg 122]

This species, along with M. galericulata, is closely related to M. cohærens. I’ve found it in thick clumps or clusters, sometimes on lawns, on bare ground, and in the woods. It’s one of the plants whose stems can be cooked with the caps.

Capillaris means hair-like. This is a tiny but lovely white plant.

The cap is bell-shaped, eventually becoming depressed in the center, and smooth.

The gills are connected to the stem, rising upwards, and spaced apart.

The stem is thin, smooth, and short.

The spores are 7–8×4. Fries.

These plants are tiny and often go unnoticed. They grow on leaves in the woods after it rains, mostly in July and August. They’re pretty common.

Setosa means full of setae or hairs.

The cap is very delicate, dome-shaped, rounded, and smooth.

The gills are far away, white, and nearly unattached.

The stem is short, thin, and covered with spreading hairs, which leads to its specific name.

Commonly seen on dead leaves in the forest after it rains. Found in July and August.

The Blood-Foot Mycena. Edible.

Hæmatopa comes from two Greek words that mean blood and foot.

The cap is thick, about one inch wide, conical or bell-shaped, slightly raised in the center, rounded, and whitish to flesh-colored, with some dull red, smooth or slightly lined at the edge. The edge extends past the gills and is slightly jagged.

The gills are connected to the stem, usually with a downward-pointing tooth, and are whitish. Spores are 10×6–7.

The stem is 2 to 4 inches long, firm, hollow, sometimes smooth, sometimes covered with soft white hairs, and is the same color as the cap, producing a dark red juice that gives the species its name.

The color of these plants varies quite a bit because some have more red juice than others. You can easily identify the genus by its dull blood-red juice, hollow stem, the wavy edge of the cap, and its dense, clumping growth. It grows on decayed logs in moist areas from August to October. The plants in Figure 90 were found in Haynes' Hollow on September 8. This plant is commonly found across the United States. Anyone will have no trouble recognizing this species after seeing the plants in the figure above.

The Stump Mycena.

Solitary or growing in clusters; cap about one-half to two inches wide, somewhat thin, bell-shaped, rounded at the top, smooth, with deep grooves, moist, shiny when dry, expands or flattens when older, with little change in color, but sometimes has a pink or yellow tint, whitish or grayish, the center of the cap darker.

The gills are attached, somewhat spaced out, slightly swollen, initially pale, then turning bluish-gray, pink, or yellow, more or less linked by veins.[Pg 124]

The stem is smooth and a bit sticky, shiny, with some fuzz at the base that can be tawny or firm and tough, hollow, and narrowing as it goes up. The plant is stiff but fragile, and it has a strong smell. You’ll often find it growing on rotting stumps and logs. From August to November.

Thready-Stemmed Mycena.

Pileus thin, rounded, bell-shaped, then flattened, with lines, brown or dark brown, with a hint of pink.

The gills are free or slightly attached, a bit swollen, white or lighter than the cap, and packed closely together.

The stem is hollow, juicy, smooth, thin, fairly fragile, and can be whitish or brownish. It's found in woods on leaves after it rains, from July to October.

The Tin-Colored Mycena.

Stannea related to the color of tin. This is a delicate species that grows in clusters on decaying wood in moist areas. The overall appearance is depicted in the illustration, being almost white but many of the caps are slightly smoky.

The cap is firm, leathery, bell-shaped, then flattened, smooth, barely lined, changes color with moisture, quite silky, and tin-colored.

The gills are strongly attached to the stem, featuring a descending tooth, linked by veins, and are grayish-white.

The stem is smooth, even, shiny, turning pale, and eventually flattened. This species is different from Mycena vitrea because it has a tooth on the gills. May, June, and July.

Vitrea, glassy. This plant is pretty delicate. The cap is paper-thin, bell-shaped, dark brown, with fine stripes, and shows no sign of an umbo.

The gills are securely attached to the stem, not linked by veins, clearly defined, straight, and whitish.

The stem is thin, slightly striped, shiny, pale, and fibrous at the base. This species differs from M. ætites and M. stannea in that its gills do not have a downward extension and are not connected by veins.

Corticola means living on bark.

It is one of the smallest of the Mycenas, with the cap measuring about two to four millimeters across, thin, dome-shaped, rounded, becoming slightly depressed, deeply lined, smooth or with a small amount of fluff, gray, tan, or brownish.

The gills are connected to the stem, with a slight downward extension, broad, somewhat oval-shaped, and pale.

The stem is short, slim, curved inward, smooth or slightly scaly, and a bit paler than the cap. The spores are elliptical, measuring 5–6×3µ; cystidia are bluntly spindle-shaped, measuring 50–60×8–10µ.

These plants grow on the bark of living trees. After it rains, I've seen the bark on the shade trees along the paths in Chillicothe completely covered in these beautiful little plants. The plants shown in Figure 93 were collected from a maple tree on December 4th. They are very closely related to M. hiemalis but can be distinguished by their broad, egg-shaped gills that have cystidia, and their smaller spores.

The Winter Mycena.

Hiemalis, of or relating to winter. The cap is quite thin, bell-shaped, very slightly raised in the center, with a lined edge; pinkish, reddish, white, sometimes frosted.

The gills are attached, long, and white or off-white.

The stem is thin, curved, fluffy at the base, and has a whitish, pinkish-red color. The spores measure 7–8×3.

This species is more delicate than M. corticola and differs from it in its narrow gills, its striated, not sulcated, cap, and the color of the stem. It’s found on stumps and logs. October and November.

Leaiana is named after Mr. Thomas G. Lea, the first person to study mycology in the Miami Valley. This is a stunning plant that grows on decayed beech logs during rainy weather. The cap is fleshy, very sticky, and bright orange, with a slightly striated edge, as you can see in the one shown.

The gills are spread out, not fully formed, broad with notches at the stem, attached, the edges a dark orange or red, with the short gills starting at the edge.

The stem is usually curved, tapered towards the cap, smooth, hollow, fairly firm, and quite hairy or bristly at the base. The spores are elliptical, pointed, measuring .0090×.0056 mm.

They grow in dense clumps on somewhat decayed logs. They are really sticky, so much so that your hands will get stained yellow if you touch them a lot. They grow from spring to fall but are usually more plentiful in August and September. Very common.

Pileus is small, rounded, flat, blunt, slightly sticky, lined, and quite blue when young, turning brownish with blue fibers as it matures.

The gills are loose, colored gray.

The stem is short, bluish at the bottom, with a brown tint at the top, and somewhat covered in a powdery coating. You'll find it in wet woods after it rains, in August.

Pura means untainted, pure.

The cap is soft, thin, bell-shaped, spread out, slightly raised in the center, with fine lines along the edge, and sometimes the edge is turned up, ranging in color from violet to pink.

The gills are wide, attached to a wavy edge, and in older plants, they may break away from the stem, linked by veins. Sometimes, the edges are wavy and have a scalloped appearance, with the edges of the gills being almost or completely white, violet, or rose.

The stem is straight, almost bare, a bit fuzzy at the base, sometimes nearly white when young, later taking on the color of the cap, hollow, and smooth.

The spores are white and oval, measuring 6–8×3–3.5. M. Pelianthina is different from[Pg 129] this because it has gills with dark edges. It also differs from M. pseudopura and M. zephira due to its strong smell. M. ianthina is different because it has a conical cap.

This plant is found pretty much everywhere. Our plants are light violet, and that color appears to stay the same. I've seen it in mixed woods. It's usually found in September and October.

Vulgaris means ordinary.

The cap is small, dome-shaped, then sunken, bumpy, sticky, brownish-gray, and has finely lined edges.

The gills are slightly hanging down, thin, and white; the flattened cap and downward-arching gills make the plant look like an Omphalia. Spores are 5×2.5µ.

The stem is sticky, light-colored, strong, fibrous at the base, rooting, and hollowing out. It differs from M. pelliculosa because it doesn't have a separable skin and the gills are folded.

This plant can be identified by its smoky or grayish color, flat cap, and sticky stem. It grows in forests on leaves and decaying wood. August and September.

Epipterygia is Epi, meaning upon, and Pterygion, which means a small wing.

These are small, with the cap measuring half an inch to one inch wide, thin, bell-shaped, then spread out, rather rounded, not indented, with stripes, the skin easily separated in any condition and sticky in wet weather, gray, often a light yellowish-green near the edge, which is sometimes slightly notched when young.

The gills are connected to the stem with a downward-pointing tooth, thin, white, or slightly grayish.

The stem is 2 to 4 inches long, hollow, tough, rooting, sticky, yellowish, and sometimes gray or even whitish. The spores are elliptical, measuring 8–10×4–5µ.

These plants have a broad distribution and are found on branches, in moss, and under dead leaves. They can be found in clusters or alone. They resemble M. alcalina in many ways but lack its distinctive smell.

The plants in Figure 96 were photographed by Prof. G. D. Smith from Akron.

Omphalia comes from a Greek word that means the navel, which here refers to the central dip in the cap.

The cap of the first one is depressed in the center, then shaped like a funnel, thin and watery when wet; the edge is either curved in or straight. The stem is flexible and hollow, often solid when young, connected to the cap but different in texture. The gills extend down the stem and can sometimes be branched.

They are usually found on wood, preferring a moist, wooded environment and a wet season. You can easily tell them apart from Collybia and Mycena because of their decurrent gills. In some Mycena species where the gills are slightly decurrent, the cap isn’t centrally depressed like it is in similar species of Omphalia. There are a few Omphalia species whose caps aren't centrally depressed but whose gills are clearly decurrent.

The Bell Omphalia. Edible.

Campanella means a small bell.

The cap is thin, rounded to somewhat flat, with a dip in the center, lined, moist, and rusty yellow in color.

The gills are somewhat close, decurrent, and curved, connected by veins, stiff, solid, and yellowish. The spores are elliptical, measuring 6–7×3–4µ.

The stem is hollow, covered in fuzz, and lighter in color at the top.

This plant is very common and abundant in our woods and is widely found across the states. It grows on wood or on soil that's rich in decaying wood. You can find it throughout the summer and fall. It's tasty if you have the patience to pick them.

The cap is thin, rounded to flat, sunken in the middle, dark gray with a wet look, pale to almost white when dry.

The gills are slightly downward-facing, white at first and then turning gray, and are somewhat crowded together.

The stem is thin, hollow, and gray. The spores are oval-shaped, measuring 8–10×4–5µ.[Pg 131]

[Pg 132]

It grows in decayed wood. Its smoky color, funnel-shaped cap, and short gray stem will set it apart. I have some plants that were sent to me from Massachusetts which appear to be much smaller than our plants.

The Umbel Omphalia. Safe to eat.

Umbellifera—umbella, a small shade; ferro, to bear. The cap is half an inch wide, thin, whitish, rounded, then flat, broadly cone-shaped, slightly indented even in the smallest plants, changes color when wet, with darker stripes.

The gills are running down the stem, spaced out, quite wide at the back, triangular, and have straight edges.

The stem is short, no more than one inch long, wider at the top, the same color as the cap, initially solid, then hollow, sturdy, white, and fuzzy at the base.

It’s a common plant in our woods, growing on decayed wood or soil primarily composed of rotten wood. Decayed beech bark is a preferred habitat. It can be found from July to October.

Cæspitosa means growing in tufts; cæspes, turf. The cap is somewhat thin, very small, rounded, almost hemispherical, has a slight indentation in the center, is delicate, has grooves, light yellow-ochre in color, with a wavy edge that is smooth.

The gills are far apart, fairly wide, slightly extended down the stem, and white in color.

The stem is curved, hollow, colored like the cap, and slightly bulging at the base. The spores measure 6×5.

This species is very similar to Omphalia oniscus, and they can only be told apart by their habitats and color. It appears in August and September. It thrives in well-rotted wood. I have seen millions in one spot.

Bolton's Omphalia. Edible.

Oniscus is a name that the Greeks used for a type of codfish, referring to its gray color. The pileus is soft, irregular, about one inch wide, can be convex, flat, or depressed, slightly fleshy, wavy, sometimes lobed, with a striated margin, dark grayish, and lighter when dry.[Pg 133]

The gills are attached, running down the stem, pale or whitish, and arranged in groups of four, spaced out.

The stem is about one inch long, fairly firm, straight or curved, sometimes uneven, and almost hollow. The spores are 12×7–8µ.

This can be found in moist areas from August to November.

The Omphalia Box.

Pyxidata means shaped like a box, derived from pyxis, which means box.

The cap is somewhat membranous, clearly with a depression in the center, then funnel-shaped, smooth when wet, with a margin that is often striped, brick-red.

The gills are attached at an angle, fairly spaced apart, triangular, narrow, reddish-gray, and often have a yellowish tint.[Pg 134]

The stem is filled, then empty, smooth, sturdy, light brown. The spores are 7–8×5–6µ.

The plants are typically hygrophanous, but when dry, they appear fluffy or a bit silky. This is a small plant that typically grows on lawns, almost concealed in the grass. I discovered some really nice specimens on Dr. Sulzbacher's lawn on Second Street, Chillicothe. However, the plant is quite common. I found many specimens on November 3rd.

Fibula refers to a buckle or pin, named for its pin-like shape.

The cap is membranous, initially shaped like a top, expanded, with a slight dimple, lined, and the edge tends to curve inward. It's yellow or tawny with a dark center and has tiny hair-like structures.

The gills are deeply attached, lighter in color, and clear.

The stem is slender, almost orange with a violet-brown tip, and covered in tiny hairs. The spores are elliptical, measuring 4–5×2µ.

They are found on mossy banks where it's usually damp. I've only found it in October.

The Golden-Gilled Omphalia.

Alboflava comes from two Greek words that mean whitish-yellow, referencing the yellow gills.

The cap is one to two inches wide, thin, somewhat membranous, with a depression in the center, soft, covered with fine woolly fibers, yellow-brown, lighter when dry, with a turned-up edge.

The gills are far away, deep golden-yellow, and sometimes forked.

The stem is hollow, straight, smooth, shiny, and egg-yellow.

The spores are elliptical, 8×4 µm.

This plant is often found on decayed branches and logs around Chillicothe. I've never had the chance to test its edibility, but I'm confident it's safe to eat.

The plants in Figure 100 were discovered in Haynes' Hollow and photographed by Dr. Kellerman. They were found between July and October.

Marasmius is a Greek participle that means withered or shriveled; it gets this name because the plant will dry up and wilt, but it can come back to life when it rains.

The spores are white and oval-shaped. The cap is thick and meaty or membranous.

The stem is made of cartilage and connects to the cap, but has a different texture. The gills are thick, fairly tough, and spaced apart, sometimes uneven, attached in various ways or free, and rarely extending down the stem, with a sharp, smooth edge. This is quite a large genus, and many of its species will be very interesting to students.

The Fairy-Ring Mushroom. Edible.

Oreades, mountain nymphs. Pileus is soft, tough, and flexible when wet, brittle when dry, rounded but becoming flat, slightly raised in the center, brownish-tan at first, turning cream-colored; when it’s old, it’s usually quite wrinkled.[Pg 137]

The gills are broad and widely spaced, creamy or yellowish, rounded at the stem end, and uneven in length.

The stem is sturdy, uniform, resilient, fibrous, bare, and smooth at the base, covered everywhere with a fuzzy surface. The spores are white, measuring 8×5.

To me, there's no mushroom more appealing than the "Fairy Ring" mushroom. Figure 101 provides a clear idea of the plant, and Figure 102 shows how they grow in the grass. You can find them all over Ohio. Every old pasture or lawn is likely to be dotted with these rings. The plant is small, but its abundance makes up for that.

There are many theories about why this and other mushrooms grow in a circle. The reason is actually pretty clear. The ring starts from a cluster or a single mushroom. The area where the mushroom grew becomes unsuitable for more mushrooms, then the spores fall to the ground and the mycelium spreads out from that spot, making the ring grow larger each year. Sometimes they appear only in a crescent shape. You can easily spot the rings by looking over a lawn or pasture because the grass is greener and healthier there due to the decay of the mushroom.

Long ago, in England and Ireland, before the common people started to doubt the existence of fairies and their helpful influence in everyday life, these green rings were widely believed to come from the fairy footsteps that visited their favorite places at night, marking the[Pg 138] "little people's" favorite dance spot. "They always had great music among themselves and danced on moonlit nights around or in a circle, just like you can see today in every common area in England where mushrooms grow," an old writer quaintly remarked. And the Rev. Gerard Smith further expressed the people's belief about the nature of these grassy rings:

It’s a very common plant, and it’s worth knowing because we can't find anything in the markets that compares to it as a table delicacy.

Found in fields and yards during rainy weather from May until frost.

The Stinging Marasmius.

Urens means burning; it's named for its sharp taste.

The cap is light tan, firm, meaty, curved or flat, eventually becoming sunken and finally wrinkled, smooth, and even, measuring one to two inches across.

The gills are uneven, cream-colored, and turning brownish, much closer together than in the Fairy Ring, barely reaching the stem itself, joined at the back.

The stem is solid at the top and hollow at the bottom, fibrous, pale, with its surface mostly covered in fluffy down, and densely coated with white down at the base.

It’s best for collectors to avoid this and M. peronatus, or to be extremely careful when using them. They’ve been consumed without issues, but they’ve also been labeled as poisonous for so long that it’s wise to be cautious. It has a bitter taste and can be found in lawns and pastures from June to September.

Androsaceus comes from a Greek word that refers to an unidentified sea plant or zoophyte.

The cap is three to six lines wide, thin, convex, with a slight depression, pale reddish, darker in the center, striped, and smooth.

The gills are connected to the[Pg 139] stem, usually quite simple and not many in number, around fifteen, with shorter ones in between, sometimes split, and white.

The stem is 1 to 2 inches long, tough, thread-like, hollow, very smooth, black, and often twisted when dry. The spores are 7×3–4µ.

This is a really charming little plant that appears on the leaves in the woods after it rains. They are quite common and can be found from July to October.

Fœtidus means stinky or foul.

The cap is thin, tough, dome-shaped, then flattened, with a central depression and lined folds, turning lighter when dry, and slightly powdery.

The gills are attached by a ring, spaced apart, reddish with a yellowish hue.

The stem is hollow, slightly fuzzy, brownish, and has a fluffy base.

The caps are light brownish-red in color, fading when dry. When fresh, it has a foul smell that’s noticeable for such small plants. It can be found on decayed sticks and leaves in the woods. During wet weather or after heavy rains, it’s quite common in the woods around Chillicothe.

Found from July to October.

This is also called Heliomyces fœtens (Pat.) and is classified by Prof. Morgan in his excellent Monogram on North American Species of Marasmius.

Velutipes means velvet-footed, referring to the soft stem. The cap is thin, somewhat membranous, smooth, rounded, or spread out, grayish-red when wet, gray when dry, and measures between half an inch to one and a half inches wide.

The gills are really narrow, crowded, and either white or gray.

The stem is slim, three to five inches long, straight, hollow, covered with a thick grayish velvety fuzz. Peck.

They typically grow in very crowded conditions, with many plants sprouting from a single mat of mycelium. It’s a common plant in our area, found in damp woods or around swampy spots. The cap here is convex. Some experts mention an umbilicate cap. The plant is quite resilient and easy to identify because of its long, slender stem, which has a grayish fuzz at the base. It can be found from July to October.

The samples in Figure 105 were found in Ashville, Ohio.