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TWENTIETH CENTURY INVENTIONS


TWENTIETH CENTURY
INVENTIONS

A Forecast

BY
GEORGE SUTHERLAND, M.A.


LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
1901


PREFACE.

Twenty years ago the author started a career in technological journalism by writing descriptions of what he regarded as the most promising inventions which had been displayed in international exhibitions then recently held. From that time until the present it has been his constant duty and practice to take note of the advance of inventive science as applied to industrial improvement—to watch it as an organic growth, not only from a philosophical, but also from a practical, point of view. The advance towards the actual adoption of any great industrial invention is generally a more or less collective movement; and, in the course of a practice such as that referred to, the habit of watching the signs of progress has been naturally acquired.

Twenty years ago, the author began a career in technology journalism by writing about what he believed were the most promising inventions showcased at recent international exhibitions. Since then, it has been his ongoing responsibility to track the progress of inventive science as it relates to industrial advancements—observing it as an organic development from both philosophical and practical perspectives. The move toward actually adopting any major industrial invention is typically a collective effort; and through this practice, he has naturally developed the habit of noticing the signs of progress.

Moreover, it has always been necessary to take a comprehensive, rather than a minute [Pg vi] or detailed, view of the progress of the great industrial army of nineteenth century civilisation towards certain objectives. It is better, for some purposes of technological journalism, to be attached to the staff than to march with any individual company—for the war correspondent must ever place himself in a position from which a bird's-eye view is possible. The personal aspect of the campaign becomes merged in that which regards the army as an organic unit.

Moreover, it has always been essential to take a broad view, rather than a narrow or detailed one, of the progress of the vast industrial movement of nineteenth-century civilization towards specific goals. For certain purposes of technology journalism, it's more advantageous to be on the staff than to align with any individual group—because the war correspondent must always position themselves where they can see the bigger picture. The personal aspect of the campaign blends into the view of the army as a unified entity.

It may, therefore, be claimed that, in some moderate degree, the author is fitted by training and opportunities for undertaking the necessarily difficult task of foretelling the trend of invention and industrial improvement during the twentieth century. He must, of course, expect to be wrong in a certain proportion of his prognostications; but, like the meteorologists, he will be content if in a fair percentage of his forecasts it should be admitted that he has reasoned correctly according to the available data.

It can be said that, to some extent, the author is equipped by his training and experiences to take on the challenging job of predicting the direction of innovation and industrial progress in the twentieth century. He should, of course, expect to be incorrect in some of his predictions; however, like meteorologists, he will be satisfied if, in a reasonable percentage of his forecasts, it's recognized that he has drawn accurate conclusions based on the available data.

The questions to be answered in an inquiry as to the chances of failure or success which lie before any invention or proposed [Pg vii] improvement are, first, whether it is really wanted; and, secondly, whether the environment in the midst of which it must make its début is favourable. These requirements generally depend upon matters which, to a large extent, stand apart from the personal qualifications of any individual inventor.

The questions to consider when evaluating the likelihood of failure or success for any invention or proposed improvement are, first, whether there’s a genuine need for it; and, second, whether the environment in which it will be introduced is supportive. These factors typically depend on aspects that largely don’t relate to the personal abilities of the individual inventor.

In the course of a search through the vast accumulations of the patent specifications of various countries, the thought is almost irresistibly forced upon the mind of the investigator that "there is nothing new under the sun". No matter how far back he may push his inquiry in attempting to unveil the true source of any important idea, he will always find at some antecedent date the germ, either of the same inventive conception, or of something which is hardly distinguishable from it. The habit of research into the origin of improved industrial method must therefore help to strengthen the impression of the importance of gradual growth, and of general tendencies, as being the prime factors in promoting social advancement through the success of invention.

While searching through the extensive collections of patent documents from various countries, it's hard not to think that "there is nothing new under the sun." No matter how far back you dig in trying to uncover the true origin of any significant idea, you'll always find that, at some earlier date, there was a seed of either the same inventive idea or something that's barely different from it. So, the practice of researching the roots of improved industrial techniques must reinforce the belief in the importance of gradual development and overall trends as key factors in driving social progress through successful inventions.

The same habit will also generally have the effect of rendering the searcher more diffident [Pg viii] in any claims which he may entertain as to the originality of his own ideas. Inventive thought has been so enormously stimulated during the past two or three generations, that the public recognition of a want invariably sets thousands of minds thinking about the possible methods of ministering to it.

The same habit will also usually make the searcher feel more unsure about any claims he might have regarding the originality of his own ideas. Creative thinking has been so greatly encouraged in the past couple of generations that when the public identifies a need, it often sparks thousands of minds to consider potential ways to address it. [Pg viii]

Startling illustrations of this fact are continually cropping up in the experiences of patent agents and others who are engaged in technological work and its literature. The average inventor is almost always inclined to imagine—when he finds another man working in exactly the same groove as himself—that by some means his ideas have leaked out, and have been pirated. But those who have studied invention, as a social and industrial force, know that nothing is more common than to find two or more inventors making entirely independent progress in the same direction.

Startling examples of this fact are constantly emerging in the experiences of patent agents and others involved in technological work and its literature. The average inventor often tends to think—when he discovers another person working in the exact same area as him—that his ideas have somehow leaked out and been stolen. However, those who have studied invention as a social and industrial force understand that it's quite common for two or more inventors to make completely independent progress in the same direction.

For example, while this book was in course of preparation the author wrote out an account of an application of wireless telegraphy to the purpose of keeping all the clocks within a given area correct to one standard time. Within [Pg ix] a few days there came to hand a copy of Engineering in which exactly the same suggestion was put forward, and an announcement was made to the effect that Mr. Richard Kerr, F.G.S., had been working independently on the same lines, the details of his method of applying the Hertzian waves to the purpose being practically the same as those sketched out by the author. This is only one of several instances of coincidences in independent work which have been noticed during the period while this volume was in course of preparation.

For example, while this book was being prepared, the author wrote an account of using wireless telegraphy to keep all the clocks in a specific area synchronized to one standard time. Within [Pg ix] a few days, a copy of Engineering arrived, which presented the exact same suggestion. It also announced that Mr. Richard Kerr, F.G.S., had been working independently on the same concept, with details of his method of using Hertzian waves being almost identical to those outlined by the author. This is just one of several instances of coincidences in independent work that have been observed during the time this volume was being prepared.

It may, therefore, be readily understood that the author would hardly like to undertake the task of attempting to discriminate between those forecasts in the subsequent pages which are the results of his own original suggestions, and those which have been derived from other sources. Whatever is of value has in all probability been thought of, or perhaps patented and otherwise publicly suggested, before. At any rate, the great majority of the forecasts are based on actual records of the trials of inventions which distinctly have a future lying before them in the years of the twentieth century.

It’s easy to see why the author wouldn’t want to take on the job of figuring out which predictions in the following pages come from his own ideas and which come from other sources. Anything valuable has likely been thought of or even patented and publicly discussed before. In any case, most of the predictions are based on real records of trials for inventions that clearly have a future ahead of them in the twentieth century.

[Pg x] In declining to enter into questions relating to the original authorship of the improvements or discoveries discussed, it should not be supposed that any wish is implied to detract from the merits of inventors and promoters of inventions, either individually or collectively. Many of these are the heroes and statesmen of that great nation which is gradually coming to be recognised as a true entity under the name of Civilisation. Their life's work is to elevate humanity, and if mankind paid more attention to them, and to what they are thinking and doing, instead of setting so much store by the veriest tittle-tattle of what is called political life, it would make much faster progress.

[Pg x] By choosing not to discuss the original authorship of the improvements or discoveries mentioned, it shouldn't be assumed that there's any intention to undermine the achievements of the inventors and supporters of these inventions, whether individually or collectively. Many of these individuals are the heroes and leaders of the great nation that is slowly being recognized as a true force called Civilization. Their life's mission is to uplift humanity, and if people paid more attention to them and their ideas instead of getting caught up in the trivialities of so-called political life, progress would happen much more quickly.

Some of the industrial improvements referred to in the succeeding pages are necessarily sketched in an indefinite manner. The outlines, as it were, have been only roughed in; and no attempt has been made to supply particulars, which in fact would be out of place in an essay towards a comprehensive survey in so small a space. It is upon the wise and skilful arrangement of details that sound and commercially profitable patents are usually founded, rather than upon the broad general [Pg xi] principles of a proposed industrial advance or reform.

Some of the industrial improvements mentioned in the following pages are necessarily described in a vague way. The outlines have only been sketched out, and there hasn't been an effort to provide specifics, which would actually be inappropriate in an essay aimed at a broad overview in such a limited space. Solid and commercially successful patents are typically based on the careful and skillful organization of details, rather than on the overarching general principles of a suggested industrial advancement or reform. [Pg xi]

During the twentieth century this latter fact, already well recognised by experts in what is known as industrial property, will doubtless force itself more and more upon the attention of inventors. Every specification will require to be drawn up with the very greatest care in observing the truth taught by the fable of the boy and the jar of nuts. So rapidly does the mass of bygone patent records accumulate, that almost any kind of claim based upon very wide foundations will be found to have trenched upon ground already in some degree taken up.

During the twentieth century, this fact, already acknowledged by experts in what’s called industrial property, will undoubtedly become more apparent to inventors. Every application will need to be prepared with utmost care, keeping in mind the lesson from the fable of the boy and the jar of nuts. The sheer volume of past patent records is growing so quickly that almost any broad claim will likely overlap with territory that has already been claimed to some extent.

Probably there is hardly anything indicated in this work which is not—in the strict sense of the rules laid down for examiners in those countries which make search as to originality—common public property. The labour involved in gathering the data for a forecast of the inventions likely to produce important effects during the twentieth century has been chiefly that of selecting from out of a vast mass of heterogeneous ideas those which give promise of springing up amidst favourable conditions [Pg xii] and of growing to large proportions and bearing valuable fruit. Such ideas, when planted in the soil of the collective mind through the medium of official or other records, generally require for their germination a longer time than that for which the patent laws grant protection for industrial property. Many of them, indeed, have formed the subjects of patents which, from one reason or another, lapsed long before the expiration of the maximum terms. Nature is ever prodigal of seeds and of "seed-thoughts" but comparatively niggardly of places in which the young plant will find exactly the kind of soil, air, rain, and sunshine which the young plant needs.

Probably there’s hardly anything in this work that isn't—according to the strict rules given to examiners in countries that check for originality—common public knowledge. The effort involved in gathering data to predict the inventions that are likely to have significant impacts in the twentieth century has mainly been about selecting from a huge mix of diverse ideas those that seem likely to emerge under favorable conditions and grow to substantial proportions, producing valuable results. When these ideas are introduced into the collective consciousness through official or other records, they usually require longer to develop than the time for which patent laws protect industrial property. Many of them have, in fact, been subjects of patents that lapsed for various reasons long before their maximum terms ended. Nature is always generous with seeds and "seed-thoughts," but relatively stingy with the right conditions—soil, air, rain, and sunshine—that a young plant needs to thrive. [Pg xii]

If any one requires proof of this statement he will find ample evidence in support of it in the tenth chapter of Smiles's work on Industrial Biography, where facts and dates are adduced to show that steam locomotion, reaping machines, balloons, gunpowder, macadamised roads, coal gas, photography, anæsthesia, and even telegraphy are inventions which, so far as concerns the germ idea on which their success has been based, are of very much older origin than the world generally [Pg xiii] supposes. The author, therefore, submits that he is justified in referring inventions to the century in which they produce successful results, not to that in which they may have been first vaguely thought of. And in this view it is obvious that many of those patents and suggestions which have been published in current literature during the nineteenth century, but which, although pregnant with mighty industrial influences, have not yet reached fruition, are essentially inventions of the twentieth century. More than this, it is extremely probable that the great majority of those ideas which will move the industrial world during the next ensuing hundred years have already been indicated, more or less clearly, by the inventive thought of the nineteenth century.

If anyone needs proof of this statement, they will find plenty of evidence in support of it in the tenth chapter of Smiles's book on Industrial Biography, where facts and dates are presented to show that steam locomotion, reaping machines, balloons, gunpowder, macadamized roads, coal gas, photography, anesthesia, and even telegraphy are inventions that, in terms of the foundational idea behind their success, are much older than most people think. The author argues that he is justified in attributing inventions to the century when they achieve successful results, not to when they were first vaguely conceived. In this regard, it's clear that many of the patents and suggestions published in current literature during the nineteenth century, which, despite being packed with significant industrial potential, have not yet come to fruition, are essentially inventions of the twentieth century. Furthermore, it is highly likely that the vast majority of ideas that will shape the industrial world over the next hundred years have already been suggested, more or less clearly, by the inventive thinking of the nineteenth century.

George Sutherland.

George Sutherland.

    December, 1900.

December 1900.


CONTENTS.

  PAGE
CHAPTER I.
Innovative Advances 1
CHAPTER II.
Renewable Energy 22
CHAPTER III.
Power Storage 53
CHAPTER IV.
Artificial Energy 72
CHAPTER V.
Road and Rail 91
CHAPTER VI.
Boats 122
CHAPTER VII.
Farming 144
CHAPTER VIII.
Mining 167
CHAPTER IX.[Pg xvi]
Home 195
CHAPTER X.
Electric Messages, etc. 216
CHAPTER XI.
Combat 233
CHAPTER XII.
Music 249
CHAPTER XIII.
Art & News 264
CHAPTER XIV.
Innovation and Community 276

CHAPTER I.

INVENTIVE PROGRESS.

The year 1801, the first of the nineteenth century, was annus mirabilis in the industrial history of mankind. It was in that year that the railway locomotive was invented by Richard Trevithick, who had studied the steam engine under a friend and assistant of James Watt. His patent, which was secured during the ensuing year, makes distinct mention of the use of his locomotive driven by steam upon tramways; and in 1803 he actually had an engine running on the Pen-y-Darran mining tramway in Cornwall. From that small beginning has grown a system of railway communication which has brought the farthest inland regions of mighty continents within easy reach of the seaboard and of the world's great markets; which has made social and friendly intercourse possible in millions of homes which otherwise would have been almost destitute of [Pg 2] it; which has been the means of spreading a knowledge of literature, science and religion over the face of the civilised world; and which, at the present moment, constitutes the outward and visible sign of the difference between Western civilisation and that of the Asiatic, as seen in China.

The year 1801, the first of the nineteenth century, was an amazing year in the industrial history of humanity. It was in that year that Richard Trevithick invented the railway locomotive, having studied the steam engine under a friend and assistant of James Watt. His patent, secured the following year, clearly mentions the use of his steam-driven locomotive on tramways; and in 1803, he actually had an engine running on the Pen-y-Darran mining tramway in Cornwall. From that small start has grown a system of railway communication that has brought the most remote inland areas of vast continents within easy reach of the coast and the world's major markets; it has made social and friendly interactions possible in millions of homes that otherwise would have been nearly devoid of them; it has played a crucial role in spreading knowledge of literature, science, and religion across the civilized world; and it currently serves as a visible sign of the difference between Western civilization and that of Asia, as exemplified in China.

In another corner of the globe, during the year 1801, Volta was constructing his first apparatus demonstrating the material and physical nature of those mysterious electric currents which his friend Professor Galvani of Bologna, who died just two years earlier, had at first ascribed to a physiological source. The researches of the latter, it will be remembered, were begun in an observation of the way in which the legs of a dead frog twitched under certain conditions. The voltaic pile was the first electric battery, and, therefore, the parent of the existing marvellous telegraphic and telephonic systems, while less immediately it led to the development of the dynamo and its work in electric lighting and traction. It brought into harmony much fragmentary knowledge which had lain disjointed in the armoury of the physicist since Dufay in France and Franklin in America had investigated their theories of positive and negative frictional electricities, and had connected them with the flash of lightning as [Pg 3] seen in Nature. Thus it became a fresh starting point both for industry and for science.

In another part of the world, in 1801, Volta was building his first device to show the material and physical nature of those mysterious electric currents that his friend Professor Galvani from Bologna, who had passed away just two years before, had initially attributed to a physiological source. Galvani's research started with his observation of how the legs of a dead frog twitched under certain conditions. The voltaic pile was the first electric battery and, as such, became the foundation for today's amazing telegraphic and telephonic systems. It also indirectly led to the development of the dynamo and its use in electric lighting and transport. It aligned much of the scattered knowledge that had been fragmented in the field of physics since Dufay in France and Franklin in America studied their theories of positive and negative frictional electricity and linked them to the flash of lightning as [Pg 3] seen in nature. Thus, it marked a new starting point for both industry and science.

At the Exposition of National Industry, held in Paris during the year 1801, a working model of the Jacquard loom was exhibited—the prototype of those remarkable pieces of mechanism by which the most elaborately figured designs are worked upon fabrics during the process of weaving by means of sets of perforated cardboards. This was the crowning achievement of the inventions relating to textile fabrics, which had rendered the latter half of the eighteenth century so noteworthy in an industrial sense. It brought artistic designs in articles of common use within the reach of even poor people, and has been the means of unconsciously improving the public taste, in matters of applied art, more rapidly than could have been accomplished by an army of trained artists. The riots in which the mob nearly drowned Jacquard at Lyons for attempting to set up some of his looms were very nearly a counterpart of those which had occurred in England in connection with the introduction of spinning, weaving and knitting machinery.

At the National Industry Exposition in Paris in 1801, a working model of the Jacquard loom was showcased—this was the prototype of those amazing machines that weave intricate designs into fabrics using sets of perforated cards. It represented the pinnacle of textile innovations that made the latter half of the eighteenth century significant in industrial terms. It made intricate designs on everyday items accessible to even low-income people and helped improve public taste in applied arts more swiftly than an army of trained artists could have achieved. The riots where the mob almost drowned Jacquard in Lyons for trying to set up some of his looms were very similar to the ones that happened in England over new spinning, weaving, and knitting machines.

In Paris, during the first year of the nineteenth century, Robert Fulton, an American, and friend of the United States representative in France, was making trials on the Seine [Pg 4] with his first steam-boat—a little vessel imitated by him later on in the first successful steamers which plied on the river Hudson, carrying passengers from New York. At the same time, William Symongton launched the Charlotte Dundas, the steam tug-boat which, on the Scottish canals, did the first actually useful work in the conveyance of goods by steam power on the water. These small experiments have initiated a movement in maritime transport which is fully comparable to that brought about on land by the invention of the railway locomotive.

In Paris, during the first year of the 1800s, Robert Fulton, an American and a friend of the U.S. representative in France, was testing his first steam boat on the Seine [Pg 4]. This small vessel was later replicated in the first successful steamers that operated on the Hudson River, transporting passengers from New York. At the same time, William Symington launched the Charlotte Dundas, the steam tugboat that performed the first truly useful work in transporting goods by steam power on the Scottish canals. These small experiments sparked a movement in maritime transport that is fully comparable to the revolution brought about on land by the invention of the railroad locomotive.

Again, in 1801, Sir Humphry Davy gave his first lecture at the Royal Institution in London, where he had just been installed as a professor, and began that long series of investigations into the chemistry of common things which, taken up by his successor Faraday, gave to the United Kingdom the first start in some of those industries depending upon a knowledge of organic chemistry and the use of certain essential oils.

Again, in 1801, Sir Humphry Davy gave his first lecture at the Royal Institution in London, where he had just been appointed as a professor, and began a lengthy series of investigations into the chemistry of everyday substances. This work was later continued by his successor Faraday, which provided the United Kingdom with an initial boost in some industries reliant on a knowledge of organic chemistry and the use of specific essential oils.

Public attention at the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, was directed anywhere but towards these small commencements of mighty forces which were to revolutionise the industrial world, and through it also the social and political. If in those days [Pg 5] Cornwall was ever referred to, it was not by any means in connection with Trevithick and his steam-engine which would run on rails, but by way of reference to the relations of the Prince of Wales to the Duchy, and the proportion of its revenues which belonged to him from birth.

Public attention at the start of the nineteenth century, however, was focused anywhere but on these small beginnings of huge forces that would transform the industrial world, and in turn, the social and political landscapes. If Cornwall was mentioned at that time, it was certainly not in connection with Trevithick and his steam engine that could run on rails, but rather in relation to the Prince of Wales and the portion of the Duchy's revenues that he inherited at birth.

Glancing over the pages of any history compiled in the early half of the century, the eye will trace hardly the barest allusions to forces, the discoveries in which were, in the year 1801, still in the incipient stage. Canon Hughes, for instance, in his continuation of the histories of Hume and Smollett, devoted some forty pages to the record of that year. The space which he could spare from the demands made upon his attention by the wars in Spain and Egypt, and the naval conflict with France, was mainly occupied with such matters as the election of the Rev. Horne Tooke for Old Sarum, and the burning question as to whether that gentleman had not rendered himself permanently ineligible for Parliamentary honours through taking Holy Orders, and with a miscellaneous mass of topics relating to the merely evanescent politics of the day.

Glancing through the pages of any history written in the early part of the century, you'll hardly find even the slightest mentions of forces whose discoveries, in the year 1801, were still in their early stages. For example, Canon Hughes, in his continuation of Hume and Smollett's histories, dedicated about forty pages to that year. The space he could allocate away from the wars in Spain and Egypt, as well as the naval conflict with France, was mostly filled with issues like the election of Rev. Horne Tooke for Old Sarum, and the heated debate over whether he had made himself permanently ineligible for Parliamentary honors by taking Holy Orders, alongside a mix of topics concerning the fleeting politics of the time.

The whole of the effects of invention and discovery in making history during the first [Pg 6] year of the century were dismissed by this writer with a casual reference to the augmentation of the productive power of the labouring population through the use of machinery, and a footnote stating that "this was more particularly the case in the cotton manufacture".

The impact of invention and discovery on history in the first [Pg 6] year of the century was brushed aside by this writer with a passing comment about how machinery increased the productivity of the workforce, along with a footnote mentioning that "this was especially true in the cotton industry."

Time corrects the historical perspective of the past, but it does not very materially alter the power of the historical vision to adjust itself to an examination of the present day forces which are likely to grow to importance in the making of future history. When we ask what are the inventions and discoveries which are really destined to grow from seeds of the nineteenth into trees of the twentieth century, we are at once confronted with the same kind of difficulty which would present itself to one who, standing in the midst of an ancient forest, should be requested to indicate in what spots the wide-spreading giants of the next generation of trees might be expected to grow. The company promoter labels those inventions in which he is commercially interested as the affairs which will grow to huge dimensions in the future; while the man of scientific or mechanical bent is very apt to predict a mighty future only for achievements which strike him as being peculiarly brilliant.

Time helps us see the past more clearly, but it doesn’t significantly change our ability to analyze the present forces that are likely to shape future history. When we ask which inventions and discoveries will really grow from the seeds of the nineteenth century into the towering achievements of the twentieth century, we face a similar challenge as someone standing in an ancient forest trying to point out where the next generation of giant trees might sprout. The business promoter tags the inventions that interest him commercially as the ones destined for massive growth in the future; meanwhile, the scientifically or mechanically inclined person is often inclined to predict a grand future only for those achievements that seem particularly impressive to him.

Patent experts, on the other hand, when [Pg 7] asked by their clients to state candidly what class of inventions may be relied upon to bring the most certain returns, generally reply that "big money usually comes from small patents". In other words, an invention embodying some comparatively trivial, but yet really serviceable, improvement on a very widely used type of machine; or a little bit of apparatus which in some small degree facilitates some well known process; or a fashionable toy or puzzle likely to have a good run for a season or two, and then a moderate sale for a few years longer; these are the things to be recommended to an inventor whose main object is to make money. Thus the most qualified experts in patent law and practice do not fail to disclose this fact to those who seek their professional advice in a money-making spirit, as the great majority of inventors do.

Patent experts, on the other hand, when [Pg 7] asked by their clients to honestly say which class of inventions is likely to bring the most reliable returns, usually respond that "big money often comes from small patents." In other words, an invention featuring a relatively minor but genuinely useful improvement on a widely used type of machine; or a small device that somewhat enhances a well-known process; or a trendy toy or puzzle expected to have a strong market for a season or two, followed by moderate sales for a few more years—these are the kinds of things that should be suggested to an inventor whose main goal is to make money. Thus, the most qualified experts in patent law and practice do not hesitate to share this insight with those who seek their professional guidance in a money-making mindset, as most inventors tend to do.

The full term of fourteen years in the United Kingdom, or seventeen in the United States, may be a ridiculously long period for which to grant a monopoly to the inventor of some ephemeral toy, although absolutely inadequate to secure the just reward for one who labours for many years to perfect an epoch-making invention, and then to introduce it to the public in the face of all the opposition [Pg 8] from vested interests which such inventions almost invariably meet.

The full term of fourteen years in the UK, or seventeen in the US, may seem like an absurdly long time to give a monopoly to the inventor of a temporary toy, but it’s definitely not enough time to ensure a fair reward for someone who spends years perfecting a groundbreaking invention and then brings it to the public while facing all the pushback from vested interests that these inventions usually encounter. [Pg 8]

Thus the fact that a man has made money out of one class of patents may not be any safe guide at all to arriving at a due estimate of his ideas on industrial improvements of greater "pith and moment," but, on the contrary, it is generally exactly the reverse. The law offers an immense premium for such inventions as are readily introduced, and the inventor who has made it his business to take advantage of this fact is usually one of the last men from whom to get a trustworthy opinion on patents of a different class.

So, just because someone has made money from one type of patent doesn’t mean they have a reliable opinion on industrial improvements that are more significant. In fact, it’s usually the opposite. The law provides a huge incentive for inventions that are easy to implement, and the inventor who focuses on this tends to be one of the last people you’d want to consult for trustworthy opinions on different types of patents.

Of the patents taken out during the latter portion of the nineteenth century, many undoubtedly contain the germs of great ideas, and, nevertheless, have excited comparatively little attention from business men or from the general public. It was so in the latter part of the eighteenth century, and history is only repeating itself when the seeds of twentieth century industrial movements are permitted to germinate unseen.

Of the patents issued in the later part of the nineteenth century, many definitely hold the seeds of great ideas, yet they have drawn relatively little attention from business professionals or the general public. This was also true in the late eighteenth century, and history is just repeating itself when the foundations of twentieth-century industrial movements are allowed to grow unnoticed.

For all practical purposes each invention must be referred to the age in which it actually does useful work in the service of mankind. Thus, Hero of Alexandria, in the third century B.C., devised a water fountain worked by the expansive [Pg 9] power of steam. From time to time during the succeeding twenty centuries similar pieces of apparatus excited the curiosity of the inquisitive and the interest of the learned. The clever and eccentric Marquis of Worcester, in his little book published in 1663, A Century of the Names and Scantlings of Inventions, generally known as the Century of Inventions, gave an account of one application of the power of steam to lift water which he had worked out, probably on a scale large enough to have become of practical service. Thomas Savery and Denis Papin, both of them men of high attainments and great ingenuity, made important improvements before the end of the seventeenth century.

For all practical purposes, every invention should be associated with the time when it actually performed useful work for humanity. So, Hero of Alexandria, in the third century B.C., created a water fountain powered by the expanding [Pg 9] force of steam. Over the following twenty centuries, similar devices piqued the curiosity of both the inquisitive and the knowledgeable. The clever and quirky Marquis of Worcester, in his small book published in 1663, A Century of the Names and Scantlings of Inventions, commonly referred to as the Century of Inventions, described one way to harness steam power to lift water, which he likely developed on a scale that could have been practically helpful. Thomas Savery and Denis Papin, both highly skilled and inventive individuals, made significant advancements before the end of the seventeenth century.

Yet, if we refer to the question as to the proper age to which the steam-engine as a useful invention is to be assigned, we shall unhesitatingly speak of it as an eighteenth century invention, and this notwithstanding the fact that Savery's patent for the first pumping engine which came into practical use was dated 1698. The real introduction of steam as a factor in man's daily work was effected later on, partly by Savery himself and partly by Newcomen, and above all by James Watt. The expiration of Watt's vital patent occurred in 1800, and he himself then [Pg 10] retired from the active supervision of his engineering business, having virtually finished his great life's work on the last year of the century which he had marked for all time by the efforts of his genius.

Yet, if we talk about the right time period to classify the steam engine as a useful invention, we would confidently say it’s an invention of the eighteenth century, even though Savery's patent for the first pumping engine that was practically used was granted in 1698. The actual use of steam as a part of everyday work came later, mostly through Savery, Newcomen, and especially James Watt. Watt's key patent expired in 1800, and he then [Pg 10] stepped back from actively managing his engineering business, having effectively completed his significant life's work in the final year of the century that his genius forever defined.

Similarly we may confidently characterise the locomotive engine as an invention belonging to the first half of the nineteenth century, although tramways on the one hand, and steam-engines on the other hand, were ready for the application of steam transport, and the only work that remained to be accomplished in the half century indicated was the bringing of the two things together. The dynamo, as a factor in human life—or, in other words, the electric current as a form of energy producing power and light—is an invention of the second half of the nineteenth century, although the main principles upon which it was built were worked out prior to the year 1851.

Similarly, we can confidently describe the locomotive engine as an invention from the first half of the nineteenth century, even though tramways and steam engines were already prepared for steam transport. The only task left to accomplish in that half-century was to connect the two. The dynamo, which plays a significant role in human life—or, in simpler terms, the electric current that generates power and light—is an invention from the second half of the nineteenth century, although the core principles it relies on were developed before 1851.

It will be seen, in the course of the subsequent pages, that portable electric power has as yet won its way only into very up-to-date workshops and mines, and that the means by which it will be applied to numerous useful purposes in the field, the road, and the house will be distinctly inventions of the twentieth century. Similarly the steam-engine has not really been placed upon the ordinary road, [Pg 11] although efforts have been made for more than a century to put it there, the conception of a road locomotive being, in fact, an earlier one than that of an engine running on rails. Steam automobiles and traction engines are still confined to special purposes, the natures of which prove that certain elements of adaptability are still lacking in order to render them universally useful as are the locomotive and the steam-ship.

It will be evident in the following pages that portable electric power has only found its place in the most modern workshops and mines so far, and the ways it will be used for various practical applications in the field, on the road, and at home are definitely going to be innovations of the twentieth century. Likewise, the steam engine hasn't really been integrated into general road use, [Pg 11] even though there have been efforts for over a hundred years to make that happen; the idea of a road locomotive actually dates back further than that of an engine running on tracks. Steam cars and traction engines are still limited to specific functions, which shows that they still lack certain adaptable features to make them as universally useful as locomotives and steamships.

In nearly every other important line of human needs and desires it will be found that merely tentative efforts have been made by ingenious minds resulting in inventions of greater or less promise. Many of the finest conceptions which have necessarily been set down as failures have missed fulfilling their intended missions, not so much by reason of inherent weakness, as through the want of accessory circumstances to assist them. As in biology, so in industrial progress the definition of fitness appended to the law of the survival of the fittest must have reference to the environment.

In almost every other important area of human needs and desires, we see that only tentative efforts have been made by creative thinkers, leading to inventions that show varying degrees of potential. Many of the best ideas that have been labeled as failures haven't achieved their goals, not necessarily due to any fundamental flaws, but because they lacked the supporting conditions they needed. Just like in biology, in industrial progress, the concept of "survival of the fittest" should be understood in the context of the environment.

A foolish law or public prejudice results in the temporary failure of a great invention, and the inventor's patent succumbs to the inexorable operation of the struggle for existence. Yet, fortunately for mankind, if not for the [Pg 12] individual inventor, an idea does not suffer extinction as the penalty for non-success in the struggle. "The beginning of creation," says Carlyle, "is light," and the kind of light which inventors throw upon the dark problems involving man's industrial progress is providentially indestructible.

A foolish law or public prejudice can temporarily hinder a great invention, causing the inventor's patent to fail in the relentless competition for survival. However, luckily for humanity, if not for the individual inventor, an idea doesn’t disappear just because it doesn’t succeed in this struggle. "The beginning of creation," says Carlyle, "is light," and the kind of light that inventors shine on the challenging problems of human industrial progress is, thankfully, indestructible.

Twentieth century inventions—as the term is used in this book—are, therefore, those which are destined to fulfil their missions during the ensuing hundred years. They are those whose light will not only exist in hidden places, but will also shine abroad to help and to bless mankind. Or, if we may revert to the former figure, they are those which have not only been planted in the seed and have germinated in the leaf, but which have grown to goodly proportions, so that none may dare to assert that they have been planted for nought. A man's age is the age in which he does his work rather than that in which he struggles to years of maturity. Moore and Byron were poets of the nineteenth century, although the one had attained to manhood and the other had grown from poverty to inherit a peerage before the new century dawned.

Twentieth-century inventions, as used in this book, are those that are meant to fulfill their missions over the next hundred years. They are the innovations whose light won’t just exist in obscurity but will also shine brightly to help and uplift humanity. To return to the earlier metaphor, they are the ones that have not only been planted as seeds and have sprouted as leaves but have also developed into substantial entities, so that no one can claim they were planted for nothing. A person's age is defined by the time in which they do their work rather than when they achieve maturity. Moore and Byron were poets of the nineteenth century, even though one had reached adulthood and the other had risen from poverty to inherit a title before the new century began.

The prophetic rôle—although proverbially an unsafe one—is nevertheless one which every business man must play almost every day of [Pg 13] his life. The merchant, the manufacturer, the publisher, the director, the manager, and even the artist, must perforce stake some portion of his success in life upon the chance of his forecast as to the success of a particular speculation, article of manufacture, or artistic conception, and its prospects of proving as attractive or remunerative as he has expected it to be. The successful business man no doubt makes his plans, as far as may be practicable, upon the system indicated by the humorist, who advises people never to prophesy unless they happen to know, but the nature of his knowledge is almost always to some extent removed from certainty. He may spend much time in laborious searching; make many inquiries from persons whom he believes to be competent to advise him; diligently study the conditions upon which the problem before him depends—in short, he may take every reasonable precaution against the chances of failure, yet, in spite of all, he must necessarily incur risks. And so it is with regard to the task of forecasting the trend of industrial improvement. All who are called upon to lay their plans for a number of years beforehand must necessarily be deeply interested in the problems relating to the various directions which the course of that improvement may possibly [Pg 14] take. Meanwhile their estimates of the future, although based upon an intimate knowledge of the past and aided by naturally clear powers of insight, must be hypothetical and conditional. Unfortunately for the vast majority of manufacturing experts, the thoroughness with which they have mastered the details of one particular branch of industry too often blinds them to the chances of change arising from localities beyond their own restricted fields of vision.

The prophetic role—though notoriously risky—is one that every business person has to take on almost every day of their life. The merchant, the manufacturer, the publisher, the director, the manager, and even the artist all have to stake some part of their success on their ability to predict how well a particular venture, product, or artwork will perform, and whether it will be as appealing or profitable as they expect. A successful business person undoubtedly makes plans based on the advice of a humorist who suggests never to predict unless you really know, but the reality is that their knowledge is often not completely certain. They might spend a lot of time carefully researching, asking knowledgeable people for guidance, and studying the conditions tied to the issue at hand—in short, they may take every sensible precaution against failure, yet they still have to take risks. The same goes for predicting the direction of industrial growth. Anyone who needs to plan several years ahead must be very invested in understanding the various potential paths that growth might take. However, their forecasts, even when informed by a solid grasp of the past and sharp insight, must remain hypothetical and conditional. Unfortunately for most manufacturing experts, their deep understanding of one specific area often blinds them to changes that might come from outside their narrow focus.

The merriment occasioned by the first proposals for affixing pneumatic tyres to bicycles may be cited as a striking instance of the lack of forecasting insight displayed by very many of those who are best entitled to pronounce opinions on the minutiae of their particular avocations. In almost every "bike" shop and factory throughout the United Kingdom and America, the suggestion of putting an air-filled hosepipe around each wheel of the machine to act as a tyre was received with shouts of ridicule!

The excitement sparked by the initial suggestions to put pneumatic tires on bicycles is a clear example of how many people who are supposed to know best failed to see the bigger picture in their specific fields. In nearly every bike shop and factory across the UK and the US, the idea of wrapping each wheel with an air-filled hose to serve as a tire was met with laughter and mockery!

Railway men, who understood the wonderful elasticity imparted by air to pieces of mechanism, such as the pneumatic brake, were not by any means so much inclined to laughter; but naturally, for the most part, they deferred to the rule which enjoins every man to stick to [Pg 15] his trade. The rule in question—when applied to the task of estimating the worth of inventions claiming to produce revolutionary effects in any industry—is necessarily, in the majority of cases, more or less irrelevant, because such an invention should be regarded not so much as a proposed innovation in an old trade as the creation of a new one.

Railway workers, who recognized the amazing flexibility that air brought to mechanisms like the pneumatic brake, were not really prone to laughing; however, they generally followed the guideline that says everyone should stick to [Pg 15] their profession. This guideline—when it comes to judging the value of inventions that claim to bring revolutionary changes in any industry—is often somewhat irrelevant, because such an invention should be seen not just as a proposed innovation in an existing trade but as a creation of a new one.

George Stephenson's ideas on the transport of passengers and goods were almost unanimously condemned by the experts of his day who were engaged in that line of business. On points relating to wheels of waggons and the harness of horses, the opinions of these men were probably worth something; but in relation to steam locomotives, carriages and trucks running upon rails, their judgment was not merely worthless, but a good deal worse; it was indeed actually misleading, because based on a pretence of knowledge of a trade which was to be called into existence to compete with their own. "Great is Diana of the Ephesians" said the artificers of old; and on the strength of their expert knowledge in the making of idols they set themselves up as judges of systems of theology and morality. The argument, although based on self-interest subjectively, was nevertheless intended to carry weight even among persons who wished [Pg 16] to judge the questions in dispute according to their merits, and most of the latter were only too ready to accept the implied dictum that men who work about a temple must be experts in theology! The principles upon which Royal Commissions and Select Committees are sometimes appointed and entrusted with the onerous duty of deciding upon far-reaching industrial problems, affecting the progress of trade and manufactures in the present day, involve exactly the same kind of fallacy. Men are selected to pronounce judgment upon the proposals of their rivals in trade, and narrow-minded specialists to give their opinions upon projects which essentially belong to the border lands between two or more branches of industry, and cannot be understood by persons not possessing a knowledge of both.

George Stephenson's ideas about transporting passengers and goods were almost universally criticized by the experts of his time who were involved in that industry. On issues related to wagon wheels and horse harnesses, these experts likely had valuable insights; however, when it came to steam locomotives, carriages, and trucks running on rails, their opinions were not just worthless—they were actually harmful, as they were based on a false understanding of a new industry that was emerging to compete with their own. "Great is Diana of the Ephesians," said the craftsmen of old; and based on their expertise in idol-making, they positioned themselves as judges of systems of theology and morality. Although their argument was driven by self-interest, they aimed to make it influential even among those who wanted to assess the issues at hand fairly. Most of these fair-minded individuals were all too willing to accept the implied notion that those who work in a temple must be knowledgeable about theology! The way Royal Commissions and Select Committees are sometimes set up to tackle significant industrial issues that impact trade and manufacturing today follows the same flawed logic. People are appointed to judge the proposals of their competitors, and narrow-minded specialists are tasked with evaluating projects that straddle the lines between various branches of industry, which cannot be fully understood by those who lack expertise in both areas.

Yet the world's work goes on apace; and as capital is accumulated and seeks to find new outlets the multiplication of industrial projects must continue in spite of every discouragement. This process will go on at a rate even faster than that which was exhibited at the beginning of the nineteenth century; but in watching the course of advancement, the world must take count of ideas rather than of the names of those who may have [Pg 17] claims to rank as the originators of ideas. While for purposes of convenience, history labels certain great inventive movements, each with the name of one pre-eminent individual who has contributed largely to its success, nothing like a due appraisement of the services rendered by other men is ever attempted. It is not even as if the commanding general should by public acclamation receive all the applause for a successful campaign to the exclusion of his lieutenants. The pioneers in each great department of invention have generally acted as forerunners of the men whose names have become the most famous. They have borne much of the heat and burden of the day, while their successors have reaped the fruits of triumph. Mr. Herbert Spencer's strong protest against the part assigned by some writers in the mental and industrial evolution of the human race to the influence of great men is certainly fully justified, if the attribute of greatness is to be ascribed only to those whose names figure in current histories. The parts performed by others, whose fate it may have been to have fallen into comparatively unfavourable environments, may have entitled them even more eminently to the acclamation of greatness.

Yet the world's work continues rapidly; as capital accumulates and seeks new ways to be invested, the growth of industrial projects must persist despite any challenges. This process will happen even faster than it did at the start of the nineteenth century; however, as we observe progress, we should focus on ideas rather than on the names of individuals who are claimed to be the originators of those ideas. While for convenience's sake, history tends to label significant inventive movements with the name of one standout individual who contributed greatly to its success, there is rarely a fair acknowledgment of the contributions made by others. It’s not as if the commanding general would receive all the praise for a successful campaign while completely excluding his lieutenants. The pioneers in each major field of invention have usually paved the way for the more famous figures. They have faced much of the struggle and effort, while their successors enjoyed the achievements. Mr. Herbert Spencer’s strong objection to the emphasis some writers place on the role of great men in the mental and industrial evolution of humanity is certainly justified, particularly if greatness is only attributed to those whose names are noted in history. The contributions of others, who may have faced less favorable circumstances, may even qualify them for greater recognition of greatness.

The world in such a matter asks, reasonably [Pg 18] enough under the circumstances, Shall we omit to honour any of the great men who have played important parts in an industrial movement, assigning as our motive the difficulty of enumerating so many names? For the encouragement of those to whom the ambition for fame acts as a great stimulus to self-devotion in the interests of human progress, it is unavoidable that some men should be singled out and made heroes, while the much more numerous class of those who have also done great work, but who have not been quite so successful, must pass out of the ken of all, excepting the few who possess an expert knowledge of the various subjects which they have taken in hand.

The world reasonably asks, given the circumstances, should we skip honoring any of the great individuals who have played significant roles in the industrial movement just because it's hard to list so many names? To inspire those whose drive for fame motivates them to commit to the advancement of humanity, it's essential that some people are highlighted and celebrated as heroes, while the much larger group who have also contributed significantly but haven’t found as much success may be overlooked by everyone except a handful of experts familiar with the various issues they've tackled.

Still the distortion to which history has been subjected through its biographical mode of treatment must always be reckoned with as a factor of possible error by any one attempting to read the riddle of the past, and it may offer a still more dangerous snare to one who tries to deduce the future course of events from the evidences of the past, and the promises which they hold out. People are naturally prone to take it for granted that the world's progress during the first part of the twentieth century depends upon the future work of those inventors and industrial promoters whose names [Pg 19] have become most famous during the latter half of the nineteenth. But this personal treatment of the subject will be found to be in the last degree unsatisfactory, when judged in the light both of past experience and of some of the utterances of those eminent inventors who have tried to forecast the future in their own particular lines of research.

Still, the distortion that history has faced due to its biographical approach must always be considered as a potential source of error for anyone trying to make sense of the past. It can be an even bigger trap for those attempting to predict the future based on past evidence and the promises they seem to offer. People often assume that the world's progress during the early twentieth century relies on the future contributions of those inventors and industrial leaders whose names [Pg 19] became most recognizable in the latter half of the nineteenth century. However, this personal approach to the topic proves to be highly unsatisfactory when evaluated against both historical experience and some statements made by notable inventors who have tried to predict the future in their specific fields of research.

If, therefore, we look at the whole subject from the entirely impersonal point of view, and face the task of forecasting the progress of industry during the twentieth century, in this aspect we shall find that we have entered upon a chapter in the evolution of the human race—dealing, in fact, with a branch of anthropology. We see certain industrial and inventive forces at work, producing certain initial effects, but plainly, as yet, falling immeasurably short of an entire fulfilment of their possibilities; setting to work a multitude of busy brains, planning and arranging, and gradually preparing the minds of the more apathetic portion of humanity for the reception of new ideas and the adoption of improved methods of life and of work. Whither is it all tending? Will the twentieth century bring about as great a change upon the earth—man's habitat—as the nineteenth did? Or have the possibilities of really great and effective industrial revolutions [Pg 20] been practically exhausted? The belief impressed upon the Author's mind, by facts and considerations evoked during the collection of materials for this book, is that the march of industrial progress is only just beginning, and that the twentieth century will witness a far greater development than the nineteenth has seen.

If we look at the whole topic from a completely objective perspective and take on the challenge of predicting the progress of industry in the twentieth century, we will see that we have entered a new phase in the evolution of humanity—essentially touching on a part of anthropology. We observe certain industrial and innovative forces at play, creating some initial effects, but clearly, they are still far from realizing their full potential; they are engaging a multitude of active minds, planning and organizing, and gradually preparing the more indifferent part of humanity to embrace new ideas and adopt better ways of living and working. Where is all this heading? Will the twentieth century bring about as significant a change to the earth—humanity’s home—as the nineteenth did? Or have the possibilities for truly significant and impactful industrial revolutions been nearly exhausted? The belief that has been impressed upon the Author's mind, by the facts and insights gathered during the research for this book, is that the progress of industry is just getting started, and the twentieth century will see a far greater advancement than the nineteenth has experienced.

The great majority of mankind still require to be released from the drudgery of irksome, physical exertion, which, when power has been cheapened, will be seen to be to a very large extent avoidable. Pleasurable exercise will be substituted for the monotonous, manual labour which, while it continues, generally precludes the possibility of mental improvement. Hygienic science will insist more strenuously than ever upon the great truth that, in order to be really serviceable in promoting the health of mind and body, physical exertion must be in some degree exhilarating, and the bad old practice of "all work and no play," which was based upon the assumption that a boy can get as much good out of chopping wood for an hour as out of a bicycle ride or a game of cricket, will be relegated to the limbo of exploded fallacies.

The vast majority of people still need to be freed from the grind of tedious physical labor, which, now that power has become more affordable, can largely be avoided. Enjoyable exercise will replace the repetitive manual work that, as long as it continues, typically prevents any chance for mental growth. Health science will emphasize more than ever the essential truth that, to truly support mental and physical health, physical activity needs to be somewhat invigorating, and the outdated notion of "all work and no play," which assumed that a kid could benefit just as much from chopping wood for an hour as from a bike ride or a game of cricket, will be dismissed as a proven misconception.

The race, as a whole, will be athletic in the same sense in which cultured ladies and [Pg 21] gentlemen are at present. It will, a century hence, offer a still more striking contrast to the existing state of the Chinese, who bandage their women's feet in order to show that they are high born and never needed to walk or to exert themselves!—the assumption being that no one would ever move a muscle unless under fear of the lash of poverty or of actual hunger. The farther Western civilisation travels from that effete Eastern ideal, the greater will be the hope for human progress in physical, mental and moral well-being.

The race, overall, will be athletic in the same way that refined ladies and gentlemen are today. A century from now, it will create an even more noticeable contrast with the current situation in China, where they bind women's feet to show that they come from wealthy families and never needed to walk or work hard! The belief is that no one would lift a finger unless they were afraid of the consequences of poverty or actual hunger. The further Western civilization moves away from that outdated Eastern ideal, the greater the hope for human progress in physical, mental, and moral well-being.


CHAPTER II.

NATURAL POWER.

"Nature," remarked James Watt when he set to work inventing his improved steam-engine, "has always a weak side if we can only find it out." Many invaluable secrets have been successfully explored through the discovery of Nature's "weak side" since that momentous era in the industrial history of the world; and the nineteenth century, as Watt clearly foresaw, has been emphatically the age of steam power. In the condenser, the high pressure cylinder and the automatic cut-off, which utilises the expansive power of steam vapour, mankind now possesses the means of taming a monster whose capacities were almost entirely unknown to the ancients, and of bringing it into ready and willing service for the accomplishment of useful work. Vaguely and loosely it is often asserted that the age of steam is now giving place to that of electricity; but these two cannot yet be logically placed in opposition to one another. No method has yet been discovered whereby the heat of a [Pg 23] furnace can be directly converted into an electric current. The steam-engine or, as Watt and his predecessors called it, the "fire-engine" is par excellence the world's prime motor; and by far the greater proportion of the electrical energy that is generated to-day owes its existence primarily to the steam-engine and to other forms of reciprocating machinery designed to utilise the expansive power of vapours or gases acting in a similar manner to steam.

"Nature," said James Watt when he started working on his improved steam engine, "always has a weak spot if we can just figure it out." Since that significant time in the industrial history of the world, many invaluable secrets have been uncovered by discovering Nature's "weak side"; and the nineteenth century, as Watt clearly foresaw, has definitely been the age of steam power. With the condenser, the high-pressure cylinder, and the automatic cut-off that makes use of steam vapor’s expansive power, humanity now has the ability to control a force whose potential was almost entirely unknown to the ancients, putting it to work for useful tasks. It's often vaguely stated that the age of steam is now being replaced by that of electricity; however, these two can’t yet be clearly seen as opposites. No method has been found yet to directly convert the heat from a [Pg 23] furnace into an electric current. The steam engine, or as Watt and his predecessors referred to it, the "fire engine," is the world’s prime mover; and the majority of the electrical energy generated today is primarily thanks to the steam engine and other types of reciprocating machinery designed to harness the expansive power of vapors or gases acting similarly to steam.

The industrial revolutions of the coming century will, without doubt, be brought about very largely through the utilisation of Nature's waste energy in the service of mankind. Waterfalls, after being very largely neglected for two or three generations, are now commanding attention as valuable and highly profitable sources of power. This is only to be regarded as forming the small beginning of a movement which, in the coming century, will "acquire strength by going," and which most probably will, in less than a hundred years, have produced changes in the industrial world comparable to those brought about by the invention of the steam-engine.

The industrial revolutions of the next century will undoubtedly be driven largely by harnessing nature's wasted energy for the benefit of humanity. Waterfalls, having been largely overlooked for two or three generations, are now attracting attention as valuable and profitable power sources. This is just the beginning of a movement that, over the next century, will gain momentum and likely, in less than a hundred years, bring about changes in the industrial landscape similar to those caused by the invention of the steam engine.

Lord Kelvin, in the year 1881, briefly, but very significantly, classified the sources of power available to man under the five primary [Pg 24] headings of tides, food, fuel, wind, and rain. Food is the generator of animal energy, fuel that of the power obtained from steam and other mechanical expansive engines; rain, as it falls on the hill-tops and descends in long lines of natural force to the sea coasts, furnishes power to the water-wheel; while wind may be utilised to generate mechanical energy through the agency of windmills and other contrivances. The tides as a source of useful power have hardly yet begun to make their influence felt, and indeed the possibility of largely using them is still a matter of doubt. The relative advantages of reclaiming a given area of soil for purposes of cultivation, and of converting the same land into a tidal basin in order to generate power through the inward and outward flow of the sea-water, were contrasted by Lord Kelvin in the statement of a problem as follows: Which is the more valuable—an agricultural area of forty acres or an available source of energy equal to one hundred horse-power? The data for the solution of such a question are obviously not at hand, unless the quality of the land, its relative nearness to the position at which power might be required, and several other factors in its economic application have been supplied. Still, the fact remains that very large quantities of the [Pg 25] coastal land and a considerable quantity of expensive work would be needed for the generation, by means of the tides, of any really material quantity of power.

Lord Kelvin, in 1881, briefly but significantly classified the sources of power available to humanity under five main categories: tides, food, fuel, wind, and rain. Food generates animal energy, while fuel provides power from steam and other mechanical engines. Rain, falling on hilltops and flowing down to the coast, powers water-wheels; wind can be harnessed to create mechanical energy through windmills and other devices. The tides as a source of useful power are barely beginning to show their potential, and the possibility of using them extensively is still uncertain. Lord Kelvin posed a problem comparing the benefits of reclaiming a piece of land for agriculture versus converting the same land into a tidal basin to generate energy from the flow of seawater: Which is more valuable—forty acres of farmland or a power source equal to one hundred horsepower? Clearly, the data needed to answer this question isn't readily available, since it depends on factors like land quality, its proximity to where the power would be needed, and other economic considerations. Nonetheless, it remains true that a large amount of coastal land and significant investment would be required to generate any substantial amount of power from the tides.

It is strange that, while so much has been written and spoken about the possibility of turning the energy of the tides to account for power in the service of man, comparatively little attention has been paid to the problem of similarly utilising the wave-power, which goes to waste in such inconceivably huge quantities. Where the tidal force elevates and depresses the sea-water on a shore, through a vertical distance of say eight feet, about once in twelve hours, the waves of the ocean will perform the same work during moderate weather once in every twelve or fifteen seconds. It is true that the moon in its attraction of the sea-water produces a vastly greater sum total of effect than the wind does in raising the surface-waves, but reckoning only that part of the ocean energy which might conceivably be made available for service it is safe to calculate that the waves offer between two and three thousand times as much opportunity for the capture of natural power and its application to useful work as the tides could ever present. In no other form is the energy of the wind brought forward [Pg 26] in so small a compass or in so concrete a form. A steam-ship of 10,000 tons gross weight which rises and falls ten times per minute through an average height of 3·3 feet is thereby subjected to an influence equal to 22,400 horse-power. In this estimate the unit of the horse-power which has been adopted is Watt's arbitrary standard of "33,000 foot pounds per minute". The work done in raising the vessel referred to is equal to ten horse-power multiplied by the number of pounds in a ton, or, in other words, 22,400 horse-power, as stated.

It’s odd that, despite all the talk about harnessing tidal energy for human use, not much focus has been given to the vast potential of wave power, which goes to waste in incredibly large amounts. While the tidal force raises and lowers sea water at a shore by around eight feet roughly every twelve hours, ocean waves can do the same thing in moderate weather every twelve to fifteen seconds. It’s true that the moon's gravitational pull on sea water creates a far greater overall effect than the wind does in generating surface waves, but if we consider only the portion of ocean energy that might be harnessed, it’s reasonable to estimate that waves provide between two and three thousand times more opportunities for capturing natural energy and applying it to useful tasks than tides ever could. No other form of wind energy is manifested in such small spaces or in such a tangible form. A steamship weighing 10,000 tons that rises and falls ten times a minute by an average height of 3.3 feet experiences an effect equivalent to 22,400 horsepower. This calculation uses Watt's arbitrary standard of "33,000 foot-pounds per minute" as the horsepower unit. The work done in lifting the mentioned vessel is equal to ten horsepower multiplied by the number of pounds in a ton, which amounts to 22,400 horsepower, as stated.

Wind-power, again, has been to a large extent neglected since the advent of the steam-engine. The mightiest work carried out in any European country in the early part of the present century was that which the Dutch people most efficiently performed in the draining of their reclaimed land by means of scores of windmills erected along their seaboard. Even to the present day there are no examples of the direct employment of the power of the wind which can be placed in comparison with those still to be found on the coasts of Holland. But, unfortunately for the last generation of windmill builders, the intermittent character of the power to which they had to trust completely condemned it when placed in competition [Pg 27] with the handy and always convenient steam-engine. The wind bloweth "where it listeth," but only at such times and seasons as it listeth, and its vagaries do not suit an employer whose wages list is mounting up whether he has his men fully occupied or not. The storage of power was the great thing needful to enable the windmill to hold its own. The electrical storage battery, compressed air, and other agencies which will be referred to later on, have now supplied this want of the windmill builder, but in the meantime his trade has been to a large extent destroyed. For its revival there is no doubt that, as Lord Kelvin remarked in the address already quoted, "the little thing wanted to let the thing be done is cheap windmills."

Wind power has largely been overlooked since the steam engine came along. The most impressive work done in any European country in the early part of this century was carried out by the Dutch, who efficiently drained their reclaimed land using numerous windmills along their coastline. Even today, there are no examples of using wind power that compare to what can still be seen on the coasts of Holland. Unfortunately for the last generation of windmill builders, the inconsistent nature of wind power ultimately doomed it when put up against the convenient and reliable steam engine. The wind blows "where it wishes," but only at times and seasons that are unpredictable, and its variability doesn't work for an employer whose payroll keeps growing whether he has his workers fully engaged or not. The key to enabling windmills to compete was power storage. Now, with the introduction of electrical storage batteries, compressed air, and other technologies that will be discussed later, this need has been met. However, in the meantime, the windmill industry has been largely destroyed. To revive it, there's no doubt that, as Lord Kelvin pointed out in the previously quoted address, "what is needed to make it work are affordable windmills."

This, however, leads to another part of the problem. The costliness of the best modern patterns of windmill as now so extensively used, particularly in America, is mainly due to the elaborate, and, on the whole, successful attempts at minimising the objection of the intermittent nature of the source of power. To put the matter in another way, it may be said that lightness, and sensitiveness to the slightest breeze, have had to be conjoined with an eminent degree of safety in the severest gale, so that the most complicated self-regulating [Pg 28] mechanisms have been rendered absolutely imperative. Once the principle of storage is applied, the whole of the conditions in this respect are revolutionised. There is no need to attempt the construction of wind-motors that shall run lightly in a soft zephyr of only five or six miles an hour, and stability is the main desideratum to be looked to.

This, however, leads to another part of the problem. The high cost of the best modern windmill designs, which are widely used today, especially in America, is mainly due to the complex and mostly successful efforts to minimize the issues caused by the inconsistent nature of wind as a power source. In other words, windmills need to be lightweight and sensitive enough to catch the slightest breeze while also being extremely safe in strong winds, which necessitates the use of complicated self-regulating mechanisms. Once the principle of energy storage is implemented, the entire situation changes. There's no need to build wind turbines that can operate efficiently in a light breeze of only five or six miles per hour; instead, stability becomes the primary goal.

The fixed windmill, which requires no swivel mechanism and no vane to keep it up to the wind, is the cheapest and may be made the most substantial of all the forms of wind-motor. In its rudimentary shape this very elementary windmill resembles a four-bladed screw steam-ship propeller. The wheel may be constructed by simply erecting a high windlass with arms bolted to the barrel at each end, making the shape of a rectangular cross. But those at one end are fixed in such positions that when viewed from the side they bisect the angles made by those at the other side. Sails of canvas or galvanised iron are then fastened to the arms, the position of which is such that the necessary obliquity to the line of the barrel is secured at once.

The fixed windmill, which doesn’t need a swivel mechanism or a vane to face the wind, is the cheapest and can be the most durable of all types of wind motors. In its basic form, this very simple windmill looks like a four-bladed screw ship propeller. The wheel can be built by simply raising a tall windlass with arms attached to the barrel at each end, forming a rectangular cross shape. However, the arms at one end are positioned so that when viewed from the side, they cut through the angles made by the arms on the other side. Canvas or galvanized iron sails are then attached to the arms, positioned in such a way that the necessary angle to the line of the barrel is achieved immediately.

Looking at this elementary and at one time very popular form of windmill, and asking ourselves what adaptation its general principle is susceptible of in order that it may be [Pg 29] usefully employed in conjunction with a storage battery, we find, at the outset, that, inasmuch as the electric generator requires a high speed, there is every inducement to greatly lengthen the barrel and at the same time to make the arms of the sails shorter, because short sails give in the windmill the high rate of speed required.

Looking at this basic and once very popular type of windmill, and considering how we can adapt its main principle to use it effectively with a storage battery, we find that, since the electric generator needs high speed, there's a strong incentive to significantly extend the barrel and simultaneously shorten the arms of the sails, because shorter sails in the windmill provide the high speed that is needed.

We are confronted, in fact, with the same kind of problem which met the constructors of turbine steam-engines designed for electric lighting. The object was to get an initial speed which would be so great as to admit of the coupling of the dynamo to the revolving shaft of the turbine steam-motor, without the employment of too much reducing gear. In the case of the wind-motor the eighteenth century miller was compelled to make the arms of his mill of gigantic length, so that, while the centre of the wind pressure on each arm was travelling at somewhere near to the rate of the wind, the axis would not be running too fast and the mill stones would never be grinding so rapidly as to "set the tems—or the lighter parts of the corn—on fire."

We are actually facing the same problem that the builders of turbine steam engines designed for electric lighting encountered. The goal was to achieve an initial speed that was high enough to connect the dynamo to the rotating shaft of the turbine steam motor, without needing too much reduction gear. In the case of the windmill, the 18th-century miller had to make the arms of his mill extremely long so that, while the center of the wind pressure on each arm was moving at nearly the same speed as the wind, the axis wouldn't be spinning too quickly, and the millstones wouldn't be grinding fast enough to "set the tems—or the lighter parts of the grain—on fire."

The dynamo for the generation of the electric current demands exactly the opposite class of conditions. We may therefore surmise that the windmill of the future, as constructed [Pg 30] for the purposes of storing power, will have a long barrel upon which will be set numerous very short blades or sails. Reducing this again to its most convenient form, it is plain that a spiral of sheet-metal wound round the barrel will offer the most convenient type of structure for stability and cheapness combined. At the end of this long barrel will be fixed the dynamo, the armature of which is virtually a part of the barrel itself, while the magnets are placed in convenient positions on the supporting uprights. From the generating dynamo the current is conveyed directly to the storage batteries, and these alone work the electric motor, which, if desired, keeps continually in motion, pumping, grinding, or driving any suitable class of machinery.

The dynamo for generating electricity needs completely different conditions. So we can assume that future windmills, designed for storing energy, will have a long barrel with a lot of short blades or sails attached to it. Simplifying it to the most practical design, it’s clear that a spiral of sheet metal wrapped around the barrel would provide the best combination of stability and cost-effectiveness. At the end of this long barrel, the dynamo will be attached, with its armature basically part of the barrel itself, and the magnets positioned conveniently on the supporting posts. The current produced by the dynamo goes directly to the storage batteries, which power the electric motor. This motor can continuously operate to pump, grind, or drive any necessary machinery.

It is rather surprising to find how relatively small is the advantage possessed by the vane-windmill over the fixed type in the matter of continuity of working. During about two years the Author conducted a series of experiments with the object of determining this point, the fixed windmill being applied to work which rendered it a matter of indifference in which way the wheel ran. With the prevailing winds from the west it ran in one direction, and with those of next degree of frequency, namely from the east, it turned in [Pg 31] the reverse direction. The mill, however, was effective although the breeze might veer several points from either of the locations mentioned. It was found that there were rather less than one-fourth of the points of the compass, the winds from which would bring the wheel to a standstill or cause it to swing ineffectively, but as these were the directions in which the wind least frequently blew it might safely be reckoned that not one-eighth of the possible working hours of a swivel-windmill were really lost in the fixed machine.

It’s quite surprising to discover how little advantage the vane-windmill has over the fixed type in terms of continuous operation. For about two years, the Author ran a series of experiments to figure this out, using the fixed windmill for work where it didn't matter which way the wheel rotated. With the usual winds coming from the west, it turned in one direction, and with the next most frequent winds from the east, it turned in the opposite direction. The mill, however, worked well even when the breeze shifted a few points from either of those directions. It turned out that less than one-fourth of the compass points had winds that would stop the wheel or cause it to swing ineffectively. Since these were directions where the wind blew the least often, it could be confidently estimated that not more than one-eighth of the potential operating hours of a swivel-windmill were truly lost compared to the fixed machine.

With the type adapted to the working of a dynamo as already described, it will, in most cases, be convenient to construct two spirals on uprights set in three holes in the ground, forming lines at right angles to each other, but both engaging, by suitable gearing, with the electric current generator situated at the angle. This will be found cheaper than to go to the expense of constructing the mill on a swivel so that it may follow the direction of the wind. At the same time it should be noticed that the adoption of the high speed wind-wheel, consisting of some kind of spiral on a very long axis, may be made effective for improving even the swivel windmill itself, so as to adapt it for electric generation and conservation of power through the medium of the [Pg 32] storage battery. Supposing that a number of small oblique sails be set upon an axis lying in the direction of the wind, the popular conception of the result of such an arrangement is that the foremost sails would render those behind it almost, if not entirely, useless.

With the type adjusted for the operation of a dynamo as previously mentioned, it will often be practical to build two spirals on vertical supports placed in three holes in the ground, creating lines that intersect at right angles. Both will connect, through appropriate gearing, to the electric current generator located at the corner. This setup will generally be more cost-effective than building the mill on a pivot to allow it to follow the wind direction. At the same time, it should be noted that using a high-speed windmill design, featuring some form of spiral on a very long axis, can effectively enhance even the standard pivot windmill, making it suitable for electric generation and power conservation via the [Pg 32] storage battery. If several small angled sails are positioned on an axis aligned with the wind, the common belief about such a configuration is that the front sails would render those behind them nearly, if not completely, ineffective.

The analogy followed in reaching this conclusion is that of the sails of a ship, but, as applied to wind-motors, it is quite misleading, because not more than one-third or one-fourth of the energy of the wind is expended upon the oblique sails of an ordinary wind-wheel. Moreover, in the case of a number of such wheels set on a long axis, one behind the other as described, the space within which the shelter of the front sail is operative to keep the wind from driving the next one is exceedingly minute.

The comparison used to reach this conclusion is like the sails of a ship, but when applied to wind turbines, it’s quite misleading. This is because only about one-third or one-fourth of the wind's energy is used by the angled sails of a regular windmill. Additionally, when several of these windmills are lined up in a row on a long axis, the area where the front sail can shield the wind from affecting the next one is very small.

The elasticity of the air and its frictional inertia when running in the form of wind cause the current to proceed on its course after a very slight check, which in point of time is momentary and in its effects almost infinitesimal. This being the case, and the principal expense attendant upon the construction of ordinary wind-engines being due to the need for providing a large diameter of wind-wheel, with all the attendant complications required to secure such a wheel from [Pg 33] risk, it is obvious that as soon as the long axis and the very short sail, or the metallic spiral, have been generally introduced as adjuncts to the dynamo storage battery, an era of cheaper wind-motors will have been entered upon,—in fact, the "little want" of which Lord Kelvin spoke in 1881 will have been supplied. The high speed which the dynamo requires, and the more rapid rate at which windmills constructed on this very economical principle must necessarily run, both mark the two classes of apparatus as being eminently suited for mutual assistance in future usefulness.

The flexibility of the air and its frictional resistance when it moves as wind allows the current to continue along its path after only a slight interruption, which is brief in time and almost negligible in impact. Given this situation, and since most of the cost associated with building standard wind engines comes from needing a large diameter wind wheel, along with all the complexities needed to protect such a wheel from risk, it’s clear that once the long axis and the very short sail, or the metal spiral, are widely used as additions to the dynamo storage battery, we will have entered a new era of more affordable wind motors. In fact, the “little need” that Lord Kelvin mentioned in 1881 will have been met. The high speed that the dynamo requires, along with the quicker operation that windmills designed on this cost-effective principle must achieve, makes both types of equipment particularly well-suited for supporting each other in future applications.

The anemometer of the "Robinson" type, having four little hemispherical cups revolving horizontally, furnishes the first hint of another principle of construction adapted to the generation of electricity. Some years ago a professor in one of the Scottish Universities set up a windmill which was simply an amplified anemometer, and connected it with several of Faure's storage batteries for the purpose of furnishing the electric light to his residence. His report regarding his experience with this arrangement showed that the results of the system were quite satisfactory.

The "Robinson" type anemometer, with its four small hemispherical cups spinning horizontally, provides the first clue to another construction principle used to generate electricity. A few years back, a professor at one of the Scottish universities set up a windmill that was essentially a larger version of an anemometer and connected it to several of Faure's storage batteries to supply electric light to his home. His report on his experience with this setup indicated that the system worked quite well.

In this particular type of natural motor the wind-wheel, of course, is permanently set to [Pg 34] run no matter from what direction the wind may be blowing. Tests instituted with the object of determining the pressure which the wind exerts on the cup of a "Robinson" anemometer have shown that when the breeze blows into the concave side of the cup, its effect is rather more than three times as strong as when it blows against the convex side. At any given time the principal part of the work done by a windmill constructed on this principle is being carried out by one cup which has its concave side presented to the wind, while, opposite to it, there is another cup travelling in the opposite direction to that of the wind but having its convex side opposed.

In this specific type of natural motor, the wind-wheel is permanently set to [Pg 34] run regardless of the direction the wind is blowing. Tests carried out to measure the pressure the wind exerts on the cup of a "Robinson" anemometer have shown that when the breeze hits the concave side of the cup, its effect is more than three times stronger than when it hits the convex side. At any moment, most of the work done by a windmill built on this principle is performed by one cup facing the wind with its concave side, while, on the opposite side, there’s another cup moving in the opposite direction of the wind but facing the wind with its convex side.

The facts that practically only one sail of the mill is operative at any given time, and that even the work which is done by this must be diminished by nearly one-third owing to the opposing "pull" of the cup at the opposite side, no doubt must detract from the merits of such a wind-motor, judged simply on the basis of actual area of sail employed. But when the matter of cost alone is taken as the standard, the advantages are much more evenly balanced than they might at first sight seem to be.

The reality that usually only one sail of the mill is working at any time, and that even the output of this sail has to be reduced by nearly a third due to the opposing force of the cup on the other side, definitely takes away from the value of such a wind-driven machine, if we only judge it by the actual sail area being used. However, when we consider cost as the main factor, the benefits are much more evenly matched than they might initially appear.

The cup-shaped sail may be greatly improved upon for power-generating purposes by adopting [Pg 35] a sail having a section not semicircular but triangular in shape, and by extending its length in the vertical direction to a very considerable extent. Practically this cheap and efficient wind-motor then becomes a square or hexagonal upright axis of fairly large section, to each side of which is secured a board or a rigid sheet-metal sail projecting beyond the corners. The side of the axis and the projecting portion of the sail then together form the triangular section required.

The cup-shaped sail can be significantly improved for power generation by using a sail that is triangular instead of semicircular and making it much longer vertically. This affordable and effective wind motor effectively turns into a square or hexagonal upright axis with a fairly large cross-section, to which a board or a rigid sheet-metal sail is attached that extends beyond the corners. The side of the axis and the protruding part of the sail together create the triangular shape needed.

For the sake of safety in time of storm, an opening may be left at the apex of the angle which is closed by a door kept shut through the tension of a spring. When the wind rises to such a speed as to overbalance the force of the spring each door opens and lets the blast pass through. One collateral advantage of this type of windmill is that it may be made to act virtually as its own stand, the only necessity in its erection being that it should have a collar fitting round the topmost bearing, which collar is fastened by four strong steel ropes to stakes securely set in the ground. The dynamo is then placed at the lower bearing and protected from the weather by a metal shield through which the shaft of the axis passes.

For safety during a storm, an opening can be left at the top of the angle that’s closed by a door kept shut by the tension of a spring. When the wind gets strong enough to counter the spring’s force, the door swings open and lets the wind pass through. One additional benefit of this type of windmill is that it can effectively serve as its own support. The only requirement for setting it up is that it should have a collar fitting around the topmost bearing, which is secured by four strong steel ropes tied to stakes firmly planted in the ground. The dynamo is then placed at the lower bearing and protected from the elements by a metal shield through which the shaft of the axis passes.

For pumping, and for other simple purposes apart from the use of the dynamo, a ready [Pg 36] application of this form of wind-engine with a minimum of intricacy or expense may be worked out by setting the lower bearing in a round tank of water kept in circular motion by a set of small paddles working horizontally. Into the water a vertically-working paddle-wheel dips, carrying on its shaft a crank which directly drives the pump. This simple wind-motor is particularly safe in a storm, because on attaining a high speed it merely "smashes" the water in the tank.

For pumping and other basic uses besides the dynamo, a straightforward application of this type of wind engine, with minimal complexity or cost, can be achieved by placing the lower bearing in a round water tank that is kept in motion by a set of small paddles rotating horizontally. A vertically-working paddle wheel is submerged in the water, and its shaft has a crank that directly operates the pump. This simple wind motor is especially safe during a storm because, when it reaches a high speed, it just “smashes” the water in the tank.

Solar heat is one of the principal sources of the energy to be derived from the wind. Several very determined and ingenious attempts at the utilisation of the heat of sunshine for the driving of a motor have been made during the past century. As a solution of a mechanical and physical puzzle, the arrangement of a large reflector, with a small steam-boiler at the focus of the heat rays thrown by it, is full of interest. Yet, when a man like the late John Ericsson, who did so much to improve the caloric engine, and the steam-ship as applied to war-like purposes, meets with failure in the attempt to carry such an idea to a commercially successful issue, there is at least prima facie evidence of some obstacle which places the proposed machine at a disadvantage in competition with its rivals.

Solar heat is one of the main sources of energy that can be harnessed from the wind. Over the past century, there have been several determined and creative attempts to use sunlight to power a motor. The setup of a large reflector with a small steam boiler at the focal point of the heat rays it collects is particularly intriguing as a mechanical and physical challenge. However, when someone like the late John Ericsson, who made significant contributions to improving the caloric engine and the steamship for military use, fails to make such an idea commercially viable, it suggests there are obvious obstacles that put this proposed machine at a disadvantage compared to its competitors.

[Pg 37] The solar engine, if generally introduced, would be found more intermittent in its action than the windmill—excepting perhaps in a very few localities where there is a cloudless sky throughout the year. The windmill gathers up the power generated by the expansion of the air in passing over long stretches of heated ground, while a solar engine cannot command more of the sun's heat than that which falls upon the reflector or condenser of the engine itself. The latter machine may possibly have a place assigned to it in the industrial economy of the future, but the sum total of the power which it will furnish must always be an insignificant fraction.

[Pg 37] If the solar engine were widely adopted, it would be less consistent in its operation than the windmill—except maybe in a few areas where the sky is clear all year round. The windmill captures energy from the air's expansion as it moves over long areas of heated ground, whereas a solar engine can only utilize the sun's heat that directly reaches its reflector or condenser. This machine might have some role in the industrial landscape of the future, but the total energy it produces will always be a small fraction.

The wave-power machine, when allied to electric transmission, will, without doubt, supply in a cheap and convenient form a material proportion of the energy required during the twentieth century for industrial purposes. Easy and effective transmission is a sine quâ non in this case, just as it is in the utilisation of waterfalls situated far from the busy mart and factory. Hardly any natural source of power presents so near an approach to constancy as the ocean billows. Shakespeare takes as his emblem of perpetual motion the dancing "waves o' th' sea".

The wave-power machine, when combined with electric transmission, will surely provide a cost-effective and convenient means of supplying a significant amount of the energy needed for industrial purposes in the twentieth century. Easy and efficient transmission is a sine quâ non in this case, just as it is when using waterfalls that are far from the busy markets and factories. Almost no natural power source offers such a reliable consistency as the ocean waves. Shakespeare uses the dancing "waves o' th' sea" as a symbol of perpetual motion.

But the ocean coasts—where alone natural [Pg 38] wave-power is constant—are exactly the localities at which, as a rule, it is the least practicable to build up a manufacturing trade. Commerce needs smooth water for the havens offered to its ships, and inasmuch as this requirement is vastly more imperative during the early stages of civilisation than cheap power, the drift of manufacturing centres has been all towards the calm harbours and away from the ocean coasts. But electrical transmission in this connection abolishes space, and can bring to the service of man the power of the thundering wave just as it can that of the roaring torrent or waterfall.

But the ocean coasts—where natural [Pg 38] wave power is constant—are typically the places where it's least practical to establish a manufacturing industry. Commerce needs calm waters for the ports accessible to its ships, and since this need is far more critical during the early stages of civilization than affordable power, manufacturing centers have generally moved toward calmer harbors and away from the ocean coasts. However, electrical transmission changes this by eliminating distance and can harness the energy of powerful waves just as easily as it can utilize the force of a rushing river or waterfall.

The simplest form of wave-motor may be suggested by the force exerted by a ferry boat or dinghy tied up to a pier. The pull exerted by the rope is equal to the inertia of the boat as it falls into the trough of each wave successively, and the amount of strain involved in rough weather may be estimated from the thickness of the rope that is generally found necessary for the security of even very small craft indeed. A similar suggestion is conveyed by the need for elaborate "fenders" to break the force of the shock when a barge is lying alongside of a steamer, or when any other vessel is ranging along a pier or jetty.

The simplest type of wave motor can be illustrated by the force exerted by a ferry or a small boat tied to a dock. The pull from the rope is equal to the inertia of the boat as it goes up and down with each wave, and you can gauge the strain involved in rough weather by the thickness of the rope that’s usually required for the safety of even very small boats. A similar point is made by the need for sturdy "fenders" to absorb the impact when a barge is next to a steamer, or when any other vessel is alongside a pier or jetty.

A buoy of large size, moored in position at [Pg 39] a convenient distance from a rock-bound ocean coast, will supply the first idea of a wave-motor on this primary principle as adapted for the generation of power. On the cliff a high derrick is erected. Over a pulley or wheel on the top of this there is passed a wire-rope cable fastened on the seaward side to the buoy, and on the landward side to the machinery in the engine-house. The whole arrangement in fact is very similar in appearance to the "poppet-head" and surface buildings that may be seen at any well-equipped mine. The difference in principle, of course, is that while on a mine the engine-house is supplying power to the other side of the derrick, the relations are reversed in the wave-motor, the energy being passed from the sea across into the engine-house. The reciprocating, or backward and forward, movement imparted to the cable by the rising and falling of the buoy now requires to be converted into a force exerted in one direction. In the steam-engine and in other machines of similar type, the problem is simplified by the uniform length of the stroke made by the piston, so that devices such as the crank and eccentric circular discs are readily applicable to the securing of a rotatory motion for a fly-wheel from a reciprocating motion in the cylinders. In the application of wave-power [Pg 40] provision must be made for the utilisation of the force derived from movements of differing lengths, as well as of differing characters, in the force of impact. Every movement of the buoy which imparts motion to the pulley on top of the derrick must be converted into an additional impetus to a fly-wheel always running in the same direction.

A large buoy, anchored at a convenient distance from a rocky ocean coast, serves as the basic concept for a wave-powered generator. On the cliff, a tall structure called a derrick is built. A wire-rope cable runs over a pulley or wheel at the top; one end is attached to the buoy, while the other end connects to the machinery in the engine house. This setup looks quite similar to the "poppet-head" and surface buildings found at any well-equipped mine. However, the key difference is that in a mine, the engine house produces power for the other side of the derrick, whereas in the wave motor, energy flows from the ocean into the engine house. The up-and-down motion of the buoy needs to be turned into a steady force in one direction. In steam engines and similar machines, the task is easier because the piston strokes are uniform, allowing the use of mechanisms like cranks and eccentric circular discs to create rotary motion for a flywheel from the reciprocating motion in the cylinders. For wave power, it’s crucial to accommodate the use of force from movements of varying lengths and different types of impact. Every movement of the buoy that causes the pulley at the top of the derrick to move needs to be transformed into additional momentum for a flywheel that always rotates in the same direction.

The spur-wheel and ratchet, as at present largely used in machinery, offer a rough and ready means of solving this problem, but two very important improvements must be effected before full advantage can be taken of the principle involved. In the first place it is obvious that if a ratchet runs freely in one direction and only catches on the tooth of the spur-wheel when it is drawn in the other, the power developed and used is concentrated on one stroke, when it might, with greater advantage, be divided between the two; and in the second place the shock occasioned by the striking of the ratchet against the tooth when it just misses catching one of the teeth and is then forced along the whole length of the tooth gathering energy as it goes, must add greatly to the wear and tear of the machinery and to the unevenness of the running.

The spur-wheel and ratchet, which are widely used in machinery today, provide a simple and effective way to address this issue, but two crucial improvements need to be made before we can fully utilize the underlying principle. First, it's clear that if a ratchet moves freely in one direction and only engages with the tooth of the spur-wheel when pulled in the opposite direction, the energy produced and used is focused on a single stroke when it could be better distributed between the two. Second, the impact caused by the ratchet hitting the tooth when it just misses catching one of them and then gets forced along the entire length of the tooth, gaining energy as it moves, likely contributes significantly to the wear and tear of the machinery and to an inconsistency in its operation.

Taking the first of these difficulties into [Pg 41] consideration it is obvious that by means of a counterbalancing weight, about equal to half that of the buoy, it is possible to cause the wave-power to operate two ratchets, one doing work when the pull is to landwards and the other when it is to seawards. Each, however, must be set to catch the teeth of its own separate spur-wheel; and, inasmuch as the direction of the motion in one case is different from what it is in the other, it is necessary that, by means of an intervening toothed wheel, the motion of one of these should be reversed before it is communicated to the fly-wheel. The latter is thus driven always in the same direction, both by the inward and by the outward stroke or pull of the cable from the buoy.

Taking the first of these difficulties into [Pg 41] account, it’s clear that with a counterbalancing weight, roughly equal to half that of the buoy, we can make the wave power operate two ratchets—one working when pulling towards land and the other when pulling towards the sea. Each one, though, must be aligned to catch the teeth of its own separate spur-wheel. Since the direction of motion differs in each case, it's necessary to use an intervening toothed wheel to reverse the motion of one of them before it reaches the flywheel. This way, the flywheel is always driven in the same direction, whether by the inward or outward pull of the cable from the buoy.

Perhaps the most convenient development of the system is that in which the spur-wheel is driven by two vertically pendant toothed bands, resembling saws, and of sufficient length to provide for the greatest possible amplitude of movement that could be imparted to them by the motion of the buoy. The teeth are set to engage in those of the spur-wheel, one band on each side, so that the effective stroke in one case is downward, while in the other it is upward. These toothed bands are drawn together at their [Pg 42] lower ends by a spring, and they are also kept under downward tension by weights or a powerful spring beneath. The effect of this is that when both are drawn up and down the spur-wheel goes round with a continuous motion, because at every stroke the teeth of one band engage in the wheel and control it, while those of the reversed one (at the other side) slip quite freely.

Perhaps the most convenient development of the system is when the spur-wheel is driven by two vertically hanging toothed belts, resembling saws, and are long enough to allow for the greatest possible range of movement that could be generated by the buoy's motion. The teeth are designed to mesh with those of the spur-wheel, with one belt on each side, so that in one case the effective stroke is downward, while in the other it is upward. These toothed belts are pulled together at their [Pg 42] lower ends by a spring, and they are also kept under downward tension by weights or a strong spring underneath. The result of this is that when both are moved up and down, the spur-wheel rotates continuously, because at every stroke the teeth of one belt latch onto the wheel and control its movement, while those of the opposite one (on the other side) slip away freely.

The shock occasioned by the blow of the ratchet on the spur-wheel, or of one tooth upon another, may be reduced almost to vanishing point by multiplying the number of ratchets or toothed bands, and placing the effective ends, which engage in the teeth of the wheel successively, one very slightly in advance of the other. In this way the machine is so arranged that, no matter at what point the stroke imparted by the movement of the buoy may be arrested, there is always one or other of the ratchets or of the teeth which will fall into engagement with the tooth of the spur-wheel, very close to its effective face, and thus the momentum acquired by the one part before it impinges upon the other becomes comparatively small.

The shock caused by the impact of the ratchet on the spur wheel, or one tooth hitting another, can be nearly eliminated by increasing the number of ratchets or toothed bands and positioning the active ends that engage with the wheel's teeth slightly ahead of each other. This setup ensures that, no matter where the stroke from the buoy's movement is stopped, there will always be a ratchet or tooth ready to engage with the spur wheel's tooth, very close to its effective edge. As a result, the momentum gained by one part before it hits the other becomes relatively small.

The limit to which it may be practicable to multiply ratchets or toothed bands will, of course, depend upon the thickness of the spur-wheel, [Pg 43] and when this latter has been greatly enlarged, with the object of providing for this feature, it becomes virtually a steel drum having bevelled steps accurately cut longitudinally upon its periphery.

The extent to which it's feasible to increase the number of ratchets or toothed bands will depend on how thick the spur-wheel is, [Pg 43], and when this wheel has been significantly enlarged to accommodate this design, it essentially turns into a steel drum with beveled steps precisely cut along its edges.

The masts of a ship tend to assume a position at right angles to the water-line. When the waves catch the vessel on the beam the greatest degree of pendulous swing is brought about in a series of waves so timed, and of such a length, that the duration of the swing coincides with the period required for one wave to succeed another. The increasing slope of the ship's decks, due to the inertia of this continuous rhythmical motion, often amounts to far more than the angle made by the declivity of the wave as compared with the sea level; and it is, of course, a source of serious danger in the eyes of the mariner.

The masts of a ship usually stand at a right angle to the waterline. When waves hit the boat broadside, the ship experiences the most significant side-to-side motion in a series of waves that are perfectly timed and of similar length, allowing the swinging motion to match the time it takes for one wave to follow another. The increasing tilt of the ship's decks, caused by this ongoing rhythmic motion, often exceeds the angle of the wave's slope in relation to sea level, which is, of course, a serious danger in the eyes of sailors.

But, for the purposes of the mechanician who desires to secure power from the waves, the problem is not how to avoid a pendulous motion but how to increase it. For each locality in which any large wave-power plant of machinery is to be installed, it will therefore be advisable to study the characteristic length of the wave, which, as observation has proved, is shorter in confined seas than in those fully open to the ocean. It is advisable [Pg 44] then to make the beam width of the buoy, no matter how it may be turned, of such a length that when one side is well in the trough of a wave the other must be not far from the crest.

But for the engineer looking to harness energy from the waves, the challenge isn’t to eliminate swaying motion but to amplify it. For every location where a significant wave energy plant is to be set up, it’s important to analyze the typical length of the waves, which observations have shown to be shorter in enclosed seas compared to those that are fully exposed to the ocean. Therefore, it’s wise to design the buoy’s beam width, regardless of its orientation, so that when one side is deep in the trough of a wave, the other side is close to the crest. [Pg 44]

Practically the best design for such a floating power-generator will be one in which four buoys are placed, each of them at the end of one arm of a cross which has been braced up very firmly. From the angle of intersection projects a vertical mast, also firmly held by stays or guys. The whole must be anchored to the bottom of the sea by attachment to a large cemented block or other heavy weight having a ring let into it, from which is attached a chain of a few links connecting with an upright beam. It is the continuation of the latter above sea-level which forms the mast. On this beam the framework of the buoy must be free to move up and down.

Practically the best design for a floating power generator would be one where four buoys are positioned, each at the end of one arm of a cross that is securely braced. From the intersection, a vertical mast extends, which is also securely fastened with stays or guys. The whole structure needs to be anchored to the seabed by connecting it to a large concrete block or another heavy weight that has a ring embedded in it. A few links of a chain connect this ring to an upright beam. The continuation of this beam above sea level forms the mast. On this beam, the buoy's framework must be able to move freely up and down.

At first sight it might seem as if this arrangement rendered nugatory the attempt to take advantage of the rise and fall of the buoy; but it is not so when the relations of the four buoys to one another are considered. Although the frame is free to move up and down upon the uprising shaft, still its inclination to the vertical is determined by the direction of the line drawn from a buoy in the trough of a wave to one on the crest. In [Pg 45] order to facilitate the free movement, and to render the rocking effect more accurate and free from vibration, sets of wheels running on rails fixed to the beam are of considerable advantage.

At first glance, it might seem like this setup makes it pointless to take advantage of the rise and fall of the buoy. However, that’s not the case when you consider how the four buoys relate to each other. Even though the frame can move up and down on the rising shaft, its tilt toward vertical is determined by the line drawn from a buoy in the trough of a wave to one on the crest. In [Pg 45] order to allow for smooth movement and to make the rocking effect more accurate and vibration-free, sets of wheels running on rails fixed to the beam are very helpful.

The rise and fall of the tides render necessary the adoption of some such compensating device as that which has been indicated. Of course it would be possible to provide for utilising the force generated by a buoy simply moored direct to a ring at the bottom by means of a common chain cable; but this latter would require to be of a length sufficient to provide for the highest possible wave on the top of the highest tide. Then, again, the loose chain at low tide would permit the buoy to drift abroad within a very considerable area of sea surface, and in order to take advantage of the rise and fall on each wave it would be essential to provide at the derrick on the shore end of the wave-power plant very long toothed bands or equivalent devices on a similarly enlarged scale.

The rise and fall of the tides make it necessary to adopt some kind of compensating device like the one mentioned. Of course, it would be possible to utilize the force generated by a buoy simply anchored to a ring at the bottom with a regular chain cable. However, this chain would need to be long enough to account for the highest wave on the highest tide. Additionally, the loose chain at low tide would allow the buoy to drift over a large area of the sea surface, and to effectively harness the rise and fall of each wave, it would be crucial to have very long toothed bands or similar devices at the shore end of the wave-power plant on a correspondingly larger scale.

By providing three or four chains and moorings, meeting in a centre at the buoy itself but fastened to rings secured to weights at the bottom at a considerable distance apart, the lateral movement might, no doubt, be minimised; and for very simple installations [Pg 46] this plan, associated with the device of taking a cable from the buoy and turning it several times round a drum on shore, could be used to furnish a convenient source of cheap power. The drum may carry a crank and shaft, which works the spur-wheel and toothed bands as already described, so that no matter at what stage in the revolution of the drum an upward or downward stroke may be stopped, the motion will still be communicated in a continuous rotary form to the fly-wheel.

By using three or four chains and moorings that meet at the buoy itself but are secured to weights on the bottom at a significant distance apart, lateral movement could definitely be minimized. For very simple setups, this method, along with the idea of running a cable from the buoy and wrapping it several times around a drum on shore, could provide a convenient source of inexpensive power. The drum may have a crank and shaft that operate the spur-wheel and toothed belts as previously described, ensuring that no matter when the drum is stopped during its rotation, the motion will still be transmitted in a continuous rotary form to the flywheel.

But the beam and sliding frame, with buoys, give the best practical results, especially for large installations. It is in some instances advisable, especially where the depth of the water at a convenient distance from the shore is very considerable, not to provide a single beam reaching the whole distance to the bottom, but to anchor an air-tight tank below the surface and well beneath the depth at which wave disturbance is ever felt. From this submerged tank, which approximately keeps a steady position in all tides and weathers, the upward beam is attached by a ring just as would be done if the tank itself constituted the bottom.

But the beam and sliding frame, along with buoys, provide the best practical results, especially for large setups. In some cases, particularly where the water depth at a reasonable distance from the shore is quite significant, it’s advisable not to use a single beam that reaches all the way to the bottom. Instead, you should anchor a sealed tank below the surface and well below the depth at which wave disturbances are felt. This submerged tank, which remains pretty stable in all tides and weather conditions, has the upward beam attached to it by a ring, just as if the tank itself were the bottom.

One main reason for this arrangement is that the resistance of the beam to the water as it rocks backwards and forwards wastes to some extent the power generated by the force [Pg 47] of the waves; and the greater the length of the beam, the longer must be the distance through which it has to travel when the buoys draw it into positions vertical to that of the framework. A thin steel pipe offers less resistance than a wooden beam of equal strength, besides facilitating the use of a simple device for enabling the frame and buoys to slide easily up and down.

One main reason for this setup is that the beam's resistance to the water as it rocks back and forth wastes some of the energy produced by the waves. The longer the beam, the greater the distance it must travel when the buoys pull it into a position that's vertical to the framework. A thin steel pipe provides less resistance than a wooden beam of the same strength and also makes it easier to use a simple mechanism that allows the frame and buoys to slide up and down smoothly. [Pg 47]

The generally fatal defect of those inventions which have been designed in the past with the object of utilising wave-power has arisen from the mistake of placing too much of the machinery in the sea. The device of erecting in the water an adjustable reservoir to catch the wave crests and to use the power derived from them as the water escaped through a water-wheel was patented in 1869. Nearly twenty years later another scheme was brought out depending upon the working of a large pump fixed far under the surface, and connected with the shore so that, when operated by the rising and falling of floats upon the waves, it would drive a supply of water into an elevated reservoir on shore, from which, on escaping down the cliff, the pressure of the water would be utilised to work a turbine.

The main flaw of past inventions meant to harness wave power has been the mistake of putting too much of the machinery in the ocean. The idea of building an adjustable reservoir in the water to catch wave crests and use the power generated from the escaping water through a water wheel was patented in 1869. Almost twenty years later, another plan was introduced that relied on a large pump placed deep underwater, connected to the shore so that, when moved by the rising and falling of floats on the waves, it would push water into an elevated reservoir on land. From there, the water would flow down the cliff, using its pressure to power a turbine.

Earlier devices included the building of a [Pg 48] mill upon a rocking barge, having weights and pulleys adjusted to run the machinery on board; and also a revolving float so constructed that each successive wave would turn one portion, but the latter would then be held firm by a toothed wheel and ratchet until another impulse would be given to it in the same direction. This plan included certain elements of the simple system already described; but it is obvious that some of its floating parts might with advantage have been removed to the shore end, where they would not only be available for ready inspection and adjustment, but also be out of harm's way in rough weather.

Earlier devices included building a [Pg 48] mill on a rocking barge, with weights and pulleys set up to operate the machinery on board; and also a rotating float designed so that each wave would turn one part, but then that part would be held in place by a toothed wheel and ratchet until another wave provided further motion in the same direction. This setup contained some elements of the basic system already mentioned; however, it’s clear that some of its floating components could have been better placed on the shore end, where they would be easier to inspect and adjust and also protected during bad weather.

Different wave-lengths, as already explained, correspond to various periods in the pendulous swing of floating bodies. Examples have been cited by Mr. Vaughan Cornish, M. Sc., in Knowledge, 2nd March, 1896, as follows: "A wave-length of fifty feet corresponds to a period of two and a half seconds, while one of 310 feet corresponds to five and a half seconds. It is mentioned that the swing of the steam-ship Great Eastern took six seconds." Other authorities state that during a storm in the Atlantic the velocity of the wave was determined to be thirty-two miles an hour, and that nine or ten waves were included in each [Pg 49] mile; thus about five would pass in each minute. But in average weather the number of waves to the mile is considerably larger, say, from fifteen to twenty to the mile; and in nearly calm days about double those numbers.

Different wavelengths, as previously explained, correspond to various periods in the swinging motion of floating objects. Examples have been provided by Mr. Vaughan Cornish, M. Sc., in Knowledge, March 2, 1896, as follows: "A wavelength of fifty feet corresponds to a period of two and a half seconds, while one of 310 feet corresponds to five and a half seconds. It is noted that the swing of the steamship Great Eastern took six seconds." Other experts state that during a storm in the Atlantic, the speed of the wave was recorded at thirty-two miles per hour, and that nine or ten waves were found in each [Pg 49] mile; thus about five would pass in each minute. However, in average weather, the number of waves per mile is significantly higher, typically ranging from fifteen to twenty per mile; and on nearly calm days, those numbers are about doubled.

One interesting fact, which gives to wave-power a peculiarly enhanced value as a source of stored wind-power, is that the surface of the ocean—wild as it may at times appear—is not moved by such extremes of agitation as the atmosphere. In a calm it is never so inertly still, and in a storm it is never so far beyond the normal condition in its agitation as is the wind. The ocean surface to some extent operates as the governor of a steam-engine, checking an excess in either direction. In very moderate weather the number of waves to the mile is greatly increased, while their speed is not very much diminished. Indeed the rate at which they travel may even be increased.

One interesting fact that gives wave power a uniquely greater value as a source of stored wind power is that the surface of the ocean—no matter how wild it may sometimes look—is not disturbed by extremes of agitation like the atmosphere. In calm conditions, it’s never completely still, and in a storm, it doesn’t go as far beyond normal agitation as the wind does. The ocean surface somewhat acts like a governor in a steam engine, moderating excessive movement in either direction. During very mild weather, the number of waves per mile significantly increases, while their speed doesn’t decrease much. In fact, the pace at which they travel may even increase.

This latter phenomenon generally occurs when long ocean rollers pass out of a region of high wind into one of relative calm, the energy remaining for a long time comparatively constant by reason of the multiplication of short, low waves created out of long, high ones. On all ocean coasts the normal condition [Pg 50] of the surface is governed by this law, and it follows that, no matter what the local weather may be at any given time, there is always plenty of power available.

This second phenomenon usually happens when large ocean waves move from a windy area to a calmer one. The energy stays relatively steady for a long time because of the smaller, shorter waves that are formed from the larger ones. On all ocean coasts, the usual state of the surface is determined by this principle, which means that regardless of the local weather at any moment, there is always plenty of energy available. [Pg 50]

An attempt was made by M. C. Antoine, after a long series of observations, to establish a general relation between the speed of the wind and that of the waves caused by it, the formulæ being published in the Revue Nautique et Coloniale in 1879. The rule may be taken as correct within certain limits, although in calm weather, when the condition of the ocean surface is almost entirely ruled by distant disturbances, it has but little relevancy. Approximately, the velocity of wave transmission is seven times the fourth root of the wind-speed; so that when the latter is a brisk breeze of sixteen miles an hour the waves will be travelling fourteen miles an hour, or very nearly as fast as the wind. When, on the other hand, a light breeze of nine miles an hour is driving the waves, the latter, according to the formula, should run about twelve and a half miles an hour; but, in point of fact, the influence of more distant commotion nearly always interferes with this result.

An effort was made by M. C. Antoine, after a long series of observations, to establish a general relationship between wind speed and the speed of waves it generates, with the formulas published in the Revue Nautique et Coloniale in 1879. The rule can be considered accurate within certain limits, although in calm weather, when the state of the ocean's surface is mostly influenced by distant disturbances, it isn't very relevant. Roughly, the speed of wave transmission is seven times the fourth root of the wind speed; so when the wind is a brisk breeze of sixteen miles per hour, the waves will be moving at about fourteen miles per hour, almost as fast as the wind. However, when a light breeze of nine miles per hour is generating the waves, they should, according to the formula, move at approximately twelve and a half miles per hour; but in reality, the impact of more distant disturbances often disrupts this result.

As a matter of experience, the waves on an ocean coast are usually running faster than the [Pg 51] wind, and, being so much more numerous in calm than they are in rough weather, they maintain comparatively a uniform sum total of energy. It is obvious that, so far as practical purposes are concerned, three waves of an available height of three feet each are as effective as one of nine feet. If the state of the weather be such that the average wave length is 176 feet there will be exactly thirty waves to the mile, and if the speed be twelve miles an hour—that is to say, if an expanse of twelve miles of waves pass a given point hourly—then 360 waves will pass every sixty minutes, or six every minute. In the wave-power plant as described, each buoy of one hundred tons displacement when raised and depressed, say, three feet by every wave will thus be capable of giving power equal to three times 600, or 1,800 foot-tons per minute.

Based on experience, the waves on an ocean coast usually move faster than the wind, and since there are many more waves in calm conditions than during rough weather, they maintain a relatively consistent total energy. It's clear that, for practical purposes, three waves that are each three feet high are just as effective as one wave that is nine feet high. If the weather conditions result in an average wave length of 176 feet, there will be exactly thirty waves per mile. If the speed is twelve miles per hour—which means twelve miles of waves pass a specific point every hour—then 360 waves will pass in sixty minutes, or six every minute. In the wave-power plant described, each buoy with a displacement of one hundred tons, when moved up and down by about three feet for each wave, will produce power equivalent to three times 600, or 1,800 foot-tons per minute.

The unit of nominal horse-power being 33,000 foot-pounds or about fifteen foot-tons per minute, it is evident that each buoy, at its maximum, would be capable of giving about 120 horse-power. Supposing that half of the possible energy were exerted at the forward and half at the backward stroke and that each buoy were always in position to exert its full power upon the uprising shaft without deduction, the total effective duty of [Pg 52] a machine such as has been described would be 480 horse-power. In practice, however, the available duty would probably, according to minor circumstances, be rather more or rather less than 300 horse-power.

The unit of nominal horsepower is 33,000 foot-pounds, or about fifteen foot-tons per minute. This means that each buoy, at its peak performance, could generate around 120 horsepower. If we assume that half of this energy is used during the forward stroke and the other half during the backward stroke, and that each buoy is always ready to deliver its full power to the rising shaft without any losses, the total effective output of [Pg 52] a machine like the one described would be 480 horsepower. However, in reality, the usable output would likely be a bit more or a bit less than 300 horsepower, depending on various factors.


CHAPTER III.

STORAGE OF POWER.

The three principal forms of stored power which are now in sight above the horizon of the industrial outlook are the electric storage battery, compressed air, and calcium-carbide. The first of these has come largely into use owing to the demand for a regulated and stored supply of electricity available for lighting purposes. Indeed the storage battery has practically rendered safe the wide introduction of electric lighting, because a number of cells, when once charged, are always available as a reserve in case of any failure in the power or in the generators at any central station; and also because, by means of the storage cells or "accumulators," the amount of available electrical energy can be subdivided into different and subordinate circuits, thus obviating the necessity for the employment of currents of very high voltage and eluding the only imperfectly-solved problem of dividing a current traversing a wire as conveniently as lighting [Pg 54] gas is divided by taking small pipes off from the gas mains.

The three main types of stored energy now on the horizon of industrial development are electric storage batteries, compressed air, and calcium carbide. The electric storage battery has become widely used due to the need for a controlled and reliable supply of electricity for lighting. In fact, these batteries have made the widespread use of electric lighting practically safe, as multiple cells, once charged, provide a backup in case of any power outages or generator failures at central stations. Additionally, with storage cells or "accumulators," the available electrical energy can be split into different smaller circuits, which eliminates the need for using very high voltage currents and tackles the still-not-fully-resolved issue of evenly dividing a current flowing through a wire, much like how natural gas is distributed by connecting smaller pipes to the main lines. [Pg 54]

Compressed air for the storage of power has hitherto been best appreciated in mining operations, one of the main reasons for this being that the liberated air itself—apart from the power which it conveyed and stored—has been so great a boon to the miner working in ill-ventilated stopes and drives. The cooling effects of the expansion, after close compression, are also very grateful to men labouring hard at very great depths, where the heat from the country rock would become, in the absence of such artificial refrigeration, almost overpowering. For underground railway traffic exactly the same recommendations have, at one period during the fourth quarter of the nineteenth century, given an adventitious stimulus to the use of compressed air.

Compressed air for power storage has mainly been valued in mining operations. One big reason for this is that the released air itself—besides the power it carried and stored—has been a significant help to miners working in poorly ventilated areas. The cooling effects of the air expansion, after intense compression, are also a relief for workers laboring deep underground, where the heat from the surrounding rock would be almost unbearable without this kind of artificial cooling. During a certain time in the late nineteenth century, the same advantages for underground railway traffic boosted the use of compressed air.

Yet it is now undoubted that, even in deep mining, the engineer's best policy is to adopt different methods for the conveyance and storage of power on the one hand, and for the ventilation of the workings on the other. Few temptations are more illusory in the course of industrial progress than those presented by that class of inventions which aim at "killing two birds with one stone". If one object be successfully accomplished it almost invariably [Pg 55] happens that the other is indifferently carried out; but the most frequent result is that both of them suffer in the attempt to adapt machinery to irreconcilable purposes.

Yet it's now clear that, even in deep mining, the best approach for engineers is to use different methods for power transport and storage on one side, and for ventilation of the workings on the other. Few temptations are more misleading in the course of industrial progress than those presented by inventions that aim to "kill two birds with one stone." When one goal is successfully achieved, it almost always results in the other being poorly handled; but the most common outcome is that both ends suffer when trying to adapt machinery to conflicting purposes.

The electric rock-drill is now winning its way into the mines which are ventilated with comparative ease as well as into those which are more difficult to supply with air. It is plain, therefore, that on its merits as a conveyer and storer of power the electric current is preferable to compressed air. The heat that is generated and then dissipated in the compression of any gas for such a purpose represents a very serious loss of power; and it is altogether an insufficient excuse to point to the compensation of coolness being secured from the expansion. Fans driven by electric motors already offer a better solution of the ventilation difficulty, and the advantages on this side are certain to increase rather than to diminish during the next few years.

The electric rock drill is now making its way into mines that are relatively easy to ventilate, as well as into those where air supply is more challenging. It's clear that, in terms of delivering and storing power, electric current is better than compressed air. The heat generated and then lost during the compression of any gas for this purpose represents a significant loss of power; simply claiming that the coolness gained from expansion compensates for this is not a valid argument. Fans powered by electric motors already provide a better solution for ventilation issues, and the benefits in this area are only going to increase over the next few years.

The electric rock-drill, which can already hold its own with that driven by compressed air, is therefore bound to gain ground in the future. This is a type and indication of what will happen all along the industrial line, the electric current taking the place of the majority of other means adopted for the transmission of power. Even in workshops—where it is [Pg 56] important to have a wide distribution of power and each man must be able to turn on a supply of it to his bench at any moment—shafting is being displaced by electric cables for the conveyance of power to numerous small motors.

The electric rock drill, which can now compete with those powered by compressed air, is definitely set to become more popular in the future. This reflects a broader trend we’ll see throughout industrial sectors, where electricity will replace most other methods used for power transmission. Even in workshops—where it's crucial to have a wide distribution of power and everyone needs to be able to access it at their workstation whenever they want—traditional shafting is being replaced by electric cables that deliver power to various small motors.

The loss of power in this system has already been reduced to less than that which occurs with shafting, unless under the most favourable circumstances; and in places where the works are necessarily distributed over a considerable area the advantage is so pronounced that hardly any factories of that kind will be erected ten years hence without resort being had to electricity, and small motors as the means of distributing the requisite supplies of power to the spots where they are needed. It was a significant fact that at the Paris Exposition of 1900 the electric system of distribution was adopted.

The loss of power in this system has already been reduced to less than what happens with traditional shafting, unless under the best conditions. In places where the operations are spread out over a large area, the advantage is so clear that hardly any factories of that type will be built ten years from now without using electricity and small motors to distribute the necessary power to where it’s needed. It’s important to note that the electric distribution system was adopted at the Paris Exposition of 1900.

In regard to compressed air, however, it seems practically certain that, notwithstanding its inferiority to electric storage of power, it is applicable to so many kinds of small and cheap installations that, on the whole, its area of usefulness, instead of being restricted, will be largely increased in the near future. There will be an advance all along the line; and although electric storage will far outstrip compressed air for the purposes of the large manufacturer, the air reservoir will prove [Pg 57] highly useful in isolated situations, and particularly for agricultural work.

When it comes to compressed air, it seems almost certain that, despite being less effective than electric power storage, it can be used in many small and inexpensive setups. Overall, its usefulness will likely expand significantly in the near future. There will be progress across the board; while electric storage will greatly surpass compressed air for large-scale manufacturing, air reservoirs will be extremely useful in remote locations, especially for agricultural work. [Pg 57]

For example, as an adjunct to the ordinary rural windmill for pumping water, it will prove much more handy and effective than the system at present in vogue of keeping large tanks on hand for the purpose of ensuring a supply of water during periods of calm weather. Regarding a tank of water elevated above the ground and filled from a well as representing so much stored energy, and also comparing this with an equal bulk of air compressed to about 300 pounds pressure to the square inch, it would be easy to show that—unless the water has been pumped from a very deep well—the power which its elevation indicates must be only a small fraction of that enclosed in the air reservoir.

For example, as a complement to the regular rural windmill used for pumping water, it will be much more convenient and effective than the current method of keeping large tanks to ensure a supply of water during calm weather. If we think of a water tank elevated off the ground and filled from a well as a form of stored energy, and then compare this with an equal volume of air compressed to about 300 pounds per square inch, it's clear that—unless the water has been pumped from a very deep well—the power indicated by the height of the water must be only a small fraction of that contained in the air reservoir.

It will be one great point in favour of compressed air, as a form of stored energy for the special purpose of pumping, that by making a continuous small flow of air take the place of the water at the lowest level in the upward pipe, it is possible to cause it to do the pumping without the intervention of any motor.

It will be a major advantage of compressed air, as a form of stored energy for the specific purpose of pumping, that by creating a continuous small flow of air to replace the water at the lowest point in the upward pipe, it’s possible to make it do the pumping without needing any motor.

One means of effecting this may be simply indicated. The air under pressure is admitted from a very small air pipe and the bubbles, as they rise, fill the hollow of an inverted iron [Pg 58] cup rising and falling on a bearing like a hinge. Above and beneath the chamber containing this cup are valves opening upwards and similar to those of an ordinary force or suction pump. The cup must be weighted with adjustable weights so that it will not rise until quite full of air. When that point is reached the stroke is completed, the air having driven upwards a quantity of water of equal bulk with itself, and, as the cup falls again by its own weight, the vacuum caused by the air escaping upwards through the pipe is filled by an inrush of water through the lower valve. The function of the upper valve, at that time, is to keep the water in the pipe from falling when the pressure on the column is removed. The expansive power of the air enables it to do more lifting at the upper than at the lower level, so that a larger diameter of pipe can be used at the former place.

One way to achieve this can be simply described. Pressurized air enters through a very small air pipe and the bubbles, as they rise, fill the hollow of an inverted iron [Pg 58] cup that moves up and down on a hinge-like bearing. Above and below the chamber with this cup are valves that open upward, similar to those in a standard force or suction pump. The cup needs to be weighted with adjustable weights so that it won't rise until it's completely full of air. Once it reaches that point, the stroke is finished, and the air has pushed up a volume of water equal to its own volume. When the cup falls again due to its weight, the vacuum created by the air escaping through the pipe is filled by water rushing in through the lower valve. The purpose of the upper valve at that moment is to prevent the water in the pipe from falling when the pressure on the column is released. The expanding power of the air allows it to lift more at the top than at the bottom, meaning a larger diameter of pipe can be used at the top location.

Cheap motors working on the same principle—that is to say through the upward escape of compressed air, gas or vapour filling a cup and operating it by its buoyancy, or turning a wheel in a similar manner—will doubtless be a feature in the machine work of the future; and for motors of this description it is obvious that compressed air will be very useful as the form of power-storage. Excepting under very [Pg 59] special conditions, steam is not available for such a purpose, seeing that it condenses long before it has risen any material distance in a column of cold water.

Cheap motors that operate on the same principle—specifically, through the upward escape of compressed air, gas, or vapor filling a chamber and driving it by its buoyancy, or spinning a wheel in a similar way—will certainly be a part of the machinery of the future. For motors like this, it’s clear that compressed air will be a very effective method for power storage. Generally speaking, steam isn’t suitable for this purpose under normal conditions since it condenses long before it has traveled a significant distance in a column of cold water.

"The present accumulator," remarked Prof. Sylvanus P. Thompson in the year 1881, referring to the Faure storage batteries then in use, "probably bears as much resemblance to the future accumulator as a glass bell-jar used in chemical experiments for holding gas does to the gasometer of a city gasworks, or James Watt's first model steam-engine does to the engines of an Atlantic steamer." When Faure, having in 1880 improved upon the storage battery of Planté, sent his four-cell battery from Paris to Glasgow, carrying in it stored electrical energy, it was found to contain power equal to close upon a million foot-pounds, which is about the work done by a horse-power during the space of half an hour. This battery weighed very nearly 75 lb. It nevertheless represented an immense forward step in the problem of compressing a given quantity of potential power into a small weight of accumulator.

"The current battery," said Prof. Sylvanus P. Thompson in 1881, referring to the Faure storage batteries that were in use at the time, "probably looks as much like the future battery as a glass jar used in chemical experiments for holding gas does to a gasometer in a city gasworks, or as James Watt's first model steam engine does to the engines of an Atlantic steamer." When Faure, having improved on Planté's storage battery in 1880, sent his four-cell battery from Paris to Glasgow, it carried stored electrical energy that amounted to nearly a million foot-pounds, which is about the work done by one horsepower over half an hour. This battery weighed almost 75 pounds. Still, it represented a major leap forward in the challenge of compressing a specific amount of potential power into a small weight of battery.

The progress made during less than twenty years to the end of the century may be estimated from the conditions laid down by the Automobile Club of Paris for the competitive [Pg 60] test of accumulators applicable to auto-car purposes in 1899. It was stipulated that five cells, weighing in all 244 lb., should give out 120 ampere-hours of electric intensity; and that at the conclusion of the test there should remain a voltage of 1·7 volt per cell.

The advancements made in less than twenty years by the end of the century can be seen from the requirements set by the Automobile Club of Paris for the competitive [Pg 60] test of batteries used for cars in 1899. It was stated that five cells, weighing a total of 244 lb., should provide 120 ampere-hours of electrical current; and that at the end of the test, there should still be a voltage of 1.7 volts per cell.

Very great improvements in the construction of electric accumulators are to be looked for in the near future. Hitherto the average duration of the life of a storage cell has not been more than about two years; and where impurities have been present in the sulphuric acid, or in the litharge or "minium" employed, the term of durability has been still further shortened. It must be remembered that while the principal chemical and electrical action in the cell is a circular one,—that is to say, the plates and liquids get back to the original condition from which they started when beginning work in a given period,—there is also a progressive minor action depending upon the impurities that may be present. Such a reagent, for instance, as nitric acid has an extremely injurious effect upon the plates.

Very significant advancements in the design of electric batteries are expected in the near future. Until now, the average lifespan of a storage cell has typically been around two years; and when impurities were present in the sulfuric acid or in the litharge or "minium" used, the lifespan was even shorter. It's important to remember that while the main chemical and electrical reactions in the cell are cyclical—that is, the plates and liquids return to their original state after functioning for a period—there is also a gradual negative effect caused by any impurities present. For example, nitric acid can seriously harm the plates.

During the first decade after Planté and Faure had made their original discoveries, the main drawback to the advancement of the electric accumulator for the storage of power owed its existence to the lack of precise knowledge, [Pg 61] among those placed in charge of storage batteries, as to the destructive effects of impurities in the cells. It is, however, now the rule that all acids and all samples of water used for the purpose must be carefully tested before adoption, and this practice, in itself, has greatly prolonged the average life of the accumulator cell.

During the first ten years after Planté and Faure made their original discoveries, the main issue holding back the development of electric accumulators for power storage was the lack of accurate knowledge, [Pg 61] among those responsible for storage batteries, about the harmful effects of impurities in the cells. However, it is now standard practice to thoroughly test all acids and water used for this purpose before they are adopted, and this approach has significantly extended the average lifespan of the accumulator cell.

The era of the large electric accumulator of the kind foreshadowed by Prof. Sylvanus P. Thompson has not yet arrived, the simple reason being that electric power storage—apart from the special purposes of the subdivision and transmission for lighting—has not yet been tried on a large scale. For the regulation and graduation of power it is exceedingly handy to be able to "switch-on" a number of small accumulator cells for any particular purpose; and, of course, the degree of control held in the hands of the engineer must depend largely on the smallness of each individual cell, and the number which he has at command. This fact of itself tends to keep down the size of the storage cell which is most popular.

The era of large electric batteries predicted by Prof. Sylvanus P. Thompson hasn't arrived yet, mainly because electric power storage—aside from its specific uses in distribution and lighting—hasn't been tested on a large scale. For managing and regulating power, it's really convenient to be able to "switch on" several small battery cells for specific needs. Naturally, the level of control the engineer has largely depends on the size of each individual cell and how many he has available. This fact alone tends to limit the size of the most commonly used storage cell.

But when power storage by means of the electric accumulator really begins in earnest the cells will attain to what would at present be regarded as mammoth proportions; and the special purpose aimed at in each instance of [Pg 62] power installation will be the securing of continuity in the working of a machine depending upon some intermittent natural force. Windmills are especially marked out as the engines which will be used to put electrical energy into the accumulators. From these latter again the power will be given out and conveyed to a distance continuously.

But when power storage using electric batteries really kicks off, the cells will reach what we would currently see as enormous sizes; and the specific goal for each power setup will be to ensure a consistent operation of a machine reliant on some fluctuating natural force. Windmills are particularly suited as the machines that will be used to store electrical energy in the batteries. From these batteries, the power will then be distributed and delivered over long distances continuously.

High ridges and eminences of all kinds will in the future be selected as the sites of wind-power and accumulator plants. In the eighteenth century, when the corn from the wheat-field required to be ground into flour by the agency of wind-power, it was customary to build the mill on the top of some high hill and to cart all the material laboriously to the eminence. In the installations of the future the power will be brought to the material rather than the material to the power. From the ranges or mountain peaks, and also from smaller hills, will radiate electrical power-nerves branching out into network on the plains and supplying power for almost every purpose to which man applies physical force or electro-chemical energy.

High ridges and all kinds of elevated areas will be chosen in the future as sites for wind power and energy storage plants. In the 1700s, when grain from wheat fields needed to be ground into flour using wind power, it was common to build the mill on top of a high hill and transport all the materials up there with great effort. In future installations, power will be brought to the materials instead of transporting materials to the power. From mountain ranges and peaks, as well as smaller hills, electrical power lines will spread out like a network across the plains, providing power for nearly every use of physical force or electro-chemical energy.

The gas-engine during the twentieth century will vigorously dispute the field against electrical storage; and its success in the struggle—so far as regards its own particular province—will be [Pg 63] enhanced owing to the fact that, in some respects, it will be able to command the services of electricity as its handmaid. Gas-engines are already very largely used as the actuators of electric lighting machinery. But in the developments which are now foreshadowed by the advent of acetylene gas the relation will be reversed. In other words, the gas-engine will owe its supply of cheap fuel to the electric current derived at small expense from natural sources of power.

The gas engine in the twentieth century will strongly compete with electric storage; and its success in this area—at least within its own specific domain—will be [Pg 63] boosted by the fact that, in some ways, it will be able to use electricity as a supporting resource. Gas engines are already widely used to power electric lighting systems. However, with the rise of acetylene gas, this relationship will change. In other words, the gas engine will get its supply of inexpensive fuel from the electric current generated at low cost from natural energy sources.

Calcium carbide, by means of which acetylene gas is obtained as a product from water, becomes in this view stored power. The marvellously cheap "water-gas" which is made through a jet of steam impinging upon incandescent carbons or upon other suitable glowing hot materials will, no doubt, for a long time command the market after the date at which coal-gas for the generation of power has been partially superseded.

Calcium carbide, which produces acetylene gas from water, is seen as stored energy. The incredibly inexpensive "water-gas" created when steam hits glowing carbon or other hot materials will likely continue to dominate the market for a long time even after coal gas for power generation has been mostly replaced.

But it seems exceedingly probable that a compromise will ultimately be effected between the methods adopted for making water-gas and calcium carbide respectively, the electric current being employed to keep the carbons incandescent. When power is to be sold in concrete form it will be made up as calcium carbide, so that it can be conveyed to any [Pg 64] place where it is required without the assistance of either pipes or wires. But when the laying of the latter is practicable—as it will be in the majority of instances—the gas for an engine will be obtainable without the need for forcing lime to combine with carbon as in calcium carbide.

But it seems very likely that a compromise will eventually be reached between the methods used to produce water-gas and calcium carbide, with electric current used to keep the carbon glowing. When power is sold in a solid form, it will be made as calcium carbide, allowing it to be transported to any [Pg 64] location where it's needed without the help of pipes or wires. However, when laying down pipes or wires is feasible—as it will be in most cases—the gas for an engine can be obtained without having to force lime to combine with carbon like in calcium carbide.

Petroleum oil is estimated to supply power at just one-third the price of acetylene gas made with calcium carbide at a price of £20 per ton. This calculation was drawn up before the occurrence of the material rise in the price of "petrol" in the last year of the nineteenth century; while, concurrently, the price of calcium carbide was falling. A similar process will, on the average, be maintained throughout each decade; and, as larger plants, with cheaper natural sources of energy, are brought into requisition, the costs of power, as obtained from oil and from acetylene gas, will more and more closely approximate, until, in course of time, they will be about equal; after which, no doubt, the relative positions will be reversed, although not perhaps in the same ratio. Time is all on the side of the agent which depends for its cheapness of production on the utilisation of any natural source of power which is free of all cost save interest, wear and tear, and supervision.

Petroleum oil is estimated to provide power at only one-third the cost of acetylene gas made from calcium carbide, which is priced at £20 per ton. This estimate was made before the significant increase in "petrol" prices in the last year of the nineteenth century, while at the same time, the price of calcium carbide was dropping. A similar trend is expected to continue in each decade; as larger plants that use cheaper natural energy sources come into play, the costs of power from oil and acetylene gas will increasingly match each other until, eventually, they will be about equal. After that, it's likely that their relative positions will reverse, though maybe not at the same rate. Over time, the advantage will be with the energy source that relies on any natural power that is essentially free, apart from costs for interest, wear and tear, and supervision.

[Pg 65] Even the steam-engine itself is not exempt from the operation of the general law placing the growing advantage on the side of power that is obtainable gratis. One cubic inch of water converted into steam and at boiling point will raise a ton weight to the height of one foot; and the quantity of coal of good quality needed for the transformation of the water is very small. One pound of good coal will evaporate nine pounds of water, equal to about 250 cubic inches, this doing 250 foot-tons of work. But Niagara performs the same amount of work at infinitely less cost. However small any quantity may be, its ratio to nothing is infinity.

[Pg 65] Even the steam engine isn't immune to the general trend that favors the use of free power. One cubic inch of water turned into steam at boiling point can lift a ton by one foot, and the amount of high-quality coal required to make that happen is quite small. Just one pound of good coal can evaporate nine pounds of water, which is about 250 cubic inches, doing 250 foot-tons of work. But Niagara does the same amount of work at a much lower cost. No matter how small a quantity is, its proportion to nothing is infinity.

It has been the custom during the nineteenth century to institute comparisons between the marvellous economy of steam power and the expensive wastefulness of human muscular effort. For instance, the full day's work of an Eastern porter, specially trained to carry heavy weights, will generally amount to the removal of a load of from three to five hundred-weight for a distance of one mile; but such a labourer in the course of a long day has only expended as much power as would be stored up in about five ounces of coal.

It has been common in the nineteenth century to compare the amazing efficiency of steam power with the costly inefficiency of human physical labor. For example, a fully trained Eastern porter, skilled at carrying heavy loads, usually manages to transport between three to five hundred pounds over a distance of one mile in a full day’s work; however, during that long day, this worker only uses as much energy as would be contained in about five ounces of coal.

Still the fact remains that one of the greatest problems of the future is that which concerns [Pg 66] the reduction in the cost of power. Hundreds of millions of the human race pass lives of a kind of dull monotonous toil which develops only the muscular, at the expense of the higher, faculties of the body; they are almost entirely cut off from social intercourse with their fellow-men, and they sink prematurely into decrepitude simply by reason of the lack of a cheap and abundant supply of mechanical power, ready at hand wherever it is wanted. Scores of "enterprises of great pith and moment" in the industrial advancement of the world have to be abandoned by reason of the same lack. In mining, in agriculture, in transport and in manufacture the thing that is needful to convert the "human machine" into a more or less intelligent brainworker is cheaper power. All the technical education in the world will not avail to raise the labourer in the intellectual scale if his daily work be only such as a horse or an engine might perform.

Still, the fact remains that one of the biggest problems of the future is the need to reduce the cost of power. Hundreds of millions of people live lives of dull, monotonous toil that only develop their muscles, neglecting their higher abilities; they are almost completely cut off from social interaction with others and age prematurely due to a lack of affordable and abundant mechanical power available whenever it's needed. Many "business ventures of great significance" in the world's industrial progress have to be abandoned for the same reason. In mining, agriculture, transportation, and manufacturing, what’s essential to transform the "human machine" into a more or less intelligent worker is cheaper power. All the technical education in the world won’t help elevate the worker intellectually if their daily tasks are only those that a horse or a machine could perform.

The transmission of power through the medium of the electric current will naturally attain its first great development in the neighbourhoods of large waterfalls such as Niagara. When the manufacturers within a short radius of the source of power in each case have begun to fully reap the benefit due to cheap power, competition will assert itself in many different [Pg 67] ways. The values of real property will rise, and population will tend to become congested within the localities' served.

The transfer of power via electric current will naturally have its first major advancement near large waterfalls like Niagara. Once manufacturers close to the power source start to really benefit from the affordable energy, competition will emerge in various ways. Property values will increase, and the population will likely become densely packed in the areas being served. [Pg 67]

It will be found, however, that facilities for shipment will to a large extent perpetuate the advantage at present held by manufactories situated on ports and harbours; and this, of course, will apply with peculiar force to the cases of articles of considerable bulk. Where a very great deal of power is needed for the making of an article or material of comparatively small weight and bulk proportioned to its value—such for instance as calcium carbide or aluminium—the immediate vicinity of the source of natural power will offer superlative inducements. But an immense number of things lie between the domains of these two classes, and for the economical manufacture of these it is imperative that both cheap power and low wharfage rates should be obtainable.

It's happening

An increasingly intense demand must thus spring up for systems of long distance transmission, and very high voltage will be adopted as the means of diminishing the loss of power due to leakage from the cables. Similarly the "polyphase" system—which is eminently adapted to installations of the nature indicated—must demand increasing attention.

An increasing demand will thus arise for long-distance transmission systems, and high voltage will be used to reduce power loss from cable leakage. Likewise, the "polyphase" system—which is well-suited for the types of installations mentioned—will have to receive more attention.

Taking a concrete example, mention may be [Pg 68] made of the effects to be expected from the proposed scheme for diverting some of the headwaters of the Tay and its lakes from the eastern to the western shores of Scotland and establishing at Loch Leven—the western inlet, not the inland lake of that name—a seaport town devoted to manufacturing purposes requiring very cheap supplies of power. It is obvious that the owners of mills in and around Glasgow, and only forty or fifty miles distant, will make the most strenuous exertions to enable them to secure a similar advantage.

Taking a concrete example, we can look at the potential effects of the proposed plan to redirect some of the headwaters of the Tay and its lakes from the eastern to the western side of Scotland. This plan includes establishing a seaport town at Loch Leven—the western inlet, not the inland lake of that name—dedicated to manufacturing that requires very cheap energy supplies. It's clear that the owners of mills in and around Glasgow, which are only about forty or fifty miles away, will put in a lot of effort to gain a similar advantage.

It is already claimed that with the use of currents of high voltage for carrying the power, and "step-down transformers" converting these into a suitable medium for the driving of machinery, a fairly economical transmission can be ensured along a distance of 100 miles. It therefore seems plain that the natural forces derived from such sources as waterfalls can safely be reckoned upon as friends rather than as foes of the vested interests of all the great cities of the United Kingdom.

It’s already been stated that using high-voltage currents to carry power, along with "step-down transformers" that convert this power into a more manageable form for operating machinery, can provide a cost-effective transmission over a distance of 100 miles. It’s clear that natural forces from sources like waterfalls can be seen as allies instead of adversaries to the established interests of all the major cities in the United Kingdom.

The possibilities of long distance transmission are greatly enhanced by the very recent discovery that a cable carrying a current of high voltage can be most effectually insulated by encasing it in the midst of a tube filled with wet sawdust and kept at a low [Pg 69] temperature, preferably at the freezing point of water.

The possibilities for long-distance transmission have been significantly improved by the recent discovery that a cable carrying high-voltage current can be most effectively insulated by surrounding it with a tube filled with wet sawdust and kept at a low temperature, ideally at the freezing point of water. [Pg 69]

Wireless transmission of a small amount of power has been proved to be experimentally possible. In the rarefied atmosphere at a height of five or ten miles from the earth's surface, electric discharges of very high voltage are conveyed without any other conducting medium than that of the air. By sending up balloons, carrying suspended wires, the positions of despatch and of receipt can be so elevated that the resistance of the atmosphere can be almost indefinitely diminished. In this way small motors have been worked by discharges generated at considerable distances, and absolutely without the existence of any connection by metallic conductors. Possibilities of the exportation of power from suitable stations—such as the neighbourhoods of waterfalls—and its transmission for distances of hundreds or even thousands of miles have been spoken of in relation to the industrial prospects of the twentieth century.

Wireless transmission of small amounts of power has been shown to be possible through experiments. In the thin atmosphere at heights of five to ten miles above the earth's surface, electric discharges of very high voltage can travel without any medium other than air. By sending up balloons with suspended wires, the positions for sending and receiving can be so high that the resistance of the atmosphere is significantly reduced. This method has successfully operated small motors using discharges generated over considerable distances, completely without any metallic connections. There has been talk about the potential for exporting power from suitable locations—like near waterfalls—and transmitting it over distances of hundreds or even thousands of miles, especially in relation to the industrial opportunities of the twentieth century.

Comparing any such hypothetical system with that of sending power along good metallic conductors, there is at once apparent a very serious objection in the needless dispersion of energy throughout space in every direction. If a power generator by wireless transmission, [Pg 70] without any metallic connection, can work one motor at a distance of, say, 1,000 miles, then it can also operate millions of similar possible motors situated at the same distance; and by far the greater part of its electro-motive force must be wasted in upward dispersion.

Comparing any hypothetical system like this to sending power through good metal conductors, a major issue stands out: the unnecessary loss of energy radiating into space in every direction. If a power generator can wirelessly transmit energy to one motor up to 1,000 miles away without any metal connections, it could also power millions of similar motors at that same distance. However, a significant portion of its electrical energy would be wasted dispersing upwards.

The analogy of the wireless transmitter of intelligence may be misleading if applied to the question of power. The practicability of wireless telegraphy depends upon the marvellous susceptibility of the "coherer," which enables it to respond to an impulse almost infinitesimally small, certainly very much smaller than that despatched by the generator from the receiving station. From this it follows, as already stated, that the analogy of apparatus designed merely for the despatch of intelligence by signalling cannot safely be applied to the case of the transmission of energy.

The comparison of the wireless transmitter of information could be confusing when it comes to the issue of power. The effectiveness of wireless telegraphy relies on the amazing sensitivity of the "coherer," which allows it to react to a signal that's almost impossibly small, definitely much smaller than what the generator sends out from the receiving station. Because of this, as mentioned before, the analogy of devices created just for sending information through signals shouldn’t be used when discussing the transmission of energy.

Making all due allowances for the prospects of advance in minimising the resistance of the atmosphere, it must nevertheless be remembered that any wireless system will be called upon to compete with improved means of conveying the electric current along metallic circuits. Electrical science, moreover, is only at the commencement of its work in economising the cost of power-cables.

Making all necessary considerations for the potential to reduce atmospheric resistance, it's important to remember that any wireless system will have to compete with better methods of transmitting electric current through metal wires. Additionally, electrical science is just beginning its efforts in reducing the costs of power cables.

The invention by which one wire can be [Pg 71] used to convey the return current of two cables very much larger in sectional area is only one instance in point. The two major cables carry currents running in opposite directions, and as these currents are both caused to return along the third and smaller wire their electro-motive forces balance one another, with the result that the return wire needs only to carry a small difference-current. The return wire, in fact, is analogous to the Banking Clearing House, which deals with balances only, and which therefore can sometimes adjust business to the value of many millions with payments of only a few thousands. Later on it may fairly be expected that duplicate and quadruplicate telegraphy will find its counterpart in systems by which different series of electrical impulses of high voltage will run along a wire, the one alternating with the other and each series filling up the gaps left between the others.

The invention that allows one wire to carry the return current of two much larger cables is just one example. The two main cables carry currents flowing in opposite directions, and since these currents return through the third, smaller wire, their electro-motive forces balance each other out. As a result, the return wire only needs to handle a small difference current. This return wire is similar to a Banking Clearing House, which manages balances and can handle transactions worth millions with just a few thousand in payments. In the future, it’s reasonable to expect that systems for duplicate and quadruplicate telegraphy will emerge, allowing different series of high-voltage electrical impulses to travel along a single wire, alternating with each other, and filling the gaps left by the others.


CHAPTER IV.

ARTIFICIAL POWER.

The steam-turbine is the most clearly visible of the revolutionary agencies in motors using the artificial sources of power. In the first attempts to introduce the principle the false analogy of the water-turbine gave rise to much waste of inventive energy and of money; but the more recent and more distinctly successful types of machine have been constructed with a clear understanding that the windmill is the true precursor of the steam-turbine. It is clearly perceived that, although it may be convenient and even essential to reduce the arms to pigmy dimensions and to enclose them in a tube, still the general principle of the machine must resemble that of a number of wind motors all running on the same shaft.

The steam turbine is the most obvious example of revolutionary technology in motors powered by artificial energy sources. In the early efforts to implement this principle, a flawed comparison to water turbines led to a lot of wasted creativity and resources. However, more recent and successful machine designs have been built with a clear understanding that the windmill is the true ancestor of the steam turbine. It's clear that, while it may be practical and even necessary to shrink the components down and encase them in a tube, the overall principle of the machine should resemble a series of wind motors all operating on the same shaft.

It has been proved, moreover, that this multiplicity of minute wheels and arms has a very distinct advantage in that it renders possible the utilisation of the expansive power of steam. The first impact is small in area but intense in force, while those arms which [Pg 73] receive the expanded steam further on are larger in size as suited to making the best use of a weaker force distributed over a greater amount of space.

It has been shown, additionally, that this variety of small gears and levers has a clear advantage because it allows for the effective use of steam's expansive power. The initial impact is small in area but very strong, while the levers that [Pg 73] receive the expanded steam later on are larger, designed to take advantage of a weaker force spread over a larger area.

The enormous speed at which steam under heavy pressure rushes out of an orifice was not duly appreciated by the first experimenters in this direction. To obtain the best results in utilising the power from escaping steam there must be a certain definite proportion between the speed of the vapour and that of the vane or arm against which it strikes. In other words, the latter must not "smash" the jet, but must run along with it. In the case of the windmill the ratio has been stated approximately by the generalisation that the velocity of the tips of the sails is about two and a half times that of the wind. This refers to the old style of windmill as used for grinding corn.

The immense speed at which steam under high pressure exits an opening wasn't fully understood by the early experimenters in this field. To achieve the best results from harnessing the power of escaping steam, there needs to be a specific ratio between the speed of the vapor and that of the paddle or arm it hits. In simpler terms, the paddle shouldn't "smash" into the jet; it should move alongside it. For windmills, it's been observed that the speed of the sail tips is roughly two and a half times that of the wind. This observation pertains to the traditional type of windmill used for grinding grain.

The steam turbine must, therefore, be essentially a motor of very great initial speed; and the efforts of recent inventors have been wisely directed in the first instance to the object of applying it to those purposes for which machinery could be coupled up to the motor with little, if any, necessity for slowing down the motion through such appliances as belting, toothed wheels, or other forms of [Pg 74] intermediate gearing. The dynamo for electric lighting naturally first suggested itself; but even in this application it was found necessary to adopt a rate of speed considerably lower than that which the steam imparts to the turbine; and, unfortunately, it is exactly in the arrangement of the gear for the first slowing-down that the main difficulty comes in.

The steam turbine needs to be a motor that runs at very high initial speeds. Recent inventors have wisely focused on using it for applications where machinery can connect directly to the motor with little or no need to reduce speed using belts, gears, or other types of intermediate gearing. The use of a dynamo for electric lighting was a natural choice, but even then, it turned out to be necessary to operate at a speed much lower than what the steam turbine produces. Unfortunately, the biggest challenge is in the setup of the gear needed for this reduction in speed.

Nearly parallel is the case of the cream separator, to which the steam-turbine principle has been applied with a certain degree of success. By means of fine flexible steel shafts running in bearings swathed in oil it has been found possible to utilise the comparatively feeble force of a small steam jet operating at immense speed to produce one of much slower rate but enormously greater strength. Some success has been achieved also in using the principle not only for cream separators, which require a comparatively high velocity, but for other purposes connected with the rural and manufacturing industries.

Nearly parallel is the case of the cream separator, which has successfully utilized the steam-turbine principle to some extent. By using fine, flexible steel shafts that run in oil-soaked bearings, it's possible to harness the relatively weak force of a small steam jet operating at high speed to generate a much stronger force at a slower rate. There has also been some success in applying this principle not only to cream separators, which need a relatively high speed, but also for other uses related to rural and manufacturing industries.

An immense forward stride, however, was made when the idea was first conceived of a steam-turbine and a water-turbine being fixed on the same shaft and the latter being used for the propulsion of a vessel at sea. In this case it is obvious that, by a suitable adjustment of the pitch of screw adopted in both [Pg 75] cases, a nice mathematical agreement between the vapour power and the liquid application of that power can be ensured.

An enormous step forward was taken when the idea was first developed to connect a steam turbine and a water turbine on the same shaft, using the latter to drive a vessel at sea. In this situation, it’s clear that by properly adjusting the pitch of the screws used in both [Pg 75] cases, a precise mathematical alignment between the steam power and the water application of that power can be achieved.

All previous records of speed have been eclipsed by the turbine-driven steamers engined on this principle. Through the abolition of the principal causes of excessive vibration—which renders dangerous the enlargement of marine reciprocating engines beyond a certain size—the final limit of possible speed has been indefinitely extended. The comfort of the passenger, equally with the safety of the hull, demands the diminution of the vibration nuisance in modern steamships, and whether the first attempts to cater for the need by turbine-engines be fully successful or not, there is no doubt whatever that the fast mail packets of the future will be driven by steam-engines constructed on a system in which the turbine principle will form an important part.

All previous speed records have been surpassed by turbine-driven steamers powered by this principle. By eliminating the main causes of excessive vibration—which makes it unsafe to increase the size of marine reciprocating engines beyond a certain point—the potential for speed has been indefinitely expanded. The comfort of passengers, along with the safety of the hull, requires a reduction in vibration problems in modern steamships. Whether the initial attempts to address this need with turbine engines are fully successful or not, there’s no doubt that the fast mail ships of the future will be powered by steam engines designed using a system where the turbine principle plays a significant role.

Further applications will soon follow. It is clear that if the steam-turbine can be advantageously used for the driving of a vessel through the water, then, conversely, it can be similarly applied to the creation of a current of water or of any other suitable liquid. This liquid-current, again, is applicable to the driving of machinery at any rate that may be desired. In this view the slowing-down [Pg 76] process, which involves elaborate and delicate machinery when accomplished in the purely mechanical method, can be much more economically effected through the friction of fluid particles.

Further applications will follow soon. It's clear that if the steam turbine can be effectively used to propel a vessel through water, it can also be used to create a current of water or any other suitable liquid. This liquid current, in turn, can drive machinery at any desired rate. From this perspective, the slowing-down process, which requires complex and delicate machinery when done purely mechanically, can be achieved much more economically through the friction of fluid particles.

One method of achieving this object is an arrangement in which the escaping steam drives a turbine-shaft running through a long tube and passing into the water in a circular tank, in which, again, the shaft carries a spiral or turbine screw for propelling the water. The arrangement, it will be seen, is strictly analogous to that of the steam-turbine as used in marine propulsion, the shaft passing through the side of the tank just as it does through the stern of the vessel.

One way to achieve this goal is by setting up a system where escaping steam drives a turbine shaft that runs through a long tube and extends into the water in a circular tank. Inside the tank, the shaft has a spiral or turbine screw to move the water. This setup is very similar to how a steam turbine is used in boats, with the shaft going through the side of the tank just like it does through the back of the vessel.

One essential point, however, is that the line of the shaft must not pass through the centre of the circular tank, but must form the chord of an arc, so that when the water is driven against the side by the revolution of the screw it acts like a tangential jet. Practically the water is thus kept in motion just as it would be if a hose with a strong jet of water were inserted and caused to play at an obtuse angle against the inner side.

One important point, though, is that the line of the shaft shouldn't go through the center of the circular tank; instead, it should form the chord of an arc. This way, when the water is pushed against the side by the spinning screw, it behaves like a tangential jet. Essentially, the water is kept moving just like it would be if a hose with a strong jet of water were inserted and directed at an angle against the inner side.

Motion having been imparted to the fluid in the tank, a simple device such as a paddle-wheel immersed at its lower end, may be [Pg 77] adopted for taking up the power and passing it on to the machinery required to be actuated. By setting both the shaft carrying the vanes for the steam-turbine and the screw for the propulsion of the water at a downward inclination it becomes practicable to drive the fluid without requiring any hole in the tank; and in this case the latter may be shaped in annular form and pivoted so that it becomes a horizontal fly-wheel. Obstructing projections on the inside periphery of the annular tank assist the water to carry the latter along with it in its circular motion.

Once motion has been given to the fluid in the tank, a simple device like a paddle-wheel placed at the bottom can be used to capture the power and transfer it to the machinery that needs to be powered. By positioning both the shaft that holds the blades for the steam turbine and the screw for moving the water at a downward angle, it becomes possible to drive the fluid without needing any openings in the tank. In this case, the tank can be designed in a circular shape and mounted so that it functions as a horizontal flywheel. Protruding surfaces on the inside edges of the circular tank help the water move along with it in its circular flow.

For small steam motors, particularly for agricultural and domestic purposes, the turbine principle is destined to render services of the utmost importance. The prospect of its extremely economical construction depends largely upon the fact that, with the exception of two or three very small bearings carrying narrow shafts, it contains no parts demanding the same fine finish as does the cylinder of a reciprocating engine. It solves in a very simple manner the much-vexed problem of the rotary engine, upon which so much ingenuity has been fruitlessly exercised. The steam-turbine also has shown that, for taking advantage of the generation and the expansive power of steam, there is no absolute necessity for [Pg 78] including a steam-tight chamber with moving parts in the machine.

For small steam engines, especially for agricultural and home use, the turbine principle is set to provide extremely important benefits. Its potential for being very cost-effective largely comes from the fact that, except for a couple of very small bearings that support narrow shafts, it has no components requiring the same level of precision as the cylinder of a traditional engine. It offers a straightforward solution to the complicated issue of rotary engines, which have been the focus of much creative effort without success. The steam turbine has also demonstrated that to take full advantage of steam's generation and expanding power, there isn’t a strict need for a steam-tight chamber with moving parts in the machine.

For very small motors suitable for working fans and working other household appliances, the use of a jet of steam, applied directly to drive a small annular fly-wheel filled with mercury—without the intervention of any turbine—will no doubt prove handy. But in the economy of the future such appliances will take the place of electrical machinery only in exceptional situations.

For very small motors that can operate fans and other household appliances, using a jet of steam directly to drive a small ring-shaped flywheel filled with mercury—without any turbine in between—will definitely be useful. However, in the economy of the future, these devices will only replace electrical machinery in rare cases.

One promising use of the turbine or steam-jet—used to propel a fly-wheel filled with liquid as described—has for its object the supply of the electric light in country houses. In this case the fly-wheel is fitted, on its lower side, to act as the armature of a dynamo, and the magnets are placed horizontally around it.

One exciting application of the turbine or steam jet—used to drive a flywheel filled with liquid, as mentioned—aims to provide electric lighting in country houses. In this setup, the flywheel is attached to the bottom to function as the armature of a dynamo, with the magnets positioned horizontally around it.

The full effective power from a jet of steam is not communicated to a dynamo for electric lighting or other purposes unless there be a definite ratio between the speeds of the turbine and of the armature respectively. This may be conveniently provided for, with more precision and in a less elaborate way than that which has just been described, if the steam jet be made to drive a vertically pendant turbine, the lower extremity of which, carrying [Pg 79] very small horizontal paddles, must be inserted into the centre of a circular tank.

The full effective power from a steam jet isn’t transferred to a dynamo for electric lighting or other uses unless there’s a specific ratio between the speeds of the turbine and the armature. This can be easily managed with more accuracy and in a simpler way than described earlier if the steam jet drives a vertically hanging turbine. The lower end of this turbine, which has very small horizontal paddles, needs to be positioned in the center of a circular tank.

The principle upon which the reduction of speed necessary for the dynamo is then effected depends upon the fact that in a whirlpool the liquid near the centre runs nearly as fast as that on the outer periphery, and therefore—the circles being so very much smaller—the number of revolutions effected in a given time is much greater. Thus a steam jet turning a pendant turbine—dipping into the middle of the whirlpool and carrying paddles—at an enormously high speed may be made to impart motion to the water in a circular tank (or, if desired, to the tank itself) at a very much slower rate; the amount of the reduction, of course, depending mainly on the ratio between the diameter of the tank and the length of the small paddles at the centre setting the liquid in motion.

The principle behind reducing the speed needed for the dynamo relies on the fact that in a whirlpool, the liquid near the center moves almost as quickly as the liquid at the outer edge. Because the circles are much smaller in the middle, the number of rotations that happen in a given time is much higher. Therefore, a steam jet driving a hanging turbine—immersed in the center of the whirlpool and equipped with paddles—can rotate at an extremely high speed while transferring motion to the water in a circular tank (or, if preferred, to the tank itself) at a much slower rate. The degree of reduction mainly depends on the ratio between the tank's diameter and the length of the small paddles at the center that move the liquid.

For special purposes it is best to substitute a spherical for an ordinary circular tank and the size may be greatly diminished by using mercury instead of water. The sphere is complete, excepting for a small aperture at the top for the admission of the steel shaft of the steam-driven turbine. No matter how high may be the speed, the liquid cannot be thrown out from a spherical revolving receptacle constructed in this way. Moreover, the mercury [Pg 80] acts not only as a transmitter of the power from the turbine to the purpose for which it is wanted, but also as a governor. Whenever the speed becomes so great as to throw the liquid entirely into the sides of the sphere—so that the shaft and paddles are running free of contact with it in the middle—the machine slows down, and it cannot again attain full speed until the same conditions recur.

For specific needs, it’s best to replace a standard circular tank with a spherical one, and you can significantly reduce the size by using mercury instead of water. The sphere is fully enclosed, except for a small opening at the top for the steel shaft of the steam-driven turbine. Regardless of how fast it spins, the liquid cannot escape from a spherical rotating container built this way. Additionally, the mercury [Pg 80] not only transmits power from the turbine to its intended use but also acts as a governor. If the speed gets high enough to push the liquid entirely against the sides of the sphere—causing the shaft and paddles to run without contact with the liquid in the center—the machine slows down. It cannot reach full speed again until the same conditions happen once more.

The rate of speed which may be worked up to as a maximum is determined by the position of the paddle-wheel, which is adjustable and floats upon the liquid although controlled in its circular motion by the shaft which passes through a square aperture in it and also a sleeve extending upward from it. The duty of the latter is to economise steam by cutting off the jet as soon as, by its rapidity of motion, the paddle-wheel has thrown the mercury to the sides to such an extent as to sink to a certain level in the centre.

The maximum speed that can be achieved is determined by the position of the paddle wheel, which is adjustable and floats on the liquid, although its circular movement is controlled by a shaft that goes through a square opening in it and a sleeve that extends upward from it. The purpose of the sleeve is to save steam by cutting off the jet as soon as, due to its fast motion, the paddle wheel has pushed the mercury to the sides enough to lower it to a certain level in the center.

Cheap motors coupled with cheap dynamos will, in the twentieth century, go far towards lightening the labours of millions whose toil is at present far too much of a mere mechanical nature. The dynamo itself, however, requires to be greatly reduced in first cost. Particularly it is necessary that the expense involved in drawing the wire, insulating it, and winding [Pg 81] machines with it, should be diminished. This will no doubt be partly accomplished by the electrolytic producers of copper when once they get properly started on methods of depositing thin strips or wires of tough copper on to sheets of insulating material for wrapping round the magnets and other effective parts intended for dynamos. There is no fundamental reason which forbids that when electro deposition is resorted to for the recovery of a metal from its ore it should be straightway converted to the shape and to the purpose for which it is ultimately intended. This consideration has presented itself to the minds of some of the manufacturers of aluminium, who make many articles intended for household use electrolytically; and it must affect many other trades which are concerned in the output and in the working-up of metals readily susceptible of deposition—more particularly such as copper.

Affordable motors paired with low-cost dynamos will, in the twentieth century, significantly ease the burdens of millions whose work currently relies too much on mere mechanical tasks. However, the cost of dynamos needs to be reduced substantially. In particular, the expenses related to drawing the wire, insulating it, and winding [Pg 81] machines with it must be lowered. This will likely be partly achieved by electrolytic copper producers once they successfully implement methods for depositing thin strips or wires of strong copper onto sheets of insulating material used to wrap the magnets and other crucial components for dynamos. There is no fundamental reason preventing the immediate conversion of metal recovered from its ore through electro deposition into the shape and form intended for its final use. This idea has already occurred to some manufacturers of aluminum, who produce various household items electrolytically; and it will likely influence many other industries that deal with the output and processing of metals easily adaptable to deposition—especially copper.

The familiar aneroid barometer furnishes a hint for another convenient form of small steam-engine. In seeking to cheapen machinery of this class it is of the utmost importance that the necessity for boring out cylinders and for planing and other expensive work should be avoided. In the aneroid barometer a shallow circular box is fitted with a cover, [Pg 82] which is corrugated in concentric circles, and the pressure of the superincumbent air is caused to depress the centre of this cover through the device of partially exhausting the box of air and thus diminishing the internal resistance. To the slightly moving middle part of the cover is affixed a lever which actuates, after some intermediate action, the hand which moves on the dial to indicate, by its record of variations in the weight of the atmosphere, what the prospect of the weather may be.

The familiar aneroid barometer provides an idea for another useful type of small steam engine. When trying to reduce the cost of machinery in this category, it’s crucial to avoid the need for boring out cylinders and other expensive processes like planing. In the aneroid barometer, a shallow circular box has a cover that is shaped with concentric grooves, and the weight of the air above pushes down on the center of this cover by partially removing the air inside the box, reducing internal resistance. A lever is attached to the slightly moving center part of the cover, which, after some intermediate actions, operates the hand that moves on the dial to show, based on changes in atmospheric pressure, what the weather might be like.

In the aneroid form of the steam-engine the cylinder is immensely widened and flattened, and the broad circular lid, with its spiral corrugations, takes the place of the piston. The rod, which acts virtually as a piston-rod, is hollow, and it works into a bearing which permits the steam to escape when the extreme point of the stroke has been reached into a separate condensing chamber kept cool with water. The boiler itself, with corrugated top, may take the place of the cylinder.

In the aneroid version of the steam engine, the cylinder is significantly widened and flattened, and the large circular lid, with its spiral grooves, serves as the piston. The rod, which functions essentially as a piston rod, is hollow and connects to a bearing that allows the steam to escape into a separate cooling chamber filled with water when the stroke reaches its maximum. The boiler itself, with a wavy top, can replace the cylinder.

In some respects this little machine represents a retrograde movement, even from Watt's original engine with its separate condenser; but its extreme economy of first cost recommends it to poor producers. In the near future no country homestead will be without [Pg 83] its power installation of one kind or another, and there is room for many types of cheap motors.

In some ways, this little machine represents a step back, even from Watt's original engine with its separate condenser; however, its low initial cost makes it appealing to budget-conscious producers. Soon, no country home will be without its power installation of some sort, and there is space for various types of affordable motors.

A motor like the steam-turbine is evidently the forerunner of other engines designed to utilise the force of an emission jet of vapour or gas. There are very many processes in which gases generated by chemical combinations are permitted to escape without performing any services, not even that of giving up the energy which they may be made to store up when held in compression in a closed vessel.

A motor like the steam turbine is clearly the precursor to other engines designed to use the power of a jet of steam or gas. There are many processes where gases created by chemical reactions are allowed to escape without doing any work, not even releasing the energy they could store when compressed in a sealed container.

The reciprocating forms found suitable for steam and gas engines are hardly adaptable for experiments in the direction of economising this source of power, one fatal objection in the majority of cases being the corrosive effects of the gases generated upon the insides of cylinders and other working parts. As soon as the force of the emission jet can be applied as a factor in giving motive power, the fact that no close-fitting parts are required for the places upon which the line of force impinges will alter the conditions of the whole problem. In the centrifugal sand pump, as now largely used for raising silt from rivers and harbours, the serious corrosive action of the jet of sand and water upon the inside of the pump has been successfully overcome by [Pg 84] facing the metal with indiarubber; but nothing of the kind could have been done if the working of the apparatus had depended on the motion of close-fitting parts, as in the ordinary suction or lift pump.

The reciprocating mechanisms used in steam and gas engines aren't really suitable for experiments aimed at saving this power source. A major issue in most cases is the damaging effects of the gases produced on the insides of the cylinders and other moving parts. Once the force of the emission jet can be utilized to provide motion, the fact that no precisely fitting parts are needed in the areas where the force acts will change the entire nature of the problem. In the centrifugal sand pump, which is now widely used to remove silt from rivers and harbors, the serious corrosive damage from the jet of sand and water inside the pump has been effectively addressed by [Pg 84] lining the metal with indiarubber. However, nothing like this would have been possible if the operation of the equipment relied on the motion of closely fitting parts, as seen in a standard suction or lift pump.

As an instance of the class of work for which gaseous jets, for driving turbines or similar forms of motor, may perform useful services the case of farm-made superphosphate of lime may be cited. By subjecting bones to the action of sulphuric acid the farmer may manufacture his own phosphatic manures for the enrichment of his land. But the carbonic dioxide and other gases generated as the result of the operation are wasted. Therefore it at present pays better to carry the bones to the sulphuric acid than to reverse the procedure by conveying the acid to the farm, where the bones are a by-product.

As an example of the type of work that gaseous jets can effectively support for driving turbines or similar motors, the production of superphosphate of lime on farms can be mentioned. By treating bones with sulfuric acid, farmers can create their own phosphate fertilizers to enrich their soil. However, the carbon dioxide and other gases produced during this process go to waste. As a result, it is currently more economical to transport the bones to the sulfuric acid rather than to bring the acid to the farm, where the bones are seen as a by-product.

So bulky are the latter, however, that serious waste of labour is involved in transporting them for long distances. Calculations made out by the experts of various state agricultural stations show that, as a general rule, it is now cheaper for the farmer to buy his superphosphates ready made than to make them on his farm. The difference in some cases, however, is not great; and only a comparative trifle would be needed in order to [Pg 85] turn the balance. This may probably be found in the economic value of the service rendered by a turbine-engine or other device for utilising the expansive power of the gases which are driven from the constituents of the bones by the action of the sulphuric acid.

The latter are so bulky that it involves a significant waste of labor to transport them over long distances. Experts from various state agricultural stations have calculated that, as a general rule, it is now cheaper for farmers to buy their superphosphates ready-made than to produce them on their farms. However, in some cases, the difference isn't substantial; only a small amount would be needed to turn the balance. This could likely be found in the economic value of the service provided by a turbine engine or another device that utilizes the expanding power of the gases released from the bone components by the action of sulfuric acid.

For pumping water and other ordinary farm operations the chemical gas-engine will prove very handy; and the great point in its favour will be that instead of useless cinders the refuse from it will consist of the most valuable compost with which the farmer can dress the soil. Enamelled iron will be employed for the troughs in which the bones and acid will be mixed, and a cover similar to that placed over a "Papin's digester" will be clamped to the rim all round, the gases being liberated only in the form of a jet used for driving machinery.

For pumping water and handling everyday farm tasks, the chemical gas engine will be really useful; and the best part is that instead of creating useless ash, the waste produced will be the most valuable compost that farmers can use to enrich the soil. Enamel-coated iron will be used for the troughs where the bones and acid are mixed, and a cover like the one used on a "Papin's digester" will be tightly secured around the edges, allowing the gases to be released only in the form of a jet that powers machinery.

For very small motors, applicable specially to domestic purposes such as ventilation, there is one source of power which, in all places within the reticulation areas of waterworks, may be had practically for nothing. Probably when the owners of water-supply works realise that they have command of something which is of commercial value, although hitherto unnoticed, they will arrange to sell not only the water which they supply, [Pg 86] but also the power which can be generated by its escape when utilised and by the variations in the pressure from hour to hour and even from minute to minute.

For very small motors, especially for home use like ventilation, there's a power source available in all areas served by waterworks that can be accessed almost for free. Once the owners of water supply systems realize they have something valuable that they've overlooked, they'll likely start selling not just the water they provide, [Pg 86] but also the energy generated from its flow and the fluctuations in pressure that occur from hour to hour and even from minute to minute.

The latter, for such purposes as ventilation, for instance, will no doubt come to the front sooner than the intermittent power now wasted by the outflowing of water—a power which is comparatively too small an item in most cases to compensate for the outlay and trouble of arranging for the storage of energy. But in the case of the variation in the pressure, without any escape of water at all, no such disability appears. Experiments conducted in several of the larger cities of England with various types of water meters—which are really motors on a small scale—have proved the practicability of obtaining a source of constant power from what may be termed the ebb and the flow of pressure within the pipes of a water supply system.

The latter, for purposes like ventilation, will definitely take priority over the intermittent power currently wasted by flowing water—an energy source that is too small in most situations to justify the cost and effort of storing energy. However, in the case of pressure variation, without any water escaping, there doesn't seem to be any such limitation. Experiments carried out in several major cities in England with different types of water meters—which are essentially small motors—have demonstrated the feasibility of generating a consistent power source from what can be called the ebb and flow of pressure within the pipes of a water supply system.

At every hour of the day there is a marked variation in the quantity of water that is being drawn away by consumers, and consequently a rise and fall in the degree of pressure recorded by the meter. In an apparatus for converting the power derivable from this source to useful purposes something on a very small scale analogous to that which has already [Pg 87] been described in connection with utilising the rise and fall of a wave will be found serviceable. A small spur-wheel is gripped on two sides by two metal laths, with edges serrated like those of saws, and held against the wheel by gentle pressure. Every movement of the two saws—whether backwards or forwards—is then responded to by a continuous circular motion of the wheel, with the sole exception of those movements which may be too small in extent to include even as much as a single tooth of the wheel. On this account it is important that the teeth should be made as numerous as possible consistently with the amount of pressure which they may have to bear.

At every hour of the day, there's a noticeable change in the amount of water being used by consumers, leading to fluctuations in the pressure shown by the meter. In a device designed to convert the energy from this source into useful work, something on a very small scale similar to what has already been described regarding harnessing the rise and fall of a wave will be useful. A small spur wheel is held on both sides by two metal strips, with edges that are serrated like saws, pressed gently against the wheel. Any movement of the two saws—whether forward or backward—causes a continuous circular motion of the wheel, except for movements that are too small to engage even a single tooth of the wheel. For this reason, it's important that the teeth be as numerous as possible while still being able to withstand the pressure they may have to handle.

Resort may be had to the principle of the aneroid barometer in order to secure from the water within the pipe-system the energy by which these saw-like bands are driven up and down with reciprocal motion. A very shallow circular tank in the shape of a watch is in communication with the water in the pipes, and its top or covering is composed of a concentrically-corrugated sheet of finely tempered steel. At the centre of this is fixed the guide which pushes and pulls the saw-like laths. Every rise and fall in the pressure of the water now effects a movement of the spur-wheel, [Pg 88] and the latter may conveniently be connected with the strong spring of a clockwork attachment, so that the water pressure is really used for winding up a clockwork ventilating-fan.

Resort can be made to the principle of the aneroid barometer to harness the energy from the water in the pipe system that drives these saw-like bands up and down with a back-and-forth motion. A shallow circular tank shaped like a watch is connected to the water in the pipes, and its top is made of a concentrically corrugated sheet of finely tempered steel. In the center of this is the guide that pushes and pulls the saw-like laths. Every change in the water pressure causes the spur-wheel to move, [Pg 88] and this can be conveniently linked to the strong spring of a clockwork mechanism, allowing the water pressure to actually wind up a clockwork ventilating fan.

In the making of cheap steam and gas engines, as well as in machine work generally, rapid progress will be made when the possibilities of producing hard and smooth wearing surfaces without the need for cutting and filing rough-cast metal have been fully investigated. Many parts of machinery will be electro-deposited—like the small articles already mentioned—in aluminium or hard copper at the metallurgical works where ore is being treated for the recovery of metal, or even at the mines themselves.

In the production of affordable steam and gas engines, as well as in machining overall, significant advancements will occur once the potential for creating hard and smooth wear-resistant surfaces without having to cut or file rough-cast metal is thoroughly explored. Many machine parts will be electro-deposited—similar to the small items previously discussed—in aluminum or hard copper at the metallurgical plants where ore is processed for metal recovery, or even at the mines themselves.

Side by side with this movement there will be one for developing the system of stamping mild steel and then tempering it. At the same time also the behaviour of various metals and alloys, not only in the cold state but also at the critical point between melting and solidification, will be much more carefully studied so as to take advantage of every means whereby accurately shaped articles may be made and finished in the casting. It has been found, for example, that certain kinds of type metal, if placed under very heavy pressure [Pg 89] at the moment when passing from the liquid to the solid condition, not only take the exact form of the mould in which they are placed, but become extremely hard by comparison with the same alloy if permitted to solidify without pressure.

Alongside this movement, there will be one focused on developing a system for stamping mild steel and then tempering it. Simultaneously, the behavior of various metals and alloys will be studied more closely, not only in their cold state but also at the critical point between melting and solidification. This is to take advantage of every method for creating and finishing accurately shaped items during casting. For instance, it has been discovered that certain types of type metal, when subjected to very heavy pressure at the moment they transition from liquid to solid, not only take the exact shape of the mold they are placed in but also become significantly harder compared to the same alloy if allowed to solidify without pressure. [Pg 89]

The example of the cheap watch industry may be cited to convey an idea of the immensely important revolution which will take place in the production of both small and large prime-motors when all the possibilities of electrotyping, casting, and stamping the various wearing parts true to shape and size have been fully exploited. An accurate timekeeper is now practically within the reach of all; and in the twentieth century no one who requires a small prime motor to do the rough work about home or farm will be compelled to do without it by reason of poverty—unless, perhaps, he is absolutely destitute and a fit subject for public charity.

The example of the affordable watch industry illustrates the significant revolution that's about to happen in the production of both small and large engines when we fully take advantage of techniques like electrotyping, casting, and stamping to create various components accurately in shape and size. A reliable timepiece is now almost accessible to everyone; and in the twentieth century, no one needing a small engine for work around the house or farm will have to go without it due to financial struggles—unless, of course, they are completely impoverished and in need of public assistance.

Many domestic industries which were crushed out of existence during the early part of the nineteenth century will therefore be resuscitated. The dear steam-engine created the factory system and brought the operatives to live close together in long rows of unsightly dwellings, but the cheap engine, in conjunction with the motor driven by [Pg 90] transmitted electricity, will give to the working people comparative freedom again to live where they please, and to enjoy the legitimate pleasures both of town and of country.

Many domestic industries that were wiped out during the early part of the 1800s will be revived. The expensive steam engine created the factory system and forced workers to live close together in long rows of unattractive homes, but the affordable engine, along with the motor powered by [Pg 90] transmitted electricity, will give workers more freedom to choose where they want to live and enjoy the genuine pleasures of both city and countryside.


CHAPTER V.

ROAD AND RAIL.

The existing keen motor-car rivalry presents one of the most interesting and instructive mechanical problems which are left still unsolved by the close of the nineteenth century. The question to be determined is not so much whether road locomotion by means of mechanical power is practicable and useful, for, of course, that point has been settled long ago; indeed it would have been recognised as settled years before had it not been for the crass legislation of a quarter of a century since which deliberately drove the first steam-motors off the road in order to ensure the undisturbed supremacy of horse traffic. The real point at issue is whether a motor can be made which shall furnish power for purposes of road locomotion as cheaply and conveniently as is already done for stationary purposes.

The current intense competition in the automotive industry presents one of the most fascinating and enlightening mechanical challenges that remain unresolved by the end of the nineteenth century. The key question isn’t whether using mechanical power for road travel is feasible and beneficial, as that has long been established. In fact, it would have been recognized much sooner if it weren’t for the misguided laws from twenty-five years ago that intentionally forced early steam engines off the roads to protect horse-drawn transport's dominance. The real issue at stake is whether a motor can be developed that provides power for road travel as affordably and conveniently as it already does for stationary uses.

Horse traction, although extremely dear, possesses one qualification which until the present day has enabled it to outdistance its mechanical competitors upon ordinary roads. [Pg 92] This is its power of adapting itself, by special effort, to the exigencies caused by the varying nature of the road. Watch a team of horses pulling a waggon along an undulating highway, with level stretches of easy going and here and there a decline or a steep hill. There is a continual adjustment of the strain which each animal puts upon itself according to the character of the difficulties which must be surmounted, the effort varying from nothing at all—when going down a gentle decline—up to the almost desperate jerk with which the vehicle is taken over some stony part right on the brow of an eminence. The whip cracks and by threats and encouragements the driver induces each horse to put forth, for one brief moment, an effort which could not be sustained for many minutes save at the peril of utter exhaustion.

Horse-drawn vehicles, while quite costly, have one advantage that has allowed them to outperform their mechanical rivals on regular roads to this day. [Pg 92] This is their ability to adjust themselves, with some effort, to the demands posed by the changing nature of the road. Imagine a team of horses pulling a wagon along a bumpy highway, with flat stretches and occasional declines or steep hills. There’s a constant adjustment of the strain each horse exerts based on the challenges they face, shifting from nothing at all—when going down a gentle slope—up to the nearly desperate pull needed to haul the vehicle over a rocky patch at the top of a rise. The whip cracks, and with threats and encouragement, the driver motivates each horse to give a brief burst of effort that they couldn’t maintain for long without risking total exhaustion.

When the unit of nominal horse-power was fixed at 33,000 foot-pounds per minute the work contemplated in the arbitrary standard was supposed to be such as a horse could go on performing for several hours. It was, of course, well recognised that any good, upstanding horse, if urged to a special effort, could perform several times the indicated amount of work in a minute.

When the unit of nominal horsepower was set at 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, the work envisioned in this arbitrary standard was meant to reflect what a horse could do for several hours. It was, of course, widely acknowledged that any strong, healthy horse, if pushed to make a special effort, could produce several times the amount of work indicated in a minute.

Nevertheless the habit of reckoning steam-power [Pg 93] in terms of a unit drawn from the analogy of the horse undoubtedly tended for many years to obscure the essential difference between the natures of the two sources of power. Railroads were built with the object of rendering as uniform as possible the amount of power required to transport a given weight of goods or passengers over a specified distance; and consequently the application of the steam-engine to traffic conducted on the railway line was a success. Many inventors at once jumped to the conclusion that, by making some fixed allowance for the greater roughness of an ordinary road, they would be able to construct a steam-traction engine that would suit exactly for road traffic. In a rough and rudimentary way an attempt to provide for the special effort required at steep or stony places was made by the introduction of a kind of fly-wheel of extraordinary weight proportionate to the size of the engine; and the same object was aimed at by increasing the power of the engine to somewhere near the limit of the possible special requirements. The consequence was the evolution of an immensely ponderous and wasteful machine, which for some years only held its ground within the domain of the heavy work of roadmaking. As a means of road traction the steam-engine was for half a century almost [Pg 94] entirely discomfited and routed by horse-power, partly owing to this mechanical defect and partly, as we have seen, through legislative partisanship.

Nevertheless, the practice of measuring steam power [Pg 93] using a unit based on the horse analogy did a lot to obscure the key differences between the two power sources for many years. Railroads were built to make the power needed to move a certain weight of goods or passengers over a specific distance as consistent as possible, so the use of the steam engine for train traffic was successful. Many inventors quickly concluded that if they adjusted for the roughness of regular roads, they could create a steam-powered engine that would work perfectly for road traffic. In a basic way, they tried to account for the extra effort needed on steep or rocky terrain by adding a very heavy flywheel relative to the engine's size. They also aimed to increase the engine's power near the limit of what was feasible for those special needs. The result was the development of an incredibly heavy and inefficient machine, which for several years could only be used for the heavy tasks of road construction. For half a century as a means of road traction, the steam engine was almost entirely overshadowed and defeated by horse power, partly because of this mechanical flaw and partly due to legislative bias, as we have seen.

The explosive type of engine was next called into requisition to do battle against the living competitor of the engineer's handiwork. Petroleum and alcohol, when volatilised and mixed with air in due proportion, form explosive mixtures which are much more nearly instantaneous in their action than an elastic vapour like steam held under pressure in a boiler, and liberated to perform its work by comparatively slow expansion. The petroleum engine, as applied to the automobile, does its work in a series of jerks which provide for the unequal degrees of power required to cope with the unevenness of a road.

The explosive engine was then called into action to compete against the living rival of the engineer's creation. When petroleum and alcohol are vaporized and mixed with air in the right proportions, they create explosive mixtures that react much faster than steam, which is held under pressure in a boiler and released gradually to do its work through slower expansion. The petroleum engine, used in automobiles, operates in a series of bursts that adjust for the different amounts of power needed to handle bumpy roads.

As against this, however, there are certain grave defects, due mainly to the use of highly inflammable oils vapourised at high temperatures; and these have impressed a large proportion of engineers with a belief that, in the long run, either electricity or steam will win the day. Storage batteries are well adapted for meeting the exigencies of the road, just as they are for those of tramway traffic, because, as soon as an extra strain is to be met, there is always the resource of coupling up fresh [Pg 95] batteries held in reserve—a process which amounts to the same as yoking new horses to the vehicle in order to take it up a hill. In practice, however, it is found that the jerky vibratory motion of the gasoline automobile provides for this in a way almost as convenient, although not so pleasant.

As a counterpoint, though, there are serious flaws, primarily because of the use of highly flammable oils vaporized at high temperatures. This has led many engineers to believe that eventually, either electricity or steam will come out on top. Storage batteries are well suited to meet the demands of the road, just as they are for tramway traffic, because whenever there’s an extra load to handle, you can always connect additional batteries kept in reserve—similar to adding new horses to a wagon to help it up a hill. In practice, however, the uneven, bumpy motion of gasoline cars provides a solution that’s almost as convenient, though not as pleasant.

The chance of the steam-engine being largely adopted for automobile work and for road traffic generally depends principally on the prospects of inventing a form of cylinder—or its equivalent—which will enable the driver to couple up fresh effective working parts of his machinery at will, just as may be done with storage batteries. A new form of steam cylinder designed to provide for this need will outwardly resemble a long pipe—one being fixed on each lower side of the vehicle—but inwardly it will be divided into compartments each of which will have its own separate piston. Practically there will thus be a series of cylinders having one piston-rod running through them all, but each having its own piston.

The likelihood of the steam engine being widely used for cars and general road traffic mainly relies on the potential to invent a type of cylinder—or something similar—that allows the driver to easily connect new, effective working parts of their machinery, just like with storage batteries. A new type of steam cylinder created to meet this requirement will look like a long pipe on the outside—one installed on each lower side of the vehicle—but on the inside, it will be divided into compartments, each with its own separate piston. Essentially, there will be a series of cylinders with a single piston rod running through them all, but each cylinder will have its own piston.

Normally, this machine will run with an admission of steam to only one or two of the cylinders; but when extra work has to be done the other cylinders will be called into requisition by the opening of the steam valves [Pg 96] leading to them. Provision can be made for the automatic working of this adjustment by the introduction of a spring upon the piston-rod, so arranged that, as soon as the resistance reaches a certain point, a lever is actuated which opens the valves to admit steam to the reserve cylinders of the engine. On such occasions, of course, the consumption of steam must necessarily be greatly increased; but on the other hand the automatic system of the admission to each cylinder also results in a shutting off of the steam when little or no work is required. In fact, with a fully automatic action, regulating the consumption of steam exactly according to the amount of force necessary to drive the automobile, it would be possible to work even a single cylinder to much greater advantage than is done by the machines generally in use.

Usually, this machine operates with steam being admitted to only one or two of the cylinders; however, when more work needs to be done, the other cylinders can be activated by opening the steam valves [Pg 96] that lead to them. A spring can be added to the piston-rod to automate this adjustment. This spring is set up so that when the resistance hits a certain level, it triggers a lever that opens the valves to allow steam into the backup cylinders of the engine. Naturally, this means that steam consumption will significantly increase during these times; however, the automatic system for admitting steam to each cylinder also ensures that steam is cut off when little or no work is needed. In fact, with a fully automatic action that adjusts steam consumption based on the amount of power needed to drive the car, it would actually be possible to operate even a single cylinder much more efficiently than what is typically achieved with machines in use today.

So heavy are the storage batteries needed for electric traction of the road motor-car that practically it is not found convenient to carry enough of cells to last for more than a twenty-mile run. The batteries must then either be replaced, or a delay of some three hours must occur while they are being recharged. The idea of establishing charging stations at almost every conceivable terminus of a run is quite chimerical; and, even if hundreds of such [Pg 97] stations were provided for the convenience of the users of electric traction, the limitation imposed by being forced to follow the established routes would always give to the non-electric motor an advantage over its competitor.

The storage batteries needed for the electric traction of road motor vehicles are so heavy that it's generally not practical to carry enough cells for a run longer than twenty miles. The batteries then either need to be replaced, or there will be a delay of about three hours while they recharge. The idea of setting up charging stations at nearly every possible destination is pretty unrealistic; even if hundreds of these [Pg 97] stations were available for the convenience of electric traction users, the restriction of having to stick to established routes would always give the non-electric vehicle an advantage over its electric competitor.

The best hope for the storage battery on the automobile rests upon its convenience as a repository of reserve power in conjunction with such a prime motor as the steam-engine. A turbine worked by a jet of steam, as already described, and moving in a magnetic field to generate electricity for storage in a few cells, is a convenient form in which steam and electricity can be yoked together in order to secure a power of just the type suitable for driving an automobile. In the machine indicated the supply of the motive power is direct from the storage batteries, which can be coupled up in any required number according to the exigencies of the road. Automatic gear may be introduced by an adaptation of the principle already referred to.

The best hope for car batteries lies in their convenience as a backup power source when combined with a prime mover like a steam engine. A turbine powered by a jet of steam, as previously described, and operating in a magnetic field to generate electricity for storage in a few cells, is a practical way to combine steam and electricity to provide the type of power needed for driving a car. In the machine mentioned, the power supply comes directly from the storage batteries, which can be connected in any number needed based on the demands of the road. Automatic gearing could be implemented by adapting the principle already mentioned.

In a light road-motor for carrying one or two persons on holiday trips or business rounds, the quality of adaptability of the source of power to the sudden demands due to differences of level in the road is not so absolutely essential as it is in traction engines designed for the transport of goods over ordinary [Pg 98] roads. In the former class of work the waste of power involved in employing a motor of strength sufficient to climb hills—although the bulk of the distance to be travelled is along level roads—may not be at all so serious as to overbalance the many and manifest advantages of the automobile principle. At the same time, as has already been indicated, there is no doubt whatever that when proper automatic shut-off contrivances have been applied for economising mechanical energy in the passenger road-motor, an immense impetus will be given to its advancement.

In a lightweight vehicle designed to carry one or two people on holidays or business trips, the ability of the power source to quickly adapt to changes in road elevation isn’t as crucial as it is for traction engines meant to haul goods on regular roads. In the first case, the energy lost by using a motor powerful enough to climb hills—despite most of the journey being on flat roads—might not be significant enough to outweigh the many clear benefits of the car concept. However, as has already been pointed out, it’s clear that once effective automatic shut-off devices are implemented to save mechanical energy in passenger vehicles, it will greatly accelerate their progress. [Pg 98]

In the road traction-engine the need for what may be termed effort on the part of the mechanism is much greater, more especially as the competition against horse-traction is conducted on terms so much more nearly level. A team of strong draught-horses driven by one man on a well-loaded waggon is a far more economical installation of power than a two-horse buggy carrying one or two passengers.

In a road traction engine, the need for what can be called effort from the machine is much greater, especially since the competition with horse-drawn transport is much more balanced. A team of strong draft horses managed by one person on a heavily loaded wagon is a much more efficient use of power than a two-horse carriage carrying one or two passengers.

The asphalt and macadamised tracks which are now being laid down along the sides of roads for the convenience of cyclists, are the significant forerunners of an improvement destined to produce a revolution in road traffic during the twentieth century. When automobiles [Pg 99] have become very much more numerous, and local authorities find that the settlement of wealthy or comparatively well-to-do families in their neighbourhoods may depend very largely upon the question whether light road-motor traffic may be conveniently conducted to and from the nearest city, an immense impetus will be administered to the reasonable efforts made for catering for the demand for tracks for the accommodation of automobiles, both private and public.

The paved bike lanes being put in place along the roads for the convenience of cyclists are a key early step towards a major transformation in road traffic that will happen in the twentieth century. As cars become much more common, and local governments realize that attracting affluent or relatively well-off families to their areas largely depends on whether light car traffic can be easily managed to and from the nearest city, there will be a huge push to meet the demand for roadways that accommodate both private and public vehicles.

The tyranny of the railway station will then be to a large extent mitigated, and suburban or country residents will no longer be practically compelled to crowd up close to each station on their lines of railroad. Under existing conditions many of those who travel fifteen or twenty miles to business every day live just as close to one another, and with nearly as marked a lack of space for lawn and garden, as if they lived within the city. The bunchy nature of settlement promoted by railways must have excited the notice of any intelligent observer during the past twenty or thirty years—that is to say since the suburban railroad began to take its place as an important factor in determining the locating of population.

The dominance of the train station will be significantly reduced, and people living in the suburbs or rural areas won't feel forced to pack in tightly around each station on their train lines. Right now, many of those who commute fifteen or twenty miles to work every day live just as close to each other, and with almost the same lack of space for lawns and gardens, as if they were in the city. The crowded nature of settlement encouraged by railways must have caught the attention of any observant person over the past twenty or thirty years—that is, since suburban trains began playing a key role in deciding where people live.

To a very large extent the automobile will be rather a feeder to the railway than a rival [Pg 100] to it; and all sorts of by-roads and country lanes will be improved and adapted so as to admit of residents running into their stations by their own motor-cars and then completing their journeys by rail. But when this point has been reached, and when fairly smooth tracks adapted for automobile and cycling traffic have been laid down all over the country, a very interesting question will crop up having reference to the practicability of converting these tracks into highways combining the capabilities both of roads and of railways.

To a large extent, cars will actually serve more as a support to the railway than as competition against it. [Pg 100] Various backroads and country lanes will be improved and modified so that residents can drive their own cars to the stations and then finish their trips by train. Once this happens, and smooth tracks suitable for cars and bicycles have been established across the country, a very interesting question will arise about the feasibility of turning these tracks into roadways that combine the functions of both roads and railways.

In an ordinary railroad the functions of the iron or steel rails are twofold, first to carry the weight of the load, and second to guide the engine, carriage or truck in the right direction. Now the latter purpose—in the case of a rail-track never used for high speeds, especially in going round curves—might be served by the adoption of a very much lighter weight of rail, if only the carrying of the load could be otherwise provided for. In fact, if pneumatic-tyre wheels, running on a fairly smooth asphalt track, were employed to bear the weight of a vehicle, there would then be no need for more than one guide-rail, which might readily be fixed in the middle of the track; but this should preferably be made to resemble the rail of a tram rather than that of a railroad.

In a standard railroad, the steel or iron rails serve two main purposes: first, to support the weight of the load, and second, to guide the engine, carriage, or truck in the right direction. Now, the second purpose—in a rail track that isn't used for high speeds, especially when going around curves—could be fulfilled by using a much lighter rail, as long as the weight of the load was handled in another way. In fact, if pneumatic-tyre wheels were used on a relatively smooth asphalt track to carry the weight of a vehicle, then only one guide-rail would be necessary, which could easily be placed in the center of the track; however, this should ideally look more like a tram rail than a traditional railroad rail.

[Pg 101] "Every man his own engine-driver" will be a rule which will undoubtedly require some little social and mechanical adjustment to carry out within the limits of the public safety. But the automobile, even in its existing form, makes the task of completing this adjustment practically a certainty of the near future; and as soon as it is seen that motor tracks with guide lines render traffic safer than it is on ordinary roads, the main objections to the innovation will be rapidly overcome. The rule of the road for such guide-line tracks will probably be based very closely on that which at present exists for ordinary thoroughfares. On those roads where two tracks have been laid down each motor will be required to keep to the left, and when a traveller coming up behind is impatient at the slow rate of speed adopted by his precursor he will be compelled to make the necessary détour himself, passing into the middle of the thoroughfare and there outstripping the party in front, without the assistance of the guide-rail, and rejoining the track.

[Pg 101] "Everyone is their own driver" will be a principle that will certainly need some minor social and mechanical adjustments to implement while ensuring public safety. However, the automobile, even in its current state, makes achieving these adjustments practically inevitable in the near future; and as soon as it becomes clear that motor lanes with guide lines make traffic safer than it is on regular roads, the main objections to this change will quickly be addressed. The traffic rules for these guide-line lanes will likely mirror those that currently exist for ordinary roads. On those roads where two lanes have been established, each vehicle will be required to stay to the left, and if a driver behind feels frustrated by the slower pace of the vehicle in front, they will have to navigate around it, moving into the center of the road to pass the vehicle ahead without the help of the guide rail, before rejoining the lane.

To execute this movement, of course, the motor wheels for the guide-tracks must be mounted on entirely different principles from those adapted for railroad traffic. The broad and soft tyred wheels which bear upon the [Pg 102] asphalt track will be entrusted with the duty of carrying the machine without extraneous aid; but there will be two extra wheels, one in front and one at the rear, capable of being lifted at any time by means of a lever controlled by the driver. These guiding wheels will fit into the groove of the tram line in the centre, being made of a shape suitable for enabling the driver to pick up the groove quickly whenever he pleases. The carrying wheels of the vehicle in this system are enabled to pass over the guide-rail readily, because the latter does not stand up from the track like the line in a railroad.

To perform this movement, the motor wheels for the guide tracks need to be designed completely differently from those used for trains. The wide, soft tires that rest on the [Pg 102] asphalt track will be responsible for supporting the machine without any external help; however, there will be two additional wheels, one in the front and one in the back, that can be lifted at any time using a lever controlled by the driver. These guiding wheels will fit into the groove of the tram line in the center, shaped to allow the driver to easily pick up the groove whenever desired. The supporting wheels of the vehicle in this system can smoothly cross over the guide rail because the rail doesn’t rise above the track like it does on a railroad.

A simpler plan, particularly adapted for roads which are to have only a single guide-rail, is to place the rail at the off-side of the track, and to raise it a few inches from the ground. The wheels for the rail are attached to arms which can be raised and lifted off the rail by the driver operating a lever. Guiding irons, forming an inverted Y, are placed below the bearings of the wheels to facilitate the picking up of the rail, their effect being that, if the driver places his vehicle in approximately the position for engaging the side wheels with the rail and then goes slowly ahead, he will very quickly be drawn into the correct alignment. Of course the rails for this kind of [Pg 103] track can be very light and inexpensive in comparison with those required for railroads on which the whole weight of each vehicle, as well as the lateral strain caused by its guidance, must fall upon the rail itself.

A simpler plan, specifically designed for roads that only need a single guide-rail, is to place the rail on the opposite side of the track and raise it a few inches off the ground. The wheels for the rail are connected to arms that the driver can raise and lift off the rail using a lever. Below the wheels' bearings, guiding irons shaped like an inverted Y are positioned to help pick up the rail. This means that if the driver positions their vehicle close to the rail and then moves forward slowly, they will be quickly aligned correctly. Naturally, the rails for this type of [Pg 103] track can be much lighter and cheaper compared to those needed for railroads, where the entire weight of each vehicle and the lateral strain from guiding must be supported by the rail itself.

The asphalt track and its equivalent will be the means of bringing much nearer to fulfilment the dream of having "a railway to every man's door". Many such tracks will be equipped with electric cables as well as guiding-rails, so that cars with electric motors will be available for running on them, and the power will be supplied from a publicly-maintained station. Some difficulty may at first be experienced in adjusting the rates and modes of payment for the facilities thus offered; but a convenient precedent is present to hand in the class of enactment under which tramway companies are at present protected from having their permanent ways used by vehicles owned by other persons. Practically the possession of a vehicle having a flanged wheel and a gauge exactly the same as that of the tram lines in the vicinity may be taken to indicate an intention to use the lines. Similarly a certain relation between the positions of guiding wheels and those of the connections with cables may be held to furnish evidence of liability to contribute towards the maintenance of motor-tracks.

The asphalt track and its equivalent will help get us closer to the dream of having "a railway to every man's door." Many of these tracks will have electric cables and guiding rails, allowing cars with electric motors to run on them, with power supplied from a publicly-maintained station. There might be some initial challenges with setting rates and payment methods for the services offered; however, there is a helpful precedent in the laws that currently protect tramway companies from having their tracks used by vehicles owned by others. Essentially, if someone owns a vehicle with flanged wheels that matches the gauge of the local tram lines, it can be seen as an intention to use those lines. Likewise, a specific relationship between the positions of guiding wheels and the connections with cables can be considered evidence of the obligation to help maintain the motor tracks.

[Pg 104] Roads and railways will be much more closely inter-related in the future than they have been in the past. The competition of the automobile would in itself be practically sufficient to force the owners of railways into a more adaptive mood in regard to the true relations between the world's great highways. The way in which the course of evolution will work the problem out may be indicated thus:—First, the owners of automobiles will find it convenient in many instances to run by road to the nearest railway station which suits their purposes, leaving their machines in charge of the stationmaster and going on by train. In course of time the owners of "omnibus automobiles" will desire to secure the same advantage for their customers, and on this account the road cars will await the arrival and departure of every train just as horse vehicles do at present. The next step will be taken by the railway companies, or by the local authorities, when it becomes obvious that there is much more profit in motor traffic than there ever was in catering for the public by means of vehicles drawn by horses. Each important railway station will have its diverging lines of motor-traffic for the convenience of passengers, some of them owned and managed by the same authority as the railway line itself.

[Pg 104] In the future, roads and railways will be much more interconnected than they have been in the past. The competition from cars alone will likely push railway owners to adapt more to the reality of the major transportation routes. Here’s how this evolution might unfold: First, car owners will find it convenient to drive to the nearest train station that fits their needs, leaving their cars with the stationmaster while they continue their journey by train. Over time, the owners of "bus-like vehicles" will want to offer the same convenience for their customers, so road vehicles will wait for every train’s arrival and departure just like horse-drawn carriages do now. The next move will come from railway companies or local authorities when they realize that there’s far more profit in motor traffic than there ever was in using horse-drawn vehicles for public transport. Each major train station will have dedicated motor-traffic lanes to serve passengers’ needs, some of which will be owned and operated by the same authority as the railway itself.

[Pg 105] Rivalry will shortly enforce an improvement upon this system, because in the keen competition between railway lines those stations will attract the best parts of the trade at which the passengers are put to the smallest amount of inconvenience. The necessity for changing trains, with its attendant bustle of looking after luggage, perhaps during very inclement weather, always acts as a hindrance to the popularity of a line. When "motor-omnibuses" are running by road all the way into the city, setting people down almost at their doors and making wide circuits by road, the proprietors of these vehicles will make the most of their advantages in offering to travellers a cosy and comfortable retreat during the whole of their journey.

[Pg 105] Rivalry will soon push for improvements in this system because the fierce competition among railway lines will mean that stations attracting the most trade will be those that cause passengers the least inconvenience. The need to change trains, with all the hassle of managing luggage—especially in bad weather—always hinders the popularity of a line. With motor buses operating along the road directly into the city, dropping people off almost at their doorsteps and taking wide routes, the owners of these vehicles will fully capitalize on their advantages by providing travelers with a cozy and comfortable experience throughout their journey.

Road-motors, comfortably furnished, will therefore be mounted upon low railway trucks of special construction, designed to permit of their being run on and off the trucks from the level of the ground. The plan of mounting a road vehicle upon a truck suited to receive it has already been adopted for some purposes, notably for the removal of furniture and similar goods; and it is capable of immense extension. An express train will run through on the leading routes from which roads branch out in all directions, and as it approaches each [Pg 106] station it will uncouple the truck and "motor-omnibus" intended for that destination. The latter will be shunted on to a loopline. The road-motor will be set free from its truck and will then proceed on its journey by road.

Road vehicles, equipped with comfortable features, will be mounted on specially designed low railway trucks that allow them to be loaded and unloaded at ground level. This idea of placing a vehicle on a compatible truck has already been used for some purposes, especially for transporting furniture and similar items; and it has great potential for expansion. An express train will operate on key routes leading to roads that branch out in various directions. As the train nears each [Pg 106] station, it will detach the truck and "motor-omnibus" meant for that destination. The motor-omnibus will then be moved onto a side track. The road vehicle will be released from its truck and will continue its journey by road.

When a similar system has been fully adapted for the conveyance of goods by rail and road experiments will then be commenced, on a systematic basis, with the object of rendering possible the picking up of packages, and even of vehicles, without stopping the train. The most pressing problem which now awaits solution in the railway world is how to serve roadside stations by express trains. "Through" passengers demand a rapid service; while the roadside traffic goes largely to the line that offers the most frequent trains. In the violent strain and effort to combine these two desiderata the most successful means yet adopted have been those which rely upon the destruction of enormous quantities of costly engine-power by means of quick-acting brakes. The amount of power daily converted into the mischievous heat of friction by the brakes on some lines of railway would suffice to work the whole of the traffic several times over; but the sacrifice has been enforced by the public demand for a train that shall run fast and shall yet stop as frequently as possible.

When a similar system is fully adapted for transporting goods by rail and road, experiments will then start on a systematic basis aimed at making it possible to pick up packages, and even vehicles, without stopping the train. The most urgent issue waiting to be addressed in the railway industry is how to serve roadside stations with express trains. "Through" passengers want a quick service, while roadside traffic generally goes to the line that has the most frequent trains. In the intense push to combine these two needs, the most effective methods still rely on wasting huge amounts of expensive engine power through quick-acting brakes. The amount of power each day turned into unwanted heat from friction by brakes on certain railway lines could easily handle the entire traffic multiple times; however, this sacrifice has been driven by public demand for a train that runs fast while still stopping as often as possible.

[Pg 107] Progress in this direction has reached its limit. A brake that shall conserve, instead of destroying, the power of the train's inertia on pulling up at a station is urgently required; but the efforts towards supplying the want have not, so far, proved very successful. Each carriage or truck must be fitted with an air-pump so arranged that, on the application of the brake by the engine-driver, it shall drive back a corresponding amount of air to that which has been liberated from the reservoir, and the energy thus stored must be rendered available for re-starting the train. Trials in this direction have been made through the application of strong springs which are caused to engage upon the wheels when the brake is applied, and thus are wound up, but which may then be reversed in position, so that for the starting of the vehicle the rebound of the spring offers material assistance. It is obvious, however, that the use of compressed air harmonises better with the railway system than any plan depending upon springs. The potential elasticity in an air-reservoir of portable dimensions is enormously greater than that of any metallic spring which could conveniently be carried.

[Pg 107] Progress in this area has hit a wall. We urgently need a brake that can preserve, rather than waste, the train's inertia when stopping at a station; however, attempts to meet this need haven’t been very successful so far. Each carriage or truck needs to be equipped with an air pump designed so that when the driver applies the brake, it pushes back an equivalent amount of air that has been released from the reservoir, and this stored energy must be made available for restarting the train. Tests in this area have involved using strong springs that engage with the wheels when the brake is applied, winding them up, and then being able to reverse their position so that when starting the vehicle, the spring's rebound provides significant help. However, it's clear that using compressed air fits better with the railway system than any approach relying on springs. The potential elasticity in a portable air reservoir is vastly greater than that of any metal spring that could reasonably be carried.

In picking up and setting down mail-bags a system has been for some years in operation [Pg 108] on certain railway lines indicating in a small way the possibilities of the future in the direction of obviating the need for stopping trains at stations. The bag is hung on a sliding rod outside of the platform, and on a corresponding part of the van is affixed a strong net, which comes in contact with the bag and catches it while the train goes past at full speed. Dropping a bag is, of course, a simpler matter.

In handling mail bags, a system has been in use for several years [Pg 108] on certain train lines that shows in a small way what the future might hold for reducing the need to stop trains at stations. The bag is hung on a sliding rod outside the platform, and on a similar part of the goods van, a sturdy net is attached, which makes contact with the bag and catches it as the train passes by at full speed. Releasing a bag is, of course, much easier.

The occasionally urgent demand for the sending of parcels in a similar manner has set many inventive brains to work on the problem of extending the possibilities of this system, and there seems no reason to doubt that before long it will be practicable to load some classes of small, and not readily broken, articles into trucks or vans while trains are in motion.

The occasional urgent need to send packages in a similar way has inspired many creative minds to tackle the challenge of expanding this system's capabilities, and it seems likely that soon it will be possible to load certain types of small, durable items into trucks or vans while trains are moving.

The root idea from which such an invention will spring may be borrowed from the sliding rail and tobogganing devices already introduced in pleasure grounds for the amusement of those who enjoy trying every novel excitement. A light and very small truck may be caused to run down an incline and to throw itself into one of the trucks comprising a goods train. The method of timing the descent, of course, will only be definitely ascertained after careful calculation and experiments designed to determine what length of time must elapse between [Pg 109] the liberation of the small descending truck and the passing of the vehicle into which its contents are to be projected.

The basic concept for this invention can be taken from the sliding rail and toboggan devices that have already been set up in amusement parks for people who love trying out new thrills. A lightweight and very small carriage can be made to roll down an incline and launch itself into one of the trucks in a freight train. The timing for the descent will only be accurately determined after careful calculations and experiments that aim to figure out the exact amount of time that needs to pass between [Pg 109] the release of the small descending carriage and when it reaches the vehicle that will receive its contents.

Foot-bridges over railway lines at wayside stations will afford the first conveniences to serve as tentative appliances for the purpose indicated. From the overway of the bridge are built out two light frameworks carrying small tram-lines which are set at sharp declivities in the directions of the up and the down trains respectively, and which terminate at a point just high enough to clear the smoke-stack of the engine.

Footbridges over railway tracks at small stations will provide the initial conveniences as temporary solutions for this purpose. From the top of the bridge, two lightweight frames extend out, carrying small tram tracks that slope down sharply towards the incoming and outgoing trains, respectively, and they end at a height just enough to go over the engine's smokestack.

The small truck, into which the goods to be loaded are stowed with suitable packings to prevent undue concussion, is held at the top of its course by a catch, readily released by pressure on a lever from below. The guard's van is provided at its front end with a steel, upright rod carrying a cross-piece, which is easily elevated by the guard or his assistant in anticipation of passing any station where parcels are to be received by projection. At the rear of the van is an open receptacle communicating by a door or window with the van itself. At the instant when the steel cross-piece comes in contact with the lever of the catch, which holds the little truck in position on the elevated footbridge, the descent begins, [Pg 110] and by the time that the receptacle behind the van has come directly under the end of the sloping track the truck has reached the latter point and is brought to a sudden standstill by buffers at the termination of the miniature "toboggan". The ends of the little truck being left open, its contents are discharged into the receptacle behind the van, from which the guard or assistant in charge removes them into the vehicle itself. For catching the parcels thrown out from the van a much simpler set of apparatus is sufficient.

The small truck, where the goods to be loaded are packed securely to avoid any damage, is held at the top of its track by a catch that can be easily released by pressing a lever from below. The guard's van has a steel upright rod at its front end with a cross-piece that can be easily raised by the guard or their assistant when anticipating a station where parcels need to be received by projection. At the back of the van is an open container that connects with the van through a door or window. As soon as the steel cross-piece touches the lever of the catch holding the small truck in place on the elevated footbridge, it starts to descend, [Pg 110] and by the time the container behind the van is directly under the end of the sloping track, the truck has reached that point and comes to a sudden stop thanks to buffers at the end of the mini "toboggan." With the ends of the small truck open, its contents are released into the container behind the van, which the guard or assistant then moves into the vehicle itself. A much simpler set of equipment is enough for catching the parcels thrown out from the van.

On a larger scale, no doubt in course of time, a somewhat similar plan will be brought into operation for causing loaded trucks to run from elevated sidings and to join themselves on to trains in motion. One essential condition for the attainment of this object is that the rails of the siding should be set at such a steep declivity that, when the last van of the passing train has cleared the points and set the waiting truck in motion by liberating its catch, the rate of speed attained by the pursuing vehicle should be sufficiently high to enable it to catch the train by its own impetus.

On a larger scale, it’s likely that over time, a similar plan will be put into action to allow loaded trucks to roll down from elevated sidings and automatically connect to moving trains. One key requirement for achieving this is that the siding rails need to be sloped steeply enough so that when the last car of the passing train clears the switch and releases the catch on the waiting truck, the speed of the truck gains enough momentum to catch up to the train on its own.

It may be found more convenient on some lines to provide nearly level sidings and to impart the necessary momentum to the waiting truck, partly through the propelling agency [Pg 111] of compressed air. Any project for what will be described as "shooting a truck loaded with valuable goods after the retreating end of a train," in order to cause it to catch up with the moving vehicles, will no doubt give rise to alarm; and this feeling will be intensified when further proposals for projecting carriages full of passengers in a similar method come up for discussion. But these apprehensions will be met and answered in the light of the fact that in the earlier part of the nineteenth century critics of what was called "Stephenson's mad scheme" of making trains run twenty or even thirty miles an hour were gradually induced to calm their nerves sufficiently to try the new experience of a train journey!

It might be more convenient in some cases to have nearly level sidings and to give the waiting truck the necessary momentum, partly using compressed air as a propelling force. Any idea of "launching a truck loaded with valuable goods after the back of a train," so that it catches up with the moving cars, will likely cause alarm; and this anxiety will be heightened when similar proposals for launching passenger carriages come up for discussion. However, these concerns can be addressed by recalling that in the early nineteenth century, critics of what was referred to as "Stephenson's crazy idea" of having trains run at twenty or even thirty miles an hour were eventually persuaded to calm their nerves and try taking a train journey!

The wire-rope tramway has hitherto been used principally in connection with mines situated in very hilly localities. Trestles are erected at intervals upon which a strong steel rope is stretched and this carries the buckets or trucks slung on pulley-blocks, contrived so as to pass the supports without interference. A system of this kind can be worked electrically, the wire-rope being employed also for the conveyance of the current. But an inherent defect in the principle lies in the fact that the wire-rope dips deeply when the weight passes over it, and thus the progress from one support [Pg 112] to another resolves itself into a series of sharp descents, followed by equally sharp ascents up a corresponding incline. The usual way of working the traffic is to haul the freight by means of a rope wound round a windlass driven by a stationary engine at the end. The constantly varying strain on the cable proves how large is the amount of power that must be wasted in jerking the buckets up one incline to let them jolt down another when the point of support has been passed.

The wire-rope tramway has mainly been used for mines located in very hilly areas. Trestles are built at intervals to hold a strong steel rope, which carries buckets or trucks attached to pulley-blocks designed to pass the supports without interference. This system can be operated electrically, with the wire-rope also used to carry the electrical current. However, an inherent flaw in this design is that the wire-rope dips significantly when a weight moves over it, leading to a series of steep descents followed by equally steep ascents on the next incline. Typically, the freight is moved by pulling it with a rope wrapped around a windlass powered by a stationary engine at one end. The constantly changing strain on the cable shows how much power is wasted when the buckets are pulled up one slope, only to drop down another after passing the support. [Pg 112]

Hitherto the wire-rope tramway has been usually adopted merely as presenting the lesser of two evils. If the nature of the hills to be traversed be so precipitous that ruinous cuttings and bridges would be needed for the construction of an ordinary railway or tramway line, the idea of conveyance by wire suggests itself as being, at least, a temporary mode of getting over the difficulty. But a great extension of the principle of overhead haulage may be expected as soon as the dipping of the load has been obviated, and the portion of the moving line upon which it is situated has been made rigid. A strong but light steel framework, placed in the line of the drawing-cable, and of sufficient length to reach across two of the intervals between the [Pg 113] supports, may be drawn over enlarged pulleys and remain quite rigid all the time.

So far, the wire-rope tramway has mainly been chosen as the lesser of two evils. When the hills to be crossed are so steep that building standard railway or tramway lines would require expensive cuts and bridges, the idea of using a wire system seems like a practical, at least temporary, solution. However, we can expect a significant increase in the use of overhead hauling as soon as we eliminate the downward load and make the section of the moving line it’s on more stable. A strong yet lightweight steel framework, positioned along the drawing cable and long enough to span two gaps between the [Pg 113] supports, can be pulled over larger pulleys and remain stable all the time.

The weight-carrying wire-rope is thus dispensed with, and the installation acquires a new character, becoming, in point of fact, a moving bridge which is drawn across its supports and fits into the grooves in the wheels surmounting the latter. The carriage or truck may be constructed on the plan adopted for the building of the longest type of modern bogie carriages for ordinary railways, the tensile strength of steel rods being largely utilised for imparting rigidity. We now find that instead of a railway we have the idea of what may be more appropriately called a "wheelway". The primitive application of the same principle is to be seen in the devices used in dockyards and workshops for moving heavy weights along the ground by skidding them on rollers. Practically the main precaution observed in carrying out this operation is the taking care that no two rollers are put so far apart that the centre of gravity of the object to be conveyed shall have passed over one before the end has come in contact with the next just ahead of it.

The weight-bearing wire rope is no longer needed, and the installation takes on a new look, essentially becoming a moving bridge that is pulled across its supports and fits into the grooves of the wheels on top. The carriage or truck can be designed like the longest modern bogie carriages used on regular railways, utilizing the tensile strength of steel rods to add rigidity. Now, instead of a railway, we have what could be more accurately described as a "wheelway." The basic application of this same principle can be observed in the equipment used in docks and workshops for moving heavy loads along the ground by sliding them on rollers. The main precaution in performing this operation is to ensure that no two rollers are spaced so far apart that the center of gravity of the item being moved passes over one roller before the end of the item contacts the next roller ahead of it.

The "wheelway" itself will be economical in proportion as the length of the rigid carriage or truck which runs upon it is increased. [Pg 114] The carrying of cheap freight will be the special province of the apparatus, and it will therefore be an object to secure the form of truck which will give, with the least expense, the greatest degree of rigidity over the longest stretch of span from one support to another. Some modification of the tubular principle will probably supply the most promising form for the purpose. The hope of this will be greatly enhanced through the recent advances in the art of tube-constructing by which wrought-iron and tough steel tubes can be made quite seamless and jointless, being practically forged at one operation in the required tubular shape.

The "wheelway" will be cost-effective as the length of the rigid carriage or truck that runs on it increases. [Pg 114] The system will be particularly suited for transporting inexpensive freight, so it will be important to design a truck that offers the greatest rigidity at the lowest cost over the longest distance between supports. Some adaptation of the tubular principle will likely provide the most effective design for this purpose. This potential is significantly boosted by recent advancements in tube construction, allowing for the production of seamless and jointless wrought-iron and strong steel tubes, which can essentially be forged into the required tubular shape in a single operation.

For mining and other similar purposes, the long tubal "wheelway" trucks of this description can be drawn up an incline at the loading station so as to be partially "up-ended" in position for receiving the charges or loads of mineral or other freight. After this they can be despatched along the "wheelway" on the closing of the door at the loading end. In regard to the mode of application of the power in traction, the shorter-distance lines may serve their objects well enough by adopting the endless wire-rope system at present used on many mining properties.

For mining and similar activities, the long tubal "wheelway" trucks can be pulled up an incline at the loading station so they are partially "up-ended" and ready to receive loads of minerals or other cargo. Once loaded, they can be sent down the "wheelway" after the door at the loading end is closed. When it comes to how power is applied for traction, shorter-distance lines can work just fine by using the endless wire-rope system that's currently used in many mining operations.

But it is found in practice that for heavy freight this endless cable traction does not [Pg 115] suit over distances of more than about two miles. Mining men insist upon the caution that where this length of distance has to be exceeded in the haulage of ore from the mine over wire-rope tramways, there is need for two installations, the loaded trucks being passed along from one to the other by means of suitable appliances at the termini.

But in practice, it turns out that for heavy freight, this continuous cable traction doesn’t work well over distances longer than about two miles. Mining experts emphasize the importance of caution, stating that when this distance needs to be exceeded in transporting ore from the mine using wire-rope tramways, two installations are necessary. The loaded trucks are transferred from one to the other using appropriate equipment at the terminals.

Electric traction must, in the near future, displace such a cumbrous system, and the plan upon which it will be applied will probably depend upon the use of a steel cable along which the motor-truck must haul itself in its progress. This cable will be kept stationary, but gripped by the wheels and other appliances of the electric motors with which the long trucks are provided. Besides this there must also be the conducting cables for the conveyance of the electric current.

Electric traction will soon replace this cumbersome system, and the approach it will take will likely involve a steel cable that the motor-truck will use to pull itself along. This cable will stay in place but will be gripped by the wheels and other equipment of the electric motors attached to the long trucks. Additionally, there will need to be conducting cables to carry the electric current.

For cheap means of transport in sparsely-developed country, as well as in regions of an exceptionally hilly contour, the "wheelway" has a great future before it. Ultimately the system can be worked out so as to present an almost exact converse of the railway. The rails are fixed on the lower part of the elongated truck, one on each side; while the wheels, placed at intervals upon suitable supports, constitute the permanent way. The [Pg 116] amount of constructional work required for each mile of track under this plan is a mere fraction of that which is needed for the permanent way and rolling stock of a railway, the almost entire absence of earth-works being, of course, a most important source of economy.

For affordable transportation in underdeveloped countries and in areas with particularly hilly terrain, the "wheelway" has a promising future. Eventually, the system could be designed to be almost the exact opposite of a railway. The tracks are attached to the lower part of the elongated vehicle, one on each side, while the wheels, positioned at intervals on appropriate supports, form the permanent path. The [Pg 116] amount of construction work needed for each mile of track with this design is just a small fraction of what is required for the permanent path and rolling stock of a railway, with the nearly complete lack of earth-moving work being a significant source of savings.

Probably the development of transport on the principles indicated by the evolution of the ropeway or wire-rope tramway will take place primarily in connection with mining properties, and for general transport purposes in country of a nature which renders it unsuitable for railway construction. This applies not merely to hilly regions, but particularly to those long stretches of sandy country which impede the transport of traffic in many rich mining regions, and in patches separating good country from the seaboard. In the "wheelway" for land of this character the wheels need not be elevated more than a very few feet above the ground, just enough to keep them clear of the drift sand which in some places is fatal to the carrying out of any ordinary railway project.

The advancement of transport based on the concepts demonstrated by the ropeway or wire-rope tramway will likely occur mostly in relation to mining sites, and for general transport in areas where building a railway isn't feasible. This is true not only for hilly regions but especially for the long stretches of sandy terrain that hinder traffic flow in many resource-rich mining areas and the sections that connect good land to the coast. In the "wheelway" for this type of land, the wheels only need to be raised a few feet off the ground, just enough to avoid the drifting sand that can seriously disrupt any typical railway project.

The conception of a truck or other vehicle that shall practically carry its own rail-road has been an attractive one to some inventive minds. In sandy regions, and in other places where a railway track is difficult to maintain, [Pg 117] and where, at any rate, there would hardly be sufficient traffic to encourage expenditure in laying an iron road, a very great boon would be a kind of motor which would lay its own rails in front of its wheels and pick them up again as soon as they had passed.

The idea of a truck or other vehicle that can effectively carry its own railway has intrigued some inventive thinkers. In sandy areas and other places where it's tough to maintain a railway track, [Pg 117] and where there likely wouldn't be enough traffic to justify the cost of building a rail line, it would be a huge benefit to have a type of motor that could lay its own tracks in front of its wheels and pick them up again once it has passed.

A carriage of this kind was worked for some time on the Landes in France. The track was virtually a kind of endless band which ran round the four wheels, bearing a close resemblance to the ramp upon which the horse is made to tread in the "box" type of horse-gear. Several somewhat similar devices have been brought out, and a gradual approach seems to have been made towards a serviceable vehicle.

A carriage like this was used for a while on the Landes in France. The track was basically an endless loop that went around the four wheels, looking a lot like the ramp that horses walk on in "box" type horse gear. A few similar designs have been introduced, and it looks like we've gradually made progress toward a practical vehicle.

A large wheel offers less resistance to the traction of the weight upon it than a small one. The principal reason for this is that its outer periphery, being at any particular point comparatively straight, does not dip down into every hollow of the road, but strikes an average of the depressions and prominences which it meets. The pneumatic tyre accomplishes the same object, although in a different way, the weight being supported by an elastic surface which fits into the contour of the ground beneath it; and the downward pressure being balanced by the sum total of all the resistant forces offered by every part of the tyre which [Pg 118] touches the ground, whether resting on hollows or on prominences.

A large wheel has less resistance from the weight on it than a small one. The main reason for this is that its outer edge, at any given point, is relatively straight, so it doesn’t sink into every dip in the road but averages out the bumps and dips it encounters. The air-filled tire achieves this in a different way, as the weight is supported by a flexible surface that conforms to the shape of the ground beneath it; the downward pressure is balanced by all the opposing forces from every part of the tire that touches the ground, whether it’s resting in dips or on raised areas. [Pg 118]

Careful tests which have been made with pneumatic-tyred vehicles by means of various types of dynamometer have proved that, altogether apart from the question of comfort arising from absence of vibration, there is a very true and real saving of actual power in the driving of a vehicle on wheels fitted with inflated tubes, as compared with the quantity that is required to propel the same vehicle when resting on wheels having hard unyielding rims. So far as cycles and motor-cars are concerned, this is the best solution of the problem of averaging the inequalities of a road that has yet been presented; but when we come to consider the making of provision for goods traffic carried by traction engines along ordinary roadways, the difficulties which present themselves militating against the adoption of the pneumatic principle—at any rate so long as a cheap substitute for india-rubber is undiscovered—are practically insurmountable.

Careful tests conducted with vehicles that have pneumatic tires, using various types of dynamometers, have shown that, aside from the comfort gained from reduced vibration, there's a significant savings in power needed to drive a vehicle with inflated tubes compared to the amount required to move the same vehicle resting on wheels with rigid, hard rims. When it comes to bicycles and cars, this represents the best solution for smoothing out the bumps of a road that has been presented so far. However, when we consider the challenges of transporting goods using traction engines on regular roadways, the obstacles to adopting the pneumatic principle—at least until a cheap alternative to rubber is found—are nearly impossible to overcome.

Large cart wheels of the ordinary type are much more difficult to construct than small ones, besides being more liable to get out of order. The advantages of a large over a small wheel in reducing the amount of resistance offered by rough roads have long been recognised, [Pg 119] and the limit of height was soon attained. In looking for improvement in this direction, therefore, we must inquire what new types of wheel may be suggested, and whether an intermediate plan between the endless band, as already referred to, and the old-fashioned large wheel may not find a useful place.

Large cart wheels of the regular kind are much more difficult to make than smaller ones, and they're also more likely to break down. The benefits of a large wheel over a small one in reducing resistance on rough roads have been known for a long time, [Pg 119] and we quickly reached the maximum height. So, when looking for improvements in this area, we need to explore what new types of wheels could be proposed, and whether a middle ground between the continuous band, as already mentioned, and the old-style large wheel could be useful.

Let the wheel consist of a very small truck-wheel running on the inside of a large, rigid steel hoop. The latter must be supported, to keep it from falling to either side, by means of a steel semi-circular framework rising from the sides of the vehicle and carrying small wheels to prevent friction. We now have a kind of rail which conforms to the condition already mentioned, namely, that of being capable of being laid down in front of the wheel of the truck or vehicle, and of being picked up again when the weight has passed over any particular part. The hoop, in fact, constitutes a rolling railway, and the larger it can with convenience be made, the nearer is the approach which it presents to a straight railway track as regards the absence of resistance to the passing of a loaded truck-wheel over it.

Let the wheel be a small truck wheel running on the inside of a large, sturdy steel hoop. The hoop needs to be supported by a steel semi-circular framework rising from the sides of the vehicle, which carries small wheels to reduce friction. This setup creates a sort of rail that meets the previously mentioned condition of being placed in front of the truck or vehicle's wheel and being removed once the weight has passed over that section. The hoop essentially acts as a rolling railway, and the larger it can be made conveniently, the closer it resembles a straight railway track in terms of minimal resistance when a loaded truck wheel rolls over it.

The method of applying the rolling hoop, more particularly as regards the question whether two or four shall be used for a vehicle, [Pg 120] will depend upon the special work to be performed. Some vehicles, however, will have only two hoops, one on each side, but several small truck-wheels running on the inside of each. A vehicle of this pattern is not to be classed with a two-wheeled buggy, because it will maintain its equilibrium without being held in position by shafts or other similar means. So far as contact with the road is concerned it is two-wheeled; and yet, in its relation to the force of gravitation upon which its statical stability depends, it is a four or six-wheeler according to the number of the small truck-wheels with which it is fitted.

The way to use the rolling hoop, especially regarding whether to use two or four for a vehicle, [Pg 120] will depend on the specific task it needs to accomplish. Some vehicles will have only two hoops, one on each side, while several small truck wheels run on the inside of each. A vehicle like this shouldn’t be classified as a two-wheeled buggy because it can stay balanced without being secured by shafts or similar methods. As far as its contact with the road goes, it’s two-wheeled; however, in relation to the gravitational force that determines its stability, it functions as a four or six-wheeler depending on how many small truck wheels it has.

Traction engines carrying hoops twenty feet in height, or at any rate as high as may be found compatible with stability when referred to the available width on the road, will be capable of transporting goods at a cost much below that of horse traction. The limit of available height may be increased by the bringing of the two hoops closer to each other at the top than they are at the roadway, because the application of the principle does not demand that the hoops should stand absolutely erect.

Traction engines with hoops that are twenty feet high, or at least as high as they can be without compromising stability based on the available road width, will be able to move goods at a cost much lower than that of horse-drawn transport. The maximum height can be increased by bringing the two hoops closer together at the top than they are at the bottom, since the principle doesn’t require the hoops to be perfectly vertical.

Similar means will, no doubt, be tried for the achievement of a modified form of what has been dreamt of by cyclists under the name of a unicycle. This machine will resemble a [Pg 121] bicycle running on the inner rim of a hoop, and will probably attain to a higher speed for show purposes than the safety high-geared bicycle of the usual pattern. But it is in the development of goods traffic along ordinary roads that the hoop-rail principle will make its most noticeable progress. By its agency not only will the transport of goods along well-made roads become less costly and more expeditious, but localities in sparsely settled countries—such as those beyond the Missouri in America and the interior regions of South Africa, Australia and China—will become much more readily accessible.

Similar methods will undoubtedly be used to create a modified version of what cyclists have envisioned as a unicycle. This machine will look like a bicycle operating on the inner rim of a hoop and will likely reach higher speeds for demonstration purposes than the standard safety high-geared bicycle. However, the hoop-rail concept will truly shine in the advancement of goods transport on regular roads. Through this system, transporting goods on well-maintained roads will become cheaper and faster, and areas in sparsely populated regions—like those beyond the Missouri in America and the interior of South Africa, Australia, and China—will become much more accessible.

A traction-engine and automobile which can run across broad, almost trackless plains at the rate of fifteen miles an hour will bring within quick reach of civilisation many localities in which at present, for lack of such communication, rough men are apt to grow into semi-savages, while those who retain the instincts of civilisation look upon their exile as a living death. It will do more to enlighten the dark places of the earth than any other mechanical agency of the twentieth century.

A traction engine and car that can travel across vast, nearly open plains at fifteen miles per hour will make many areas more accessible to civilization, where right now, due to the lack of transportation, tough individuals tend to become semi-savages, while those who still have the instincts of civilization view their isolation as a living death. This will do more to illuminate the darker regions of the world than any other mechanical innovation of the twentieth century.


CHAPTER VI.

SHIPS.

The "cargo slave" and the "ocean greyhound" are already differentiated by marked characteristics, and in the twentieth century the divergence between the two types of vessels will become much accentuated. The object aimed at by the owners of cargo boats will be to secure the greatest possible economy of working, combined with a moderately good rate of speed, such as may ensure shippers against having to stand out of their capital locked up in the cargo for too long a period. Hence cheap power will become increasingly a desideratum, and the possible applications of natural sources of energy will be keenly scrutinised with a view to turning any feasible plan to advantage. The sailing ship, and the economic and constructive lines upon which it is built and worked, will be carefully overhauled with a view to finding how its deficiencies may be supplemented and its good points turned to account. One result of this renewed attention will be to confirm, for some little time, [Pg 123] the movement which showed itself during the past decade of the nineteenth century for an increase of sailing tonnage. Sooner or later, however, it will be recognised that sail power must be largely supplemented, even on the "sailer," if it is to hold its own against steam.

The "cargo slave" and the "ocean greyhound" are already identified by distinct features, and in the twentieth century, the differences between these two types of vessels will become even more pronounced. The goal of cargo boat owners will be to achieve the greatest possible operational efficiency, combined with a decent speed that allows shippers to avoid tying up their capital in the cargo for too long. As a result, inexpensive energy sources will be increasingly sought after, and the potential uses of natural energy sources will be thoroughly examined to find any practical options. The sailing ship, along with its economic and structural designs, will be carefully reviewed to determine how its shortcomings can be addressed and its strengths utilized. One outcome of this renewed focus will be to sustain for a while the trend that emerged during the last decade of the nineteenth century for increasing sailing tonnage. However, sooner or later, it will be acknowledged that sail power must be significantly supplemented, even on sailing ships, if they are to compete with steam.

For mails and passengers, on the other hand, steam must more and more decidedly assert its supremacy. Yet the mail-packet of the twentieth century will be very different from packets which have "made the running" towards the close of the nineteenth. She will carry little or no cargo excepting specie, and goods of exceptionally high value in proportion to their weight and bulk. Nearly all her below-deck capacity, indeed, will be filled with machinery and fuel. She will be in other respects more like a floating hotel than the old ideal of a ship, her cellars, so to speak, being crammed with coal and her upper stories fitted luxuriously for sitting and bed rooms and brilliant with the electric light. But in size she will not necessarily be any larger than the nineteenth century type of mail steamer. Indeed the probability is that, on the average, the twentieth century mail-packets will be smaller, being built for speed rather than for magnificence or carrying capacity.

For mail and passengers, steam must increasingly assert its dominance. However, the mail ship of the twentieth century will look very different from those that "made the running" towards the end of the nineteenth. It will carry little to no cargo apart from cash and goods that are exceptionally valuable for their weight and size. Almost all of its space below deck will be taken up by machinery and fuel. In other ways, it will resemble a floating hotel more than the traditional idea of a ship, with its lower levels filled with coal and its upper floors designed luxuriously for living and sleeping, illuminated by electric light. But it won't necessarily be larger than the nineteenth-century mail steamer. In fact, it's likely that, on average, twentieth-century mail ships will be smaller, built for speed rather than grandeur or cargo capacity.

The turbine-engine will be the main factor [Pg 124] in working the approaching revolution in mail steamer construction. The special reason for this will consist in the fact that only by its adoption can the conditions mentioned above be fulfilled. With the ordinary reciprocating type of marine steam machinery it would be impossible to place, in a steamer of moderate tonnage, engines of a size suitable to enable it to attain a very high rate of speed, because the strain and vibration of the gigantic steel arms, pulling and pushing the huge cranks to turn the shafting, would knock the hull to pieces in a very short time. For this very reason, in fact, the marine architect and engineer have hitherto urged, with considerable force of argument, that high speed and large tonnage must go concomitantly. Practically, only a big steamer, with the old type of marine-engine, could be a very fast one, and, for ocean traffic at any rate, a smaller vessel must be regarded as out of the running. Very large tonnage being thus made a prime necessity, it followed that the space provided must be utilised, and this need has tended to perpetuate the combination of mail and passenger traffic with cargo carrying.

The turbine engine will be the key factor [Pg 124] in driving the upcoming revolution in mail steamer design. The main reason for this is that only by using it can the previously mentioned conditions be met. With the regular reciprocating type of marine steam machinery, it would be impossible to install engines of a suitable size in a moderately sized steamer to achieve a very high speed, as the strain and vibration from the massive steel arms pushing and pulling the large cranks to turn the shaft would damage the hull in no time. For this reason, marine architects and engineers have strongly argued that high speed and large size must go hand in hand. Essentially, only a large steamer with the old type of marine engine could be very fast, and for ocean travel, a smaller vessel would not be considered competitive. With large tonnage being a crucial requirement, it followed that the available space had to be utilized, which has led to the continued combination of mail and passenger services with cargo transport.

The first step towards the revolution was taken many years ago when the screw propeller was substituted for the paddle-wheel. The [Pg 125] latter means of propulsion caused shock and vibration not only owing to the thrusts of the piston-rod from the steam-engine itself, but also from the impact of the paddles upon the water one after the other. A great increase in the smoothness of running was attained when the screw was invented—a propeller which was entirely sunk in the water and therefore exercised its force, not in shocks, but in gentle constant pressure upon the fluid around it. Such as the windmill is for wind and the turbine water-wheel for water was the screw propeller, although adapted, not as a generator, but as an application of power. Having made the work and stress continuous, the next thing to be accomplished was to effect a similar reform in the engines supplying the power. This is accomplished in the turbine steam-engine by causing the steam to play in strong jets continuously and steadily upon vanes which form virtually a number of small windmills. Thus, while the screw outside of the hull is applying the force continuously, the steam in the inside is driving the shafting with equal evenness and regularity.

The first step toward the revolution happened many years ago when the screw propeller replaced the paddle-wheel. The [Pg 125] paddle-wheel created shock and vibration not just from the pushes of the piston-rod from the steam engine itself, but also from the paddles hitting the water one after another. A significant improvement in smooth operation was achieved with the invention of the screw, a propeller that is fully submerged in water, allowing it to exert force through gentle, constant pressure on the surrounding fluid rather than in jolts. Just as a windmill harnesses wind and a turbine water-wheel harnesses water, the screw propeller was designed, not as a generator, but as a means to apply power. After making the work and stress continuous, the next step was to implement a similar improvement in the engines supplying the power. This was achieved in the turbine steam engine by having steam strike strong jets continuously and steadily on vanes that function like small windmills. So, while the screw propeller outside the hull applies force consistently, the steam inside drives the shafts smoothly and regularly.

The steam turbine does not appear to have by any means reached finality in its form, such questions as the angle of impact which the jet should make with the surface of the vane, and [Pg 126] the size of the orifice through which the steam should be ejected, being still debatable points. But on one matter there is hardly any room for doubt, and that is that the best way to secure the benefit of the expansive power of steam is to permit it to escape from a pipe having a long series of orifices and to impinge upon a correspondingly numerous series of vanes, or, perhaps, upon a number of vanes arranged so that each one is long enough to receive the impact of many jets.

The steam turbine definitely hasn't settled into its final design yet; questions like the angle at which the jet should hit the surface of the vane and the size of the opening for steam to escape are still up for debate. However, one thing is pretty clear: the best way to harness the expansive power of steam is to let it flow out of a pipe with a lot of openings and hit a corresponding number of vanes, or maybe just a few vanes that are long enough to catch the impact of multiple jets. [Pg 126]

Hitherto the steam supply-pipe emitting the jet has been placed outside of the circle of the wheel; but the future form seems likely to be one in which the axis of the wheel is itself the pipe which contains the steam, but which permits it to escape outwards to the circumference of the wheel. The latter is, in this form of turbine, made in the shape of a paddle-wheel of very small circumference but considerable length, the paddles being set at such an inclination as to obtain the greatest possible rotative impulse from the outward-rushing steam. The pipe must be turned true at intervals to enable it to carry a number of diminutive wheels upon which these long vanes are mounted, and a very strong connection must be made between these wheels and the shaft of the screw. Inasmuch as a high speed [Pg 127] of rotation is to be maintained, the pitch of the screw in the water is set so as to offer but slight opposition to the water at each turn. The immense speed attained is thus due, not to the actual power with which the water is struck by the screw at each revolution, but to the extraordinary rapidity with which the shaft rotates.

So far, the steam supply pipe that shoots out steam has been positioned outside the circle of the wheel. However, it looks like future designs will have the wheel's axis as the pipe that holds the steam, allowing it to flow outward to the edge of the wheel. In this type of turbine, the wheel is designed like a paddle wheel that has a small circumference but a significant length, with paddles angled to maximize the rotational force from the steam rushing outwards. The pipe needs to be aligned properly at intervals to support several small wheels that hold these long paddles, and a very strong connection must be established between these wheels and the shaft of the screw. Since a high speed of rotation needs to be maintained, the pitch of the screw in the water is designed to create minimal resistance at each turn. The incredible speed achieved comes from the rapid rotation of the shaft rather than the actual force with which the water is hit by the screw with each revolution.

The twin screw, with which the best and safest of modern steam-ships are all fitted, will soon develop into what may be called "the twin stern". Each screw requires a separate set of engines and the main object of the duplication is to lessen the risk of the vessel being left helpless in case of accident to one or other. The advisability of placing each engine and shafting in a separate water-tight compartment has therefore been seen. At this point there presents itself for consideration the advisability of separating the two screws by as wide a distance as may be convenient and placing the rudder between the two. Practically, therefore, it will be found best to build out a steel framework from each side of the stern for holding the bearings of each screw in connection with the twin water-tight compartments holding the shafting; and thus will be evolved what will practically represent a twin, or double, stern.

The twin screw, which is fitted on the best and safest modern steamships, will soon evolve into what might be called "the twin stern." Each screw needs its own set of engines, and the main purpose of this duplication is to reduce the risk of the vessel being left powerless in case one of them fails. It's clear that placing each engine and shaft in a separate watertight compartment is a smart move. At this point, we should consider separating the two screws by as much distance as is practical and placing the rudder in between them. Therefore, it will be most effective to build a steel framework extending from each side of the stern to support the bearings of each screw, while connecting them to the twin watertight compartments containing the shafting; thus, we will effectively create what can be seen as a twin, or double, stern.

[Pg 128] In the case of the turbine steamer several of the forms of screw which were first proposed when that type of propeller was invented will again come up for examination, notably the Archimedean screw, wound round a fairly long piece of shafting. The larger the circular area of this screw is the less will be the risk of "smashing" the water, or of losing hold of it entirely in rough weather. With twin screws of the large Archimedean type the propelling apparatus of a turbine steamer will—if the screws are left open—be objected to on the ground of liability to foul or to get broken in crowded fairways. Hence will arise a demand for accommodation for each screw in a tube forming part of the lower hull itself and open at the side for the taking in of water, while the stern part is equally free. In this way there is evolved a kind of compromise between the two principles of marine propulsion, by a screw and by a jet of water thrown to sternward. The water-jet is already very successfully employed for the propulsion of steam lifeboats in which, owing to the danger of fouling the life-saving and other tackle, an open screw is objectionable.

[Pg 128] In the case of the turbine steamer, several of the types of screws that were first suggested when this type of propeller was invented will be reconsidered, especially the Archimedean screw, which is wrapped around a pretty long shaft. The larger the circular area of this screw, the less likely it is to "smash" the water or to lose grip on it entirely in rough seas. With twin screws of the large Archimedean type, the propulsion system of a turbine steamer will—if the screws are exposed—be criticized for being prone to get tangled or broken in busy waterways. This will create a need for each screw to be accommodated in a tube that is part of the lower hull and open at the side to take in water while the back part remains clear. This way, a sort of compromise develops between the two methods of marine propulsion: by a screw and by a jet of water thrown backward. The water jet is already being used very effectively for propelling steam lifeboats where, due to the risk of tangling with the life-saving equipment and other gear, an open screw is not ideal.

The final extermination of the sailing ship is popularly expected as one of the first developments of the twentieth century in maritime [Pg 129] traffic. Steam, which for oversea trade made its entrance cautiously in the shape of a mere auxiliary to sail power, had taken up a much more self-assertive position long before the close of the nineteenth century, and has driven its former ally almost out of the field in large departments of the shipping industry. Yet a curious and interesting counter movement is now taking place on the Pacific Coast of America, as well as among the South Sea Islands and in several other places where coal is exceptionally dear. Trading schooners and barques used in these localities are often fitted with petroleum oil engines, which enable them to continue their voyages during calm or adverse weather. For the owners of the smaller grade of craft it was a material point in recommendation of this movement that, having no boiler or other parts liable to explode and wreck the vessel, an oil engine may be worked without the attendance of a certificated engineer. As soon as this legal question was settled a considerable impetus was given to the extension of the auxiliary principle for sailing ships. The shorter duration of the average voyage made by the sail-and-oil power vessels had the effect of enabling shippers to realise upon the goods carried more speedily than would have been possible [Pg 130] under the old system of sail-power alone.

The complete disappearance of sailing ships is widely anticipated as one of the first changes in maritime traffic in the twentieth century. Steam, which cautiously entered overseas trade as a simple support to sail power, had established a much more dominant role long before the end of the nineteenth century, nearly pushing its former partner out of many areas of the shipping industry. However, an interesting counter-trend is now happening on the Pacific Coast of America, as well as in the South Sea Islands and a few other places where coal is particularly expensive. Trading schooners and barks in these areas are frequently equipped with petroleum oil engines, allowing them to continue their journeys during calm or unfavorable weather. For owners of smaller vessels, a key benefit of this shift is that, without a boiler or other parts that could explode and potentially destroy the ship, an oil engine can be operated without the need for a licensed engineer. Once this legal issue was resolved, there was a significant boost to the expansion of the auxiliary principle for sailing ships. The shorter duration of average voyages made by the sail-and-oil powered vessels allowed shippers to realize profits from the goods transported more quickly than would have been possible under the old system of relying solely on sail power.

It is already found that in the matter of economy of working, including interest on cost of vessel and cargo, these oil-auxiliary ships can well hold their own against the ordinary steam cargo slave. Up to a certain point, the policy of relying upon steam entirely, unaided by any natural cheap source of power, has been successful; but the rate of speed which the best types of marine engines impart to this kind of vessel is strictly limited, owing to considerations of the enormous increase of fuel-consumption after passing the twelve or fourteen mile grade. For ocean greyhounds carrying mails and passengers the prime necessity of high speed has to a large extent obliterated any such separating line between waste and economy. It is, however, a mistake to imagine that the cargo steamer of the future will be in any sense a replica of the mail-boat of to-day. The opposition presented by the water to the passage of a vessel increases by leaps and bounds as soon as the rate now adopted by the cargo steamer is passed, and thus presents a natural barrier beyond which it will not be economically feasible to advance much further.

It has already been found that when it comes to working efficiency, including interest on the cost of the ship and cargo, these oil-powered auxiliary ships can compete well against regular steam cargo ships. Up to a certain point, relying entirely on steam, without any natural cheap source of power, has been successful; however, the speed that the best marine engines provide to this type of vessel is limited, due to the significant increase in fuel consumption once the twelve or fourteen-mile mark is exceeded. For high-speed ocean liners carrying mail and passengers, the primary necessity of speed has largely blurred the line between waste and efficiency. However, it's a mistake to think that future cargo ships will be anything like today’s mail boats. The resistance from the water against a vessel increases dramatically once the current speed of cargo ships is surpassed, creating a natural barrier beyond which it's not economically viable to go much faster.

If then we recognise clearly that steam cargo [Pg 131] transport across the ocean can only be done remuneratively at about one half the speed now attained by the very fastest mail-boats, we shall soon perceive also that the chances of the auxiliary principle, if wisely introduced, placing the "sailer" on a level with the cargo ship worked by steam alone, are by no means hopeless. A type of vessel which can be trusted to make some ten or twelve knots regularly, and which can also take advantage of the power of the wind whenever it is in its favour, must inevitably possess a material advantage over the steam cargo slave in economy of working, while making almost the same average passages as its rival.

If we clearly understand that steam cargo [Pg 131] transport across the ocean can only be profitable at about half the speed achieved by the fastest mail boats, we’ll soon realize that the potential of the auxiliary principle, if introduced wisely, could put the "sailer" on par with the cargo ship powered solely by steam. A type of vessel that can consistently reach about ten or twelve knots and can also utilize the wind whenever it’s favorable will definitely have a significant advantage over the steam cargo ship in terms of operating costs, while making nearly the same average trips as its competitor.

Then, also, the sailless cargo slave, in the keen competition that must arise, will be fitted with such appliances as human ingenuity can in future devise, or has already tentatively suggested, for invoking the aid of natural powers in order to supplement the steam-engine and effect a saving in fuel. One of these will no doubt be the adoption of the heavy pendulum with universal joint movement in a special hold of the vessel so connected with an air-compression plant that its movements may continually work to fill a reservoir of air at a high pressure. The marine engines of the ordinary type will then be adapted [Pg 132] to work with compressed air, and the true steam-engine itself will be used for operating an air compressor on the system adopted in mines.

Then, in the intense competition that will emerge, the cargo ship without sails will be equipped with whatever innovations people can come up with in the future, or what has already been proposed, to harness natural forces to support the steam engine and save fuel. One of these methods will likely be using a heavy pendulum with a universal joint movement, placed in a specific part of the ship, connected to an air-compression system that will keep filling a high-pressure air reservoir. The standard marine engines will then be modified to run on compressed air, while the traditional steam engine will be used to operate an air compressor, similar to the systems used in mines.

The pendulum apparatus, of course, is really a device for enabling a vessel to derive, from the power of the waves which raise her and roll her, an impetus in the desired direction of her course. Inventions of this description will at first be only very cautiously and partially adopted, because if there is one thing which the master mariner fears more than another it is any heavy moving weight in the hold, the motions of which during a storm might possibly become uncontrollable. When steam was first applied to the propulsion of ships the common argument against it was that any machine worked by steam and having sufficient power to propel a vessel would also develop so much vibration as to pull her to pieces—to say nothing of the risk of having her hull shattered at one fell blow by the explosion of the steam boiler. These undoubtedly are dangers which have to be provided against, and probably the occasional lack of care has been the cause of many an unreported loss, as well as of recorded mishaps from broken tail-shafts and screws, or from explosions far out at sea.

The pendulum apparatus is basically a tool that helps a ship harness the power of the waves that lift and roll it, giving it momentum in the intended direction of travel. Inventions like this will initially be adopted very cautiously and only in part, because if there's one thing that experienced captains fear, it's any heavy moving weight in the hold that could become uncontrollable during a storm. When steam was first used to power ships, the common argument against it was that any steam-powered machine strong enough to move a vessel would also create so much vibration that it could tear the ship apart—not to mention the risk of the hull being shattered by a sudden explosion of the steam boiler. These are definitely dangers that need to be mitigated, and the occasional negligence has likely led to many unreported losses, as well as documented incidents from broken tail shafts and propellers or from explosions far at sea.

The air-compressing pendulum will no doubt [Pg 133] be constructed on such a principle that, whenever there is any danger of its weighty movements getting beyond control or doing any damage to the vessel, its force can be instantly removed at will, and the apparatus can be brought to a standstill by the application of friction brakes and other means. The weight may be made up of comparatively small pigs of iron, which, through the opening of a valve controlled from the deck by the stem of the pendulum, can be let fall out into the hold separately. The swinging framework would then be steadied by the friction brake gripping it gradually.

The air-compressing pendulum will definitely be designed so that if its heavy movements start to get out of control or cause any damage to the vessel, its force can be quickly removed at will, and the apparatus can be stopped using friction brakes and other methods. The weight can consist of relatively small iron blocks, which can be released into the hold one at a time through a valve controlled from the deck by the pendulum's stem. The swinging frame would then be stabilized by the friction brake gradually tightening around it.

Auxiliary machinery of this class can only be made use of, as already indicated, to a certain strictly limited extent, owing to the tendency of any swinging weight in a vessel to aggravate the rolling during heavy weather. Some tentative schemes have been put forward for tapping a source of wave-power by providing a vessel with flippers, resting upon the surface of the water outside her hull, and actuating suitable internal machinery with the object of propulsion. A certain amount of encouragement has been given by the performances of small craft fitted in this way; but it is objected by sea-faring men that the behaviour of a large vessel, encumbered with outlying parts moving [Pg 134] on the waves independently, would probably be very erratic during a storm and would endanger the safety of the ship itself. No kind of floating appendage, moving independently of the vessel, could exercise any actual force by the uprising of a wave in lifting it without being to some extent sunk in the water; and, accordingly, when the waves were running high there would be imminent risk that heavy volumes of water would get upon the apparatus and prevent the ship from righting itself. Many of the schemes that have been put forward, by patent and otherwise, for the automatic propulsion of ships have entirely failed to commend themselves by reason of their taking little or no account of the behaviour of a ship, fitted with the proposed inventions, during very rough and trying weather.

Auxiliary machinery of this type can only be used to a very limited extent, as previously mentioned, because any swinging weight in a vessel tends to worsen rolling in rough seas. Some experimental ideas have been suggested for harnessing wave power by equipping a vessel with flippers that rest on the water's surface outside its hull, using them to power internal machinery for propulsion. There has been some positive feedback from the performance of smaller crafts equipped this way; however, sailors argue that a large vessel with external parts moving independently would likely behave unpredictably in a storm, risking the ship’s safety. No type of floating attachment that moves separately from the vessel could generate real force from wave movements without being partially submerged; thus, in high waves, there’s a significant chance that large amounts of water would hit the apparatus and prevent the ship from stabilizing. Many proposed designs for automating ship propulsion have largely been deemed unsuitable because they overlook how a ship equipped with such inventions would perform in very rough conditions.

The swinging pendulum, with connected apparatus for compressing air or, perhaps, for generating the electric current, seems to be the most controllable and therefore the safest of the various types of apparatus which are applicable to the utilisation of wave-power for propulsion. In the construction of connecting machinery by which the movements of a pendulum hanging up from a universal joint may be transmitted to wheels or pistons operating compressors or dynamos, it is necessary [Pg 135] to transform all motions passing in any direction through the spherical or bowl-shaped figure traced out by the end of the pendulum in the course of its swinging. This may be effected, for instance, in the case of a pendulum working air-compressors, by mounting the latter on bearings like those of the gun-carriage in a field piece, and having two of them operating one at right angles to the other. The rods which carry the air-compressing pistons are then connected to the end of the pendulum by universal joints, and the parts which have been likened to a gun-carriage are fixed on pivots so as to be able to move horizontally. Air-tight joints in the pipes which lead to the compressed air reservoir are placed in the bearings of this mounting. We thus have the same kind of provision for taking advantage of a universal movement in space as is made in solid geometry by three co-ordinates at right angles to one another for measuring such movements.

The swinging pendulum, equipped with machinery for compressing air or possibly generating electric current, appears to be the most controllable and therefore the safest option among the various types of devices that can harness wave power for propulsion. When building connecting machinery that transmits the movements of a pendulum suspended from a universal joint to wheels or pistons that drive compressors or dynamos, it is essential to convert all motions moving in any direction through the spherical or bowl-shaped path traced by the end of the pendulum during its swing. This can be achieved, for instance, with a pendulum operating air compressors by mounting them on bearings similar to those of a gun carriage on a field cannon, with two compressors positioned at right angles to each other. The rods that hold the air-compressing pistons are then attached to the end of the pendulum via universal joints, and the components related to the gun carriage are mounted on pivots to allow for horizontal movement. Air-tight seals in the pipes leading to the compressed air reservoir are fitted into the bearings of this setup. This arrangement provides the same means of taking advantage of universal movement in space as solid geometry does using three coordinates at right angles to measure such movements.

Another plan is to have the pendulum swung in a strong steel collar and carrying at its end three or more air-compressing pumps set radially, with the piston-rods thrust outwards by a strong spring on each, but with the ends perfectly free from any attachment, yet fitted with a buffer or wheel. As the pendulum [Pg 136] moves it throws one or more of these piston-rod ends into contact with the inner surface of the ring, driving it into the compressing pump. At the top of the pendulum there is a double or universal pipe-joint through which the air under pressure is driven to the reservoir, and by which the apparatus is also hung. This is the simplest, and in some respects the best, form.

Another plan is to have a pendulum swing in a strong steel collar, with three or more air-compressing pumps mounted radially at its end. Each pump has piston rods pushed outwards by a strong spring, but the ends are completely free of any attachments and equipped with a buffer or wheel. As the pendulum moves, it pushes one or more of these piston rod ends against the inner surface of the ring, forcing it into the compressing pump. At the top of the pendulum, there's a double or universal pipe-joint that directs the pressurized air to the reservoir and also supports the apparatus. This design is the simplest and, in some ways, the best form.

A very simple type of the wave-power motor as applied to marine propulsion is based upon an idea taken from the mode of progression adopted by certain crustaceans, namely the possession of the means for drawing in and rapidly ejecting the water. Something of the kind will most probably be made available for assisting in the propulsion of sailing ships which are not furnished with machinery of any type suitable for the driving of a screw. A very much simplified form of the pendulous or rocking weight is applicable in this case. A considerable amount of cargo is stowed away in an inner hull, taking the shape of what is practically a gigantic cradle rocking upon semicircular lines of railway iron laid down in the form of ribs of the ship. To the sides of these large rocking receptacles are connected the rods carrying, at their other ends, the pistons of large force-pumps which draw the [Pg 137] water in at one stroke and force it out to sternwards, below the water line, at the other.

A very simple type of wave-powered motor used for marine propulsion is inspired by how certain crustaceans move, specifically their ability to pull in and quickly expel water. This concept will likely be utilized to help propel sailing ships that lack proper machinery for driving a screw. A much simpler version of a pendulum or rocking weight can be used in this scenario. A significant amount of cargo is stored in an inner hull, which essentially functions as a giant cradle rocking on semi-circular tracks made of railway iron laid out like the ribs of the ship. Connected to the sides of these large rocking containers are rods that extend to pistons of powerful pumps, which take in water sharply at one end and force it out towards the stern beneath the waterline at the other.

In this arrangement it is obvious that only the "roll" and not the "pitch" of the vessel can be utilised as the medium through which to obtain propulsive force. But it is probable that fully eighty per cent. of the movements of a vessel during a long voyage—as indicated, say, by the direction and sweep of its mast-heads—consists of the roll. Each ton of goods moved through a vertical distance of one foot in relation to the hull of the vessel, has in it the potentiality of developing, when fourteen or fifteen movements occur per minute, about one horse-power. A cradle containing 200 tons, as may therefore be imagined, can be made to afford very material assistance in helping forward a sailing ship during a calm. In such tantalising weather the "ground-swell" of the ocean usually carries past a becalmed vessel more waste energy than is ever utilised by its sails in the briskest and most propitious breeze.

In this setup, it’s clear that only the "roll" and not the "pitch" of the vessel can be used as the means to generate propulsive force. However, it’s likely that around eighty percent of a vessel's movements during a long trip—as shown by the direction and movement of its mastheads—consists of rolling. For each ton of goods moved vertically one foot relative to the hull of the vessel, there’s the potential to generate about one horse-power when there are fourteen or fifteen movements per minute. A cradle holding 200 tons, therefore, could significantly help propel a sailing ship during a calm. In such frustrating weather, the "ground-swell" of the ocean often carries more wasted energy past a becalmed vessel than what can ever be harnessed by its sails in the strongest and most favorable breeze.

For sailing ships especially, the rocking form of wave-motor as an aid to propulsion will be recommended on account of the fact that when the weather is "on the beam" both of its sources of power can be kept in full use. The sailing vessel must tack at any rate with [Pg 138] the object of giving its sail power a fair chance, and thus, when it has not a fair "wind that follows free," it must always seek to get the breeze on its beam, and therefore usually the swell must be taking it sideways. It would be only on rare occasions that a sailing vessel, if furnished with rocking gear for using the wave-power, would be set to go nearer to the teeth of the wind than she would under present conditions of using sail-power alone. The advantage of the wave-power, however, would be seen mainly during the calm and desultory weather which has virtually been the means of forcing sail-power to resign its supremacy to steam.

For sailing ships, the rocking motion of wave power as a way to help with propulsion is suggested because when the wind is coming from the side, both sources of power can be fully utilized. A sailing vessel needs to tack to optimize its sail power, so when it doesn’t have steady wind, it should always aim to catch the breeze from the side, which usually means the swell is hitting it sideways. It would only be in rare cases that a sailing vessel equipped with rocking gear for harnessing wave power would be able to sail closer into the wind than it currently can with just sail power. The real benefit of wave power would be most obvious during calm and scattered weather, which has largely contributed to sailing losing its dominance to steam power.

For checking the rocker in time of heavy weather special appliances are necessary, which, of course, must be easily operated from the deck. Wedge-shaped pieces with rails attached may be driven down by screws upon the sides of the vessel, thus having the effect of gradually narrowing the amplitude of the rocking motion until a condition of stability with reference to the hull has been attained.

For checking the rocking in bad weather, special tools are needed that should be easy to operate from the deck. Wedge-shaped pieces with rails attached can be screwed down on the sides of the vessel, which will gradually reduce the extent of the rocking motion until the hull reaches a stable condition.

In the building of steel ships, as well as in the construction of bridges and other erections demanding much metal-work, great economies will be introduced by the reduction of the extent to which riveting will be required [Pg 139] when the full advantages of hydraulic pressure are realised. The plates used in the building of a ship will be "knocked-up" at one side and split at the other, with the object of making joints without the need for using rivets to anything like the extent at present required. In putting the plates thus treated together to form the hull of a vessel the swollen side of one plate is inserted between the split portions of another and the latter parts are then clamped down by heavy hydraulic pressure. This important principle is already successfully used in the making of rivetless pipes, and its application to ships and bridges will be only a matter of a comparatively short time. Through this reform, and the further use of steel ribs for imparting strength and thus admitting of the employment of thinner steel plates for the actual shell, the cost of shipbuilding will be very greatly reduced.

In the construction of steel ships, as well as bridges and other structures that require a lot of metalwork, significant cost savings will occur as the need for riveting decreases once the full benefits of hydraulic pressure are realized. The plates used in shipbuilding will be "knocked up" on one side and split on the other to create joints without needing rivets to the same extent that we do now. When assembling these treated plates to form the hull of a vessel, the swollen side of one plate is inserted between the split parts of another, which are then clamped down using heavy hydraulic pressure. This important principle is already successfully applied in making rivetless pipes, and its use in ships and bridges will be just a matter of time. With this improvement, along with the increased use of steel ribs for added strength, we can use thinner steel plates for the actual shell, which will significantly lower the cost of shipbuilding.

Hoisting and unloading machines will play a notable part in minimising the expenses of handling goods carried by sea. The grain-elevator system is only the beginning of a revolution in this department which will not end until the loading and unloading of ships have become almost entirely the work of machinery. The principle of the miner's tool known as the "sand-auger" may prove itself [Pg 140] very useful in this connection. From a heap of tailings the miner can select a sample, by boring into it with a thin tube, inside of which revolves a shaft carrying at its end a flat steel rotary scoop. The auger, after working its way to the bottom of the heap, is raised, and, of course, it contains a fair sample of the sand at all depths from the top downwards. On a somewhat similar principle the unloading of ships laden with grain, ore, coal, and all other articles which can be handled in bulk and divided, will be carried out by machines which, by rotary action, will work their way down to the bottom of the hull and will then be elevated by powerful lifting cranes. For other classes of goods permanent packages and tramways will be provided in each ship, and trucks will be supplied at the wharf.

Hoisting and unloading machines will play a significant role in reducing the costs of handling goods transported by sea. The grain-elevator system is just the start of a transformation in this area that won’t stop until loading and unloading ships are mostly done by machines. The principle behind the miner's tool called the "sand-auger" might be very useful here. A miner can take a sample from a pile of tailings by boring into it with a thin tube that has a shaft inside, which has a flat steel scoop at the end that rotates. The auger, after reaching the bottom of the pile, is lifted, bringing up a representative sample of the sand from all depths. Similarly, the unloading of ships carrying grain, ore, coal, and other bulk goods will be done by machines that will use rotary action to reach the bottom of the hull and then be raised by powerful cranes. For other types of goods, each ship will have permanent packages and tramways, and trucks will be available at the dock.

For coastal passages across shallow but rough water like the English Channel, the services of moving bridges will be called into requisition. One of these has been at work at St. Malo on the French coast opposite Jersey, and another was more recently constructed on the English coast near Brighton. For the longer and much more important service across the Channel submarine rails may be laid down as in the cases mentioned, but in addition it will be necessary to provide for static stability by [Pg 141] fixing a flounder-shaped pontoon just below the greatest depth of wave disturbance, and just sufficient in buoyancy to take the great bulk of the weight of the structure off the rails. In this way passengers may be conveyed across straits like the Channel without the discomforts of sea-sickness.

For coastal trips across shallow but choppy waters like the English Channel, moving bridges will be used. One of these has been operating at St. Malo on the French coast opposite Jersey, and another was recently built on the English coast near Brighton. For the longer and more significant route across the Channel, underwater rails can be laid down as mentioned earlier, but it will also be necessary to ensure stability by [Pg 141] securing a flounder-shaped pontoon just below the highest point of wave disruption, and just buoyant enough to support most of the weight of the structure off the rails. This way, passengers can travel across stretches like the Channel without feeling seasick.

The stoking difficulties on large ocean-going steamers have become so acute that they now suggest the conclusion that, notwithstanding repeated failures, a really effective mechanical stoker will be so imperatively called for as to enforce the adoption of any reasonably good device. The heat, grime, and general misery of the stoke-hole have become so deterrent that the difficulty of securing men to undertake the work grows greater year by year, and in recruiting the ranks of the stokers resort had to be had more and more to those unfortunate men whose principal motive for labour is the insatiable desire for a drinking bout. On the occasions of several shipwrecks in the latter part of the nineteenth century disquieting revelations took place showing how savagely bitter was the feeling of the stoke-hole towards the first saloon. As soon as the mechanical fuel-shifter has been adopted, and the boilers have been properly insulated in order to prevent the overheating of the stoke-hole, the [Pg 142] stoker will be raised to the rank of a secondary engineer, and his work will cease to be looked upon as in any sense degrading.

The challenges of fueling large ocean-going steamers have become so serious that they now lead to the conclusion that, despite numerous failures, there will be an urgent need for an effective mechanical stoker, prompting the use of any reasonably good technology. The heat, grime, and overall discomfort of the stoke-hole have become so off-putting that finding workers for these jobs gets harder every year. In order to recruit stokers, more and more reliance is placed on those unfortunate individuals whose main motivation for work is a relentless craving for alcohol. After several shipwrecks in the late nineteenth century, concerning revelations emerged showing just how intensely the stoke-hole crew resented the first saloon. Once the mechanical fuel-shifter is implemented, and the boilers are properly insulated to prevent the stoke-hole from overheating, the [Pg 142] stoker will be elevated to the status of a secondary engineer, and his work will no longer be seen as degrading.

On the cargo-slave steamer and sailer a similar social revolution will be brought about by the amelioration of the conditions under which the men live and work. Already some owners and masters have begun to mitigate, to a certain extent, the embargo which the choice of a sea-faring life has in times past been understood to place upon married men. Positions are found for women as stewardesses and in other capacities, and it is coming to be increasingly recognised that there is a large amount of women's work to be done on board a ship.

On cargo-slave steamers and sailing ships, a similar social change will occur due to improvements in the conditions under which people live and work. Some owners and captains have started to ease, to some extent, the restrictions that have traditionally been placed on married men choosing a life at sea. Jobs are being created for women as stewardesses and in other roles, and it's becoming more widely accepted that there's a significant amount of work for women to do on board a ship.

By and by, when it is found that the best and steadiest men can be secured by making some little concessions to their desire for a settled life and their objections to the crimp and the "girl at every port," and all the other squalid accessories so generally attached in the popular mind to the seaman's career, there will be a serious effort on the part of owners to remodel the community on board of a ship on the lines of a village. There will be the "Ship's Shop" and the "Ship's School," the "Ship's Church" and various other institutions and societies.

Eventually, when it's realized that the best and most reliable sailors can be attracted by making some small concessions to their wish for a stable life and their concerns about the rough lifestyle and the "girl at every port," along with all the other unsavory aspects often associated with a seafarer's life, ship owners will make a concerted effort to reshape the community on board a ship to resemble a village. There will be a "Ship's Shop," a "Ship's School," a "Ship's Church," and various other organizations and social groups.

Thus in the twentieth century the sea will [Pg 143] no longer be regarded, to the same extent as in the past, as the refuge for the ne'er-do-well of the land-living populace; and this, more than perhaps anything else, will help to render travelling by the great ocean highways safe and comfortable. It is a common complaint on the part of owners that by far the larger part of maritime disasters are directly traceable to misconduct or neglect of duty on the part of masters, officers or crew; but they have the remedy in their own hands.

Thus in the twentieth century, the sea will [Pg 143] no longer be seen, to the same extent as before, as a refuge for those who can't get their act together on land; and this, more than perhaps anything else, will help make traveling along the great ocean highways safe and comfortable. Owners often complain that most maritime disasters can be directly linked to misconduct or neglect of duty by the captains, officers, or crew; but they have the solution in their own hands.


CHAPTER VII.

AGRICULTURE.

Muscular power still carries out all the most laborious work of the farm and of the garden—work which, of course, consists, in the main, of turning the land over and breaking up the sods. In the operations of ploughing, harrowing, rolling, and so forth, the agency almost exclusively employed is the muscular power of the horse guided by man-power; with the accompaniment of a very large and exhausting expenditure of muscular effort on the part of the farmer or farm labourer. On the fruit and vegetable garden the great preponderance of the power usefully exercised must, under existing conditions, come direct from the muscles of men. Spade and plough represent the badges of the rural workers' servitude, and to rescue the country residents from this old-world bondage must be one of the chief objects to which invention will in the near future apply itself.

Muscular power still does most of the hard work on farms and in gardens—mainly involving turning the soil and breaking up the ground. In activities like ploughing, harrowing, rolling, and so on, the primary force used is the muscular strength of horses, guided by human effort; this is coupled with a significant and tiring amount of physical exertion from the farmer or farm worker. In fruit and vegetable gardens, the majority of the power used has to come directly from human muscles, given the current situation. The spade and plough symbolize the laborers' servitude, and freeing rural residents from this outdated bondage should be a key goal that innovation focuses on in the near future.

The miner has to a very large extent escaped from the thraldom of mere brute-work, or [Pg 145] hardening muscular effort. He drills the holes in the face of the rock at which he is working by means of compressed air or power conveyed by the electric current; and then he performs the work of breaking it down by the agency of dynamite or some other high explosive. Much heavy bodily labour, no doubt, remains to be done by some classes of workers in mines; but the significance of the march of improvement is shown by the fact that a larger and larger proportion of those who work under the surface of the ground, or in ore-reduction works, consists of men who are gradually being enrolled among the ranks of the more highly skilled and intelligent workers, whose duty it is to understand and to superintend pieces of mechanism driven by mechanical power.

The miner has largely escaped the burden of just physical labor. He drills holes in the rock face he’s working on using compressed air or electricity, and then he breaks it down with dynamite or other explosives. While a significant amount of heavy physical work still remains for some workers in mines, the progress is evident in the growing number of those who work underground or in ore-processing facilities. More and more of them are becoming skilled and knowledgeable professionals responsible for understanding and overseeing machinery powered by mechanical forces.

In farming and horticulture the field of labour is not so narrowly localised as it is in mining. Work representing an expenditure of hundreds of thousands of pounds may be carried out in mines whose area does not exceed two or three acres; and it is therefore highly remunerative to concentrate mechanical power upon such enterprises in the most up-to-date machinery. But the farmer ranges from side to side of his wide fields, covering hundreds, or even thousands, of acres with [Pg 146] his operations. He is better situated than the miner in respect of the economical and healthy application of horse-power, but far worse in regard to the immediate possibilities of steam-power and electrically-conducted energy. No one can feed draught stock more cheaply than he, and no one can secure able-bodied men to work from sunrise till evening at a lower wage.

In farming and gardening, the area of work isn’t as confined as it is in mining. Operations costing hundreds of thousands of pounds can take place in mines that span only two or three acres, making it very profitable to focus mechanical power on these projects using the latest machinery. On the other hand, a farmer spreads out across vast fields, managing hundreds or even thousands of acres with [Pg 146] his work. He has an advantage over miners when it comes to efficiently and healthily using horse power, but he falls short in terms of the immediate potential for steam power and electrically-driven energy. No one can provide draft animals more affordably than he can, and no one can hire able-bodied workers to labor from dawn until dusk for a lower wage.

Yet the course of industrial evolution, which has made so much progress in the mine and the factory, must very soon powerfully affect agriculture. Already, in farming districts contiguous to unlimited supplies of cheap power from waterfalls, schemes have been set on foot for the supply of power on co-operative principles to the farmers of fertile land in America, Germany, France, and Great Britain. One necessity which will most materially aid in spurring forward the movement for the distribution of power for rural work is the requirement of special means for lifting water for irrigation, more particularly in those places where good land lies very close to the area that is naturally irrigable, by some scheme already in operation but just a little too high. Here it is seen at once that power means fertility and consequent wealth, while the lack of it—if the climate be really dry, as in the [Pg 147] Pacific States of America—means loss and dearth. But the presence of a source of power which can easily be shifted about from place to place on the farm for the purpose of watering the ground must very soon suggest the applicability of the same mechanical energy to the digging or ploughing of the soil.

Yet the evolution of industry, which has advanced so much in mines and factories, will soon have a significant impact on agriculture. In farming areas close to unlimited supplies of cheap power from waterfalls, initiatives have already been launched to provide cooperative power to farmers in fertile regions of America, Germany, France, and Great Britain. One critical factor that will greatly encourage the movement for distributing power for rural tasks is the need for specialized equipment to lift water for irrigation, especially in places where good land is just slightly above areas that can be naturally irrigated by some existing system that is a bit too high. Here it’s clear that having power translates to fertility and therefore wealth, while a lack of it—especially in truly dry climates, like in the [Pg 147] Pacific States of America—results in loss and scarcity. However, the availability of a power source that can be easily moved around the farm for watering purposes will soon highlight the potential for using the same mechanical energy for tasks like digging or plowing the soil.

It is from this direction, rather than from the wide introduction of steam-ploughs and diggers, that the first great impetus to the employment of mechanical power on the farm may be looked for. The steam-plough, no doubt, has before it a future full of usefulness; and yet the slow progress that has been made by it during a quarter of a century suggests that, in its present form—that is to say while built on lines imitating the locomotive and the traction-engine—it cannot very successfully challenge the plough drawn by horse-power. More probable is it—as has already been indicated—that the analogy of the rock-drill in mining work will be followed. The farmer will use an implement much smaller and handier than a movable steam-engine, but supplied with power from a central station, either on his own land or in some place maintained by co-operative or public agency. Just as the miner pounds away at the rock by means of compressed air or electricity, brought to his [Pg 148] hands through a pipe or a wire, so the farmer will work his land by spades or ploughs by the same kind of mechanical power. The advantages of electrical transmission of energy will greatly favour this kind of installation on the farm, as compared with any other method of distribution which is as yet in sight.

It’s from this direction, rather than from the widespread introduction of steam plows and diggers, that we can expect the first major boost to the use of mechanical power on the farm. The steam plow certainly has a promising future ahead; however, the slow progress it has made over the past 25 years suggests that, in its current form—meaning while designed like the locomotive and traction engine—it can't effectively compete with horse-drawn plows. More likely, as has already been suggested, is that the concept of the rock drill used in mining will be applied here. The farmer will use an implement that is much smaller and more convenient than a mobile steam engine, but powered from a central station, either on his land or at a location maintained by a co-op or public agency. Just as the miner works at the rock using compressed air or electricity delivered to him through a pipe or a wire, the farmer will tend his fields with spades or plows using the same type of mechanical power. The benefits of electrical transmission of energy will strongly support this kind of system on the farm, compared to any other distribution methods currently available.

For the ploughing of a field by the electric plough a cable will be required capable of being stretched along one side of the area to be worked. On this will run loosely a link or wheel connected with another wire wound upon a drum carried on the plough and paid out as the latter proceeds across the field. For different grades of land, of course, different modes of working are advisable, the ordinary plough of a multifurrow pattern, with stump-jumping springs or weights, being used for land which is not too heavy or clayey; a disc plough or harrow being applicable to light, well-worked ground; and the mechanical spade or fork-digger—reciprocating in its motion very much like the rock-drill—having its special sphere of usefulness in wet and heavy land. In any case a wide, gripping wheel is required in front to carry the machine forward and to turn it on reaching the end of the furrow. The wire-wound drum is actuated by a spring which tends to keep it constantly wound up, [Pg 149] and when the plough has turned and is heading again towards the cable at the side of the field, this drum automatically winds up the wire. So also when each pair of furrows has been completed, the supply-wire is automatically shifted along upon the fixed cable to a position suitable for the next pair.

To plow a field with the electric plow, you'll need a cable that can be stretched along one side of the area being worked. A link or wheel will run loosely on this cable, connected to another wire that coils around a drum attached to the plow, which pays it out as it moves across the field. Different types of land require different methods; a standard multifurrow plow with stump-jumping springs or weights is suitable for land that isn't too heavy or clay-like. A disc plow or harrow works well for light, well-tended ground, while the mechanical spade or fork-digger—moving back and forth like a rock drill—is best for wet and heavy land. In any case, a wide gripping wheel is needed in front to push the machine forward and to turn it at the end of the furrow. The wire-wound drum is powered by a spring that keeps it wound up, and when the plow turns and heads back toward the cable at the edge of the field, the drum automatically rewinds the wire. Additionally, once each pair of furrows is completed, the supply wire is automatically repositioned along the fixed cable for the next pair. [Pg 149]

Not only in the working, but also in the manuring, of the soil the electric current will play an important part in the revolution in agriculture. The fixing of the nitrogen from the atmosphere in order to form nitrates available as manure depends, from the physical point of view, upon the creation of a sufficient heat to set fire to it. The economic bearings of this fact upon the future of agriculture, especially in its relation to wheat-growing, seemed so important to Sir William Crookes that he made the subject the principal topic of his Presidential Address before the British Association in 1898.

Not only in farming but also in fertilizing the soil, electric current will play a key role in revolutionizing agriculture. The process of fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere to create usable nitrates as fertilizer relies, from a physical standpoint, on generating enough heat to ignite it. The economic implications of this for the future of agriculture, particularly in relation to wheat farming, seemed so significant to Sir William Crookes that he made it the main focus of his Presidential Address to the British Association in 1898.

The feasibility of the electrical mode of fixing atmospheric nitrogen for plant-food has been demonstrated by eminent electricians, the famous Hungarian inventor, Nikola Tesla, being among the foremost. The electric furnace is just as readily applicable for forcing the combination of an intractable element, such as nitrogen, with other materials suitable [Pg 150] for forming a manurial base, as it is for making calcium carbide by bringing about the union of two such unsociable constituents as lime and carbon.

The practicality of using electricity to fix atmospheric nitrogen for plant nutrition has been proven by leading electrical engineers, including the renowned Hungarian inventor, Nikola Tesla, who is one of the pioneers. The electric furnace can be easily used to combine difficult elements, like nitrogen, with other materials that are appropriate for creating a fertilizer base, just like it can be used to produce calcium carbide by bringing together two incompatible components like lime and carbon. [Pg 150]

Cheap power is, in this view, the great essential for economically enriching the soil, as well as for turning it over and preparing it for the reception of seed. Nor is the fact a matter of slight importance that this power is specially demanded for the production of an electric current for heating purposes, because the transmission of such a current over long distances to the places at which the manurial product is required will save the cost of much transport of heavy material.

Affordable energy is, in this perspective, crucial for enriching the soil economically and for tilling it in preparation for planting seeds. It's also significant that this energy is especially needed for generating electric current for heating, as delivering this current over long distances to where the fertilizer is needed will reduce the costs associated with transporting heavy materials.

The agricultural chemist and the microbiologist of the latter end of the nineteenth century have laid considerable stress upon the prospects of using the minute organisms which attach themselves to the roots of some plants—particularly those of the leguminaceæ—as the means of fixing the nitrogen of the atmosphere, and rendering it available for the plant-food of cereals which are not endowed with the faculty of encouraging those bacteria which fix nitrogen. High hopes have been based upon the prospects of inoculating the soil over wide areas of land with small quantities of sandy loam, taken from patches [Pg 151] cultivated for leguminous plants which have been permitted to run to seed, thus multiplying the nitrogen-fixing bacteria enormously. The main idea has been to encourage the rapid production of these minute organisms in places where they may be specially useful, but in which they do not find a particularly congenial breeding ground.

The agricultural chemist and microbiologist at the end of the nineteenth century emphasized the potential of using tiny organisms that attach themselves to the roots of certain plants—especially legumes—as a way to fix atmospheric nitrogen and make it available as plant food for cereals that can’t promote the bacteria that fix nitrogen. There have been high hopes for inoculating large areas of soil with small amounts of sandy loam taken from spots where legumes were allowed to go to seed, dramatically increasing the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The main goal has been to encourage the rapid growth of these tiny organisms in places where they could be especially beneficial but don’t have an ideal environment to thrive in. [Pg 151]

The hope that any striking revolution may be brought about in the practice of agriculture by a device of this kind must be viewed in the light of the fact that, while the scientists of the nineteenth century have demonstrated, partially at least, the true reason for the beneficial effects of growing leguminous plants upon soil intended to be afterwards laid down in cereals, they were not by any means the first to observe the fact that such benefits accrued from the practice indicated. Several references in the writings of ancient Greek and Latin poets prove definitely that the good results of a rotation of crops, regulated by the introduction of leguminous plants at certain stages, were empirically understood. In that more primitive process of reasoning which proceeds upon the assumption post hoc, ergo propter hoc, the ancient agriculturist was a past-master, and the chance of gleaning something valuable from the field of common observation [Pg 152] over which he has trod is not very great.

The hope that a major revolution in farming practices can be achieved through a device like this should be considered in light of the fact that, although the scientists of the nineteenth century have at least partially shown the real reasons behind the positive effects of growing leguminous plants on soil that will later be used for cereals, they weren’t the first to notice that these benefits came from such practices. Several references in the writings of ancient Greek and Latin poets clearly show that the advantages of rotating crops, which involved introducing leguminous plants at specific times, were understood through experience. The ancient farmer was quite skilled in the basic reasoning that assumes post hoc, ergo propter hoc, and the chance of discovering anything valuable from the common observations within the fields they walked is rather slim. [Pg 152]

Modern improvements in agriculture will probably be, in the main, such as are based upon fundamental processes unknown to the ancients. By the word "processes" it is intended to indicate not those methods the scientific reasons for which were understood—for these in ancient times were very few—but simply those which from long experience were noticed to be beneficial. Good husbandry was in olden times clearly understood to include the practice of the rotation of crops, and the beneficial results to be expected from the introduction of those crops which are now discovered to act as hosts to the microbes which fix atmospheric nitrogen were not only observed, but insisted upon.

Modern advancements in agriculture will likely be primarily based on fundamental processes that were unknown to ancient people. When we talk about "processes," we're referring not to methods for which the scientific reasons were understood—because there were very few of those in ancient times—but simply to those that were seen as beneficial through long experience. Good farming in the past clearly included the practice of crop rotation, and the positive outcomes expected from introducing certain crops that are now known to support the microbes that fix atmospheric nitrogen were not only observed but also emphasized.

From a scientific point of view this concurrence of the results of ancient and of modern observation may only serve to render the bacteriology of the soil more interesting; but, from the standpoint of an estimate of the practical openings for agriculture improvements in the near future, it greatly dwarfs the prospect of any epoch-making change actually founded upon the principle of the rotation of crops. It is, indeed, conceivable that fresh light on the life habits of the minute organisms [Pg 153] of the soil may lead to practical results quite new; but hardly any such light is yet within the inventor's field of vision.

From a scientific perspective, the agreement between the results of ancient and modern observations makes the bacteriology of soil even more fascinating. However, when considering the potential for practical advancements in agriculture in the near future, it significantly reduces the chances of any groundbreaking changes based on crop rotation principles. It is possible that new insights into the life habits of the tiny organisms in the soil could lead to innovative practical results, but there is hardly any such insight currently within the inventor's view.

This view of the limited prospects of practical microbiology for the fixing of nitrogen in plant-food was corroborated by Sir William Crookes in the Presidential Address already cited. He said that "practice has for a very long time been ahead of science in respect of this department of husbandry". For ages what is known as the four course rotation had been practised, the crops following one another in this order—turnips, barley, clover and wheat—a sequence which was popular more than two thousand years ago. His summing up of the position was to the effect that "our present knowledge leads to the conclusion that the much more frequent growth of clover on the same land, even with successful microbe-seeding and proper mineral supplies, would be attended with uncertainties and difficulties, because the land soon becomes what is called clover-sick, and turns barren".

This perspective on the limited potential of practical microbiology for fixing nitrogen in plant food was supported by Sir William Crookes in the previously mentioned Presidential Address. He stated that "practice has long been ahead of science in this area of farming." For centuries, what’s known as the four-course rotation has been practiced, with crops following this order—turnips, barley, clover, and wheat—a system that was popular over two thousand years ago. He concluded that "our current understanding suggests that growing clover more frequently on the same land, even with effective microbe inoculation and proper mineral inputs, would come with challenges and uncertainties, because the land soon becomes what's called clover-sick and turns barren."

In regard to any practical application of microbe-seeding, the farmers of the United Kingdom at the end of the nineteenth century had not, in the opinion of this eminent chemist, reached even the experimental stage, although on the Continent there had been some extension [Pg 154] of microbe cultivation. To this it may fairly be added that some of the attention attracted to the subject on the Continent has been due to the natural tendency of the German mind to discover fine differences between things which are not radically distinct. Under the title of "microbe-cultivation" the long-familiar practice of the rotation of crops may to some continental enthusiasts seem to be quite an innovation!

In terms of any practical use of microbe-seeding, farmers in the United Kingdom by the late nineteenth century had not, according to this respected chemist, even reached the experimental stage. Meanwhile, there had been some progress in microbe cultivation on the Continent. It’s also worth noting that some of the interest in the subject in Europe has come from the German tendency to pinpoint subtle differences between things that are not actually very different. To some enthusiasts in Europe, the well-known practice of crop rotation might seem like a brand-new idea under the label of "microbe-cultivation." [Pg 154]

In the electrical manures-factory the operations will be simply an enlargement of laboratory experiments which have been familiar to the chemist for many years. Moist air, kept damp by steam, is traversed by strong electric sparks from an induction coil inside of a bottle or other liquor-tight receiver, and in a short time it is found that in the bottom of this receptacle a liquid has accumulated which, on being tested, proves to be nitric acid. There is also present a small quantity of ammonia from the atmosphere. Nitrate of ammonia thus formed would in itself be a manure; but, of course, on the large scale other nitrates will be formed by mixing the acid with cheap alkalies which are abundant in nature, soda from common salt, and lime from limestone.

In the electrical fertilizer factory, the processes will basically be an expansion of laboratory experiments that chemists have known for many years. Moist air, kept humid by steam, is passed through strong electric sparks from an induction coil inside a sealed container, and soon it’s found that a liquid has collected at the bottom of this container, which, when tested, turns out to be nitric acid. There’s also a small amount of ammonia from the air. The ammonium nitrate formed would itself be a fertilizer; however, on a larger scale, other nitrates will be produced by mixing the acid with inexpensive alkalis that are widely available, like soda from common salt and lime from limestone.

In this process the excessive heat of the electric discharge really raises the nitrogen [Pg 155] and oxygen of the atmosphere to a point of temperature at which chemical union is forced; or, in other words, the nitrogen is compelled to burn and to join in chemical combination with the oxygen with which formerly it was only in mechanical mixture. When nitrogen is burning, its flame is not in itself hot enough to ignite contiguous volumes of the same element;—otherwise indeed our atmosphere, after a discharge of lightning, would burn itself out!—but the continuance of an electric discharge forces into combination just a proportionate quantity of nitrogen. Practically, therefore, manure in the future will mean electricity, and therefore power; so that cheap sources of energy are of the greatest importance to the farmer.

In this process, the intense heat from the electric discharge actually raises the nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere to a temperature where they react chemically. In other words, nitrogen is made to burn and combine with oxygen, which was previously just mixed with it. When nitrogen burns, its flame isn't hot enough to ignite nearby nitrogen; otherwise, after a lightning strike, our atmosphere would burn away! However, the ongoing electric discharge forces a specific amount of nitrogen to combine. So, in the future, manure will be tied to electricity and power, making affordable energy sources crucial for farmers.

With dynamos driven by steam-engines, the price of electrically-manufactured nitrate of soda would, according to the estimate of Sir William Crookes, be £26 per ton, but at Niagara, where water power is very cheap, not more than £5 per ton. Thus it will be seen that the cheapness of power due to the presence of the waterfall makes such a difference in the economic aspects of the problem of the electrical manufacture of manurial nitrates as to reduce the price to less than one-fifth! It must be remembered that at the close [Pg 156] of the nineteenth century the electric installation at Niagara is by very many persons looked upon as being in itself in the nature of an experiment, but at any rate there seems to be no room for doubt that the cost of natural power for electrical installations will very soon be materially reduced. Even at the price quoted, namely £5 per ton, the cost of nitrate of soda made with electrically combined atmospheric nitrogen compares very favourably with commercial nitrates as now imported for agriculture purposes. "Chili nitrate," in fact, is about fifty per cent. dearer.

With steam-driven dynamos, the cost of nitrate of soda produced electrically would be around £26 per ton, according to Sir William Crookes, but at Niagara, where water power is very affordable, it would be just £5 per ton. This shows that the low cost of power from the waterfall significantly impacts the economics of producing manurial nitrates electrically, reducing the price to less than one-fifth! It's important to note that by the end of the nineteenth century, many people viewed the electric setup at Niagara as a kind of experiment. However, it's clear that the cost of natural power for electrical systems will be significantly lower soon. Even at the mentioned price of £5 per ton, the cost of nitrate of soda made by combining atmospheric nitrogen electrically is very competitive compared to the commercially imported nitrates currently used in agriculture. "Chili nitrate," for instance, is about fifty percent more expensive.

When wave-power and other forms of the stored energy of the wind have been properly harnessed in the service of mankind, the region around Niagara will only be one of thousands of localities at which nitrogenous manures can be manufactured electrically at a price far below the present cost of natural deposits of nitrate of soda. From the power stations all around the coasts, as well as from those on waterfalls and windy heights among the mountains, electric cables will be employed to convey the current for fixing the nitrogen of the air at places where the manures are most wanted.

When wave power and other forms of stored wind energy are effectively harnessed for the benefit of humanity, the area around Niagara will be just one of many locations where nitrogen-rich fertilizers can be produced electrically at a cost much lower than that of natural deposits of sodium nitrate. From power stations along the coasts, as well as those located at waterfalls and windy mountain tops, electric cables will be used to transport the current for capturing nitrogen from the air to places where fertilizers are most needed.

The rediscovery of the art of irrigation is one of the distinguishing features of modern [Pg 157] industrial progress in agriculture. Extensive ruins and other remains in Assyria, Egypt, India, China and Central America prove beyond question that irrigation played a vastly more important part in the industrial life of the ancients than it does in that of modern mankind. This is true in spite of the fact that power and dominion ultimately fell to the lot of those races which originally dwelt in colder and more hilly or thickly-wooded regions, where the instincts of hunting and of warfare were naturally developed, so that, by degrees, the peoples who understood irrigation fell under the sway of those who neither needed nor appreciated it. In the long interval vast forests have been cleared away and the warlike habits of the northern and mountainous races have been greatly modified, but manufacturing progress among them has enabled them to perpetuate the power originally secured by the bow and the spear. The irrigating races of mankind are now held in fear of the modern weapons which are the products of the iron and steel industries, just as they were thousands of years ago terrorised by the inroads of the wild hunting men from the North.

The rediscovery of irrigation techniques is one of the key features of modern industrial growth in agriculture. Extensive ruins and other remnants in Assyria, Egypt, India, China, and Central America clearly show that irrigation was much more crucial in the ancient industrial world than it is for people today. This remains true despite the fact that power ultimately shifted to the races that originally inhabited colder, hilly, or densely wooded areas, where hunting and warfare instincts were naturally developed. Over time, those who mastered irrigation came under the control of those who neither needed nor valued it. During this long period, vast forests were cleared, and the warrior habits of northern and mountainous races have been significantly changed. However, their advancements in manufacturing have allowed them to maintain the power initially gained through combat. The irrigation-based societies now live in fear of modern weapons produced by the iron and steel industries, just as they faced terror thousands of years ago from the fierce hunting tribes of the North.

But the future of agriculture will very largely belong to a class of men who will combine in themselves the best attributes of the irrigationist [Pg 158] and the man who knows how to use the iron weapon and the iron implement. As the manufacturing supremacy of the North becomes more and more assured by reason of the superior healthiness of a climate encouraging activity of muscle and brain, so the agricultural prospects of the warmer regions of the earth's surface will be improved by the comparative immunity of plant and of animal life from disease in a dry atmosphere. Sheep, cattle and horses thrive far better in a climate having but a scanty rainfall than in one having an abundance of wet; and so, also, does the wheat plant when the limited rains happen to be timed to suit its growth, and the best kinds of fruit trees when the same conditions prevail.

But the future of agriculture will mainly belong to a group of people who will embody the best qualities of both the irrigation specialist and the person skilled in using machinery and tools. As the manufacturing dominance of the North becomes increasingly secure due to a healthier climate that promotes physical and mental activity, the agricultural potential of the warmer areas of the Earth will benefit from the relative lack of disease affecting plants and animals in a dry atmosphere. Sheep, cattle, and horses do much better in climates with little rainfall than in those with a lot of moisture; similarly, the wheat plant thrives when the limited rain falls at the right times for its growth, along with the best types of fruit trees under the same conditions.

All this points to an immense recrudescence of irrigation in the near future. Already the Californians and other Americans of the Pacific Slope have demonstrated that irrigation is a practice fully as well suited to the requirements of a thoroughly up-to-date people as it has been for long ages to those of the "unchanging East". But here again the question of cheap power obtrudes itself. The Chinese, Hindoos and Egyptians have long ago passed the stage at which the limited areas which were irrigable by gravitation, without advanced methods of [Pg 159] engineering, have been occupied; and the lifting of water for the supplying of their paddy fields has been for thousands of years a laborious occupation for the poorest and most degraded of the rural population.

All this points to a huge comeback of irrigation in the near future. Californians and other Americans on the Pacific Coast have already shown that irrigation works just as well for a modern society as it has for the "unchanging East" for centuries. But once again, the issue of affordable power comes into play. The Chinese, Indians, and Egyptians reached the point long ago where the limited areas suitable for gravity irrigation, without advanced engineering methods, were fully utilized; and for thousands of years, lifting water to supply their rice fields has been a tough job for the poorest and most disadvantaged members of the rural population.

In a system of civilisation in which transport costs so little as it does in railway and steam-ship freights, the patches of territory which can be irrigated by water brought by gravitation from the hills or from the upper reaches of rivers are comparatively easy of access to a market. This fact retards the advent of the time when colossal installations for the throwing of water upon the land will be demanded. When that epoch arrives, as it assuredly will before the first half of the twentieth century has been nearly past, the pumping plants devoted to the purposes of irrigation will present as great a contrast to the lifting appliances of the East as does a fully loaded freight train or a mammoth steam cargo-slave to a coolie carrier.

In a civilization where transportation costs are as low as they are with railways and steamship freight, the areas of land that can be irrigated with water brought down by gravity from the hills or upper river regions are relatively easy to access for markets. This makes it less urgent for large-scale water distribution systems to be developed. However, that time will definitely come before the first half of the twentieth century is nearly over. When it does, the pumping stations used for irrigation will stand in stark contrast to the lifting devices in the East, much like a fully loaded freight train or a massive steam cargo ship compares to a coolie carrying a load.

At the same time there must inevitably be a great extension of the useful purposes to which small motors can be applied in irrigation. Year by year the importance of the sprinkler, not only for ornamental grounds such as lawns and flower-beds, but also for the vegetable patch and the fruit garden, becomes more apparent, [Pg 160] and efforts are being made towards the enlargement of the arms of sprinkling contrivances to such an extent as to enable them to throw a fine shower of water over a very large area of ground. Sometimes a windmill is used for pumping river or well-water into high tanks from which it descends by gravitation into the sprinklers, the latter being operated by the power of the liquid as it descends. This mode of working is convenient in many cases; but a more important, because a more widely applicable, method in the future will be that in which the wind-motor not only lifts the water, but scatters it around in the same operation. Long helical-shaped screws, horizontally fixed between uprights or set on a swivel on a single high tower, can be used for loading the breeze with a finely divided shower of water and thus projecting the moisture to very long distances. A windmill of the ordinary pattern, as used for gardens, may be fitted with a long perforated pipe, supported by wire guys instead of a vane, a connection being made by a water-tight swivel-joint between this pipe and that which carries the liquid from the pump. In this way every stroke of the machine sends innumerable jets of water out upon the wind, to be carried far afield.

At the same time, there will inevitably be a significant expansion in the useful applications of small motors in irrigation. Year after year, the importance of sprinklers—not just for decorative areas like lawns and flower beds, but also for vegetable gardens and fruit orchards—becomes increasingly obvious, [Pg 160] and efforts are being made to extend the reach of sprinkling devices so they can spray a fine mist of water over a much larger area. Sometimes, a windmill is used to pump river or well water into elevated tanks from which it flows downward by gravity into the sprinklers, with the latter powered by the water's descent. This method is convenient in many situations; however, a more crucial and broadly applicable approach in the future will involve the wind-powered system that not only raises the water but also distributes it simultaneously. Long, spiral-shaped screws, mounted horizontally between supports or positioned on a swivel atop a tall tower, can be used to load the wind with a fine spray of water, thus projecting moisture over very long distances. A typical garden windmill can be fitted with a long perforated pipe, supported by wire struts instead of a vane, creating a water-tight swivel joint between this pipe and the one that carries water from the pump. In this way, every action of the machine launches countless jets of water into the wind to be carried far and wide.

[Pg 161] Gardening properties in comparatively dry climates, fitted with machines of this description, can be laid out in different zones of cultivation, determined according to the prevailing directions of the wind and the consequent distribution of the water supply. Thus if the wind most frequently blows from the west the plants which require the most water must be laid out at the eastern side, not too far from the sprinkler. Facilities for shutting off the supply of spray at will are, of course, very necessary. The system of watering founded on this principle depends upon the assumption that if the gardener or the farmer could always turn on the rain when he has a fairly good wind he would never lack for seasonable moisture to nourish his crops. This will be found in practice to apply correctly to the great majority of food plants. In the dry climates, which are so eminently healthy for cereals, "the early and the latter rains," as referred to in Scripture, are both needed, and one of the most important applications of cheap power will be directed to supplementing the natural supply either at one end or at the other.

[Pg 161] Gardening in relatively dry climates, equipped with these kinds of machines, can be organized into different growing zones based on the prevailing wind directions and the resulting water distribution. If the wind usually comes from the west, then the plants that need the most water should be positioned on the eastern side, close to the sprinkler. It's essential to have the ability to turn the spray on and off as needed. This watering system operates on the idea that if a gardener or farmer could always summon rain when there’s a favorable wind, they would never run out of moisture to sustain their crops. In practice, this principle applies to most food plants. In dry climates, which are particularly good for growing grains, "the early and the latter rains," as mentioned in the Bible, are both necessary. One of the key uses of affordable power will focus on supplementing the natural water supply at either end of the growing season.

The "tree-doctor" will be a personage of increasing importance in the rural economy of the twentieth century. He is already well in sight; but for lack of capital and of a due [Pg 162] appreciation of the value of his services, he occupies as yet but a comparatively subordinate position. Fruits, which are nature's most elaborately worked-up edible products, must come more and more into favour as the complement to the seed food represented by bread. As the demand increases it will be more clearly seen that an enormous waste of labour is involved in the culture of an orchard unless its trees are kept in perfect health. At the same time the law of specialization must operate to set aside the tree-doctor to his separate duties, just as the physician and the veterinary surgeon already find their own distinctive spheres of work. The apparatus required for the thorough eradication of disease in fruit trees will be too expensive for the average grower to find any advantage in buying it for use only a few times during the year; but the tree-doctor, with his gangs of men, will be able to keep his special appliances at work nearly all the year round.

The "tree-doctor" will be a person of growing importance in the rural economy of the twentieth century. He is already becoming visible; however, due to a lack of funding and proper recognition of the value of his services, he currently holds a relatively minor position. Fruits, which are nature's most intricately processed food products, need to become more popular as a complement to the staple food represented by bread. As demand increases, it will become clearer that there is a huge waste of effort involved in managing an orchard unless its trees are kept in top condition. At the same time, the principle of specialization will lead to the tree-doctor taking on his specific responsibilities, just as physicians and veterinarians have already established their unique areas of expertise. The equipment needed for effectively eliminating diseases in fruit trees will be too costly for the average grower to justify buying it for only a few uses each year; however, the tree-doctor, along with his teams, will be able to utilize his specialized tools nearly all year long.

For the destruction of almost all classes of fruit-pests, the only really complete method now in sight is the application of a poisonous gas, such as hydrocyanic acid, which is retained by means of a gas-proof tent pitched around each tree. No kind of a spray or wash can penetrate between bark and stem or into the cavities on fruit so well as a gaseous insecticide [Pg 163] which permeates the whole of the air within the included space. But the gas-tight tent system of fumigation is as yet only in its infancy, and its growth and development will greatly help to place the fruit-growing industry on a new basis, and to bring the best kinds of fruit within the reach of the middle classes, the artisans, and ultimately even the very poor. Just as wheaten bread from being a luxury reserved for the rich has become the staple of food for all grades of society, so fruits which are now commonly regarded as an indulgence, although a very desirable addition to the food of the well-to-do, must, in a short time, become practically a necessity to the great mass of the people generally.

To effectively eliminate nearly all types of fruit pests, the only truly comprehensive method currently available is the use of a poisonous gas, such as hydrocyanic acid, which is contained using a gas-proof tent set up around each tree. No spray or wash can penetrate the gaps between bark and stem or the cavities in fruit as well as a gaseous insecticide [Pg 163] that fills the entire air within the enclosed area. However, the gas-tight tent fumigation system is still in its early stages, and its advancement will significantly help establish the fruit-growing industry on a new foundation, making the best types of fruit accessible to the middle class, workers, and eventually even the very poor. Just as wheat bread, once a luxury for the wealthy, has become a staple food for all social classes, so too should fruits, currently seen as a treat and a welcome addition to the diets of affluent individuals, soon become a near necessity for the majority of the population.

The waste of effort and of wealth involved in planting trees and assiduously cultivating the soil for the growth of poor crops decimated by disease is the prime cause of the dearness of fruit. If, therefore, it be true that the fruit diet is one which is destined to greatly improve the average health of civilised mankind, it is obvious that the tree-doctor will act indirectly as the physician for human ailments. When this fact has been fully realised the public estimation in which economic entomology and kindred sciences are held will rise very appreciably, and the capital invested [Pg 164] in complete apparatus for fighting disease in tree life will be enormously increased.

The wasted effort and money spent on planting trees and diligently tending to the soil for growing subpar crops affected by disease is the main reason fruit is so expensive. If it's true that a fruit-based diet can significantly enhance the average health of civilized people, it's clear that tree care will indirectly serve as treatment for human health issues. Once this is fully recognized, the public's perception of economic entomology and related sciences will improve significantly, and the investment in comprehensive systems for combating diseases in trees will increase greatly. [Pg 164]

Very long tents, capable of covering not merely one tree each, but of including continuous rows stretching perhaps from end to end of a large orchard, will become practically essential for up-to-date fruit-culture. An elongated tent of this description, covering a row of trees, may be filled with fumes from a position at the end of the row, where a generating plant on a trolley may be situated. At the opposite end another trolley is stationed, and each movable vehicle carries an upright mast or trestle for the support of the strong cable which passes along the row over the tops of the trees and is stretched taut by suitable contrivances. Attached to this cable is a flexible tube containing a number of apertures and connected at the generating station with the small furnace or fumigating box from which the poisonous gases emanate.

Very long tents, able to cover not just one tree but continuous rows that could stretch from one end of a large orchard to the other, will become almost essential for modern fruit growing. An elongated tent like this, covering a row of trees, can be filled with fumes from a position at the end of the row, where a generating unit on a trolley can be set up. At the other end, another trolley is positioned, and each mobile vehicle has an upright mast or trestle that supports the strong cable running over the tops of the trees, kept taut by suitable devices. Attached to this cable is a flexible tube with several openings, which connects at the generating station to a small furnace or fumigating box that emits the toxic gases.

Along the ground at each side of the row are stretched two thinner wires or cables which hold the long tent securely in position. The method of shifting from one row to another is very simple. Both trolleys are moved into their new positions at the two ends of a fresh row, the fastenings of the tent at the ground on the further side having been released, so that [Pg 165] the flap of the tent on that side is dragged over the tops of the trees and may then be drawn over the top cable and down upon the other side. Seen from the end, the movements of the tent thus resemble those of a double-hinged trestle in the form of an inverted V which advances by having one leg flung over the other. For this arrangement of a fumigating tent it is best that the top cable should consist of a double wire, the fabric of the tent itself being gripped between the two wires, and a flexible tube being attached to each.

On the ground, on either side of the row, two thinner wires or cables are stretched to hold the long tent securely in place. Changing from one row to another is very straightforward. Both trolleys move into their new spots at the ends of a fresh row, with the tent's fastenings released on the far side, so that the flap of the tent on that side is dragged over the tops of the trees and can then be pulled over the top cable and down on the other side. From the end, the tent's movements look like those of a double-hinged trestle in the shape of an inverted V that moves by swinging one leg over the other. For this setup of a fumigating tent, it’s best for the top cable to be a double wire, with the tent fabric held between the two wires, and a flexible tube connected to each.

As progress is made from one row to another through the drawing of one flap over the other, it is obvious that the tent turns inside out at each step, and if only one cable and one tube were used, it would be difficult to avoid permitting the gas to escape into the outer air at one stage or another. But when the tubes are duplicated in the manner described, there is always one which is actually within the tent no matter what position the latter may be in. It is then only necessary that the connection with the generating apparatus at the end of the row should be made after each movement with the tube which is inside the tent. For very long rows of trees the top cable needs to be supported by intermediate trestles besides the uprights at the ends.

As progress is made from one row to another by overlapping one flap over the other, it’s clear that the tent turns inside out at each step. If only one cable and one tube were used, it would be tough to prevent gas from escaping into the outside air at some point. However, when the tubes are duplicated as described, there’s always one that’s actually inside the tent no matter the tent's position. It’s then only necessary to connect with the generating equipment at the end of the row after each move with the tube that’s inside the tent. For very long rows of trees, the top cable needs to be supported by additional trestles along with the end uprights.

[Pg 166] The gas and air-proof tent can be used for various other purposes besides those of killing pests on fruit trees. One of the regular tasks of the tree-doctor will be connected with the artificial fertilisation of trees on the wholesale scale and for a purpose such as this it is necessary that the trees to be operated upon shall not be open to the outside atmosphere, but that the pollen dust, with which the air inside the tent is to be laden, shall be strictly confined during a stated period of time. Those methods of fertilisation, with which the flower-gardener has in recent years worked such wonders, can undoubtedly be utilised for many objects besides those of the variation of form and hue in ornamental plants.

[Pg 166] The gas and air-tight tent can be used for various other purposes besides just killing pests on fruit trees. One of the regular tasks for a tree doctor will involve the artificial fertilization of trees on a large scale, and for this purpose, it’s essential that the trees being treated are not exposed to the outside environment. Instead, the pollen dust that fills the air inside the tent must be contained for a specific period. The fertilization techniques that flower gardeners have achieved remarkable results with in recent years can undoubtedly be applied to many purposes beyond just altering the form and color of ornamental plants.


CHAPTER VIII.

MINING.

Exploratory telegraphy seems likely to claim a position in the twentieth century economics of mining, its particular rôle being to aid in the determination of the "strike" of mineral-bearing lodes. One main reason for this conclusion consists in the fact that the formations which carry metalliferous ores are nearly always more moist than the surrounding country, and are therefore better conductors of the electrical current. Indeed there is good ground for the belief that this moistness of the fissures and lodes in which metals chiefly occur has been in part the original cause of the deposition of those metals from their aqueous solutions percolating along the routes in which gravitation carries them. In the volumes of Nature for 1890 and 1891 will be found communications in which the present writer has set forth some of the arguments tending to strengthen the hypothesis that earth-currents of electricity exercise an appreciable influence in determining the occurrence of gold and silver, and that [Pg 168] they have probably been to some extent instrumental in settling the distribution of other metals.

Exploratory telegraphy is likely to play an important role in the economics of mining in the twentieth century, particularly in helping to identify the location of mineral-rich lodes. One major reason for this conclusion is that the formations that contain metallic ores are usually wetter than the surrounding area, making them better conductors of electrical currents. In fact, there's solid evidence to suggest that the moisture in the fissures and lodes where metals predominantly occur has partly caused the deposition of these metals from their water solutions that seep along the paths formed by gravity. In the issues of Nature from 1890 and 1891, the author has presented some arguments that support the hypothesis that earth currents of electricity significantly influence the presence of gold and silver, and that [Pg 168] they likely also played a role in determining the distribution of other metals.

The existence of currents of electricity passing through the earth's crust and on its surface along the lines of least resistance has long been an established fact. Experiments conducted at Harvard, U.S.A., by Professor Trowbridge have proved beyond a doubt that, by means of such delicate apparatus as the telephone and microphone, it is possible for the observer to state in which direction, from a given point, the best line of conductivity runs. Under certain conditions the return current is so materially facilitated when brought along the line of a watercourse or a moist patch of the earth's crust, that the words heard through a telephone are distinctly more audible than they are at a similar distance when there is no moist return circuit. Deflections of the compass, due to the passing of earth-currents along the natural lines of conductivity in the soil or the rocks, are so frequently noticed as to be a source of calculation to the scientific surveyor and astronomer. It can thus be shown not only that definite lines of least electrical resistance exist in the earth, but also that natural currents of greater or less strength are almost constantly passing along these lines.

The presence of electrical currents flowing through the earth’s crust and along its surface in the path of least resistance has long been recognized as a fact. Experiments carried out by Professor Trowbridge at Harvard, U.S.A., have clearly demonstrated that, using sensitive devices like the telephone and microphone, an observer can determine the direction in which the best conductivity runs from a specific point. Under certain conditions, the return current is significantly improved when it follows a watercourse or moist area in the earth’s crust, making the words heard through a telephone much clearer than they would be at the same distance without a moist return circuit. Deflections of the compass caused by earth currents following natural paths of conductivity in the soil or rocks are commonly observed, providing valuable data for scientific surveyors and astronomers. This clearly indicates that specific lines of least electrical resistance exist in the earth and that natural currents, varying in strength, are almost continuously moving along these paths.

[Pg 169] Some of the curious and puzzling empirical rules gained from the life-long experience of miners in regard to the varying richness and poorness of mineral lodes, according to the directions in which they strike—whether north, south, east or west—may very probably be explained, and to some extent justified, by the fuller light which science may throw upon the conditions determining the action of earth-currents in producing results similar to those of electro deposition. If, in a given region of a mineral-bearing country, the geological formation is such as to lend itself to the easy conduction of currents in one direction rather than in another, the phenomenon referred to may perhaps be partially explained. But, on the other hand, the origin of the generating force which sets the currents in motion must first be studied before the true conditions determining their direction can be understood. In other words, much that is now obscure, including the true origin of the earth's magnetism, must be to some extent cleared up before the reasons for the seemingly erratic strike of earth-currents and of richness in mineral lodes can be fully explained.

[Pg 169] Some of the interesting and puzzling rules that miners have learned from their extensive experience about the varying richness and poverty of mineral veins, depending on the direction they run—whether north, south, east, or west—can likely be explained, to some degree, by the insights that science may offer regarding the conditions that influence earth currents in creating effects similar to electro deposition. If a specific area in a mineral-rich country has geological formations that facilitate the easy conduction of currents in one direction over another, this phenomenon might be partially clarified. However, before we can truly understand the conditions that dictate their direction, we first need to explore the source of the force that sets these currents in motion. In other words, many aspects that remain unclear, including the true source of the Earth's magnetism, must be better understood before we can fully explain why earth currents seem to strike erratically and why certain mineral veins are richer than others.

Practice, however, may here get some distance ahead of science, and may indeed lend some assistance to the latter by providing [Pg 170] empirical data upon which it may proceed. When once it is clearly seen that by delicate electrical instruments, such as the telephone, the microphone and the coherer as used in wireless telegraphy, the line of least resistance on any given area of the earth's surface or any given piece of its crust may be determined, the bearing of that fact in showing the best lines of moisture and therefore the likeliest lines for mineral lodes will soon be recognised in a very practical manner.

Practice, however, may sometimes get ahead of science and can actually help it by providing [Pg 170] empirical data to work with. Once it's clear that delicate electrical instruments like telephones, microphones, and coherers used in wireless telegraphy can determine the path of least resistance on a specific area of the Earth's surface or a particular piece of its crust, the significance of this in identifying the best moisture lines—and therefore the most promising locations for mineral deposits—will soon be recognized in a practical way.

No class of men is keener or more enterprising in its applications of the latest practical science to the getting of money than mining speculators. Nor have they at all missed the significance of moist bands occurring in any underground workings as a very favourable augury for the close approach of highly mineralised lodes. If, then, moisture be favourable, first to the presence of mineral-bearing country and secondly to the conductivity of electrical lines, it is obvious that there is a hopeful field for the exercise of ingenuity in bringing the one into a practical relation to the other.

No group of people is more eager or resourceful in using the latest practical science to make money than mining speculators. They definitely recognize that wet areas in any underground work are a very promising sign of nearby mineral deposits. If moisture is good for both the presence of mineral-rich land and the conductivity of electrical lines, it's clear that there's a promising opportunity to creatively connect the two.

The occult scientific reasons for the connection may not be understood; but it is sufficient for practical purposes to know that, in a certain line from the surface outcropping of a [Pg 171] mineral lode, there has been given a demonstration of less electrical resistance along that line than is experienced in any other direction; also to know that such a line of least resistance is proved to have been, in almost innumerable instances, coincident with the best line of mineral-bearing country. The case is similar to that of the rotation of crops in its relation to scientific microbiology. The art of mining may get ahead of the science of physiography in respect of earth-currents and lines of least resistance, as showing where mineral lodes may be expected. Yet there is no doubt whatever that science will not in the one case lag so far behind as it has done in the other.

The scientific reasons behind this connection might not be fully understood, but for practical purposes, it’s enough to know that along a specific line from the surface of a mineral deposit, there is less electrical resistance compared to other directions. It’s also important to recognize that this path of least resistance has often been found to align with the best locations for mineral-rich areas. This situation is similar to crop rotation's link to scientific microbiology. The mining industry may advance faster than the science of physiography when it comes to earth currents and paths of least resistance, which indicate where mineral deposits could be found. However, there’s no doubt that science will eventually catch up more in this case than it has in others.

The first notable service rendered by systems of the kind indicated will no doubt be in connection with the rediscovery of very valuable lodes which have been followed up for certain distances and then lost. In an instance of this description much fruitless exploration drives, winzes and "jump-ups" may have been carried out in the surrounding country rock near the place where the lode last "cut out"; but, in the absence of anything to guide the mine manager and surveyor as to the direction which the search should take, nothing but loss has been involved in the quest. Several properties in the same neighbourhood have, [Pg 172] perhaps, been abandoned or suspended in operation owing to very similar causes.

The first significant service provided by systems like this will likely be related to the rediscovery of highly valuable lodes that have been traced for some distances and then lost. In such cases, a lot of unproductive exploration, including drives, winzes, and "jump-ups," may have been conducted in the nearby rock where the lode last "cut out"; however, without any guidance for the mine manager and surveyor on which direction to search, the efforts have resulted in nothing but losses. Several properties in the same area have perhaps been abandoned or put on hold for very similar reasons. [Pg 172]

The whole group may perhaps have then been bought by an exploration company whose modus operandi will be as follows: The terminal of the electrical exploration plant is fixed at the end of the lode where it gave out, or else immersed in the water of the shaft which is in connection with the lode system; and another similar terminal is fixed by turns in each shaft of the contiguous group. The electrical resistances offered to the return currents, or to the wireless vibrations, are then carefully measured; and the direction of the lost lode is taken to be that which shows the least resistance in proportion to the distance traversed. The work of carrying out such an investigation must of necessity be somewhat elaborate, because it may be necessary to connect in turn each shaft, as a centre, with every one of the others as subsidiaries. But the guidance afforded even of a negative character, resulting in the avoidance of useless cutting and blasting through heavy country, will prove invaluable.

The whole group may have been acquired by an exploration company whose modus operandi will be as follows: The terminal of the electrical exploration plant is set at the end of the lode where it stops, or is submerged in the water of the shaft that connects with the lode system; and another similar terminal is alternated in each shaft of the nearby group. The electrical resistances to the return currents, or to the wireless signals, are then carefully measured; and the direction of the lost lode is determined by the path that shows the least resistance in relation to the distance covered. Conducting such an investigation will necessarily be somewhat detailed, because it may require connecting each shaft, one at a time, with every other shaft as a secondary point. However, the guidance provided, even if it's negative, will help avoid unnecessary cutting and blasting through difficult terrain, which will be invaluable.

Many matters will require attention, in following out such a line of practical investigation, which are to some extent foreign to the usual work of the mining engineer. For example, the conditions which determine the "short-circuiting" [Pg 173] of an earth-current require to be carefully noted, because it would be fallacious to reason that because the line of least resistance lay in a certain direction, therefore an almost continuous lode would be found. Moreover, the electrical method must only be relied upon as a guide when carefully checked by other considerations. Other kinds of moist formations, both metalliferous and non-metalliferous, may influence the lines of least electrical resistance, besides those containing the particular metal which is being sought for.

Many issues will need attention when pursuing this type of practical investigation, which is somewhat outside the usual work of the mining engineer. For instance, the conditions that lead to "short-circuiting" [Pg 173] of an earth current need to be observed closely, because it would be misleading to assume that just because the line of least resistance goes in a certain direction, an almost continuous lode would be present. Additionally, the electrical method should only be used as a reference when carefully verified by other factors. Other types of moist formations, both containing metals and not, can affect the lines of least electrical resistance, aside from those with the specific metal being searched for.

The water difficulty has enforced the abandonment of very many valuable mines in which the positions of the lodes are still well known. Sunken riches lying beneath the sea in old Spanish galleons have excited the cupidity and the ingenuity of speculators and engineers; but the total amount of wealth thus hidden away from view is a mere insignificant fraction of the value of the rich metalliferous lodes which lie below the water level in flooded mines.

The water problems have forced the closure of many valuable mines where the locations of the lodes are still well understood. Sunken treasures beneath the sea in old Spanish galleons have sparked the greed and creativity of investors and engineers; however, the total amount of wealth hidden away is just a tiny fraction of the value of the rich metal lodes that are submerged in flooded mines.

The point in depth at which the accumulation of the water renders further following of the lode impracticable may vary in different countries. In China, throughout whole provinces, there is hardly a mine to be found in which the efforts of the miners have not been [Pg 174] absolutely paralyzed directly the water-level was reached. But in Western lands, as well as in South Africa and Australia, the immense capacity of the pumps employed for keeping down the water has enabled comparatively wet ground to be worked to a very considerable depth.

The depth at which water accumulation makes it impossible to follow the lode can differ from one country to another. In China, in entire provinces, it's hard to find a mine where the miners' efforts haven't been completely halted as soon as the water level was reached. But in Western countries, as well as in South Africa and Australia, the powerful pumps used to manage the water have allowed miners to work in relatively wet conditions at significant depths.

The limit, nevertheless, has been reached in many rich mining districts. Pumps of the most approved type, and driven by the largest and most economical steam-engines, have done their best in the struggle against the difficulty; and yet the water has beaten them. Rich as are the lodes which lie beneath the water, the mining engineer is compelled to confess that the metal value which they contain would not leave, after extraction, a sufficient margin to pay for the enormous cost of draining the shafts. In some instances, indeed, it remains exceedingly doubtful whether pumps of the largest capacity ever attained in any part of the world would cope with the task entailed in draining the abandoned shafts. The underground workings have practically tapped subterranean rivers which, to all intents and purposes, are inexhaustible. Or it may be that the mine has penetrated into some hollow basin of impermeable strata filled only with porous material which is kept constantly saturated. [Pg 175] To drain such a piece of country would mean practically the emptying of a lake.

The limit has been reached in many wealthy mining areas. The best pumps, powered by the largest and most efficient steam engines, have fought hard against the challenges, but the water has overwhelmed them. Although the valuable lodes lie beneath the water, mining engineers have to admit that the metal value they contain wouldn't leave enough profit after extraction to cover the huge costs of draining the shafts. In some cases, it’s highly uncertain whether the largest pumps ever made could manage the job of draining the abandoned shafts. The underground workings have practically tapped into underground rivers that are, for all intents and purposes, endless. Or it could be that the mine has reached some hollow basin of impermeable rock filled with porous material that remains constantly soaked. [Pg 175] Draining such an area would essentially mean emptying a lake.

Subaqueous mining is therefore one of the big problems which the mining engineer of the twentieth century must tackle. To a certain extent he will receive guidance in his difficult task from the experiences of those who have virtually undertaken submarine mining when in search of treasure lost in sunken ships. The two methods of pumping and of subaqueous mining will in some places be carried out conjointly.

Subaqueous mining is one of the major challenges that mining engineers of the twentieth century must address. To some degree, they will get insights from the experiences of those who have essentially done underwater mining in search of treasure from sunken ships. In certain locations, the two methods of pumping and underwater mining will be used together.

In such instances the work assigned to the pumping machinery will be to keep free of water those drives in which good bodies of ore were exposed when last profitable work was being carried on. All below that level will be permitted to fill with water, and the work of boring by means of compressed air, of blasting out the rock and of filling the trucks, will all be performed under the surface. For the shallower depths large tanks, open at the top, will be constructed and slung upon trucks run on rails along the lowest drives. Practically this arrangement means that an iron shaft, closed at the sides and bottom, and movable on rails laid above the surface, will be employed to keep the water out. Somewhat similar appliances have been found very [Pg 176] useful in the operations for laying the foundations of bridges.

In these cases, the pumping equipment will be responsible for keeping dry the areas where profitable ore was last found. Any areas below that level will be allowed to fill with water, and the work of drilling with compressed air, blasting rock, and loading trucks will be done underground. For shallower depths, large open-top tanks will be built and mounted on trucks that run on rails along the lowest access points. Essentially, this setup involves using an iron shaft, sealed on the sides and bottom, that can move on tracks laid above ground to keep out the water. Similar devices have proven very [Pg 176] helpful in building bridge foundations.

The details requiring to be worked out for the successful working of subaqueous systems of mining are numerous and important. Chief among these must be the needful provision for enabling the miner to see through strong glass windows near the bottom of the iron shaft, by the aid of electric lights slung in the water outside, and thus to estimate the correct positions at which to place his drills and his explosives. For this reason the work of the day must be systematically divided so that at stated intervals the clay and other materials held in suspension by the disturbed water may be allowed to settle and the water be made comparatively clear.

The details that need to be figured out for the successful operation of underwater mining systems are many and crucial. First and foremost is the necessary setup to help the miner see through strong glass windows near the bottom of the iron shaft, using electric lights suspended in the water outside. This allows him to accurately determine where to place his drills and explosives. For this reason, the day's work must be divided systematically, so that at regular intervals, the clay and other materials stirred up by the disturbed water can settle, making the water relatively clear.

Specially constructed strainers for the mechanical filtration of the water near the ore face, and probably, also, chemical and other precipitates, will be largely resorted to for facilitating this important operation. Beside each window will be provided strong flexible sleeves, terminating in gloves into which the miner can place his hands for the purpose of adjusting the various pieces of machinery required. Beyond this, of course, every possible application of mechanical power operated from above will be resorted to, not only for drilling, but also for gripping and removing the [Pg 177] shattered pieces of rock and ore resulting from the blasting operations.

Specially designed strainers for filtering water near the ore face, as well as likely chemical and other residues, will be widely used to make this important operation easier. Strong, flexible sleeves with gloves at the end will be provided next to each window so that miners can safely reach in and adjust the various machinery needed. Additionally, every possible use of mechanical power from above will be employed, not just for drilling, but also for gripping and removing the [Pg 177] broken pieces of rock and ore produced by the blasting.

From the unwatered drive or tunnel downwards, the method of working as just described may be characterised as an underground application of the "open-cut system". No elaborate honeycombing of the country below the water-level will be economically possible as it is when working in dry rock. But then, again, it is becoming plain to many experts in mining that, in working downwards from the surface itself, the future of their industry offers a wide field for the extension of the open-cut system. In proportion as power becomes cheaper, the expense attendant upon the removal of clay, sand, and rock for the purpose of laying bare the cap of a lode at a moderate depth becomes less formidable when balanced against the economy introduced by methods which admit of the miner working in the open air, although at the bottom of a kind of deep quarry. While the system of close mining will hold its own in a very large number of localities, still there are other places where the increasing cheapness of power for working an open-cut and the coincident increase in the scarcity and cost of timber for supporting the ground, will gradually shift the balance of advantage on to the side of the open method.

From the unwatered drive or tunnel downward, the method of working just described can be seen as an underground version of the "open-cut system." It won't be economically feasible to create a complex honeycomb of tunnels below the water level as it is when working in dry rock. However, many mining experts are beginning to realize that starting from the surface offers a significant opportunity for expanding the open-cut system in the industry's future. As power becomes more affordable, the cost of removing clay, sand, and rock to expose the top of a lode at a reasonable depth becomes less daunting compared to the savings that come from methods allowing miners to work outdoors, even if it’s at the bottom of a deep quarry. While the close mining method will still be viable in many areas, there are also regions where the lowering cost of power for open-cut mining and the rising scarcity and expense of timber for ground support will gradually tip the advantages toward the open method.

[Pg 178] At the same time great improvements are now foreshadowed in regard to the modes of working mines by shafts and drives. Some shafts will in future be worked practically as the vertical portions of tramways, having endless wire ropes to convey the trucks direct from the face or the stope to the reduction works, and thus an immense saving will be effected in the costs incidental to mining. From the neighbourhood of the place at which it has been won, the ore will be drawn in trucks, attached to the endless wire rope, first along the drive on the horizontal, and then up an incline increasing in sharpness till the shaft is reached, where the direction of motion becomes vertical. Near the surface, again, there is an incline, gradually leading to the level of the ground, or rather of the elevated tramway from which the stuff is to be tipped into the mill, or, if it be mullock, on to the waste heap. The return of each truck is effected along the reverse side of the endless wire-rope cable.

[Pg 178] At the same time, significant advancements are being anticipated in the way mines are worked through shafts and drives. Some shafts will soon be operated almost like vertical tramway sections, using endless wire ropes to transport the trucks directly from the face or stope to the processing facilities, resulting in huge cost savings associated with mining. The ore will be pulled in trucks linked to the endless wire rope, first along the horizontal drive and then up an incline that gets steeper until reaching the shaft, where the movement becomes vertical. Near the surface, there’s another incline that gradually levels out to the ground or to the raised tramway from which the material will be dumped into the mill, or if it’s waste rock, onto the dump. Each truck will return along the opposite side of the endless wire-rope cable.

Ventilation is an incidental work of much importance which it becomes more practicable to carry out in a satisfactory manner when an endless system of truck conveyance has been provided, reaching from the ore-face to the mill, and thence back again. The reason is mainly that the same routes which have been prepared [Pg 179] for this traffic are available for the supply of air and for the return current which must carry off the accumulated bad gases from the underground workings. Fans, operated by the cable at various places along the line of communication, keep up a brisk exchange of air, and the coming and going of the trucks themselves help to maintain a good, healthy atmosphere, even in the most remote parts of the mine. In very deep mines, where the heat becomes unbearable after a few minutes unless a strong wind be kept going underground, the forward and backward courses for traffic and ventilation together are specially advantageous.

Ventilation is an important task that's easier to do effectively when there’s a continuous system of truck transport that connects the ore face to the mill and back again. The key reason is that the routes set up for this transport can also be used to supply air and carry away the harmful gases that build up underground. Fans powered by cables at various points along the route ensure a good flow of air, and the movement of the trucks helps to keep the atmosphere fresh, even in the farthest areas of the mine. In very deep mines, where the heat can become unbearable within minutes without a strong airflow, using the same routes for both transport and ventilation is especially beneficial.

Prices during the twentieth century will depend more definitely upon the cost of gold-mining than they have ever done at any former time in the world's history. In spite of all the opposition which fanaticism and ignorance could offer to the natural trend of events in the commercial and financial life of the world, the gold standard now rests on an impregnable base; and every year witnesses some new triumph for those who accept it as the foundation of the civilised monetary system. This being the case, it is obvious that the conditions affecting the production of gold must possess a very peculiar interest even for those who have never lived within hundreds of miles of [Pg 180] any gold mine. To all intents and purposes the habit of every man is to measure daily and even hourly the value of his efforts at producing what the economist calls "utilities," against those of the gold miner.

Prices in the twentieth century will rely more heavily on the cost of gold mining than ever before in history. Despite all the resistance that fanaticism and ignorance could throw against the natural course of events in the world’s commercial and financial landscape, the gold standard is now firmly established; each year brings new victories for those who view it as the cornerstone of the modern monetary system. Given this, it’s clear that the factors influencing gold production have significant relevance, even for those who have never lived within hundreds of miles of [Pg 180] any gold mine. In practical terms, everyone tends to measure their daily and even hourly productivity—the "utilities" as economists call them—against that of the gold miner.

If, therefore, the latter successfully calls to his aid mechanical giants who render his work easier and who enable him to throw into the world's markets a larger proportion of gold for a given amount of effort, the result must be that the price of gold must fall, or, in other words, the prices of general commodities must rise. If, on the other hand, all other industries have been subjected to the like improved conditions of working, the effect must be to that extent to balance the rise and keep prices comparatively steady.

If the latter successfully recruits mechanical giants that make his job easier and allow him to release more gold into the market for the same amount of effort, then the price of gold will likely drop, meaning that the prices of general goods will rise. However, if all other industries have also experienced similar improvements in working conditions, this will help balance the increase and keep prices relatively stable.

From this point of view it will be seen that the interests of all those who desire to see a rise in general prices are to a large extent bound up in the improvement of methods for the extraction of gold. The question of cheap power does not by any means monopolise the data upon which such a problem can be provisionally decided; and yet it may be broadly stated that in the main the increased output of gold in the future depends upon the more economical production and application of power. Measured against other commodities [Pg 181] which also depend mainly upon the same factor, gold will probably remain very steady; while, in contrast with those things which require for the production taste and skill rather than mere brute force or mechanical power, gold will fall in value. In other words, the classes of articles and services depending upon the exercise of man's higher faculties of skill, taste, and mental power will rise in price.

From this perspective, it's clear that the interests of everyone who wants to see prices generally go up are largely tied to improving methods for extracting gold. The issue of affordable energy isn't the only factor that can help make this decision; however, it's fair to say that, overall, the future increase in gold output primarily relies on more efficient production and use of energy. Compared to other commodities that also depend largely on energy, gold is likely to stay quite stable; while, in comparison to items that require talent and craftsmanship rather than just physical strength or mechanical energy, gold's value will decrease. In other words, the categories of goods and services that rely on human creativity, skill, and intellect will see a rise in price.

Getting gold practically means, in modern times, crushing stone. This statement is subject to fewer and fewer exceptions from one decade to another, according as the alluvial deposits in the various gold-producing countries become more or less completely worked out. A partial revival of alluvial mining has been brought about through the application of the giant dredger to cheapening the process of extracting exceedingly small quantities of gold from alluvial drift and dirt. Yet on the whole it will be found that the gold-mining industry, almost all the world over, is getting down to the bed-rock of ore-treatment by crushing and by simple methods of separation. Thus practically we may say that the cost of gold is the cost of power in those usually secluded localities where the precious metal is found in quantities sufficient to tempt the investment of capital.

Getting gold nowadays basically means crushing rock. This idea is becoming more and more consistent as time goes on, especially as the alluvial deposits in various gold-producing countries get close to being fully mined out. There has been a slight resurgence in alluvial mining thanks to the use of giant dredgers, which make it cheaper to extract tiny amounts of gold from the sand and dirt. However, overall, the gold mining industry around the world is increasingly focused on extracting ore by crushing it and using straightforward separation methods. So, we can say that the cost of gold largely comes down to the cost of energy in those typically remote areas where the metal is found in quantities that justify the investment of capital.

[Pg 182] From this it may be inferred that the cheap transmission of power by the electric current will effect a more profound revolution in the gold-mining industry than in almost any other. The main deterrent to the investing of money in opening up a new gold mine consists in the fact that a very large and certain expense is involved in the conveyance of heavy machinery to the locality, while the results are very largely in the nature of a lottery. When, however, the power is supplied from a central station, and when economical types of crusher are more fully introduced, this deterrent will, to a large extent, disappear. The cables which radiate from the central electric power-house in all directions can be very readily devoted to the furnishing of power to new mines as soon as it is found that the older ones have been proved unprofitable.

[Pg 182] From this, we can conclude that the affordable transmission of electricity will cause a bigger transformation in the gold-mining industry than in almost any other field. The main reason people hesitate to invest in starting a new gold mine is the significant and unavoidable cost of transporting heavy machinery to the site, especially since the outcomes feel mostly like a gamble. However, once power is provided from a central station, and more efficient types of crushers are used, this hesitation will largely fade away. The cables that extend from the central electric power plant in all directions can easily be used to supply power to new mines as soon as it becomes clear that the existing ones are no longer profitable.

No one will think of carrying ore to the power when it is far more economical and profitable to carry power to the ore. In this connection the principle of the division of labour becomes very important. In its bearing upon the mining industry generally, whether in its application to the precious metals or to those which are termed the baser, and even in the work of raising coal and other non-metalliferous minerals, the fact that nearly all mines [Pg 183] occur in groups will greatly aid in determining the separation of the work of supplying power, as a distinct industry from that of mining.

No one would think of transporting ore to where power is located when it’s much more cost-effective and profitable to bring power to the ore instead. In this context, the principle of the division of labor becomes very significant. Regarding the mining industry as a whole, whether for precious metals or what are considered lesser metals, and even for extracting coal and other non-metallic minerals, the fact that almost all mines [Pg 183] are found in clusters will greatly assist in separating the work of providing power as a distinct industry from that of mining.

Ore-dressing is an art which was in a very rudimentary state at the middle of the nineteenth century, when the great discoveries of gold, silver and other metals began to influence the world's markets in so striking a manner. The ancients used the jigger in the form of a wicker basket filled with crushed ore and jerked by hand up and down in water for the purpose of causing the lighter parts to rise to the top, while the more valuable portions made their way to the bottom. In this way the copper mines of Spain were worked in the days of the Roman Empire, and probably the system had existed from time immemorial.

Ore-dressing is a practice that was quite basic in the mid-nineteenth century, when the major discoveries of gold, silver, and other metals started to significantly impact global markets. In ancient times, people used a jigger, which was essentially a wicker basket filled with crushed ore, and they manually moved it up and down in water to make the lighter materials float to the top while the more valuable parts sank to the bottom. This method was employed in the copper mines of Spain during the Roman Empire, and it likely had been used for a very long time before that.

Fifty or sixty years ago the miner had got so far as to hitch his jigging basket or sieve on to some part of his machinery, generally his pumping engine, and thus to avoid the wearing muscular effort involved in moving it in the water by hand. It was not until the obvious mistake of using a machine which permitted the finest, and sometimes the richest, parts of the ore to escape had been for many years ineffectually admitted, that the "vanner," or moving endless band with a stream of water [Pg 184] running on it, was invented with the special object of treating the finer stuff.

Fifty or sixty years ago, miners had managed to attach their jigging baskets or sieves to some part of their machinery, usually their pumping engine, to avoid the tiring physical effort of moving them by hand in the water. It wasn't until they acknowledged, after many years of ignoring it, the clear mistake of using a machine that allowed the finest and sometimes the richest parts of the ore to slip through that the "vanner," or a moving endless belt with a stream of water running on it, was invented specifically to handle the finer materials. [Pg 184]

Jiggers and vanners form the staple of the miner's ore-dressing machinery at the present day. The efficiency of the latter class of separating machines, working on certain kinds of finely crushed ore, is already so great that it may be said without exaggeration that it could hardly be much improved upon, so far as percentage of extraction is concerned; and yet the waste of power which is involved is something outrageous. For the treatment of a thin layer of slimes, perhaps no thicker than a sixpence, it is necessary to violently agitate, with a reciprocating movement, a large and heavy framework. Sometimes the quantity of stuff put through as the result of one horse-power working for an hour is not more than about a hundredweight. The consequence is that in large mines the nests of vanners comprise scores or even hundreds of machines. When shaking tables are used, without the addition of the endless moving bands, good work can also be done; but the waste of power is still excessive.

Jiggers and vanners are the main equipment for miners' ore-dressing today. The effectiveness of vanners, which separate certain types of finely crushed ore, is already so high that it's almost impossible to improve the extraction percentage any further. However, the amount of power wasted is outrageous. To process a thin layer of slimes, often no thicker than a sixpence, a large, heavy framework has to be agitated violently with a back-and-forth motion. Sometimes, the amount processed by one horsepower over an hour is just about a hundredweight. As a result, large mines have nests of vanners that include dozens or even hundreds of machines. When shaking tables are used without adding endless moving bands, they can still perform well, but the power waste remains excessive.

The vanning spade and shallow washing dish are the prototypes of this kind of ore-dressing machinery. Let any one place a line of finely-crushed wet ore on a flat spade and [Pg 185] draw the latter quickly through still water, at the same time shaking it, and the result on inspection, if the speed has not been so great as to sweep all the fine grains off the surface, will be that the heavier parts of the ore will be found to have ranged themselves on the side towards which the spade was propelled in its progress through the water. A sheet of glass serves for the purpose of this experiment even better than a metal implement; but the spade is the time-honoured appliance among miners for testing some kinds of finely crushed ore by mechanical separation.

The vanning spade and shallow washing dish are the original designs of this type of ore-dressing machinery. If someone places a line of finely crushed wet ore on a flat spade and [Pg 185] quickly drags it through still water while shaking it, the inspection results, assuming the speed wasn’t so fast that all the fine grains are swept off the surface, will show that the heavier parts of the ore will have gathered on the side towards which the spade was moved in the water. A sheet of glass works even better for this experiment than a metal tool, but the spade is the traditional tool used by miners to test certain types of finely crushed ore through mechanical separation.

It is to be observed that, besides the shaking motion imparted to the apparatus, the only active agency in the distribution of the particles is the sidelong movement of the spade relatively to the water. But it makes little or no difference whether the water moves sidelong on the spade or the latter progresses through the liquid; the ore will range itself accurately all the same. Consequently, if a circular tank be used, and if the water be set in rotary motion, the ore on a sheet of glass, held steady, will arrange itself in the same way. If the ore be fed in small streams of water down the inclined surfaces of sloping glass, or other smooth shelves set close to and parallel with one another near the periphery of such a vessel [Pg 186] of moving water, the resultant motions of the heavy and of the light particles respectively, in passing down these shelves, will be found to be so different that the good stuff can be caught by a receptacle placed at one part, while the tailings fall into another receiver which is differently situated at the place where the lighter grains fall.

It should be noted that, apart from the shaking motion applied to the equipment, the only active factor in the distribution of the particles is the side-to-side movement of the spade in relation to the water. However, it doesn’t really matter whether the water moves sideways over the spade or whether the spade moves through the liquid; the ore will still sort itself accurately in either case. Therefore, if a circular tank is used, and the water is set in a spinning motion, the ore on a flat piece of glass, held still, will arrange itself in the same way. If the ore is fed in small streams of water down the inclined surfaces of sloped glass or other smooth shelves placed close and parallel to each other near the edge of such a vessel of flowing water, the resulting movements of the heavy and light particles will be so different that the valuable material can be collected by a container placed in one spot, while the waste falls into another container located where the lighter grains land.

The main essential in this particular application of the art of vanning is simply that the water should move or drift transversely to lines of ore passing, while held in suspension with water, down a smooth sloping surface. In dealing with some very light classes of ore, and especially such as may naturally crush very fine—that is to say, with a large proportion of impalpable "slimes"—there is a decided advantage in causing the water to drift sidelong on the smooth shelf by other means than the motion in a circular tank.

The key thing in this specific method of vanning is that the water needs to move sideways across the lines of ore as it’s held in suspension with water on a smooth, sloped surface. When working with very light types of ore, especially those that can crush into very fine particles—which means they contain a lot of tiny "slimes"—there’s a clear benefit to having the water flow sideways on the smooth surface using methods other than the motion in a circular tank.

Adopting nearly the form of the "side delivery manner," in which the moving band is canted to the side and the stuff runs off sideways, the sloping smooth shelf can be worked for ore separation with merely the streams of water holding the fine sand in suspension running down at fixed intervals. A glass covering is placed very close to this surface on which the streams run; and between the [Pg 187] two is driven laterally a strong current of wind by means of a blast-fan, which causes each stream of water to drift a little sidewards, carrying with it the lighter particles, but leaving on its windward side a line of nearly pure ore. These small runlets can be multiplied, on a shelf measuring six or eight feet in length, to such an extent that the machine can put through as much ore as a dozen vanners, consuming only a mere fraction of the power necessary to drive one machine of the older type.

Adopting a nearly "side delivery" approach, where the moving band is tilted to the side and the material flows off sideways, the sloped, smooth shelf can be used for ore separation with just streams of water keeping the fine sand in suspension, flowing down at set intervals. A glass cover is placed very close to this surface where the streams flow; and between the [Pg 187] two, a strong current of air is pushed laterally using a blast fan, causing each water stream to drift slightly sideways, carrying along the lighter particles while leaving a line of nearly pure ore on its windward side. These small streams can be increased, on a shelf measuring six or eight feet in length, to such an extent that the machine can process as much ore as a dozen vanners, using only a tiny fraction of the power needed to operate one of the older machines.

Cyanide solution, instead of water, is very advantageously employed for this kind of operation in the case of extracting gold from crushed ore. The method is to pump the liquid from the tanks in which it is stored and to allow it to flow back by way of the vanning apparatus, thus providing not only for catching the grains of gold by the concentrating machine, but also for the dissolving of the fine impalpable gold dust, or natural precipitate, by the action of the cyanide of potassium.

Cyanide solution, rather than water, is effectively used for extracting gold from crushed ore. The process involves pumping the liquid from the storage tanks and letting it flow back through the vanning equipment. This setup not only captures the grains of gold with the concentrating machine but also dissolves the fine, invisible gold dust, or natural precipitate, with potassium cyanide.

Upon the use of this latter chemical will be based the main improvements in the gold-mining industry during the twentieth century; and, conversely, the applications of the old system of amalgamating with mercury, in order to catch the golden particles, will be gradually [Pg 188] restricted. Fine concentrators, worked with cyanide solution, perform three operations at once, namely, first, the catching of the free gold grains; second, the production of a rich concentrate of minerals having gold in association and intended for smelting; and, third, the dissolving of the finest particles by the continual action of the chemical.

The main improvements in the gold-mining industry during the twentieth century will rely on this new chemical. In contrast, the old method of using mercury to capture gold particles will gradually be limited. High-quality concentrators, used with cyanide solution, handle three tasks at once: first, they trap free gold grains; second, they create a rich concentrate of minerals with gold for smelting; and third, they dissolve the finest particles through the ongoing action of the chemical. [Pg 188]

In fact it is in the treatment of complex and very refractory ores generally, whether of the precious or of the baser metals, that the finer applications of the art of the ore-dresser will receive their first great impetus. The vanner, as well as the jigger, will become an instrument of precision; and in combination with rushing appliances operated by cheap power in almost unlimited quantities it will materially assist in multiplying the world's supply of metals. This again will aid in promoting the further extension of machinery. Gold will be produced in greater abundance for what is called the machinery of commerce; and the base metals, particularly the new alloys of steel and also copper and aluminium, will be more largely produced for engineering and electrical purposes.

In fact, it's in the processing of complex and very stubborn ores, whether they're precious or common metals, that the advanced techniques of the ore-dresser will really take off. Both the vanner and the jigger will turn into precision tools; and when combined with powerful machines fueled by inexpensive energy in nearly limitless amounts, they will significantly boost the world's metal supply. This, in turn, will help expand the use of machinery even further. Gold will be produced in larger quantities for what’s known as the machinery of commerce, and common metals, especially new steel alloys, as well as copper and aluminum, will be produced more extensively for engineering and electrical applications.

The importation—particularly to England and Scotland—of large quantities of highly-concentrated iron ore will cause one of the first notable developments in the mining and [Pg 189] ore-treatment of the twentieth century so far as the United Kingdom is concerned. The urgent necessity for an extension in the manufacture of Bessemer steel, and of the new and remarkable alloys in which very small quantities of other metals are employed in order to impart altogether exceptional qualities to iron, must accentuate the demand for those kinds of ore which lend themselves most readily to the special requirements of the works on hand. Hence the question of the transport of special kinds of iron ore over longer distances will have to be faced (as it has been already to a limited degree), and not only in reference to ores containing a low percentage of phosphorus and therefore exceptionally suitable for the Bessemerising process, but also in regard to ores which are amenable to magnetic separation.

The importation—especially to England and Scotland—of large amounts of highly concentrated iron ore will mark one of the first significant developments in mining and ore treatment in the twentieth century for the United Kingdom. The urgent need for an increase in the production of Bessemer steel, along with the new and impressive alloys that use very small amounts of other metals to give iron exceptional qualities, will drive the demand for those types of ore that best meet the specific needs of the ongoing projects. Therefore, the issue of transporting special types of iron ore over longer distances will need to be addressed (as it has already been to a limited extent), not only regarding ores with a low percentage of phosphorus, which are especially suitable for the Bessemer process, but also concerning ores that can be easily separated magnetically.

Magnetite, indeed, must bulk more largely in the future as a source of iron, particularly because it is susceptible of magnetic separation, a process which as yet is only in its infancy. Containing, as it does, a larger percentage of iron than any other source from which the metal is commercially extracted, its employment as an ore results in great economy of fuel, as well as a reduction in the proportionate costs of transport. When ores of iron require [Pg 190] to be brought from oversea places, it is obvious that those which will concentrate to the purest product possible, and which are in other respects specially applicable to the production of grades of steel of exceptional tensile strength, will have the preference.

Magnetite will definitely become a more significant source of iron in the future, especially since it can be separated using magnetic methods, which are still in the early stages of development. It has a higher percentage of iron compared to other sources that commercially provide the metal, so using it as an ore leads to major savings in fuel and lower transport costs. When iron ores need to be brought in from overseas, it's clear that ores which can produce the purest products and are particularly suited for creating high-strength steel will be favored.

Magnetic concentration, or the separation of an ore from the waste gangue by the attraction of powerful electro-magnets, must therefore occupy a much more prominent place in the metallurgy of the future than it has in that of the past. Not only may ironstone containing magnetite be separated from other material, but several important minerals acquire the property of becoming magnetic when subjected to the operation of roasting, sometimes through a sulphide being converted into a magnetic oxide.

Magnetic concentration, or separating an ore from the waste material using strong electromagnets, will have a much more important role in future metallurgy than it did in the past. Not only can ironstone with magnetite be separated from other substances, but several key minerals also become magnetic when roasted, often as a result of a sulfide being transformed into a magnetic oxide.

By the use of powerful electro-magnets, the poles of which are brought to a point or to a nearly sharp knife-edge, the intensity of the magnetic field can be so enormously increased that even minerals which are only feebly magnetic can readily be separated by being lifted away from the non-magnetic material. In some systems the crushed ore is simply permitted to fall in a continuous stream through a strong magnetic field, and the magnetic particles are diverted out of the vertical in their descent by the operation of the magnets.

By using powerful electromagnets, whose poles are shaped into a point or a nearly sharp edge, the strength of the magnetic field can be greatly increased so that even minerals that are only weakly magnetic can be easily separated from non-magnetic materials by lifting them away. In some setups, the crushed ore simply falls in a continuous stream through a strong magnetic field, and the magnetic particles are redirected from their vertical path as they descend due to the magnets.

[Pg 191] Nor is it only those minerals that actually become themselves magnetic on being roasted which can be so differentiated from the material with which they are associated as to be amenable to magnetic separation. Even differences in hygroscopic properties—that is to say, in the degree of avidity with which a mineral takes up moisture from the atmosphere—may be made available for the purpose of effecting a commercially valuable separation. This is especially the case with some complex ores in which one constituent, on being roasted, acquires a much greater hygroscopic power than the others, the grains of the crushed and roasted ore becoming damp and sticky while those of the other minerals remain comparatively dry. By mixing with an ore of this kind—after it has been allowed to "weather" for a short time—some finely-powdered magnetite the strongly hygroscopic constituents can be made practically magnetic, because the magnetic impalpable dust adheres to them, while it remains separate from the grains of the other minerals.

[Pg 191] It's not just minerals that actually become magnetic when heated that can be distinguished from the materials they’re mixed with for magnetic separation. Differences in how much moisture a mineral absorbs from the air—its hygroscopic properties—can also be useful for achieving a commercially valuable separation. This is particularly true for some complex ores where one component, when heated, absorbs much more moisture than the others, causing the crushed and heated ore particles to become wet and sticky, while the other minerals stay relatively dry. By mixing in some finely powdered magnetite with this type of ore—after letting it "weather" for a short time—the highly hygroscopic components can effectively become magnetic, because the magnetic fine dust sticks to them, while it stays separate from the other minerals.

Hardness—as well as magnetic attraction—is a property of ore which has as yet been made available to only a very slight extent as the basis of a system of separation. If a quantity of mixed fragments of glass and [Pg 192] plumbago be pounded together in a mortar with only a moderate degree of pressure, so as to avoid, as far as possible, the breaking of the glass, there will soon come a stage at which the softer material can be separated from the harder simply by means of a fine sieve. There are many naturally-existing mineral mixtures in the crushing of which a similar result occurs in a very marked degree; and, indeed, there are none which do not show the peculiarity more or less, because the constituents of an ore are never of exactly the same degree of hardness. When the worthless parts are the softer and therefore have the greater tendency to "slime," the ore is very readily dressed to a high percentage by means of water.

Hardness—as well as magnetic attraction—is a property of ore that has only been used to a very limited extent for separation systems. If you take a mix of glass fragments and plumbago and crush them together in a mortar with moderate pressure, being careful not to break the glass too much, you'll soon reach a point where the softer material can be separated from the harder one using just a fine sieve. There are many natural mineral mixtures where a similar outcome occurs very noticeably during crushing; in fact, there are none that don’t display this characteristic to some degree, because the components of an ore never have exactly the same level of hardness. When the waste parts are the softer ones and tend to "slime" more, the ore can be easily processed to achieve a high percentage using water.

But when the reverse is the case, and the valuable constituents through their softness get reduced to a fine pulp long before the other parts, the ordinary operations of the ore-dresser become much more difficult to carry out. Most elaborate ore-reduction plants are constructed with the view to causing the crushing surfaces, whether of rolls or of jaws, to merely tap each piece of stone so as to break it in bits without creating much dust. This operation is repeated over and over again; but the stuff which is fine enough to go to the concentrator is removed by sieving after each [Pg 193] operation of the kind; and the successive rolls or other crushers are set to a finer and finer gauge, so that there is a progressive approach to the conditions of coarse sand, which is that specially desired by the ore-dresser.

But when the opposite happens, and the valuable materials break down into a fine pulp much sooner than the other parts, the regular processes used by the ore-dresser become much harder to perform. Most advanced ore-reduction plants are designed to ensure that the crushing surfaces, whether rolls or jaws, only gently tap each piece of rock to break it into smaller bits without creating much dust. This process is repeated many times; however, the material that is fine enough to go to the concentrator is removed by sieving after each [Pg 193] operation. The subsequent rolls or other crushers are set to a progressively finer setting, so there is a gradual approach to the conditions of coarse sand, which is particularly desired by the ore-dresser.

Much of this elaboration will be seen to be needless, and, moreover, better commercial results will be obtained when it is more clearly perceived that the recovery of a valuable ore in the form of a fine slime may be economically effected by the action of grinders specially constructed for the purpose of permitting the hard constituents of the ore to remain in comparatively large grains, while the other and softer minerals are reduced to fine slimes or dust. In other words, a grinding plant, purposely designed to carry out its work in exactly the opposite way to that which has been described as the system aimed at in ordinary crushing machinery, has its place in the future of metallurgy. Light mullers are employed to pound, or to press together, the crushed grains for a given length of time, and then sieving machinery completes the operation by taking out the dust from the more palpable grains.

Much of this explanation may seem unnecessary, and additionally, better business results will be achieved when it’s more clearly understood that recovering valuable ore in the form of fine slime can be done efficiently using grinders specifically designed to allow the hard parts of the ore to stay in relatively large pieces while the softer minerals are crushed into fine slimes or dust. In other words, a grinding plant that is intentionally designed to operate in exactly the opposite manner from what is typical in regular crushing machinery will play a significant role in the future of metallurgy. Light mullers are used to pound or press the crushed grains together for a set period of time, and then sieving machines finish the process by removing the dust from the larger grains.

In some cases it will be found that an improvement can be effected by bringing about [Pg 194] the separation of a finer grade of dust than could be taken out by any kind of sieve which is commercially practicable on the large scale. This is more particularly the case in regard to sulphide ores containing very friable constituents carrying silver. A fine dry dust-separator may then be employed constructed on the principle of a vibrating sloping shelf which moves rhythmically, either in a horizontal circle or with a reciprocal motion, and which at the same time alters its degree of inclination to the horizontal. When the shelf is nearly level its vibration drives the coarser particles off; but the very finest dust does not leave it until it assumes nearly a vertical position. A large nest of similar shelves, set close to, and parallel with, one another, can separate out a great quantity of well-dried slimes in a very short space of time.

In some cases, you can improve the process by separating a finer grade of dust than can be removed using any commercially viable sieve on a large scale. This is especially true for sulfide ores with very fragile components that contain silver. A fine dry dust separator can be used, designed like a vibrating sloped shelf that moves rhythmically, either in a horizontal circle or back and forth, while also changing its angle to the horizontal. When the shelf is nearly level, its vibration pushes the coarser particles off, but the very fine dust stays until the shelf is nearly vertical. A large setup of similar shelves, positioned close together and parallel to one another, can quickly separate a significant amount of well-dried slimes.


CHAPTER IX.

DOMESTIC.

The enormous waste involved in the common methods of heating is one of the principal defects of household economy which will be corrected during the twentieth century. Different authorities have made varying estimates of the proportion between the heat which goes up the chimney of an ordinary grate, and that which actually passes out into the room fulfilling its purpose of maintaining an equable temperature; but it cannot be denied that, at the very least, something like three-fourths of the heat generated by the domestic fires of even the most advanced and civilised nations goes absolutely to waste—or rather to worse than waste—because the extra smoke produced in creating it only serves to pollute the atmosphere. In the cities some degree of progress has been made in the introduction of heating appliances which really give warmth to a room without losing at least seventy-five per cent. of their heat; but in the country districts, where open fireplaces are the rule, it is not [Pg 196] unusual to find that more than ninety per cent. of the heat produced behind the domestic hearth goes up the chimney.

The massive waste associated with traditional heating methods is one of the main issues in household efficiency that will be addressed in the twentieth century. Various experts have provided different estimates of the ratio between the heat that escapes up the chimney of a typical fireplace and the heat that actually enters the room to maintain a comfortable temperature; however, it’s undeniable that, at the very least, about three-quarters of the heat generated by home fires in even the most developed and civilized nations is completely wasted—or even worse than wasted—because the extra smoke produced adds to air pollution. In urban areas, some progress has been made with the introduction of heating systems that effectively warm a room without losing at least seventy-five percent of their heat, but in rural areas, where open fireplaces are common, it's not uncommon to find that more than ninety percent of the heat produced in the home simply goes up the chimney.

Sentiment has had a great deal to do with retarding progress in the direction of improved house-heating appliances. For countless ages "the hearth" has been, so to speak, the domestic altar, around which some of the most sacred associations of mankind have gathered, and popular sentiment has declared that it is not for the iconoclastic inventor or architect to improve it out of existence, or even to interfere seriously with either its shape or the position in the living room from which it sheds its genial warmth and cheerfulness around the family circle. A recognition of this ineradicable popular feeling was involved in the adoption of the grate, filled with glowing balls of asbestos composition, by the makers of gas-heating apparatus. The imitation of the coal-filled grate is in some cases almost perfect; and yet it is in this close approximation to the real article that some lovers of the domestic fuel-fire find their chief objection, just as the tricks of anthropoid animals—so strongly reminiscent of human beings and yet distinct—have the effect of repelling some people far more than the ways of creatures utterly unlike man in form and feature.

Sentiment has played a significant role in slowing down the progress of better home heating appliances. For countless ages, "the hearth" has been, in a way, the heart of the home, where many of humanity's most cherished memories have formed. Popular sentiment has declared that it's not the job of the innovative inventor or architect to drastically change it or alter its design or the spot in the living room from where it spreads its comforting warmth and cheer around the family. Acknowledging this deep-rooted public sentiment was part of why gas heating manufacturers adopted the grate filled with glowing asbestos-like materials. The imitation of a coal-filled grate is in some cases nearly perfect; yet, it's this close resemblance to the real thing that some fans of traditional fireplaces find most off-putting, much like how the behaviors of ape-like animals—so reminiscent of humans yet distinctly different—can be more unsettling to some than the actions of creatures that are nothing like humans in shape or appearance.

[Pg 197] Taking count of the domestic attachment to a real fuel-filled fireplace or grate as one of the principal factors in the problem of domestic heating, it is plain that one way of obviating the waste of heat which is at present incurred, without doing violence to that sentiment, is by making better use of the chimney. The hot-air pipes and coils which are already so largely used for indoor heating offer in themselves a hint in this direction. Long pipes or coils inserted in the course taken by the heated air in ascending a chimney become warm, and it is possible, by taking such a pipe from one part of the room up the passage and back again, to cause, by means of a small rotating fan or other ventilating apparatus, the whole of the air in the chamber to circulate up the chimney and back again every few minutes, gathering warmth as it goes. In this way, and by exposing as much heating surface to the warm air in the chimney as possible, the warmth derived by an ordinary room from a fuel fire can be more than doubled.

[Pg 197] Considering the strong preference for a real, fuel-burning fireplace or grate as a key factor in the home heating issue, it's clear that one effective way to reduce the heat loss we currently face, while respecting that preference, is to better utilize the chimney. The hot-air pipes and coils that are already widely used for indoor heating provide a clue here. Long pipes or coils placed in the path of the rising hot air in the chimney will warm up, and by running such a pipe from one part of the room up the hallway and back, we can use a small rotating fan or other ventilation system to circulate all the air in the room up the chimney and back every few minutes, picking up heat along the way. Through this method, and by maximizing the surface area that is heated by the warm air in the chimney, the warmth a typical room gets from a fuel fire can be more than doubled.

At the same time the risk of spreading "smuts" over the room can be entirely avoided first by keeping the whole length of pipe perfectly air-tight, and attaching it in such a way as to be readily removed for inspection; and, secondly, by placing the outward vent in such [Pg 198] a position that the gentle current must mount upwards, and any dust must fall back again into a wide funnel-shaped orifice, and by covering the latter with fine wire gauze. An apparatus of this kind acts as a remover of dust from the room instead of adding any to it. One necessity, however, is the provision of motive power, very small though it be, to work the fan or otherwise promote a draught.

At the same time, the risk of spreading "smuts" around the room can be completely avoided first by keeping the entire length of the pipe completely airtight and attaching it in a way that makes it easy to remove for inspection; and, secondly, by placing the outward vent in such a position that the gentle air current rises upwards, allowing any dust to fall back into a wide funnel-shaped opening, which should be covered with fine wire mesh. A setup like this helps to remove dust from the room instead of adding to it. However, one requirement is the provision of a power source, however small, to operate the fan or create a draft.

Electric heating is, however, the method which will probably take precedence over others in all those cases where systems are tried on their actual merits apart from sentiment or usage. The wonderful facility afforded by the electric heating wire for the distribution of a moderate degree of warmth, in exactly the proportions in which it may be needed, gives the electric method an enormous advantage over its rivals. The fundamental principle upon which heating by electricity is generally arranged depends upon the fact that a thin wire offers more electrical resistance to the passage of a current than a thick one, and therefore becomes heated. In the case of the incandescent lamp, in which the carbon filament requires to be raised to a white heat and must be free to emit its light without interference from opaque matter, it is necessary to protect the resisting and glowing material by nearly [Pg 199] exhausting the air from the hermetically sealed globe or bulb in which it is enclosed.

Electric heating is, however, the method that will likely take precedence over others in all cases where systems are evaluated based on their actual merits, rather than sentiment or tradition. The incredible ease provided by electric heating wires for distributing a moderate level of warmth in exactly the amounts needed gives electric heating a huge advantage over its competitors. The basic principle behind electric heating relies on the fact that a thin wire has more electrical resistance to the flow of current than a thick one, and thus gets heated. In the case of incandescent bulbs, where the carbon filament needs to be heated to a white-hot temperature and must be free to emit light without obstruction from opaque materials, it is essential to protect the glowing material by almost [Pg 199] exhausting the air from the hermetically sealed globe or bulb that encases it.

But in electrical house-warming, for which a white heat is not required and in which the necessary protection from the air can be secured by embedding the conveying medium in opaque solid material, the problem becomes much simpler, because strong metallic wires can be used, and they may be enclosed in any kind of cement which does not corrode them and which distributes the heat while refusing to conduct the electric current. A network of wire, crossing and recrossing but always carrying the same current, may be embedded in plaster and a gentle heat may be imparted to the whole mass through the resistance of the wires to the electricity and their contact with the non-conducting material.

But in electric heating for homes, where extreme heat isn't necessary and protection from the air can be achieved by embedding the conducting medium in opaque solid materials, the issue becomes much easier. This is because sturdy metallic wires can be used, and they can be encased in any type of cement that doesn't corrode them and that spreads the heat while blocking the flow of electric current. A network of wires, crossing and recrossing but always carrying the same current, can be embedded in plaster, allowing for a gentle heat to be spread throughout the whole mass due to the resistance of the wires to the electricity and their contact with the non-conductive material.

Concurrently with this method of heating there is gradually being introduced a practice of using metallic lathing for the plastering of dwelling-rooms in place of the old wooden battens generally employed for lath-and-plaster work. The solution of the practical problem which has to be faced seems to depend upon the prospect of effecting a compromise between the two systems, introducing thin resisting wire as the metallic element in such work, but making all other components from non-conducting [Pg 200] material. In the event of any "cut-out" or "short-circuiting" occurring through accidental injury to the wall, it would be very inconvenient to be compelled to knock away the plaster. Moreover, it is not necessary for ordinary warming purposes that the whole of the wall, up to the ceiling, should be heated.

At the same time this heating method is being used, there's an increasing trend toward using metal lathing for plastering living spaces instead of the traditional wooden battens commonly used in lath-and-plaster work. Solving this practical issue seems to require finding a balance between the two systems, incorporating thin, durable wire as the metal component while using non-conducting material for all other parts. If there were to be any "cut-out" or "short-circuit" due to accidental damage to the wall, it would be very inconvenient to have to remove the plaster. Additionally, it's not necessary to heat the entire wall up to the ceiling for regular warming purposes. [Pg 200]

Accordingly the system which is likely to commend itself is that of constructing panels on some such principle as the one already described, and affixing them to the wall, forming a kind of solid dado from three to four feet from the floor. These can be fastened so as to facilitate removal for examination and repairs. When the current is switched on they are slowly warmed up by the heat generated through the resistance of the wires, and the air in the room is gently heated without being vitiated or deprived of its oxygen as it is by the presence of flames, whether of fuel or of gas. Warming footstools will also be provided, and a room heated in this way will be found eminently comfortable to live in.

Accordingly, the system that is likely to be favored is one that involves constructing panels based on a principle similar to the one already described and attaching them to the wall, creating a solid dado about three to four feet above the floor. These can be secured in a way that makes it easy to remove them for inspection and repairs. When the power is turned on, they gradually warm up from the heat generated by the resistance of the wires, gently heating the air in the room without compromising its quality or reducing its oxygen levels, as happens with flames from fuel or gas. Heating footstools will also be provided, and a room warmed this way will be extremely comfortable to live in.

This method of house-warming having once obtained a decided lead within the cities and other localities where a cheap electric current is available, somewhat similar systems, adapted for the heating of walls by hot air in tubes, instead of by resistant wires, will be [Pg 201] largely adopted in the rural districts, more particularly in churches and other places of public assemblage. The progress made in this direction during the last few years of the nineteenth century is already noteworthy, but when electric-heating really gets a good chance to force the pace of improvement, the day will soon arrive when it will be regarded as nothing less than barbarous to ask people to sit during the winter months in places not evenly warmed all through by methods which result in the distribution of the heat exactly as it is wanted.

This house-warming method, which has become quite popular in cities and areas where affordable electric power is available, will see similar systems adapted for heating walls with hot air in tubes instead of using resistant wires, [Pg 201] especially in rural areas, particularly in churches and places where people gather. The advancements made in this area during the last few years of the nineteenth century are already significant, but when electric heating gets a real opportunity to drive progress, it won't be long before it seems completely unacceptable to ask people to sit in uncomfortably cold spaces during winter months when there are methods available that can evenly distribute heat where it's needed.

Ventilation is another household reform which will be very greatly accelerated by the presence of electric power of low cost. The great majority of civilised people, as yet, have no idea of ventilation excepting that highly unreasonable kind which depends upon leaving their houses and other buildings partly open to the outside weather. One man is sitting in church under a down draught from an open window above him, while others, in different parts of the same building, may be weltering in the heat and feeling stifled through the vitiated air. In dwelling-houses the great majority of living rooms really have no other effective form of ventilation than the draught from the fireplace. The strength of this draught, again, is regulated to a very large [Pg 202] extent by the speed and direction of the outside wind.

Ventilation is another household improvement that will be greatly enhanced by the availability of low-cost electricity. Most civilized people still have no real understanding of ventilation beyond the somewhat unreasonable method of leaving their houses and other buildings partially open to the outside weather. One person might be sitting in church under a cold draft from an open window above, while others in different areas of the same building could be sweltering in heat and feeling suffocated by stale air. In homes, the majority of living rooms have no effective form of ventilation except the draft from the fireplace. The strength of this draft is largely determined by the speed and direction of the outside wind. [Pg 202]

In calm and sultry weather, when ventilation is most needed, the current of air from the fireplace may be very slight indeed; while in the wild and boisterous days succeeding a sudden change of weather, the living rooms are subjected to such a drop in temperature and are swept by such draughts of cold air that the inmates are very liable to catch colds and influenza. Hence has arisen in the British Islands, and in the colder countries of Europe and America, the very general desire among the poorer classes to suppress all ventilation. Rooms are closed at the commencement of winter and practically remain so until the summer season. Many people whose circumstances have improved, and who pass suddenly from ill-ventilated houses to those which have better access to the outside air, find the change so severe upon their constitutions and habits that they give a bad name to everything in the shape of ventilation. Meanwhile the dread of draughts causes people to exclude the fresh air to such an extent that consumption and many other diseases are fostered and engendered.

In calm and humid weather, when fresh air is most needed, the airflow from the fireplace can be very weak; whereas during the wild and stormy days that follow a sudden weather change, living rooms can experience a significant drop in temperature and be filled with cold drafts, making people very prone to catching colds and the flu. This has led to a widespread desire among the poorer classes in the British Isles and colder regions of Europe and America to minimize all forms of ventilation. Rooms are shut at the start of winter and remain that way until summer. Many people whose situations have improved, and who move suddenly from poorly ventilated homes to those with better air circulation, find the transition so harsh on their bodies and habits that they develop a negative view of ventilation. In the meantime, the fear of drafts leads people to block out fresh air to such an extent that it contributes to the spread and development of illnesses like tuberculosis and many others.

All this arises mainly from the very serious mistake of imagining that it is possible to [Pg 203] move air without the exercise of force. In the case of the draught caused by a fire no doubt an active force is employed in the energy of the heated air ascending the chimney, and in the corresponding inrush. This latter is usually drawn from below the door—the very worst place from which it can be taken, seeing that in the experience of most people it is by getting the feet chilled, through draughts along the floor, that the worst colds are generally contracted. Fireplaces are not unusually regarded as a direct means for ventilation, and with regard to nearly all the devices commonly adopted in houses and public buildings, it may be said that they lack the first requisite for a scientific system of renewing the air, namely a source of power by means of which to shift it from outside to inside, and vice versâ. There is no direction in which a more pressing need exists for the distribution of power in small quantities than in regard to the ventilation of private and public edifices.

All this mainly comes from the serious mistake of thinking that it's possible to move air without using any force. In the case of the draft created by a fire, it's clear that an active force is at play with the heated air rising up the chimney and pulling in air from below. This incoming air usually comes from underneath the door, which is the worst place to draw from, since most people know that getting cold feet from drafts along the floor is often how they catch the worst colds. Fireplaces are often seen as a direct way to ventilate, and for nearly all the methods commonly used in homes and public buildings, it's fair to say they lack the essential requirement for a scientific system of air renewal: a power source to move air from outside to inside and vice versa. There is a significant need for distributing power in small amounts, especially concerning the ventilation of private and public buildings.

The circular fan, placed in the centre piece of the ceiling and controlled by an electric switch on the wall, is the principal type of apparatus applicable to the purposes of ventilation. As electric lighting of dwelling-houses becomes more common, and ultimately almost universal within cities, the practice will be to [Pg 204] arrange for lighting and for ventilation at the same time. But, unfortunately, the current now principally employed for electric lighting and consisting of a series of impulses, first in one direction and then in the opposite, "alternating" with wonderful rapidity, is not well adapted for driving small motors of the types now in use. One improvement in domestic economy greatly needed in the twentieth century consists in the invention of a really effective simple and economical "alternate-current" motor. This is a matter which will be referred to in dealing with electrical machines. That the problem will be solved before many years have passed there is no good reason to doubt.

The circular fan, located at the center of the ceiling and controlled by a switch on the wall, is the main device used for ventilation. As electric lighting in homes becomes more common and eventually nearly universal in cities, the trend will be to [Pg 204] provide lighting and ventilation at the same time. However, the electricity currently used for lighting, which consists of a series of pulses that alternate rapidly in direction, isn't very suitable for powering the small motors we use today. One significant improvement needed in home efficiency for the twentieth century is the invention of a truly effective, simple, and cost-efficient "alternating-current" motor. This topic will be discussed further in relation to electrical machines. There’s no reason to doubt that this issue will be resolved in the coming years.

In the meantime many laudable endeavours are being made towards the application of the pressure from water pipes to the purpose of driving ventilating fans. The extreme wastefulness of power and of water involved in this method of dealing with the difficulty may be partially overlooked on account of the very small amounts required to produce an effect in the desired direction; and yet there is no doubt that a recognition of the wastefulness acts to some extent as a deterrent to artificial ventilation. The benefits of the system are not sufficiently obvious or showy to induce [Pg 205] any class of people, excepting physicians and persons fully acquainted with the principles of hygiene, to sanction a material outlay upon the object. When an exactly suitable alternate-current motor has been invented the standard electric light installation will be practically one apparatus with the ventilating fan, and the cost of the latter will hardly be felt as a separate item.

In the meantime, many commendable efforts are being made to use the pressure from water pipes to power ventilating fans. The significant waste of energy and water involved in this approach may be somewhat overlooked because only small amounts are needed to create the desired effect. However, it’s clear that recognizing this wastefulness somewhat discourages artificial ventilation. The advantages of the system aren’t obvious or flashy enough to motivate any group of people, other than physicians and those well-versed in hygiene principles, to invest significantly in it. Once a perfectly suitable alternate-current motor is invented, the standard electric light setup will essentially combine with the ventilating fan, making the cost of the latter hardly noticeable as a separate expense.

In cooking there is in existing ordinary methods the same enormous waste of heat as there is in the warming of rooms. Something, no doubt, has been done in the direction of economy by the invention of new and improved forms of stoves, but a great preponderance of the heat generated in the fire of even the best stove goes up the chimney. The electric oven, as already invented, is perhaps the nearest approach to a really economical "cooker" that has yet been proposed; but even before the general adoption of such an apparatus there will be ample room for improvement in the cooking stove, first as regards insulation, and secondly in the distribution of the fuel around the objects to be heated. One principal cause of the waste that goes on arises from the fact that the fire burns away from the place at which its heat is most beneficially applied, and no means are adopted, as in the case of the candle [Pg 206] in a carriage lamp, for keeping it up to the required level. Additions of fuel are made from the top with the immediate effect of checking the heat.

In cooking, there’s a huge waste of heat in standard methods, just like there is when heating rooms. Some progress has been made towards efficiency with the invention of new and better stoves, but a lot of the heat produced, even in the best stoves, still goes up the chimney. The electric oven that has already been created is probably the closest thing we have to a genuinely economical cooker so far, but before everyone starts using this type of oven, there’s still plenty of room for improvement in cooking stoves. This includes better insulation and better placement of the fuel around the items that need heating. One major reason for this waste is that the fire is burning away from where its heat is most useful, and there are no measures in place, like with a candle in a carriage lamp, to maintain the necessary heat level. Adding fuel from the top immediately reduces the heat produced. [Pg 206]

A great advance in economy of fuel will take place when the household coal intended for cooking purposes is ground up together with the proper proportions of certain waste products of chemistry, so as to make a "smouldering mixture" which can be kept regularly supplied to a shallow or thin fire box by pressure applied from beneath or at the parts farthest away from the objects to be heated. An oven, for instance, may be surrounded by a "jacket" filled with ground smouldering mixture having a non-conducting insulator outside and a connection with a chimney. The heat from the fuel is thus kept in close proximity to the objects requiring to be cooked, and comparatively small waste results.

A major advancement in fuel efficiency will happen when household coal meant for cooking is mixed with the right proportions of specific chemical waste products to create a "smoldering mixture" that can be continuously supplied to a shallow firebox through pressure applied from below or at the farthest points from the items being heated. For example, an oven can be surrounded by a "jacket" filled with the ground smoldering mixture, which has a non-conductive insulation on the outside and a connection to a chimney. This way, the heat from the fuel stays close to the items that need to be cooked, resulting in relatively little waste.

It is by taking advantage of their superior facilities in the same direction that gas and inflammable oils have already made their mark in the sphere of domestic cookery. Regarded as fuel their initial cost may be relatively heavy; and yet, owing to their more exact method of application, they often effect a saving in the end. Not only do they bring the fire closer to the articles to be heated or [Pg 207] cooked, but they also make it easy for the fire to be turned off or on, and this in itself is an important source of economy. Still, with the advent of cheaper and more accessible power in every centre of population, the cost of grinding coal and of mixing it in order to form a fuel comparable in respect of convenience and economy with gas and oil will be so greatly reduced that the "black diamond" will still continue to challenge its rivals in the arena of competition presented by the demands of domestic economy.

Gas and flammable oils have already made their mark in home cooking by utilizing their better facilities in the same area. While their initial cost as fuel might be relatively high, their more precise application often leads to savings in the long run. They not only bring the heat closer to what needs to be heated or cooked, but also allow for easy adjustments to the flame, which is a significant source of savings. However, with the rise of cheaper and more accessible energy sources in every urban area, the cost of grinding coal and mixing it to create a fuel that matches the convenience and economy of gas and oil will decrease significantly. This means that coal will continue to compete against its rivals in meeting the demands of household efficiency.

Light, as well as heat and air, requires to be evenly and equably distributed throughout the dwelling-house before anything approaching an ideal residence can be secured. As the science of hygiene advances it is demonstrated more and more clearly that sunlight—and even diffused daylight—may be used as a most effective weapon against the spread of disease. Alternations of deep gloom in the dwelling-house with the superior light resulting from brighter weather produce many kinds of nervous derangement, not the least deleterious of which arise from the unnecessary strain to which the eyesight is subjected. The promise of the future is that, through the abundance of windows provided in the walls, roofs and porches of our dwelling-houses—but all supplemented [Pg 208] with shutters and blinds of various kinds—there shall be a possibility of regulating, far more accurately than at present, the accessibility of light from outside according to the brightness or dulness of the day.

Light, along with heat and air, needs to be evenly and consistently spread throughout the home before we can create an ideal living space. As hygiene science progresses, it becomes increasingly clear that sunlight—and even natural daylight—can be a highly effective tool in preventing the spread of disease. Sudden changes from deep darkness inside the home to the bright light outside can lead to various kinds of nervous disorders, one of the most harmful being the unnecessary strain placed on our eyesight. The future holds the promise that, with the abundance of windows in the walls, roofs, and porches of our homes—supplemented by various types of shutters and blinds—we will be able to control the amount of outdoor light coming in much more effectively, depending on whether the day is bright or dull. [Pg 208]

It is hardly to be expected that many people will build "Crystal Palaces" in which to reside; but with the immense progress that is being made in the construction of dwellings with iron or steel frames, and in the adaptation of various materials so that they may serve for building purposes in conjunction with metallic frameworks, it seems clear that many roofs, as well as large portions of walls, will in future be made on the composite principle, using steel and glass. These will, to a large extent, be permanently sheltered from the direct rays of the sun when high in the heavens, by shutters constructed on the louvre principle so that they may admit the light from the sky continually, but actual rays or beams of sunlight only for a short time after sunrise and at the close of day. The ceilings, if any are provided under the roofs, will also be glazed.

It's unlikely that many people will build "Crystal Palaces" to live in; however, with the significant advancements in constructing homes with iron or steel frames and adapting various materials for building alongside metal frameworks, it's clear that many roofs and large parts of walls will be made using a composite design of steel and glass in the future. These will largely be shielded from direct sunlight when the sun is high in the sky by shutters designed with a louvre system, allowing them to let in light from the sky continuously, but only actual rays of sunlight for a brief period after sunrise and at sunset. If there are ceilings installed under these roofs, they will also be made of glass.

The obstacles presented in the way of such a reform in a city like London may at first sight seem so serious as to be practically insuperable. Long rows of three or four storied houses certainly offer but few facilities for the [Pg 209] admission of light through the roofs of any but the rooms on the top floors, and yet it is in the dwelling-houses of this type that the depression caused by gloom and the absence of light during the hours of day are most severely felt as a source of nervous depression. Evolution in a matter of this sort will take place gradually and along the line of least resistance. Portions of courts, areas and yards will be glazed over in the way described; and it will be found that those rooms which are thus enclosed and sheltered from the wind and rain, but left open to the daylight, constitute the most cheerful sitting places in the houses. Then, as rebuilding and alterations proceed, many houses will gradually be remodelled—at least as regards some of their rooms—in the same direction. Physicians will become increasingly insistent on the necessity for admitting plenty of light into the abodes of the sick, more particularly of families inclined towards consumption.

The obstacles to reform in a city like London may initially seem so serious that they appear almost impossible to overcome. Long rows of three or four-story homes definitely provide limited opportunities for light to enter through the roofs of all but the top-floor rooms, yet it is in these types of homes that the feelings of gloom and lack of light throughout the day are felt the most, leading to nervous depression. Change in this area will happen slowly and in ways that face the least resistance. Sections of courtyards, alleys, and yards will be covered with glass as described, and it will be found that those rooms that are enclosed and protected from the wind and rain while still open to daylight become the most uplifting living spaces in the homes. As rebuilding and renovations continue, many houses will gradually be redesigned—at least some of their rooms—along similar lines. Doctors will increasingly stress the importance of letting in plenty of light into the homes of the sick, especially in families prone to tuberculosis.

A very large trade will spring up during the twentieth century in household cooling apparatus for use in hot climates. The colonial expansion towards which all European races are now tending inevitably means that very many thousands of persons whose ancestors have been accustomed to life in cold or [Pg 210] temperate climates, will be induced to dwell in the dry and warm, or in the humid tropical regions of the earth. It will be an important task of the British, Continental and American machinists of the twentieth century to turn out convenient pieces of apparatus which shall be available for ventilating houses, especially during the night, and for reducing the temperature in them to something approaching that which is natural to the inmates. The old clumsy punkah will be replaced by circular fans keeping up a gentle current of air with a minimum of noise or annoyance of any kind.

A huge market will develop in the twentieth century for household cooling devices meant for hot climates. The ongoing colonial expansion by all European nations will inevitably lead to many thousands of people whose ancestors lived in cold or temperate regions moving to dry, warm, or humid tropical areas. It will be a significant task for British, Continental, and American engineers of the twentieth century to produce handy devices for ventilating homes, especially at night, and for lowering indoor temperatures to a level that's comfortable for the residents. The old, bulky punkah will be replaced by circular fans that create a gentle airflow with minimal noise or disruption.

At present it is only in specially favoured circumstances that these quiet-working circular punkahs can be actuated by mechanical force, that is to say where a prime motor, or an electric current, or a reticulated water supply for driving a suitable machine may be at hand. In other situations the use of compressed air or gas may be resorted to, and for this purpose small capsules, similar to those already introduced for making soda water by the liberation of compressed carbonic acid gas, will be found handy. For a very small sum of money the householder will be able to purchase a sufficient number of capsules to ensure motive power for his fan during a week of hot nights.

Right now, these quietly working circular fans can only be powered by mechanical means in specific favorable conditions, like when there's a prime motor, an electric current, or a connected water supply for operating a suitable machine. In other cases, you can use compressed air or gas, and for that, small capsules similar to those used for making soda water by releasing compressed carbon dioxide will come in handy. For a very low cost, homeowners can buy enough capsules to keep their fan running for a week of hot nights.

A convenient form of small motor suitable [Pg 211] for being driven by compressed air or gases in this way is one in which a diminutive turbine or other wheel is set at the bottom of a thin tube of mercury. The capsule, being fastened to the lower end of this apparatus, liberates at very short intervals of time bubbles of air or gas, which, in the upward ascent, drive the wheel. The arrangement depends upon the fact that a stream of gas ascending in a heavy liquid behaves in the same way as a stream of water descending by its own weight and turning a water-wheel. It supplies what is perhaps the simplest and most inexpensive small motor available for the lightest domestic work to which a gentle but continuous source of power is applicable.

A handy type of small motor that can be powered by compressed air or gas is one where a small turbine or similar wheel is placed at the bottom of a thin tube filled with mercury. The capsule attached to the lower end of this setup releases bubbles of air or gas at short intervals, which, as they rise, turn the wheel. This design works on the principle that a stream of gas rising in a heavy liquid acts like a stream of water flowing downward and turning a water wheel. It provides what is likely the simplest and most affordable small motor suitable for light household tasks that require a gentle but steady source of power.

For actually cooling the air, as well as keeping it in motion, similar devices will be resorted to, with the addition of the circulation of the current of air through coils of pipes laid under the surface of the ground. In this way householders will have all the advantages of living in cool underground rooms without incurring the discomforts and dangers which are often inseparable from that mode of life. In the coastal regions, which usually have the most trying climates for Europeans living in tropical countries, a method of cooling the houses will be based on the fact that at moderate depths [Pg 212] in the sea the prevailing temperature is a steady one, not much above the freezing point of water. Almost every seaport town within the tropics—where white residents in their houses swelter nightly in the greatest discomfort from the heat—is in close proximity to deep ocean water, in which, at all seasons of the year, the regular temperature is only about thirty-four degrees Fahr. The cost of steel piping strong enough to withstand the pressure of the water in places which possess absolutely the coolest temperature of the ocean would be very heavy; but, on the other hand, the actual reduction of heat demanded for the satisfactory cooling of the air in a dwelling-room is not by any means great, and at quite shallow depths the heat of the air can be satisfactorily abstracted by the sea water surrounding coils of pipes.

To actually cool the air and keep it moving, similar devices will be used, plus the circulation of air through pipes buried underground. This way, homeowners will enjoy the benefits of living in cool underground rooms without facing the discomforts and dangers that often come with that lifestyle. In coastal areas, which typically have the toughest climates for Europeans living in tropical regions, a method for cooling homes will take advantage of the fact that at moderate depths in the sea, the temperature remains steady and not much above freezing. Almost every seaport town in the tropics—where white residents suffer in their homes from the extreme heat—is near deep ocean water, where the temperature is consistently around thirty-four degrees Fahrenheit throughout the year. The cost of steel piping strong enough to withstand the water pressure in areas with the coolest ocean temperatures would be quite high; however, the actual amount of cooling needed to make a living room comfortable isn’t that significant, and at reasonably shallow depths, the heat can be effectively removed by the seawater surrounding the pipes.

Even in colder climates it seems likely that similar systems will be found useful in producing a preliminary reduction in the temperature of the air employed in keeping fresh foodstuffs such as meat, fruits and vegetables. Fruits especially, when placed in suitable receptacles, and stored at temperatures quite steady at about the freezing point of water, will not only be readily kept on land from one season to another, but will be transported [Pg 213] to markets thousands of miles distant from the growers, and sold in practically the same condition as if they had just been picked from the trees. During the twentieth century the proportion of the fruit eaters among the peoples of the great manufacturing countries will be very largely augmented, and this result will be brought about mainly through the instrumentality of methods of keeping perishable produce free from deterioration by maintaining it almost at the freezing point—a temperature at which, under suitable conditions as regards exclusion of moisture, and steadiness of hygrometric pressure, the germs of decay in food are practically prevented from coming to maturity.

Even in colder climates, it seems likely that similar systems will be useful for lowering the temperature of the air used to keep fresh food items like meat, fruits, and vegetables. Fruits, in particular, when stored in the right containers and kept at a steady temperature close to freezing, can not only be easily preserved from one season to the next but can also be shipped to markets thousands of miles away from where they were grown and sold in almost the same condition as if they had just been picked from the trees. Throughout the twentieth century, the number of fruit consumers among the populations of major manufacturing countries will greatly increase, mainly due to methods of preserving perishable products by keeping them nearly at freezing temperatures—conditions that, with the right moisture control and stable humidity pressure, prevent decay-causing germs in food from maturing.

For the cooling of dwelling-rooms in places distant from the sea, various systems, depending upon the supply of dry cold air from central stations through pipes to the dwellings of subscribers, will no doubt be brought into operation. This, however, will only be practicable in the more populous localities having plenty of residents ready to contribute to the expense. For more isolated houses the cooling and ventilating apparatus of the future may be a modification of the "shower-blast" which has been successfully adapted to metallurgical purposes. When downward jets of water, as [Pg 214] in a shower-bath, are enclosed in a large pipe connected horizontally with a room but having facilities for the escape of the water underneath, a strong draught of cool air is created, and the prevailing temperature is quickly reduced. An apparatus of this kind may be intended for application either to the ventilators or to the windows of rooms.

For cooling living spaces in areas far from the sea, different systems will likely be implemented that use dry, cold air from central stations delivered through pipes to the homes of subscribers. However, this will only work in more populated areas with enough residents willing to share the costs. For more isolated homes, future cooling and ventilation systems might be a variation of the "shower-blast" technology that's been successfully used in metallurgy. When downward jets of water, similar to those in a shower, are enclosed in a large pipe connected horizontally to a room, with openings below for the water to escape, a strong draft of cool air is generated, quickly lowering the room temperature. This kind of system could be used for either the vents or the windows of rooms.

Lifts for conveying persons from one storey of a building to another will probably undergo a considerable amount of modification during the next few years. The establishment of central electric stations and the distribution of electricity for lighting and for power will offer a very great premium upon the preference for electric motors for lifts. As soon as a maximum of efficiency, combined with the minimum of cost, has been attained, there will be a demand for the introduction of lifts in positions where the traffic is not large enough to warrant the constant presence of an attendant. In fact the desire will be for some kind of elevator which shall be just as free to the use of each individual as is the staircase of an ordinary house.

Lifts for moving people between floors in a building are likely to see significant changes in the coming years. The development of central electric stations and the distribution of electricity for lighting and power will greatly increase the preference for electric motors in lifts. Once we achieve maximum efficiency with minimum cost, there will be a demand for lifts in areas where the foot traffic doesn't justify having an attendant on hand. In fact, people will want some type of elevator that is as accessible for individual use as a standard staircase in a regular home.

For this purpose, inclined planes having moving canvas or similar ramps will be extensively brought into use. The passenger steps upon what is practically an endless belt having [Pg 215] suitable slats upon it to prevent his foot from slipping, and, as the hand-railing at the side of this moves concurrently, he is taken up, without any effort, to the landing on which he may alight quite steadily. When this idea, which has already been brought into operation, has been more fully developed, it will be seen that a large circular slowly-revolving disc, set at an angle and properly furnished, will supply a more convenient form of free elevator. One side will be used by those who are going up and the other by those who wish to come down. The "well" of the staircase for such a lift is made in elliptical form, like the shadow projection of a circle. Steps can be provided so that, when not in motion, the lift will be a staircase not differing much from the old style.

For this purpose, inclined planes with moving belts or similar ramps will be widely used. The passenger steps onto what is essentially an endless belt featuring [Pg 215] suitable slats to prevent slipping, and as the handrail on the side moves in sync, they are effortlessly lifted to the landing where they can step off steadily. When this idea, which has already been implemented, is further developed, it will be clear that a large circular disc, slowly revolving at an angle and properly equipped, will provide a more practical form of a free elevator. One side will be for those going up, while the other will cater to those coming down. The "well" of the staircase for such a lift is designed in an elliptical shape, resembling the shadow projection of a circle. Steps can be added so that when not in use, the lift will function as a staircase similar to the traditional style.


CHAPTER X.

ELECTRIC MESSAGES, ETC.

The telegraphic wire in the home and street will fulfil a very important part in the economy of the twentieth century. For conveying intelligence, as well as for heating, cooking and lighting, the electric current will become one of the most familiar of all the forces called in to assist in domestic arrangements. The rapidity with which the electric bell-push has taken the place of the old-fashioned knocker and the bell-hanger's system affords one indication of the readiness with which those forms of electric apparatus which are adapted to all the purposes of communicating and reminding will recommend themselves to the public during the twentieth century.

The telegraph wires in homes and streets will play a crucial role in the economy of the twenty-first century. Electric current will be used not just for messaging, but also for heating, cooking, and lighting, becoming one of the most common forces helping with daily life. The quick adoption of the electric bell-push over the traditional knocker and bell system shows how easily people will embrace electric devices designed for communication and reminders throughout the twenty-first century.

In another direction the eagerness with which every advance in the telephone is hailed by the people may well offer an augury of rapid progress in the immediate future. In this department invention will aim just as much at simplification as at elaboration; and some of the pieces of domestic [Pg 217] electrical apparatus universally used during the twentieth century will be astonishingly cheap.

In another direction, the enthusiasm with which people welcome every improvement in telephone technology could be a sign of quick progress in the near future. In this area, innovation will focus as much on making things simpler as on making them more complex; and some of the household [Pg 217] electrical devices commonly used throughout the twentieth century will be surprisingly affordable.

The call to awake in the morning will, in cities and towns, be made by wireless telegraphy, which will also be used for the purpose of regulating the domestic clocks, so that if desired any suitable form of clock alarm may be used with the most perfect confidence. A tentative system of this kind has been adopted in connection with certain telephone exchanges, in which special officers are told off whose duty it is to call those subscribers who have paid the small fee covering the expense. These officers are required to time their intimations according to the previously expressed wishes of subscribers. This kind of service, as well as the regulation of the household clock, is eminently a department of domestic economy in which wireless telegraphy will prove itself useful, because it does not demand that a subscriber shall have gone to the expense of installing a wire to his house and of paying a rent or fee for the use of one.

The morning wake-up call will be made in cities and towns using wireless technology, which will also be used to synchronize home clocks so that any type of alarm clock can be used with complete confidence. A trial system like this has been implemented with certain phone exchanges, where designated staff members are assigned to call subscribers who have paid a small fee to cover the service. These staff members are required to time their calls based on the preferences expressed by the subscribers. This type of service, along with setting household clocks, is clearly a part of home management where wireless technology will be beneficial, as it doesn’t require subscribers to go through the expense of installing wires to their homes or paying for the use of one.

The clock controlled by wireless telegraphy will doubtless undergo a rapid development from the time when it is first introduced. Practically the same principles which enable [Pg 218] the electrician to utilise the "Hertzian waves," or ether vibrations, for the purpose of setting a clock right once a day, or once an hour, will permit of an impulse, true to time, being sent from the central station every second, or every minute, and when this has been accomplished it will be seen that there is no more use for the maintenance of elaborate clockworks at any place excepting the central station. The domestic clock will, in fact, become mainly a "receiver" for the wireless telegraphic apparatus, and its internal mechanism will be reduced, perhaps, to a couple of wheels, which are necessary to transmit the motion of a minute-hand to that which indicates the hours.

The clock operated by wireless telegraphy will likely see rapid advancements from the moment it is first introduced. Essentially, the same principles that allow electricians to use "Hertzian waves," or ether vibrations, to set a clock accurately once a day or even once an hour will enable a precise signal to be sent from the central station every second or every minute. Once this is achieved, it will become clear that there is little need for complex clock mechanisms outside the central station. The home clock will essentially become a "receiver" for the wireless telegraphic system, and its internal mechanics may be simplified to just a couple of gears needed to transfer the movement from the minute hand to the hour hand.

The fire-alarm of the future must be very simple and inexpensive in order to ensure its introduction, not only into offices and warehouses but also into shops and houses. The fire-insurance companies will very shortly awake to the fact that prompt telegraphic alarm in case of fire is worth far more than the majority of the prohibitions upon which they are accustomed to insist by way of rendering fires less likely. The main principles upon which the electric fire-alarm will be operated have already been worked out and partially adopted. In the system of [Pg 219] fuses and cut-outs used in connection with electric lighting, the methods of preventing fire due to the development of excessive heat have been well studied. But simplification is particularly required in the case of those fire-alarms which are to be useful for giving intimation of a conflagration from any cause arising.

The fire alarm of the future needs to be simple and affordable to ensure it gets used in offices, warehouses, shops, and homes. Fire insurance companies will soon realize that a quick telegraphic alert in case of a fire is far more valuable than most of the restrictions they usually enforce to prevent fires. The main principles for operating electric fire alarms have already been developed and partially put into use. In the system of [Pg 219] fuses and cut-outs used for electric lighting, the methods to prevent fires from excessive heat have been well researched. However, it’s especially important to simplify fire alarms that can alert us to any potential fire, regardless of its cause.

As the telegraphic and telephonic wires are extended so as to traverse practically all the streets of every city, the fire-insurance companies will find it to their advantage to promote a simple plan, depending on the use of a combustible thread passing round little pulleys in the corners of all the rooms and finally out to the front, where an electrical "contact-maker" is fixed, so that on the thread being burnt and broken at any point in its circuit, an electric message will be at once sent along the nearest wire to the fire-brigade station and a bell set ringing both inside and outside the premises.

As telegraph and telephone wires are extended to cover almost every street in every city, fire insurance companies will benefit from promoting a simple plan that uses a combustible thread running around small pulleys in the corners of all rooms. This thread will eventually lead to the front, where an electrical "contact-maker" is installed. When the thread burns and breaks at any point in its circuit, an electric message will be immediately sent through the nearest wire to the fire department station, and a bell will ring both inside and outside the building.

Somewhat similar systems will be used for checking the enterprises of the burglar. The best protected safes of the future will be enmeshed in networks of wires encased in some material which will render it impossible to determine their positions from the outside. These wires will be so related to an electric [Pg 220] circuit that the breaking of any one of them, at any part of its course, will have the effect of ringing a bell and giving warning at the police station, as well as at other places where potential thief-catchers may be on hand. For doors and windows very simple contact devices have already been brought out, but the principal objection to their general adoption arises from the fact that so very many houses remain unconnected with any telephone system which may be made available for calling the police. Even were all houses connected it is true that in some instances attempts might be made to cut the wires when a raid was in contemplation, but the risk of discovery in any such operation would prove a very powerful deterrent. In fact the telephone wire, more than any other mechanical device, is destined to aid in "improving" the burglar out of existence.

Somewhat similar systems will be used to check on the activities of burglars. The best-protected safes in the future will be surrounded by networks of wires wrapped in a material that will make it impossible to determine their locations from the outside. These wires will be connected to an electric [Pg 220] circuit, so that breaking any one of them, at any point along its path, will trigger a bell to alert the police station, as well as other locations where potential thief-catchers might be present. For doors and windows, very simple contact devices are already available, but the main issue with their widespread use is that many houses still aren’t connected to any telephone system that could be used to call the police. Even if all homes were connected, it’s true that some people might try to cut the wires when planning a break-in, but the chance of getting caught during such an act would be a strong deterrent. In fact, the telephone wire, more than any other mechanical device, is likely to help "eliminate" burglars altogether.

With the indefinite multiplication of telephone subscribers at very cheap rates, there will come a powerful inducement towards the invention of new appliances for rendering the subscriber independent of the attention of officers at any central exchange. The duty of connecting an individual subscriber with any other with whom he may desire to converse is, after all, a purely mechanical one, and eminently of a kind which, by a combination of [Pg 221] engineering and electrical skill, may be quite successfully accomplished. In the apparatus which will probably be in use during the twentieth century, each subscriber will have a dial carrying on its face the names and numbers of all those with whom he is in the habit of holding communication. This will be his "smaller dial," and beside it will be another, intended for only occasional use, through which, by exercising a little more patience, he may connect himself with any other subscriber whatever. Corresponding dials will be fixed in the central office.

With the unlimited growth of telephone subscribers at very low rates, there will be a strong motivation to invent new devices that will allow subscribers to connect without needing help from operators at a central exchange. The job of connecting one subscriber to another for conversation is fundamentally a mechanical task, which can be effectively achieved through a combination of [Pg 221] engineering and electrical expertise. In the equipment that will likely be used in the twentieth century, each subscriber will have a dial displaying the names and numbers of all the people they regularly communicate with. This will be their "smaller dial," and next to it will be another dial meant for occasional use, allowing them to connect with any other subscriber if they take a bit more time. Corresponding dials will be installed in the central office.

Under this system, when the subscriber desires to secure a connection, he moves a handle round his dial until the pointer in its circuit comes to the desired number. An electrical impulse is thus sent along the wire to the central station for every number over which the pointer passes, and the corresponding pointer or contact-maker at the central station is moved exactly in sympathy. When the correct number is reached the subscriber is in connection with the person with whom he desires to converse. If, however, the latter should be already engaged, a return impulse causes the bell of the first subscriber to ring. Of course the prime cost of installing such a system as this will be greater than in the case [Pg 222] of the simple hand-connected telephones; but the two systems can be used conjointly, and the immense convenience, especially to large firms, of being able to go straight to the parties with whom they wish to communicate, will induce many of them to adopt the automatic apparatus as soon as it has been perfected.

Under this system, when the subscriber wants to make a connection, they turn a handle on their dial until the pointer gets to the desired number. An electrical signal is then sent through the wire to the central station for every number the pointer passes, and the corresponding pointer or contact-maker at the central station moves synchronously. When the correct number is reached, the subscriber connects with the person they want to talk to. However, if that person is already on a call, a return signal will make the first subscriber's bell ring. Naturally, the initial cost of installing such a system will be higher than that of the simple hand-connected phones; but the two systems can be used together, and the significant convenience, especially for large companies, of being able to connect directly with the parties they wish to communicate with will lead many of them to adopt the automatic system as soon as it is fully developed.

Wireless telephony must come to the front in the near future, but at first for only very special purposes. The prospect of the profits that would be attendant on working up a business unhampered by the heavy capital charges which weigh upon the owners of telephone wires must stimulate inventive enterprise to a remarkable degree in this particular line. The main difficulty, however, in the application of the system to general purposes will lie in the need for an ingenious but simple means for enabling one subscriber to call another.

Wireless telephony is set to become prominent soon, but initially, it will serve only specific purposes. The potential profits from building a business free from the significant capital costs that burden telephone wire owners will drive innovative ideas in this field. However, the biggest challenge in applying this system for general use will be finding a clever yet straightforward way for one subscriber to call another.

For this purpose probably the synchronised clock system already referred to will be found essential, each office or house being furnished with a timekeeper of this type kept in constant agreement with a central clock, and so arranged that only when the ethereal electrical impulse is given at a certain fixed point in the minute, will any particular subscriber's bell be rung. This may be effected [Pg 223] by some such arrangement as a revolving drum, perforated at a different part of its periphery for each individual subscriber, and capable of permitting the electrical contact which makes a magnet and rings the bell only at the fraction of a moment when the subscriber's slot passes the pointer.

For this purpose, the synchronized clock system mentioned earlier will be essential, with each office or home equipped with a timekeeper of this type that stays aligned with a central clock. It’s arranged so that only when an electrical signal is sent at a specific moment in the minute will a particular subscriber's bell ring. This can be achieved by using a revolving drum, with different holes around its edge for each subscriber, allowing the electrical contact that activates the magnet and rings the bell only at the precise moment when the subscriber's hole aligns with the pointer. [Pg 223]

This will mean, of course, that only at a certain almost infinitesimally small space of time in the duration of each minute will it be possible to call any particular subscriber, or rather to release the mechanism which will set his bell ringing for perhaps a minute at a time. In the presence of unscrupulous competition, resulting in the flinging out of Hertzian wave vibrations promiscuously, for the purpose of destroying a rival's chances of obtaining satisfactory connections, it would be necessary to make rather more complicated arrangements of a nature analogous to those of the puzzle lock. Instead of one impulse during the minute, two or three would be required, in order to release the mechanism for ringing any subscriber's bell; and no ring would take place unless the time-spaces between these impulses were exactly in accordance with the agreed form, which might be varied at convenient intervals.

This will mean, of course, that only during a very tiny moment within each minute will it be possible to call any specific subscriber or, more accurately, to trigger the mechanism that will make their bell ring for about a minute. With cutthroat competition leading to random transmission of Hertzian wave vibrations aimed at sabotaging a competitor's chances of establishing good connections, it would be necessary to create somewhat more complex arrangements similar to a puzzle lock. Instead of just one signal during the minute, two or three would be needed to activate the mechanism for ringing any subscriber's bell, and no ringing would happen unless the time intervals between these signals were precisely aligned with the agreed format, which could change at convenient times.

Yet in the cases in which wireless telephony [Pg 224] and telegraphy are taken up by local public authorities having power to forbid any one playing "dog in the manger," by preventing useful work by others while failing to promote it himself, the simpler system of wireless telephone call will be practicable. With the advance of municipalisation, and of intelligent collectivism generally, enterprises of public utility will be guarded from mere cut-throat commercial hostility much more sedulously in the twentieth century than they have been in the past.

Yet in the situations where local public authorities take charge of wireless telephony [Pg 224] and telegraphy, they have the power to stop anyone from being obstructive, preventing useful efforts by others while not contributing themselves. The simpler system of wireless phone calls will be practical. With the growth of municipal management and smart collectivism in general, public utility projects will be much more protected from ruthless commercial competition in the twentieth century than they have been in the past.

A great multitude of new applications of the telegraphic and telephonic systems will be introduced in the immediate future. Not only will those subscribers who are connected by wire with central stations have the advantage of being called at any hour in the morning according to their intimated wishes, but such services as lighting the fires in winter mornings, so that rooms may be fairly warmed before they are entered, will be performed by electric messages sent from a central station.

A large number of new uses for telegraph and telephone systems will be introduced in the near future. Not only will subscribers connected by wire to central stations be able to receive calls at any hour in the morning based on their preferences, but services like lighting fires on winter mornings, so that rooms are comfortably warm before people enter, will be carried out using electric messages sent from a central station.

Drawings will also be despatched by telegraph. For such purposes as the transmission of sketches from the scene of any stirring event, the first really practical application of drawing by telegraph will probably depend upon the use of a large number of code words [Pg 225] divided into two groups, each of which, on the principles of co-ordinate geometry, will indicate a different degree of distance from the base line and from the side line respectively, so that from any sketch a correct message in code may be made up and the drawing may be reconstructed at the receiving end. Illustrated newspapers will in this way obtain drawings exactly at the same time as their other messages, and distant occurrences will be brought before the public eye much more vividly and more correctly than has ever hitherto been practicable.

Drawings will also be sent via telegraph. For purposes like sending sketches from the scene of any exciting event, the first truly practical use of drawing by telegraph will likely rely on a large number of code words [Pg 225] split into two groups. Each group, based on the principles of co-ordinate geometry, will indicate different distances from the baseline and the side line, respectively. This way, a correct coded message can be created from any sketch, allowing the drawing to be reconstructed at the receiving end. Illustrated newspapers will receive drawings at the same time as their other messages, bringing distant events to the public’s attention more vividly and accurately than ever before.

For special objects, also, photographs can be sent by telegraph through the use of the photo-relief in plaster of Paris, or other suitable material, which travels backwards and forwards underneath a pointer, the rising and falling of which is accurately represented by thick and thin lines—or by the darker and lighter photographic printing of a beam of light of varying intensity—at the other end, so that a shaded reproduction of the photograph is produced. Relief at the sending end is in this way translated into darkness of shade at the receiving end. Any general expansion of this system, if it comes, will necessarily be postponed till long after the full possibilities of the codeword plan have been exploited, because the [Pg 226] latter works in exactly with the ordinary methods for sending telegraphic matter.

For special items, photos can also be sent by telegraph using a photo-relief made of plaster of Paris or another suitable material. This material moves back and forth under a pointer, with its rising and falling accurately shown by thick and thin lines—or by the darker and lighter photographic printing of a beam of light with varying intensity—at the other end, creating a shaded reproduction of the photograph. The relief at the sending end is thus converted into varying shades at the receiving end. Any broad expansion of this system, if it happens, will have to wait until the full potential of the codeword plan has been fully utilized, since the latter aligns perfectly with the standard methods for sending telegraphic information. [Pg 226]

The keen competition between submarine and wireless telegraphy will be one of the most exciting contests furnished by electrical progress in the first quarter of the new century. Attention will be devoted to those directions on the surface of the globe in which it is possible to send messages almost entirely by land lines, and to bridge over comparatively small intervals of space from land to land by wireless telegraphy. Thus the Asiatic and Canadian route may be expected shortly to enter into competition with the Atlantic cables in telegraphic business to the United States; while Australia will be reached viâ Singapore and Java.

The intense competition between submarines and wireless telegraphy is set to be one of the most thrilling battles driven by electrical advances in the early part of the new century. Attention will focus on those areas of the globe where it's possible to send messages almost entirely through land lines, and to cover relatively small distances from one land area to another using wireless telegraphy. Therefore, we can expect the Asian and Canadian routes to soon compete with the Atlantic cables for telegraphic services to the United States, while Australia will be accessible via Singapore and Java.

A great impetus will be given to the wireless system as a commercial undertaking when arrangements have been perfected for causing the receiver at any particular station to translate its message into a form suitable for sending automatically. When this has been done, many of the wayside stations will be almost entirely self-working, and messages, indeed, may be despatched from island to island, or from one floating station to another across the Atlantic itself.

A significant boost will be provided to the wireless system as a business venture once the arrangements have been finalized for making the receiver at any specific station translate its message into a format that can be sent automatically. Once this is accomplished, many of the roadside stations will operate almost entirely on their own, and messages can actually be sent from island to island or from one floating station to another across the Atlantic Ocean itself.

Another requirement for really cheap telegraphy [Pg 227] on the new system is a more rapid method of making the letters or signals. The irregular intervals at which the sparks from the coil of the transmitter fly from one terminal to the other render it impossible to split up the succession of flashes into intervals on the dot-and-dash principle, without providing for each dot a much longer period of time than is required for the transmission of messages on land lines. In fact the need for going slowly in the sending of the message is the principal stumbling-block which disconcerts ordinary telegraphic operators when they come to try wireless telegraphy. For remedying this defect the most hopeful outlook is in the direction of a multiplication of the pieces of apparatus for spark-making and the combining of pairs of them in such a way that, whenever the first one fails during an appreciable interval of time to emit a spark, the second is called into requisition. In this way a constant stream of sparks may be ensured, without incurring the risk of running faster than the coil will supply the electrical impulses necessary for the transmission of the message.

Another requirement for really cheap telegraphy [Pg 227] on the new system is a faster way of creating the letters or signals. The inconsistent intervals at which the sparks from the transmitter's coil jump from one terminal to the other make it impossible to break up the series of flashes into intervals using the dot-and-dash method, without allowing each dot a much longer time than needed for sending messages over land lines. In fact, the need to send messages slowly is the main challenge that confuses regular telegraph operators when they try wireless telegraphy. To fix this issue, the most promising solution lies in increasing the number of spark-making devices and combining pairs of them so that whenever one fails to produce a spark for a significant amount of time, the other takes over. This way, a steady stream of sparks can be maintained without risking going faster than the coil can generate the electrical impulses needed for transmitting the message.

Increased rapidity in land telegraphy by the ordinary system of transmission by wire, and facility in making the records at the receiving end in easily read typewriting—these are two [Pg 228] desiderata which at the close of the nineteenth century have been almost attained, but which will take some time to introduce to general notice. In the commercial system of the twentieth century the merchant's clerk will write his messages on a typewriter which perforates a strip of paper with holes corresponding to the various letters, while it sets down in printing, on another strip, the letters themselves. The latter will be kept as a record, but the former will be taken to the telegraph office and put through the sending machine without being read by the operator. The message will print itself at the other end and wrap itself up in secret, nothing but the address being made visible to the operator.

Increased speed in land telegraphy using the standard wire transmission system, along with the ease of creating legible records at the receiving end with typewriting—these are two [Pg 228] goals that have almost been achieved by the end of the nineteenth century, but will take some time to become widely recognized. In the commercial system of the twenty-first century, a merchant's clerk will write messages on a typewriter that punches holes in a strip of paper corresponding to different letters, while printing the letters on another strip. The printed strip will be kept as a record, but the punched strip will be sent to the telegraph office and processed through the sending machine without the operator reading it. The message will print itself at the other end and be wrapped in secrecy, with only the address visible to the operator.

For the use of the general public who are not possessed of the special apparatus necessary to perforate the paper another system is available. Sets of movable type may be provided at the telegraph office in small compartments, the letters being on one side and indentations corresponding to the required perforations being cut or stamped into the other sides of the movable pieces. The sender of a message will set it up in a long shallow tray or "galley" like those used by printers, and he will then turn the faces of the letters downwards and see the whole passed through the machine without [Pg 229] being read by the operator; after which he can distribute the letters if he chooses. In this way telegraphy will gradually become at once far more secret and far cheaper than it is at present, and a large amount of correspondence which at present passes through the post will be sent along the wire.

For the general public who don’t have the special equipment needed to perforate the paper, another system is available. Sets of movable type can be provided at the telegraph office in small compartments, with the letters on one side and indents for the required perforations cut or stamped into the other side of the movable pieces. The person sending a message will arrange it in a long shallow tray or "galley" similar to what printers use, then turn the letters face down and see the entire setup pass through the machine without [Pg 229] being read by the operator; afterward, they can sort the letters if they want. This way, telegraphy will gradually become both more private and cheaper than it currently is, and a lot of correspondence that now goes through the post will be sent over the wire.

Many merchants will have their telephonic apparatus fitted with arrangements for setting up type or perforating strips of paper, as already described; and also with receiving apparatus for making the records in typewriting. If they fail to find a subscriber or correspondent on hand at the time when he is wanted, they can write a note to him which he will find hanging on a paper strip from his telephone when he returns. Another mode of accomplishing a somewhat similar result is to provide the telephone receiver itself with a moving strip of steel, which, in its varying degrees of magnetisation, records the spoken words so that they will, at some distance of time, actuate the diaphragm of the receiver and emit spoken words. The degree of permanency which can be attained by this system is, of course, a vital point as regards its practical merits.

Many merchants will have their phones set up with devices for typing or perforating strips of paper, as previously mentioned; and also with receiving equipment for creating typewritten records. If they can't find a subscriber or contact available when needed, they can leave a note that will be found hanging on a paper strip from the phone when the person returns. Another way to achieve a similar outcome is to equip the telephone receiver with a moving strip of steel that, through varying degrees of magnetization, records spoken words so that, after some time, it can activate the diaphragm of the receiver and produce those words again. The level of permanence that can be achieved with this system is obviously a crucial factor regarding its practical value.

Still unsolved electrical problems are the making of a satisfactory alternate current [Pg 230] motor suitable for running with the kind of currents generally used for electric lighting purposes—the utilisation of the glow lamp having a partial vacuum or attenuated gas for giving a cheap and soft light somewhat on the principle of the Geissler tube—and last, but not least, the direct conversion of heat into electricity.

Still unresolved electrical issues include creating a reliable alternating current [Pg 230] motor that can operate with the types of currents typically used for electric lighting. This includes the use of the glow lamp, which has a partial vacuum or low-pressure gas to provide an inexpensive and gentle light, somewhat similar to the Geissler tube. Finally, there's the direct conversion of heat into electricity, which is also a significant challenge.

With regard to the first-mentioned, the prospects have been materially altered by a discovery announced at the New York meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science within a few weeks of the close of the nineteenth century. The handy and effective alternate current motor indeed seemed then as far distant as it had been in 1896, when Sir David Salomons remarked, in his work on Electric Light Installations (vol. ii., p. 97): "No satisfactory alternate current motor available on all circuits exists as yet, although," he added later, "the demand for such an appliance increases daily". It seems, however, that electricians have been looking in the wrong direction for the solution of using the same wire for alternate current lighting and for motive power at the same time. Professor Bedell, of Cornell University, announced at the New York meeting referred to his discovery of the important fact that when direct [Pg 231] and alternate currents are sent over the same line each behaves as if the other were not there, and thus the same line can be used for two distinct systems of transmitting electrical energy. No time will be lost in putting this announcement to the test, not only of scientific but also of practical verification, and the probability is that all electric lighting stations in the twentieth century will contain not only dynamos of one type for the supply of light, but also direct current generators for transmitting power in all directions over the same cables.

Regarding the first point, the outlook has changed significantly due to a discovery announced at the New York meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which took place a few weeks before the end of the nineteenth century. At that time, the practical and efficient alternating current motor still seemed as far away as it did back in 1896, when Sir David Salomons noted in his work on Electric Light Installations (vol. ii., p. 97): "No satisfactory alternating current motor available on all circuits exists yet, although," he later added, "the demand for such a device increases daily." However, it seems that electricians have been searching in the wrong direction for a solution that allows the same wire to be used simultaneously for both alternating current lighting and motive power. Professor Bedell from Cornell University revealed at the New York meeting that he discovered the crucial fact that when direct and alternating currents are transmitted over the same line, each acts as if the other isn't present, allowing the same line to be used for two separate systems of electrical energy transmission. There will be no delay in testing this announcement, both scientifically and practically, and it's likely that all electric lighting stations in the twentieth century will have not only one type of dynamo for providing light but also direct current generators for transmitting power in all directions over the same cables.

The glow lamp having no carbon filament, but setting up a bright light with only a fraction of the resistance presented by carbon, would, if perfected, render electric lighting by far the cheapest as well as the best method of illumination. Tentative work has indicated a high degree of probability that success will be achieved, and the glowing bulb is at any rate a possibility of the future which it will be well to reckon with.

The glow lamp, which doesn't use a carbon filament but produces a bright light with just a small fraction of the resistance that carbon does, could, if perfected, make electric lighting the cheapest and best way to illuminate a space. Initial research has suggested a strong likelihood of success, and the glowing bulb is definitely a future possibility to consider.

In reference to the conversion of heat into electricity without the intervention of machinery to provide motion, and thus to cause magnetic fields to cross one another, very little promise has yet been shown of any fundamental principle upon which a practical apparatus of the kind could be based. The electrician who [Pg 232] works at this problem has to begin almost de novo, and his task is an immensely difficult one, although on every ground of analogy success certainly looks possible. In the meantime, as has already been indicated, the steam turbine and dynamo combined, working practically as a single machine for the generation of electricity, offers practically the nearest approach to direct conversion which is yet well in sight.

In terms of converting heat into electricity without using machinery to create motion, which in turn generates magnetic fields that interact, there's not much promise yet for any fundamental principle that could lead to a practical device of that kind. The electrician who [Pg 232] is tackling this issue has to start almost from scratch, and it's a tremendously challenging task, even though there are plenty of analogies that suggest success is certainly possible. In the meantime, as already mentioned, the steam turbine combined with the dynamo, functioning essentially as a single machine for generating electricity, currently offers the closest thing to direct conversion that's realistically available.


CHAPTER XI.

WARFARE.

The last notable war of the nineteenth century has falsified the anticipations of nearly all the makers of small arms. The magazine rifle was held to be so perfect in its trajectory, and in the rapidity with which it could discharge its convenient store of cartridges in succession, that the bayonet charge had been put outside of the region of possibility in warfare. Those who reasoned thus were forgetting, to a large extent, that while small arms have been improving so also has artillery, and that a bayonet charge covered by a demoralising fire of field-pieces, mortars, and quick-firing artillery is a very different thing from one in which the assailants alone are the targets exposed to fire. Given that two opposing armies are possessed of weapons of about equal capacity for striking from a distance, they may do one another a great deal of harm without coming to close quarters at all. Yet victory will rest with the men who have sufficient bravery, skill [Pg 234] and ingenuity to cross the fire-zone and tackle their enemies hand to hand.

The last significant war of the nineteenth century has proven wrong the expectations of almost all the small arms manufacturers. The magazine rifle was considered so perfect in its accuracy and in the speed with which it could fire off its stock of cartridges that bayonet charges seemed impossible in warfare. Those who thought this way were largely overlooking the fact that while small arms have been advancing, so has artillery. A bayonet charge faced with overwhelming fire from cannons, mortars, and rapid-fire artillery is a completely different scenario than one where only the attackers are exposed to fire. If two opposing armies have weapons with roughly equal long-range capabilities, they can inflict significant damage on each other without ever getting close. Yet, victory will belong to the soldiers who have enough courage, skill, and creativity to cross through the fire zone and engage their enemies up close.

Smoke-producing shells and other forms of projected cover, designed to mask the advance of cavalry and infantry, will greatly assist in the work of rendering this task of crossing the fire-zone less dangerous, notwithstanding any possible improvement that may be effected in the magazine-rifle. Already it has been observed that much of the surprise and confusion which terrifies those who have no bayonets, when subjected to a cannonade and at the same time brought face to face with a bayonet charge, arises from the fact that they cannot see to shoot straight, owing to the haze produced by the smoke and its blinding effects upon the eyes.

Smoke-producing shells and other types of cover designed to hide the movement of cavalry and infantry will significantly help make crossing the fire zone less dangerous, despite any potential improvements to the magazine rifle. It's already been noted that a lot of the surprise and fear that overwhelms those without bayonets when they're under cannon fire and then confronted with a bayonet charge comes from their inability to shoot accurately due to the haze created by the smoke and its blinding effects on their eyes.

Special smoke-producing shells, made for the express purpose of covering a charge, will soon be evolved from the laboratory of the chemist in pursuance of this clue. In addition to shells and other missiles, small pieces of steel-piping will be projected by mortars into the fire-swept zone, in order to supplement the defects of natural cover which, of course, are nearly always as great as possible, seeing that the ground has generally been selected by the side against which the attack is being directed.

Special smoke-producing shells, specifically designed to conceal a charge, will soon be developed in the chemist's lab based on this clue. Along with shells and other projectiles, small pieces of steel piping will be launched by mortars into the fire-swept area to enhance the shortcomings of natural cover, which, of course, are usually significant, as the ground is typically chosen by the side being attacked.

The task of enabling a rifleman to shoot [Pg 235] straight has been taken up with extraordinary zeal and ability compared with the amount of skill and effort devoted to the corresponding or opposing object of spoiling his aim and preventing him from getting a shot in. When this latter has been to some extent accomplished, mainly by the agency of artillery, the bayonet and other weapons for use at close quarters will once more be in the ascendant. Thin shields of hard steel will be affixed to the rifles of the attacking party, so as to deflect the bullets wherever possible.

The goal of helping a rifleman shoot [Pg 235] accurately has been pursued with incredible dedication and skill compared to the efforts put into disrupting his aim and stopping him from taking a shot. When this is somewhat achieved, primarily through artillery, the bayonet and other close-combat weapons will come back into play. Thin shields made of hard steel will be attached to the rifles of the attacking force to deflect bullets whenever possible.

This baffling of the rifleman by the artillery supporting the cavalry and bayonet charge will produce momentous changes, not only in the future of war, but also in that of international relations. Anything which tends to discount the value of personal bravery and to elevate the tactics of the ambuscade and the sharp-shooting expedition gives, pro tanto, an advantage to the meaner-spirited races of mankind, and places them more or less in a position of mastery over those who hold higher racial traditions. The man who will face the risk of being shot in the open generally belongs to a higher type of humanity than he who only shoots from behind cover.

This confusion of the rifleman by the artillery supporting the cavalry and bayonet charge will lead to significant changes, not just in the future of warfare, but also in international relations. Anything that undermines the value of personal bravery and boosts the tactics of ambush and sharpshooting gives, pro tanto, an advantage to the less courageous people of the world and puts them in a position of dominance over those who uphold higher cultural values. The person willing to risk being shot in the open typically represents a higher caliber of humanity than someone who only shoots from behind cover.

Moreover, the nations which have the skill and ingenuity to manufacture new weapons of [Pg 236] self-defence belong to a higher class than those which only acquire advanced warlike munitions by purchase. One of the early international movements of the twentieth century will be directed towards the prohibition of the sale of such weapons as magazine-rifles, quick-firing field guns, and torpedoes to any savage or barbarous race. It will be accounted as treason to civilisation for any member of the international family to permit its manufacturers to sell the latest patterns of weapons to races whose ascendency might possibly become a menace to civilisation. As factors in determining the survival of the fittest, the elements of high character, bravery, and intellectual development must be conserved in their maximum efficiency at all hazards.

Additionally, nations that have the skill and creativity to create new self-defense weapons belong to a higher tier than those that only acquire advanced military arms through purchase. One of the early international efforts of the twentieth century will focus on banning the sale of weapons like magazine rifles, quick-firing field guns, and torpedoes to any savage or barbaric groups. It will be considered treasonous to civilization for any member of the international community to allow their manufacturers to sell the latest weapon designs to groups whose power could potentially threaten civilization. In determining survival of the fittest, the qualities of strong character, courage, and intellectual growth must be maintained at their highest efficiency, no matter the risks.

Another potent element in the safeguards of civilisation may be seen in the increased effectiveness of weapons for coastal defence. The hideous nightmare of a barbarian irruption, such as those which almost erased culture and intellect from the face of Europe during the dark ages of the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries, may occasionally be seen exercising its influence in the pessimistic writings which are from time to time issued from the Press predicting the coming ascendency of the yellow man.

Another powerful aspect of civilization's protection can be observed in the improved effectiveness of weapons for coastal defense. The terrifying fear of a barbarian invasion, similar to those that nearly wiped out culture and intellect from Europe during the dark ages of the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, can sometimes be felt in the pessimistic writings that occasionally emerge from the media predicting the rising dominance of the "yellow man."

[Pg 237] However the case may be in regard to nations which are accessible by land to the encroachments of the Asiatic, there is no doubt that those countries which are divided off by the sea have been rendered much more secure through the rapid advances which have been made in the modern appliances for defending coasts and harbours. In naval tactics, also, it will be more and more clearly seen that to possess and defend the harbours where coaling can be carried out is practically to possess and defend the trade of the high seas; and the essence of good maritime policy will be to so locate the defended harbours that they may afford the greatest amount of protection, having in view the harm that may be done by an enemy's harbours in the vicinity.

[Pg 237] Regardless of the situation for nations that can be invaded by land from Asia, it's clear that countries separated by the sea are much safer thanks to significant advancements in modern coastal and harbor defense technology. In naval strategies, it will become increasingly evident that owning and protecting the ports capable of refueling ships is essentially controlling the maritime trade routes; thus, effective maritime policy will involve positioning defended ports in a way that maximizes protection while considering the potential threats from nearby enemy ports.

The most effective naval weapon in the future will undoubtedly be the torpedo, but, like the bayonet, it requires to be in the hands of brave men before its value as the ultimate arbiter of naval conflict can be demonstrated. Much fallacious teaching has arisen from what has been called the lessons of certain naval wars which occurred on the coasts of South America and China—international embroilments in which mercenaries, or only half-trained seamen and engineers, were engaged. On similar fallacious grounds it was argued [Pg 238] that the magazine-rifle had put the bayonet out of the court of military arbitrament, and the South African war has proved conclusively how erroneous was that idea. The use of the torpedo-boat and of the weapons which it carries must always demand, like that of the bayonet, men of the strongest nerve, and of the greatest devotion to their duty and to their country.

The most effective naval weapon of the future will definitely be the torpedo, but, like the bayonet, it needs to be in the hands of courageous individuals before its true value as the ultimate decider in naval conflicts can be shown. A lot of misleading ideas have come from what has been referred to as the lessons of certain naval wars that took place on the coasts of South America and China—international conflicts involving mercenaries or only partially-trained sailors and engineers. On similarly mistaken grounds, it was claimed that the magazine-rifle had rendered the bayonet obsolete in military disputes, but the South African war clearly demonstrated how wrong that belief was. The use of the torpedo boat and its weapons will always require, just like the bayonet, individuals with exceptional courage and a deep commitment to their duty and their country.

Fifty miles an hour is a rate which is already in sight as the speed of the future torpedo-boat, the first turbine steamer of the British Navy having achieved forty-three miles an hour before the end of the nineteenth century. It should be distinctly understood, however, that such a speed cannot be kept up for any great length of time and that long voyages are out of the question. The rôle of the turbine torpedo-boat will be to "get home" with its weapon in the shortest practicable time. Hence its great value for the defence of harbours by striking at distances of perhaps two or three hours' steaming.

Fifty miles per hour is already a speed that's on the horizon for the future torpedo boat, with the first turbine steamer of the British Navy having reached forty-three miles per hour before the end of the nineteenth century. However, it should be clearly understood that such a speed can't be maintained for long periods and that extended voyages aren’t feasible. The purpose of the turbine torpedo boat will be to quickly return home with its payload. This gives it significant value for harbor defense by allowing it to strike from distances that might take just two to three hours of steaming.

On the high seas the battle-ships, which will virtually be the cruisers of the future, will be provided with turbine torpedo-boats, carried slung in convenient positions and ready at short notice to be let slip like greyhounds. During the hazardous run of the torpedo-boat [Pg 239] towards the enemy, various devices will be employed for the purpose of baffling his aim, such for instance as the emission of volumes of smoke from the bows and the erection of broad network blinds covering the sight of the little craft, but capable of being shifted from side to side, so that the enemy's marksmen may never know exactly what part of the object in sight is to be aimed at. The torpedo will be carried on a mast, which at the right moment can be lowered to form a projecting spar like a bowsprit; and the explosion that will take place on its impact with the enemy's hull will be enough to blow a fatal breach in any warship afloat.

On the high seas, the battle ships, which will essentially be the cruisers of the future, will be equipped with turbine torpedo boats, stored in accessible positions and ready to be launched at a moment's notice like greyhounds. During the risky run of the torpedo boat [Pg 239] towards the enemy, various techniques will be used to confuse their aim, such as releasing clouds of smoke from the front and setting up broad mesh blinds that obscure the view of the small vessel, but can be moved side to side, so that the enemy's marksmen can never precisely tell which part of the target to aim at. The torpedo will be carried on a mast, which can be lowered at the right moment to act like a protruding spar, similar to a bowsprit; and the explosion that will occur upon impact with the enemy's hull will be sufficient to create a lethal breach in any warship afloat.

For harbour defence and the safety of the battle-ship the wire-guided and propelled torpedo will form a second line behind the fast torpedo-boat. This type of weapon strikes with more unerring accuracy than any other yet included in the armoury of naval warfare, because it is under the control of the marksman from the time of its launching until it fulfils its deadly mission. Its range, of course, is strictly limited; but it may be worked to advantage within the distances at which the best naval artillery can be depended upon to make good practice.

For harbor defense and the safety of the battleship, the wire-guided and propelled torpedo will act as a second line behind the fast torpedo boat. This type of weapon hits with more precise accuracy than any other weapon currently in naval warfare because it's controlled by the shooter from the moment it’s launched until it completes its deadly mission. Of course, its range is limited, but it can be effectively used within the distances where the best naval artillery can be relied upon to perform well.

The least costly and the lightest form is that [Pg 240] in which the backward pulling of two wires, unwinding two drums on the torpedo, actuates two screws at greater or less speeds according to the rapidity of the motion imparted, any advantage of speed in one screw over the other being responded to by an alteration in the direction taken by the weapon. The torpedo may be set so as to dive from the surface at any desired interval; but, of course, an appearance in the form of at least a flash is necessary to enable the operator to judge in what direction he is sending his missile. Small torpedo-boats, not manned but sticking to the surface, may be used in the same manner. Each one no doubt runs a very great risk of being hit by shot or shell aimed at them; but out of half a dozen, discharged at short intervals, it would be practically impossible for an enemy to make certain that one at least did not find its billet.

The cheapest and lightest version is the one in which the backward pull of two wires unwinds two drums on the torpedo, activating two screws at varying speeds depending on how fast the motion is applied. Any speed advantage in one screw over the other results in a change in the direction the weapon takes. The torpedo can be set to dive from the surface at any chosen interval; however, some sort of visual cue, at least a flash, is necessary for the operator to know where he’s directing his missile. Small, unmanned torpedo boats that stay on the surface can be used in the same way. Each one carries a significant risk of being hit by fire or shelling directed at them, but out of half a dozen launched at short intervals, it would be nearly impossible for an enemy to ensure that at least one of them didn’t hit its target.

The submarine boat will have some useful applications in peace; but its range of utility in warfare is likely to be very limited. It is hopeless to expect the eyes of sailors to see any great distance under the water; therefore the descent must be made within sight of the enemy, who has only to surround himself with placed contact-torpedoes hanging to a depth, and to pollute the water in order to render the assault an absolutely desperate enterprise.

The submarine will have some practical uses in peacetime; however, its effectiveness in warfare is probably going to be very restricted. It's unrealistic to think that sailors can see very far underwater; so, the dive must happen within the enemy's sight, who can just surround themselves with strategically placed contact torpedoes hanging at a depth, and contaminate the water to make the attack an extremely risky venture.

[Pg 241] Military aeronautics, like submarine operations in naval warfare, have been somewhat overrated. Visions of air-ships hovering over a doomed city and devastating it with missiles dropped from above are mere fairy tales. Indeed the whole subject of aeronautics as an element in future human progress has excited far more attention than its intrinsic merits deserve.

[Pg 241] Military aviation, similar to submarine missions in naval warfare, has been somewhat exaggerated. Imagining airships floating over a city and destroying it with missiles from above is just fantasy. In fact, the entire topic of aviation as a factor in future human advancement has garnered much more interest than its actual value warrants.

A balloon is at the mercy of the wind and must remain so, while a true flying machine, which supports itself in the air by the operation of fans or similar devices, may be interesting as a toy, but cannot have much economical importance for the future. When man has the solid earth upon which to conduct his traffic, without the necessity of overcoming the force of gravitation by costly power, he would be foolish in the extreme to attempt to abandon the advantage which this gives him, and to commit himself to such an element as the air, in which the power required to lift himself and his goods would be immeasurably greater than that needed to transport them from place to place.

A balloon is completely dependent on the wind and will always be, while a true flying machine, which stays in the air using fans or similar technology, might be fun as a toy, but won’t have much economic significance in the future. When humans have solid ground to manage their transport, without needing to fight against gravity with expensive power, it would be extremely foolish to give up that advantage and rely on the air, where the energy needed to lift themselves and their cargo would be hugely greater than what’s required to move them on the ground.

The amount of misdirected ingenuity that has been expended on these two problems of submarine and aerial navigation during the nineteenth century will offer one of the most [Pg 242] curious and interesting studies to the future historian of technological progress. Unfortunately that faculty of the constructive imagination upon which inventive talent depends may too frequently be indulged by its possessor without any serious reference to the question of utility. Fancy paints a picture in which the inventor appears disporting himself at unheard-of depths below the surface of the sea or at extraordinary heights above the level of the land, while his friends, his rivals, and all manner of men and women besides, gaze with amazement! Patent agents are only too well aware how often an inordinate desire for self-glorification goes along with real inventive talent, and how many of the brotherhood of inventors make light of the losses which may be inflicted upon trusting investors so long as they themselves may get well talked about.

The amount of misguided creativity that has been spent on the two problems of submarine and aerial navigation during the nineteenth century will provide one of the most [Pg 242] curious and interesting studies for future historians of technological progress. Unfortunately, the ability to imagine new concepts, which is essential for inventive talent, is often indulged in without serious consideration of practicality. Imagination creates a scene where the inventor appears to be enjoying themselves at unimaginable depths beneath the sea or at incredible heights above the ground, while their friends, rivals, and all sorts of people look on in amazement! Patent agents know all too well how often an excessive desire for self-promotion accompanies genuine inventive talent, and how many inventors disregard the losses that trusting investors might suffer, as long as they themselves gain attention.

Nations may at times be infected with this unpractical vainglory of inventiveness; and on these occasions there is need of all the restraining influence of the hard-headed business man to prevent the waste of enormous sums of money. The idea that military ascendency in the future is to be secured by the ability to fly through the air and to dive for long distances under the water has taken possession of certain sections in France, Germany, [Pg 243] Russia, Great Britain and the United States. Large numbers of voluble "Boulevardiers" in Paris have, during the last years of the nineteenth century, made it an article of their patriotic faith that the future success of the French navy depends upon the submarine boat. The question as to what an enemy would do with such a boat in actual warfare seems hardly ever to occur to them; and, indeed, any one who should venture to put such a query would run the risk of being set down as a traitor to his country!

Nations can sometimes get caught up in this impractical boastfulness about innovation; during these times, it’s crucial to have the practical mindset of a businessman to prevent the squandering of huge amounts of money. The belief that future military dominance will come from the ability to fly in the air and dive long distances underwater has taken hold in certain areas of France, Germany, [Pg 243] Russia, Great Britain, and the United States. Many talkative “Boulevardiers” in Paris have, over the last years of the nineteenth century, insisted that the future success of the French navy relies on submarine technology. They rarely consider what an enemy might do with such a vessel in real combat; in fact, anyone daring to ask that question risks being labeled a traitor to their country!

More important to the student of the practical details of naval preparation is the great question as to the point at which the contest between shot and armour will be brought to a standstill. That it cannot proceed indefinitely may be confidently taken for granted. The plate-makers thicken their armour while the gun-makers enlarge the size and increase the penetrative power of their weapons, until the weight that has to be carried on a battle-ship renders the attainment of speed practically impossible.

More important to students of the practical aspects of naval preparation is the big question about when the battle between bullets and armor will reach a limit. It's safe to say that it can't go on forever. The companies that make armor are increasing its thickness, while the weapon manufacturers are making their guns larger and more powerful to penetrate armor, until the weight that has to be carried on a battleship makes it nearly impossible to achieve speed.

Meanwhile there is going forward, in the hull of the vessel itself, a gradual course of evolution which will eventually place the policy of increasing strength of armour and of guns at a discount. The division of the [Pg 244] air-space of a warship into water-tight compartments will doubtless prove to be, in actual naval conflict, a more effectual means of keeping the vessel afloat than the indefinite increase in the thickness and consequent weight of her armour.

Meanwhile, there’s a gradual evolution happening inside the hull of the ship that will eventually make the idea of adding more armor and guns less relevant. Dividing the airspace of a warship into watertight compartments will likely be a more effective way to keep the ship afloat during actual naval battles than just endlessly increasing the thickness and weight of its armor.

The most advanced naval architects of modern times are bestowing more and more attention upon this feature, as affording a prospect of rendering ships unsinkable, whether through accidents or through injury in warfare. No doubt, for merchant steamers, it will be seen that development along the lines already laid down in this department will suffice for all practical purposes. The water-tight bulkheads, with readily closed or automatically shutting doorways, ensure the maintenance of buoyancy in case of any ordinary accident from collision or grounding, while the duplication of engines, shafts and propellers—without which no steamship of the middle twentieth century will be passed by marine surveyors as fit for carrying passengers on long ocean voyages—will make provision against all excepting the most extremely improbable mishaps to the machinery.

The most advanced naval architects today are putting increasing focus on this feature, as it offers the potential to make ships unsinkable, whether due to accidents or damage in combat. It's clear that for cargo ships, the progress already made in this area will meet all practical needs. The watertight bulkheads, along with doors that can be closed easily or shut automatically, ensure that buoyancy is maintained in the event of a typical accident from a collision or grounding. Additionally, having duplicate engines, shafts, and propellers—something that no passenger ship from the mid-twentieth century will be approved for by marine surveyors without—will help guard against all but the most unlikely mechanical failures.

If the numerical estimate of the chance of the disablement of a single engine and its propeller during a certain voyage be stated [Pg 245] at one to a thousand, then the risk of helplessness through the break down of both systems in a vessel having twin screws and entirely separate engines will be represented by the proportion of one to a million. This mode of reckoning, of course, assumes that the two systems could be made absolutely independent in relation to all possible disasters; and some deduction must be made on account of the impossibility of attaining this ideal. Yet it is evident that when every practicable device has been adopted for rendering a double accident improbable the chances against such a disaster will not be far from the proportion stated.

If the estimated chance of a single engine and its propeller failing during a specific voyage is stated as one in a thousand, then the risk of becoming stranded due to the failure of both systems in a vessel with twin screws and completely separate engines would be represented by a ratio of one in a million. This calculation assumes that the two systems can be made completely independent concerning all possible failures; some adjustments must be made because achieving this ideal is impossible. However, it's clear that when every practical measure has been taken to make a double failure unlikely, the odds against such a disaster will be close to the stated ratio.

When we come to consider the evolution of the warship as compared with that of the merchant steamer, we are at once confronted with the fact that the infliction of injury upon the boilers, the engine, or the propellers of a hostile vessel is the great object aimed at by the gunners. The evolution of the warship in the direction of ensuring safety, therefore, will not stop at the duplication of the engines, boilers and propellers. In fact it must sooner or later be apparent that the interests of a great naval power demand the working out of a type of warlike craft that shall be almost entirely destitute of armour, but constructed [Pg 246] on such a principle—both as to hull and machinery—that she can be raked fore and aft, and shot through in all directions without becoming either water-logged or deprived of her motive power.

When we look at how warships have evolved compared to merchant ships, we quickly realize that the main goal for gunners is to damage the boilers, engines, or propellers of enemy vessels. The development of warships focused on safety won’t just stop at duplicating engines, boilers, and propellers. Eventually, it will become clear that the needs of a major naval power require the creation of a type of military vessel that is almost entirely unarmored but built in such a way—both in terms of hull and machinery—that it can be hit from any angle without becoming waterlogged or losing its power. [Pg 246]

A torpedo-boat built on this system may consist essentially of a series of steel tubes of large section grouped longitudinally, and divided into compartments like those of a bamboo cane. Each of these has its own small but powerful boilers and engines, and each its separate propeller at the stern. Care also is taken to place the machinery of each tube in such a position that no two are abreast. In fact, the principle of construction is such as to render just as remote as may be the possibility of any shot passing through the vessel and disabling two at the same time.

A torpedo boat built using this system could mainly consist of a series of large steel tubes arranged lengthwise, divided into compartments like those of a bamboo cane. Each compartment has its own small but powerful boiler and engine, along with a separate propeller at the back. They also make sure to position the machinery in each tube so that no two are side by side. In fact, the design is intended to minimize the chance of any shot going through the vessel and disabling two tubes at once.

If a boat of this description has each tube furnished not only with a separate screw at the stern, but also with a torpedo at the bows, it can offer a most serious menace to even the most powerful battle-ship afloat, because its power of "getting home" with a missile depends not upon its protective precautions, but upon an appeal to the law of averages, which makes it practically impossible for any gunners, however skilful, to disable all its independent sections during the run from long range to [Pg 247] torpedo-striking distance. The attacked warship is like an animal exposed to the onslaught of one of those fabled reptiles possessing a separate life and a separate sting in each of its myriad sections; so that what would be a mortal injury to a creature having its vital organs concentrated in one spot produces only the most limited effect in diminishing its strength and powers of offence.

If a boat like this has each tube equipped with not just one screw at the back, but also a torpedo at the front, it can pose a serious threat to even the strongest battleship around. This is because its ability to hit with a missile doesn't rely on its protective measures, but instead on the law of averages, making it nearly impossible for any gunners, no matter how skilled, to take out all its separate sections during the journey from long range to [Pg 247] torpedo-striking distance. The targeted warship is like an animal facing an attack from one of those mythical creatures that has a separate life and sting in each of its countless sections. As a result, what would cause a fatal injury to a creature with its vital organs in one place only minimally reduces the strength and offensive capabilities of this one.

Or this class of naval fighter may be regarded as a combined fleet of small torpedo-boats, bound together for mutual purposes of offence and defence. Singly, they would present defects of coal-carrying capacity, sea-going qualities, and accommodation for crew which would render them comparatively helpless and innocuous; but in combination they possess all the travelling capacities of a large warship, conjoined with the deadly powers at close quarters of a number of torpedo boats, all acting closely in concert upon a single plan.

Or this type of naval fighter can be seen as a mini fleet of small torpedo boats, working together for shared offensive and defensive goals. Individually, they have issues with fuel capacity, seaworthiness, and crew accommodations that would make them relatively ineffective and harmless. However, when combined, they have all the capabilities of a large warship, along with the lethal power of multiple torpedo boats, all functioning in unison toward a shared strategy.

The chief naval lesson taught during the Spanish-American War was the need for improving the sea-going qualities of the torpedo-boat before it can be regarded as a truly effective weapon in naval warfare. It was announced at one stage that if the Spanish torpedo-boat fleet could have been coaled and re-coaled at the Azores, and two or three other [Pg 248] points on the passage across to America, it might have been brought within striking distance of the United States cruisers operating against Santiago. This hypothetical statement provided but cold comfort for the Spaniards, who had been persuaded to put so much of their available naval strength into a type of craft utterly unsuited for operations complying with the first great requirement of naval warfare, namely, that the proper limit of the campaign coincides with the shores of the enemy's country.

The main lesson learned during the Spanish-American War was that the capabilities of torpedo boats needed to be improved before they could be considered a truly effective weapon in naval warfare. At one point, it was mentioned that if the Spanish torpedo-boat fleet could have been refueled at the Azores and a couple of other locations on the way to America, they might have been able to get close enough to strike at the U.S. cruisers operating against Santiago. This hypothetical scenario offered little comfort to the Spaniards, who had been convinced to invest so much of their naval strength in a type of vessel that was entirely unsuited for operations given the first major requirement of naval warfare, which is that the effective range of the campaign should extend to the enemy's shores.

But when the naval architect and the engineer have evolved a class of torpedo-using vessel which can both travel far and strike hard, and which, moreover, can stand a few well-directed shots penetrating her without succumbing to their effect, a new era will have been opened up in naval warfare—an era of high explosive weapons requiring to strike home with dash and bravery in spite of risk from shot and shell; but, like the bayonet on land, capable of overthrowing all war-machines which can only strike from a considerable distance.

But when the naval architect and the engineer have developed a type of torpedo-armed vessel that can travel long distances and hit hard, and that can also withstand a few well-aimed shots without being taken down, a new era in naval warfare will begin—an era of high-explosive weapons that need to hit decisively with courage despite the danger from enemy fire; but, similar to the bayonet on land, able to defeat all war machines that can only attack from a far distance.


CHAPTER XII.

MUSIC.

A perfect sostenuto piano has been the dream of many a musician whose ardent desire it was to perform his music exactly as it was written. A sustained piano note is, indeed, the great mechanical desideratum for the music of the future. In music, as at present written and published for the piano, which is, and must continue to be, the real "King of Instruments," there is a good deal of make-believe. A long note—or two notes tied in a certain method—is intended to be played as a continued sound, like the note of an organ; whereas there is no piano in existence which will produce anything even approximately approaching to that effect. The characteristic of the piano as an instrument is percussion, producing, at the moment of striking the note, a loud sound which almost immediately dies away and leaves but a faint vibration.

A perfect sostenuto piano has been the dream of many musicians who passionately wished to play their music exactly as it was written. A sustained piano note is, in fact, the key mechanical goal for the music of the future. In music, as it is currently written and published for the piano—which is, and will always be, the true "King of Instruments"—there's a lot of make-believe. A long note, or two notes tied together in a certain way, is meant to be played as a continuous sound, like an organ note; however, no piano exists that can produce anything close to that effect. The piano’s defining feature as an instrument is percussion, creating a loud sound when the note is struck that quickly fades away, leaving only a faint vibration.

The phonographic record of a pianoforte solo shows this very clearly to the eye, because the impression made by a long note is a deeply-marked [Pg 250] indentation succeeded by the merest shallow scratch—not unlike the impression made by a tadpole on mud—with a big head and an attenuated body. Every note marked long in pianoforte music is therefore essentially a sforzando followed by a rapid diminuendo. Anything in such music marked as a long note to be sustained crescendo—the most thrilling effect of orchestral, choral, and organ music—is necessarily a sham and a delusion.

The phonographic record of a piano solo shows this very clearly, because the impression made by a long note is a deep indentation followed by just a light scratch—not unlike the mark a tadpole makes in mud—with a big head and a thin body. Every note marked long in piano music is essentially a sforzando followed by a quick diminuendo. Anything in such music labeled as a long note to be sustained crescendo—the most exciting effect of orchestral, choral, and organ music—is just a fake and an illusion.

The genius and skill which have enabled the masters of pianoforte composition not only to cover up this defect in their instrument, but even to make amends for it, by working out effects only suitable for a percussion note, present one of the most remarkable features of musical progress in the nineteenth century. So notable is that fact in its relation to the pianoforte accompaniments of vocal music, that it seems open to question whether, even in the presence of a thoroughly satisfactory sostenuto piano, much use would for many years be made of it for this particular purpose. The effects of repeated notes succeeding one another with increasing or decreasing force, and of arpeggio passages, have been so fully explored and made available in standard music of every [Pg 251] grade, that necessarily the public taste has set itself to appreciate the pianoforte solo and the accompanied song exactly as they are written and performed. These are, after all, the highest forms of music which civilisation has yet enabled one or two performers to produce.

The talent and skill that have allowed the masters of piano composition not only to hide the shortcomings of their instrument but also to make up for them by creating effects typically reserved for percussion instruments are among the most impressive aspects of musical advancement in the nineteenth century. This is especially true when it comes to piano accompaniments for vocal music, raising the question of whether, even with a fully satisfactory sostenuto piano, it would be widely used for this specific purpose for many years. The effects of repeating notes with varying intensity and arpeggio passages have been so thoroughly explored and incorporated into standard music across all levels that public taste has naturally come to appreciate piano solos and accompanied songs just as they are written and performed. Ultimately, these represent the highest forms of music that civilization has enabled one or two performers to create.

Yet, in regard to solo instrumentalisation, there is no doubt that a general hope exists for the discovery of a compromise between the piano and the organ or between the piano and the string band. Some inventors have aimed in the latter direction and others in the former; but no one has succeeded in really recommending his ideas to the public. Combined piano-violins and piano-organs have been shown at each of the great Exhibitions from the middle of the nineteenth century to its close. Several of these instruments have been devised and constructed with great ingenuity; and yet practically all of them have been received by the musical profession either with indifference or with positive ridicule.

Yet, when it comes to solo performance, there’s no doubt that there’s a general hope for finding a compromise between the piano and the organ or between the piano and the string band. Some inventors have focused on the latter and others on the former; however, no one has truly managed to win over the public with their ideas. Combined piano-violins and piano-organs have been showcased at every major exhibition from the mid-nineteenth century until its end. Many of these instruments have been created and built with remarkable ingenuity; and still, almost all of them have been met by the music community with either indifference or outright mockery.

The fact is that revolutionary sudden changes in musical instruments are rendered impossible owing to the near relationship which exists between each instrument and the general body of the music that is written for it. No one can divorce the two, which, as a factor in [Pg 252] æsthetic progress, are really one and indivisible. Therefore, if any man invents a musical instrument which requires for its success the sudden evolution of a new race of composers writing for it, and a new type of educated public taste to hail these composers with delight, he is asking for a miracle and he will be disappointed.

The truth is that revolutionary changes in musical instruments can't happen overnight because each instrument is closely connected to the overall music that’s written for it. You can't separate the two, which are essential for aesthetic progress and are actually one and the same. So, if someone creates a musical instrument that needs a sudden emergence of a new wave of composers writing for it, along with a new type of educated audience to appreciate these composers, they're setting themselves up for disappointment. They’re basically asking for a miracle.

What is wanted is not a new instrument, but an improved piano that shall at one and the same time correct, to some extent, the defects of the existing instrument, and leave still available all the brilliant effects which have been invented for it by a generation of musical geniuses. We want the sustained note, and yet we do not wish to lose the pretty turns and graceful devices by which the lack of it has been hidden, or atoned for, in the works of the masters. Therefore our sustained note must not be too aggressive. For a long time, indeed, it must partake of the very defects which it is intended ultimately to abolish.

What we need isn't a new instrument, but an upgraded piano that corrects some of the flaws of the current instrument while still allowing for all the amazing effects created by a generation of musical geniuses. We want a sustained note, but we don’t want to lose the beautiful embellishments and elegant tricks that have been used to compensate for its absence in the works of the great composers. So, our sustained note shouldn't be too overpowering. For a while, it needs to share some of the same shortcomings it’s meant to fix.

In other words, we want to retain the percussion note with the dampers and with the loud and soft pedals, in fact, all the existing inventions for coaxing some of the notes to sustain themselves while others are cut short, as may be desired, and at the same time we have to add other and more effective means to [Pg 253] assist the performer in achieving the same object.

In other words, we want to keep the percussion note with the dampers and the loud and soft pedals, basically, all the tools we have that help some notes sustain while others are shortened, as needed. At the same time, we need to introduce other, more effective ways to [Pg 253] help the performer achieve the same goal.

The more or less complicated methods aiming at the prolongation of the residual effect of the percussion have apparently been very nearly exhausted. Some of the most modern pianos are really marvels of mechanical ingenuity applied to this purpose. We have now to look to something slightly resembling the principle of the violin or of the organ, in order to secure the additional sostenuto effect for which we are searching. Having to deal with a piano in practically its existing form, we obviously require to take special account of the fact that the note is begun by percussion, and that any attempt to bring a solid substance into contact with the wire while still vibrating, with the object of continuing its motion, is likely to produce more or less of a jarring effect.

The various complicated methods aimed at extending the residual effect of the strike have seemingly been nearly exhausted. Some of the most modern pianos are truly amazing feats of mechanical innovation designed for this purpose. We now need to consider something that resembles the principles of the violin or the organ to achieve the additional sostenuto effect we’re looking for. Since we're dealing with a piano in its current form, we obviously need to pay special attention to the fact that the note starts with a strike, and that any attempt to bring a solid object into contact with the string while it's still vibrating, in order to sustain its motion, is likely to cause some kind of jarring effect.

The air-blast type of note-continuer for sostenuto effect therefore offers the most promising outlook for the improvement of the modern piano in the direction indicated. By directing a blast of air from a very thin nozzle on to the vibrating wire of a piano, the sound emitted may be very greatly intensified; and although naturally the decreasing amplitude of the vibration may in itself tend to create a diminuendo, yet it is possible to make up for this in [Pg 254] some degree by causing the air-blast to increase in force, through the use of any suitable means, modified by an extra pedal as may be desired.

The air-blast type of note-continuer for sostenuto effect offers the best chance for improving the modern piano in this way. By directing a blast of air from a very thin nozzle onto the vibrating wire of a piano, the sound produced can be greatly amplified. While the natural decrease in vibration amplitude might create a diminuendo, it is possible to compensate for this to some extent by increasing the force of the air-blast using any suitable method, controlled by an additional pedal if desired. [Pg 254]

Delicate pianissimo effects, somewhat resembling those of the Eolian lyre, are produced by playing the notes with the air-blast alone, without the aid of percussion. But the louder sostenuto notes depend upon the added atmospheric resistance offered by a strong current of air to those movements of the wire which have been originally set up by percussion, and the fact that this resistance gives rise to a corresponding continuance of the motion. The prolongation of a note in this way is analogous to the continual swinging of an elastic switch in a stream of water, the current by its force producing a rhythmic movement.

Delicate pianissimo effects, similar to those of the Eolian lyre, are created by playing the notes using just the air blast, without any percussion. On the other hand, the louder sostenuto notes rely on the additional atmospheric resistance provided by a strong airflow against the movements of the wire initially set into motion by percussion. This resistance leads to a continued motion of the wire. Prolonging a note in this way is comparable to the continuous swinging of a flexible switch in a stream of water, where the current generates a rhythmic movement.

When these Eolian effects, as applied to the pianoforte, have been carefully studied, many devices for controlling them will be brought forward. The main purpose, however, must be to connect the air-blast with the percussion apparatus in such a manner that, as soon as a key is depressed, the nozzle of that particular note in the air-blast is opened exactly at the same time that the wire is struck by the hammer, and it remains open as long as the note is held down. The movement of an extra pedal, however, has the effect of throwing [Pg 255] the whole of the air-blast apparatus out of gear and reducing the piano to a percussion instrument, pure and simple.

When these Eolian effects, as applied to the pianoforte, have been carefully studied, many methods for controlling them will be introduced. The main goal, however, should be to connect the air-blast with the striking mechanism in such a way that, as soon as a key is pressed, the nozzle for that specific note in the air-blast opens at the exact moment the hammer hits the string, and it stays open as long as the note is being held down. The movement of an additional pedal, however, causes the entire air-blast system to malfunction and reduces the piano to a basic percussion instrument.

It will be on the concert platform, no doubt, that this kind of improvement will find its first field of usefulness. Performers will require, in addition to their grand pianos, reservoirs of compressed air attachable by tubes to their instruments. In private houses hydraulic air-compressors will be found more convenient. When the piano has by some such means acquired the faculty of singing its notes, as well as of ringing them, its ascendency, as the finest instrument adapted to solo instrumentalism, will be assured.

It’s clear that this kind of advancement will first show its value on the concert stage. Musicians will need, alongside their grand pianos, tanks of compressed air connected by tubes to their instruments. In private homes, hydraulic air compressors will be more practical. Once the piano can, through such methods, learn to sing its notes in addition to ringing them, it will solidify its place as the premier instrument for solo performance.

The common domestic piano is rightly regarded by many people as being little better than an instrument of torture. One reason for this aversion is that, in the great majority of cases, the household instrument is not kept in tune. Probably it is not too much to say that the man who would invent a sound cottage piano which would remain in tune would do more for the improvement of the national taste in music than the largest and finest orchestra ever assembled. The constantly vitiated sense of hearing, which is brought about by the continual jangle of notes just a fractional part of a tone out of tune, is responsible [Pg 256] for much of the distaste for good music which prevails among the people. When the domestic instrument is but imperfectly tuned, it is natural that those pieces should be preferred which suffer least by reason of the imperfection, and these, it need hardly be remarked, generally belong to the class of music which must be rated as essentially inferior, if not vulgar.

The typical home piano is often seen by many as little more than an instrument of torture. One reason for this dislike is that, in most cases, the household piano isn't kept in tune. It's probably safe to say that anyone who could create a reliable cottage piano that stays in tune would do more to enhance the national appreciation of music than even the biggest, finest orchestra ever put together. The constantly damaged sense of hearing, caused by the ongoing clash of notes that are just slightly out of tune, contributes to the widespread aversion to good music among people. When the home instrument is only partially tuned, it's natural for people to prefer pieces that are least affected by this imperfection, which, it goes without saying, usually belong to a type of music that is considered largely inferior, if not outright tacky.

The device of winding a string round a peg and twisting it up on the latter in order to obtain tension for a vibrating note is thousands of years old. It was the method by which tension was imparted to some of the earliest harps and lyres of which history is cognisant; and it is still to be found to-day in the most elaborate and costly grand piano, with but few alterations affecting its principle of action. The pianoforte of the future will be kept in tune by more exact and scientific methods, attaining a certain balance between the thickness of the wire and the tension placed upon it by means of springs and weights.

The method of wrapping a string around a peg and twisting it to create tension for a vibrating note is thousands of years old. This was how tension was added to some of the earliest harps and lyres that we know about from history, and it's still found today in the most complex and expensive grand pianos, with only a few changes to its basic function. The piano of the future will be tuned using more precise and scientific methods, achieving a balance between the thickness of the wire and the tension applied through springs and weights.

Besides the ravages of the badly-tuned piano, much suffering is inflicted by the barbarous habit of permitting a sounding instrument to be used for mere mechanical exercises. The taste of the pupil is vitiated, and the nerves of other inmates of the house are subjected to [Pg 257] a source of constant irritation when long series of notes, arranged merely as muscular exercises, and some of them violating almost every rule of musical form, are ground out hour after hour like coffee from a coffee-mill. The inconsistency of subjecting the musical ear and taste of a boy or girl to this process, and then expecting the child to develop an innate taste for the delicacies of form in melody and of the beauty of harmony, is almost as bad as would be that of asking a Chinese victim of foot-binding to walk easily and gracefully.

Besides the damage caused by a poorly tuned piano, a lot of suffering comes from the cruel habit of letting an instrument be used for just mechanical practice. This ruins the student’s taste and subjects everyone else in the house to a constant irritation when endless series of notes, set up only as physical exercises, some of which break almost every rule of musical structure, are churned out hour after hour like coffee from a grinder. It's inconsistent to put a boy or girl’s musical ear and taste through this process and then expect them to develop an appreciation for the nuances of melody and the beauty of harmony, as bad as asking a Chinese victim of foot-binding to walk smoothly and gracefully.

The use of the digitorium for promoting the mechanical portion of a musical education by the training of the fingers has already, to some slight extent, obviated the evils complained of. But this instrument is, as yet, only in its rudimentary stage of development. The dumb notes of the keyboard ought to be capable of emitting sounds by way of notice to the operator, in order to show when the rules have been broken. Thus, for instance, the impact caused by putting a key down should have the effect of driving a small weight upwards in the direction of a metal bar, the distance of which can be adjusted. Another bar, at a lower level, is also approached by a second weight, and the perfect degree of evenness in the touch is indicated by the fact [Pg 258] that the lower bar should be made to emit a faint sound with every note, but the higher one not at all. The closer the bars the more difficult is the exercise, and remarkable evenness of touch can be acquired by a progressive training with such an instrument.

The use of the digitorium for enhancing the mechanical aspects of musical education through finger training has already somewhat addressed the issues that have been raised. However, this instrument is still in its early stages of development. The silent notes of the keyboard should be able to produce sounds to alert the operator when the rules are violated. For example, when a key is pressed down, it should push a small weight upward toward an adjustable metal bar. Another bar, positioned lower, is aimed at by a second weight, and the ideal evenness of touch is indicated by the fact that the lower bar should make a faint sound with each note, while the higher one remains silent. The closer the bars are to each other, the harder the exercise becomes, and significant evenness of touch can be achieved through gradual practice with such an instrument.

The organ has been wonderfully improved during the nineteenth century. Yet the decline of its popularity in comparison with the pianoforte may be accounted for on very rational grounds. While ardent organists still claim that the organ is the "King of Instruments" the public generally entertain a feeling that it is a deposed king. It remains for the organ-builders of the twentieth century to attack the problem of curing its defects by methods going more directly to the root of the difficulty than any hitherto attempted.

The organ has been greatly improved during the nineteenth century. However, its decline in popularity compared to the piano can be explained rationally. While passionate organists still assert that the organ is the "King of Instruments," the public tends to view it as a once-great king who has been dethroned. It's up to the organ builders of the twentieth century to tackle the issue of fixing its shortcomings through methods that go deeper than any previously tried.

As contrasted with the pianoforte, the organ is extremely deficient in that power which the conductor of an orchestra loves to exercise—facility in accentuating and in subduing at will the work of each individual performer. For all practical purposes the ten fingers of a piano-player are the ten players in an orchestra; and, according to the force with which each finger strikes the note, is the prominence given to its effects. An air or a motif may be brought out with emphasis by one set [Pg 259] of fingers, while the others are playing an accompaniment with all sorts of delicate gradations of softness and emphasis.

Compared to the piano, the organ really lacks the power that an orchestra conductor loves to use—being able to highlight or soften the performance of each individual musician at will. For practical purposes, the ten fingers of a pianist represent the ten musicians in an orchestra; the strength with which each finger hits the keys determines how prominent that sound is in the overall performance. A melody or a motif can be emphasized by one set of fingers, while the others provide an accompaniment with various degrees of softness and emphasis. [Pg 259]

By multiplying the manuals, the organ-builder has endeavoured, with a certain degree of success, to make up for the unfortunate fact that the performer on his instrument possesses no similar facility in making it speak louder when he submits the note to extra pressure. One hand may be playing an air on one manual, while the second is engaged in the accompaniment on another; and the former may be connected with a louder stop, or with one of a more penetrating quality than the latter.

By adding more manuals, the organ-builder has tried, with some success, to compensate for the unfortunate reality that the performer on the instrument can't easily make it sound louder when they push down harder on the keys. One hand might be playing a melody on one manual, while the other is working on the accompaniment on another; and the first might be linked to a louder stop or one that has a more penetrating sound than the second.

This device, together with an elaborate arrangement of swells and pedal-notes, has greatly enlarged the capacity of the organ for producing those choral effects which mainly depend upon gradations of volume. Yet the whole system, elaborate as it is, offers but a poor substitute for the marvellous range of individuality that may be expressed on the notes of the piano by instantaneous changes in the values ascribed to single notes. By the same action of his finger the pianist not only makes the note, but also gives its value; while the method of the organist is to neglect the element of finger-pressure and to rely upon [Pg 260] other methods for imparting emphasis or softness to his work.

This device, along with a complex setup of swells and pedal notes, has significantly increased the organ's ability to create those choral effects that rely mainly on variations in volume. However, the entire system, as intricate as it is, falls short compared to the incredible range of individuality that can be conveyed on the piano through instant changes in the importance given to individual notes. With the same finger movement, the pianist not only produces the note but also determines its value; in contrast, the organist tends to overlook finger pressure and depends on [Pg 260] other methods to add emphasis or softness to their performance.

An organ that shall emit a louder or softer note, according to the force with which the key on the manual is depressed, will no doubt be one of the musical instruments of the twentieth century. Whether each key will be fitted with a resisting spring, or whether the lever will be constructed in such a way as to throw a weight to a higher or lower grade of position, according to the force with which it is struck, is a question which will depend upon the results of experiment. But the latter method is more in consonance with the conditions which have given to the piano its wonderful versatility, and it therefore seems the more probable solution of the two. Upon the vigour of the finger's impact will depend the height to which a valve is thrown, and this will determine the speed and volume of the air which is liberated to rush into the pipe and make the note.

An organ that can produce a louder or softer sound based on how hard the key on the keyboard is pressed will definitely be one of the popular musical instruments of the twentieth century. Whether each key will use a spring for resistance or if the lever will be designed to move a weight to a higher or lower position based on the force applied is a question that will be answered through experimentation. However, the second method aligns better with the factors that have given the piano its remarkable versatility, making it the more likely solution of the two. The strength of the finger's touch will determine how high a valve is raised, which in turn will control the speed and volume of the air that rushes into the pipe to create the note.

The nineteenth century orchestra is a fearfully and wonderfully constructed agglomeration of ancient and modern instruments. Its merits are attested by the fine musical sense of the most experienced conductors, whose aim it has been so to balance the different instruments as to produce a tastefully-blended [Pg 261] effect, while at the same time providing for solos and also for the rendering of parts in which a small number of performers may contribute to the unfolding of the composer's ideas. The orchestra cannot therefore be examined or discussed from a mechanical point of view, however much some of the instruments of which it is composed may be thought capable of improvement.

The 19th-century orchestra is an impressive mix of old and new instruments. Its value is proven by the great musical talent of the most experienced conductors, who strive to balance the different instruments to create a beautifully blended effect while also allowing for solos and sections where a small number of performers can express the composer’s ideas. Therefore, the orchestra shouldn't be looked at or discussed only in mechanical terms, even though some of its instruments might seem like they could be improved. [Pg 261]

But the position of the conductor himself in the front of an orchestra is, from a purely artistic standpoint, highly anomalous. It is as if the prompter at the performance of a drama were to be seen taking the most conspicuous part and mixing among the actors upon the stage. If an orchestral piece be well played without the visible presence of a conductor, the sense of correct time reaches the audience naturally through the music itself; and any sort of gesticulations intended to mark it are under these conditions regarded as being out of place.

But the conductor's position at the front of an orchestra is, from an artistic perspective, quite unusual. It's like if the prompter at a play was to take center stage and interact with the actors. When an orchestral piece is played well without a visible conductor, the audience naturally feels the rhythm through the music itself; any gestures meant to indicate timing are seen as unnecessary in that scenario.

The foremost orchestral conductors of the day are evidently impressed with this unfitness of the mechanical marking of time by the wild waving of a stick or swaying of the body; and accordingly, however much they exert themselves at the rehearsal, they purposely subdue their motions during a public performance. [Pg 262] The time is not far distant when the object of the conductor will be to guide his band without permitting his promptings to be perceived in any way by the audience.

The top orchestral conductors today clearly find the mechanical act of keeping time through exaggerated arm movements or body swaying to be inadequate. As a result, no matter how hard they try during rehearsals, they intentionally tone down their movements during public performances. [Pg 262] It won’t be long before conductors aim to direct their ensemble without letting their cues be noticed by the audience at all.

For this purpose an "electric beat-indicator" will prove useful. Various proposals for its application have been put forward, and for different purposes several of them are obviously feasible. For instance, in one system the conductor sits in a place hidden from the audience and beats time on an electric contact-maker, which admits of his sending a special message to any particular performer whenever he desires to do so. The signal which marks the time may be given to each performer, either visually by a beater concealed within a small bell-shaped cavity affixed to his desk or to his electric light; or it may be conveyed by the sense of touch through a mechanical beater within a small metal weight placed on the floor and upon which he sets one of his feet.

For this purpose, an "electric beat-indicator" will be useful. Various proposals for its use have been suggested, and for different purposes, several of them are clearly workable. For example, in one system, the conductor is positioned out of sight of the audience and keeps time using an electric contact-maker, which allows him to send a specific message to any particular performer whenever he wants. The signal that indicates the beat can be given to each performer either visually, through a hidden beater within a small bell-shaped cavity attached to their desk or electric light, or it can be transmitted by touch via a mechanical beater contained within a small metal weight placed on the floor that they rest one of their feet on.

The electric time-beater in the latter system thus taps the measure gently on the sole of the performer's foot, and special signals, as may be arranged, are sent to him by preconcerted combinations of taps. The absence of any distraction from the music itself will soon be gratefully felt by audiences, and the playing [Pg 263] of a symphony in the twentieth century, in which the whole orchestra moves sympathetically in obedience to the "nerve-waves" of the electric current, will be the highest possible presentment of the musical art.

The electric timekeeper in the new system gently taps the beat on the performer's foot, and specific signals, arranged in advance, are sent to him through certain combinations of taps. Audiences will soon appreciate the lack of distractions from the music itself, and the performance of a symphony in the twentieth century, where the entire orchestra responds harmoniously to the "nerve-waves" of the electric current, will represent the pinnacle of musical artistry. [Pg 263]


CHAPTER XIII.

ART AND NEWS.

The production of pictures for the million will be practically the highest achievement of the graphic art in the twentieth century. Many eminent painters do not at all relish the prospect, being strongly of opinion that when every branch of art becomes popular it will be vulgarised. This notion arises from a fallacy which has affected ideas during the nineteenth century in many matters besides art, the mistake of supposing that vulgar people all belong to one grade of society.

The creation of images for the masses will be one of the greatest achievements of graphic art in the twentieth century. Many well-known artists are not thrilled about this idea, believing that when every form of art becomes mainstream, it will lose its quality. This belief stems from a misconception that has influenced thoughts about various topics throughout the nineteenth century, the error of assuming that all unrefined people come from the same social class.

Yet every one who knows modern England, for instance, is perfectly aware that the highest standard of taste is only to be found in the elect of all classes of society. After the experience of the eighteenth century, surely it ought to have been recognised that the "upper ten thousand," when left to develop vulgarity in its true essence, can attain to a degree of perfection hardly possible in any other social grade. Is there in the whole range of pictorial art anything more irredeemably vulgar than a [Pg 265] "State Portrait" by Sir Thomas Lawrence or one of his imitators?

Yet everyone who knows modern England is fully aware that the highest standard of taste can only be found among the select from all social classes. After the lessons learned from the eighteenth century, it should be clear that the "upper ten thousand," when allowed to cultivate their vulgarity in its true form, can reach a level of perfection that’s hard to find in any other social class. Is there anything more irredeemably vulgar in the entire spectrum of visual art than a [Pg 265] "State Portrait" by Sir Thomas Lawrence or one of his imitators?

It was under the prompting of a dread of the process of popularising art that so many eminent painters of the nineteenth century protested against the fashion set by Sir J. E. Millais when he sold such pictures as "Cherry Ripe" and "Bubbles," knowing they were intended for reproduction in very large numbers by mechanical means. From a somewhat similar motive a few of the leading artists of the nineteenth century for a time stood aloof from the movement for familiarising the people with at least the form, if not the colouring, of each notable picture of the year. From small and very unpretentious beginnings, the published pictorial notes of the Royal Academy and other exhibitions of the year have risen to most imposing proportions; and already there is some talk of attempting a few of the best from each year's production in colours.

It was due to a fear of the way art was being popularized that many famous painters of the nineteenth century objected to the trend set by Sir J. E. Millais when he sold paintings like "Cherry Ripe" and "Bubbles," knowing they were meant to be printed in large quantities using mechanical methods. For similar reasons, a few leading artists of the nineteenth century distanced themselves from the movement that aimed to familiarize the public with at least the form, if not the colors, of each significant painting of the year. From small and modest beginnings, the published visual notes of the Royal Academy and other exhibitions have grown enormously; and there is already talk of trying to reproduce some of the best works from each year in color.

Half-tone zinco and similar processes have brought down the expenses entailed by reproductions in colour-work, so as to render an undertaking of this kind much more feasible than it was in the middle of the last half-century. "Cherry Ripe" cost five thousand pounds to reproduce, by the laborious processes of printing not only each colour, but almost [Pg 266] every different shade of each colour from a different surface.

Half-tone zinc and similar methods have significantly reduced the costs of color reproduction, making projects like this much more practical than they were in the mid-19th century. "Cherry Ripe" cost five thousand pounds to reproduce using the tedious techniques of printing not just each color, but nearly every different shade of each color from a separate plate.

In the "three-colour-zinco" process of reproduction only three printings are required, each colour with all its delicate gradations of shade being fully provided for by a single engraved block. When machines of great precision have been finally perfected for admitting of the successive blocks being printed from on paper run from the reel without any handling, a revolution will be brought about not only in artistic printing, but even in the conditions of studio work upon which the artist depends for success.

In the "three-colour-zinco" printing process, only three prints are needed, with each color and all its subtle shades coming from a single engraved block. Once highly precise machines are perfected to allow the consecutive blocks to print directly onto paper from a reel without needing to be handled, it will transform not just artistic printing but also the studio work that artists rely on for their success.

First, the pictorial notes of the year will be brought out in colour; and as competition for the right of reproduction increases, the artists who have painted the most suitable and most popular pictures will find that they can get more remuneration for copyright than they can for the pictures themselves. This has already been the case in regard to a very limited number of pictures; but the exception of the past will be the rule of the future, at least as regards those pictures which possess any special merits at all.

First, the illustrated notes of the year will be released in color; and as the competition for reproduction rights grows, the artists who create the most fitting and popular images will discover that they can earn more from copyright than from the artworks themselves. This has already happened with a few specific images; however, what was once an exception will become the norm in the future, at least for those images that have any notable qualities.

More thought will therefore be required as the motive or basis of each subject; and historical pictures will come more into favour, [Pg 267] the affected simplicity and mental emptiness of the plein air school being discarded in favour of a style which shall speak more directly to the people, and stir more deeply both their mental and their emotional natures.

More thought will be needed regarding the purpose or foundation of each topic, and historical imagery will become more popular, [Pg 267] as the artificial simplicity and lack of depth in the plein air movement are replaced by a style that communicates more effectively with the public, resonating more profoundly with both their intellect and emotions.

The artist and the printer must then confer. They can no longer afford to work in the future with such disregard of each other's ideas and methods as they have done in the past. It was at one time the custom among painters almost to despise the "black-and-white man" who drew for the Press in any shape or form; but that piece of affectation has nearly been destroyed by the general ridicule with which it is now received, and by the knowledge that there are already, at the end of the nineteenth century, just as many men of talent working by methods suitable for reproduction, as there are painters who confine their attention to palette, canvas and brush.

The artist and the printer need to talk. They can’t keep ignoring each other’s ideas and methods like they did before. Not too long ago, it was common for painters to look down on the "black-and-white guy" who created illustrations for the press in any way; however, that snobbery has mostly faded thanks to the mockery it receives now and the realization that, by the end of the nineteenth century, there are just as many talented people using techniques suitable for reproduction as there are painters focused solely on palette, canvas, and brush.

The printer will now advance a step further, and will invoke the services of the painter himself, even prescribing certain methods by which the Press may be enabled to reproduce the work of the artist more faithfully than would otherwise be possible.

The printer will now move ahead a step further, and will enlist the help of the painter himself, even outlining specific techniques that the Press can use to replicate the artist's work more accurately than would be possible otherwise.

Transparency painting will no doubt be one of these methods. The artist will paint on a set of sheets of transparent celluloid or glass, [Pg 268] mounted in frames of wood and hinged so that they can, for purposes of observation, be put aside and yet brought back to their original positions quite accurately. Each different transparent sheet will be intended for one pure colour, the only pigments used being of the most transparent description obtainable.

Transparency painting will definitely be one of these techniques. The artist will paint on a series of transparent sheets made of celluloid or glass, [Pg 268] mounted in wooden frames that are hinged, so they can be set aside for observation and easily returned to their original positions with precision. Each different transparent sheet will be intended for one pure color, using only the most transparent pigments available.

The picture may thus be built up by successive additions and alterations, not all put upon one surface, but constituting a number of "monochromes," superimposed one upon the other. When finished, each of these one-colour transparencies can then be reproduced by photo-mechanical means for multi-colour printing in the press.

The image can be created through a series of additions and changes, not all on the same surface, but made up of several "monochromes" layered on top of each other. Once completed, each of these single-color transparencies can be reproduced using photo-mechanical methods for multi-color printing in the press.

By what are known as the photographic "interruption" processes, a kind of converse method has achieved a certain degree of success. A landscape or a picture is photographed several times from exactly the same position, but on each occasion it is taken through a screen of a different coloured glass, which is intended for the purpose of intercepting all the rays of light, except those of one particular tint. Coloured prints in transparent gelatine or other suitable medium are then made from the various negatives, each in its appropriate tint; and when all are placed together and viewed through transmitted light, the [Pg 269] effect of the picture, with all its colours combined, is fairly well produced. More serviceable from the artistic point of view will be the method according to which the artist makes his picture by transmitted light, but the finished printed product is seen on paper, because this latter lends itself to the finest work of the artistic printer.

Using what's known as the photographic "interruption" processes, a sort of reverse method has achieved a certain level of success. A landscape or image is photographed multiple times from the same position, but each time it’s taken through a screen of different colored glass, designed to block all light rays except those of a specific hue. Colored prints in transparent gelatin or another suitable medium are then created from the various negatives, each in its correct tint; and when all are combined and viewed with transmitted light, the [Pg 269] effect of the picture, with all its colors merged, is fairly well achieved. More useful from an artistic perspective will be the method where the artist creates their image using transmitted light, but the final printed product is displayed on paper, as this medium is suited to the finest work of the artistic printer.

The principal branch of the work of the photographer must continue to be portraiture. He cannot greatly reduce the cost of getting a really good negative, because so much hand-labour is required for the task of "retouching"; but he can give, perhaps, a hundred prints for the price which he now charges for a dozen, and make money by the enterprise. It has already been proved that there is no necessity for using expensive salts of gold, silver or platinum in order to secure the most artistic prints; and, as a matter of fact, some of the finest art work in the photography of the past quarter of a century has been accomplished with the cheapest of materials, such as gelatine, glue and lampblack.

The main focus of a photographer's work should still be portrait photography. They can't significantly lower the cost of producing a truly great negative since a lot of manual labor is involved in the "retouching" process. However, they could potentially offer around a hundred prints for the price they currently charge for a dozen and still make a profit from it. It's already been shown that there's no need to use expensive gold, silver, or platinum salts to create the most artistic prints; in fact, some of the best art in photography over the last 25 years has been made using very inexpensive materials like gelatin, glue, and lampblack.

Pigmented gelatine is, without doubt, the coming medium for photographic prints, and the methods of making them must approximate more and more closely to those of the typographic printer. By producing a "photo-relief" [Pg 270] in gelatine—sensitised with bichromate of potash, and afterwards exposed first to the sun and then to the action of water—an impression in plastic material can be secured, from which, with the use of warm, thin, pigmented gelatine, a hundred copies or more can be printed off in a few minutes.

Pigmented gelatin is definitely the future of photographic prints, and the techniques for creating them need to align more closely with those of typographic printing. By making a "photo-relief" [Pg 270] in gelatin—sensitized with potassium bichromate, and then exposed first to sunlight and then to water—you can create a mold from which, using warm, thin pigmented gelatin, you can print a hundred copies or more in just a few minutes.

The very general introduction of such a process has naturally been delayed owing to the extra trouble involved in the first methods which were suggested for applying it, and also, no doubt, on account of the recent fashion for platinotype and bromide of silver prints. But as soon as more convenient details for the making of pigmented gelatine prints have been elaborated, the cheapness of the material and the wonderful variety of the art shades and tints in which photographs can be executed will give the gelatine processes an advantage in the competition which it will be hopeless for other methods to challenge.

The general introduction of this process has naturally been delayed because of the extra trouble involved in the initial methods suggested for using it, and also, undoubtedly, due to the recent popularity of platinotype and silver bromide prints. However, once more convenient methods for creating pigmented gelatin prints are developed, the affordability of the materials and the incredible range of artistic shades and tones available for photographs will give the gelatin processes an edge that other methods won't be able to compete with.

The daily newspapers of a few years hence will be vividly illustrated with photographic pictures of the personages and the events of the day. The gelatine photo-relief, already alluded to, will no doubt afford the basis of the principal processes by which this will be effected. Hitherto the chief drawback has been the difficulty of imparting a suitable grain [Pg 271] to the printing blocks made from these reliefs; but this has been practically overcome by the use of sheets of metallic foil previously impressed with the form of a finely-engraved tint-block. The actual printing surface, of course, consists of an electrotype or stereotype taken from this metallic-grained photographic face.

The daily newspapers in a few years will be full of vibrant photographs showcasing the people and events of the day. The gelatine photo-relief mentioned earlier will likely be the foundation for the main methods used to achieve this. Until now, the biggest challenge has been achieving the right texture for the printing blocks made from these reliefs; however, this issue has been mostly resolved by using sheets of metallic foil that have been pre-impressed with the design of a finely engraved tint block. The actual printing surface, of course, is made up of an electrotype or stereotype taken from this metallic-grained photographic surface. [Pg 271]

For "high-art" printing on fine paper with the more expensive kinds of ink, the half-tone zinco processes will doubtless maintain their supremacy and gradually diminish the area within which lithographic printing is required. In the case of newspaper work, however, where haste in getting ready for the press is necessarily the prime consideration, the flat and very slightly-indented surface of the zinco block is found to be unsuited to the requirements. Flat blocks, which require careful "overlaying" on the machine, waste too much time for daily news work. Without going into technical details it may be surmised in general terms that in the near future almost every newspaper will contain, each day, one or more photo-illustrations of events of the previous day or of the news which has come to hand from a distance.

For high-quality printing on fine paper using more expensive inks, the half-tone zinc processes will likely continue to dominate and gradually reduce the areas where lithographic printing is needed. However, in newspaper production, where speed is the top priority, the flat, slightly indented surface of the zinc block proves to be inadequate. Flat blocks require precise overlaying on the machine, which takes too much time for daily news. Without delving into technical specifics, it can be generally expected that in the near future, almost every newspaper will include one or more photo illustrations of events from the previous day or news that has arrived from afar.

Type-setting by hand is, for newspaper purposes, being so rapidly superseded, that only in [Pg 272] the smaller towns and villages can it remain for even a few years longer. But in the machines by which this revolution has been effected, finality has been by no means reached. Every line of matter which appears in any modern daily newspaper has to pass through two processes of stereotyping before it makes a beginning to effect its final work of printing upon paper.

Type-setting by hand is quickly being replaced for newspaper use, so it will only last a few more years in the smaller towns and villages. However, the machines that have brought about this change are still evolving. Every line of content that appears in any modern daily newspaper has to go through two stereotyping processes before it can finally be printed on paper.

First, there is the stereotyping or casting of the line in its position in the type-setting machine after the matrices have been ranged in position by the application of the fingers to the various keys; and, secondly, when all the lines have been placed together to make a page, it is necessary to take an impression of them upon papier mâché, or what is technically called "flong," and then to dry it and make the full cast from it curved and ready for placing on the cylinder of the printing machine. The delay occasioned by the need for drying the wet flong is such a serious matter—particularly to evening newspapers requiring many editions during the afternoon—that several dry methods have been tried with greater or less success.

First, there’s the process of setting the type, where the lines are cast into the typesetting machine after the matrices have been organized by pressing the various keys. Then, once all the lines are together to create a page, it's necessary to take an impression of them onto papier mâché, known technically as "flong," and then to dry it and create a complete cast from it that’s curved and ready to be placed on the cylinder of the printing machine. The delay caused by needing to dry the wet flong is a significant issue—especially for evening newspapers that need multiple editions throughout the afternoon—which is why several dry methods have been attempted with varying degrees of success.

But there is really no need for more than one casting process. In the twentieth century machine the matrices will be replaced by permanent [Pg 273] type from which, when ranged in the line, an impression will be made by hard pressure on a small bar of soft metal or plastic material. All the impressed bars having been set together in a casting box having the necessary curvature, the final stereo plate for printing from will be taken at once by pouring melted metal on the combined bars.

But there’s really no need for more than one casting process. In the twentieth-century machine, the matrices will be replaced by permanent [Pg 273] types, which, when lined up, will create an impression by applying hard pressure on a small bar of soft metal or plastic material. Once all the impressed bars are assembled in a casting box with the required curvature, the final stereo plate for printing will be created at once by pouring melted metal over the combined bars.

An appreciable saving, both in time and in money, will also be effected by applying the principle of the perforated strip of paper or cardboard to the purpose of operating the machine by which the necessary letters are caused to range themselves in the required order. Machines similar to typewriters will be employed for perforating the strips of paper and for printing, at the same time, in ordinary letters the matter just as if it were being typewritten.

A significant saving in both time and money can be achieved by using the principle of perforated strips of paper or cardboard to operate the machine that arranges the necessary letters in the correct order. Machines similar to typewriters will be used to perforate the strips of paper and print the content in standard letters, just like it would be done on a typewriter.

The corrections can then be made by cutting off those pieces of the strips which are wrong and inserting corrected pieces in their places. No initial "justification" to the space required to make a line is needed in this system. The strips, however, are put through the setting machine, and, as they make the reading matter by the impression of bars as already described, they are divided into lines automatically.

The corrections can be made by cutting off the incorrect parts of the strips and inserting the corrected pieces in their place. There's no need for an initial "justification" to the space needed to create a line in this system. However, the strips go through the setting machine, and since they produce the text by the impression of bars as described earlier, they are automatically divided into lines.

Large numbers of newspapers will in future [Pg 274] be sold from "penny-in-the-slot" machines. The system to be adopted for this particular purpose will doubtless differ in some important respects from that which has been successful in the vending of small articles such as sweetmeats and cigarettes. The newspapers may be hung on light bars within the machine, these being supported at the end by a carefully-adjusted cross piece, which, on the insertion of a penny in the slot, moves just sufficiently to permit the end of one bar with its newspaper to drop, and to precipitate the latter on to a table forming the front of the machine. When the full complement of newspapers has been exhausted the slot is automatically closed.

A lot of newspapers will soon be sold from "penny-in-the-slot" machines. The system used for this purpose will likely be different in some important ways from what has worked for selling small items like candy and cigarettes. The newspapers might be hung on lightweight bars inside the machine, which are supported at the ends by a carefully adjusted crosspiece that, when a penny is inserted into the slot, moves just enough to let one bar with its newspaper drop, causing the newspaper to fall onto a table at the front of the machine. Once all the newspapers are sold out, the slot will close automatically.

Some of the newspapers of the twentieth century will be given away gratis, and will be, for the most part, owned by the principal advertisers. This is the direction in which journalistic property is now tending, and at any juncture steps might be taken, in one or other of the great centres of newspaper enterprise, which would precipitate the ultimate movement. Hardly any one who buys a half-penny paper to-day imagines for a moment that there is any actual profit on the article.

Some of the newspapers in the twentieth century will be given away for free and will mostly be owned by the main advertisers. This is where journalistic ownership is heading, and at any moment, actions could be taken in one of the major hubs of the newspaper industry that would trigger this final shift. Hardly anyone who buys a half-penny paper today thinks for a second that there's any real profit from it.

It is understood on all hands that the advertisers keep the newspapers going and that the arrangement is mutually beneficial. Not that [Pg 275] either party can dictate to the other in matters outside of its own province. The effect is simply to permit the great public to purchase its news practically for the price of the paper and ink on which it is conveyed; the condition being that the said public will permit its eyes to be greeted with certain announcements placed in juxtaposition to the news and comments.

It’s clear to everyone that advertisers are what keeps newspapers alive, and this setup benefits both sides. However, [Pg 275] neither side can boss the other around when it comes to areas outside their control. The result is that the general public gets to buy its news for just the cost of the paper and ink it’s printed on, as long as they’re okay with seeing some ads next to the news and commentary.

Sooner or later, therefore, the idea will occur to some of the leading advertisers to form a syndicate and give to the people a small broadsheet containing briefly the daily narrative. The ponderous newspapers of the latter end of the nineteenth century—filled full of enough of linotype matter to occupy more than the whole day of the subscriber in their perusal—will be to a large extent dispensed with; and the new art of journalism will consist in saying things as briefly—not as lengthily—as possible.

Sooner or later, the thought will come to some of the top advertisers to create a syndicate and provide the public with a small daily sheet that summarizes the news. The heavy newspapers of the late nineteenth century—packed with enough linotype text to take up more than an entire day for a subscriber to read—will largely be replaced; and the new style of journalism will focus on being concise—not lengthy.


CHAPTER XIV.

INVENTION AND COLLECTIVISM.

The ownership of machinery and of all the varied appliances in the evolution of which inventive genius is exercised is a matter which, strictly speaking, does not belong to the domain of this work. Nevertheless, in endeavouring to forecast the progress of invention during the twentieth century, it is necessary to take count of the risks involved in the inauguration of any public and social economical systems which might tend to stifle freedom of thought and to discourage the efforts of those who have suggestions of industrial improvements to make.

The ownership of machinery and all the different tools that were created through inventive genius isn't really the focus of this work. However, when trying to predict the advancements in invention during the twentieth century, we need to consider the risks involved in starting any public and social economic systems that might suppress free thought and discourage those who have ideas for industrial improvements.

It is plain that those economic forces which prevent the inventor from having his ideas tested must to that extent retard the progress of industrial improvement. Thousands of men, who imagine that they possess the inventive talent in a highly developed degree, are either crack-brained enthusiasts or else utterly unpractical men whose services would never be worth anything at all in the work of attacking [Pg 277] difficult mechanical problems. It is in the task of discriminating between this class and the true inventors that many industrial organizers fail. Any economic system which offers inducements to the directors of industrial enterprises to shirk the onerous, and at times very irksome, duty of sifting out the good from the bad must stand condemned not only on account of its wastefulness, but by reason of its baneful effects in the discouragement of inventive genius.

It's clear that the economic forces preventing inventors from testing their ideas slow down the progress of industrial improvement. Thousands of people who believe they have a high level of inventive talent are either delusional dreamers or completely impractical individuals whose contributions would be worthless when it comes to tackling tough mechanical challenges. Many industrial organizers struggle to differentiate between this group and the true inventors. Any economic system that encourages leaders of industrial ventures to avoid the difficult and sometimes frustrating responsibility of sorting the good from the bad is not only wasteful but also harmful in stifling inventive talent.

Considerations of this kind lead to the conclusion that during the twentieth century the spread of collectivist or socialistic ideas, and the adoption of methods of State and municipal control of production and transport may have an important bearing upon the progress of civilisation through the adoption of new inventions. Many thinking men and women of the present generation are inclined to believe the twentieth century invention par excellence will be the bringing of all the machinery of production, transport and exchange under the official control of persons appointed by the State or by the municipality, and therefore amenable to the vote of the people. Projects of collectivism are in the air, and high hopes are entertained that the twentieth century will be far more distinctively marked by the revolution [Pg 278] which it will witness in the social and industrial organisation of the people than in the improvements effected in the mechanical and other means for extending man's powers over natural forces.

Considerations like these lead to the conclusion that during the twentieth century, the spread of collectivist or socialistic ideas, along with the adoption of methods for State and local control of production and transport, may significantly impact the advancement of civilization through the incorporation of new inventions. Many thoughtful people today believe that the hallmark invention of the twentieth century will be the shift of all machinery for production, transport, and exchange under the official control of individuals appointed by the State or local governments, making them accountable to the people's vote. Collectivist projects are in the air, and there are high hopes that the twentieth century will be more distinctly characterized by the social and industrial revolution it will experience than by the improvements made in mechanical and other means of enhancing human control over natural forces.

The average official naturally wishes to retain his billet. That is the main motive which governs nearly all his official acts; and in the treatment which he usually accords to the inventor he shows this anxiety perhaps more clearly than in any other class of the actions of his administration. He wants to make no mistakes, but whether he ever scores a distinct and decided success is comparatively a matter of indifference to him. So long as he does not give a handle to his enemies to be used against him, he is fairly contented to go on from year to year in a humdrum style.

The average official naturally wants to keep his job. That’s the main reason behind nearly all his professional actions; and in the way he typically deals with inventors, this concern is perhaps more obvious than in other areas of his work. He wants to avoid mistakes, but whether he actually achieves a clear and significant success is relatively unimportant to him. As long as he doesn’t give his opponents any ammunition to use against him, he’s quite satisfied to continue in a routine manner year after year.

Even a man of fine feeling and progressive ideas soon experiences the numbing effects of the routine life after he has been a few years in office. He knows that he will be judged rather on the negative than on the positive principle, that is to say, for the things which it is accounted he ought not to have done rather than for the more enterprising good things which it is admitted he may have done.

Even a man with good feelings and progressive ideas quickly feels the dulling impact of routine life after spending a few years in office. He understands that he will be evaluated more for what he shouldn't have done rather than for the bold, positive actions he might have taken.

Now any one who undertakes to encourage invention must necessarily make mistakes. He [Pg 279] may indeed know that one case of brilliant success will make up for half a dozen comparative failures; but he reckons that at any rate the blanks in the chances which he is taking will numerically exceed the prizes. An official, however, will not dare to draw blanks. Better for him to draw nothing at all. He must therefore turn his back upon the inventor and approve of nothing which has not been shown to be a great success elsewhere.

Now, anyone who tries to promote invention will inevitably make mistakes. He [Pg 279] may know that one big success can outweigh several smaller failures; however, he realizes that the risks he takes will likely result in more losses than wins. An official, on the other hand, won't risk failure. It's safer for him to not take any action at all. Therefore, he will distance himself from the inventor and only support ideas that have already proven to be successful elsewhere.

This means that the socialised and municipalised enterprises must always lag behind those depending upon private effort; and the country which imposes disabilities on the latter must, for a time at least, lose its lead in the industrial race. This is what happened to England, as contrasted with the United States, when, under the influence of enthusiasm for future municipalisation, the British Legislature laid heavy penalties upon those who should venture to instal electric trams in the United Kingdom.

This means that state-run and publicly-owned enterprises will always fall behind those that rely on private efforts. Consequently, a country that places restrictions on private enterprises will, at least for a while, lose its advantage in the industrial competition. This is what occurred in England compared to the United States when, influenced by a strong enthusiasm for future public ownership, the British Parliament imposed heavy penalties on anyone who dared to install electric trams in the United Kingdom.

The American manufacturers and tramway companies, in their keen competition with one another and perfect freedom to compete on even terms with horse traction, soon took the lead in all matters pertaining to electric traction, and the British public, at the close of the nineteenth century, have had to witness the humiliating spectacle of their own public [Pg 280] authorities being forced to import electrical apparatus, and even steam-engines applicable to dynamos used for tramway purposes, from the other side of the Atlantic!

The American manufacturers and tramway companies, in their intense competition with each other and complete freedom to compete on the same level as horse-drawn traction, quickly took the lead in everything related to electric traction. By the end of the nineteenth century, the British public had to witness the embarrassing sight of their own public authorities being forced to import electrical equipment and even steam engines for use in dynamos for tramways from across the Atlantic! [Pg 280]

The lesson thus enforced will not in the end be missed, although it may require a considerable time to be fully understood. Officialism is a foe to inventive progress; and whether it exists under a regime of collectivism or under one of autocracy, it must paralyse industrial enterprise to that extent, thus rendering the country which has adopted it liable to be outstripped by its competitors.

The lesson emphasized here won't ultimately be overlooked, even if it takes a significant amount of time to fully grasp. Bureaucracy is an enemy of creative progress; whether it operates within a collectivist system or an authoritarian one, it will hinder industrial innovation to some degree, making the country that embraces it vulnerable to being surpassed by its rivals.

The true friend of inventive progress is generally the rising competitor in a busy hive of industry where the difficulties of securing a profitable footing are very considerable. Such a man is ever on the watch for an opportunity to gain some leverage by which he may raise himself to a level with older-established or richer competitors. If he be a good employer his workmen enter into the spirit of the competition, feeling that promotion will follow on any services they may render. They may perhaps possess the inventive talent themselves, or they may do even greater services by recognising it in others and co-operating in their work. It is thus that successful [Pg 281] inventions are usually started on their useful careers.

The true friend of innovation is usually the ambitious competitor in a bustling industry where the challenges of achieving a profitable position are quite significant. This person is always on the lookout for a chance to gain some advantage to elevate themselves to the same level as more established or wealthier rivals. If they are a good employer, their employees feel motivated by the competition, believing that their contributions will lead to promotions. They might have inventive skills themselves, or they could contribute even more by identifying talent in others and collaborating on their projects. This is how successful [Pg 281] inventions typically begin their valuable journeys.

It is therefore upon private enterprise that the principal onus of advancing the inventions which will contribute to the progress of the human race in the twentieth century must necessarily fall. The type of man who will cheerfully work pro bono publico, with just as much ardour as he would exhibit when labouring to advance his own interests, may already be found here and there in civilised communities at existing stages of development; but it is not sufficiently numerous to enable the world to dispense with the powerful stimulus of competition.

It is therefore the responsibility of private enterprise to lead the way in advancing the inventions that will benefit humanity in the twentieth century. The kind of person who will willingly work pro bono publico, with the same enthusiasm as they would have when pursuing their own interests, can be found here and there in developed societies; however, they are not numerous enough to allow the world to do without the strong motivation that comes from competition.

Just as a superior type of machinery can be elaborated during the course of a single century, there is no doubt that—mainly through the use of improved appliances for lessening the amount of brute force which man needs to exert in his daily avocations—the nervous organisations of the men and women constituting the rank and file during the latter part of the twentieth century will be immensely improved in sensitiveness. A corresponding advance will then take place in the capacity for collectivism. But a human being of the high class demanded for the carrying out of any scheme of State socialism must be bred [Pg 282] by a slow improvement during successive generations. A hundred years do not constitute a long period of time in the process of the organic evolution of the human race, and, as Tennyson declared,

Just as advanced machinery can be developed over the course of a century, it’s clear that—primarily through the use of better tools to reduce the amount of physical effort people need to put into their daily work—the nervous systems of the men and women making up the workforce in the latter part of the twentieth century will be greatly enhanced in sensitivity. A similar progress will happen in the ability to work together as a group. However, a person of the high caliber needed to implement any plan for state socialism must be nurtured through gradual improvement over many generations. A hundred years isn’t a long time in the organic evolution of the human race, and, as Tennyson stated,

We are far from the noon of man—
There is time for the race to grow.

We're still not at humanity's peak—
There’s still time for humanity to grow.

Yet the public advantages of collectivist activities in certain particular directions cannot for a moment be denied. Much waste and heavy loss are entailed by the duplication of works of general utility by rival owners, each of them, perhaps, only half utilising the full capacities of his machinery or of the other plant upon which capital has been expended.

Yet the public benefits of collective efforts in certain specific areas cannot be denied at all. A lot of waste and significant loss are caused by competing owners duplicating useful work, each of them perhaps only partially utilizing the full potential of their machinery or other investments made with capital.

Moreover, as soon as companies have become so large that their managers and other officials are brought into no closer personal relations with the shareholders than the town clerks, engineers, and surveyors of cities, and the departmental heads of State bureaus are associated with the voters and ratepayers, the systems of private and of collective ownership begin to stand much more nearly on a par as regards the non-encouragement which they offer to inventiveness.

Moreover, once companies grow so large that their managers and officials have personal relationships with shareholders that are no closer than those between town clerks, engineers, and city surveyors with voters and taxpayers, the systems of private and collective ownership start to seem much more equal in how little they promote creativity.

One of the greatest discoveries of the twentieth century, therefore, will be the adoption [Pg 283] of a via media which will admit of the progressiveness of private ownership in promoting industrial inventions, combined with the political progressiveness of collectivism. One direction in which an important factor assisting in the solution of this problem is to be expected is in the removal of the causes which tend to make public officials so timid and unprogressive.

One of the biggest discoveries of the twentieth century will be the adoption of a via media that allows for the progressiveness of private ownership in driving industrial inventions, along with the political progressiveness of collectivism. One key factor that is expected to help solve this problem is addressing the reasons that make public officials so timid and unprogressive. [Pg 283]

So long as a mere temporary outcry about the apparent non-success of some adopted improvement—whose real value perhaps cannot be proved unless by the exercise of patience—may result in the dismissal or in the disrating of the official who has recommended it, just so long will all those who are called upon to act as guides to public enterprises be compelled to stick to the most conservative lines in the exercise of their duties. More assurance of permanence in positions of public administration is needed.

As long as a temporary uproar about the apparent failure of some new improvement—its true value maybe only proven through patience—can lead to the firing or downgrade of the official who suggested it, those who are expected to guide public projects will be forced to stick to the safest routes in their work. We need more certainty and stability in public administration roles.

The man upon whose shoulders rests the responsibility of adopting, or of condemning, new proposals brought before him, ostensibly in the interests of the public welfare, ought to be regarded as being called upon to carry out quasi-judicial functions; and his tenure of office, and his claim to a pension after a busy career, ought not to depend upon the chances of the [Pg 284] evanescent politics of the day. If a man has proved, by his close and successful application to the study of his profession—as evinced in the tests which he has passed as a youth and during his subsequent career in subordinate positions—that he is really a lover of hard work, and imbued with conscientious devotion to duty, he may generally be trusted, when he has attained to a position of superintendence, to do his utmost in the interests of the public whom he serves. This is the theory upon which the appointment of a judge in almost any English-speaking community is understood to be made; and, although failures in its application may occur now and then, there is no doubt whatever that on the average of cases it works out well in practice.

The person responsible for deciding whether to adopt or reject new proposals presented to him, supposedly for the public's benefit, should be seen as having a sort of judicial role. His job security and eligibility for a pension after a long career shouldn't rely on the unpredictable politics of the moment. If someone has demonstrated, through his dedicated study of his field—shown by the exams he has passed as a youth and throughout his career in lower positions—that he truly values hard work and is genuinely committed to his responsibilities, he can generally be trusted to do his best for the public he serves once he reaches a supervisory role. This is the principle behind appointing a judge in nearly any English-speaking community, and while there may be occasional failures in its implementation, it consistently proves effective on average.

If private manufacturers, whose success in life depends upon their appreciation of talent and inventiveness, could be assured that in dealing with public officials they would be brought into contact with men of the standing indicated, instead of being confronted so frequently with the demand for commissions and other kinds of solatium on account of the risks undertaken in recommending anything new, they would soon largely modify their distrust of what is known as collectivism. It is the duty of the public whose servant an official is, [Pg 285] rather than of the private manufacturer, to insure him against the danger of losing his position on account of any possible mistake in the exercise of his judgment.

If private manufacturers, whose success relies on recognizing talent and creativity, could be confident that when working with public officials they would interact with highly regarded individuals instead of frequently facing requests for commissions and other types of compensation due to the risks involved in endorsing anything new, they would quickly change their skepticism about what is known as collectivism. It’s the responsibility of the public, whom the official serves, [Pg 285] rather than the private manufacturer, to protect him from the risk of losing his job due to any potential mistakes in his judgment.

In short, the day is not far distant when the men upon whom devolves the responsibility of examining into, and reporting upon, the claims of those who profess to have made important industrial improvements will be looked upon as exercising judicial functions of the very highest type. When the important reforms arising from this recognition have been introduced, the forces of collectivism will cease to range themselves on the side of stolid conservatism in industry, as they undoubtedly have done in the nineteenth century even while they inconsistently professed to advance the cause of progress politically.

In short, the day isn’t far off when the people responsible for investigating and reporting on the claims of those who say they've made significant industrial improvements will be seen as performing high-level judicial functions. Once the important reforms that come from this acknowledgment are put into place, the forces of collectivism will stop aligning themselves with the rigid conservatism in industry, as they undoubtedly did in the nineteenth century, even while inconsistently claiming to push for political progress.

The inventor, who in the early part of the nineteenth century was generally denounced as a public enemy, will, in the latter part of the twentieth century, be hailed as a benefactor to the community, because he will be judged by the ultimate, rather than by the immediate, effects of his work, and because it will be the duty of the public authorities to see to it that the dislocation of one industry incidental the promotion of another by any invention does not, on the whole, operate to throw people [Pg 286] out of employment, but, on the contrary, gives more constant work and better wages to all. But the slow progress of the fundamental traits of human nature will retard the attainment of this goal. The world has a long distance to travel in the uphill road of industrial and social improvement before it can succeed in obtaining a really true view of the part fulfilled by inventive genius in contributing to human happiness.

The inventor, who in the early part of the nineteenth century was often labeled a public enemy, will, in the latter part of the twentieth century, be celebrated as a community hero. This change will happen because he will be evaluated based on the long-term, rather than the short-term, impacts of his work. Additionally, it will be the responsibility of public authorities to ensure that the disruption of one industry due to the promotion of another through any invention does not overall result in people losing their jobs, but instead provides more stable work and better pay for everyone. However, the slow evolution of fundamental human nature traits will delay the achievement of this objective. The world still has a long way to go on the challenging path of industrial and social progress before it can truly recognize the role that inventive genius plays in enhancing human happiness.

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Advanced Science Guides 30
Farming 27
Astrophysics 14
Microbiology 25
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Construction Building 10
Chemistry 2
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Proctor's (R. A.) Works 15
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Science Textbooks 29
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John Tyndall's Works 28
Veterinary Medicine, etc. 24
Workshop Tools 14
Biology of animals 25

CHEMISTRY.

CROOKES.—SELECT METHODS IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, chiefly Inorganic. By Sir William Crookes, F.R.S., etc. Third Edition, Rewritten and Enlarged. With 67 Woodcuts. 8vo., 21s. net.

CROOKES.—SELECT METHODS IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, mainly Inorganic. By Sir William Crookes, F.R.S., etc. Third Edition, Revised and Expanded. With 67 Illustrations. 8vo., 21s. net.

FURNEAUX.—ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, Inorganic and Organic. By W. Furneaux, F.R.G.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, London School Board. With 65 Illustrations and 155 Experiments. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

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GARRETT and HARDEN.—AN ELEMENTARY COURSE OF PRACTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By F. C. Garrett, M.Sc. (Vict. et Dunelm.), Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry, the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne; and Arthur Harden, M.Sc. (Vict.), Ph.D., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry, the Owens College, Manchester. With 14 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s.

GARRETT and HARDEN.—A BASIC COURSE IN PRACTICAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By F.C. Garrett, M.Sc. (Vict. et Dunelm.), Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne; and Arthur Harden, M.Sc. (Vict.), Ph.D., Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Chemistry at the Owens College, Manchester. With 14 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s.

JAGO.—Works by W. JAGO, F.C.S., F.I.C.

JAGO.—Works by W. JAGO, F.C.S., F.I.C.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. With an Introduction to the Principles of Chemical Analysis Inorganic and Organic. With 63 Woodcuts and numerous Questions and Exercises. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

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INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. A Manual for Students in Advanced Classes of the Science and Art Department. With Plate of Spectra and 78 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

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KOLBE.—A SHORT TEXT-BOOK OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By Dr. Hermann Kolbe. Translated and Edited by T. S. Humpidge, Ph.D. With 66 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 8s. 6d.

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MENDELÉEFF.—THE PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. By D. Mendeléeff. Translated from the Russian (Sixth Edition) by George Kamensky, A.R.S.M., of the Imperial Mint, St. Petersburg; and Edited by T. A. Lawson, B.Sc, Ph.D., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry. With 96 Diagrams and Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo., 36s.

MENDELÉEFF.—THE PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. By D. Mendeleev. Translated from the Russian (Sixth Edition) by George Kamensky, A.R.S.M., of the Imperial Mint, St. Petersburg; and Edited by T.A. Lawson, B.Sc, Ph.D., Fellow of the Institute of Chemistry. With 96 Diagrams and Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo., 36s.

MEYER.—OUTLINES OF THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY. By Lothar Meyer, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tübingen. Translated by Professors P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc., and W. Carleton Williams, B.Sc. 8vo., 9s.

MEYER.—OUTLINES OF THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY. By Lothar Meyer, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Tübingen. Translated by Professors P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc., and W. Carleton Williams, B.Sc. 8vo., 9s.

MILLER.—INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By W. Allen Miller, M.D., LL.D. With 71 Woodcuts, Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

MILLER.—INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By W. Allen Miller, M.D., LL.D. With 71 Illustrations, Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

MUIR.—A COURSE OF PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. By M. M. P. Muir, M.A., Fellow and Prælector in Chemistry of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. (3 Parts.)

MUIR.—A COURSE OF PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. By M. M. P. Muir, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer in Chemistry at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. (3 Parts.)

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NEWTH.—Works by G. S. NEWTH, F.I.C, F.C.S., Demonstrator in the Royal College of Science, London.

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CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE. With 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

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OSTWALD.—SOLUTIONS. By W. Ostwald, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leipzig. Being the Fourth Book, with some additions, of the Second Edition of Oswald's 'Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Chemie'. Translated by M. M. Pattison Muir, Fellow and Prælector in Chemistry of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

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PERKIN.—QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS (INORGANIC AND ORGANIC). By F. Mollwo Perkin, Ph.D.

PERKIN.—QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS (INORGANIC AND ORGANIC). By F. Mollwo Perkin, Ph.D.

REYNOLDS.—EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY FOR JUNIOR STUDENTS. By J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, University of Dublin. Fcp. 8vo., with numerous Woodcuts.

REYNOLDS.—EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY FOR JUNIOR STUDENTS. By J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, University of Dublin. Fcp. 8vo., with many illustrations.

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SHENSTONE.—Works by W. A. SHENSTONE, F.R.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in Clifton College.

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THE METHODS OF GLASS-BLOWING. For the use of Physical and Chemical Students. With 42 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 1s. 6d.

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THORNTON and PEARSON.—NOTES ON VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS. By Arthur Thornton, M.A., and Marchant Pearson, B.A., Assistant Science Master, Bradford Grammar School. Medium 8vo., 2s.

THORNTON and PEARSON.—NOTES ON VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS. By Arthur Thornton, M.A., and Marchant Pearson, B.A., Assistant Science Master, Bradford Grammar School. Medium 8vo., 2s.

THORPE.—Works by T. E. THORPE, C.B., B.Sc. (Vict.), Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington. Assisted by Eminent Contributors.

THORPE.—Works by T. E. THORPE, C.B., B.Sc. (Vict.), Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry at the Royal College of Science, South Kensington. Supported by Notable Contributors.

A DICTIONARY OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY. 3 vols. 8vo. Vols. I. and II., 42s. each. Vol. III., 63s.

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QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. With 88 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. With 88 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

THORPE and MUIR.—QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND LABORATORY PRACTICE. By T. E. Thorpe, C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., and M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A. With Plate of Spectra and 57 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THORPE and MUIR.—QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND LABORATORY PRACTICE. By T.E. Thorpe, C.B., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., and M.M. Pattison Muir, M.A. With a Plate of Spectra and 57 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3£ 6d.

TILDEN.—Works by WILLIAM A. TILDEN, D.Sc. London, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington.

TILDEN.—Works by WILLIAM A. TILDEN, D.Sc. London, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry at the Royal College of Science, South Kensington.

A SHORT HISTORY OF THE PROGRESS OF SCIENTIFIC CHEMISTRY IN OUR OWN TIMES. Crown 8vo., 5s. net.

A SHORT HISTORY OF THE PROGRESS OF SCIENTIFIC CHEMISTRY IN OUR OWN TIMES. Crown 8vo., 5s. net.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY. The Principles of Theoretical and Systematic Chemistry. With 5 Woodcuts. With or without the ANSWERS of Problems. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY. The Principles of Theoretical and Systematic Chemistry. With 5 illustrations. With or without the Solutions to Problems. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. The principles of Qualitative Analysis. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. The principles of Qualitative Analysis. Fcp. 8vo., £1.6.

HINTS ON THE TEACHING OF ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY IN SCHOOLS AND SCIENCE CLASSES. With 7 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s.

HINTS ON TEACHING ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY IN SCHOOLS AND SCIENCE CLASSES. With 7 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s.

WATTS' DICTIONARY OF CHEMISTRY. Revised and entirely Rewritten by H. Forster Morley, M.A., D.Sc., Fellow of, and lately Assistant Professor of Chemistry in, University College, London; and M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A., F.R.S.E., Fellow, and Prælector in Chemistry, of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Assisted by Eminent Contributors. 4 vols. 8vo. Vols. I. and II., 42s. each. Vol. III., 50s. Vol. IV., 63s.

WATTS' DICTIONARY OF CHEMISTRY. Revised and completely Rewritten by H. Forster Morley, M.A., D.Sc., Fellow of, and recently Assistant Professor of Chemistry at University College, London; and M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A., F.R.S.E., Fellow, and Lecturer in Chemistry at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Supported by Expert Contributors. 4 vols. 8vo. Vols. I. and II., 42s. each. Vol. III., 50s. Vol. IV., 63s.

WHITELEY.—Works by R. LLOYD WHITELEY, F.I.C., Principal of the Municipal Science School, West Bromwich.

WHITELEY.—Works by R. LLOYD WHITELEY, F.I.C., Principal of the Municipal Science School, West Bromwich.

CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS. With Explanatory Notes, Problems and Answers, specially adapted for use in Colleges and Science Schools. With a Preface by Professor F. Clowes, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. Crown 8vo., 2s.

CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS. With Explanatory Notes, Problems and Answers, specifically designed for use in Colleges and Science Schools. With a Preface by Professor F. Clowes, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. Crown 8vo., 2s.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: the Fatty Compounds. With 45 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: the Fatty Compounds. With 45 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.


PHYSICS, ETC.

GANOT.—Works by PROFESSOR GANOT. Translated and Edited by E. ATKINSON, Ph.D., F.C.S.

GANOT.—Works by PROFESSOR GANOT. Translated and Edited by E. ATKINSON, Ph.D., F.C.S.

ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON PHYSICS, Experimental and Applied. With 9 Coloured Plates and Maps, and 1057 Woodcuts, and Appendix of Problems and Examples with Answers. Crown 8vo., 15s.

ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON PHYSICS, Experimental and Applied. With 9 Colored Plates and Maps, and 1057 Illustrations, plus an Appendix of Problems and Examples with Answers. Crown 8vo., 15s.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR GENERAL READERS AND YOUNG PERSONS. With 7 Plates, 624 Woodcuts, and an Appendix of Questions. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR GENERAL READERS AND YOUNG PEOPLE. With 7 Plates, 624 Illustrations, and an Appendix of Questions. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

GLAZEBROOK AND SHAW.—PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S., and W. N. Shaw, M.A. With 134 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

GLAZEBROOK AND SHAW.—PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By R.T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S., and W.N. Shaw, M.A. Featuring 134 illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £7.50.

GUTHRIE.—MOLECULAR PHYSICS AND SOUND. By F. Guthrie, Ph.D. With 91 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

GUTHRIE.—MOLECULAR PHYSICS AND SOUND. By F. Guthrie, Ph.D. With 91 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., £1.50.

HELMHOLTZ.—POPULAR LECTURES ON SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS. By Hermann von Helmholtz. Translated by E. Atkinson, Ph.D., F.C.S., formerly Professor of Experimental Science, Staff College. With 68 Illustrations. 2 vols., crown 8vo., 3s. 6d. each.

HELMHOLTZ.—POPULAR LECTURES ON SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS. By Hermann von Helmholtz. Translated by E. Atkinson, Ph.D., F.C.S., formerly Professor of Experimental Science, Staff College. With 68 Illustrations. 2 vols., crown 8vo., 3sh. 6d. each.

Contents.—Vol. I.—The Relation of Natural Science to Science in General—Goethe's Scientific Researches—The Physiological Causes of Harmony in Music—Ice and Glaciers—The Interaction of the Natural Forces—The Recent Progress of the Theory of Vision—The Conservation of Force—The Aim and Progress of Physical Science.

Contents.—Vol. I.—The Connection Between Natural Science and Science Overall—Goethe's Scientific Studies—The Physical Reasons Behind Harmony in Music—Ice and Glaciers—The Interaction of Natural Forces—Recent Advances in Vision Theory—The Conservation of Energy—The Purpose and Progress of Physical Science.

Contents.—Vol. II.—Gustav Magnus. In Memoriam—The Origin and Significance of Geometrical Axioms—The Relation of Optics to Painting—The Origin of the Planetary System—Thought in Medicine—Academic Freedom in German Universities—Hermann Von Helmholtz—An Autobiographical Sketch.

Contents.—Vol. II.—Gustav Magnus. In Memoriam—The Origin and Significance of Geometrical Axioms—The Relation of Optics to Painting—The Origin of the Planetary System—Thought in Medicine—Academic Freedom in German Universities—Hermann Von Helmholtz—An Autobiographical Sketch.

HENDERSON.—ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. By John Henderson, D.Sc. (Edin.), A.I.E.E., Physics Department, Borough Road Polytechnic. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

HENDERSON.—ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. By John Henderson, D.Sc. (Edin.), A.I.E.E., Physics Department, Borough Road Polytechnic. Crown 8vo., £2.60

MACLEAN.—EXERCISES IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. By Magnus Maclean, D.Sc., Professor of Electrical Engineering at the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

MACLEAN.—EXERCISES IN NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. By Magnus Maclean, D.Sc., Professor of Electrical Engineering at the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. Crown 8vo., £4.50.

MEYER.—THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. Elementary Treatise, with Mathematical Appendices. By Dr. Oskar Emil Meyer, Professor of Physics at the University of Breslau. Second Revised Edition. Translated by Robert E. Baynes, M.A., Student of Christ Church, Oxford, and Dr. Lee's Reader in Physics. 8vo., 15s. net.

MEYER.—THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES. Basic Treatise, with Math Appendices. By Dr. Oskar Meyer, Physics Professor at the University of Breslau. Second Revised Edition. Translated by Robert E. Baynes, M.A., Student of Christ Church, Oxford, and Dr. Lee's Reader in Physics. 8vo., 15s. net.

VAN 'tHOFF.—THE ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN SPACE. By J. H. van t'Hoff. Second, Revised, and Enlarged Edition. With a Preface by Johannes Wislicenus, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Leipzig; and an Appendix 'Stereo-chemistry among Inorganic Substances,' by Alfred Werner, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Zürich. Translated and Edited by Arnold Eiloart. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

VAN 'tHOFF.—THE ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN SPACE. By J. H. van t'Hoff. Second, Revised, and Enlarged Edition. With a Preface by Johannes Wislicenus, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Leipzig; and an Appendix 'Stereo-chemistry among Inorganic Substances,' by Alfred Werner, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Zürich. Translated and Edited by Arnold Eiloart. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

WATSON.—Works by W. WATSON, B.Sc., Assistant Professor of Physics in the Royal College of Science, London; Assistant Examiner in Physics, Science and Art Department.

WATSON.—Works by W. WATSON, B.Sc., Assistant Professor of Physics at the Royal College of Science, London; Assistant Examiner in Physics, Science and Art Department.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSICS: a Laboratory Manual for Use in Organised Science Schools. With 120 Illustrations and 193 Exercises. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSICS: a Laboratory Manual for Use in Organized Science Schools. With 120 Illustrations and 193 Exercises. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

A TEXT-BOOK OF PHYSICS. With 564 Diagrams and Illustrations. Large crown 8vo., 10s. 6d.

A TEXTBOOK OF PHYSICS. With 564 Diagrams and Illustrations. Large crown 8vo., £10.6.

WORTHINGTON.—A FIRST COURSE OF PHYSICAL LABORATORY PRACTICE. Containing 264 Experiments. By A. M. Worthington, M.A., F.R.S. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

WORTHINGTON.—A FIRST COURSE OF PHYSICAL LABORATORY PRACTICE. Featuring 264 Experiments. By A.M. Worthington, M.A., F.R.S. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £4.6.

WRIGHT.—ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. By Mark R. Wright, M.A., Professor of Normal Education, Durham College of Science. With 242 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

WRIGHT.—ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. By Mark R. Wright, M.A., Professor of Normal Education, Durham College of Science. With 242 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.


MECHANICS, DYNAMICS, STATICS, HYDROSTATICS, ETC.

BALL.—A CLASS-BOOK OF MECHANICS. By Sir R. S. Ball, LL.D. 89 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

BALL.—A CLASS-BOOK OF MECHANICS. By Sir R.S. Ball, LL.D. 89 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., £1.50

GELDARD.—STATICS AND DYNAMICS. By C. Geldard, M.A., formerly Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo., 5s.

GELDARD.—STATICS AND DYNAMICS. By C. Geldard, M.A., formerly a Scholar at Trinity College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo., 5s.

GOODEVE.—Works by T. M. GOODEVE, M.A., formerly Professor of Mechanics at the Normal School of Science, and the Royal School of Mines.

GOODEVE.—Works by T. M. GOODEVE, M.A., who was previously a Professor of Mechanics at the Normal School of Science and the Royal School of Mines.

THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM. With 357 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., 6s.

THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANISM. With 357 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £6.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS. With 253 Woodcuts and numerous Examples. Crown 8vo., 6s.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS. With 253 illustrations and numerous examples. Crown 8vo., 6s.

A MANUAL OF MECHANICS: an Elementary Text-Book for Students of Applied Mechanics. With 138 Illustrations and Diagrams and 188 Examples taken from the Science Department Examination Papers, with Answers. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

A MANUAL OF MECHANICS: an Introductory Textbook for Students of Applied Mechanics. Featuring 138 Illustrations and Diagrams and 188 Examples from the Science Department Exam Papers, with Answers. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

GOODMAN.—MECHANICS APPLIED TO ENGINEERING. By John Goodman, Wh.Sch., A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Professor of Engineering in the Yorkshire College, Leeds (Victoria University). With 620 Illustrations and numerous examples. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

GOODMAN.—MECHANICS APPLIED TO ENGINEERING. By John Goodman, Wh.Sch., A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Professor of Engineering in the Yorkshire College, Leeds (Victoria University). With 620 Illustrations and numerous examples. Crown 8vo., £7.50 net.

GRIEVE.—LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY MECHANICS. By W. H. Grieve, late Engineer, R.N., Science Demonstrator for the London School Board, etc.

MOURN.—LESSONS IN BASIC MECHANICS. By W.H. Grieve, former Engineer, R.N., Science Demonstrator for the London School Board, etc.

Stage 1. With 165 Illustrations and a large number of Examples. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

Stage 1. With 165 Illustrations and many Examples. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

Stage 2. With 122 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

Stage 2. With 122 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 1 s. 6 d.

Stage 3. With 103 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 1s.

Stage 3. With 103 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 1s.

MAGNUS.—Works by SIR PHILIP MAGNUS, B.Sc., B.A.

MAGNUS.—Works by SIR PHILIP MAGNUS, B.Sc., B.A.

LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY MECHANICS. Introductory to the study of Physical Science. Designed for the Use of Schools, and of Candidates for the London Matriculation and other Examinations. With numerous Exercises, Examples, Examination Questions, and Solutions, etc., from 1870-1895. With Answers, and 131 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.
      Key for the use of Teachers only, price 5s. 3-1/2d.

LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY MECHANICS. Introductory to the study of Physical Science. Designed for Schools and Candidates for the London Matriculation and other Exams. Includes numerous Exercises, Examples, Exam Questions, and Solutions, etc., from 1870-1895. With Answers, and 131 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.
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HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.; or, with Answers, 2s. The Worked Solutions of the Problems, 2s.

HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. Fcp. 8vo., 16d.; or, with Answers, 2. The Worked Solutions of the Problems, 2.

ROBINSON.—Works by the Rev. J. L. ROBINSON, M.A.

ROBINSON.—Works by Rev. J. L. ROBINSON, M.A.

ELEMENTS OF DYNAMICS (Kinetics and Statics). With numerous Exercises. A Text-book for Junior Students. Crown 8vo., 6s.

ELEMENTS OF DYNAMICS (Kinetics and Statics). With numerous Exercises. A Textbook for Junior Students. Crown 8vo., 6s.

A FIRST BOOK IN STATICS AND DYNAMICS. With numerous Examples and Answers. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
      Sold separately: Statics, 2s.; Dynamics, 2s.

A FIRST BOOK IN STATICS AND DYNAMICS. With numerous Examples and Answers. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
      Sold separately: Statics, 2s.; Dynamics, 2s.

SMITH.—Works by J. HAMBLIN SMITH, M.A.

SMITH.—Works by J. HAMBLIN SMITH, M.A.

ELEMENTARY STATICS. Crown 8vo., 3s.

ELEMENTARY STATICS. Crown 8vo., 3s.

ELEMENTARY HYDROSTATICS. Crown 8vo., 3s.

ELEMENTARY HYDROSTATICS. Crown 8vo., £3.

KEY TO STATICS AND HYDROSTATICS. Crown 8vo., 6s.

KEY TO STATICS AND HYDROSTATICS. Crown 8vo., 6s.

TARLETON.—AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ATTRACTION. By Francis A. Tarleton, LL.D., Sc.D., Fellow of Trinity College, and Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Dublin. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d.

TARLETON.—AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF ATTRACTION. By Francis A. Tarleton, LL.D., Sc.D., Fellow of Trinity College, and Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Dublin. Crown 8vo., 10sh. 6p.

TAYLOR.—Works by J. E. TAYLOR, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.).

TAYLOR.—Works by J. E. TAYLOR, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.).

THEORETICAL MECHANICS, including Hydrostatics and Pneumatics. With 175 Diagrams and Illustrations, and 522 Examination Questions and Answers. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS, including Hydrostatics and Pneumatics. With 175 Diagrams and Illustrations, and 522 Examination Questions and Answers. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS—SOLIDS. With 163 Illustrations, 120 Worked Examples and over 500 Examples from Examination Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS—SOLIDS. With 163 Illustrations, 120 Worked Examples, and over 500 Examples from Exam Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS.—FLUIDS. With 122 Illustrations, numerous Worked Examples, and about 500 Examples from Examination Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS.—FLUIDS. With 122 Illustrations, many Worked Examples, and around 500 Examples from Exam Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THORNTON.—THEORETICAL MECHANICS—SOLIDS. Including Kinematics, Statics and Kinetics. By Arthur Thornton, M.A., F.R.A.S. With 200 Illustrations, 130 Worked Examples, and over 900 Examples from Examination Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

THORNTON.—THEORETICAL MECHANICS—SOLIDS. Including Kinematics, Statics, and Kinetics. By Arthur Thornton, M.A., F.R.A.S. With 200 Illustrations, 130 Worked Examples, and over 900 Examples from Exam Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 4£. 6p.

TWISDEN.—Works by the Rev. JOHN F. TWISDEN, M.A.

TWISDEN.—Works by Rev. JOHN F. TWISDEN, M.A.

PRACTICAL MECHANICS; an Elementary Introduction to their Study. With 855 Exercises, and 184 Figures and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d.

PRACTICAL MECHANICS; a Basic Introduction to their Study. With 855 Exercises and 184 Figures and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., £10.6.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS. With 172 Examples, numerous Exercises, and 154 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 8s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS. With 172 examples, numerous exercises, and 154 diagrams. Crown 8vo., 8s. 6d.

WILLIAMSON.—INTRODUCTION TO THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF THE STRESS AND STRAIN OF ELASTIC SOLIDS. By Benjamin Williamson, D.Sc., F.R.S. Crown 8vo., 5s.

WILLIAMSON.—INTRODUCTION TO THE MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF THE STRESS AND STRAIN OF ELASTIC SOLIDS. By Ben Williamson, D.Sc., F.R.S. Crown 8vo., 5s.

WILLIAMSON and TARLETON.—AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON DYNAMICS. Containing Applications to Thermodynamics, with numerous Examples. By Benjamin Williamson, D.Sc., F.R.S., and Francis A. Tarleton, LL.D. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d.

WILLIAMSON and TARLETON.—AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON DYNAMICS. Including Applications to Thermodynamics, with many Examples. By Benjamin Williamson, D.Sc., F.R.S., and Francis A. Tarleton, LL.D. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d.

WORTHINGTON.—DYNAMICS OF ROTATION: an Elementary Introduction to Rigid Dynamics. By A. M. Worthington, M.A., F.R.S. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

WORTHINGTON.—DYNAMICS OF ROTATION: an Easy Introduction to Rigid Dynamics. By A.M. Worthington, M.A., F.R.S. Crown 8vo., £4.60


OPTICS AND PHOTOGRAPHY.

ABNEY.—A TREATISE ON PHOTOGRAPHY. By Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S., Principal Assistant Secretary of the Secondary Department of the Board of Education. With 115 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ABNEY.—A TREATISE ON PHOTOGRAPHY. By Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S., Principal Assistant Secretary of the Secondary Department of the Board of Education. With 115 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

GLAZEBROOK.—PHYSICAL OPTICS. By R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S., Principal of University College, Liverpool. With 183 Woodcuts of Apparatus, etc. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

GLAZEBROOK.—PHYSICAL OPTICS. By R.T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S., Principal of University College, Liverpool. With 183 Woodcuts of Equipment, etc. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

WRIGHT.—OPTICAL PROJECTION: a Treatise on the Use of the Lantern in Exhibition and Scientific Demonstration. By Lewis Wright, Author of 'Light: a Course of Experimental Optics'. With 232 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s.

WRIGHT.—OPTICAL PROJECTION: a Guide to Using the Lantern for Exhibitions and Scientific Demonstrations. By Lewis Wright, Author of 'Light: a Course in Experimental Optics'. With 232 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s.


SOUND, LIGHT, HEAT, AND THERMODYNAMICS.

CUMMING.—HEAT TREATED EXPERIMENTALLY. By Linnæus Cumming, M.A. With 192 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

CUMMING.—EXPLORED HEAT TREATMENT. By Linnæus Cumming, M.A. With 192 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

DAY.—NUMERICAL EXAMPLES IN HEAT. By R. E. Day, M.A. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

DAY.—NUMERICAL EXAMPLES IN HEAT. By R.E. Day, M.A. Fcp. 8vo., £3.60

EMTAGE.—LIGHT. By W. T. A. Emtage, M.A. With 232 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s.

EMTAGE.—LIGHT. By W. T. A. Emtage, M.A. With 232 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s.

HELMHOLTZ.—ON THE SENSATIONS OF TONE AS A PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR THE THEORY OF MUSIC. By Hermann von Helmholtz. Royal 8vo., 28s.

HELMHOLTZ.—ON THE SENSATIONS OF TONE AS A PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR THE THEORY OF MUSIC. By Hermann von Helmholtz. Royal 8vo., 28s.

MADAN.—AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK ON HEAT For the Use of Schools. By H. G. Madan, M.A., F.C.S., Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford; late Assistant Master at Eton College. Crown 8vo., 9s.

MADAN.—AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK ON HEAT For School Use. By H.G. Madan, M.A., F.C.S., Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford; Former Assistant Master at Eton College. Crown 8vo., 9s.

MAXWELL.—THEORY OF HEAT. By J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., F.R.SS., L. and E. With Corrections and Additions by Lord Rayleigh. With 38 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

MAXWELL.—THEORY OF HEAT. By J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., F.R.SS., L. and E. Updated with Corrections and Additions by Lord Rayleigh. Featuring 38 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £4.6.

SMITH.—THE STUDY OF HEAT. By J. Hamblin Smith M.A., of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo., 3s.

SMITH.—THE STUDY OF HEAT. By J. Hamblin Smith M.A., of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo., 3s.

TYNDALL.—Works by JOHN TYNDALL, D.C.L., F.R.S See p. 28.

TYNDALL.—Works by JOHN TYNDALL, D.C.L., F.R.S See p. 28.

WORMELL.—A CLASS-BOOK OF THERMODYNAMICS By Richard Wormell, B.Sc., M.A. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

WORMELL.—A CLASS-BOOK OF THERMODYNAMICS By Richard Wormell, B.Sc., M.A. Fcp. 8vo., £1.50

WRIGHT.—Works by MARK R. WRIGHT, M.A.

WRIGHT.—Books by MARK R. WRIGHT, M.A.

SOUND, LIGHT, AND HEAT. With 160 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

SOUND, LIGHT, AND HEAT. With 160 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.65.

ADVANCED HEAT. With 136 Diagrams and numerous Examples and Examination Papers. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

ADVANCED HEAT. With 136 Diagrams and numerous Examples and Exam Papers. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.


STEAM, OIL, AND GAS ENGINES.

BALE.—A HAND-BOOK FOR STEAM USERS; being Rules for Engine Drivers and Boiler Attendants, with Notes on Steam Engine and Boiler Management and Steam Boiler Explosions. By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., A.M.I.C.E. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

BALE.—A HANDBOOK FOR STEAM USERS; featuring guidelines for engine drivers and boiler attendants, along with notes on steam engine and boiler management and steam boiler explosions. By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., A.M.I.C.E. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

CLERK.—THE GAS AND OIL ENGINE. By Dugald Clerk, Associate Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Fellow of the Chemical Society, Member of the Royal Institution, Fellow of the Institute of Patent Agents. With 228 Illustrations. 8vo., 15s.

CLERK.—THE GAS AND OIL ENGINE. By Dugald Administrator, Associate Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Fellow of the Chemical Society, Member of the Royal Institution, Fellow of the Institute of Patent Agents. With 228 Illustrations. 8vo., 15s.

HOLMES.—THE STEAM ENGINE. By George C. V. Holmes, Whitworth Scholar, Secretary of the Institution of Naval Architects. With 212 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

HOLMES.—THE STEAM ENGINE. By George C. V. Holmes, Whitworth Scholar, Secretary of the Institution of Naval Architects. With 212 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

NORRIS.—A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE 'OTTO' CYCLE GAS ENGINE. By William Norris, M.I.Mech.E. With 207 Illustrations. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

NORRIS.—A Practical Guide to the 'OTTO' Cycle Gas Engine. By Will Norris, M.I.Mech.E. With 207 Illustrations. 8vo., £10.6.

RIPPER.—Works by WILLIAM RIPPER, Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the Sheffield Technical School.

RIPPER.—Works by WILLIAM RIPPER, Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the Sheffield Technical School.

STEAM. With 142 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

STEAM. With 142 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

STEAM ENGINE THEORY AND PRACTICE. With 438 Illustrations. 8vo., 9s.

STEAM ENGINE THEORY AND PRACTICE. With 438 Illustrations. 8vo., £9.

SENNETT and ORAM.—THE MARINE STEAM ENGINE: A Treatise for Engineering Students, Young Engineers and Officers of the Royal Navy and Mercantile Marine. By the late Richard Sennett, Engineer-in-Chief of the Navy, etc.; and Henry J. Oram, Senior Engineer Inspector at the Admiralty, Inspector of Machinery in H.M. Fleet, etc. With 414 Diagrams. 8vo., 21s.

SENNETT and ORAM.—THE MARINE STEAM ENGINE: A Guide for Engineering Students, Young Engineers, and Officers of the Royal Navy and Merchant Marine. By the late Richard Sennett, Chief Engineer of the Navy, etc.; and Henry J. Oram, Senior Engineering Inspector at the Admiralty, Machinery Inspector in H.M. Fleet, etc. With 414 Diagrams. 8vo., 21s.

STROMEYER.—MARINE BOILER MANAGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION. Being a Treatise on Boiler Troubles and Repairs, Corrosion, Fuels, and Heat, on the properties of Iron and Steel, on Boiler Mechanics, Workshop Practices, and Boiler Design. By C. E. Stromeyer, Member of the Institute of Naval Architects, etc. 8vo., 18s. net.

STROMEYER.—MARINE BOILER MANAGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION. This book is a guide on boiler issues and repairs, corrosion, fuels, and heat, covering the properties of iron and steel, boiler mechanics, workshop practices, and boiler design. By C.E. Stromeyer, Member of the Institute of Naval Architects, etc. 8vo., 18s. net.


BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.

ADVANCED BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. By the Author of 'Rivingtons' Notes on Building Construction'. With 385 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

ADVANCED BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. By the Author of 'Rivingtons' Notes on Building Construction'. With 385 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £4.6.

BURRELL.—BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. By Edward J. Burrell, Second Master of the People's Palace Technical School, London. With 303 Working Drawings. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

BURRELL.—BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. By Edward J. Burrell, Second Master of the People's Palace Technical School, London. With 303 Working Drawings. Crown 8vo., £2.50.

SEDDON.—BUILDER'S WORK AND THE BUILDING TRADES. By Col. H. C. Seddon, R.E., late Superintending Engineer, H.M.'s Dockyard, Portsmouth; Examiner in Building Construction, Science and Art Department, South Kensington. With numerous Illustrations. Medium 8vo., 16s.

SEDDON.—BUILDER'S WORK AND THE BUILDING TRADES. By Col. H.C. Seddon, R.E., former Superintending Engineer, H.M.'s Dockyard, Portsmouth; Examiner in Building Construction, Science and Art Department, South Kensington. With numerous Illustrations. Medium 8vo., 16s.

RIVINGTONS' COURSE OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.

NOTES ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Arranged to meet the requirements of the syllabus of the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, South Kensington. Medium 8vo.

NOTES ON BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Arranged to meet the requirements of the syllabus of the Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, South Kensington. Medium 8vo.

Part I. Elementary Stage. With 552 Woodcuts, 10s. 6d.

Part I. Elementary Stage. With 552 illustrations, £10 6s.

Part II. Advanced Stage. With 479 Woodcuts, 10s. 6d.

Part II. Advanced Stage. With 479 Woodcuts, 10s. 6d.

Part III. Materials. Course for Honours. With 188 Woodcuts, 21s.

Part III. Materials. Course for Honors. With 188 Woodcuts, 21s.

Part IV. Calculations for Building Structures. Course for Honours. With 597 Woodcuts, 15s.

Part IV. Calculations for Building Structures. Course for Honors. With 597 Illustrations, 15s.


ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

CARUS-WILSON.—ELECTRO-DYNAMICS: the Direct-Current Motor. By Charles Ashley Carus-Wilson, M.A. Cantab. With 71 Diagrams, and a Series of Problems, with Answers. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

CARUS-WILSON.—ELECTRO-DYNAMICS: the Direct-Current Motor. By Charles Ashley Carus-Wilson, M.A. Cantab. With 71 Diagrams and a Series of Problems, with Answers. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

CUMMING.—ELECTRICITY TREATED EXPERIMENTALLY. By Linnæus Cumming, M.A. With 242 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

CUMMING.—ELECTRICITY EXPERIMENTALLY STUDIED. By Linnæus Cumming, M.A. With 242 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 4£ 6d.

DAY.—EXERCISES IN ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS, with Answers. By R. E. Day. 12mo., 3s. 6d.

DAY.—PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS, with Answers. By R.E. Day. 12mo., 3£ 6d.

GORE.—THE ART OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY, including all known Processes of Electro-Deposition. By G. Gore, LL.D., F.R.S. With 56 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

GORE.—THE ART OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY, including all known Processes of Electro-Deposition. By Gore, LL.D., F.R.S. With 56 illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

HENDERSON.—Works by JOHN HENDERSON, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.

HENDERSON.—Works by JOHN HENDERSON, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.

PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. With 159 Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. With 159 Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., £6.6.

PRELIMINARY PRACTICAL MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY: A Text-book for Organised Science Schools and Elementary Evening Science Schools. Crown 8vo., 1s.

PRELIMINARY PRACTICAL MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY: A Textbook for Organized Science Schools and Basic Evening Science Schools. Crown 8vo., 1s.

JENKIN.—ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.S., L. and E., M.I.C.E. With 177 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

JENKIN.—ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.S., L. and E., M.I.C.E. With 177 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £3.50.

JOUBERT.—ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By G. C. Foster, F.R.S., and E. Atkinson, Ph.D. With 381 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

JOUBERT.—BASIC GUIDE TO ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By G. C. Foster, F.R.S., and E. Atkinson, Ph.D. With 381 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7£ 6d.

JOYCE.—EXAMPLES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. By Samuel Joyce, A.I.E.E. Crown 8vo., 5s.

JOYCE.—EXAMPLES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. By Samuel Joyce, A.I.E.E. Crown 8vo., 5s.

LARDEN.—ELECTRICITY FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. By W. Larden, M.A. With 215 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 6s.

LARDEN.—ELECTRICITY FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. By W. Larden, M.A. With 215 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., £6.

MACLEAN AND MARCHANT.—ELEMENTARY QUESTIONS IN ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. With Answers. Compiled by Magnus Maclean, D.Sc., M.I.E.E., and E. W. Marchant, D.Sc., A.I.E.E. Crown 8vo., 1s.

MACLEAN AND MARCHANT.—BASIC QUESTIONS IN ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. With Answers. Compiled by Magnus MacLean, D.Sc., M.I.E.E., and E. W. Marchant, D.Sc., A.I.E.E. Crown 8vo., 1s.

MERRIFIELD.—MAGNETISM AND DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS. By John Merrifield, LL.D., F.R.A.S., 18mo., 2s. 6d.

MERRIFIELD.—MAGNETISM AND DEVIATION OF THE COMPASS. By John Merrifield, LL.D., F.R.A.S., 18mo., 2s. 6d.

PARR.—PRACTICAL ELECTRICAL TESTING IN PHYSICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING: being a Course suitable for First and Second Year Students and others. By G. D. Aspinall Parr, Assoc. M.I.E.E., Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo.

PARR.—PRACTICAL ELECTRICAL TESTING IN PHYSICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING: a Course designed for First and Second Year Students and others. By G.D. Aspinall Parr, Associate M.I.E.E., Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo.

POYSER.—Works by A. W. POYSER, M.A.

POYSER.—Works by A. W. POYSER, M.A.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. With 235 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. With 235 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ADVANCED ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. With 317 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

ADVANCED ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. With 317 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £4.6.

SLINGO AND BROOKER.—Works by W. SLINGO and A. BROOKER.

SLINGO AND BROOKER.—Works by W. SLINGO and A. BROOKER.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FOR ELECTRIC LIGHT ARTISANS AND STUDENTS. With 359 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 12s.

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FOR ELECTRIC LIGHT ARTISANS AND STUDENTS. With 359 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 12shillings.

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS IN ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. With 67 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 2s.

PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS IN ELEMENTARY ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. With 67 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 2s.

TYNDALL.—Works by JOHN TYNDALL, D.C.L., F.R.S. See p. 28.

TYNDALL.—Works by JOHN TYNDALL, D.C.L., F.R.S. See p. 28.


TELEGRAPHY AND THE TELEPHONE.

HOPKINS.—THE TELEPHONE: Outlines of the Development of Transmitters and Receivers. By William J. Hopkins, Professor of Physics in the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia; Author of 'Telephone Lines and their Properties,' etc. With 7 Full-page Illustrations and 39 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

HOPKINS.—THE TELEPHONE: An Overview of the Development of Transmitters and Receivers. By William J. Hopkins, Professor of Physics at the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia; Author of 'Telephone Lines and Their Properties,' etc. Includes 7 Full-page Illustrations and 39 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

PREECE AND SIVEWRIGHT.—TELEGRAPHY. By Sir W. H. Preece, K.C.B., F.R.S., V.P.Inst., C.E., etc., Engineer-in-Chief and Electrician, Post Office Telegraphs; and Sir J. Sivewright, K.C.M.G., General Manager, South African Telegraphs. With 267 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

PREECE AND SIVEWRIGHT.—TELEGRAPHY. By Sir W. H. Preece, K.C.B., F.R.S., V.P.Inst., C.E., etc., Chief Engineer and Electrician, Post Office Telegraphs; and Sir J. Sivewright, K.C.M.G., General Manager, South African Telegraphs. With 267 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.


ENGINEERING, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ETC.

ANDERSON.—THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES: the Strength of Materials as depending on their Quality and as ascertained by Testing Apparatus. By Sir J. Anderson, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S.E. With 66 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ANDERSON.—THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES: the strength of materials based on their quality and determined through testing equipment. By Sir J. Anderson, C.E., LL.D., F.R.S.E. With 66 illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

BARRY.—RAILWAY APPLIANCES: a Description of Details of Railway Construction subsequent to the completion of the Earthworks and Structures. By Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. With 218 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

BARRY.—RAILWAY APPLIANCES: a Description of Details of Railway Construction after finishing the Earthworks and Structures. By Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. With 218 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

GOODMAN.—MECHANICS APPLIED TO ENGINEERING. By John Goodman, Wh.Sch., A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Professor of Engineering in the Yorkshire College, Leeds (Victoria University). With 620 Illustrations and numerous Examples. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

GOODMAN.—MECHANICS APPLIED TO ENGINEERING. By John Goodman, Wh.Sch., A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Professor of Engineering at Yorkshire College, Leeds (Victoria University). With 620 Illustrations and numerous Examples. Crown 8vo., £7.50 net.

LOW.—A POCKET-BOOK FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. By David Allan Low (Whitworth Scholar), M.I.Mech.E., Professor of Engineering, East London Technical College (People's Palace), London. With over 1000 specially prepared Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., gilt edges, rounded corners, 7s. 6d.

LOW.—A HANDBOOK FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. By David Allan Low (Whitworth Scholar), M.I.Mech.E., Professor of Engineering, East London Technical College (People's Palace), London. With over 1000 specially designed illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., gilt edges, rounded corners, £7.50.

SMITH.—GRAPHICS, or the Art of Calculation by Drawing Lines, applied especially to Mechanical Engineering. By Robert H. Smith, Professor of Engineering, Mason College, Birmingham. Part I. With separate Atlas of 29 Plates containing 97 Diagrams. 8vo., 15s.

SMITH.—GRAPHICS, or the Art of Calculation by Drawing Lines, particularly used in Mechanical Engineering. By Robert H. Smith, Professor of Engineering, Mason College, Birmingham. Part I. Includes a separate Atlas of 29 Plates with 97 Diagrams. 8vo., 15s.

STONEY.—THE THEORY OF STRESSES IN GIRDERS AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES; with Practical Observations on the Strength and other Properties of Materials. By Bindon B. Stoney, LL.D., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. With 5 Plates and 143 Illust. in the Text. Royal 8vo., 36s.

STONEY.—THE THEORY OF STRESSES IN GIRDERS AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES; with Practical Observations on the Strength and other Properties of Materials. By Bindon B. Stoney, LL.D., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. With 5 Plates and 143 Illustrations in the Text. Royal 8vo., 36s.

UNWIN.—Works by W. CAWTHORNE UNWIN, F.R.S., B.S.C.

UNWIN.—Works by W. CAWTHORNE UNWIN, F.R.S., B.S.C.

THE TESTING OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. A Text-book for the Engineering Laboratory and a Collection of the Results of Experiment. With 5 Plates and 188 Illustrations and Diagrams in the Text. 8vo., 16s. net.

THE TESTING OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. A Textbook for the Engineering Lab and a Collection of Experimental Results. With 5 Plates and 188 Illustrations and Diagrams throughout. 8vo., 16s. net.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSMISSION OF POWER FROM CENTRAL STATIONS: being the Howard Lectures delivered at the Society of Arts in 1893. With 81 Diagrams. 8vo., 10s. net.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSMISSION OF POWER FROM CENTRAL STATIONS: being the Howard Lectures delivered at the Society of Arts in 1893. With 81 Diagrams. 8vo., 10s. net.

WARREN.—ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION IN IRON, STEEL, AND TIMBER. By William Henry Warren, Challis Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Sydney. With 13 Folding Plates and 375 Diagrams. Royal 8vo., 16s. net.

WARREN.—ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION IN IRON, STEEL, AND WOOD. By William H. Warren, Challis Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, University of Sydney. With 13 Fold-Out Plates and 375 Diagrams. Royal 8vo., £16 net.


LONGMANS' CIVIL ENGINEERING SERIES.

Edited by the Author of 'Notes on Building Construction'.

Edited by the author of 'Notes on Building Construction'.

TIDAL RIVERS: their (1) Hydraulics, (2) Improvement, (3) Navigation. By W. H. Wheeler, M.Inst.C.E. With 75 Illustrations. Medium 8vo., 16s. net.

TIDAL RIVERS: their (1) Hydraulics, (2) Improvement, (3) Navigation. By W. H. Wheeler, M.Inst.C.E. With 75 Illustrations. Medium 8vo., 16s. net.

NOTES ON DOCKS AND DOCK CONSTRUCTION. By C. Colson, M.Inst.C.E., Deputy Civil Engineer-in-Chief, Admiralty. With 365 Illustrations. Medium 8vo., 21s. net.

NOTES ON DOCKS AND DOCK CONSTRUCTION. By C. Colson, M.Inst.C.E., Deputy Chief Civil Engineer, Admiralty. With 365 Illustrations. Medium 8vo., £21 net.

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF HARBOUR CONSTRUCTION. By William Shield, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E., and Executive Engineer, National Harbour of Refuge, Peterhead, N.B. With 97 Illustrations. Medium 8vo., 15s. net.

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF HARBOUR CONSTRUCTION. By William Shield, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E., and Executive Engineer, National Harbour of Refuge, Peterhead, N.B. With 97 Illustrations. Medium 8vo., 15s. net.

CALCULATIONS IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING: a Practical Text-Book for the use of Students, Draughtsmen and Engineers. By T. Claxton Fidler, M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering, University College, Dundee.

CALCULATIONS IN HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING: a Practical Text-Book for the use of Students, Draftsmen and Engineers. By T. Claxton Fidler, M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering, University College, Dundee.

Part I. Fluid Pressure and the Calculation of its Effects in Engineering Structures. With numerous Illustrations and Examples. 8vo., 6s. 6d. net.

Part I. Fluid Pressure and the Calculation of its Effects in Engineering Structures. With numerous Illustrations and Examples. 8vo., 6s. 6d. net.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. By W. H. Mills, M.I.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief of the Great Northern Railway of Ireland. With 516 Illustrations and Diagrams. 8vo., 18s. net.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. By W. H. Mills, M.I.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief of the Great Northern Railway of Ireland. With 516 Illustrations and Diagrams. 8vo., 18s. net.


NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

ATTWOOD.—TEXT-BOOK OF THEORETICAL NAVAL ARCHITECTURE: a Manual for Students of Science Classes and Draughtsmen Engaged in Shipbuilders' and Naval Architects' Drawing Offices. By Edward Lewis Attwood, Assistant Constructor, Royal Navy; Member of the Institution of Naval Architects. With 114 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

ATTWOOD.—TEXT-BOOK OF THEORETICAL NAVAL ARCHITECTURE: a Manual for Students of Science Classes and Draftsmen Working in Shipbuilders' and Naval Architects' Offices. By Edward Lewis Attwood, Assistant Constructor, Royal Navy; Member of the Institution of Naval Architects. With 114 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

WATSON.—NAVAL ARCHITECTURE: A Manual of Laying-off Iron, Steel and Composite Vessels. By Thomas H. Watson, Lecturer on Naval Architecture at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. With numerous Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 15s. net.

WATSON.—NAVAL ARCHITECTURE: A Manual for Designing Iron, Steel, and Composite Vessels. By Thomas H. Watson, Lecturer in Naval Architecture at the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. With many Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 15s. net.


MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN.

LOW.—Works by DAVID ALLAN LOW, Professor of Engineering, East London Technical College (People's Palace).

LOW.—Works by DAVID ALLAN LOW, Professor of Engineering, East London Technical College (People's Palace).

IMPROVED DRAWING SCALES. 6d. in case.

Improved drawing scales. 6d. each.

AN INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN. With 153 Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

AN INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN. With 153 Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

LOW AND BEVIS.—A MANUAL OF MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN. By David Allan Low and Alfred William Bevis, M.I.Mech.E. With 700 Illustrations. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

LOW AND BEVIS.—A MANUAL OF MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN. By David Allan Low and Alfred W. Bevis, M.I.Mech.E. With 700 Illustrations. 8vo., £7.50.

UNWIN.—THE ELEMENTS OF MACHINE DESIGN. By W. Cawthorne Unwin, F.R.S.

UNWIN.—THE ELEMENTS OF MACHINE DESIGN. By W. Cawthorne Unwin, F.R.S.

Part I. General Principles, Fastenings, and Transmissive Machinery. With 304 Diagrams, etc. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

Part I. General Principles, Fastenings, and Transmission Machinery. With 304 Diagrams, etc. Fcp. 8vo., 6d.

Part II. Chiefly on Engine Details. With 174 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

Part II. Mainly on Engine Details. With 174 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.


WORKSHOP APPLIANCES, ETC.

NORTHCOTT.—LATHES AND TURNING, Simple, Mechanical and Ornamental. By W. H. Northcott. With 338 Illustrations. 8vo., 18s.

NORTHCOTT.—LATHES AND TURNING, Simple, Mechanical and Ornamental. By W. H. Northcott. With 338 Illustrations. 8vo., £1.50

SHELLEY.—WORKSHOP APPLIANCES, including Descriptions of some of the Gauging and Measuring Instruments, Hand-cutting Tools, Lathes, Drilling, Planeing, and other Machine Tools used by Engineers. By C. P. B. Shelley, M.I.C.E. With an additional Chapter on Milling by R. R. Lister. With 323 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 5s.

SHELLEY.—WORKSHOP EQUIPMENT, including Descriptions of some of the Gauging and Measuring Instruments, Hand-cutting Tools, Lathes, Drilling, Planing, and other Machine Tools used by Engineers. By C. P. B. Shelley, M.I.C.E. With an additional Chapter on Milling by R. R. Lister. With 323 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 5s.


MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, ETC.

BAUERMAN.—Works by HILARY BAUERMAN, F.G.S.

BAUERMAN.—Works by HILARY BAUERMAN, F.G.S.

SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY. With 373 Woodcuts and Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY. With 373 illustrations and diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY. With 236 Woodcuts and Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY. With 236 illustrations and diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

GORE.—THE ART OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY, including all known Processes of Electro-Deposition. By G. Gore, LL.D., F.R.S. With 56 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

GORE.—THE ART OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY, including all known processes of electro-deposition. By Gore, LL.D., F.R.S. With 56 illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

HUNTINGTON AND McMILLAN—METALS: their Properties and Treatment. By A. K. Huntington, Professor of Metallurgy in King's College, London, and W. G. McMillan, Lecturer on Metallurgy in Mason's College, Birmingham. With 122 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

HUNTINGTON AND McMILLAN—METALS: Their Properties and Treatment. By A. K. Huntington, Professor of Metallurgy at King's College, London, and W. G. McMillan, Lecturer on Metallurgy at Mason's College, Birmingham. With 122 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £7.50.

RHEAD.—METALLURGY. An Elementary Text-Book. By E. C. Rhead, Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Municipal Technical School, Manchester. With 94 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

RHEAD.—METALLURGY. An Introductory Textbook. By E. C. Rhead, Instructor in Metallurgy at the Municipal Technical School, Manchester. With 94 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

RUTLEY.—THE STUDY OF ROCKS: an Elementary Text-book of Petrology. By F. Rutley, F.G.S. With 6 Plates and 88 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

RUTLEY.—THE STUDY OF ROCKS: a Basic Textbook on Petrology. By F. Rutley, F.G.S. Featuring 6 Plates and 88 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £4.6.


ASTRONOMY, NAVIGATION, ETC.

ABBOTT.—ELEMENTARY THEORY OF THE TIDES: the Fundamental Theorems Demonstrated without Mathematics and the Influence on the Length of the Day Discussed. By T. K. Abbott, B.D., Fellow and Tutor, Trinity College, Dublin. Crown 8vo., 2s.

ABBOTT.—ELEMENTARY THEORY OF THE TIDES: the Fundamental Theorems Explained without Math and the Impact on the Length of the Day Discussed. By T.K. Abbott, B.D., Fellow and Tutor, Trinity College, Dublin. Crown 8vo., 2s.

BALL.—Works by Sir ROBERT S. BALL, LL.D., F.R.S.

BALL.—Works by Sir ROBERT S. BALL, LL.D., F.R.S.

ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY. With 130 Figures and Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 6s. 6d.

ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY. With 130 Images and Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 6s. 6d.

A CLASS-BOOK OF ASTRONOMY. With 41 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

A CLASS-BOOK OF ASTRONOMY. With 41 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1£ 6d.

DE CAMPIGNEULLES.—OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT DUMRAON, BEHAR, INDIA, during the Eclipse of the 22nd January, 1898, by a Party of Jesuit Fathers of the Western Bengal Mission. By the Rev. V. de Campigneulles, S.J. With 14 Plates. 4to., 10s. 6d. net.

DE CAMPIGNEULLES.—OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT DUMRAON, BIHAR, INDIA, during the Eclipse of January 22, 1898, by a group of Jesuit Fathers from the Western Bengal Mission. By Rev. V. de Campigneulles, S.J. With 14 Plates. 4to., 10sh. 6d. net.

GILL.—TEXT-BOOK ON NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. By J. Gill, F.R.A.S., late Head Master of the Liverpool Corporation Nautical College. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

GILL.—TEXT-BOOK ON NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. By J. Gill, F.R.A.S., former Head Master of the Liverpool Corporation Nautical College. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

HERSCHEL.—OUTLINES OF ASTRONOMY. By Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., K.H., etc. With 9 Plates and numerous Diagrams. 8vo., 12s.

HERSCHEL.—OUTLINES OF ASTRONOMY. By Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., K.H., etc. With 9 Plates and numerous Diagrams. 8vo., 12s.

JORDAN.—ESSAYS IN ILLUSTRATION OF THE ACTION OF ASTRAL GRAVITATION IN NATURAL PHENOMENA. By William Leighton Jordan. With Diagrams. 8vo., 9s.

JORDAN.—ESSAYS IN ILLUSTRATION OF THE ACTION OF ASTRAL GRAVITATION IN NATURAL PHENOMENA. By William Leighton Jordan. With Diagrams. 8vo., 9s.

LAUGHTON.—AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL STUDY OF NAUTICAL SURVEYING. By John Knox Laughton, M.A., F.R.A.S. With 35 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 6s.

LAUGHTON.—AN INTRODUCTION TO THE PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL STUDY OF NAUTICAL SURVEYING. By John Knox Laughton, M.A., F.R.A.S. With 35 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 6s.

LOWELL.—MARS. By Percival Lowell, Fellow American Academy, Member Royal Asiatic Society, Great Britain and Ireland, etc. With 24 Plates. 8vo., 12s. 6d.

LOWELL.—MARS. By Percival Lowell, Fellow of the American Academy, Member of the Royal Asiatic Society, Great Britain and Ireland, etc. With 24 Plates. 8vo., 12s. 6d.

MARTIN.—NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. Compiled by Staff Commander W. R. Martin, R.N. Royal 8vo., 18s.

MARTIN.—NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. Compiled by Staff Commander W.R. Martin, R.N. Royal 8vo., 18s.

MERRIFIELD.—A TREATISE ON NAVIGATION. For the Use of Students. By J. Merrifield, LL.D., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. With Charts and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 5s.

MERRIFIELD.—A TREATISE ON NAVIGATION. For the Use of Students. By J. Merrifield, LL.D., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. With Charts and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 5s.

PARKER.—ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY. With Numerous Examples and Examination Papers. By George W. Parker, M.A., of Trinity College, Dublin. With 84 Diagrams. 8vo., 5s. 6d. net.

PARKER.—ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY. With Numerous Examples and Examination Papers. By George W. Parker, M.A., of Trinity College, Dublin. With 84 Diagrams. 8vo., £5.60 net.

WEBB.—CELESTIAL OBJECTS FOR COMMON TELESCOPES. By the Rev. T. W. Webb, M.A., F.R.A.S. Fifth Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged by the Rev. T. E. Espin, M.A., F.R.A.S. (Two Volumes.) Vol. I., with Portrait and a Reminiscence of the Author, 2 Plates, and numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. Vol. II., with numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

WEBB.—CELESTIAL OBJECTS FOR COMMON TELESCOPES. By the Rev. T.W. Webb, M.A., F.R.A.S. Fifth Edition, Revised and significantly Expanded by the Rev. T.E. Espin, M.A., F.R.A.S. (Two Volumes.) Vol. I., featuring a Portrait and a Remembrance of the Author, 2 Plates, and many Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. Vol. II., with many Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.


WORKS BY RICHARD A. PROCTOR.

THE MOON: Her Motions, Aspect, Scenery, and Physical Condition. With many Plates and Charts, Wood Engravings, and 2 Lunar Photographs. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE MOON: Her Movements, Appearance, Landscape, and Physical State. With numerous Plates and Charts, Wood Engravings, and 2 Lunar Photographs. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

OTHER WORLDS THAN OURS: the Plurality of Worlds Studied Under the Light of Recent Scientific Researches. With 14 Illustrations; Map, Charts, etc. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

OTHER WORLDS THAN OURS: the Plurality of Worlds Studied Under the Light of Recent Scientific Researches. With 14 Illustrations; Map, Charts, etc. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

OUR PLACE AMONG INFINITIES: a Series of Essays contrasting our Little Abode in Space and Time with the Infinities around us. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

OUR PLACE AMONG INFINITIES: a Series of Essays contrasting our Small Home in Space and Time with the Infinities around us. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

MYTHS AND MARVELS OF ASTRONOMY. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

MYTHS AND MARVELS OF ASTRONOMY. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

LIGHT SCIENCE FOR LEISURE HOURS: Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects, Natural Phenomena, etc. Vols. I. and II. Crown 8vo., 5s. each. Vol. I. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

LIGHT SCIENCE FOR LEISURE HOURS: Familiar Essays on Scientific Topics, Natural Phenomena, etc. Vols. I and II. Crown 8vo., £5 each. Vol. I. Affordable Edition. Crown 8vo., £3.56.

THE ORBS AROUND US; Essays on the Moon and Planets, Meteors and Comets, the Sun and Coloured Pairs of Suns. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE ORBS AROUND US; Essays on the Moon and Planets, Meteors and Comets, the Sun and Colored Pairs of Suns. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE EXPANSE OF HEAVEN: Essays on the Wonders of the Firmament. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE EXPANSE OF HEAVEN: Essays on the Wonders of the Firmament. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

OTHER SUNS THAN OURS: a Series of Essays on Suns—Old, Young, and Dead. With other Science Gleanings. Two Essays on Whist, and Correspondence with Sir John Herschel. With 9 Star-Maps and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

OTHER SUNS THAN OURS: a Series of Essays on Suns—Old, Young, and Dead. With additional Science Insights. Two Essays on Whist, and Correspondence with Sir John Herschel. Includes 9 Star Maps and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

HALF-HOURS WITH THE TELESCOPE: a Popular Guide to the Use of the Telescope as a means of Amusement and Instruction. With 7 Plates. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

HALF-HOURS WITH THE TELESCOPE: a Popular Guide to Using the Telescope for Fun and Learning. With 7 Plates. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

NEW STAR ATLAS FOR THE LIBRARY, the School, and the Observatory, in Twelve Circular Maps (with Two Index-Plates). With an Introduction on the Study of the Stars. Illustrated by 9 Diagrams. Cr. 8vo., 5s.

NEW STAR ATLAS FOR THE LIBRARY, the School, and the Observatory, in Twelve Circular Maps (with Two Index-Plates). With an Introduction on the Study of the Stars. Illustrated by 9 Diagrams. Cr. 8vo., 5s.

THE SOUTHERN SKIES: a Plain and Easy Guide to the Constellations of the Southern Hemisphere. Showing in 12 Maps the position of the principal Star-Groups night after night throughout the year. With an Introduction and a separate Explanation of each Map. True for every Year. 4to., 5s.

THE SOUTHERN SKIES: a Simple and Straightforward Guide to the Constellations of the Southern Hemisphere. Featuring 12 Maps that show the positions of the main Star Groups night by night throughout the year. Includes an Introduction and a separate Explanation for each Map. Accurate for every Year. 4to., 5s.

HALF-HOURS WITH THE STARS: a Plain and Easy Guide to the Knowledge of the Constellations. Showing in 12 Maps the position of the principal Star-Groups night after night throughout the year. With Introduction and a separate Explanation of each Map. True for every Year. 4to., 3s. 6d.

HALF-HOURS WITH THE STARS: a Simple and Easy Guide to Understanding the Constellations. Displaying 12 Maps that show the location of the main Star Groups night after night throughout the year. Includes an Introduction and a detailed Explanation for each Map. Accurate for every Year. 4to., 3s. 6d.

LARGER STAR ATLAS FOR OBSERVERS AND STUDENTS. In Twelve Circular Maps, showing 6000 Stars, 1500 Double Stars, Nebulæ, etc. With 2 Index-Plates. Folio, 15s.

LARGER STAR ATLAS FOR OBSERVERS AND STUDENTS. In Twelve Circular Maps, showing 6000 Stars, 1500 Double Stars, Nebulas, etc. With 2 Index Plates. Folio, 15s.

THE STARS IN THEIR SEASONS: an Easy Guide to a Knowledge of the Star-Groups. In 12 Large Maps. Imperial 8vo., 5s.

THE STARS IN THEIR SEASONS: a Simple Guide to Understanding Star Groups. In 12 Large Maps. Imperial 8vo., 5s.

ROUGH WAYS MADE SMOOTH. Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ROUGH WAYS MADE SMOOTH. Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

PLEASANT WAYS IN SCIENCE. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

PLEASANT WAYS IN SCIENCE. Crown 8vo., £3.50.

NATURE STUDIES. By R. A. Proctor, Grant Allen, A. Wilson, T. Foster, and E. Clodd. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

NATURE STUDIES. By R.A. Proctor, Grant Allen, Wilson, T. Foster, and E. Clodd. Crown 8vo., 3£ 6d.

LEISURE READINGS. By R. A. Proctor, E. Clodd, A. Wilson, T. Foster, and A. C. Ranyard. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

LEISURE READINGS. By R.A. Proctor, E. Clodd, A. Wilson, T. Foster, and A.C. Ranyard. Crown 8vo., £3.60


PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY.

BIRD.—Works by CHARLES BIRD, B.A.

BIRD.—Works by CHARLES BIRD, B.A.

ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. With Geological Map of the British Isles, and 247 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. With Geological Map of the British Isles and 247 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ADVANCED GEOLOGY. A Manual for Students in Advanced Classes and for General Readers. With over 300 Illustrations, a Geological Map of the British Isles (coloured), and a set of Questions for Examination. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

ADVANCED GEOLOGY. A Guide for Students in Advanced Classes and for General Readers. Featuring over 300 Illustrations, a Geological Map of the British Isles (colored), and a set of Questions for Assessment. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

GREEN.—PHYSICAL GEOLOGY FOR STUDENTS AND GENERAL READERS. By A. H. Green, M.A., F.G.S. With 236 Illustrations. 8vo., 21s.

GREEN.—PHYSICAL GEOLOGY FOR STUDENTS AND GENERAL READERS. By A.H. Green, M.A., F.G.S. With 236 Illustrations. 8vo., £21.

MORGAN.—ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY. Treated Experimentally. By Alex. Morgan, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Lecturer in Mathematics and Science, Church of Scotland Training College, Edinburgh. With 4 Maps and 243 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

MORGAN.—ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY. Experimentally Explored. By Alex Morgan, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Lecturer in Mathematics and Science, Church of Scotland Training College, Edinburgh. With 4 Maps and 243 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., £2.50.

THORNTON.—Works by J. THORNTON, M.A.

THORNTON.—Works by J. THORNTON, M.A.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSIOGRAPHY.

Elementary Practical Physiology.

    Part I. With 215 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

Part I. With 215 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.65.

    Part II. With 98 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

Part II. With 98 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.65.

ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY: an Introduction to the Study of Nature. With 13 Maps and 295 Illustrations. With Appendix on Astronomical Instruments and Measurements. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY: an Introduction to the Study of Nature. With 13 Maps and 295 Illustrations. Includes an Appendix on Astronomical Instruments and Measurements. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ADVANCED PHYSIOGRAPHY. With 6 Maps and 203 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

ADVANCED PHYSIOGRAPHY. With 6 Maps and 203 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £4.6.d.


NATURAL HISTORY AND GENERAL SCIENCE.

BEDDARD.—THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. By Frank E. Beddard, M.A., F.R.S., Prosector and Vice-Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. With 252 Illustrations. 8vo., 21s. net.

BEDDARD.—THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. By Frank E. Beddard, M.A., F.R.S., Prosector and Vice-Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. With 252 Illustrations. 8vo., £21 net.

FURNEAUX.—Works by WILLIAM FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.

FURNEAUX.—Works by WILLIAM FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S.

THE OUTDOOR WORLD; or, The Young Collector's Hand-book. With 18 Plates, 16 of which are coloured, and 549 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., 6s. net.

THE OUTDOOR WORLD; or, The Young Collector's Hand-book. With 18 Plates, 16 of which are colored, and 549 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., 6s. net.

LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. With 8 Coloured Plates and 331 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., 6s. net.

LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. With 8 Colored Plates and 331 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., 6s. net.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (British). With 12 Coloured Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., 6s. net.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (British). With 12 Colored Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., 6s. net.

HUDSON.—BRITISH BIRDS. By W. H. Hudson, C.M.Z.S. With 8 Coloured Plates from Original Drawings by A. Thorburn, and 8 Plates and 100 Figures by C. E. Lodge, and 3 Illustrations from Photographs. Crown 8vo., 6s. net.

HUDSON.—BRITISH BIRDS. By W.H. Hudson, C.M.Z.S. With 8 Color Plates from Original Drawings by A. Thorburn, and 8 Plates and 100 Figures by C. E. Lodge, and 3 Illustrations from Photographs. Crown 8vo., 6£ net.

NANSEN.—THE NORWEGIAN NORTH POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-1896: Scientific Results. Edited by Fridtjof Nansen. Volume I. With 44 Plates and numerous Illustrations in the Text. Demy 4to, 40s. net.

NANSEN.—THE NORWEGIAN NORTH POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-1896: Scientific Results. Edited by Fridtjof Nansen. Volume I. With 44 Plates and many Illustrations in the Text. Demy 4to, 40s. net.

Contents: 1. Colin Archer: The Fram—2. J. F. Pompeckj: The Jurassic Fauna of Cape Flora. With a Geological Sketch of Cape Flora and its Neighbourhood by Fridtjof Nansen—3. A. G. Nathorst: Fossil Plants from Franz Josef Land—4. R. Collett and F. Nansen: An Account of the Birds—5. G. O. Sars: Crustacea.

Table of Contents: 1. Colin Archer: The Fram—2. J. F. Pompeckj: The Jurassic Fauna of Cape Flora. With a Geological Overview of Cape Flora and its Surroundings by Fridtjof Nansen—3. A.G. Nathorst: Fossil Plants from Franz Josef Land—4. R. Collett and F. Nansen: A Report on the Birds—5. G.O. Sars: Crustaceans.

The aim of this Report (which will be published in English only) is to give, in a series of separate Memoirs, a complete account of the Scientific Results of the Norwegian Polar Expedition, 1893-1896. The whole work is estimated to form five or six Quarto Volumes, which it is hoped will be finished in the course of about two years.

The goal of this Report (which will only be published in English) is to provide a complete overview of the Scientific Results from the Norwegian Polar Expedition, 1893-1896, through a series of individual Memoirs. The entire project is expected to consist of five or six Quarto Volumes, which we hope to complete in approximately two years.

STANLEY.—A FAMILIAR HISTORY OF BIRDS. By E. Stanley, D.D., formerly Bishop of Norwich. With 160 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.

STANLEY.—A FAMILIAR HISTORY OF BIRDS. By E. Stanley, D.D., former Bishop of Norwich. With 160 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, £3.60.


MANUFACTURES, TECHNOLOGY, ETC.

BELL.—JACQUARD WEAVING AND DESIGNING. By F. T. Bell. With 199 Diagrams. 8vo., 12s. net.

BELL.—JACQUARD WEAVING AND DESIGNING. By F.T. Bell. With 199 Diagrams. 8vo., $12 net.

CALDER.—THE PREVENTION OF FACTORY ACCIDENTS: being an Account of Manufacturing Industry and Accident, and a Practical Guide to the Law on the Safe-guarding, Safe-working and Safe-construction of Factory Machinery, Plant and Premises. By John Calder, sometime Her Majesty's Inspector of Factories for the North of Scotland. With 20 Tables and 124 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

CALDER.—THE PREVENTION OF FACTORY ACCIDENTS: A Comprehensive Overview of Manufacturing Industry and Accidents, along with a Practical Guide to the Laws for Safeguarding, Safe Operations, and Safe Construction of Factory Machinery, Equipment, and Facilities. By John Calder, former Her Majesty's Inspector of Factories for Northern Scotland. Includes 20 Tables and 124 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

LUPTON.—MINING. An Elementary Treatise on the Getting of Minerals. By Arnold Lupton, M.I.C.E., F.G.S., etc. With 596 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 9s. net.

LUPTON.—MINING. An Introductory Guide to Extracting Minerals. By Arnold Lupton, M.I.C.E., F.G.S., etc. With 596 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 9s. net.

MORRIS AND WILKINSON.—THE ELEMENTS OF COTTON SPINNING. By John Morris and F. Wilkinson. With a Preface by Sir B. A. Dobson, C.E., M.I.M.E. With 169 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

MORRIS AND WILKINSON.—THE ELEMENTS OF COTTON SPINNING. By John Morris and F. Wilkinson. With a Preface by Sir B. A. Dobson, C.E., M.I.M.E. Featuring 169 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £7.50 net.

SHARP.—BICYCLES AND TRICYCLES: an Elementary Treatise on their Design and Construction. With Examples and Tables. By Archibald Sharp, B.Sc. With 565 Illustrations and Diagrams. Cr. 8vo., 15s.

SHARP.—BICYCLES AND TRICYCLES: a Basic Guide to Their Design and Construction. Including Examples and Tables. By Archie Sharp, B.Sc. Featuring 565 Illustrations and Diagrams. Cr. 8vo., 15s.

TAYLOR.—COTTON WEAVING AND DESIGNING. By John T. Taylor. With 373 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

TAYLOR.—COTTON WEAVING AND DESIGNING. By John Taylor. With 373 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., £7.50 net.

WATTS.—AN INTRODUCTORY MANUAL FOR SUGAR GROWERS. By Francis Watts, F.C.S., F.I.C. With 20 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s.

WATTS.—A BEGINNER'S GUIDE FOR SUGAR GROWERS. By Francis Watts, F.C.S., F.I.C. With 20 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s.


HEALTH AND HYGIENE.

ASHBY.—HEALTH IN THE NURSERY. By Henry Ashby, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the Manchester Children's Hospital, and Lecturer on the Diseases of Children at the Owens College. With 25 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ASHBY.—HEALTH IN THE NURSERY. By Henry Ashby, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the Manchester Children's Hospital, and Lecturer on the Diseases of Children at Owens College. With 25 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3£ 6d.

BUCKTON.—HEALTH IN THE HOUSE; Twenty-five Lectures on Elementary Physiology. By Mrs. C. M. Buckton. With 41 Woodcuts and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 2s.

BUCKTON.—WELLNESS AT HOME; Twenty-five Lectures on Basic Physiology. By Mrs. C.M. Buckton. With 41 Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 2s.

CORFIELD.—THE LAWS OF HEALTH. By W. H. Corfield, M.A., M.D. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

CORFIELD.—THE LAWS OF HEALTH. By W. H. Corfield, M.A., M.D. Fcp. 8vo., £1.50

NOTTER AND FIRTH.—Works by J. L. NOTTER, M.A., M.D., and R. H. FIRTH, F.R.C.S.

NOTTER AND FIRTH.—Works by J. L. NOTTER, M.A., M.D., and R. H. FIRTH, F.R.C.S.

HYGIENE. With 95 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

HYGIENE. With 95 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

PRACTICAL DOMESTIC HYGIENE. With 83 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

PRACTICAL DOMESTIC HYGIENE. With 83 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.65

POORE.—Works by GEORGE VIVIAN POORE, M.D.

POORE.—Books by GEORGE VIVIAN POORE, M.D.

ESSAYS ON RURAL HYGIENE. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

ESSAYS ON RURAL HYGIENE. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

THE DWELLING-HOUSE. With 36 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE DWELLING-HOUSE. With 36 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

WILSON.—A MANUAL OF HEALTH-SCIENCE: adapted for use in Schools and Colleges. By Andrew Wilson, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., etc. With 74 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

WILSON.—A MANUAL OF HEALTH-SCIENCE: designed for use in Schools and Colleges. By Andrew Wilson, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., etc. With 74 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.50.


MEDICINE AND SURGERY.

ASHBY AND WRIGHT.—THE DISEASES OF CHILDREN, MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. By Henry Ashby, M.D., Lond., F.R.C.P., Physician to the General Hospital for Sick Children, Manchester; and G. A. Wright, B.A., M.B. Oxon., F.R.C.S., Eng., Assistant-Surgeon to the Manchester Royal Infirmary, and Surgeon to the Children's Hospital. Enlarged and Improved Edition. With 192 Illustrations. 8vo., 25s.

ASHBY AND WRIGHT.—THE DISEASES OF CHILDREN, MEDICAL AND SURGICAL. By Henry Ashby, M.D., Lond., F.R.C.P., Physician at the General Hospital for Sick Children, Manchester; and G.A. Wright, B.A., M.B. Oxon., F.R.C.S., Eng., Assistant Surgeon at the Manchester Royal Infirmary, and Surgeon at the Children's Hospital. Expanded and Enhanced Edition. With 192 Illustrations. 8vo., 25s.

BENNETT.—Works by WILLIAM H. BENNETT, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to St. George's Hospital; Member of the Board of Examiners, Royal College of Surgeons of England.

BENNETT.—Works by WILLIAM H. BENNETT, F.R.C.S., Surgeon at St. George's Hospital; Member of the Board of Examiners, Royal College of Surgeons of England.

CLINICAL LECTURES ON VARICOSE VEINS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. With 3 Plates. 8vo., 6s.

CLINICAL LECTURES ON VARICOSE VEINS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES. With 3 Plates. 8vo., 6s.

ON VARICOCELE; A PRACTICAL TREATISE. With 4 Tables and a Diagram. 8vo., 5s.

ON VARICOCELE; A PRACTICAL TREATISE. With 4 Tables and a Diagram. 8vo., 5s.

CLINICAL LECTURES ON ABDOMINAL HERNIA: chiefly in relation to Treatment, including the Radical Cure. With 12 Diagrams in the Text. 8vo., 8s. 6d.

CLINICAL LECTURES ON ABDOMINAL HERNIA: mainly about Treatment, including the Permanent Cure. With 12 Diagrams in the Text. 8vo., 8s. 6d.

ON VARIX, ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT, WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO THROMBOSIS: an Address delivered at the Inaugural Meeting of the Nottingham Medico-Chirurgical Society, Session 1898-99. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ON VARIX, ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT, WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO THROMBOSIS: an Address delivered at the Inaugural Meeting of the Nottingham Medico-Chirurgical Society, Session 1898-99. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

BENTLEY.—A TEXT-BOOK OF ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA. Comprising a Description of the Vegetable and Animal Drugs of the British Pharmacopœia, with some others in common use. Arranged Systematically, and Especially Designed for Students. By Robert Bentley, M.R.C.S. Eng., F.L.S. With 62 Illustrations on Wood. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

BENTLEY.—A TEXTBOOK OF ORGANIC MATERIA MEDICA. This book includes descriptions of the plant and animal drugs listed in the British Pharmacopoeia, along with other commonly used ones. It's organized systematically and is specifically designed for students. By Robert Bentley, M.R.C.S. Eng., F.L.S. With 62 Wood Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

BRODIE.—THE ESSENTIALS OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. For the Use of Students. By T. G. Brodie, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology, St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School. With 2 Plates and 177 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

BRODIE.—THE ESSENTIALS OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. For Students. By T.G. Brodie, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology, St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School. With 2 Plates and 177 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., £6.50.

CABOT.—Works by RICHARD C. CABOT, M.D., Physician to Out-patients, Massachusetts General Hospital.

CABOT.—Works by RICHARD C. CABOT, M.D., Physician for Outpatients, Massachusetts General Hospital.

A GUIDE TO THE CLINICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BLOOD FOR DIAGNOSTIC PURPOSES. With 3 Coloured Plates and 28 Illustrations in the Text. 8vo., 16s.

A GUIDE TO THE CLINICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BLOOD FOR DIAGNOSTIC PURPOSES. With 3 Color Plates and 28 Illustrations in the Text. 8vo., 16s.

THE SERUM DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASE. With 31 Temperature Charts and 9 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 7s. 6d.

THE SERUM DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASE. With 31 Temperature Charts and 9 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 7s. 6d.

CELLI.—MALARIA, ACCORDING TO THE NEW RESEARCHES. By Prof. Angelo Celli, Director of the Institute of Hygiene, University of Rome. Translated from the Second Italian Edition by John Joseph Eyre, M.R.C.P., L.R.C.S. Ireland, D.P.H. Cambridge. With an Introduction by Dr. Patrick Manson, Medical Adviser to the Colonial Office. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

CELLI.—MALARIA, ACCORDING TO THE NEW RESEARCHES. By Prof. Angelo Celli, Director of the Institute of Hygiene, University of Rome. Translated from the Second Italian Edition by John J. Eyre, M.R.C.P., L.R.C.S. Ireland, D.P.H. Cambridge. With an Introduction by Dr. Patrick Manson, Medical Adviser to the Colonial Office. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

CHEYNE AND BURGHARD.—A MANUAL OF SURGICAL TREATMENT. By W. Watson Cheyne, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery in King's College, London, Surgeon to King's College Hospital, etc.; and F. F. Burghard, M.D. and M.S., F.R.C.S., Teacher of Practical Surgery in King's College, London, Surgeon to King's College, Hospital (Lond.), etc.

CHEYNE AND BURGHARD.—A MANUAL OF SURGICAL TREATMENT. By W. Watson Cheyne, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery at King's College, London, Surgeon at King's College Hospital, etc.; and F.F. Burghard, M.D. and M.S., F.R.C.S., Instructor in Practical Surgery at King's College, London, Surgeon at King's College Hospital (London), etc.

Part I. The Treatment of General Surgical Diseases, including Inflammation, Suppuration, Ulceration, Gangrene, Wounds and their Complications, Infective Diseases and Tumours; the Administration of Anæsthetics. With 66 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 10s. 6d. [Ready.

Part I. The Treatment of General Surgical Diseases, including Inflammation, Infection, Ulceration, Gangrene, Wounds and their Complications, Infectious Diseases and Tumors; the Administration of Anesthetics. With 66 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 10sh. 6d. [Ready.

Part II. The Treatment of the Surgical Affections of the Tissues, including the Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues, the Nails, the Lymphatic Vessels and Glands, the Fasciæ, Bursæ, Muscles, Tendons and Tendon-sheaths, Nerves, Arteries and Veins. Deformities. With 141 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 14s. [Ready.

Part II. The Treatment of Surgical Conditions of the Tissues, including the Skin and Subcutaneous Tissues, the Nails, the Lymphatic Vessels and Glands, the Fascias, Bursae, Muscles, Tendons and Tendon Sheaths, Nerves, Arteries, and Veins. Deformities. With 141 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 14. [Ready.

Part III. The Treatment of the Surgical Affections of the Bones. Amputations. With 100 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 12s.

Part III. The Treatment of Surgical Bone Conditions. Amputations. With 100 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 12s.

Part IV. The Treatment of the Surgical Affections of the Joints (including Excisions) and the Spine. With 138 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 14s.

Part IV. The Treatment of Surgical Conditions of the Joints (including Excision Procedures) and the Spine. With 138 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 14s.

Other Parts are in preparation.

Other parts are coming soon.

CLARKE.—Works by J. JACKSON CLARKE, M.B. Lond., F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon at the North-west London and City Orthopædic Hospitals, etc.

CLARKE.—Works by J. JACKSON CLARKE, M.B. Lond., F.R.C.S., Assistant Surgeon at the North-west London and City Orthopaedic Hospitals, etc.

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GRAY.—ANATOMY, DESCRIPTIVE AND SURGICAL. By Henry Gray, F.R.S., late Lecturer on Anatomy at St. George's Hospital. The Fourteenth Edition, re-edited by T. Pickering Pick, Surgeon to St. George's Hospital, Inspector of Anatomy in England and Wales, late Member of the Court of Examiners, Royal College of Surgeons of England. With 705 large Woodcut Illustrations, a large proportion of which are Coloured, the Arteries being coloured red, the Veins blue, and the Nerves yellow. The attachments of the muscles to the bones, in the section on Osteology, are also shown in coloured outline. Royal 8vo., 36s.

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QUAIN.—QUAIN'S (JONES) ELEMENTS OF ANATOMY. The Tenth Edition. Edited by Edward Albert Schäfer, F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the University of Edinburgh; and George Dancer Thane, Professor of Anatomy in University College, London.

QUAIN.—QUAIN'S (JONES) ELEMENTS OF ANATOMY. The Tenth Edition. Edited by Edward Albert Schaefer, F.R.S., Professor of Physiology at the University of Edinburgh; and George Dancer Thane, Professor of Anatomy at University College, London.

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SCHENK.—MANUAL OF BACTERIOLOGY. For Practitioners and Students. With especial reference to Practical Methods. By Dr. S. L. Schenk, Professor (Extraordinary) in the University of Vienna. Translated from the German, with an Appendix, by W. R. Dawson, B.A., M.D., Univ. Dub.; late University Travelling Prizeman in Medicine. With 100 Illustrations, some of which are coloured. 8vo., 10s. net.

SCHENK.—MANUAL OF BACTERIOLOGY. For Practitioners and Students. With a Special Focus on Practical Methods. By Dr. S. L. Schenk, Professor (Extraordinary) at the University of Vienna. Translated from German, with an Appendix, by W.R. Dawson, B.A., M.D., Univ. Dub.; former University Travelling Prizeman in Medicine. Includes 100 Illustrations, some in color. 8vo., 10s. net.

SMALE AND COLYER. DISEASES AND INJURIES OF THE TEETH, including Pathology and Treatment: a Manual of Practical Dentistry for Students and Practitioners. By Morton Smale, M.R.C.S., L.S.A., L.D.S., Dental Surgeon to St. Mary's Hospital, Dean of the School, Dental Hospital of London, etc.; and J. F. Colyer, L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., L.D.S., Assistant Dental Surgeon to Charing Cross Hospital, and Assistant Dental Surgeon to the Dental Hospital of London. With 334 Illustrations. Large crown 8vo., 15s.

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STEVENSON.—WOUNDS IN WAR: the Mechanism of their Production and their Treatment. By Surgeon-Colonel W. F. Stevenson (Army Medical Staff), A.B., M.B., M.Ch. Dublin University, Professor of Military Surgery, Army Medical School, Netley. With 86 Illustrations. 8vo., 18s.

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TAPPEINER.—INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL METHODS OF CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS. By Dr. H. Tappeiner, Professor of Pharmacology and Principal of the Pharmacological Institute of the University of Munich. Translated by Edmond J. McWeeney, M.A., M.D. (Royal Univ. of Ireland), L.R.C.P.I., etc. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.

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WALLER.—Works by AUGUSTUS D. WALLER, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, London; late External Examiner at the Victorian University.

WALLER.—Works by AUGUSTUS D. WALLER, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, London; former External Examiner at Victoria University.

AN INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. Third Edition, Revised. With 314 Illustrations. 8vo., 18s.

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WEICHSELBAUM.—THE ELEMENTS OF PATHOLOGICAL HISTOLOGY. With Special Reference to Practical Methods. By Dr. Anton Weichselbaum, Professor of Pathology in the University of Vienna. Translated by W. R. Dawson, M.D. (Dub.), Demonstrator of Pathology in the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland, late Medical Travelling Prizeman of Dublin University, etc. With 221 Figures, partly in Colours, a Chromo-lithographic Plate, and 7 Photographic Plates. Royal 8vo., 21s. net.

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WILKS AND MOXON.—LECTURES ON PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY. By Sir Samuel Wilks, Bart., M.D., F.R.S., President of the Royal College of Physicians, and Physician Extraordinary to H. M. the Queen, and the late Walter Moxon, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to, and some time Lecturer on Pathology at, Guy's Hospital. Third Edition, thoroughly Revised. By Sir Samuel Wilks, Bart., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 8vo., 18s.

WILKS AND MOXON.—LECTURES ON PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY. By Sir Samuel Wilks, Bart., M.D., F.R.S., President of the Royal College of Physicians, and Physician Extraordinary to H. M. the Queen, and the late Walter Moxon, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to, and former Lecturer on Pathology at, Guy's Hospital. Third Edition, completely Revised. By Sir Samuel Wilks, Bart., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 8vo., 18s.


VETERINARY MEDICINE, ETC.

STEEL.—Works by JOHN HENRY STEEL, F.R.C.V.S., F.Z.S., A.V.D., late Professor of Veterinary Science and Principal of Bombay Veterinary College.

STEEL.—Works by JOHN HENRY STEEL, F.R.C.V.S., F.Z.S., A.V.D., former Professor of Veterinary Science and Principal of Bombay Veterinary College.

A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE DOG; being a Manual of Canine Pathology. Especially adapted for the use of Veterinary Practitioners and Students. With 88 Illustrations. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

A GUIDE TO DOG DISEASES; a Manual on Canine Health Issues. Designed specifically for Veterinary Practitioners and Students. Includes 88 Illustrations. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE OX; being a Manual of Bovine Pathology. Especially adapted for the use of Veterinary Practitioners and Students. With 2 Plates and 117 Woodcuts. 8vo., 15s.

A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE OX; being a Manual of Bovine Pathology. Specifically designed for Veterinary Practitioners and Students. With 2 Plates and 117 Woodcuts. 8vo., 15s.

A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE SHEEP; being a Manual of Ovine Pathology for the use of Veterinary Practitioners and Students. With Coloured Plate and 99 Woodcuts. 8vo., 12s.

A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE SHEEP; a Manual of Ovine Pathology for Veterinary Practitioners and Students. Featuring a Colored Plate and 99 Illustrations. 8vo., 12s.

OUTLINES OF EQUINE ANATOMY; a Manual for the use of Veterinary Students in the Dissecting Room. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

OUTLINES OF EQUINE ANATOMY; a Manual for the use of Veterinary Students in the Dissecting Room. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

FITZWYGRAM.—HORSES AND STABLES. By Major-General Sir F. Fitzwygram, Bart. With 56 pages of Illustrations. 8vo. 2s. 6d. net.

FITZWYGRAM.—HORSES AND STABLES. By Major-General Sir F. Fitzwygram, Bart. With 56 pages of illustrations. 8vo. 2s. 6d. net.

SCHREINER.—THE ANGORA GOAT. By S. C. Cronwright Schreiner. With 26 Illustrations. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

SCHREINER.—THE ANGORA GOAT. By S.C. Cronwright Schreiner. With 26 Illustrations. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

YOUATT.—Works by WILLIAM YOUATT.

YOUATT.—Works by WILLIAM YOUATT.

THE HORSE. With 52 Wood Engravings. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

THE HORSE. With 52 Wood Engravings. 8vo., £7.50.

THE DOG. With 33 Wood Engravings. 8vo., 6s.

THE DOG. With 33 Wood Engravings. 8vo., 6s.


PHYSIOLOGY, BIOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY, AND ZOOLOGY.

(And see MEDICINE AND SURGERY.)

(And see MEDICINE AND SURGERY.)

ASHBY.—NOTES ON PHYSIOLOGY FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS PREPARING FOR EXAMINATION. By Henry Ashby, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.P., Physician to the General Hospital for Sick Children, Manchester; formerly Demonstrator of Physiology, Liverpool School of Medicine. With 148 Illustrations. 18mo., 5s.

ASHBY.—NOTES ON PHYSIOLOGY FOR STUDENTS PREPARING FOR EXAMINATION. By Henry Ashby, M.D. Lond., F.R.C.P., Physician to the General Hospital for Sick Children, Manchester; previously Demonstrator of Physiology, Liverpool School of Medicine. With 148 Illustrations. 18mo., 5s.

BARNETT.—THE MAKING OF THE BODY: a Children's Book on Anatomy and Physiology. By Mrs. S. A. Barnett. With 113 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 1s. 9d.

BARNETT.—THE MAKING OF THE BODY: a Kids' Book on Anatomy and Physiology. By Mrs. S. A. Barnett. With 113 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 1£ 9p

BEDDARD.—Works by FRANK E. BEDDARD, M.A. Oxon.

BEDDARD.—Works by FRANK E. BEDDARD, M.A. Oxon.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY. With 93 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY. With 93 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.50

THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. With 252 Illustrations. 8vo., 21s. net.

THE STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. With 252 Illustrations. 8vo., £21 net.

BIDGOOD.—A COURSE OF PRACTICAL ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY. By John Bidgood, B.Sc, F.L.S. With 226 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

BIDGOOD.—A COURSE OF PRACTICAL ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY. By John Bidgood, B.Sc, F.L.S. With 226 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £4.6.

BRAY.—PHYSIOLOGY AND THE LAWS OF HEALTH, in Easy Lessons for Schools. By Mrs. Charles Bray. Fcp. 8vo., 1s.

BRAY.—PHYSIOLOGY AND THE LAWS OF HEALTH, in Easy Lessons for Schools. By Mrs. Charles Bray. Fcp. 8vo., 1s.

BRODIE.—THE ESSENTIALS OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. For the Use of Students. By T. G. Brodie, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology, St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School. With 2 Plates and 177 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.

BRODIE.—THE ESSENTIALS OF EXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. For Students. By T.G. Brodie, M.D., Physiology Lecturer, St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School. Includes 2 Plates and 177 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8vo., £6.50.

FRANKLAND.—MICRO-ORGANISMS IN WATER. Together with an Account of the Bacteriological Methods involved in their Investigation. Specially designed for the use of those connected with the Sanitary Aspects of Water-Supply. By Percy Frankland, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.S., and Mrs. Percy Frankland. With 2 Plates and Numerous Diagrams. 8vo., 16s. net.

FRANKLAND.—MICRO-ORGANISMS IN WATER. Along with an Overview of the Bacteriological Methods Used in Their Study. Specifically created for those involved with the Sanitary Aspects of Water Supply. By Percy Frankland, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.S., and Mrs. Percy Frankland. With 2 Plates and Many Diagrams. 8vo., 16s. net.

FURNEAUX.—HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. By W. Furneaux, F.R.G.S. With 218 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

FURNEAUX.—HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. By W. Furneaux, F.R.G.S. With 218 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.50

HUDSON AND GOSSE.—THE ROTIFERA, or 'WHEEL-ANIMACULES'. By C. T. Hudson, LL.D., and P. H. Gosse, F.R.S. With 30 Coloured and 4 Uncoloured Plates. In 6 Parts. 4to., 10s. 6d. each. Supplement 12s. 6d. Complete in 2 vols., with Supplement, 4to., £4 4s.

HUDSON AND GOSSE.—THE ROTIFERA, or 'WHEEL-ANIMACULES'. By C.T. Hudson, LL.D., and P.H. Gosse, F.R.S. With 30 Colored and 4 Uncolored Plates. In 6 Parts. 4to., 10s. 6d. each. Supplement 12s. 6d. Complete in 2 vols., with Supplement, 4to., £4 4s.

LEUMANN.—NOTES ON MICRO-ORGANISMS PATHOGENIC TO MAN. By Surgeon-Captain B. H. S. Leumann, M.B., Indian Medical Service. 8vo., 3s.

LEUMANN.—NOTES ON MICRO-ORGANISMS PATHOGENIC TO HUMANS. By Surgeon-Captain B.H.S. Leumann, M.B., Indian Medical Service. 8vo., 3s.

MACALISTER.—Works by ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.D.

Works by ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.D.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. With 41 Diagrams 8vo., 10s. 6d.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. With 41 Diagrams 8vo., 10s. 6d.

ZOOLOGY OF THE INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. With 59 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

ZOOLOGY OF INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. With 59 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

ZOOLOGY OF THE VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. With 77 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

ZOOLOGY OF THE VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. With 77 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

MOORE.—ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. By Benjamin Moore, M.A., Lecturer on Physiology at the Charing Cross Hospital Medical School. With 125 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

MOORE.—ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. By Benjamin Moore, M.A., Lecturer on Physiology at the Charing Cross Hospital Medical School. With 125 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

MORGAN.—ANIMAL BIOLOGY: an Elementary Text-Book. By C. Lloyd Morgan, F.R.S., Principal of University College, Bristol. With 103 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 8s. 6d.

MORGAN.—ANIMAL BIOLOGY: an Introductory Textbook. By C. Lloyd Morgan, F.R.S., Principal of University College, Bristol. With 103 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £8.50.

SCHENK.—MANUAL OF BACTERIOLOGY, for Practitioners and Students, with Especial Reference to Practical Methods. By Dr. S. L. Schenk. With 100 Illustrations, some Coloured. 8vo., 10s. net.

SCHENK.—MANUAL OF BACTERIOLOGY, for Practitioners and Students, with a Focus on Practical Methods. By Dr. S. L. Schenk. Featuring 100 Illustrations, including some in color. 8vo., £10.

THORNTON.—HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. By John Thornton, M.A. With 267 Illustrations, some Coloured. Crown 8vo., 6s.

THORNTON.—HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. By John Thornton, M.A. With 267 Illustrations, some in color. Crown 8vo., £6.


BOTANY AND GARDENING.

AITKEN.—ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY. By Edith Aitken, late Scholar of Girton College. With 400 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

AITKEN.—ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF BOTANY. By Edith Aitken, former Scholar of Girton College. With 400 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., £4.6.

BENNETT AND MURRAY.—HANDBOOK OF CRYPTOGAMIC BOTANY. By Alfred W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital; and George Murray, F.L.S., Keeper of Botany, British Museum. With 378 Illustrations. 8vo., 16s.

BENNETT AND MURRAY.—HANDBOOK OF CRYPTOGAMIC BOTANY. By Alfred W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital; and George Murray, F.L.S., Keeper of Botany, British Museum. With 378 Illustrations. 8vo., 16shillings.

CROSS AND BEVAN.—CELLULOSE: an Outline of the Chemistry of the Structural Elements of Plants. With Reference to their Natural History and Industrial Uses. By Cross and Bevan (C. F. Cross, E. J. Bevan, and C. Beadle). With 14 Plates. Crown 8vo., 12s. net.

CROSS AND BEVAN.—CELLULOSE: an Overview of the Chemistry of Plant Structural Elements. With Insights into their Natural History and Industrial Applications. By Cross and Bevan (C. F. Cross, E. J. Bevan, and C. Beadle). Featuring 14 Plates. Crown 8vo., £1.20 net.

CURTIS.—A TEXT-BOOK OF GENERAL BOTANY. By Carlton C. Curtis, A.M., Ph.D., Tutor in Botany in Columbia University, U.S.A. With 87 Illustrations. 8vo., 12s. net.

CURTIS.—A TEXTBOOK OF GENERAL BOTANY. By Carlton C. Curtis, A.M., Ph.D., Botany Tutor at Columbia University, U.S.A. With 87 Illustrations. 8vo., 12s. net.

DE TABLEY.—THE FLORA OF CHESHIRE. By the late Lord de Tabley (Hon. J. Byrne Leicester Warren, M.A.). Edited by Spencer Moore. With a Biographical Notice of the Author by Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff. With a Map of Cheshire and a Photogravure Portrait. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d. net.

DE TABLEY.—THE FLORA OF CHESHIRE. By the late Lord de Tabley (Hon. J. Byrne, Leicester, Warren, M.A.). Edited by Spencer Moore. Includes a Biographical Notice of the Author by Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff. Features a Map of Cheshire and a Photogravure Portrait. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d. net.

EDMONDS.—Works by HENRY EDMONDS, B.Sc., London.

EDMONDS.—Works by HENRY EDMONDS, B.Sc., London.

ELEMENTARY BOTANY. With 342 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY BOTANY. With 342 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., £2.50.

BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS. With 85 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

BOTANY FOR BEGINNERS. With 85 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

FARMER.—A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BOTANY: Flowering Plants. By J. Bretland Farmer, F.R.S., M.A., Professor of Botany in the Royal College of Science, London. With 121 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d.

FARMER.—A HANDS-ON GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF BOTANY: Flowering Plants. By J. Bretland Farm, F.R.S., M.A., Professor of Botany at the Royal College of Science, London. With 121 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, £2.50.

KITCHENER.—A YEAR'S BOTANY. Adapted to Home and School Use. By Frances A. Kitchener. With 195 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 5s.

KITCHENER.—A YEAR'S BOTANY. Made for Home and School Use. By Frances A. Kitchener. With 195 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 5s.

LINDLEY AND MOORE.—THE TREASURY OF BOTANY. Edited by J. Lindley, M.D., F.R.S., and T. Moore, F.L.S. With 20 Steel Plates and numerous Woodcuts. Two parts. Fcp. 8vo., 12s.

LINDLEY AND MOORE.—THE TREASURY OF BOTANY. Edited by J. Lindley, M.D., F.R.S., and T. Moore, F.L.S. With 20 Steel Plates and several Woodcuts. Two parts. Fcp. 8vo., 12s.

McNAB.—CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY. By W. R. McNab.

McNAB.—CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY. By W. R. McNab.

MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. With 42 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. With 42 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. With 118 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. With 118 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

SORAUER.—A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By Dr. Paul Sorauer. Translated by F. E. Weiss, B.Sc., F.L.S. With 33 Illustrations. 8vo., 9s. net.

SORAUER.—A POPULAR TREATISE ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. By Dr. Paul Sorauer. Translated by F.E. Weiss, B.Sc., F.L.S. With 33 Illustrations. 8vo., £9 net.

THOMÉ AND BENNETT.—STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. By Otto Wilhelm Thomé and by Alfred W. Bennett, B.Sc., F.L.S. With Coloured Map and 600 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

THOMÉ AND BENNETT.—STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. By Otto Wilhelm Thome and Alfred W. Bennett, B.Sc., F.L.S. Featuring a Color Map and 600 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £6.

TUBEUF.—DISEASES OF PLANTS INDUCED BY CRYPTOGAMIC PARASITES. Introduction to the Study of Pathogenic Fungi, Slime Fungi, Bacteria and Algæ. By Dr. Karl Freiherr von Tubeuf, Privatdocent in the University of Munich. English Edition by William G. Smith, B.Sc., Ph.D., Lecturer on Plant Physiology, University of Edinburgh. With 330 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 18s. net.

TUBEUF.—DISEASES OF PLANTS CAUSED BY CRYPTOGAMIC PARASITES. Introduction to the Study of Pathogenic Fungi, Slime Fungi, Bacteria, and Algae. By Dr. Karl Baron von Tubeuf, Privatdocent at the University of Munich. English Edition by William G. Smith, B.Sc., Ph.D., Lecturer in Plant Physiology, University of Edinburgh. With 330 Illustrations. Royal 8vo., 18s. net.

WATTS.—A SCHOOL FLORA. For the use of Elementary Botanical Classes. By W. Marshall Watts, D.Sc. Lond. Cr, 8vo., 2s. 6d.

WATTS.—A SCHOOL FLORA. For the use of Elementary Botanical Classes. By W. Marshall Watts, D.Sc. Lond. Cr, 8vo., £2.50

WEATHERS.—A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS. Containing Descriptions of the Hardiest and most Beautiful Annuals and Biennials, Hardy Herbaceous and Bulbous Perennials, Hardy Water and Bog Plants, Flowering and Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Conifers, Hardy Ferns, Hardy Bamboos and other Ornamental Grasses; and also the best kinds of Fruit and Vegetables that may be grown in the Open Air in the British Islands, with Full and Practical Instructions as to Culture and Propagation. By John Weathers, F.R.H.S., late Assistant Secretary to the Royal Horticultural Society, formerly of the Royal Gardens, Kew, etc. With 159 Diagrams. 8vo.

WEATHERS.—A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS. This book contains descriptions of the toughest and most beautiful annuals and biennials, hardy herbaceous and bulbous perennials, hardy water and bog plants, flowering and ornamental trees and shrubs, conifers, hardy ferns, hardy bamboos, and other ornamental grasses; plus the best types of fruit and vegetables that can be grown outdoors in the British Islands, with detailed and practical instructions on cultivation and propagation. By John Weathers, F.R.H.S., former Assistant Secretary to the Royal Horticultural Society, previously associated with the Royal Gardens, Kew, etc. Featuring 159 diagrams. 8vo.


AGRICULTURE.

ADDYMAN.—AGRICULTURAL ANALYSIS. A Manual of Quantitative Analysis for Students of Agriculture. By Frank T. Addyman, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. With 49 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 5s. net.

ADDYMAN.—AGRICULTURAL ANALYSIS. A Manual of Quantitative Analysis for Students of Agriculture. By Frank T. Addyman, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. With 49 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 5s. net.

COLEMAN AND ADDYMAN.—PRACTICAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By J. Bernard Coleman, A.R.C.Sc., F.I.C., and Frank T. Addyman, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. With 24 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 1s. 6d. net.

COLEMAN AND ADDYMAN.—PRACTICAL AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By J. Bernard Coleman, A.R.C.Sc., F.I.C., and Frank T. Addyman, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. With 24 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 1£ 6p net.

WEBB.—Works by HENRY J. WEBB, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.).

WEBB.—Works by HENRY J. WEBB, Ph.D., B.Sc. (London).

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE. A Text-Book specially adapted to the requirements of the Science and Art Department, the Junior Examination of the Royal Agricultural Society, and other Elementary Examinations. With 34 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE. A textbook specifically designed for the needs of the Science and Art Department, the Junior Examination of the Royal Agricultural Society, and other elementary examinations. With 34 illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

AGRICULTURE. A Manual for Advanced Science Students. With 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

AGRICULTURE. A Manual for Advanced Science Students. With 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £7.50 net.


WORKS BY JOHN TYNDALL, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE: a Series of Detached Essays, Addresses, and Reviews. 2 vols. Crown 8vo., 16s.

FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE: a Series of Detached Essays, Addresses, and Reviews. 2 vols. Crown 8vo., 16s.

Vol. I.—The Constitution of Nature—Radiation—On Radiant Heat in Relation to the Colour and Chemical Constitution of Bodies—New Chemical Reactions produced by Light—On Dust and Disease—Voyage to Algeria to observe the Eclipse—Niagara—The Parallel Roads of Glen Roy—Alpine Sculpture—Recent Experiments on Fog-Signals—On the Study of Physics—On Crystalline and Slaty Cleavage—On Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic Forces—Physical Basis of Solar Chemistry—Elementary Magnetism—On Force—Contributions to Molecular Physics—Life and Letters of Faraday—The Copley Medallist of 1870—The Copley Medallist of 1871—Death by Lightning—Science and the Spirits.

Vol. I.—The Constitution of Nature—Radiation—About Radiant Heat in Relation to the Color and Chemical Composition of Substances—New Chemical Reactions Caused by Light—On Dust and Disease—Trip to Algeria to Observe the Eclipse—Niagara—The Parallel Roads of Glen Roy—Alpine Sculpture—Recent Experiments on Fog Signals—On the Study of Physics—On Crystalline and Slaty Cleavage—About Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic Forces—Physical Basis of Solar Chemistry—Basic Magnetism—On Force—Contributions to Molecular Physics—Life and Letters of Faraday—The Copley Medal Winner of 1870—The Copley Medal Winner of 1871—Death by Lightning—Science and the Spirits.

Vol. II.—Reflections on Prayer and Natural Law—Miracles and Special Providences—On Prayer as a Form of Physical Energy—Vitality—Matter and Force—Scientific Materialism—An Address to Students—Scientific Use of the Imagination—The Belfast Address—Apology for the Belfast Address—The Rev. James Martineau and the Belfast Address—Fermentation, and its Bearings on Surgery and Medicine—Spontaneous Generation—Science and Man—Professor Virchow and Evolution—The Electric Light.

Vol. II.—Thoughts on Prayer and Natural Law—Miracles and Unique Providences—On Prayer as a Form of Physical Energy—Vitality—Matter and Force—Scientific Materialism—A Talk to Students—Scientific Use of Imagination—The Belfast Talk—Apology for the Belfast Talk—The Rev. James Martineau and the Belfast Talk—Fermentation and Its Implications for Surgery and Medicine—Spontaneous Generation—Science and Humanity—Professor Virchow and Evolution—The Electric Light.

NEW FRAGMENTS. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d.

NEW FRAGMENTS. Crown 8vo., £10.6.

Contents.—The Sabbath—Goethe's 'Farbenlehre'—Atoms, Molecules, and Ether Waves—Count Rumford—Louis Pasteur, his Life and Labours—The Rainbow and its Congeners—Address delivered at the Birkbeck Institution on October 22, 1884—Thomas Young—Life in the Alps—About Common Water—Personal Recollections of Thomas Carlyle—On Unveiling the Statue of Thomas Carlyle—On the Origin, Propagation, and Prevention of Phthisis—Old Alpine Jottings—A Morning on Alp Lusgen.

Contents.—The Sabbath—Goethe's 'Theory of Colors'—Atoms, Molecules, and Ether Waves—Count Rumford—Louis Pasteur, His Life and Work—The Rainbow and Its Related Phenomena—Address Delivered at the Birkbeck Institution on October 22, 1884—Thomas Young—Life in the Alps—About Common Water—Personal Recollections of Thomas Carlyle—On Unveiling the Statue of Thomas Carlyle—On the Origin, Spread, and Prevention of Tuberculosis—Old Alpine Notes—A Morning on Alp Lusgen.

LECTURES ON SOUND. With Frontispiece of Fog-Syren, and 203 other Woodcuts and Diagrams in the Text. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d.

LECTURES ON SOUND. With Frontispiece of Fog-Siren, and 203 other Illustrations and Diagrams in the Text. Crown 8vo., 10s. 6d.

HEAT, A MODE OF MOTION. With 125 Woodcuts and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 12s.

HEAT, A MODE OF MOTION. With 125 illustrations and diagrams. Crown 8vo., 12s.

LECTURES ON LIGHT DELIVERED IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1872 AND 1873. With Portrait, Lithographic Plate, and 59 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 5s.

LECTURES ON LIGHT DELIVERED IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1872 AND 1873. With Portrait, Lithographic Plate, and 59 Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 5s.

ESSAYS ON THE FLOATING MATTER OF THE AIR IN RELATION TO PUTREFACTION AND INFECTION. With 24 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

ESSAYS ON THE FLOATING MATTER OF THE AIR IN RELATION TO DECAY AND INFECTION. With 24 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

RESEARCHES ON DIAMAGNETISM AND MAGNECRYSTALLIC ACTION; including the Question of Diamagnetic Polarity. Crown 8vo., 12s.

RESEARCHES ON DIAMAGNETISM AND MAGNECRYSTALLIC ACTION; including the Question of Diamagnetic Polarity. Crown 8vo., 12s.

NOTES OF A COURSE OF NINE LECTURES ON LIGHT, delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1869. Crown 8vo., 1s. 6d.

NOTES OF A COURSE OF NINE LECTURES ON LIGHT, delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1869. Crown 8vo., 1s. 6d.

NOTES OF A COURSE OF SEVEN LECTURES ON ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND THEORIES, delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1870. Crown 8vo., 1s. 6d.

NOTES OF A COURSE OF SEVEN LECTURES ON ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA AND THEORIES, delivered at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1870. Crown 8vo., 1shilling 6pence

LESSONS IN ELECTRICITY AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION 1875-1876. With 58 Woodcuts and Diagrams. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

LESSONS IN ELECTRICITY AT THE ROYAL INSTITUTION 1875-1876. With 58 illustrations and diagrams. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THE GLACIERS OF THE ALPS: being a Narrative of Excursions and Ascents. An Account of the Origin and Phenomena of Glaciers, and an Exposition of the Physical Principles to which they are related. With 7 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d. net.

THE GLACIERS OF THE ALPS: a Story of Trips and Climbs. A Description of How Glaciers Form and Their Characteristics, and an Explanation of the Physical Principles Connected to Them. With 7 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d. net.

HOURS OF EXERCISE IN THE ALPS. With 7 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d. net.

HOURS OF EXERCISE IN THE ALPS. With 7 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £6.50 net.

FARADAY AS A DISCOVERER. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

FARADAY AS A DISCOVERER. Crown 8vo., £3.65.


TEXT-BOOKS OF SCIENCE.

PHOTOGRAPHY. By Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S. With 105 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

PHOTOGRAPHY. By Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S. With 105 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE STRENGTH OF MATERIAL AND STRUCTURES. By Sir J. Anderson, C.E. With 66 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE STRENGTH OF MATERIAL AND STRUCTURES. By Sir J. Anderson, C.E. With 66 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

RAILWAY APPLIANCES. By Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. With 218 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

RAILWAY APPLIANCES. By Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.I.C.E. With 218 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £4.50.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By William Allen Miller, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. With 72 Illustrations. 3s. 6d.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By William Allen Miller, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. With 72 Illustrations. 3s. 6d.

QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. By T. E. Thorpe, C.B., F.R.S., Ph.D. With 88 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. By T.E. Thorpe, C.B., F.R.S., Ph.D. With 88 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £4.50

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS AND LABORATORY PRACTICE. By T. E. Thorpe, C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., and M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A. and F.R.S.E. With Plate of Spectra and 57 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS AND LABORATORY PRACTICE. By T. E. Thorpe, C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., and M. M. Pattison Muir, M.A. and F.R.S.E. With a Plate of Spectra and 57 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY. By William A. Tilden, D.Sc., London, F.R.S. With 5 Illustrations. With or without Answers to Problems. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY. By William Tilden, D.Sc., London, F.R.S. Includes 5 Illustrations. Available with or without Answers to Problems. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY. By Sir R. S. Ball, LL.D., F.R.S. With 130 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s. 6d.

ELEMENTS OF ASTRONOMY. By Sir R.S. Ball, LL.D., F.R.S. With 130 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s. 6d.

SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY. By Hilary Bauerman, F.G.S. With 373 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY. By Hilary Bauerman, F.G.S. With 373 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £6.

DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY. By Hilary Bauerman, F.G.S., etc. With 236 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY. By Hilary Bauerman, F.G.S., etc. With 236 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

METALS: THEIR PROPERTIES AND TREATMENT. By A. K. Huntington and W. G. McMillan. With 122 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

METALS: THEIR PROPERTIES AND TREATMENT. By A. K. Huntington and W.G. McMillan. With 122 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 7£ 6d.

THEORY OF HEAT. By J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A., LL.D., Edin., F.R.SS., L. & E. With 38 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

THEORY OF HEAT. By J. C. Maxwell, M.A., LL.D., Edin., F.R.SS., L. & E. With 38 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S., and W. N. Shaw, M.A. With 134 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By R.T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S., and W.N. Shaw, M.A. With 134 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £7.50.

PRELIMINARY SURVEY AND ESTIMATES. By Theodore Graham Gribble, Civil Engineer. Including Elementary Astronomy, Route Surveying, Tacheometry, Curve-ranging, Graphic Mensuration, Estimates, Hydrography and Instruments. With 133 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

PRELIMINARY SURVEY AND ESTIMATES. By Theodore Graham Gribble, Civil Engineer. Covering Basic Astronomy, Route Surveying, Tacheometry, Curve-ranging, Graphic Measurement, Cost Estimates, Hydrography, and Instruments. With 133 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 7s. 6d.

ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY. By William Nathaniel Griffin, B.D. 3s. 6d. Notes on, with Solutions of the more difficult Questions. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY. By Will Griffin, B.D. 3s. 6d. Notes on, with Solutions of the more difficult Questions. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE STEAM ENGINE. By George C. V. Holmes, Secretary of the Institution of Naval Architects. With 212 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

THE STEAM ENGINE. By George C.V. Holmes, Secretary of the Institution of Naval Architects. With 212 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6shillings.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.SS., L. & E. With 177 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.SS., L. & E. With 177 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

THE ART OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY. By G. Gore, LL.D., F.R.S. With 56 Illus. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

THE ART OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY. By Gore, LL.D., F.R.S. With 56 Illus. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

TELEGRAPHY. By Sir W. H. Preece, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.I.C.E., and Sir J. Sivewright, M.A., K.C.M.G. With 267 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

TELEGRAPHY. By Sir W. H. Preece, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.I.C.E., and Sir J. Sivewright, M.A., K.C.M.G. With 267 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

PHYSICAL OPTICS. By R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S. With 183 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

PHYSICAL OPTICS. By R.T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S. With 183 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., £6.

TECHNICAL ARITHMETIC AND MENSURATION. By Charles W. Merriefield, F.R.S. 3s. 6d. Key, by the Rev. John Hunter, M.A. Fcp. 8vo., 3s. 6d.

TECHNICAL ARITHMETIC AND MENSURATION. By Charles W. Merriefield, F.R.S. 3sh. 6p. Key, by the Rev. John Hunter, M.A. Fcp. 8vo., 3sh. 6p.

THE STUDY OF ROCKS. By Frank Rutley, F.G.S. With 6 Plates and 88 Illustrations Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

THE STUDY OF ROCKS. By Frank Rutley, F.G.S. With 6 Plates and 88 Illustrations Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

WORKSHOP APPLIANCES, including Descriptions of some of the Machine Tools used by Engineers. By C. P. B. Shelley, M.I.C.E. With 323 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 5s.

WORKSHOP APPLIANCES, including Descriptions of some of the Machine Tools used by Engineers. By C. P. B. Shelley, M.I.C.E. With 323 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 5s.

ELEMENTS OF MACHINE DESIGN. By W. Cawthorne Unwin, F.R.S., B.Sc., M.I.C.E.

ELEMENTS OF MACHINE DESIGN. By W. Cawthorne Unwin, F.R.S., B.Sc., M.I.C.E.

Part I. General Principles, Fastenings and Transmissive Machinery. With 304 Illustrations. 6s.

Part I. General Principles, Fastenings and Transmissive Machinery. With 304 Illustrations. 6s.

Part II. Chiefly on Engine Details. With 174 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

Part II. Mainly on Engine Details. With 174 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 4s. 6d.

STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. By Otto Wilhelm Thomé, and A. W. Bennett, M.A., B. Sc., F.L.S. With 600 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. By Otto Wilhelm Thome and A. W. Bennett, M.A., B. Sc., F.L.S. With 600 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.

PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY. By H. W. Watson, M.A. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

PLANE AND SOLID GEOMETRY. By H.W. Watson, M.A. Fcp. 8vo. £3.50


ADVANCED SCIENCE MANUALS.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. By the Author of 'Rivington's Notes on Building Construction'. With 385 Illustrations and an Appendix of Examination Questions. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. By the Author of 'Rivington's Notes on Building Construction'. With 385 Illustrations and an Appendix of Exam Questions. Crown 8vo., £4.6.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS. Solids, including Kinematics, Statics, and Kinetics. By A. Thornton, M.A., F.R.A.S. With 220 Illustrations, 130 Worked Examples, and over 900 Examples from Examination Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS. Solids, covering Kinematics, Statics, and Kinetics. By A. Thornton, M.A., F.R.A.S. Featuring 220 illustrations, 130 solved problems, and over 900 examples from exam papers, etc. Crown 8vo, £4.6.

HEAT. By Mark R. Wright, Hon. Inter. B.Sc. (Lond.). With 136 Illustrations and numerous Examples and Examination Papers. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

HEAT. By Mark R. Wright, Hon. Inter. B.Sc. (Lond.). With 136 Illustrations and many Examples and Exam Papers. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

LIGHT. By W. J. A. Emtage, M.A. With 232 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 6s.

LIGHT. By W.J.A. Emtage, M.A. With 232 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 6s.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. By Arthur William Poyser, M.A. With 317 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. By Arthur W. Poyser, M.A. With 317 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £4.6.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. A Manual for Students in Advanced Classes of the Science and Art Department. By William Jago, F.C.S., F.I.C. With Plate of Spectra and 78 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. A Manual for Students in Advanced Classes of the Science and Art Department. By William Jago, F.C.S., F.I.C. With Plate of Spectra and 78 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

GEOLOGY: a Manual for Students in Advanced Classes and for General Readers. By Charles Bird, B.A. (Lond.), F.G.S. With over 300 Illustrations, a Geological Map of the British Isles (coloured), and a set of Questions for Examination. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

GEOLOGY: A Guide for Advanced Students and General Readers. By Charles Bird, B.A. (Lond.), F.G.S. Featuring more than 300 Illustrations, a Colored Geological Map of the British Isles, and a set of Exam Questions. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY: a Manual for Students in advanced Classes of the Science and Art Department. By John Thornton, M.A. With 268 Illustrations, some of which are Coloured, and a set of Questions for Examination. Crown 8vo., 6s.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY: A Manual for Students in Advanced Classes of the Science and Art Department. By John Thornton, M.A. With 268 Illustrations, some in Color, and a set of Questions for Exam. Crown 8vo., 6s.

PHYSIOGRAPHY. By John Thornton, M.A. With 6 Maps, 203 Illustrations, and Coloured Plate of Spectra. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

PHYSIOGRAPHY. By John Thornton, M.A. With 6 Maps, 203 Illustrations, and a Colored Plate of Spectra. Crown 8vo., £4.50.

AGRICULTURE. By Henry J. Webb, Ph.D., B.Sc. With 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7s. 6d. net.

AGRICULTURE. By Henry J. Webb, Ph.D., B.Sc. With 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 7shillings. 6pence. net.

HYGIENE. By J. Lane Notter, M.A., M.D., Professor of Hygiene in the Army Medical School, Netley, Colonel, Royal Army Medical Corps; and R. H. Firth, F.R.C.S., late Assistant Professor of Hygiene in the Army Medical School, Netley, Major, Royal Army Medical Corps. With 95 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

HYGIENE. By J. Lane Notter, M.A., M.D., Professor of Hygiene in the Army Medical School, Netley, Colonel, Royal Army Medical Corps; and R. H. Firth, F.R.C.S., former Assistant Professor of Hygiene in the Army Medical School, Netley, Major, Royal Army Medical Corps. With 95 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.


ELEMENTARY SCIENCE MANUALS.

Written specially to meet the requirements of the ELEMENTARY STAGE OF SCIENCE SUBJECTS as laid down in the Syllabus of the Directory of the SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.

Written specifically to meet the needs of the ELEMENTARY STAGE OF SCIENCE SUBJECTS as outlined in the Syllabus of the Directory of the SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.

PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY, including Graphic Arithmetic. By I. H. Morris. Fully Illustrated with Drawings. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

PRACTICAL, PLANE, AND SOLID GEOMETRY, including Graphic Arithmetic. By I. H. Morris. Fully Illustrated with Drawings. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

GEOMETRICAL DRAWING FOR ART STUDENTS. Embracing Plane Geometry and its Applications, the Use of Scales, and the Plans and Elevations of Solids, as required for the Examinations of the Science and Art Department. By I. H. Morris. Crown 8vo., 1s. 6d.

GEOMETRICAL DRAWING FOR ART STUDENTS. Covering Plane Geometry and its Applications, the Use of Scales, and the Plans and Elevations of Solids, as needed for the Exams of the Science and Art Department. By I.H. Morris. Crown 8vo., 1s. 6d.

TEXT-BOOK ON PRACTICAL, SOLID, OR DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. By David Allan Low (Whitworth Scholar). Part I. Crown 8vo., 2s. Part II. Crown 8vo., 3s.

TEXT-BOOK ON PRACTICAL, SOLID, OR DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. By David Allan Low (Whitworth Scholar). Part I. Crown 8vo., 2s. Part II. Crown 8vo., 3s.

AN INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN. By David Allan Low. With 153 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

AN INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN. By David Allan Low. With 153 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.50.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. By Edward J. Burrell. With 308 Illustrations and Working Drawings. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. By Edward J. Burrell. With 308 Illustrations and Working Drawings. Crown 8vo., £2.50

AN ELEMENTARY COURSE OF MATHEMATICS. Containing Arithmetic; Euclid (Book I., with Deductions and Exercises); and Algebra. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

AN ELEMENTARY COURSE OF MATHEMATICS. Including Arithmetic; Euclid (Book I., with Deductions and Exercises); and Algebra. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS. Including Hydrostatics and Pneumatics. By J. E. Taylor, M.A., B.Sc. With numerous Examples and Answers, and 175 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS. Including Hydrostatics and Pneumatics. By J.E. Taylor, M.A., B.Sc. With many examples and answers, plus 175 diagrams and illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS—SOLIDS. By J. E. Taylor, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.). With 163 Illustrations, 120 Worked Examples, and over 500 Examples from Examination Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS—SOLIDS. By J.E. Taylor, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.). With 163 Illustrations, 120 Worked Examples, and over 500 Examples from Exam Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS—FLUIDS. By J. E. Taylor, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.). With 122 Illustrations, numerous Worked Examples, and about 500 Examples from Examination Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

THEORETICAL MECHANICS—FLUIDS. By J.E. Taylor, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.). With 122 Illustrations, many Worked Examples, and around 500 Examples from Exam Papers, etc. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

A MANUAL OF MECHANICS. With 138 Illustrations and Diagrams, and 188 Examples taken from Examination Papers, with Answers. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

A MANUAL OF MECHANICS. With 138 illustrations and diagrams, and 188 examples taken from exam papers, complete with answers. By T.M. Goodeve, M.A. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

SOUND, LIGHT, AND HEAT. By Mark R. Wright, M.A. With 160 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

SOUND, LIGHT, AND HEAT. By Mark R. Wright, M.A. With 160 Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.50

METALLURGY: an Elementary Text-Book. By E. L. Rhead. With 94 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

METALLURGY: an Elementary Text-Book. By E. L. Rhead. With 94 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

PHYSICS. Alternative Course. By Mark R. Wright, M.A. With 242 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

PHYSICS. Alternative Course. By Mark R. Wright, M.A. With 242 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.6.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. By A. W. Poyser, M.A. With 235 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. By A.W. Poyser, M.A. With 235 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.50

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: the Fatty Compounds. By R. Lloyd Whiteley, F.I.C., F.C.S. With 45 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: the Fatty Compounds. By R. Lloyd Whiteley, F.I.C., F.C.S. With 45 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. By William Jago, F.C.S., F.I.C. With 63 Illustrations and numerous Questions and Exercises. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. By William Jago, F.C.S., F.I.C. With 63 Illustrations and numerous Questions and Exercises. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

AN INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By William Jago, F.C.S., F.I.C. Crown 8vo., 1s. 6d.

AN INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By William Jago, F.C.S., F.I.C. Crown 8vo., £1.50

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY: the Principles of Qualitative Analysis. By William A. Tilden, D.Sc. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY: the Principles of Qualitative Analysis. By William A. Tilden, D.Sc. Fcp. 8vo., £1.6

ELEMENTARY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By William Furneaux, F.R.G.S. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY INORGANIC CHEMISTRY. By William Furneaux, F.R.G.S. Crown 8vo., £2.6.

ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. By Charles Bird, B.A., F.G.S. With Coloured Geological Map of the British Islands, and 247 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. By Charlie Bird, B.A., F.G.S. Includes a Colored Geological Map of the British Islands and 247 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. By William Furneaux, F.R.G.S. With 218 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. By William Furneaux, F.R.G.S. With 218 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.50

A COURSE OF PRACTICAL ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY. By J. Bidgood, B.Sc. With 226 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 4s. 6d.

A COURSE OF PRACTICAL ELEMENTARY BIOLOGY. By J. Bidgood, B.Sc. With 226 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £4.6.

ELEMENTARY BOTANY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. By Henry Edmonds, B.Sc. With 342 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY BOTANY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. By Henry Edmonds, B.Sc. With 342 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

STEAM. By William Ripper, Member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. With 142 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

STEAM. By William Ripper, Member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. With 142 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY. By J. Thornton, M.A. With 13 Maps and 295 Illustrations. With Appendix on Astronomical Instruments and Measurements. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY. By J. Thornton, M.A. With 13 Maps and 295 Illustrations. Includes an Appendix on Astronomical Instruments and Measurements. Crown 8vo., £2.50.

AGRICULTURE. By Henry J. Webb, Ph.D. With 34 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

AGRICULTURE. By Henry J. Webb, Ph.D. With 34 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., £2.6.


THE LONDON SCIENCE CLASS-BOOKS.

Edited by G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., and by Sir Philip Magnus, B.Sc., B.A., of the City and Guilds of London Institute.

Edited by G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., and by Sir Philip Magnus, B.Sc., B.A., of the City and Guilds of London Institute.

ASTRONOMY. By Sir Robert Stawell Ball, LL.D., F.R.S. With 41 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

ASTRONOMY. By Sir Robert Stawell Ball, LL.D., F.R.S. With 41 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

MECHANICS. By Sir Robert Stawell Ball, LL.D., F.R.S. With 89 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

MECHANICS. By Sir Robert Stawell Ball, LL.D., F.R.S. With 89 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., £1.50.

THE LAWS OF HEALTH. By W. H. Corfield, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. With 22 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

THE LAWS OF HEALTH. By W.H. Corfield, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. With 22 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo., 1shilling 6pence

MOLECULAR PHYSICS AND SOUND. By Frederick Guthrie, F.R.S. With 91 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

MOLECULAR PHYSICS AND SOUND. By Frederick Guthrie, F.R.S. With 91 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1shilling 6pence

GEOMETRY, CONGRUENT FIGURES. By O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S. With 141 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

GEOMETRY, CONGRUENT FIGURES. By O. Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S. With 141 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

ZOOLOGY OF THE INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. BY Alexander Macalister, M.D. With 59 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

ZOOLOGY OF THE INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. BY Alexander McAlister, M.D. With 59 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

ZOOLOGY OF THE VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. By Alexander Macalister, M.D. With 77 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

ZOOLOGY OF THE VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. By Alex Macalister, M.D. With 77 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1shilling 6pence

HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. By Sir Philip Magnus, B.Sc., B.A. With 79 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d. (To be had also with Answers, 2s.) The Worked Solutions of the Problems, 2s.

HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. By Sir Philip Magnus, B.Sc., B.A. With 79 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., £1.6. (Also available with Answers, £2.) The Worked Solutions of the Problems, £2.

BOTANY. Outlines of the Classification of Plants. By W. R. McNab, M.D. With 118 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

BOTANY. Outlines of the Classification of Plants. By W.R. McNab, M.D. With 118 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., £1.6.

BOTANY. Outlines of Morphology and Physiology. By W. R. McNab, M.D. With 42 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

BOTANY. Outlines of Morphology and Physiology. By W.R. McNab, M.D. With 42 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

THERMODYNAMICS. By Richard Wormell, M.A., D.Sc. With 41 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., 1s. 6d.

THERMODYNAMICS. By Richard Wormell, M.A., D.Sc. With 41 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo., £1.6.


PRACTICAL ELEMENTARY SCIENCE SERIES.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSIOGRAPHY. (Section I.) By John Thornton, M.A., Head Master of the Central Higher Grade School, Bolton. With 215 Illustrations and a Coloured Spectrum. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSIOGRAPHY. (Section I.) By John Thornton, M.A., Head Master of the Central Higher Grade School, Bolton. With 215 Illustrations and a Colored Spectrum. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSIOGRAPHY. (Section II.). A Course of Lessons and Experiments in Elementary Science for the Queen's Scholarship Examination. By John Thornton, M.A. With 98 Illustrations and a Series of Questions. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSIOGRAPHY. (Section II.). A Course of Lessons and Experiments in Basic Science for the Queen's Scholarship Exam. By John Thornton, M.A. With 98 Illustrations and a Set of Questions. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

PRACTICAL DOMESTIC HYGIENE. By J. Lane Notter, M.A., M.D., Professor of Hygiene in the Army Medical School, Netley, etc.; and R. H. Firth, F.R.C.S., late Assistant Professor of Hygiene in the Army Medical School, Netley, etc. With 83 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

PRACTICAL DOMESTIC HYGIENE. By J. Lane Notter, M.A., M.D., Professor of Hygiene at the Army Medical School, Netley, etc.; and R.H. Firth, F.R.C.S., former Assistant Professor of Hygiene at the Army Medical School, Netley, etc. With 83 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS. By A. G. Cracknell, M.A., B.Sc. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS. By A.G. Cracknell, M.A., B.Sc. Crown 8vo., 3s. 6d.

A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BOTANY: Flowering Plants. By J. Bretland Farmer, F.R.S., M.A., Professor of Botany in the Royal College of Science, London. With 121 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BOTANY: Flowering Plants. By J. Bretland Farmer, F.R.S., M.A., Professor of Botany at the Royal College of Science, London. With 121 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. By G. S. Newth, F.I.C., F.C.S., Demonstrator in the Royal College of Science, London, etc. With 108 Illustrations and 254 Experiments. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. By G.S. Newth, F.I.C., F.C.S., Demonstrator at the Royal College of Science, London, etc. With 108 Illustrations and 254 Experiments. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By W. Watson, B.Sc., Assistant Professor of Physics in the Royal College of Science, London, etc. With 120 Illustrations and 193 Exercises. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSICS. By W. Watson, B.Sc., Assistant Professor of Physics at the Royal College of Science, London, etc. With 120 Illustrations and 193 Exercises. Crown 8vo., 2sh. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY. By Frank E. Beddard, M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London. With 93 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY. By Frank E. Beddard, M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Prosector to the Zoological Society of London. With 93 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.

OTHER VOLUMES IN PREPARATION.

More volumes coming soon.


TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES

Minor changes were made for the purpose of consistency in the book lists at the end, like adding period, etc. And the the following misprints have also been corrected:
    "sufficiemt" corrected to "sufficient" (page 45)
    Changed "—" to "-" in nitrogen-fixing (page 151)
    Joined words "intel lectual" split over two lines (page 236)
    Missing text "to" added after "incidental" (page 285)

Minor changes were made for consistency in the book lists at the end, such as adding periods, etc. Additionally, the following typos have also been corrected:
    "sufficiemt" corrected to "sufficient" (page 45)
    Changed "—" to "-" in nitrogen-fixing (page 151)
    Joined the words "intel lectual" that were split over two lines (page 236)
    Missing text "to" added after "incidental" (page 285)

Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained.

Other than the corrections mentioned above, inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation, and hyphenation from the printer have been kept.




        
        
    
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