PLATES

MAPS IN COLOUR

The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:—

ā, as in fate, or in bare.

ä, as in alms, Fr. âme, Ger. Bahn = á of Indian names.

a˙, the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. bal, Ger. Mann.

a, as in fat.

a¨, as in fall.

a, obscure, as in rural, similar to u in but, ė in her: common in Indian names.

ē, as in me = i in machine.

e, as in met.

ė, as in her.

ī, as in pine, or as ei in Ger. mein.

i, as in pin, also used for the short sound corresponding to ē, as in French and Italian words.

eu, a long sound as in Fr. jeûne = Ger. long ö, as in Söhne, Göthe (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. peu = Ger. ö short.

ō, as in note, moan.

o, as in not, soft—that is, short or medium.

ö, as in move, two.

ū as in tube.

u, as in tub: similar to ė and also to a.

u¨, as in bull.

ü, as in Sc. abune = Fr. û as in dû, Ger. ü long as in grün, Bühne.

u˙, the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. but, Ger. Müller.

oi, as in oil.

ou, as in pound; or as au in Ger. Haus.

Of the consonants, b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, sh, t, v, z, always have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter c is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, s or k being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require explanation are the following:—

ch is always as in rich.

d, nearly as th in this = Sp. d in Madrid, &c.

g is always hard, as in go.

h represents the guttural in Scotch loch, Ger. nach, also other similar gutturals.

n˙, Fr. nasal n as in bon.

r represents both English r, and r in foreign words, which is generally much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in so.

th, as th in thin.

th, as th in this.

w always consonantal, as in we.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in yea (Fr. ligne would be re-written lēny).

zh, as s in pleasure = Fr. j.

[143]

Amiel´, Henri Frédéric, French-Swiss philosophical writer and poet, born at Geneva, 1821, died there 1881. Educated at Geneva, he resided a considerable time abroad, especially in Germany, and was much influenced by German thought and science. On his return he first held the chair of æsthetics, and then that of philosophy. He published several volumes of poetry as well as other works, but he is best known by his Journal Intime, published after his death, and translated into English (1885), with a critical study by Mrs. Humphry Ward. It shows great critical and philosophical power, but is pessimistic.

Amiens (a˙-mē-an˙), a town of France, capital of the department of Somme, on the railway from Boulogne to Paris. It has a citadel, wide and regular streets, and several large open areas; a cathedral, one of the largest and finest Gothic buildings in Europe, founded in 1220 by Bishop Evrard, after designs made by the architect Robert de Luzarches. Having water communication with the sea by the Somme, which is navigable for small vessels, it has a large trade and numerous important manufactures, especially cotton and woollen goods. It was taken by the Germans in 1870, and again in 1914, by General von Kluck. Pop. (1911) 93,207.—The Peace of Amiens, concluded between Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian Republic, 27th March, 1802, put an end for a time to the great war which had lasted since 1793.

Amir. See Emir.

Amirante Islands (a˙-mē-ra˙n´tā), a group of eleven small islands in the Indian Ocean, lying south-west of the Seychelles, and forming a dependency of Mauritius.

Amlwch (am´löh), a seaport in North Wales, Island of Anglesey. Pop. (1921), 2694 (urb. dist.).

Ammana´ti, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511, died 1592; executed the Leda at Florence, a gigantic Neptune for St. Mark's Place at Venice, a colossal Hercules at Padua, and after the inundation in 1557, which destroyed all the bridges of the Arno, built the celebrated Trinity Bridge at Florence, finished in 1570. He was an imitator of Michael Angelo without his inspiration and genius.

Ammergau (a˙m´er-gou), a district in Upper Bavaria, having its centre in the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous on account of the Passion Play which is performed there, at intervals usually of ten years.

Am´meter (short for ampere-meter), an instrument used for the measurement of electric currents. For commercial use the scale is marked so as to read amperes directly, but for experimental purposes it is usual to have a scale with divisions numbered in tens, in which case the reading multiplied by a suitable constant gives the value of the current in amperes. By employing suitable shunts this admits of the one instrument being used for a number of ranges.

The types of ammeter and the principles upon which they work are as follows: (a) Soft-iron type, the action of a magnetic field on a piece of soft iron; (b) moving-coil type and dynamometer type, the action of a magnetic field on a current-carrying coil; (c) hot-wire type, the expansion of a conductor due to the heating produced by the current; (d) induction type, the action of a magnetic field on the eddy currents produced in a metal disc.

The "soft-iron" ammeter can be used for both direct and alternating currents, is inexpensive, and is sufficiently accurate for commercial use.

For direct-current measurements where a high degree of accuracy is of first importance, a "moving-coil" ammeter is invariably used.

In alternating-current circuits its place is taken by the dynamometer type, which reads both direct and alternating currents.

In cases where absence of inductance in the instrument is important, e.g. in the measurements in wireless-telegraph and telephone circuits, the "hot-wire" ammeter is used. It measures both direct and alternating currents, and, when properly used, has a high degree of accuracy.

The "induction" type cannot be used for direct currents, and has the limitation that with alternating currents it will read correctly only at the frequency for which it is calibrated.

Almost invariably an ammeter gives its full-scale reading when a small current, say of the order of one-tenth of an ampere, is passing through the instrument itself. In order to read larger currents a device is employed whereby a definite fraction of the current to be measured [144]passes through the instrument.—Bibliography: J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (2 vols.); G. D. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Measuring Instruments.

Ammia´nus Marcelli´nus, a Roman historian, born at Antioch in Syria about 320, died about 390. He wrote in 31 books (of which the first 13 are lost) a history of the Cæsars, from Nerva to Valens, which was highly thought of by Gibbon for its fidelity. His MS. was printed for the first time at Rome in 1474.

Am´mon (often called Ammon-Ra, i.e. Ammon-Sun), an ancient Egyptian deity, one of the chief gods of the country, identified by the Greeks with their supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as the representative of Jupiter; represented as a ram, as a human being with a ram's head, ornamented with the solar disc, or simply with the horns of a ram. There was a celebrated temple of Ammon in the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan desert.

Ammon, Oasis of. See Siwah.

Ammo´nia, an alkaline substance, which differs from the other alkalies by being gaseous, and is hence sometimes called the volatile alkali. It is a colourless pungent gas, composed of nitrogen and hydrogen; formula, NH₃. It was first prepared by Priestley, who termed it alkaline air. He obtained it from sal-ammoniac by the action of lime, by which method it is yet generally prepared. It is used for many purposes, both in medicine and scientific chemistry; not, however, in the gaseous state, but frequently in solution in water, under the names of liquid ammonia, aqueous ammonia, or spirits of hartshorn. It is generally prepared from the ammoniacal liquor obtained as a by-product on distilling coal. Combined with acids, ammonia forms salts which are of immense value to agriculture. The well-known odour of farmyard manure is very largely due to the formation of ammonia during the rotting of the dung. Many animal substances, such as bones, clippings and shavings of horn, hoof, &c., and certain vegetable matters yield ammonia when heated. Sal-ammoniac is ammonium chloride.

Ammoni´ăcum, a gum-resinous exudation from an umbelliferous plant, the Dorēma ammoniăcum. It has a fetid smell, is inflammable, soluble in water and spirit of wine; used as an antispasmodic, stimulant, and expectorant in chronic catarrh, bronchitic affections, and asthma; also used for plasters.

Ammo´niaphone, an instrument, consisting of a metallic tube containing some substance saturated with ammonia, peroxide of hydrogen, and a few flavouring compounds, fitted with a mouthpiece to breathe through, which is said to render the voice strong, clear, rich, and ringing by the inhalation of the ammoniacal vapour. It was invented by Dr. Carter Moffat, and was suggested by the presence of ammonia in some quantity in the atmosphere of Italy—the country of fine singers.

Am´monites, a group of fossil cephalopods, now divided into a large number of genera, ranging from the Coal Measures (Texas) to the uppermost cretaceous strata. The ammonites differ from the nautili in having the tube connecting the chambers placed on the outer margin of the coiled shell, while the calcareous neck where it passes through the partitions is directed forwards. The partitions are much folded, producing markings like the fronds of ferns where they meet the inner wall of the shell. The name arises from confusion with a coiled gastropod, which was held to resemble the horns of the Egyptian deity Jupiter Ammon.

Am´monites, a Semitic race frequently mentioned in Scripture, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (Gen. xix, 38), often spoken of in conjunction with the Moabites. A predatory and Bedouin race, they inhabited the desert country east of Gad, their chief city being Rabbath-Ammon (Philadelphia). Wars between the Israelites and the Ammonites were frequent; they were overcome by Jephthah, Saul, David, Uzziah, Jotham, &c. They appear to have existed as a distinct people in the time of Justin Martyr, but have subsequently become merged in the aggregate of nameless Arab tribes.

Ammo´nium, the name given to the hypothetical radicle (formula, NH₄) of ammonium salts. It functionates as a metal, has not been isolated, but it is believed to exist in an amalgam with mercury.

Ammo´nius Sac´cas, a Greek philosopher who lived about A.D. 175-240. Originally a porter in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the carrying of sacks of corn. The son of Christian parents, he abandoned their faith for the polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a transition stage between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his disciples were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, &c. The books often attributed to him are by a Christian philosopher of the same name. [145]

Ammuni´tion, another form of the word munition, with a more restricted meaning. It is now taken to include cartridges of all sorts for guns, howitzers, rifles, and all fire-arms. Ammunition comprises both cartridges in which explosive and missiles are combined to form one compact article, and also other forms of projectiles of which the explosive agent forms one portion and the actual missile the other. Bombs, grenades, shells, powder, and bullets are all included in the generic term ammunition. As a qualifying word used adjectivally it is found in ammunition-wagon, ammunition-carrier, ammunition-mules, ammunition-column, &c. In the British service the Royal Army Ordnance Corps is entrusted with the provision of supplies of ammunition generally, while the actual distribution in the field is the duty of the ammunition-column, a Royal Artillery organization.

Am´nesty (Gr. amnestia, forgetfulness), the releasing of a number of persons who have been guilty of political offences from the consequence of these offences. The earliest recorded amnesty in history is that of Thrasybulus at Athens, and the last act of amnesty passed in Britain was that of 1747, after the second Jacobite rebellion.

Am´nion, the innermost membrane surrounding the fetus of mammals, birds, and reptiles.—In botany, a gelatinous fluid in which the embryo of a seed is suspended, and by which it is supposed to be nourished.

Amo´aful, village near Kumassi, West Africa, at which the Ashanti were defeated by British troops under Wolseley, 31st Jan., 1874.

Amœ´ba, a microscopic genus of rhizopodous Protozoa, of which A. difflŭens, common in freshwater ponds and ditches, is the type. It exists as a mass of protoplasm, and pushes its body out into finger-like processes or pseudopodia, and by means of these moves about or grasps particles of food. There is no distinct mouth, and food is engulfed within any portion of the soft sarcode body. Reproduction takes place by fission, or by a single pseudopodium detaching itself from the parent body and developing into a separate amœba.

Amœbe´an Poetry, poetry in which persons are represented as speaking alternately, as in some of Virgil's Eclogues.

Amol´, a town of Northern Persia, 76 miles N.E. of Teheran. Extensive ruins tell of former greatness, the most prominent being the mausoleum of Seyed Quam-u-deen, who died in 1378. Pop. in winter estimated at about 40,000.

Amo´mum, a genus of plants of the nat. ord. Zinziberaceæ (ginger, &c.), natives of warm climates, and remarkable for the pungency and aromatic properties of their seeds. Some of the species yield Cardamoms, others Grains of Paradise.

Amontilla´do, a dry kind of sherry wine of a light colour, highly esteemed.

Amoor. See Amur.

A´mor, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Gr. Erōs.

Amor´go (ancient Amorgos), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the Eastern Cyclades, 22 miles long, 5 miles broad; area, 106 sq. miles; it has a town of the same name, with a castle and a large harbour. Pop. 3561.

Am´orites, a powerful Canaanitish tribe at the time of the occupation of the country by the Israelites; occupied the whole of Gilead and Bashan, and formed two powerful kingdoms—a northern, under Og, who is called King of Bashan; and a southern, under Sihon, called King of the Amorites; first attacked and overthrown by Joshua; subsequently subdued, and made tributary or driven to mingle with the Philistines and other remnants of the Canaanitish nations.

Amorphous Rocks or Minerals, those having no regular structure, or without crystallization, even in the minutest particles.

Amorphozo´a, a term applied to some of the lower groups of animals, as the sponges and their allies, which have no regular symmetrical structure.

Amortiza´tion, in law, the alienation of real property to corporations (that is, in mortmain), prohibited by several English statutes.

A´mos, one of the minor prophets; flourished under the Kings Uzziah of Judah and Jeroboam II of Israel (810 to 784 B.C. by the common chronology). Though engaged in the occupations of a peasant he must have had a considerable amount of culture, and his book of prophecies has high literary merits. It contains denunciations of Israel and the surrounding nations, with promises of the Messiah.

Amoy´, an important Chinese trading port, on a small island off the south-east coast opposite Formosa; has a safe and commodious harbour, and its merchants are among the wealthiest and most enterprising in China; one of the five ports opened to foreign commerce by the treaty of Nanking in 1842. The privilege was confirmed and extended by the treaty of Tien-tsin in 1858, and the port is now open to all countries. Pop. 114,000.

Ampel´idæ. See Chatterers.

Ampère (a˙n˙-pār), André-Marie, a celebrated French mathematician and philosopher, founder of the science of electro-dynamics, born at Lyons in 1775, died at Marseilles in 1836; professor of [146]mathematical analysis at the Polytechnic School, Paris, and of physics at the College of France. What is known as Ampère's Theory is that magnetism consists in the existence of electric currents circulating round the particles of magnetic bodies, being in different directions round different particles when the bodies are unmagnetized, but all in the same direction when they are magnetized.

Ampère, Jean-Jacques-Joseph-Antoine, historian and professor of French literature in the College of France; the only son of André-Marie Ampère; born at Lyons 1800, died 1864; chief works: Histoire Littéraire de la France avant le 12^e siècle (1839); Introduction à l'Histoire de la Littérature française au moyen âge (1841); Littérature, Voyages et Poésies (1833); La Grèce, Rome et Dante, Études Littéraires d'après Nature; l'Histoire romaine à Rome (4 vols. 8vo, 1856-64); Promenades en Amérique (1855); César, Scènes historiques (1859), full of hostile allusions to the French Empire.

Ampere (am´pār), in electricity, the unit employed in measuring the strength or intensity of an electric current, being equivalent to the current produced by the electro-motive force of one volt in a wire having the resistance of one ohm. The name (cf. Farad, Coulomb, Watt, &c.) is derived from that of the well-known physicist, Ampère. An ampere-meter or ammeter is an instrument by which the strength of an electric current is given in amperes.

Amphib´ia, a class of vertebrate animals, which in their early life breathe by gills or branchiæ, and afterwards partly or entirely by lungs. The Frog, breathing in its tadpole state by gills and afterwards throwing off these organs and breathing entirely by lungs in its adult state, is an example of the latter phase of amphibian existence. The Proteus of the underground caves of Central Europe exemplifies forms in which the gills of early life are retained throughout life, and in which lungs are developed in addition to the gills. A second character of this group consists in the presence of two occipital 'condyles', or processes by means of which the skull articulates with the spine or vertebral column; Reptiles possessing one condyle only. The class is divided into four orders: the Ophiomorpha (or serpentiform), represented by the Blindworms, in which limbs are wanting and the body is snake-like; the Urodela or 'Tailed' Amphibians, including the Newts, Proteus, Siren, &c.; the Anoura, or Tailless Amphibia, represented by the Frogs and Toads; and the Labyrinthodontia, which includes the extinct forms known as Labyrinthodons. The term Amphibia was originally employed by Linnæus in his Systema Naturæ, and adopted by Cuvier in his Tableau Elémentaire. See Batrachia.

Amphibol´ogy, in logic, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not from the double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a double construction, as 'The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose'.

Amphic´tyonic League (or Council), in ancient Greece, a confederation of tribes for the protection of religious worship, but which also discussed questions of international law, and matters affecting their political union. The most important was that of the twelve northern tribes which met alternately at Delphi and Thermopylæ. The tribes sent two deputies each, who assembled with great solemnity; composed the public dissensions, and the quarrels of individual cities, by force or persuasion; punished civil and criminal offences, and particularly transgressions of the law of nations, and violations of the temple of Delphi. Its calling on the States to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred Wars, 595-586, 448-447, 357-346 B.C.

Amphi´on, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Antiŏpē, and husband of Niŏbē. He had miraculous skill in music, being taught by Mercury, or, according to others, by Apollo. In poetic legend he is said to have availed himself of his skill when building the walls of Thebes—the stones moving and arranging themselves in proper position at the sound of his lyre. See Zethus.

Amphioxus. See Lancelet.

Amphip´oda, an order of sessile-eyed malacostracan crustaceans, with feet directed partly forward and partly backward. Many species are found in springs and rivulets, others in salt water. The sand-hopper and shore-jumper are examples.

Amphip´rostyle, in architecture, said of a structure having the form of an ancient Greek or Roman oblong rectangular temple, with a prostyle or portico on each of its ends or fronts, but with no columns on its sides or flanks.

Amphisbæ´na (Gr., from amphis, both ways, and bainein, to go), a genus of serpentiform, limbless, lacertilian reptiles; body cylindrical, destitute of scales, and divided into numerous annular segments; the tail obtuse, and scarcely to be distinguished from the head, whence the belief that it moved equally well with either end foremost. There are several species, found in tropical America. They feed on ants and earthworms, and were formerly, but erroneously, deemed poisonous. In Greek mythology the [147]amphisbæna was a serpent believed to possess two heads.

Amphis´cii (Gr. amphi, on both sides, and skia, shadow), a term sometimes applied to the inhabitants of the intertropical regions, whose shadows at noon in one part of the year are cast to the north and in the other to the south, according as the sun is in the southern or northern signs.

Amphithe´atre, an ancient Roman building of an oval form without a roof, having a central area (the arena) encompassed with rows of seats, rising higher as they receded from the centre, on which people used to sit to view the combats of gladiators and of wild beasts, and other sports. The first amphitheatre at Rome was that constructed by C. Scribonius Curio, 59 B.C. The Colosseum at Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres, being capable of containing 100,000 persons, 87,000 of whom occupied numbered and reserved seats. That at Verona is one of the best examples remaining. Its dimensions are 502 feet by 401, and it is 98 feet high. The name means 'both-ways theatre', or 'theatre all round', the theatre forming only a semicircular building.

Amphitri´tē, in Greek mythology, daughter of Oceănus and Tethys, or of Nereus and Doris, and wife of Poseidon (or Neptune), represented as drawn in a chariot of shells by Tritons, with a trident in her hand. In the Homeric poems she is the personification of the Sea, and her marriage to Poseidon is alluded to in a number of scenes depicted on ancient monuments. Such are a bas-relief in the glyptothek at Munich and a mosaic in the museum at Naples.

Amphit´ryon, in Greek legend, King of Thebes, son of Alcæus, and husband of Alcmena. Plautus, and after him Molière, have made an amour of Jupiter with Alcmena the subject of amusing comedies.

Amphiu´ma, a genus of amphibians which frequent the lakes and stagnant waters of North America. The adults retain the clefts at which the gills of the tadpole projected.

Am´phŏra, a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for holding liquids; commonly tall and narrow, with two handles and a pointed end which fitted into a stand or was stuck in the ground to enable it to stand upright; used also as a cinerary urn, and as a liquid measure—Greek = 9 gallons; Roman = 6 gallons.

Amplex´icaul, in botany, said of a leaf that embraces and nearly surrounds the stem.

Am´plitude, in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body (when referred by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or west points.

Ampthill, a market-town of England, Bedfordshire, about 7 miles south-west of Bedford. Pop. (1921), 2269.

Ampul´la, the Latin name for a vessel bellying out like a jug, which contained unguents for the bath; also a vessel for drinking at table. The ampulla has also been employed for ceremonial purposes, such as holding the oil or chrism used in various Church rites and for anointing monarchs at their coronation. The ampulla of the English sovereigns now in use is an eagle, weighing about 10 oz., of the purest chased gold, which passed through various hands to the Black Prince. The ampulla of the French kings, kept at Rheims in the tomb of St. Remy, was destroyed in 1793.

Amputa´tion, in surgery, that operation by which a member is separated from the body. [148]

Amra´oti, a town of British India in Berár; it is celebrated for its cotton, and is a place of good trade. Pop. 35,000. The district has an area of 4733 sq. miles. Pop. 876,000.

Am´ritsir, or Amritsar ('the pool of immortality'), a flourishing commercial town of India, capital of a district of the same name, in the Punjab, the centre of the Sikh religion since the end of the sixteenth century. It has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; and receives its name from the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das, the apostle of the Sikhs, in which the Sikhs and other Hindus immerse themselves that they may be purified from all sin. Pop. 152,756.—The district of Amritsir has an area of 1601 sq. miles. Pop. 900,000.

Am´ru, originally an opponent, and subsequently a zealous supporter of Mahomet, and one of the ablest of the Mahommedan warriors. He brought Egypt under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till his death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian Library has been generally attributed to him, though only on the authority of a writer who lived six centuries later.

Am´sterdam (that is, 'the dam of the Amstel'), one of the chief commercial cities of Europe, capital of Holland (but not the residence of the sovereign), situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Y or Ij, an arm of the Zuider-Zee. On account of the lowness of the site of the city the greater part of it is built on piles. It is divided by numerous canals into about 90 islands, which are connected by nearly 300 bridges. Many of the streets have a canal in the middle with broad brick-paved quays on either side, planted with rows of trees; the houses are generally of brick, many of them six or seven stories high, with pointed gables turned to the streets. Among the public buildings are the old stadthouse, the work of Jacob van Kempen, commenced in 1648 and finished in 1655, which is now a royal palace, the interior being decorated by the Dutch painters and sculptors of the seventeenth century with their masterpieces; the justiciary hall, an imitation of a Greek temple; the town hall (fourteenth century); the exchange, a handsome building, constructed in 1836 on the site of the old bourse built in 1608; the Palace of National Industry; the national museum; and the central railway station. The old church is a structure of the fourteenth century with stained-glass windows painted by Digman in the fifteenth century. The chief educational institutions of the kingdom are here, including the city university, a free university, gymnasiums and other secondary schools, the national picture gallery or museum, containing many masterpieces of Dutch artists, &c. Among its numerous industries may be mentioned as a speciality the cutting and polishing of diamonds. It has also factories and workshops dealing with wool, cotton, silk, tobacco, leather, machinery, and metal goods, glass, liqueurs, cocoa, &c. The harbour, formed by the Y, lies along the whole of the north side of the city, and is surrounded by various docks and basins. The trade is very great, being much facilitated by the great ship-canal (15 miles long, opened 1876, admitting the largest vessels) connecting the Y directly with the North Sea at Y-Muiden, where the entrance is between two long piers projecting into the sea. Another canal of much less importance, the North Holland Canal (46 miles long, 20 feet deep), connects Amsterdam with the Helder. Between the harbour and the Zuider Zee the Y is now crossed by a great dam in which are locks to admit vessels and regulate the amount of water in the North Sea Canal. The oversea trade of Amsterdam has immensely increased since the opening of the great canal, and the foreign trade of the kingdom practically centres in Amsterdam and Rotterdam. There is also a large trade with the interior by railway, river, and canal. In the beginning of the thirteenth century Amsterdam was but a fishing village. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it had attained some importance, especially through the Baltic trade. The ruin of Antwerp through the troubles with Spain was greatly to its advantage, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Amsterdam was one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities in the world. Its forced alliance with France ruined its trade, but since 1813 its commerce has revived. Amsterdam is the birthplace of Spinoza and of the painters van de Velde and van der Neer. Pop. (1919), 647,120.

Amsterdam, a town of New York State, United States, on the Mohawk River and the Erie Canal, 33 miles N.W. of Albany; a busy manufacturing town. Pop. (1920), 33,524.

Amsterdam, New, a town in British Guiana, on the east side of the River Berbice, near the sea, with some trade as a seaport. Pop. 8903.

Amsterdam Island, a small and almost inaccessible island in the Indian Ocean, about halfway in a direct line between the Cape of Good Hope and Tasmania. It is sparsely provided with vegetation, and inhabited only by sea-birds, but it was taken possession of by France in 1893, along with the neighbouring St. Paul. It was discovered by the Dutch in 1633.

Amstetten, a town in Lower Austria, on the Ybbs, and on the railway from Vienna to Linz. In 1805 a victory was gained here by the French under Murat over the Russians under Bagration. Pop. 3760.

Amuck´, or Amuk, to run, a phrase applied to natives of the Eastern Archipelago, who are [149]occasionally seen to rush out in a frantic state of temporary mental derangement, making indiscriminate and murderous assaults on all that come in their way.

Amu-Darya. See Oxus.

Amu-Darya, district. See Turkestan.

Am´ulet, a piece of stone, metal, &c., marked with certain figures or characters, which people in some countries wear about them, superstitiously deeming them a protection against diseases, enchantments, witchcraft, &c. According to Pliny the elder, the bulla, or amulet, was first hung by Tarquinius Priscus on the neck of his son. Articles that archæologists have decided to be amulets have been found dating from prehistoric times, and they were commonly worn in ancient times by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, as they still are by Persians, Arabs, and many other peoples. See Charms.

Amundsen, Captain Roald, Norwegian polar explorer, born at Borge, Norway, 16th July, 1872. He was first-lieutenant on the Belgica during the Belgian south polar expedition, 1897-9. He then planned an expedition to the area of the north magnetic pole and a north-west passage by water. On 17th June, 1903, he embarked from Christiania on the small sailing vessel the Gjöa, with a company of six men, and reached King William Land, where the vessel remained for two years. Here he made his headquarters, and by numerous excursions was able to prove that the north magnetic pole has no stationary position, but is in continual movement. On 11th July, 1906, his vessel reached the Behring Strait, and on 30th August entered the Pacific. After his return Amundsen began his preparations for an Antarctic expedition, and on 9th August, 1910, he sailed from Norway on Nansen's ship, the Fram, and reached the South Pole on 7th March, 1912. He published an account of his North-West Passage expedition, entitled Sydpolen. Den norske Sydpolsfaerd med Fram 1910-12. An English translation was published in 1913. Amundsen started on a North Polar Expedition in 1918.

Amur´, or Amoor´, one of the largest rivers of Eastern Asia, formed by the junction of the Rivers Shilka and Argun; flows first in a south-eastern and then in a north-eastern direction till it falls into an arm of the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite the Island of Sakhalin, after a course of 1500 miles. It forms, for a large portion of its course, part of the boundary-line between the Russian and the Chinese dominions, and is navigable throughout for four months in the year.—Amoor Territory. In 1858 Russia acquired from China the territory on the left bank of the Upper and Middle Amoor, together with that on both banks of the Lower Amoor. The western portion of the territory was organized as a separate province, with the name of the Amoor (area, 154,795 sq. miles. Pop. 261,500). The eastern portion was joined to the Maritime Province of Eastern Siberia.

Am´urath, or Murad, the name of several Ottoman sultans. See Ottoman Empire.

Amyclæ (a-mī´klē), a town of ancient Greece, the chief seat of the Achæans in Laconia, a short distance from Sparta, by which it was conquered about 800 B.C.

Amyg´daloid (Gr. amygdalē, an almond), meaning 'almond-shaped', a term used in anatomy and geology.

Amyg´dalus, the genus to which the almond belongs.

Am´yl, in chemistry, a hypothetic radicle believed to exist in many compounds, especially the fusel-oil series, and having the formula C₅H₁₁.—Amyl Nitrite, or Nitrite of Amyl, an amber-coloured fluid, smelling and tasting like essence of pears, which has been employed as an anæsthetic and also in relieving cardiac distress, as in angina pectoris.

Am´ylene (C₅H₁₀), an ethereal liquid with an aromatic odour, prepared from fusel-oil. It possesses anæsthetic properties, and has been tried as a substitute for chloroform, but is very dangerous.

Amyl´ic Alcohol, one of the products of the fermentation of grain, &c., commonly known by the name of fusel-oil (q.v.).

Amyot (ä-mi-ō), Jacques, French writer and scholar, whose translations from the Greek have themselves become classics, was born in 1513, and died Bishop of Auxerre in 1593, having been for twelve years a professor of classics at Bourges, and having enjoyed the patronage of Margaret of Navarre and Henry II. His chief translations are those of Plutarch's Lives and his Morals, the Aethiopica of Heliodorus, and the Daphnis and Chloe of Longus. Sir Thomas North's English translation of Plutarch (1575), of which Shakespeare made much use, was derived from that of Amyot.

Amyrida´ceæ, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees or shrubs, the leaves, bark, and fruit of which abound in fragrant resinous and balsamic juices. Myrrh, frankincense, and the gum-elemi of commerce are among their products. Among the chief genera of the order are Amyris, Balsamodendron, Boswellia, and Canarium.

A´na, the neuter plural termination of Latin adjectives in -ānus, often forming an affix with the names of eminent men to denote a collection of their memorable sayings—thus Scaligeriana, Johnsoniana, the sayings of Scaliger, of Johnson; or to denote a collection of anecdotes, or gossipy matter, as in boxiana. Hence, as an independent noun, books recording such sayings; the sayings themselves. [150]

Anabap´tists (from the Gr. anabaptizein, to rebaptize), a name given to a Christian sect by their adversaries, because, as they objected to infant baptism, they rebaptized those who joined their body. Their doctrine is based upon the words of Christ in St. Mark, xvi, 16. The founder of the sect appears to have been Nicolas Storch, a disciple of Luther's, who seems to have aimed also at the reorganization of society based on civil and political equality. Gathering round him a number of fiery spirits, among whom was Thomas Münzer, he incited the peasantry of Suabia and Franconia to insurrection—the doctrine of a community of goods being now added to their creed. This insurrection was quelled in 1525, when Münzer was put to the torture and beheaded. After the death of Münzer the sectaries dispersed in all directions, spreading their doctrines wherever they went. In 1534 the town of Münster in Westphalia became their centre of action. Under the leadership of Bockhold and Matthias their numbers increased daily, and being joined by the restless spirits of the adjoining towns, they soon made themselves masters of the town and expelled their adversaries. Matthias became their prophet, but he fell in a sally against the Bishop of Münster, Count Waldeck, who had laid siege to the city. Bockhold then became leader, assuming the name of John of Leyden, King of the New Jerusalem, and Münster became a theatre of all the excesses of fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The town was eventually taken (June, 1535), and Bockhold and a great many of his partisans suffered death. This was the last time that the movement assumed anything like political importance. In the meantime some of the apostles, who were sent out by Bockhold to extend the limits of his kingdom, had been successful in various places, and many independent teachers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians. It is true that they rejected the practice of polygamy, community of goods, and intolerance towards those of different opinions which had prevailed in Münster; but they enjoined upon their adherents the other doctrines of the early Anabaptists, and certain heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of Christ, occasioned by the controversies of that day about the sacrament. The most celebrated of those Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann, the founder of the Hoffmannists or Millenarians; Galenus Abrahamssohn, from whom the sect of the Galenists were called; and Simon Menno, founder of various sects known as Mennonites. Menno's principles are contained in his Principles of the True Christian Faith (1556), a work which is held as authoritative on points of doctrine and worship among the Baptist communities at the present day. The application of the term Anabaptist to the general body of Baptists throughout the world is unwarranted, because these sects have nothing in common with the bodies which sprung up in various countries of Europe during the Reformation, except the practice of adult baptism. The Baptists themselves repudiate the name Anabaptist, as they claim to baptize according to the original institution of the rite, and never repeat baptism in the case of those who in their opinion have been so baptized. It is under the designation of Mennonites that they exist to-day, principally in Holland, Germany, and the United States.

An´abas. See Climbing-perch.

Anab´asis (Gr. anabasis, a march up country), the title of Xenophon's celebrated account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes, King of Persia. The title is also given to Arrian's work which records the campaigns of Alexander the Great.

An´ableps, a genus of fishes of the perch family, found in the rivers of Guiana, consisting of but one species, remarkable for a peculiar structure of the eyes, in which there is a division of the iris and cornea, by transverse ligaments forming two pupils, and making the whole eye appear double. The young are brought forth alive.

Anabolism (Gr. ana, up, and bolé, a throw), a biological term suggested by Michael Foster, and used by Gaskell in 1886, and meaning the building-up of organic life, or the process by which a substance is transformed into another which is more complex. Anabolism is the constructive phase of metabolism (q.v.).

Anacanthi´ni (Gr. neg. prefix an, and akantha, a spine), an order of osseous fishes, including the cod, plaice, &c., with spineless fins, cycloid or ctenoid scales, the ventral fins either absent or below the pectorals, and ductless swim-bladder.

Anacardia´ceæ, a nat. ord. of plants, consisting of tropical trees and shrubs which secrete an acrid resinous juice, which is often used as a varnish. Mastic, Japan lacquer, and Martaban varnish are some of their products. The cashoo or cashew (genus Anacardium), the pistacia, sumach, mango, &c., are members of the order.

Anach´aris, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Hydrocharidaceæ, the species of which grow in ponds and streams of fresh water; water-thyme or water-weed. It appeared in Britain in the nineteenth century. A. Alsinastrum has been introduced from North America into European rivers, canals, and ponds, and by its rapid growth in dense tangled masses tends to choke them so as materially to impede navigation. The plants in our canals perfect no seed, their spread being due to vegetative vigour only.

Anach´ronism, an error of chronology by [151]which things are represented as coexisting which did not coexist; applied also to anything foreign to or out of keeping with a specified time. Thus it is an anachronism when Shakespeare, in Troilus and Cressida, makes Hector quote Aristotle. There are anachronisms in the Cid and the Nibelungenlied, and also in Dante's Inferno, when the poet introduces pagan mythology into the Christian hell.

Anacolu´thon, a want of grammatical and logical sequence in the structure of a sentence.

Anacon´da, the popular name of two of the largest species of the serpent tribe, viz. a Ceylonese species of the genus Python (P. tigris), said to have been met with 33 feet long; and Eunectes murīnus, a native of tropical America, allied to the boa-constrictor, and the largest of the serpent tribe, attaining the length of 40 feet. They frequent swamps and rivers, are without poison fangs, and kill their victims by constriction.

Anaconda, a town of the United States, Montana, with the largest copper-smelting works in the world. Pop. (1920), 11,668.

Anac´reon, an amatory lyric Greek poet of the sixth century B.C., native of Teos, in Ionia. Only a few fragments of his works have come down to us; the collection of odes that usually passes under the name of Anacreon is mostly the production of a later time, the poetry of the real Anacreon being much less frivolous.

Anadyom´ĕnē (Gr., 'she who comes forth'), a name given to Aphroditē (Venus) when she was represented as rising from the sea, as in the celebrated painting by Apelles, painted for the temple of Æsculapius at Cos, and afterwards in the temple of Julius Caesar at Rome.

Anadyr (a˙-nä´dēr), the most easterly of the larger rivers of Siberia and of all Asia; rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf of Anadyr; length, 600 miles.

Anæ´mia (Gr., 'want of blood'), a medical term applied to an unhealthy condition of the body, in which there is a diminution of the red corpuscles which the blood should contain. The principal symptoms are paleness and general want of colour in the skin, languor, emaciation, want of appetite, fainting, palpitation, &c.

Anæsthe´sia, or Anæsthe´sis, a state of insensibility to pain, produced by inhaling chloroform, or by the application of other anæsthetic agents.

Anæsthet´ics are medical agents chiefly used in surgical operations for the abolition of pain. They are divided into (1) general anæsthetics, those in which complete unconsciousness is produced; (2) local anæsthetics, those which act upon the nerves of a limited area alone.

The earliest record of attempts to produce anæsthesia is to be found in the thirteenth century. Since then many agents have been tried. The first scientific effort was in 1800, when Sir Humphry Davy experimented with nitrous oxide, but without practical result. In 1844 Wells, an American dentist, used nitrous oxide, also without result. In 1846 Morton, another American dentist, used ether, and from that time it was increasingly used in America. In the same year the first operation under ether was performed in University College Hospital, London. In 1847 Sir James Simpson (Edinburgh) introduced chloroform. Through his influence it was soon largely used throughout England and Scotland, and continued to be the chief anæsthetic till about the end of the nineteenth century, when ether again became popular in England. To-day, in England, as always in the United States, ether is the most widely-used anæsthetic. Much controversy exists regarding the respective merits of ether and chloroform. The general opinion is, that ether is on the whole safer, but more liable, in the British climate, to be followed by bronchitis; while there are various conditions when chloroform is still preferable. They are frequently combined in use. Nitrous-oxide gas (laughing gas) is much used in dentistry. Lately, nitrous oxide has been used with ether; while ether and oxygen together were [152]much used with the British Expeditionary Force in France during the European War (1914-8). The administration of all anæsthetics is helped when the patient is given a hypodermic injection of morphia shortly before. Twilight sleep, increasingly used in childbirth, is the production of a partial anæsthesia by the administration of scopolamin morphine. Local anæsthetics are much used in minor surgery, and with proper technique act effectively. Cocaine was the first of these, and is still widely used. Of later developments, eucaine and novocaine are best known. Spinal anæsthesia is the injection of stovaine or similar substance into the spinal cord, producing anæsthesia of a large part of the body, varying according to the site of the injection.

Anagal´lis, a genus of the nat. ord. Primulaceæ, to which belongs the Pimpernel, the 'poor man's weather-glass'. See Pimpernel.

Anagni (a˙-nän´yē), a town of Italy, province of Rome; the seat of a bishopric erected in 487. Pop. 10,400.

An´agram, the transposition of the letters of a word or words so as to form a new word or phrase, a connection in meaning being frequently preserved; thus, evil, vile; Horatio Nelson, Honor est a Nilo (honour is from the Nile). The seventeenth century was the golden age of the anagram, but it was employed by the Hebrews and the Greeks.

Anahuac (a˙-na˙-wa˙k´; Mex., 'near the water'), an old Mexican name applied to the plateau of the city of Mexico, from the lakes situated there, generally elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the sea.

An´akim, the posterity of Anak, the son of Arba, noted in sacred history for their fierceness and loftiness of stature. Their stronghold was Kirjath-arba or Hebron, which was taken and destroyed by Caleb and the tribe of Judah.

Anakolu´thon. See Anacoluthon.

Analep´tic, a restorative or invigorating medicine or diet.

An´alogue, in comparative anatomy an organ in one species or group having the same function as an organ of different structure in another species or group, as the wing of a bird and that of an insect, both serving for flight. Organs in different animals having a similar anatomical structure, development, and relative position, independent of function or form, such as the arm of a man and the wing of a bird, are termed homologues.

Anal´ogy is the mode of reasoning from resemblance to resemblance. When we find on attentive examination resemblances in objects apparently diverse, and in which at first no such resemblances were discovered, a presumption arises that other resemblances may be found by further examination in these or other objects likewise apparently diverse. It is on the belief in a unity in nature that all inferences from analogy rest. The general inference from analogy is always perfectly valid. Wherever there is resemblance, similarity or identity of cause somewhere may be justly inferred; but to infer the particular cause without particular proof is always to reason falsely. Analogy is of great use and constant application in science, in philosophy, and in the common business of life.

Anal´ysis, the resolution of an object, whether of the senses or the intellect, into its component elements. The word was introduced by Boyle in the seventeenth century. In philosophy it is the mode of resolving a compound idea into its simple parts, in order to consider them more distinctly, and arrive at a more precise knowledge of the whole. It is opposed to synthesis, by which we combine and class our perceptions, and contrive expressions for our thoughts, so as to represent their several divisions, classes, and relations.

Analysis, in mathematics, is, in the widest sense, the expression and development of the functions of quantities by calculation; in a narrower sense the resolving of problems by algebraic equations. The analysis of the ancients was exhibited only in geometry, and made use only of geometrical assistance, whereby it is distinguished from the analysis of the moderns, which extends to all measurable objects, and expresses in equations the mutual dependence of magnitudes. Analysis is divided into lower and higher, the lower comprising, besides arithmetic and algebra, the doctrines of functions, of series, combinations, logarithms, and curves, the higher comprising the differential and integral calculus, and the calculus of variations.

In chemistry, analysis is the process of decomposing a compound substance with a view to determine either (a) what elements it contains (qualitative analysis), or (b) how much of each element is present (quantitative analysis). Thus by the first process we learn that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and by the second that it consists of one part of hydrogen by weight to eight parts of oxygen. As a means of testing soils and feeding-stuffs, analysis has given important results; it has enabled Liebig to solve the problem of plant-nutrition.

Anam. See Annam.

Anamor´phosis, a term denoting a drawing executed in such a manner as to present a distorted image of the object represented, but which, when viewed from a certain point, or reflected by a curved mirror or through a polyhedron, shows the object in its true proportions.

An´ănas. See Pine-apple.

Anapa´, a seaport of Russia in province Kuban, on the Black Sea, 50 miles south-east of Kertsh, constructed by the Turks in 1781, and formerly fortified. Pop. about 7000.

[153]

An´apæst, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short and one long syllable, or two unaccented and one accented syllable, e.g.

An´aplasty, a surgical operation to repair superficial lesions, or make up for lost parts, by the employment of adjacent healthy structure or tissue. Artificial noses, &c., are thus made.

Anarajapoo´ra, or Anuradhapura, a ruined city, the ancient capital of Ceylon, built about 540 B.C., and said to have covered an area of 300 sq. miles, doubtless a great exaggeration. There are still several dagobas in tolerable preservation, but the great object of interest is the sacred Bo-tree planted over 2000 years, and probably the oldest historical tree in the world, but shattered by a storm in 1887.

An´archists, a revolutionary sect or body setting forth as the social ideal the extreme form of individual freedom, holding that all government is injurious and immoral, and that the destruction of every social form now existing must be the first step to the creation of a new social system. According to Herbert Spencer, anarchism is the doctrine of laisser faire. Anarchists usually look upon Diderot as one of their pioneers, and quote his lines: "La nature n'a fait ni serviteurs ni maîtres. Je ne veux ni donner ni reçevoir de lois." Historically, however, it is Proudhon who may be considered as the father of anarchism. The recognition of the anarchists as an independent sect may be dated from the secession of Bakunin and his followers from the Social Democrats at the congress of the Hague in 1872, since which they have maintained an active propaganda. Their principal journals have been La Révolte (Paris), the Freiheit (New York), Liberty (Boston), and the Anarchist (London). Among modern philosophers of anarchism are Elisée Reclus and Prince Kropotkin.

Anarthrop´oda, one of the two great divisions (the Arthropoda being the other) of the Annulosa, or ringed animals, in which there are no articulated appendages. It includes the leeches, earth-worms, tube-worms, &c.

A´nas, a genus of web-footed birds, containing the true ducks.

Anasarca. See Dropsy.

Anasta´sius I, Emperor of the East, succeeded Zeno, A.D. 491, at the age of sixty. He was a member of the imperial life-guard, and owed his elevation to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he married forty days after the death of her husband. He distinguished himself by suppressing the combats between men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices, building the fortifications of Constantinople, &c. His support of the heretical Eutychians led to a dangerous rebellion. He died A.D. 518.

Anastat´ica, a genus of cruciferous plants, including the Rose of Jericho (A. hierochuntica). See Rose of Jericho.

Anastatic Printing, a process by which the perfect facsimile of a page of type or an engraving, old or new, can be reproduced and printed in the manner of a lithograph. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in diluted nitric acid, and, while moist with dilute acid, it is laid face downwards on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. The ink, while rejecting the acid, is loosened by it, and deposits a thin film on the zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that those parts are left slightly raised in relief and greasy. The plate is then treated as in ordinary lithographic printing (q.v.).—Bibliography: F. H. Collins, Authors' and Printers' Dictionary; C. T. Jacobi, Printing; J. Southward, Modern Printing.

Anastomo´sis, in animals and plants, the inosculation of vessels, or the opening of one vessel into another, as an artery into another artery, or a vein into a vein. By means of anastomosis, if the course of a fluid is arrested in one vessel it can proceed along others. It is by anastomosis that circulation is re-established in amputated limbs, and in aneurism when the vessel is tied.

Anath´ema, originally a gift hung up in a temple (Gr., anatithēmi, to lay up), and dedicated to some god, a votive offering; but it gradually came to be used for expulsion, curse. The Roman Catholic Church pronounces the sentence of anathema against heretics, schismatics, and all who wilfully pursue a course of conduct condemned by the Church. The subject of the anathema is declared an outcast from the Church, all the faithful are forbidden to associate with him, and the utter destruction of his body and soul is foretold.

Anat´idæ, a family of swimming birds, including the Ducks, Swans, Geese, &c.

Anato´lia (from Gr. anatolē, the sunrise, the Orient), the modern name of Asia Minor (q.v.).

Anatolian Railway. See Bagdad Railway, Turkey.

Anat´omy, in the literal sense, means simply a cutting up, but is now generally applied both to the art of dissecting or artificially separating the different parts of an organized body (vegetable or animal) with a view to discover their situation, structure, and economy; and to the science which treats of the internal structure of [154]organized bodies. By means of the dissection of the human body the surgeon and physician acquire the knowledge of the geography of the territory in which all their professional operations are carried on. Comparative anatomy is the science which compares the anatomy of different classes or species of animals, as that of man with quadrupeds, or that of quadrupeds with fishes. The anatomy of an animal may be studied from various standpoints: with relation to the succession of forms which it exhibits from its first stage to its adult form (developmental or embryotical anatomy); with reference to the general properties and structure of the tissues or textures (general anatomy, histology); with reference to the changes in structure of organs or parts produced by disease and congenital malformations (morbid or pathological anatomy); or with reference to the function, use, or purpose performed by the organs or parts (teleological or physiological anatomy). According to the parts of the body described, the different divisions of human anatomy receive different names; as, osteology, the description of the bones; myology, of the muscles; arthrology, of the ligaments and sinews; splanchnology, of the viscera or internal organs, in which are reckoned the lungs, stomach, and intestines, the liver, spleen, kidneys, bladder, pancreas, &c. Angiology describes the vessels through which the liquids in the body are conducted, including the blood-vessels, which are divided into arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels, some of which absorb matters from the bowels, while others are distributed through the whole body, collecting juices from the tissues and carrying them back into the blood. Neurology describes the system of the nerves and of the brain; dermatology treats of the skin.—Among anatomical labours are particularly to be mentioned the making and preserving of anatomical preparations. Preparations of this sort can be preserved (1) by macerating the body so as to obtain the bones of the skeleton; or (2) by treating the body or some part of it with alcohol, formalin, or other preservative, which renders its tissues imperishable.

Among the ancient writers or authorities on human anatomy may be mentioned Hippocrates the younger (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.), Celsus (53 B.C.-A.D. 37), and Galen of Pergamus (A.D. 130-200), the most celebrated of all the ancient authorities on the science. From his time till the revival of learning in Europe in the fourteenth century anatomy was checked in its progress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at Bologna, first publicly performed dissection, and published a System of Anatomy which was a textbook in the schools of Italy for about 200 years. In the sixteenth century Fallopio of Padua, Eustachi of Venice, Vesalius of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and many others, enriched anatomy with new discoveries. In the seventeenth century Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood, Asellius discovered the manner in which the nutritious part of the food is conveyed into the circulation, while the lymphatic system was detected and described by the Dane T. Bartoline. Among the renowned anatomists of later times we can only mention Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and John Hunter, the younger Meckel, Bichat, Rosenmüller, Quain, Sir A. Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Joh. Müller, Gegenbaur, Owen, and Huxley.

Until 1832 the law of Great Britain made very insufficient provision for enabling anatomists to obtain the necessary supply of subjects for dissection. An Act of some years previously had, it is true, empowered a criminal court, when it saw fit, to give up to properly-qualified persons the body of a murderer after execution for dissection. This, however, was far from supplying the deficiency, and many persons, tempted by the high prices offered for bodies by anatomists, resorted to the nefarious practice of digging up newly-buried corpses, and frequently, as in the case of the notorious Burke and Hare of Edinburgh, to murder. To remedy these evils a statute was passed in 1832, which was intended to make provision for the wants of surgeons, students, or other duly-qualified persons, by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of the bodies of persons who die friendless in alms-houses, hospitals, &c. The Act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the anatomical schools, and required persons practising the operations to obtain a licence. Relatives may effectually object to the anatomical examination of a body even though the deceased had expressed a desire for it.—Bibliography: D. J. Cunningham, Textbook of Anatomy; J. Quain, Elements of Anatomy; A. M. Buchanan, Manual of Anatomy; A. Thomson, Anatomy for Art Students.

Anaxag´oras, an ancient Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, born at Clazomenæ, in Ionia, probably about 500 B.C. When only about twenty years of age he settled at Athens, and soon gained a high reputation, and gathered round him a circle of renowned pupils, including Pericles, Euripides, Socrates, &c. At the age of fifty he was publicly charged with impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual banishment. He thereupon went to Lampsacus, where he died about 428. Anaxagoras belonged to the atomic school of Ionic philosophers. He held that there was an infinite number of different kinds of elementary atoms, and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state of [155]chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, immaterial, spiritual, elementary being, Nous (Intelligence), from which motion the world was produced. His conception of Nous as the first cause of movement marks a great advance in the history of philosophical thought, for he thus placed spirit above matter. The stars were, according to him, of earthy materials; the sun a glowing mass, about as large as the Peloponnesus; the earth was flat; the moon a dark, inhabitable body, receiving its light from the sun; the comets wandering stars.

Anaximan´der, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, was born at Miletus in 611 B.C., and died 547. The fundamental principle of his philosophy is that the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity. The firmament is composed of heat and cold, the stars of air and fire. The sun occupies the highest place in the heavens, has a circumference twenty-eight times larger than the earth, and resembles a cylinder, from which streams of fire issue. The moon is likewise a cylinder, nineteen times larger than the earth. The earth has the shape of a cylinder, and is placed in the midst of the universe, where it remains suspended. His philosophy is thus a step in advance of the theories of Thales, the conception of the Infinite, however vague, being superior to the idea of water constituting the first principle of all things. Anaximander occupied himself a great deal with mathematics and geography. To him is credited the invention of geographical maps and the first application of the gnomon or style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes.

Anaximenes (an-aks-im´e-nēz) of Miletus, an ancient Greek (Ionic) philosopher, according to whom air was the first principle of all things. Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold resulted from varying degrees of density of the primal element. He flourished about 550 B.C.

Anbury (an´be-ri) (called also Club-root and Fingers and Toes), a disease in turnips, in which knobs or excrescences are formed on the root, which is then useless for feeding purposes. Some authorities distinguish anbury proper from 'fingers and toes' in turnips, setting it down as a distinct disease due to a fungus, while in the other case the roots simply assume a bad habit of growth through some unknown influence.

Ancachs (a˙n-ka˙ch´), a department of Peru, between the Andes and the Pacific; area, 16,562 sq. miles. Capital Hararaz. Pop. 500,000.

Ancestor-worship, an ancient and widespread practice, displayed in its most characteristic form in modern China and ancient Rome, which apparently was based upon the belief that dead parents or ancestors, represented by images or 'ancestral tablets', could be revived by appropriate ceremonies, such as burning incense or offering libations, and give the benefit of their wisdom to their descendants who performed the vitalizing ritual and asked for their advice upon, or their sanction for, actions affecting the welfare of the family. The earliest deity was a dead king (Osiris), whose advice was sought by his son and successor. Hence in primitive religions, in which an endless variety of modifications of these more ancient beliefs has arisen, ancestor-worship may take the form of pious devotion to an actual ancestor or to a supernatural deity. As many of the most ancient gods were identified with animals, the dead ancestor, or his soul, is believed by many peoples to become incarnate in the appropriate animal, which is accorded the special veneration of a god or supernatural adviser, and set apart as sacred. Ancestor-worship still survives in a great variety of forms among various peoples.—Bibliography: E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture; F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion; D. G. Brinton, Religions of Primitive Peoples.

Anchises (an-kī´sēz), the father of the Trojan hero Æneas, who carried him off on his shoulders at the burning of Troy and made him the companion of his voyage to Italy. This voyage, which is not mentioned in the Homeric legend, is described by Virgil in his Æneid. He died at Drepanum, in Sicily.

An´chor, an implement for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in the water. In ancient times large stones or crooked pieces of wood heavily weighted with metal were used for this purpose. The anchor now used is of iron, formed with a strong shank, at one extremity of which is the crown, from which branch out two arms, terminating in broad palms or flukes, the sharp extremity of which is the peak or bill; at the other end of the shank is the stock (fixed at right angles to the plane of the arms), behind which is the ring, to which a cable can be attached. The principal use of the stock is to [156]cause the arms to fall so as one of the flukes shall enter the ground. Many anchors are made nowadays without a stock. The anchors of the largest size carried by men-of-war are the best and small bowers, the sheet, and the spare, to which are added the stream and the kedge, which are used for anchoring in a stream or other sheltered place and for warping the vessel from one place to another. Many improvements and novelties in the shape and construction of anchors have been introduced within recent times. The principal names connected with those alterations are those of Lieutenant Rodgers, who introduced the hollow-shanked anchor with the view of increasing the strength without adding to the weight; Porter, who made the arms and flukes movable by pivoting them to the stock instead of fixing them immovably, causing the anchor to take a readier and firmer hold, and avoiding the chance of the cable becoming foul; Trotman, who further improved on Porter's invention; and M. Martin, whose anchor is of very peculiar form, and is constructed so as to be self-canting, the arms revolving through an angle of 30° either way, and the sharp points of the flukes being always ready to enter the ground.

An´chorites, or An´chorets (Gr. anachorētai, persons who have withdrawn themselves from the world), in the early Church a class of religious persons who generally passed their lives in cells, from which they never removed. Their habitations were, in many instances, entirely separated from the abodes of other men, sometimes in the depth of wildernesses, in pits or caverns; at other times several of these individuals fixed their habitations in the vicinity of each other, but they always lived personally separate. The continual prevalence of fierce wars, civil commotions, and persecutions at the beginning of the Christian era must have made retirement and religious meditation agreeable to men of quiet and contemplative minds. This spirit, however, soon led to fanatical excesses; many anchorites went without proper clothing, wore heavy chains, and we find at the close of the fourth century Simeon Stylites passing thirty years on the top of a column without ever descending from it, and finally dying there. In Egypt and Syria, where Christianity became blended with the Grecian philosophy and strongly tinged with the peculiar notions of the East, the anchorites were most numerous; in Europe there were comparatively few, and on the development and establishment of the monastic system they completely disappeared. See Asceticism.

Anchovy (an-chō´vi), a small fish of the Herring family, all the species, with exception of the common anchovy (Engraulis encrasichŏlus) and E. meletta (both Mediterranean species), inhabitants of the tropical seas of India and America. The common anchovy, so esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavour, is not much larger than the middle finger. It is caught in vast numbers in the Mediterranean, and frequently on the coasts of France, Holland, and the south of England, and pickled for exportation. A favourite sauce is made by pounding the pickled fish in water, simmering for a short time, adding a little cayenne pepper, and straining the whole through a hair-sieve.

Ancho´vy-pear (Grias cauliflōra), a tree of the nat. ord. Myrtaceæ, a native of Jamaica, growing to the height of 50 feet, with large leaves and large white flowers, and bearing a fruit somewhat bigger than a hen's egg, which is pickled and eaten like the mango, and strongly resembles it in taste.

Anchu´sa. See Alkanet.

Anchylo´sis. See Ankylosis.

Ancient Lights, in English law, windows or other openings which have been in existence for at least twenty years, and during that time have [157]enjoyed the access of light without interruption, go that a right is established against the obstruction of the light by a neighbouring proprietor.

Ancillon (a˙n˙-sē-yōn˙), Jean Pierre Frédéric, an author and statesman of French extraction, born at Berlin in 1767 (where his father was pastor of the French reformed church); died there in 1837. He became professor of history in the military academy at Berlin, and in 1806 he was charged with the education of the crown-prince. He successively occupied several important offices of state, being at last appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs. He wrote on philosophy, history, and politics, partly in French, partly in German.

Anckarström. See Ankarström.

Anco´na, a seaport of Italy, capital of the province of the same name, on the Adriatic, 130 miles N.E. of Rome, with harbour works begun by Trajan, who built the ancient mole or quay. A triumphal arch of white marble, erected in honour of Trajan, stands on the mole. Ancona is a station of the Italian fleet, and the commerce is increasing. The town is indifferently built, but has some remarkable edifices, among others, the cathedral. There is a colossal statue of Count Cavour. Ancona is said to have been founded about four centuries B.C., by Syracusan refugees. It fell into the hands of the Romans in the first half of the third century B.C., and became a Roman colony. Pop. 68,430. The province has an area of 748 sq. miles. Pop. 333,381.

Ancona Fowl. See Poultry.

Ancre (än˙-kr), Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', was a native of Florence, and on the marriage of Marie de' Médici to Henri IV, in 1600, came in her suite to France, where he obtained rapid promotion, more especially after the assassination of the king (1610). He became successively Governor of Normandy, Marshal of France, and last of all, Prime Minister. Being thoroughly detested by all classes, at last a conspiracy was formed against him, and he was shot dead on the bridge of the Louvre in 1617.

Ancre, Battle of. This battle was the final one in the British offensive in France in 1916. It began on 13th Nov. after a two day's preliminary bombardment of the German salient, on both sides of the River Ancre, from Beaumont-Hamel to St. Pierre Divion. One area of extraordinary strength was the Y ravine which stretches from Beaumont-Hamel plateau towards the river. The assaults on both banks of the river were vigorous and determined. A fierce struggle was waged in the Y ravine, which Scottish troops ultimately cleared with the bayonet. Beaumont-Hamel having fallen, the British line was extended well beyond it. Further gains were made on the following day. The prisoners captured numbered 7200. This brilliant action paved the way for further successes in the spring.

An´cus Mar´cius, according to the traditionary history of Rome the fourth king of that city, who succeeded Tullus Hostilius, 638, and died 614 B.C. He was the son of Numa's daughter, and sought to imitate his grandfather by reviving the neglected observances of religion. He is said to have built the wooden bridge across the Tiber known as the Sublician, constructed the harbour of Ostia, and built the first Roman prison.

Ancy´ra. See Angora.

Andalu´sia (Sp. Andalucia), a large and fertile district in the south of Spain, bounded N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia, S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Portugal and the Atlantic; area, about 33,777 sq. miles, comprising the modern provinces of Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Almeria, and Malaga. It is traversed throughout its whole extent by ranges of mountains, the loftiest being the Sierra Nevada, many summits of which are covered with perpetual snow (Mulahacen is 11,678 feet). Minerals abound, and several mines have been opened by English companies, especially in the province of Huelva, where the Tharsis and Rio Tinto copper-mines are situated. The principal river is the Guadalquivir. The vine, myrtle, olive, palm, banana, carob, &c., grow abundantly in the valley of the Guadalquivir. Wheat, maize, barley, and many varieties of fruit grow almost spontaneously; besides which, honey, silk, and cochineal form important articles of culture. The horses and mules are the best in the Peninsula; the bulls are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep are reared in vast numbers. Agriculture is in a backward state, and the manufactures are by no means extensive. The Andalusians are descended in part from the Moors, of whom they still preserve decided characteristics. Andalusia is still famous for its bull-fighters. Pop. 3,828,916.

Andalusian Fowl. See Poultry.

An´damans, a chain of islands on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, the principal being the North, Middle, South, and Little Andamans. Middle Andaman is about 60 miles long, and 15 or 16 miles broad; North and South Andaman are each about 50 miles long. The Andamanese, about 1315 in number (1911), are mostly in a state of nature, living almost naked in the rudest habitations. They are small (generally much less than 5 feet), well-formed, and active, skilful archers and canoeists, and excellent swimmers and divers. These islands have been used since 1858 as a penal settlement by the Indian Government, the settlement being at [158]Port Blair, on South Andaman. Here rice, coffee, pineapples, nutmegs, &c., are grown, while the jungle has been cleared off the neighbouring hills. The natives in the vicinity of the settlement have become to some extent civilized. The climate is humid, but the settlement is healthy. Pop. 18,000.

Andante (a˙n-da˙n´tā; It., 'at a walking pace'), in music, denotes a movement somewhat slow, graceful, distinct, and soothing. The word is also applied substantively to that part of a sonata or symphony having a movement of this character. In Handel's music one often meets the expression andante allegro, which is equivalent to andante con moto.

Andelys, Les (lāz än˙d-lēz), two towns in France called respectively Grand and Petit Andely, distant half a mile from each other, in the department of Eure, on the right bank of the Seine, 19 miles S.E. of Rouen. Grand Andely dates from the sixth century, its church, built in the thirteenth century, is one of the finest in the department. Petit Andely owes its origin to Richard Cœur de Lion, who, in 1195, built here the Château Gaillard, in its time one of the strongest fortresses in France, but now wholly a ruin. Pop. 5530.

Andenne´, a town of Belgium, province of Namur, on the right bank of the Meuse and 10 miles east of Namur; manufactures delftware, porcelain, tobacco-pipes, paper, &c. Pop. 7803.

Andernach (a˙n´der-na˙ch), a town of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles N.W. of Coblentz, partly surrounded with walls. Pop. 9800.

An´dersen, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy tales, was born of poor parents at Odense, 2nd April, 1805. He learned to read and write in a charity school, from which he was taken when only nine years old, and was put to work in a manufactory in order that his earnings might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he eagerly read national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies full of sound and fury. In 1819 he went to Copenhagen, but failed in getting any of his plays accepted, and in securing an appointment at the theatre, having to content himself for some time with unsteady employment as a joiner. His abilities at last brought him under the notice of Councillor Collin, a man of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a Government school at Slagelse. From this school he was transferred to the university, and soon became favourably known by his poetic works. Through the influence of Oehlenschläger and Ingermann he received a royal grant to enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of which he published in The Improvvisatore (1835)—a work which rendered his fame European. The scene of his following novel, O. T., was laid in Denmark, and in Only a Fiddler he described his own early struggles. In 1835 appeared the first volume of his Fairy Tales, of which successive volumes continued to be published year by year at Christmas, and which have been the most popular and widespread of his works. Among his other works are Picture-books without Pictures—conversations of the author with the moon, who came to visit the poet in his garret; A Poet's Bazaar—the result of a voyage in 1840 to the East; and a number of dramas. In 1845 he received an annuity from the Government. He visited England in 1848, and acquired such a command of the language that his next work, The Two Baronesses, was written in English. In 1855 he published an autobiography, under the title My Life's Romance, an English translation of which, published in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing the narrative to 1867. Among his later works we may mention, To Be or Not To Be (1857); Tales from Jutland (1859); The Ice Maiden (1863). He died 4th Aug, 1875, having had the pleasure of seeing many of his works translated into most of the European languages.

Anderson, a town of the United States, Indiana, on the west branch of White River, 32 miles north-east of Indianapolis, with various manufacturing works. Pop. 23,856.

Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, M.D., born in 1836, maiden name Garrett, married Mr. J. S. Anderson of the Orient Line of steamers. She studied medicine, but met with many obstacles, the study of medicine by women being then discouraged on all hands; at last she was licensed to practise by the Apothecaries' Society in 1865, and afterwards passed examinations at the University of Paris and obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine. From 1866 to 1890 she was senior physician to the New Hospital for Women; from 1876 to 1898 lecturer on medicine in the London School of Medicine for Women. She did much to aid in opening the medical profession to women. In 1908 she was elected Mayor of Aldeburgh, being the first woman to hold the position of mayor in England. She died on 17th Dec., 1917. Her daughter Louisa Garrett Anderson, born in 1873, went to France in 1914 as Joint Organiser of and Chief Surgeon to the Women's Hospital Corps, Voluntary Unit.

Anderson, James, a Scottish writer on political and rural economy, born at Hermiston in 1739, died in 1808. In 1790 he started the Bee, which ran to eighteen volumes, and contains many useful papers on agricultural, economical, and other topics. Some of his other publications, [159]Recreations in Agriculture, Natural History, &c., contain anticipations of theories afterwards propounded by Malthus and Ricardo.

Anderson, John, F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, born 1726, died 1796. By his will he directed that the whole of his effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be denominated Anderson's University, for the use of the unacademical classes. According to the design of the founder, there were to be four colleges—for arts, medicine, law, and theology—besides an initiatory school. As the funds, however, were totally inadequate to the plan, it was at first commenced with only a single course of lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry. The institution gradually enlarged its sphere of instruction, coming nearer and nearer to the original design of its founder, the medical school in particular possessing a high reputation. In 1886 it was incorporated with other institutions to form the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College (now Glasgow Royal Technical College), Anderson's College medical school, however, retaining a distinct position.

Anderson, Joseph, Scottish antiquary, born in 1832, became a school teacher, was for some years newspaper editor, and in 1870 was appointed keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. His chief works embody the lectures delivered by him as Rhind lecturer in archæology to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland: Scotland in Early Christian Times, Scotland in Pagan Times, and the Early Christian Monuments of Scotland. He also edited The Orkneyinga Saga, The Oliphants in Scotland, and Drummond's Ancient Scottish Weapons. He died in 1916.

Anderson, Robert, M.D., Scottish biographical writer, born 1750, died 1830. He furnished biographical and critical notices for A Complete Edition of the Poets of Great Britain (1792-5), and was for a time editor of the Edinburgh Magazine.

Andersson, Carl Jan, an African traveller, born in Sweden in 1827, died in the land of the Ovampos, in Western Africa, in July, 1867. He published Lake Ngami, or Discoveries in South Africa (London, 2 vols., 1856), and The Okavango River (London, 1861). The observations of his last voyage were published in 1875 in Notes of Travel in South Africa.

Andes (an´dēz), or, as they are called in Spanish South America, Cordilleras (ridges) de los Andes, or simply Cordilleras, a range of mountains stretching along the whole of the west coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. In absolute length (4500 miles) no single chain of mountains approaches the Andes, and only a certain number of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise higher above the sea-level; which peak is the highest of all is not yet settled. Several main sections of this huge chain are distinguishable. The Southern Andes present a lofty main chain, with a minor chain running parallel to it on the east, reaching from Tierra del Fuego and the Straits of Magellan, northward to about lat. 28° S., and rising in Aconcagua to a height of 23,080 feet. North of this is the double chain of the Central Andes, enclosing the wide and lofty plateaus of Bolivia and Peru, which lie at an elevation of more than 12,000 feet above the sea. The mountain system is here at its broadest, being about 500 miles across. Here are also several very lofty peaks, as Illampu or Sorata (21,484 feet), Sahama (21,054 feet), Illimani (21,024 feet). Farther north the outer and inner ranges draw closer together, and in Ecuador there is but a single system of elevated masses, generally described as forming two parallel chains. In this section are crowded together a number of lofty peaks, most of them volcanoes, either extinct or active. Of the latter class are Pichincha (15,918 feet), with a crater 2500 feet deep; Tunguragua (16,685 feet); Sangay (17,460 feet); and Cotopaxi (19,550 feet). The loftiest summit here appears to be Chimborazo (20,581 feet); others are Antisana (19,260 feet) and Cayambe (19,200 feet). Northward of this section the Andes break into three distinct ranges, the east-most running north-eastward into Venezuela, the westmost running north-westward to the Isthmus of Panama. In the central range is the volcano of Tolima (17,660 feet). The western slope of the Andes is generally exceedingly steep, the eastern much less so, the mountains sinking gradually to the plains. The whole range gives evidence of volcanic action, but it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks. Thus mountains may be found rising to the height of over 20,000 feet, and fossiliferous to their summits (as Illimani and Sorata or Illampu). There are about thirty volcanoes in a state of activity. The loftiest of these burning mountains seems to be Gualateïri, in Peru (21,960 feet). The heights of the others vary from 13,000 to 20,000 feet. All the districts of the Andes system have suffered severely from earthquakes, towns having been either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations. Peaks crowned with perpetual snow are seen all along the range, and glaciers are also met with, more especially from Aconcagua southwards. The passes are generally at a great height, the most important being from 10,000 to 15,000 feet. Railways have been constructed to cross the chain at a similar elevation. The Andes are extremely rich in the precious metals, gold, silver, copper, platinum, mercury, and tin all being wrought; lead and iron are also found. The llama and kindred species—the guanaco, vicuña, [160]and alpaca—are characteristic of the Andes. Among birds, the condor is the most remarkable. The vegetation necessarily varies much according to elevation, latitude, rainfall, &c., but generally is rich and varied. Except in the south and north little rain falls on the western side of the range, and in the centre there is a considerable desert area. On the east side the rainfall is heavy in the equatorial regions, but in the south is very scanty or altogether deficient. From the Andes rise two of the largest water systems of the world—the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata and its affluents. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco. The mountain chain pressing so close upon the Pacific Ocean, no streams of importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes is not great; the largest and most important is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. In the Andes are towns at a greater elevation than anywhere else in the world, the highest being the silver-mining town of Cerro de Pasco (14,270 feet), the next being Potosi.

An´desin, a kind of felspar containing both soda and lime, and named from being first obtained in the Andes.

An´desite, a name given to a crystalline volcanic rock or group of rocks of very wide occurrence, consisting mostly of felspar mixed with other ingredients, especially hornblende and augite, often also hypersthene and mica, the four chief varieties being named accordingly. Andesite is often porphyritic in character, with large crystals of felspar scattered through it. These rocks are commonly eruptive products of volcanoes of the tertiary or more recent periods, and the name was given by C. L. von Buch on account of their prevalence in the lavas of volcanoes of the Andes. The Ochils and other hills of middle Scotland largely consist of andesite.

Andijan´, a town of Russian Turkestan, Ferghana, south of the Syr-Darya, a terminus of the Transcaspian Railway, 73 miles north-east of Khokand. Pop. 82,235.

Andi´ra, a genus of leguminous American trees, with fleshy plum-like fruits. The wood is suitable for building purposes. The bark of A. inermis, or cabbage tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic under the name of worm-bark or cabbage bark. The powdered bark of A. ararōba is used as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes.

Andiron (and´ī-ėrn), a horizontal iron bar raised on short legs, with an upright standard at one end, used to support pieces of wood when burning in an open hearth, one andiron being placed on either side of the hearth.

Andkhoo, or Andkhoui (a˙nd-hö´, a˙nd-hö´i), a town of Afghanistan, about 200 miles south of Bokhara, on the commercial route to Herat. Pop. estimated at 15,000.

Andocides (an-dos´i-dēz), an Athenian orator, born about 440 B.C., died about 393 B.C. He took an active part in public affairs, and was four times exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. Several of his orations are extant, one called On the Mysteries being the best.

Andor´ra, or Andorre´, a small nominally independent State in the Pyrenees, south of the French department of Ariége, with an area of about 191 sq. miles. It has been a separate State for six hundred years, is governed by its own civil and criminal codes, and has its own courts of justice, the laws being administered by two judges, one of whom is chosen by France, the other by the Bishop of Urgel, in Spain. The little State pays an annual due of 960 francs to France, and 460 pesetas to the Bishop of Urgel. The chief industry is the rearing of sheep and cattle. The commerce is largely in importing contraband goods into Spain. The inhabitants, who speak the Catalan dialect of Spanish, are simple in their manners, their wealth consisting mainly of cattle and sheep. The village of Old Andorra is the capital. Pop. 5231.

An´dover, a town in England, in Hants, 12 miles north by west of Winchester, with a fine church, and a trade in corn, malt, &c. Interesting Roman remains have been found in the vicinity. Pop. (1921), 8569.

An´dover, a town in Massachusetts, 25 miles N.N.W. of Boston, chiefly remarkable for its literary institutions—Phillip's Academy, founded in 1778; the Andover Theological Seminary, founded in 1807; and Abbot Academy, a girls' school, founded in 1829. Pop. 7300.

Andrassy (a˙n-drä´shē), Count Julius, Hungarian statesman, born 1823, died in 1890. He took part in the revolution of 1848, was condemned to death, but escaped and went into exile. He was appointed Premier when self-government was restored to Hungary in 1867; became imperial Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1871, but retired from public life in 1879.

Andrassy, Julius, Hungarian statesman, son of the preceding. He was born in 1860, and entered the Reichstag in 1884. He became Minister of the Interior in 1906, and retained that office until 1909. In 1912 he represented Austria at the conference on the Balkan question. In 1918 he was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs, but soon resigned.

André (an´drā), Major John, adjutant-general in the British army during the American revolutionary war. Employed to negotiate the defection of the American general Arnold, and the delivery of the works at West Point, he was apprehended in disguise, 23rd Sept., 1780, within [161]the American lines; declared a spy from the enemy, and hanged 2nd Oct., 1780. His remains were brought to England in 1821 and interred in Westminster Abbey, where a monument has been erected to his memory.

Andrea del Sarto. See Sarto.

Andreæ (a˙n´dre-ā), Johann Valentin, German author, born 1586, died 1654. He was the author of numerous tracts, several of them of an amusing and satirical character. He was long believed to be the founder of the celebrated Rosicrucian order, an opinion that received a certain support from some of his works, but in all probability the real intention of the writer was to ridicule the folly of contemporary alchemists.

An´dreasberg, St., a mining town of the Harz Mountains, in Prussia, 57 miles S.S.E. of Hanover. Pop. about 4000.

Andreev, Leonid Nicolaievitsh, Russian author, born in 1871, died in 1919. He studied law at the Universities of Moscow and Petrograd, but finding his practice unremunerative he became a police-court reporter for a daily paper. At the age of twenty-three he attempted suicide, driven to it by his miserable circumstances and struggle for existence. His first story, About a Poor Student, based upon his own experiences, attracted but little attention, and his literary career really began when Gorky discovered his talent. He was one of the most prolific Russian writers, the short story being his speciality. He was a mystic and a fatalist, like so many of his compatriots. His works include: The Red Laugh (1905); The Seven who were Hanged (1909); Judas Iscariot and the Others (1910); A Dilemma (1910); Silence and Other Stories, &c. His works have been translated into many European languages.

Andrew, St., brother of St. Peter, and the first disciple whom Christ chose. He is said to have preached in Scythia, in Thrace and Asia Minor, and in Achaia (Greece), and according to tradition he was crucified by order of the Roman governor Ægeas at Patræ, now Patras, in Achaia, on a cross of the form (decussate cross), now known as a St. Andrew's cross. The Russians revere him as the apostle who brought the gospel to them; the Scots, as the patron saint of their country. The day dedicated to him is 30th Nov. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted by Peter the Great in 1698. For the Scottish Knights of St. Andrew or the Thistle, see Thistle.

An´drewes, Lancelot, an eminent and learned bishop of the English Church, born in London in 1555, died at Winchester 1626; was high in favour both with Queen Elizabeth and James I. In 1605 he became Bishop of Chichester; in 1609 was translated to Ely, and appointed one of the king's privy-councillors; and in 1618 he was translated to Winchester. He was one of those engaged in preparing the authorized version of the Scriptures. He left sermons, lectures, and other writings.

An´drews, St., an ancient city and parliamentary burgh in Fifeshire, Scotland, 31 miles north-east from Edinburgh; was erected into a royal burgh by David I in 1140, and after having been an episcopal, became an archiepiscopal see in 1472, and was for long the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland. The cathedral, now in ruins, was begun about 1160, and took 157 years to finish. The old castle, founded about 1200, and rebuilt in the fourteenth century, is also an almost shapeless ruin. In it James III was born and Cardinal Beaton assassinated, and in front of it George Wishart was burned. There are several other interesting ruins. The trade and manufactures are of no importance, but the town is in favour as a watering-place. Golf is much played here. Pop. 7597.—The University of St. Andrews, the oldest of the Scottish universities, founded in 1411, consists of the united colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard and the college of St. Mary, both at St. Andrews, and embraces also University College, Dundee. In 1579 the colleges of St. Salvator and St. Leonard were restricted to the teaching of arts and medicine, and that of St. Mary to theology. In 1747 the two former colleges were united by Act of Parliament. University College, Dundee, was founded in 1880. The united college of St. Salvator and St. Leonard has a principal (who is also principal of the university) and twelve professors, and the college of St. Mary has a principal and four professors. Degrees, open to women as well as men, are conferred in arts, divinity, science, medicine, and law; and the university also confers the diploma and title of L.L.A. (Lady Literate in Arts). The number of students is 420. In connection with the university is a library, founded in 1612 and containing about 150,000 printed volumes and 150 MSS. The university unites with the other three Scottish universities in returning three members to Parliament. Madras College or Academy, founded by Dr. Bell of Madras, the principal secondary school of the place, provides accommodation for upwards of 1500 scholars.

An´drews, Thomas, chemist, was born at Belfast in 1813; studied chemistry at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson, and for a short time in Paris; then medicine at Belfast, Dublin, and Edinburgh, taking the degree of M.D. at the last place. After practising and teaching chemistry for ten years in Belfast, he became vice-president of the Northern College there, which in 1849 was converted into Queen's College, and Andrews now became professor of chemistry in the college, a post which he held till 1879. He died in 1885, having received various academic distinctions in [162]the course of his life. His name is associated with valuable researches on the heat of chemical combustion, and on the nature of ozone, but especially with the discovery of the existence of a critical temperature for every gas, above which it cannot be liquefied by any pressure, however great. He wrote many scientific papers, which have been published in a collective form by P. G. Tait and A. Crum Brown.

An´dria, a town of South Italy, province of Bari, with a fine cathedral, founded in 1046; the Church of Sant' Agostino, with a beautiful Pointed Gothic portal; a college; manufactures of majolica, and a good trade. Pop. 53,274.

Androclus, or Androcles, a Roman slave who once pulled a thorn out of a lion's paw and dressed the wound. Androclus was afterwards condemned to be thrown to the lions in the Circus Maximus, and encountered the same lion that he had helped; the beast, instead of attacking him, fawned on him and caressed him. The story is told by Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticæ, v, 14.

Andrϫcium, in botany, the male system of a flower; the aggregate of the stamens.

Andromache (an-drom´a-kē), in Greek legend, wife of Hector, and one of the most attractive women of Homer's Iliad. The passage describing her parting with Hector, when he was setting out to battle, is well known and much admired (Iliad, vi, 369-502). Euripides and Racine have made her the chief character of tragedies.

Androm´ĕda, in Greek mythology, daughter of the Ethiopian king Cepheus and of Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia having boasted that her daughter surpassed the Nereids, if not Hēra (Juno) herself, in beauty, the offended goddesses prevailed on their father, Poseidōn (Neptune), to afflict the country with a horrid sea-monster, which threatened universal destruction. To appease the offended god, Andromeda was chained to a rock, but was rescued by Perseus; and after death was changed into a constellation. The legend forms the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Sophocles, and Ovid introduced it into his Metamorphoses.

Androm´eda. See Ericaceæ.

Androni´cus, the name of four emperors of Constantinople.—Andronicus I, Comnenus, born 1110, murdered 1185.—Andronicus II, Palæologus, born 1258, died 1332. His reign is celebrated for the invasion of the Turks.—Andronicus III, Palæologus the Younger, born 1296, died 1341.—Andronicus IV, Palæologus, reigned in the absence of John IV. In 1373 he gave way to his brother Manuel, and died a monk.

Androni´cus, Livius, the most ancient of the Latin dramatic poets; flourished about 240 B.C.; by origin a Greek, and long a slave. A few fragments of his works have come down to us.

Androni´cus of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher who lived at Rome in the time of Cicero. He arranged Aristotle's works in much the same form as they retain in present editions.

Androni´cus Cyrrhestes (sir-es´tēz), a Greek architect about 100 B.C., who constructed at Athens the Tower of the Winds, an octagonal building, still standing. On the top was a Triton, which indicated the direction of the wind. Each of the sides had a sort of dial, and the building formerly contained a clepsydra or water-clock.

Andropo´gon, a large genus of grasses, mostly natives of warm countries. A. Schœnanthus is the sweet-scented lemon-grass of conservatories. Others also are fragrant.

An´dros (now Andro), one of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, the most northerly of the Cyclades; about 25 miles long and 6 or 7 broad; area, 100 sq. miles. A considerable trade is done in silk, wine, olives, figs, oranges, and lemons. Andro or Castro, the capital, has a good port. Pop. 18,809.

Andros Islands, a group of isles belonging to the Bahamas, lying south-west of New Providence, not far from the east entrance to the Gulf of Florida. The passages through them are dangerous. Pop. 7545.

Andrussovo, a Russian village in the government of Smolensk. A treaty was signed here between Poland and Russia (1667).

Andujar (a˙n-dö-här´), a town in Spain, in Andalusia, 50 miles E.N.E. of Cordova, on the Guadalquivir, which is here crossed by a fine bridge; manufactures a peculiar kind of porous earthen water-bottles and jugs (alcarazas). Pop. 16,500.

An´ecdote, originally some particular about a subject not noticed in previous works on that subject; now any particular or detached incident or fact of an interesting nature; a single passage of private life.

Anega´da, a British West Indian island, the most northern of the Virgin group, 10 miles long by 4½ broad; contains numerous salt ponds, from which quantities of salt are obtained. Pop. 200.

Anelectric, a body not easily electrified.

Anelectrode, the positive pole of a galvanic battery.

Anemom´eter (Gr. anĕmos, wind, metron, measure), an instrument for measuring the force and velocity of the wind. This force is usually measured by the pressure of the wind upon a square plate attached to one end of a spiral spring (with its axis horizontal), which yields more or less according to the force of the wind, and transmits its motion to a pencil which leaves a trace upon paper moved by clockwork. Various instruments have been devised for this purpose, but the one most commonly adopted by [163]meteorological stations is after the type invented by Dr. Robinson of Armagh. It consists of four hemispherical cups A attached to the ends of equal horizontal arms, forming a horizontal cross which turns freely about a vertical axis B. By means of an endless screw carried by the axis a train of wheelwork is set in motion; and the indication is given by a hand which moves round a dial; or in some instruments by several hands moving round different dials like those of a gas-meter. It is found that the centre of each cup moves with a velocity which is almost exactly one-third of that of the wind. There are various other forms of the instrument, one of which is portable, and is especially intended for measuring the velocity of currents of air passing through mines, and the ventilating spaces of hospitals and other public buildings. The direction of the wind as indicated by a vane can also be made to leave a continuous record by various contrivances; one of the most common being a pinion carried by the shaft of a vane, and driving a rack which carries a pencil.

Anem´ŏnē (Gr. anĕmos, wind), wind-flower, a genus of plants belonging to the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceæ), containing about ninety species, found in temperate regions, three of them occurring in Britain: the white-flowered (A. nemorōsa), the only one truly native; the blue-flowered (A. apennīna); and the yellow-flowered (A. ranunculoides), a common European species naturalized in some parts of Britain. Several species are cultivated as florists' flowers.

Anemoph´ilous, said of flowers that are fertilized by the wind conveying the pollen.

Anem´oscope, any contrivance indicating the direction of the wind; generally applied to a vane which turns a spindle descending through the roof to a chamber where, by means of a compass-card and index, the direction of the wind is shown.

Aneroid Barometer. See Barometer.

Ane´thum, a genus of plants; dill.

Aneu´rin, a poet and prince of the Cambrian Britons who flourished in the seventh century, author of an epic poem, the Gododin, relating the defeat of the Britons of Strathclyde by the Saxons at the battle of Cattraeth. See Celtic Literature.

An´eurism, or Aneurysm (Gr. aneurysma, a widening), the dilatation or expansion of some part of an artery. Aneurisms arise partly from the too violent motion of the blood, and partly from degenerative changes occurring in the coats of the artery, diminishing their elasticity. They are therefore more frequent in the great branches; in particular, in the vicinity of the heart, in the arch of the aorta, and in the extremities, where the arteries are exposed to frequent injuries by stretching, violent bodily exertions, thrusts, falls, and contusions. An internal aneurism may burst and cause death.

Angara´, a Siberian river which flows into Lake Baikal at its N. extremity, and leaves it near the S.W. end, joining the Yenisei as the Lower Angara or Upper Tunguska.

Angel (Gr. angelos, a messenger), one of those spiritual intelligences who are regarded as dwelling in Heaven and employed as the ministers or agents of God. To these the name of good angels is sometimes given, to distinguish them from bad angels, who were originally created to occupy the same blissful abode, but lost it by rebellion. The Old Testament represents them as messengers of the Divine will, and Christ spoke of them more than once (St. Matt. xviii, 10; St. Luke, xv, 10). Generally, however, Scripture speaks of angels with great reserve, Michael and Gabriel alone being mentioned by name in the canonical books, while Raphael is mentioned in the Apocrypha. The angels are represented in Scripture as in the most elevated state of intelligence, purity, and bliss, ever doing the will of God so perfectly that we can seek for nothing higher or better than to aim at being like them. There are indications of a diversity of rank and power among them, and something like angelic orders—Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel, &c., seraphim and cherubim. They are represented as frequently taking part in communications made from heaven to earth, as directly and actively ministering to the good of believers, and shielding or delivering them from evils incident to their earthly lot. That every person has a [164]good and a bad angel attendant on him was an early belief, and is held to some extent yet. Roman Catholics, since St. Ambrosius, who died in 397, show a certain veneration or worship to angels, and beg their prayers and their kind offices. The New Testament, however, formally forbidding such veneration (Col. ii, 18, &c.), Protestants consider this unlawful.

Angel, a gold coin introduced into England in the reign of Edward IV, and coined down to the Commonwealth, so named from having the representation of the archangel Michael piercing a dragon upon it. It had different values in different reigns, varying from 6s. 8d. to 10s.

Angel-fish, a fish, Squatīna angĕlus, nearly allied to the sharks, very ugly and voracious, preying on other fish. It is from 6 to 8 feet long, and takes its name from its pectoral fins, which are very large, extending horizontally like wings when spread. This fish connects the rays with the sharks, but it differs from both in having its mouth placed at the extremity of the head. It is common on the south coasts of Britain, and is also called Monk-fish and Fiddle-fish.

Angel´ica, a genus of umbelliferous plants, one of which, A. sylvestris, a tall plant bearing large umbels of white flowers tinged with pink, is common in wet places in Britain, and was formerly believed to possess angelic properties as an antidote to poison, a specific against witchcraft, &c. The name is also given to an allied plant, the Archangelica officinālis, found on the banks of rivers and ditches in the north of Europe, once generally cultivated as an esculent, and still valued for its medicinal properties. It has a large fleshy aromatic root, and a strong-furrowed branched stem as high as a man. It is cultivated for its agreeable aromatic odour and carminative properties. Its blanched stems, candied with sugar, form a very agreeable sweetmeat, possessing tonic and stomachic qualities.

Angelico (a˙n-jel´i-kō), Fra, the common appellation of Fra Giovanni da Fiesole, one of the most celebrated of the early Italian painters. Born 1387, he entered the Dominican order in 1407, and was employed by Cosmo de' Medici in painting the monastery of St. Mark and the church of St. Annunziata with frescoes. These pictures gained him so much celebrity that Pope Nicholas V invited him to Rome to ornament his private chapel in the Vatican, and offered him the archbishopric of Florence, which Angelico declined. He died at, Rome 1455. He has been called the 'painter of seraphic dreams'. His works were considered unrivalled in finish and in sweetness and harmony of colour, and were made the models for religious painters of his own and succeeding generations.

Angeln (a˙ng´eln), a district in Schleswig of about 300 sq. miles, bounded N. by the Bay of Flensburg, S. by the Schlei, E. by the Baltic, the only continental territory which has retained the name of the Angles.

Angelo (a˙n´je-lō), Michael. See Buonarotti.

An´gelus, in the Roman Catholic Church, a short form of prayer in honour of the incarnation, consisting mainly of versicles and responses, the angelic salutation three times repeated, and a collect, so named from the word with which it commences, 'Angelus Domini' (Angel of the Lord). Hence, also, the bell tolled in the morning, at noon, and in the evening to indicate the time when the angelus is to be recited. The prayer is attributed to St. Bonaventura, and in Germany and Italy it is called 'Ave Maria'.

Ångermann (ong´er-ma˙n), a Swedish river which falls into the Gulf of Bothnia, noted for its fine scenery. It is navigable for nearly 70 miles for vessels of 600 tons.

Angermünde (a˙ng´er-mün-de), a town in Prussia, on Lake Münde, 42 miles north-east of Berlin. Pop. 8200.

Angers (a˙n˙-zhā), a town and river-port of France, capital of the department of Maine-et-Loire, and formerly of the province of Anjou, on the banks of the Maine, 5½ miles from the Loire, 150 miles south-west of Paris. It has an old castle, built by Louis IX, once a place of great strength, now used as a prison, barrack, and powder-magazine; a fine cathedral of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with very fine old painted windows; is the seat of a bishop, and has a school of arts and manufactures; a public library, an art-gallery, a large modern hospital, the remains of a hospital founded by Henry II of England in 1155; courts of law, theatre, &c. It manufactures sail-cloth, hosiery, leather, and chemicals; foundries, &c. In the neighbourhood are immense slate-quarries. Pop. 83,786.

Angevins (an´je-vins), natives of Anjou, often applied to the race of English sovereigns called Plantagenets (q.v.). Anjou became connected with England by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of Henry I, with Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou. The Angevin kings of England were Henry II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward III, and Richard II.

Angilbert, St., the most celebrated poet of his age, secretary and friend of Charlemagne, whose daughter, Bertha, he married. In the latter part of his life he retired to a monastery, of which he became abbot. Died 814. [165]

Angina Pectoris (an´ji-na pek´to-ris), or Heart-spasm, a disease characterized by an extremely acute constriction, felt generally in the lower part of the sternum, and extending along the whole side of the chest and into the corresponding arm, a sense of suffocation, faintness, and apprehension of approaching death: seldom experienced by any but those with organic heart-disease. The disease rarely occurs before middle age, and is more frequent in men than in women. Those liable to attack must lead a quiet, temperate life, avoiding all scenes which would unduly rouse their emotions. The first attack is occasionally fatal, but usually death occurs as the result of repeated seizures. The paroxysm may be relieved by opiates, or the inhalation, under due precaution, of anæsthetic vapours.

Angiosperm (an´ji-o-spėrm), a term for any plant which has its seeds enclosed in a seed-vessel. Exogens are divided into those whose seeds are enclosed in a seed-vessel, and those with seeds produced and ripened without the production of a seed-vessel. The former are angiosperms, and constitute the principal part of the species; the latter are gymnosperms, and chiefly consist of the Coniferæ and Cycadaceæ.

Angle, the point where two lines meet, or the meeting of two lines in a point. A plane rectilineal angle is formed by two straight lines which meet one another, but are not in the same straight line; it may be considered the degree of opening or divergence of the two straight lines which thus meet one another. A right angle is an angle formed by a straight line falling on another perpendicularly, or an angle which is measured by an arc of 90 degrees. When a straight line, as A B (fig. 1), standing on another straight line C D, makes the two angles A B C and A B D equal to one another, each of these angles is called a right angle. An acute angle is that which is less than a right angle, as E B C. An obtuse angle is that which is greater than a right angle, as E B D. Acute and obtuse angles are both called oblique, in opposition to right angles. Exterior or external angles, the angles of any rectilineal figure without it, made by producing the sides; thus, if the sides A B, B C, C A of the triangle A B C (fig. 2) be produced to the points F D E, the angles C B F, A C D, B A E are called exterior or external angles. A solid angle is that which is made by more than two plane angles meeting in one point and not lying in the same plane, as the angle of a cube. A spherical angle is an angle on the surface of a sphere, contained between the arcs of two great circles which intersect each other.

Angler (Lophius piscatorius), also from its habits and appearance called Fishing-frog and Sea-devil, a remarkable fish often found on the British coasts. It is from 3 to 5 feet long; the head is very wide, depressed, with protuberances, and bearing long separate movable tendrils; the mouth is capacious, and armed with formidable teeth. Its voracity is extreme, and it is said to lie concealed in the mud, and attract the smaller fishes within its reach by gently waving the filamentous appendages on its head.

Angles, a Low German tribe who in the earliest historical period had their seats in the district about Angeln, in the duchy of Schleswig, and who in the fifth century and subsequently crossed over to Britain along with bands of Saxons and Jutes (and probably Frisians also), and colonized a great part of what from them has received the name of England, as well as a portion of the Lowlands of Scotland. The Angles formed the largest body among the Germanic settlers in Britain, and founded the three kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.

Anglesey (ang´gl-sē), or Anglesea ('the Angles' Island'), an island and county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated from the mainland by the Menai Strait; 20 miles long and 17 miles broad; area, 176,630 acres. The surface is comparatively flat, and the climate is milder than that of the adjoining coast. The chief agricultural products are oats and barley, wheat, rye, potatoes, and turnips. Numbers of cattle and sheep are raised. Anglesey yields a little copper, lead, silver, ochre, &c. The Menai Strait is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, 580 feet between the piers and 100 feet above high-water mark, and also by the great Britannia Tubular Railway Bridge. The chief market-towns are Beaumaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, and Amlweh. The county returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921), 51,695.

Anglesey, Henry William Paget, Marquess of, English soldier and statesman, was the eldest son of Henry, first Earl of Uxbridge, and was born in 1768. He was educated at Oxford, and in 1790 entered Parliament as member for the Carnarvon boroughs. In 1793 he entered the army, and in 1794 he took part in the campaign in Flanders under the Duke of York. In 1808 he was sent into Spain with two brigades of cavalry to join Sir John Moore, and in the retreat to Coruña commanded the rear-guard. In 1812 he became, by his father's death, Earl of Uxbridge. On Napoleon's escape from Elba he was appointed commander of the British cavalry, and at the [166]battle of Waterloo, by the charge of the heavy brigade, overthrew the Imperial Guard. For his services he was created Marquess of Anglesey. In 1828 he became Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and made himself extremely popular, but was recalled in consequence of favouring Catholic Emancipation. He was again Lord-Lieutenant in 1830, but lost his popularity by his opposition to O'Connell and his instrumentality in the passing of the Irish Coercion Acts; and he quitted office in 1833. From 1846-52 he was Master-General of the Ordnance. He died in 1854.

Anglicanism, the term is capable of a wider use, but is usually employed as descriptive of the type of doctrine formulated by the Church of England in the period of the Protestant Reformation. The two most notable formularies of that period are the Confession of Faith, known as the Thirty-nine Articles, which assumed its present shape in 1571, and the Liturgy, known as the Book of Common Prayer, issued in 1559 in what was substantially its present shape. By the Clerical Subscription Act of 1865 assent is required to both Prayer Book and Articles. The Articles are not and never were binding upon laymen.—Bibliography: Mgr. Moyes, Aspects of Anglicanism; F. Y. Kinsman, Principles of Anglicanism.

Angling, the art of catching fish with a hook or angle (A. Sax. angel) baited with worms, small fish, flies, &c. We find occasional allusions to this pursuit among the Greek and Latin classical writers; it is mentioned several times in the Old Testament, and it was practised by the ancient Egyptians. The first reference to angling in England is a passage in a tract, entitled Piers Fulham, supposed to have been written about the year 1420. The oldest work on the subject in English is the Treatyse of Fysshinge with an Angle, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with a treatise on hunting and hawking, the whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana Berners or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. Walton's inimitable discourse on angling was first printed in 1653. The chief appliances required by an angler are a rod, line, hooks, and baits. Rods are made of various materials, and of various sizes. The cane rods are lightest, and where fishing-tackle is sold they most commonly have the preference; but in country places the rod is often of the angler's own manufacture. Rods are commonly made in separate joints, so as to be easily taken to pieces and put up again. They are made to taper from the butt end to the top, and are usually possessed of a considerable amount of elasticity. In length they may vary from 10 feet to more than double that length, with a corresponding difference in strength—a rod for salmon being necessarily much stronger than one suited for ordinary burn trout. The reel, an apparatus for winding up the line, is attached to the rod near the lower end, where the hand grasps it while fishing. The best are usually made of brass, are of simple construction, and so made as to wind or unwind freely and rapidly. That part of the line which passes along the rod and is wound on the reel is called the reel line, and may vary from 20 to 100 yards in length, according to the size of the water and the habits of the fish angled for; it is usually made of twisted horse-hair and silk, or of oiled silk alone. The casting line, which is attached to this, is made of the same materials, but lighter and finer. To the end of this is tied a piece of fine gut, on which the hook, or hooks, are fixed. The casting or gut lines should decrease in thickness from the reel line to the hooks. The hook, of finely-tempered steel, should readily bend without breaking, and yet retain a sharp point. It should be long in the shank and deep in the bend; the point straight and true to the level of the shank; and the barb long. Their sizes and sorts must of course entirely depend on the kind of fish that is angled for. Floats formed of cork, goose and swan quills, &c., are often used to buoy up the hook so that it may float clear of the bottom. For heavy fish or strong streams a cork float is used; in slow water and for lighter fish quill floats. Baits may consist of a great variety of materials, natural or artificial. The principal natural baits are worms: common garden worms, brandlings, and red worms, maggots, or gentles (the larvæ of blow-flies such as are found on putrid meat), insects, small fish (as minnows), salmon roe, &c. The artificial flies so much used in angling for trout and salmon are composed of hairs, furs, and wools of every variety, mingled with pieces of feathers, and secured together by plaited wire, or gold and silver thread, marking-silk, wax, &c. The wings may be made of the feathers of domestic fowls, or any others of a showy colour. Some angling authorities recommend that the artificial flies should be made to resemble as closely as possible the insects on which the fish is wont to feed, but experience has shown that the most capricious and unnatural combinations of feather, fur, &c., have been often successful where the most realistic imitations have failed. Artificial minnows, or other small fish, are also used by way of bait, and are so contrived as to spin rapidly when drawn through the water in order to attract the notice of the fish angled for. Angling, especially with the fly, demands a great deal of skill and practice, the casting of the line properly being the initial difficulty. Nowhere is the art pursued with greater success and enthusiasm than in Britain and the United States.—Bibliography: Fishing (vol. i), Salmon and Trout (vol. ii), Pike and Coarse Fish [167](Badminton Library); H. G. Hutchinson, Fishing (2 vols., Country Life series); Viscount Grey, Fly Fishing; Gathorne-Hardy, The Salmon; Marquess of Granby, The Trout; H. T. Sheringham, Elements of Angling; W. M. Gallichan, The Complete Fisherman.

Anglo-Catholic, a term sometimes used to designate those churches which hold the principles of the English Reformation, the Anglican or Established Church of England and the allied churches. The term is also applied to that party in the English Church which favours doctrines and religious forms closely approaching those of the Roman Catholic Church, objects to be called Protestant, and corresponds closely with the Ritualistic section of the Church.

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. See Sudan.

Anglo-Saxons, the name commonly given to the nation or people formed by the amalgamation of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries after Christ, the Anglo-Saxons being simply the English people of the earlier period of English history. The tribes who were thus the ancestors of the bulk of the English-speaking nationalities came from North Germany, where they inhabited the parts about the mouths of the Elbe and Weser, and the first body of them who gained a footing in Britain are said to have landed in 449, and to have been led by Hengist and Horsa. From the preponderance of the Angles the whole country came to be called Engla-land, that is, the land of the Angles or English.

Many scholars object to the term 'Anglo-Saxon' as being inaccurate and open to misinterpretation. Correctly used, Anglo-Saxon means English-Saxon, as distinguished from the Old-Saxon of the Continent; incorrectly used, as it has been too frequently, it is taken as = Angle + Saxon, a union of Angle and Saxon. Camden (1551-1623) is responsible for the widespread use of the term; ignorance is responsible for the misuse. Many scholars prefer to apply the term 'Old English' to the language and people of England before A.D. 1100, partly because this term is more accurate and partly because its use helps to emphasize the essential continuity of the language.

The whole Anglo-Saxon community was frequently spoken of as consisting of the eorls and the ceorls, or the nobles and common freemen. The former were the men of property and position, the latter were the small landholders, handicraftsmen, &c., who generally placed themselves under the protection of some nobleman, who was hence termed their hláford or lord. Besides these there was the class of the serfs or slaves (theówas), who might be either born slaves or freemen who had forfeited their liberty by their crimes, or whom poverty or the fortune of war had brought into this position. They served as agricultural labourers on their masters' estates, and were mere chattels, as absolutely the property of their master as his cattle.

The king (cyning, cyng) was at the head of the State; he was the highest of the nobles and the chief magistrate. He was not looked upon as ruling by any Divine Right, but by the will of the people, as represented by the witan (wise men) or great council of the nation. The new king was not always the direct and nearest heir of the late king, but one of the royal family whose abilities and character recommended him for the office. He had the right of maintaining a standing army of household troops, the duty of calling together the witan, and of laying before them public measures, with certain distinctions of dress, dwelling, &c., all his privileges being possessed and exercised by the advice and consent of the witena-gemót or parliament (literally, 'meeting of the wise'). Next in rank and dignity to the king were the ealdormen, who were the chief witan or counsellors, and without whose assent laws could not be made, altered, or abrogated. They were at the head of the administration of justice in the shires, possessing both judicial and executive authority, and had as their officers the scír-geréfan or sheriffs. The ealdormen led the fyrd or armed force of the county, and the ealdorman, as such, held possession of certain lands attached to the office, and was entitled to a share of fines and other moneys levied for the king's use and passing through his hands. The whole executive government may be considered as a great aristocratical association, of which the ealdormen were the [168]members, and the king little more than the president. The ealdorman and the king were both surrounded by a number of followers called thegnas or thanes, who were bound by close ties to their superior. The king's thanes were the higher in rank; they possessed a certain quantity of land, smaller in amount than that of an ealdorman, and they filled offices connected with the personal service of the king or with the administration of justice. The scir-geréfa (shire-reeve or sheriff) was also an important functionary. He presided at the county court along with the ealdorman and bishop, or alone in their absence; and he had to carry out the decisions of the court, levy fines, collect taxes, &c. The shires were divided into hundreds and tithings, the latter consisting of ten heads of families, who were jointly responsible to the State for the good conduct of any member of their body. For the trial and settlement of minor causes there was a hundred court held once a month. The place of the modern Parliament was held by the witena-gemót. Its members, who were not elected, comprised the æthelings or princes of the blood royal, the bishops and abbots, the ealdormen, the thanes, the sheriffs, &c.

One of the peculiar features of Anglo-Saxon society was the wergyld, which was established for the settling of feuds. A sum, paid either in kind or in money, was placed upon the life of every freeman, according to his rank in the State, his birth, or his office. A corresponding sum was settled for every wound that could be inflicted upon his person; for nearly every injury that could be done to his civil rights, his honour, or his domestic peace, &c. From the operation of this principle no one from king to peasant was exempt.

Agriculture, including especially the raising of cattle, sheep, and swine, was the chief occupation of the Anglo-Saxons. Gardens and orchards are frequently mentioned, and vineyards were common in the southern counties. The forests were extensive, and valuable both from the mast they produced for the swine, and from the beasts of the chase which they harboured. Hunting was a favourite recreation among the higher ranks, both lay and clerical. Fishing was largely carried on, herrings and salmon being the principal fish caught; and the Anglo-Saxon whaling vessels used to go as far as Iceland. The manufactures were naturally of small moment. Iron was made to some extent, and some cloth, and saltworks were numerous. In embroidery and working of gold the English were famous over Europe. There was a considerable trade at London, which was frequented by Normans, French, Flemings, and the merchants of the Hanse towns. Our Anglo-Saxon forefathers were notorious for their excess in eating and drinking, and in this respect formed a strong contrast to their Norman conquerors. Ale, mead, and cider were the common beverages, wine being limited to the higher classes. Pork and eels were favourite articles of food. The houses were rude structures, but were often richly furnished and hung with fine tapestry. The dress of the people was loose and flowing, composed chiefly of linen, and often adorned with embroidery. The men wore their hair long and flowing over their shoulders. Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons in the end of the sixth century by St. Augustine, who was sent by Pope Gregory the Great, and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Kent, then under King Ethelred, was the first place where it took root, and thence it soon spread over the rest of the country. The Anglo-Saxon Church long remained independent of Rome, notwithstanding the continual efforts of the Popes to bring it under their power. It was not till the tenth century that this result was brought about by Dunstan. Many Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastics were distinguished for learning and ability, but the Venerable Bede holds the first place.

Anglo-Saxon Language.—The Anglo-Saxon language, which is simply the earliest form of English, claims kinship with Dutch, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and German, especially with the Low German dialects (spoken in North Germany). It was called by those who spoke it Englisc (English). The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature show different dialects, of which the northern and the southern were the principal. The former was the first to be cultivated as a literary language, but afterwards it was supplanted in this respect by the southern or that of Wessex. It is in the latter that the principal Anglo-Saxon works are written. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet was substantially the same as that which we still use, except that some of the letters were different in form, while it had two characters either of which represented the sounds of th in thy and in thing. Nouns and adjectives are declined much as in German or in Latin. The pronouns of the first and second person had a dual number, 'we two' or 'us two' and 'you two', besides the plural for more than two. The [169]infinitive of the verb is in -an, the participle in -ende, and there is a gerund somewhat similar in its usage to the Latin gerund. The verb had four moods—indicative, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, but only two tenses, the present (often used as a future) and the past. Other tenses and the passive voice were formed by auxiliary verbs. Anglo-Saxon words terminated in a vowel much more frequently than the modern English, and altogether the language is so different that it has to be learned quite like a foreign tongue. Yet, notwithstanding the large number of words of Latin or French origin that our language now contains, and the changes it has undergone, its framework, so to speak, is still Anglo-Saxon. Many chapters of the New Testament do not contain more than 4 per cent of non-Teutonic words, and as a whole it averages perhaps 6 or 7.

The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period, one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to England. The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is the ancient epic of Beowulf, extending to more than 6000 lines. Beowulf is a Scandinavian prince, who slays a monster named Grendel, after encountering supernatural perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain; parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany, though in its present form it is much later than this. The poetical remains include a number of religious poems, or poems on sacred themes; ecclesiastical narratives, as lives of saints and versified chronicles; psalms and hymns; secular lyrics; allegories, gnomic poems, riddles, &c. The religious class of poems was the largest, and of these Cædmon's (flourished about 660) are the most remarkable. His poems consist of paraphrases of considerable portions of the Bible history, and treat of the creation, the temptation, the fall, the exodus of the Israelites, the story of Daniel, the incarnation, and the harrowing of hell, or release of the ransomed souls by Christ. Other most interesting poems are those ascribed to Cynewulf, the Christ, Elene, and Juliana, the subjects respectively being Christ, the finding of the cross by the Empress Helena, and the life of Juliana. Rhyme was not used in Anglo-Saxon poetry, alliteration being employed instead, as in the older northern poetry generally. The style of the poetry is highly elliptical, and it is full of harsh inversions and obscure metaphors.

The Anglo-Saxon prose remains consist of translations of portions of the Bible, homilies, philosophical writings, history, biography, laws, leases, charters, popular treatises on science and medicine, grammars, &c. Many of these were translations from the Latin. The Anglo-Saxon versions of the Gospels, next to the Moeso-Gothic, are the earliest scriptural translations in any modern language. The Psalms are said to have been translated by Bishop Aldhelm (died 709), and also under Alfred's direction; and the Gospel of St. John by Bede; but it is not known who were the authors of the extant versions. A translation of the first seven books of the Bible is believed to have been the work of Ælfric, who was Abbot of Ensham and lived about the beginning of the eleventh century. We have also eighty homilies from his pen, several theological treatises, a Latin grammar, &c. King Alfred was a diligent author, besides being a translator of Latin works. We have under his name translations of Boethius' De Consolatione Philosophiæ, the Universal History of Orosius, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, the Pastoral Care of Gregory the Great, &c. The most valuable to us of the Anglo-Saxon prose writings is the Saxon Chronicle, as it is called, a collection of annals recording important events in the history of the country, and compiled in different religious houses. Of this Chronicle there are seven MSS. in existence, and the latest text comes down to 1154. A considerable body of laws remains, as well as a large number of charters. The whole of the literature has never yet been printed. For Anglo-Saxon history, see England.—Bibliography: (History) H. M. Chadwick, The Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge); (Language) Sweet, Anglo-Saxon Primer and Reader; (Literature) B. ten Brink, Geschichte der Englischen Litteratur; Stopford A. Brooke, English Literature, from the beginning to the Norman Conquest; Henry Morley, English Writers (vols. i and ii).

Anglo-Saxon Law. Series of laws written in the vernacular, and unique among Teutonic peoples, were issued from the seventh century onwards by Æthelberht, Hlothhere, Eadric, and Withraed, Kings of Kent, by Ine, King of Wessex, by Alfred, Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edgar, Æthelred, and Canute, in [170]addition to a number of important by-laws and regulations of various kinds, which bear no king's name. We hear, also, of laws issued by other kings which have been lost, and there must have been a considerable body of traditional law which was never committed to writing. What laws are extant, show us a society mainly agricultural, divided by birth into a noble, a free peasant, and a servile class. There was also a dependent class in Kent, intermediate between the freeman and the slave. The strongest social ties were those of the kindred, and the relationship between lord and man.

The laws were issued by the king and his councillors. Cases were decided by the production of oaths which varied in value according to the rank of the swearer, or by the several forms of the ordeal. No distinction was made between civil and criminal law, and even homicide could be atoned for by payment of a sum varying according to the social status of the dead man. The object of the laws was to restrict private vengeance, to prevent and punish theft (primarily of cattle), to stop dishonest trading, to secure the persons and residences of the people, to enforce the mutual obligations of relatives, and masters and men, to provide adequate defence for the kingdom by means of garrisoned boroughs and a well-armed mounted infantry, to protect the helpless, and to safeguard the rights of the Church and its servants.

The early laws present considerable difficulty owing to their antiquity. The laws of Æthelberht are the earliest records in the English language, though, like many of the other laws, they are only preserved in a MS. of the twelfth century. The standard edition is Liebermann's Gesetze der Angelsachsen (Halle, A. S. Max Niemeyer).—Bibliography: Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law; H. M. Chadwick, Studies in Anglo-Saxon Institutions.

Ango´la, a Portuguese territory in Western Africa, south of the Congo, extending from the sea to Rhodesia, and from about lat. 6° S. to lat. 17° S. (area, 484,800 sq. miles; pop. 4,119,000). It is a country of varied features, and its resources, as yet hardly known, are probably very great. The province is rich in malachite, copper, iron, petroleum, and salt; rubber supplies are becoming exhausted. The Coanza (Kwanza) is the largest river. The capital is the seaport of Loanda; other ports are Benguella (or Benguela) and Mossamedes. Three railways now run inland from these places. It exports coffee, hides, gum, rubber, wax, &c.

Angola Pea (Cajānus indicus). See Pigeon Pea.

Ango´niland, a district of South Africa, lying to the west of the southern half of Lake Nyassa, and partly in British Central Africa, partly in Rhodesia. It is a plateau with an average height of 4000 feet, the name being derived from the Angoni, a race of mixed Zulu blood, who used to make murderous raids on their neighbours, and have given much trouble to the missionaries and others.

Ango´ra (ancient, Ancy´ra), a town in Asia Minor, 215 miles E.S.E. of Constantinople, with considerable remains of Byzantine architecture, and relics of earlier times, both Greek and Roman, such as the remnants of the Monumentum Ancyranum, raised in honour of the Emperor Augustus, and giving us much valuable information about his public life and work. All the animals of this region are long haired, especially the goats (see Goat), sheep, and cats. This hair forms an important export as well as the fabric called camlet here manufactured from it; other exports being goats' skins, dye-stuffs, gums, honey and wax, &c. A railway connects it with Skutari. Pop. 32,000. In 1920 Kemal Pasha set up a National Government at Angora, and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sèvres. A treaty concluded with France was ratified by the Angora Government on 23rd Oct., 1921.

Angostu´ra, or Ciudad Bolivar, a city of Venezuela, capital of the province of Bolivar, on the Orinoco, about 240 miles from the sea, with governor's residence, a college, a handsome cathedral, and a considerable trade, steamers and sailing-vessels ascending to the town. Exports: gold, cotton, indigo, tobacco, coffee, cattle, &c.; imports: manufactured goods, wines, flour, &c. Pop. 17,535.

Angostura Bark, the aromatic bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly from Galipēa officinālis, a tree of 10 to 20 feet high, growing in the northern regions of South America; nat. ord. Rutaceæ. The bark is valuable as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also used for a kind of bitters. From this bark being adulterated, indeed sometimes entirely replaced, by the poisonous bark of Strychnos Nux-Vomica, its use as a medicine has been almost given up.

Angoulême (a˙n˙-gö-lām), an ancient town of Western France, capital of department Charente, on the Charente, 60 miles N.N.E. of Bordeaux, on the summit of a rocky hill. It has a fine old cathedral, built in the twelfth century and restored in 1875, a beautiful modern town hall, built in 1858, a lyceum, public library, natural history museum, &c. There are manufactures of paper, woollens, and linens; distilleries, sugar-works, tanneries, &c. Calvin lived here for three years (1527-30). Pop. 38,211.

Angra do Heroismo, the chief seaport of Terceira, one of the Azores, with the only convenient harbour in the whole group. It has a cathedral, a military college and arsenal, &c., and is the residence of the Governor-General of [171]the Azores, and of the foreign consuls. Pop. 10,057.

Angra Pequena (a˙n´gra˙ pe-kā´na˙; Port. 'little bay'), a bay on the coast of former German S.W. Africa, where the Bremen commercial firm Lüderitz in 1883 acquired a strip of territory and established a trading station. In 1884, notwithstanding some weak protests of the British, Germany took under her protection the whole coast territory from the Orange River to 26° S. lat., and soon after extended the protectorate to the Portuguese frontier, but not including the British settlement of Walvis Bay. Angra Pequena, called by the Germans Lüderitzbucht, was captured by the South African forces in Sept., 1915. See South-West Africa.

Angri (a˙n´grē), a town of Southern Italy, 12 miles N.W. of Salerno, in the centre of a region which produces grapes, cotton, and tobacco in great quantities. In the vicinity of Angri, Teias, King of the Ostrogoths, was defeated by Narses. Pop. 11,574.

Anguilla (an-gwil´la). See Eel.

Anguilla (ang-gil´a), or Snake Island, one of the British West India Islands, 60 miles N.E. of St. Kitts; about 20 miles long, with a breadth varying from 3 to 1¼ miles; area, 35 sq. miles. A little sugar, cotton, tobacco, and maize is grown. There is a saline lake in the centre, which yields salt. Pop. 4075, of whom 100 are white.

Anguis (ang´gwis). See Blind-worm.

Angus (ang´gus), a name of Forfarshire.

An´halt, formerly a duchy of North Germany, lying partly in the plains of the Middle Elbe, and partly in the valleys and uplands of the Lower Harz, and almost entirely surrounded by Prussia; area, 888 sq. miles. All sorts of grain, wheat especially, are grown in abundance; also flax, rape, potatoes, tobacco, hops, and fruit. Excellent cattle are bred. The inhabitants are principally occupied in agriculture, though there are some iron-works and manufactures of woollens, linens, beet-sugar, tobacco, &c. The dukes of Anhalt traced their origin to Bernard (1170-1212), son of Albert the Bear. In time the family split up into numerous branches, and the territory was afterwards held by three dukes (Anhalt-Köthen, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau). In 1863 the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau became sole heir to the three duchies. The united principality, incorporated in the German Empire, had one vote in the Bundesrath and two in the Reichstag. The executive power, previous to the changes resulting from the European War, was vested in the duke, and the legislative in a Diet of thirty-six members. The reigning duke in 1918 was Eduard, who succeeded his brother on 21st April, 1918. With the outbreak of the revolution in Germany in 1918 Anhalt became a republic, but its status in the German Republic still remains to be determined. Pop. (1919), 331,258, almost all Protestants. The chief towns are Dessau, Bernburg, Köthen, and Zerbst.

An´holt, an island belonging to Denmark, in the Cattegat, midway between Jutland and Sweden, 7 miles long, 4½ broad, largely covered with drift-sand, and surrounded by dangerous banks and reefs. Pop. 300.

Anhy´dride, a chemical term synonymous with acidic oxide (see Chemistry) and applied to those oxides which unite with water to form acids. They were formerly called anhydrous acids.

Anhy´drite, anhydrous sulphate of calcium, a mineral presenting several varieties of structure and colour. The vulpinite of Italy possesses a granular structure, resembling a coarse-grained marble, and is used in sculpture. Its colour is greyish-white, intermingled with blue.

Ani (ä´nē), a ruined city in Armenia, formerly the residence of the Armenian dynasty of the Bagratidæ, having in the eleventh century a population of 100,000 and 1000 churches. In the thirteenth century it was taken by the Tartars, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319.

Aniche (a˙-nēsh), a town or village in the French department Nord, arrondissement Douai, with coal-mines, glass-works, chemical-works, &c. Pop. 6927.

Aniene (a˙-nē-ā´nā). See Anio.

An´iline, C₆H₅NH₂, is an extremely important substance as it forms the starting-point in the preparation of a large number of substances. It was first prepared by Unverdorben, in 1826, by distillation of indigo. Aniline is present in small quantity in coal-tar, and is prepared commercially from benzene by transforming it by means of nitric acid into nitro-benzene and reducing this with scrap-iron and hydrochloric acid. The substance can also be prepared by reducing nitro-benzene electrolytically. It is a liquid of peculiar odour, boiling at 182° C., colourless when quite pure, but rapidly darkening in colour on standing, so that commercial aniline is usually dark-brown. It is a basic substance, and forms crystalline salts with acids. The salts, like aniline itself, become coloured on exposure to air. Aniline contains the characteristic chemical group NH₂, the amino group, and substances containing this group react with nitrous acid at 0° C., forming diazonium compounds; these combine readily with phenols, naphthols, and other amino compounds to form azo compounds, highly-coloured compounds many of which are dyes. Many dyes are prepared from aniline, e.g. rosaniline, magenta, methylene blue, aniline blue, &c., also some explosives, e.g. tetranitraniline, which is a powerful explosive prepared by nitrating aniline and the substance tetranitromethylaniline, [172]"tetryl", used in detonators. Several medicinal substances are also prepared from aniline, for instance, antifebrin and atoxyl.

An´ilism, aniline poisoning, a name given to the aggregate of symptoms which often show themselves in those employed in aniline works, resulting from the inhalation of aniline vapours. It may be either acute or chronic. In a slight attack of the former kind, the lips, cheeks, and ears become of a bluish colour, and the person's walk may be unsteady; in severe cases there is loss of consciousness. Chronic anilism is accompanied by derangement of the digestive organs and of the nervous system, headaches, eruptions on the skin, muscular weakness, &c.

Animal, an organized and sentient living being. Life in the earlier periods of natural history was attributed almost exclusively to animals. With the progress of science, however, it was extended to plants. In the case of the higher animals and plants there is no difficulty in assigning the individual to one of the two great kingdoms of organic nature, but in their lowest manifestations the vegetable and animal kingdoms are brought into such immediate contact that it becomes almost impossible to assign them precise limits, and to say with certainty where the one begins and the other ends. From form no absolute distinction can be fixed between animals and plants. Many animals, such as the sea-shrubs, sea-mats, &c., so resemble plants in external appearance that they were, and even yet popularly are, looked upon as such. With regard to internal structure no line of demarcation can be laid down, all plants and animals being, in this respect, fundamentally similar; that is, alike composed of molecular, cellular, and fibrous tissues. Neither are the chemical characters of animal and vegetable substances more distinct. Animals contain in their tissues and fluids a larger proportion of nitrogen than plants, whilst plants are richer in carbonaceous compounds than the former. In some animals, moreover, substances almost exclusively confined to plants are found. Thus the outer wall of the Sea-squirts contains cellulose, a substance largely found in plant-tissues; whilst chlorophyll, the colouring-matter of plants, occurs in Hydra and many other lower animals. Power of motion, again, though broadly distinctive of animals, cannot be said to be absolutely characteristic of them. Thus many animals, as oysters, sponges, corals, &c., in their mature condition are rooted or fixed, while the embryos of many plants, together with numerous fully-developed forms, are endowed with locomotive power by means of vibratile, hair-like processes called cilia. The distinctive points between animals and plants which are most to be relied on are those derived from the nature and mode of assimilation of the food. Plants feed on inorganic matters, consisting of water, ammonia, carbonic acid, and mineral matters. They can only take in food which is presented to them in a liquid or gaseous state. The exceptions to these rules are found chiefly in the case of plants which live parasitically on other plants or animals, in which cases the plant may be said to feed on organic matters, represented by the juices of their hosts. Animals, on the contrary, require organized matters for food. They feed either upon plants or upon other animals. But even carnivorous animals can be shown to be dependent upon plants for subsistence; since the animals upon which Carnivora prey are in their turn supported by plants. Animals, further, can subsist on solid food in addition to liquids and gases; but many animals (such as the Tapeworms) live by the mere imbibition of fluids which are absorbed by their tissues, such forms possessing no distinct digestive system. Animals require a due supply of oxygen gas for their sustenance, this gas being used in respiration. Plants, on the contrary, require carbonic acid. The animal exhales or gives out carbonic acid as the part result of its tissue-waste, whilst the plant, taking in this gas, is enabled to decompose it into its constituent carbon and oxygen. The plant retains the former for the uses of its economy, and liberates the oxygen, which is thus restored to the atmosphere for the use of the animal. Animals receive their food into the interior of their bodies, and assimilation takes place in their internal surfaces. Plants, on the other hand, receive their food into their external surfaces, and assimilation is effected in the external parts, as is exemplified in the leaf-surfaces under the influence of sunlight. Cf. T. J. Parker and W. A. Haswell, Text-Book of Zoology; Cambridge Natural History.

Animal Chemistry. See Chemistry.

Animalcule (an-i-mal´kūl), a general name given to many forms of animal life from their minute size. The larger examples are just visible to the naked eye, but most of them are strictly microscopic. Some are pigmented, but the majority are colourless. The term is not applicable to a particular zoological type, but it is customary to confine it to the 'Protozoa', 'Rotifera', or 'Wheel Animalcules'.

Animal Heat. All animals possess a certain amount of heat or temperature which is necessary for the performance of vital action. The only classes of animals in which a constantly-elevated temperature is kept up are birds and mammals. The bodily heat of the former varies from 39.4° to 43.9° C., and of the latter from 35.5° to 40.5° C. The mean or average heat of the human body is about 99° F., and it never falls much below this in health. Below birds, animals are named 'cold-blooded', this term meaning in its [173]strictly-physiological sense that their temperature is usually that of the medium in which they live, and that it varies with that of the surrounding medium. The temperature of 'warm-blooded' animals is remarkably constant, although there are individual variations. In man this variation is slight, amounting only to fractions of a degree. The cause of the evolution of heat in the animal body is referred to the union (by a process resembling ordinary combustion) of the carbon and hydrogen of the system with the oxygen taken in from the air in the process of respiration.

Animal Magnetism. See Hypnotism, Mesmer.

Animals, Cruelty to, an offence against which societies have been formed and laws passed in England and other countries. According to English law, if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, overdrive, abuse, or torture any domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding £5 for every such offence. Bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like are also prohibited. Provision is also made for the punishment of persons unlawfully and maliciously killing, maiming, or wounding cattle, dogs, birds, beasts, and other animals.

Animal Worship, a practice found to prevail, or to have prevailed, in the most widely-distant parts of the world, both the Old and the New, but nowhere to such an amazing extent as in ancient Egypt, notwithstanding its high civilization. Nearly all the more important animals found in the country were regarded as sacred in some part of Egypt, and the degree of reverence paid to them was such that throughout Egypt the killing of a hawk or an ibis, whether voluntary or not, was punished with death. The worship, however, was not, except in a few instances, paid to them as actual deities. The animals were merely regarded as sacred to the deities, and the worship paid to them was symbolical.

An´ima Mun´di. See Pantheism.

Animé (an´i-me), a resin obtained from the trunk of an American tree (Hymenæa Courbaril). It is of a transparent amber colour, has a light, agreeable smell, and is soluble in alcohol. It strongly resembles copal, and, like it, is used in making varnishes. See Copal.

An´imism, the system of medicine propounded by Stahl, and based on the idea that the soul (anima) is the seat of life. In modern usage the term is applied to express the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings, and especially to the tendency, common among savage races, to attribute souls or spirits to inanimate things, and to explain phenomena not due to obvious natural causes by attributing them to spiritual agency. Amongst the beliefs of animism is that of a human apparitional soul, bearing the form and appearance of the body, and living after death a sort of semi-human life.—Bibliography: Sir J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough; Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion.

Anio (now Aniēne or Teverōne), a river in Italy, a tributary of the Tiber, which it enters from the east a short distance above Rome, renowned for the natural beauties of the valley through which it flows, and for the remains of ancient buildings there situated, as the villas of Mæcenas and the Emperor Hadrian.

Anise (an´is; Pimpinella Anīsum), an annual plant of the nat. ord. Umbelliferæ, a native of Eastern Asia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean coasts, and cultivated in Spain, France, Italy, Malta, &c., whence the fruit, popularly called aniseed, is imported. This fruit is ovate, with ten narrow ribs, between which are oil-vessels. It has an aromatic smell, and is largely employed to flavour liqueurs (aniseed or anisette), sweetmeats, &c. Star-anise is the fruit of an evergreen Asiatic tree (Illicium anisātum), nat. ord. Magnoliaceæ, and is brought chiefly from China. Its flavour is similar to that of anise, and it is used for the same purposes. An essential oil is obtained from both kinds of anise, and is used for scenting soaps and in the preparation of cordials.

Anjou (a˙n˙-zhö), an ancient province of France, now forming the department of Maine-et-Loire, and parts of the departments of Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe; area, about 3000 sq. miles. In 1060 the province passed into the hands of the House of Gatinais, of which sprang Count Godfrey V, who, in 1127, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and so became the ancestor of the Plantagenet kings. Anjou remained in the possession of the English kings up to 1204, when John lost it to the French king Philip Augustus. In 1226 Louis VIII bestowed this province on his brother Charles; but in 1328 it was reunited to the French Crown. John I raised it to the rank of a duchy, and gave it to his son Louis. Henceforth it remained separate from the French Crown till 1480, when it fell to Louis XI.

Ankarström (a˙n´ka˙r-streum), Jan Jakob, the murderer of Gustavus III of Sweden, was born about 1762, and was at first a page in the Swedish Court, afterwards an officer in the royal bodyguard. He was a strenuous opponent of the sovereign's measures to restrict the privileges of the nobility, and joined Counts Horn and Ribbing in a plot to assassinate Gustavus. The assassination took place on 15th March, 1792. Ankarström was tried, tortured, and executed in April, dying boasting of his deed.

Anker, an obsolete measure used in Britain for spirits, beer, &c., containing 8½ imperial gallons. A measure of similar capacity was used in Germany and elsewhere in Europe. [174]

An´klam, a town in Prussia, province of Pomerania, 47 miles north-west of Stettin, on the River Peene, which is here navigable. Shipbuilding, woollen and cotton manufactures, soap-boiling, tanning, &c., are carried on. Pop. 15,280.

Anko´bar, or Anko´ber, a town in Abyssinia, former capital of Shoa, on a steep conical hill 8200 feet high. Pop. 2000.

Ankylo´sis, or Anchylo´sis, stiffness of the joints caused by a more or less complete coalescence of the bones through ossification, often the result of inflammation or injury. False ankylosis is stiffness of a joint when the disease is not in the joint itself, but in the tendinous and muscular parts by which it is surrounded.

Ankylostomi´asis, a 'worm disease' to which miners are subject in some localities, is caused by vast numbers of small parasitic worms (Ankylostoma or Anchylostoma duodenale) in the duodenum or upper portions of the intestinal canal. Deriving their sustenance from the system, these worms produce anæmia or bloodlessness (that is, deficiency of the red corpuscles of the blood), the sufferers being pallid, feeble, short-breathed, liable to faint, and unequal to any laborious work, and death may result if a cure is not effected. Fortunately the disease is not difficult to cure if the remedies are applied—remedies such as will expel the worms from the intestine. The disease is said to be common in tropical and sub-tropical countries all over the world. In Europe it was perhaps first observed in 1879 in the case of workmen engaged in excavating the St. Gothard tunnel. Since 1896 it has been well known in some of the German mines; and in 1903 it was detected among the miners engaged in the Dolcoath mine in Cornwall. The eggs of the worms are carried from the body with the fæces; under favourable circumstances they develop into larvæ, which may gain entrance again into the human body by the mouth (perhaps in drinking-water), to attain full development in the intestine. Careful sanitary arrangements are a preventive of the disease, which is also known as 'miner's worm', 'miner's anæmia', &c.

Ann, or Annat, in Scottish law, the half-year's stipend of a living, after the death of the clergyman, payable to his family or next of kin. The right to the ann is not vested in the clergyman himself, but in his representatives; and, accordingly, it can neither be disposed of by him nor attached for his debts.

Anna, an Anglo-Indian money of account, the sixteenth part of a rupee, and of the value of one penny; it is divided into four pice.

An´naberg, a town in Saxony, 47 miles south-west of Dresden. Mining (for silver, cobalt, iron, &c.) is carried on, and there are manufactures of lace, ribbons, fringes, buttons, &c. Pop. 17,025.

Anna Comne´na, daughter of Alexius I, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. She was born 1083, and died 1148. After her father's death she endeavoured to secure the succession for her husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but was baffled by his want of energy and ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life of her father Alexius (The Alexiad, a work in fifteen books). She is a character in Sir Walter Scott's Count Robert of Paris.

Anna Ivanov´na, Empress of Russia, born in 1693, the daughter of Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke of Courland, in the following year was left a widow, and in 1730 ascended the throne of the tsars on the condition proposed by the senate, that she would limit the absolute power of the tsars, and do nothing without the advice of the council composed of the leading members of the Russian aristocracy. But no sooner had she ascended the throne than she declared her promise null, and proclaimed herself autocrat of all the Russias. She chose as her favourite Ernest John von Biren or Biron, who was soon all-powerful in Russia, and ruled with great severity. Several of the leading nobles were executed, and many thousand men exiled to Siberia. In 1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose Biren as their duke, and nominated him at her death regent of the empire during the minority of Prince Ivan (of Brunswick). Anna died in 1740. See Biren.

An´nals, a history of events in chronological order, each event being recorded under the year in which it occurred. The name is derived from the first annual records of the Romans, which were called annāles pontificum or annāles maxĭmi, drawn up by the pontifex maximus (chief pontiff). The practice of keeping such annals was afterwards adopted also by various private individuals, as by Fabius Pictor, Calpurnius Piso, and others. The name hence came to be applied in later times to historical works in which the matter was treated with special reference to chronological arrangement, as to the Annals of Tacitus.

Annam´, a country of Asia occupying the east side of the South-eastern or Indo-Chinese Peninsula, along the China Sea. It comprises Tonquin in the north, Annam (in a narrower sense), and Cochin-China farther south; with the inland territory of the Laos tribes: together, area, 170,000 sq. miles; pop. 15,000,000, 9,000,000 being in Tonquin. In the narrow sense Annam now denotes the country between Tonquin and French Cochin-China, under the nominal rule of a native king (the present ruler, Khai-Dinh, succeeded to the throne in 1916). Annam has an [175]area of 52,100 sq. miles. Pop. (1919), 5,952,000, including 2117 Europeans. The coast is considerably indented, especially at the mouths of the rivers, where it affords many commodious harbours. Tonquin is mountainous on the north, but in the east is nearly level, terminating towards the sea in an alluvial plain yielding good crops of rice, cotton, fruits, ginger, and spices, and a great variety of varnish trees, palms, &c. The principal river is the Song-ka, which has numerous tributaries, many of them being joined together by canals, both for irrigation and commerce. Tonquin is rich in gold, silver, copper, and iron. Annam (in the narrow sense) is, generally speaking, unproductive, but contains many fertile spots, in which grain, leguminous plants, sugar-cane, cinnamon, &c., are produced in great abundance. Agriculture is the chief occupation, but many of the inhabitants are engaged in the spinning and weaving of cotton and silk into coarse fabrics, the preparation of varnish, iron-smelting, and the construction of ships or junks. The inhabitants are said to be the ugliest of the Mongoloid races of the peninsula, being under the middle size and less robust than the surrounding peoples. Their language is monosyllabic, and is connected with the Chinese. The religion of the majority is Buddhism, but the educated classes hold the doctrines of Confucius. The principal towns are Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, and Huë, the capital of the kingdom and formerly of the whole empire. Annam was conquered by the Chinese in 214 B.C., but in A.D. 1428 it completely won its independence. The French began to interfere actively in its affairs in 1847 on the plea of protecting the native Christians. By the treaties of 1862 and 1867 they obtained the southern and most productive part of Cochin-China, subsequently known as French Cochin-China; and in 1874 they obtained large powers over Tonquin, notwithstanding the protests of the Chinese. Finally, in 1883, Tonquin was ceded to France, and next year Annam was declared a French protectorate. After a short period of hostilities with China the latter recognized the French claims, and Tonquin is now a French colony, while the kingdom of Annam is, since 1886, entirely under French direction. Cf. F. R. Eberhardt, Guide de l' Annam.

Annamaboe (-bō´), a seaport in Western Africa, on the Gold Coast, 10 miles east of Cape Coast Castle, with some trade in gold-dust, ivory, palm-oil, &c. Pop. about 5000.

An´nan, a royal and police burgh in Scotland, on the Annan, a little above its entrance into the Solway Firth, one of the Dumfries district of burghs. Pop. 3928.—The River Annan is a stream 40 miles long running through the central division of Dumfriesshire, to which it gives the name of Annandale.

Annap´olis, the capital of Maryland, United States, on the Severn, near its mouth in Chesapeake Bay. It contains a college (St. John's), a state-house, and the United States Naval Academy. Pop. (1920), 11,214.

Annap´olis, a small town in Nova Scotia, on an inlet of the Bay of Fundy, with an important traffic by railway and steamboat. It is one of the oldest European settlements in America, dating from 1604.

Ann Arbor, a town of Michigan, United States, on the Huron River, about 40 miles west of Detroit; the seat of the State university. It has flour-mills, and it manufactures woollens, iron, and agricultural implements. Pop. 19,516.

Annates (an´nāts), a year's income claimed for many centuries by the Pope on the death of any bishop, abbot, or parish priest, to be paid by his successor. In England they were at first paid to the Archbishop of Canterbury, but were afterwards appropriated by the Popes. In 1532 the Parliament gave them to the Crown; but in 1703 Queen Anne restored them to the Church by applying them to the augmentation of poor livings. See Queen Anne's Bounty.

Annat´to, or Annato, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of Bixa Orellāna, a shrub native to tropical America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto approaches very [176]nearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.

Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve.

Anne (of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in 1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement, and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.

Annealing (an-ēl´ing), a process to which many articles of metal and glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses, and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the articles in oil.

Annecy (a˙n-sē), an ancient town in France, department of Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva; contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware. Pop. 15,622.—The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad.

Annel´ida, or Annulata, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division. They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by external branchiæ, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of motion consist of bristles or setæ, which are usually attached to the lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot processes' or parapodia. The number of body segments varies. As many as 400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is developed, consisting of a mouth—armed with horny jaws and a protrusible proboscis—gizzard, stomach, and intestine. See Earth-worm, Leech, &c.

Annexation, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not only to the extension of a State's sovereignty [177]over adjoining territory, but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain.

Annfield Plain, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England, Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524.

Annobon´, or Annobom, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop. 2000.

Annonay (a˙n-o-nā), a town in southern France, department of Ardèche, 37 miles S.S.W. of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most important town of Ardèche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.

An´nual, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats.

An´nual, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was the Forget-me-not, started in 1822, and followed next year by the Friendship's Offering. The Literary Souvenir was commenced in 1824, and the Keepsake in 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington, Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about 1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 the Keepsake, the last of the series, ceased to exist.

Annual Register, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day. There was also an Edinburgh Annual Register, the historical part of which was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827.

Annu´ity, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity; or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser, to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he does not know how long [178]he is to live, he agrees with the Government or an annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate annuity of £100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, £2279, 3s. 4d.; for females of same age, £2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, £2045, 8s. 4d., for females, £2258, 6s. 8d.; for males of 40 years, £1789, 6s. 8d.; for females, £1990; for males of 60, £1148, 6s. 8d.; females, £1275, 8s. 4d.; and so on. Deferred annuities, that is, such as have their first payments postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give the rates for an annuity of £100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, £848, 6s. 8d.; females, £1014, 13s. 4d.; males aged 35, £557, 1s. 8d.; females, £697, 1s. 8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the purchase-money is necessarily higher. See Insurance.—Bibliography: Baily, Life Annuities and Assurances; J. Henry, Government Life Annuity Commutation Tables.

Annuloi´da, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms, &c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation.

Annulo´sa, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.

Annunciation, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary informing her that she was to become the mother of our Lord.—Annunciation or Lady Day is a feast of the Church in honour of the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.—The Italian order of Knights of the Annunciation was instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy, in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank, and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus. The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed on the roses, and standing for Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit (its bravery held Rhodes).—There are two orders of nuns of the Annunciation, one originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian, founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.

Annunzio (a˙n-nu¨nt´syō), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism. In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a schoolboy with a volume of verse called Primo Vere, to which others—naturally much more mature—were subsequently added. Several of his novels have been published in English, as: The Child of Pleasure, The Victim, The Triumph of Death, The Virgin of the Rocks, The Fire of Life. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later in life. Among them Gioconda, The Dead City, and Francesca da Rimini may be read in English versions, and Gioconda and Francesca have been performed on the English stage. His more recent works include: Le Martyr de Saint Sebastien (1911), Le Chèvrefeuille (1914), La Beffa di Buccari (1918), Notturno (1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid and occupied the port of Fiume. See European War and Fiume.

An´oa, an animal (Anoa depressicornis) closely allied to the buffalo, about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead.

Ano´bium, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-called death-watch ticking. A. striātum, a common species, when frightened, is much given to feigning death.

An´ode, (Gr. ana, up, hodos, way), the positive pole of the voltaic current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the electric current enters: opposed to cathode (Gr. kata, down, hodos, way), the way by which it departs.

An´odon, or Anodon´ta, a genus of [179]lamellibranchiate bivalves, including the fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. See Mussel.

An´odyne, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain.

Anointing, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed. From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings were anointed when inducted into office, and were called the anointed of the Lord, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style him Messias, that is, the Anointed, which is also the meaning of his Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also frequently a part of the coronation of kings.

Anom´alure (Anomalūrus), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a telegraph pole to set the wires.

Anom´aly, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. The anomalistic year is the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion, the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000 years.

Anomu´ra, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and others.

Ano´na, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceæ. A. squamōsa (sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp. A. muricāta (sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common custard-apple or bullock's heart, from A. reticulāta, and the cherimoyer of Peru, from A. Cherimolia.

Anona´ceæ, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished from the Magnoliaceæ, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally aromatic. See Anona.

Anoplothe´rium, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds, forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in the jaw. A. commūne, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.

Anoplu´ra, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus Pedicŭlus or louse, [180]

Anopshehr. See Anupshahr.

Anorexia. See Appetite.

Anos´mia, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.

Anoura. See Anura.

Anquetil-Duperron (a˙nk-tēl-du˙-pā-ron˙), Abraham Hyacinthe, a French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published his Zend-Avesta, a translation of the Vendidad, and other sacred books, which aroused much interest. Among his other works are L'Inde en rapport avec l'Europe (1790), and a selection from the Vedas. His knowledge of the Oriental languages was by no means exact.

Ansbach. See Anspach.

An´selm, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first philosophical and religious works: the dialogues on Truth and Free-will, and the treatises Monologion and Proslogion; and at the same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitled Cur Deus Homo (Why God was made Man). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled; but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be exaggerated. The chief of his writings are the Monologion, the Proslogion, and the Cur Deus Homo. The first is an attempt to prove inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the deductive method; the Cur Deus Homo is intended to prove the necessity of the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400 letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion, Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls Series'. See Scholasticism. Cf. Père Ragey, Histoire de Saint Anselme; J. M. Rigg, Anselm of Canterbury.

Ans´gar, or Anshar, called the Apostle of the North, born in 801 in Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.

An´son, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762. He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In 1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was now reduced to one ship, the Centurion, but with it he took the Spanish treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with treasure to the amount of £500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His adventures and discoveries are described in the well-known Anson's Voyage, [181]compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquière, near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to convey the queen of George III to England.

Anso´nia, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643.

Anspach (a˙n´spa˙h), or Ansbach, a town in Bavaria, at the junction of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nürnberg. Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares, &c. Pop. 19,995.

An´sted, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years.

An´ster, John, LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin, born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe's Faust, Part I, 1835; Part II, 1864.

An´stey, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He was author of The New Bath Guide, a humorous and satirical production describing fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now almost forgotten.

Anstruther (an´struth-ėr; popularly an´stėr), Easter and Wester, two small royal and police burghs of Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with the contiguous royal burgh of Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing and seaport town. Total pop. (1921), 4641.

Ant, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) insects of various genera, of the family Formicĭdæ, of which there are numerous species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most temperate and tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and have long been noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting habits. They are social insects, living in communities regulated by definite laws, each member of the society bearing a well-defined and separate part in the work of the colony. Each community consists of males; of females much larger than the males; and of barren females, otherwise called neuters, workers, or nurses. The neuters are wingless, and the males and females only acquire wings for their 'nuptial flight', after which the males perish, and the few females which escape the pursuit of their numerous enemies divest themselves of their wings, and either return to established nests, or become the foundresses of new colonies. The neuters perform all the labours of the ant-hill or abode of the community; they excavate the galleries, procure food, and feed the larvæ or young ants, which have not got organs of motion. In fine weather they carefully convey them to the surface for the benefit of the sun's heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of safety either when bad weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed. In like manner they watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupæ about to acquire their perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of neuters, known as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon them, and from their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable variety in the materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according to the peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants form nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in the form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (Myrmīca domestica) is common in houses in Britain in some localities. Some [182]ants live on animal food, very quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead animal they may light on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very fond of the sweet substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the bodies of aphides, or plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their nests, and sometimes tend on the plants where they feed; sometimes they even superintend their breeding. By stroking the aphides with their antennæ they cause them to emit the sweet fluid, which the ants then greedily sip up. Various other insects are looked after by ants in a similar manner, or are found in their nests. It has been observed that some species, like the European Red Ant (Formīca sanguinĕa), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other species for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of their larvæ and pupæ, which they carry off to their own nests to be carefully reared and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and female ants survive, at most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool weather, though a very large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, and of course require no food. The only time when they require food is during the season of activity, when they have a vast number of young to feed. Some ants of Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in their nests for use when required. Some species have stings as weapons, others only their powerful mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid (formic acid) which they can emit. The name ant is also given to the neuropterous insects otherwise called Termites (q.v.). Bibliography: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), Ants, Bees, and Wasps; H. W. Bates, A Naturalist on the Amazons; Cambridge Natural History.

Antac´id, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia and diarrhœa are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and the carbonates of potash and soda.

Antæ´us, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and Gē (the Earth), who was invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles (Hercules) grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in the air, thus preventing him from touching the earth.

Antakieh, or Antakia. See Antioch.

Antal´kali, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is used medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All true acids have this power.

Antananarivo (an-tan-an-a-rē´vō), the capital of Madagascar, situated in the central province of Imérina, on rocky eminences rising from a plain. Until 1869 all buildings within the city were of wood or rush, but since the introduction of brick and stone, the whole city has been rebuilt. It contains two former royal palaces, immense timber structures; a Protestant and a Roman Catholic cathedral, mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo is the residence of the French governor of Madagascar, and there is a strong French garrison. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk, &c. Pop. (exclusive of the troops) 63,115.

An´tar, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, author of one of the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; hero of a romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian legend of the English. The romance of Antar is composed in rhythmic prose interspersed with fragments of verse, many of which are attributed to Antar himself, and has been generally ascribed to Asmai (born A.D. 740, died about A.D. 830), preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo (1889).

Antarctic (ant-ärk´tik), a term signifying the opposite of Arctic, and therefore relating to the southern pole or to the regions near it. The Antarctic Circle, which of course corresponds to the Arctic Circle, is a circle parallel to the equator and distant from the south pole 23° 28´, marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or near the Antarctic Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area around the south pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has been hitherto baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable ice-barrier, which in some places is connected with masses of land and may as a whole belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that have long been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge of them is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names Graham Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland Islands, &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable than the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the maritime nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration, the south pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. See South Polar Expeditions.

Ant-eater, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey chiefly on ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecophăga, ord. Edentata. In this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws destitute of teeth, and the mouth furnished with a long, extensile [183]tongue covered with glutinous saliva, by the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey. The eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs, especially the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed, acute nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most remarkable species is the Myrmecophăga jubāta, or ant-bear, a native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black bushy tail, which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long hair, particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary animal, and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for climbing trees in quest of the insects on which they feed, having prehensile tails. All are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is also given to the pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia is sometimes called porcupine ant-eater.

Antece´dent, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other pronoun refers; as, Solomon was the prince who built the temple, where the word prince is the antecedent of who.—In logic, that member of a hypothetical or conditional proposition which contains the condition, and which is introduced by if or some equivalent word or words; as, if the sun is fixed, the earth must move. Here the first and conditional proposition is the antecedent, the second the consequent.

Antedilu´vian, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; relating to what happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to extinct animals such as the palæotherium, the mastodon, &c.

An´telope, the name given to the members of a large family of Ruminant Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in general appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals. They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the Cavicornia or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the Deer, are not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are often twisted spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in greatest number and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois (European), the gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the springbok, the sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America.

Anten´næ, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and hearing attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and commonly called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms.

Antequera (a˙n-te-kā´ra˙), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. Pop. 32,360.

Ant´eros, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According to some, however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; he was also said to punish those who did not return the love of others.

Anthe´lion, pl. Anthelia, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer, especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, 50 or 60 yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to the diffraction of light.

Anthelmin´thics, or Anthelmin´tics, a class of remedies used to destroy worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as vermicides or vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, or to expel them by purgation.

An´them, originally a hymn sung in alternate [184]parts; in modern usage, a sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church service in Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for one, two, or any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may or may not have an organ accompaniment written for it.

Anthe´mion, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and Roman decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, &c.

An´themis, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile or chamomile.

Anthe´mius, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; designed the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with the invention of the dome; died A.D. 534.

An´ther, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen which is filled with pollen.

Antheste´ria, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all the gods, but especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the beginning of spring, and the season when the wine of the previous vintage was considered fit for use.

Anthocy´anin, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained from those petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits of wine.

Anthol´ogy (Gr. anthos, a flower, and legein, to gather), the name given to several collections of short poems which have come down from antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was Meleager, a Syrian, about 60 B.C. He entitled his collection, which contained selections from forty-six poets besides many pieces of his own, the Garland; a continuation of this work by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius was the first entitled Anthology. Later collections are that of Constantine Cephalas, in the tenth century, who made much use of the earlier ones, and that of Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a monk of Constantinople, whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts from the Anthology of Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and other works, have been published in modern times as the Greek Anthology. There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that of Scaliger (1573).

An´thon, Charles, LL.D., an American editor of classical school-books, and of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature; born 1797, died 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New York.

An´thony, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near Heraclea, in Upper Egypt, A.D. 251. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert, where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first community of monks. He died at the age of 105.—St. Anthony's Fire, a name given to erysipelas.

An´thracene (C₁₄H₁₀) occurs in coal-tar in small quantity, about 0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of tar a high-boiling fraction, boiling above 270° C., is obtained; this is crude anthracene oil, a greenish oily substance which, on further distillation, yields a crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is carefully purified by distillation and chemical treatment to separate the anthracene from the other substances occurring with it, and the product obtained is finally purified by crystallization. When pure it forms colourless crystalline scales melting at 216° C., and having a violet fluorescence. It forms a series of derivatives, the most important being anthraquinone and alizarine and the numerous derivatives of these. Anthracene was originally a useless product in coal-tar distillation, but it became valuable as soon as it was discovered that alizarine—from which many dyes are manufactured directly or indirectly—could be prepared from it.

An´thracite, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an average, 90 per cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has some of the properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, represents an extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of gases, either during conditions of decay or after entombment among stratified rocks. It is found in England, [185]Scotland, and Ireland, and in large quantities in the United States (Pennsylvania), and near Swansea (South Wales). See Coal.

An´thrax, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always associated with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism (Bacillus anthrăcis) in the blood. It attacks cattle more frequently than other animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are liable to anthrax, but not cats. The mode of infection in animals is chiefly by ingestion. It may also be contracted through a wound or scratch in the skin, but this mode of infection is commoner in human beings than in animals. It frequently assumes an epizootic form, and extends over large districts, affecting all classes of animals which are exposed to the exciting causes. It is also called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle, malignant pustule, or wool-sorter's disease.

Anthropol´atry, the worship of man, a word always employed in reproach; applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect humanity, towards the orthodox Christians.

Anthro´polite, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or of parts of the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and hence hardly to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.

Anthropol´ogy, the science of man, including the study of man's place in nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and divergence from other animals and the history of the emergence of human characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical distribution of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the remains of extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to their modes of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have man for their object, as anatomy, palæontology, psychology, archæology, history, and comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now living, much as they differ in external appearance, such as colour of skin, character of hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, belong to one species, Homo Sapiens; but an earlier species of more brutal type, H. neanderthalensis, now completely extinct, is known from fossil remains found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Croatia. Three more ancient and primitive types, probably representing distinct genera of the human family, have been discovered respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex (Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near Heidelberg (Palæanthropus), and in Java, the Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). The Piltdown man may represent the very remote, but direct, ancestor of modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man were probably divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the modern type.

In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human family, and was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably differentiated into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. Of existing races the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, and represents the survival of the earliest type of Homo Sapiens soon after this species became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal species. The negro, whose home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some respects, but in others is highly specialized. He is distinguished by his black skin, flat nose, prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and so-called 'woolly' or 'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider range of variation than any other race, including, as he does, the tallest and the shortest varieties of mankind. The Bushman is a peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted to the deserts of South Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than black, he is akin to the negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its distinctive features, yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic facial and bodily traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of America was sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race. The so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a taller people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a short, thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its way from Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief components of Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the world intermixture has been taking place in varying degrees between the different races of mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. See Ethnography, Ethnology, Man, &c.—Bibliography: E. B. Tylor, Anthropology; D. G. Brinton, Races and Peoples; W. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe; E. Carpenter, Anthropology; G. Elliott Smith, The Migrations of Early Culture; H. G. F. Spurrell, Modern Man and his Forerunners; Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques; The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain.

Anthropom´etry, the systematic examination of the height, weight, and other physical characteristics of the human body. It was shown in the British Association Report of 1888 that variations in stature, weight, and complexion, existing in different districts of the British islands, are chiefly due to difference of racial origin.

The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh last (66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 lb.), the Welsh the second [186](158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 lb.), and the Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult females is 4.71 inches less than the male average, and their average weight 32.2 lb. under that of the males. The average height of the adult males of the principal races or nationalities of the world may be given as under; but it is acknowledged that more numerous measurements might alter some of the figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, Patagonians 69 inches, Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28 inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States (whites) 67.67 inches, English 67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66 inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 inches, American Negroes 66.62 inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches, Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs 66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66 inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches, Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese 63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches, Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. General average, 65.25 inches.

Anthropomor´phism, the representation or conception of the Deity under a human form, or with human attributes and affections. Anthropomorphism is based upon the natural inaptitude of the human mind for conceiving spiritual things except through sensuous images, and in its consequent tendency to accept such expressions as those of Scripture when it speaks of the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his remembering and forgetting, of his making man in his own image, &c., in a too literal sense. In a general sense anthropomorphism is the assumption of man that his own characteristics are present in beings or things widely different from himself, more particularly in forces of nature and gods. The term is, therefore, also applied to that doctrine which attributes to animals mental faculties of the same nature as those of man, though much lower in degree: strictly called biological anthropomorphism, to distinguish it from anthropomorphism proper, or theological anthropomorphism. Cf. E. Caird, Evolution of Religion; J. R. Illingworth, Personality, Human and Divine.

Anthropoph´agi, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was practised in very ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New Zealanders and Fijians, have given it up in recent times, it is still practised over a wide area in Central Africa, where human flesh is a common article of food. Superstitious ideas are often associated with cannibalism among those who practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the time of the Spanish conquest, and the word 'cannibal' is derived from their name. See Cannibalism.

Anthus. See Pipit.

Anti-aircraft guns are guns so mounted that they may be pointed upward to fire directly against objects in the air. During the European War these guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used for defence against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. The anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light machine-guns up to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have brought down enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet.

Antibes (a˙n˙-tēb) (ancient Antipolis), a fortified town and seaport of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 11 miles S.S.W. of Nice; founded about 340 B.C. Pop. 12,198.

Anti-burgher Synod, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, which held its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on 10th April, 1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from a controversy respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath were designated Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath of the burgesses, became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher and anti-burgher sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions of John Jamieson, minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson Street, Edinburgh. See United Free Church of Scotland.

An´tichlor, the name given to any chemical substance, such as hyposulphite of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine which obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are bleached by means of chlorine.

An´tichrist, a word occurring in the first and second Epistles of St. John, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages having an evident reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned or alluded to in various other passages both of the Old and New Testaments. The idea itself, however, of Antichrist can be traced back to the second century B.C., and appears first of all in the Book of Daniel. In every age the Church has held through all its sects some definite expectation of a formidable adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name. Thus Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the spirit of prophecy, of danger to the true [187]religion from some disaffection and revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most modern critics take a different view of the matter. They do not regard the various Scriptural writers who have dealt with this subject as having had any common inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from his own point of view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in his predictions to his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as prediction what he already knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else than the incarnate devil, and the idea of the battle of God with a human opponent, endowed with devilish wickedness, arose under the influence of historical conditions. It is the near political horizon which suggests the danger, or contemporary history the substance of the prophecy; thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, that of St. Paul some adversary of Christianity about to appear in the time of the Emperor Claudius.—Bibliography: S. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages; W. Bousset, Antichrist.

Anticli´max, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from lofty to mean thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in Pope's Martinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetry as from an anonymous author:

Pope, Addison, and Fielding were masters in this art of sudden descent.

Anticli´nal line or axis, in geology, the ridge of a wave-like curve made by a series of superimposed strata, the strata dipping from it on either side as from the ridge of a house: a synclinal line runs along the trough of such a wave.

Anti-Corn-Law League, an association formed in England in 1836 to procure the repeal of the laws regulating or forbidding the importation of corn. The object of the league was attained in 1846.

Anticos´ti, an island of Canada, in the mouth of the St. Lawrence, 125 miles long by 30 miles broad. The interior is mountainous and wooded, but there is much good land, and it is well adapted for agriculture.

Anticy´clone, a phenomenon presenting some features opposite to those of a cyclone. It consists of a region of high barometric pressure, the pressure being greatest in the centre, with light winds flowing outwards from the centre, and not inwards as in the cyclone, accompanied with great cold in winter and with great heat in summer.

Anticyra (an-tis'i-ra), the name of two towns of Greece, the one in Thessaly, the other in Phocis, famous for hellebore, which in ancient times was regarded as a specific against insanity and melancholy. Hence various jocular allusions in ancient writers (Naviga Anticyram, sail to Anticyra).

An´tidote, a medicine to counteract the effects of poison.

Antietam (an-tē'tam), a small stream in the United States which falls into the Potomac about 50 miles N.W. of Washington; scene of an indecisive battle between the Federal and Confederate armies, 17th Sept., 1862.

Anti-Federalists, the political party in the United States which after the formation of the Federal constitution in 1787 opposed its ratification. Whilst the Federalists were striving to turn the federation into a united nation, and stood for a strong Government and centralizing tendencies, their opponents, the Anti-Federalists, either more democratic, or pretending that a strong Government meant a 'disguised' monarchic power, endeavoured to preserve a loose disintegrated federation. The Anti-Federalist party was gradually transformed into the Democratic-Republican party, led by Jefferson.

Antifriction Metal, a name given to various alloys of tin, zinc, copper, antimony, lead, &c., which oppose little resistance to motion, with great resistance to the effects of friction, so far as concerns the wearing away of the surfaces of contact. Babbitt's metal (50 parts tin, 5 antimony, 1 copper) is one of them.

Antigone (an-tig´o-nē), in Greek mythology, the daughter of Œdipus and Jocasta, celebrated for her devotion to her brother Polynices, for burying whom against the decree of King Creon she suffered death. She is the heroine of Sophocles' Œdipus at Colonus and his Antigone; also of Racine's tragedy Les Frères Ennemis.

Antig´onish, a town in the E. of Nova Scotia, in county of the same name; the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with a cathedral, a college, and a good harbour. Pop. 1787.

Antig´onus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great, born about 382 B.C. In the division of the empire, after the death of Alexander, Antigonus obtained Greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia as his dominion. But he soon managed to extend his power, being assisted by his warlike son, Demetrius Poliorcētēs. Ptolemy, [188]Seleucus, and Lysimachus, who had also been generals of Alexander, alarmed by his ambition, united themselves against him; and a long series of contests ensued in Syria, Phœnicia, Asia Minor, and Greece, ending in 301 B.C. with the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus was defeated and slain, his dominions being divided among the conquerors.

Antigonus Gon´atas, son of Demetrius Poliorcētēs, and grandson of the above, succeeded his father in the kingdom of Macedon and all his other European dominions, but did not obtain actual possession of them for some years. He died, after a reign of forty-four years, 239 B.C.

Antigua (an-tē´gwa), one of the British West Indies, the most important of the Leeward group; 28 miles long, 20 broad; area, 108 sq. miles. Its shores are high and rocky, and much indented by creeks and inlets furnishing several good harbours. The surface is diversified by hill and dale, but nowhere rises to a greater height than 1500 feet. A considerable portion of it is fertile, and the climate is healthy, but there is a scarcity of water, there being no streams and few springs, droughts are not infrequent, and hurricanes are apt to cause serious loss and damage. Chief products are sugar, cotton, and pineapples. The island has fairly good shipping connections with the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. Antigua is governed as a crown colony, the Islands of Barbuda and Redonda being attached to it. The capital, St. John, the residence of the governor of the Leeward Islands, stands on the shore of a well-sheltered harbour in the north-west part of the island. Falmouth (English Harbour) in the south has also an excellent harbour with a dockyard. The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493; the first settlement was made by the English in 1632. Since then, except for a short period of occupation by the French, it has been a British possession. Pop. 32,269 (1911).

Anti-Jac´obin, a famous magazine (1797-1818), the original object of which was to satirize the Jacobin principles of the Fox section of Whigs; principal contributors: Gifford, Canning, Frere, and Ellis.

Anti-Lebanon, the eastern of the two parallel ranges known as the Mountains of Lebanon in Palestine. See Lebanon.

Antilegom´ena (things spoken against or objected to), a term applied by early Christian writers to the Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 Peter, James, Jude, 2 and 3 John, and the Apocalypse, which, though read in the churches, were not for some time received into the canon of Scripture.

Antilles (an-til´ēz), another name for the West Indian Islands (excluding Bahamas). See West Indies.

Antilochus (an-til´o-kus), in Greek legend, a son of Nestor, distinguished among the younger heroes who took part in the Trojan War by beauty, bravery, and swiftness of foot. He was slain by Memnon, but Achilles avenged his death.

Antimacass´ar, a covering for chairs, sofas, couches, &c., made of open cotton or worsted work, to preserve them from being soiled, as by the oil applied to the hair.

Antimachus (an-tim´a-kus), a Greek poet who lived about 400 B.C., and wrote an epic called the Thebais on the mythical history of Thebes, and a long elegy called Lydē, inspired by a mistress or wife of that name. Both works were full of mythological details. Only fragments of his writings remain, and from these it can be gathered that his style was rather laboured and artificial. Yet the Alexandrian grammarians ranked him next to Homer.

An´timony (chemical symbol, Sb, from Lat. stibium; sp. gr. 6.7, atomic wt. 120.2), a brittle metal of a bluish-white or silver-white colour and a crystalline or laminated structure. It melts at 630.6° C., and burns with a bluish-white flame. The mineral called stibnite or antimony-glance, is a tri-sulphide (Sb₂S₃), and is the chief ore from which the metal is obtained. It is found in many places, including France, Spain, Hungary, Italy, Canada, Australia, and Borneo. The metal, or, as it was formerly called, the regulus of antimony, does not rust or tarnish when exposed to the air. When alloyed with other metals it hardens them, and is therefore used in the manufacture of alloys, such as Britannia-metal, type-metal, and pewter. In bells it renders the sound more clear; it renders tin more white and sonorous as well as harder, and gives to printing types more firmness and smoothness. The salts of antimony are very poisonous. The protoxide is the active base of tartar emetic and James's powder, and is justly regarded as a most valuable remedy in many diseases.—Yellow antimony is a preparation of antimony of a deep yellow colour, used in enamel and porcelain painting. It is of various tints, and the brilliancy of the brighter hues is not affected by foul air.

Antino´mianism ('opposition to the law'), the name given by Luther to the inference drawn by John Agricola (1492-1566), from the doctrine of justification by faith, that the moral law is not binding on Christians as a rule of life. The term antinomian has since been applied to all doctrines and practices which seem to contemn or discountenance strict moral obligations. The Lutherans and Calvinists have both been charged with antinomianism, the former on account of their doctrine of justification by faith, the latter both on this ground and that of the doctrine of predestination. The charge is, of course, vigorously repelled by both.

Antin´omy, the opposition of one law or rule [189]to another law or rule; in the Kantian philosophy, that natural contradiction which results from the law of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, we seek to conceive the complex of external phenomena, or nature, as a world or cosmos.

Antinous (an-tin´o-us), a young Bithynian whom the extravagant love of Hadrian has immortalized. He drowned himself in the Nile in A.D. 122. Hadrian set no bounds to his grief for his loss. He gave his name to a newly-discovered star, erected temples in his honour, called a city after him, and caused him to be adored as a god throughout the empire. Statues, busts, &c., of him are numerous.

Antioch (an´ti-ok), a town in Syria, famous in ancient times as the capital of the Greek Kings of Syria, on the left bank of the Orontes, about 21 miles from the sea, in a beautiful and fertile plain. It was founded by Seleucus Nicator in 300 B.C., and named after his father Antiochus. In Roman times it was the seat of the Syrian governors, and the centre of a widely-extended commerce. It was called the 'Queen of the East' and 'The Beautiful'. Antioch is frequently mentioned in the New Testament, and it was here that the disciples of our Saviour were first called Christians (Acts, xi, 26). In the first half of the seventh century it was taken by the Saracens, and in 1098 by the Crusaders. They established the principality of Antioch, of which the first ruler was Bohemond, and which lasted till 1268, when it was taken by the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. In 1516 it passed into the hands of the Turks. The modern Antioch, or Antakieh, has recently grown from a small place to a flourishing town. Pop. estimated at 30,000.—There was another Antioch, in Pisidia, at which St. Paul preached on his first missionary journey.

Antiochus (an-tī´o-kus), a name of several Græco-Syrian kings of the dynasty of the Seleucĭdæ.—Antiochus I, called Sōtēr ('saviour'), was the son of Seleucus, general of Alexander the Great, and founder of the dynasty. He was born about 324 B.C., and succeeded his father in 280 B.C. During the greater part of his reign he was engaged in a protracted struggle with the Gauls who had crossed from Europe, and by whom he was killed in battle, 261 B.C.—Antiochus II, surnamed Theos (god), succeeded his father, lost several provinces by revolt, and was murdered in 246 B.C. by Laodicē, his wife, whom he had put away to marry Berenīcē, daughter of Ptolemy.—Antiochus III, surnamed the Great, grandson of the preceding, was born 242 B.C., succeeded in 223 B.C. The early part of his reign embraced a series of wars against revolted provinces and neighbouring kingdoms, his expeditions extending to India, over Asia Minor, and afterwards into Europe, where he took possession of the Thracian Chersonese. Here he encountered the Romans, who had conquered Philip V of Macedon, and were prepared to resist his further progress. Antiochus gained an important adviser in Hannibal, who had fled for refuge to his Court; but he lost the opportunity of an invasion of Italy while the Romans were engaged in war with the Gauls, of which the Carthaginian urged him to avail himself. The Romans defeated him by sea and land, and he was finally overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sipўlus, in Asia Minor, 190 B.C., and very severe terms were imposed upon him. He was killed while plundering a temple in Elymais to procure money to pay the Romans.—Antiochus IV, called Epiphănes, youngest son of the above, is chiefly remarkable for his attempt to extirpate the Jewish religion, and to establish in its place the polytheism of the Greeks. This led to the insurrection of the Maccabees, by which the Jews ultimately recovered their independence. He died 164 B.C.

Antioquia (a˙n-tē-ō-kē´a˙), a town of South America, in Colombia, on the River Cauca; founded in 1542. Pop. 8730. It gives name to a department of the republic; area, 22,752 sq. miles. Pop. 739,434. Capital, Medellin.

Antip´aros (ancient, Oliăros), one of the Cyclades Islands in the Grecian Archipelago, containing a famous stalactitic grotto or cave. It lies south-west of Paros, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, and has an area of 10 sq. miles, and about 700 inhabitants.

Antip´ater, a general and friend of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great. On the death of Alexander, in 323 B.C., the regency of Macedonia was assigned to Antipater, who succeeded in establishing the Macedonian rule in Greece on a firm footing. He died 317 B.C., at an advanced age.

Antip´athy, a special dislike exhibited by individuals to particular objects or persons, usually resulting from physical or nervous organization. An antipathy is often an unaccountable repugnance to what people in general regard with no particular dislike, as certain sounds, smells, articles of food, &c., and it may be manifested by fainting or extreme discomfort.

Antiphlogis´tic, a term applied to medicines or methods of treatment that are intended to counteract inflammation, such as bloodletting, purgatives, diaphoretics, &c. [190]

An´tiphon, a Greek orator, born near Athens; founder of political oratory in Greece. His orations are the oldest extant, and he is said to have been the first who wrote speeches for hire. He was put to death for taking part in the revolution of 411 B.C., which established the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred. Antiphon seems to have specialized in homicide cases; his most celebrated speech is On the Murder of Herodas. Cf. Sir R. C. Jebb, Attic Orators; J. F. Dobson, The Greek Orators.

Antiphon, or Antiph´ony ('alternate song'), in the Christian Church a verse first sung by a single voice, and then repeated by the whole choir; or any piece to be sung by alternate voices.

Antipodes (an-tip´o-dēz), the name given relatively to people or places on opposite sides of the earth, so situated that a line drawn from one to the other passes through the centre of the earth and forms a true diameter. The longitudes of two such places differ by 180°. The difference in their time is about twelve hours, and their seasons are reversed.

Antipodes Islands, a group of small uninhabited islands in the South Pacific Ocean, about 460 miles S.E. by E. of New Zealand; so called from being nearly antipodal to Greenwich. Antipodes Island rises to 1300 feet, and is largely covered with coarse grass; huts have been fitted up to shelter castaways.

An´tipope, the name applied to those who at different periods have produced a schism in the Roman Catholic Church by opposing the authority of the Pope, under the pretence that they were themselves Popes. The Roman Church cannot admit that there ever existed two Popes; but the fact is, that in several cases the competitors for the papal chair were equally Popes; that is to say, the claims of all were equally good. Each was frequently supported by whole nations, and the schism was nothing but the struggle of political interests. Twenty-nine antipopes are enumerated in Church history; the last of them is Felix V, 1439-49.

Antipyret´ics, medicines given for the purpose of reducing fever by lowering the patient's temperature, whether by causing perspiration or otherwise. Quinine, antipyrin, phenacetin, are common antipyretics. An aperient or purgative often serves the same purpose.

Antipy´rin, a drug obtained from coal-tar products, valuable in reducing fever and in relieving pain, being much used in nervous headache and neuralgia.

An´tiquaries, those devoted to the study of ancient times through their relics, as old places of burial, remains of ancient habitations, early monuments, implements or weapons, statues, coins, medals, paintings, inscriptions, books, and manuscripts, with the view of arriving at a knowledge of the relations, modes of living, habits, and general condition of the people who created or employed them. Societies or associations of antiquaries have been formed in all countries of European civilization. In Britain the Society of Antiquaries of London was founded in 1572, revived in 1717. and incorporated in 1751. The Society of Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780, incorporated in 1783, and has the management of a large national antiquarian museum in Edinburgh. One of the best-known antiquarian societies in Europe is the Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord at Copenhagen.

Antiques (an-tēks'), a term specifically applied to the remains of ancient art, as statues, paintings, vases, cameos, and the like, and more especially to the works of Grecian and Roman antiquity.

Antirrhinum (an-ti-rī´num) (from anti, instead of, and rhis, snout), a genus of annual or perennial plants of the nat. ord. Scrophulariaceæ, commonly known as snapdragon, on account of the peculiarity of the blossoms, which, by pressing between the finger and thumb, may be made to open and shut like a mouth. They all produce showy flowers, and are much cultivated in gardens. Many varieties of some of them, such as the great or common snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), have been produced by gardeners. The lesser snapdragon grows in sandy soil, and is found in cornfields in the south of England and Ireland.

Antisana (a˙n-tē-sä´na˙), a volcano in the Andes of Ecuador, 35 miles S.E. by E. of Quito. Whymper, who ascended it in 1880, makes its height 19,260 feet.

Antis´cians (Gr. anti, over against, skia, a shadow), those who live under the same meridian, at the same distance N. and S. of the equator, and whose shadows at noon consequently are thrown in contrary directions.

Antiscorbu´tics, remedies against scurvy. Lemon-juice, ripe fruit, milk, salts of potash, green vegetables, potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or lightly-boiled eggs, are some of the principal foodstuffs containing antiscorbutic vitamines.

Anti-Sem´itism, hostility to the Jews (Semites), actively exhibited in severities and attacks of various kinds. The movement assumed vast proportions about 1880 and manifested itself in various countries, especially Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Roumania, and France. It may be attributed to different motives in different countries, but on the whole owed its origin not only to the fact of the Jews being a 'peculiar people' by race and religion, but also to the comparatively high position won by them in modern times in the financial and political worlds. The religious element is quite [191]prominent in the popular attacks on the Jew, although modern anti-Semitism is essentially social and economic. In Western Russia there was a great outburst against the Jews in 1881, in which men, women, and children were slaughtered. The Government of the Tsar, by its anti-Jewish policy, may be said to have sanctioned this murderous outbreak, which was followed by harsh laws and actual persecutions, though afterwards there was a mitigation of the severity shown towards the Jews. Yet in 1903 the world was startled by a terrible massacre of Jews at Kishinev, in Bessarabia, connived at by the authorities on the spot; and towards the end of 1905, in connection with the Russian revolutionary movement, there were dreadful massacres of Jews in Odessa, Kishinev, and other towns, the authorities being similarly involved. In Roumania, until 1919, the position of the Jews resembled what it was elsewhere in mediæval times, and was less favourable than it was even under the Turks. In Germany the movement has been worked chiefly by politicians for their own ends, though the racial and religious question has also had some influence; and among the ignorant the belief that the Jews murder Christian children for ritual purposes has been revived, as also in Austria and in Hungary. In these countries the movement has been partly political, partly social and economic, partly religious. In France anti-Semitism has been employed chiefly as a weapon by monarchists and clericals as against republicanism, and by the Socialists as against capitalism, racial antipathy having also its influence on the movements. It reached its height in 1895 at the time of the Dreyfus affair. In Britain, too, anti-Semitism has of late made itself felt.—Bibliography: A. Leroy-Beaulieu, Israel among the Nations; Bernard Lazare, L'anti-sémitisme, son histoire et ses causes.

Antisep´tic (Gr. anti, against, and sēpein, to rot), an agent which destroys the germs of putrefaction or suppuration is called an antiseptic. Many substances act thus, e.g. chlorine, iodine, hypochlorous acid, sulphurous acid, camphor, creosote, iodoform, nascent oxygen ('Sanitas'), corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde ('Formalin'), potassium permanganate ('Condy's Fluid'), carbolic acid (Lysol, Izal, Cyllin); lately aniline dyes have become prominent: of these flavine has proved the most useful addition to surgery of recent years. It was much used in the European War (1914-8).—Antiseptics are also used for purifying surgical instruments, &c., and commercially as disinfectants. When introduced by Lister into surgical practice they led to revolutionary advances in surgery. The tendency of late years has been to abandon antiseptic for aseptic (sterile) mode of technique, but during the war (1914-8) there was a general return to antiseptic methods in surgery.

Antispasmod´ic, a medicine for the cure of spasms and convulsions; such belong largely to the class of ethers, as sulphuric ether, chloric ether, nitric ether, &c.

Antisthenes (an-tis´the-nēz), a Greek philosopher and the founder of the school of Cynics, born at Athens about 444 B.C. He was first a disciple of Gorgias and then of Socrates, at whose death he was present. His philosophy was a one-sided development of the Socratic teaching. He held virtue to consist in complete self-denial and in disregard of riches, honour, or pleasure of every kind. He himself lived as a beggar. He died in Athens at an advanced age.

Antis´trophe. See Strophe.

Anti-submarine. See Submarine.

Anti-Taurus, a mountain range of Anatolia, Asia Minor, extending from the Cicilian Taurus towards the north-east, and connecting the Taurus mountain system with Mount Ararat, Mount Elbruz, and the Caucasus. See Taurus.

Antith´esis (opposition), a figure of speech consisting in a contrast or opposition of words or sentiments; as, 'When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves we leave them'; 'The prodigal robs his heir, the miser robs himself'.

Antitoxin, the name given to a class of bodies of unknown nature having the capacity of neutralizing the poisonous substances (toxins) by which certain bacteria produce disease. If such a toxin be introduced every few days in increasing doses, into, e.g., the horse, and if, after some months of this treatment, the animal be bled, its serum contains the antitoxin to the toxins used. The use of the antitoxin to the toxin of diphtheria is most efficacious in curing that disease, and the treatment has caused a great fall in the death-rate. It ought to be applied as soon as possible after signs appear in the throat. An antitoxic treatment is also applicable in cases of tetanus (lock-jaw), a disease liable to follow any wound contaminated with dirt, especially with manured soil. Less success has been achieved when the disease is fully established, but if the antitoxin be injected immediately after the wound has been incurred, then the subsequent development of the disease is prevented. This preventive treatment has been attended with marked effect in the case of wounds received in war, which it is almost impossible to keep free from contamination. Antitoxins were extensively used during the European War. (1914-8). In bacterial diseases other than those mentioned, sera have been produced by injecting into large animals dead and living bacteria, e.g. the organisms of epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis (spotted fever), pneumonia, blood-poisoning, &c., and these sera probably depend [192]for their action on the presence of bodies similar to antitoxins. See Bacteria, Diphtheria.

Anti-trade Winds, a name given to any of the upper tropical winds which move northward or southward in the same manner as the trade-winds which blow beneath them in the opposite direction. These great aerial currents descend to the surface after they have passed the limits of the trade-winds, and form the south-west or west-south-west winds of the north temperate, and the north-west or west-north-west winds of the south temperate zones.

Antitrinita´rians, all who do not receive the doctrine of the divine Trinity, or the existence of three persons in the Godhead; especially applied to those who oppose such a doctrine on philosophical grounds, as contrasted with Unitarians, who reject the doctrine as not warranted by Scripture.

An´titype, that which is correlative to a type; by theological writers the term is employed to denote the reality of which a type is the prophetic symbol.

An´tium, in ancient Italy, one of the most ancient and powerful cities of Latium, the chief city of the Volsci, and often at war with the Romans, by whom it was finally taken in 338 B.C. It was 38 miles distant from Rome, a flourishing seaport, and became a favourite residence of the wealthy Romans. It was destroyed by the Saracens, but vestiges of it remain at Porto d'Anzo, near which many valuable works of art have been found.

Antivari (a˙n-tē´va˙-rē), a seaport town on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, ceded to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). Antivari was opened as a free port on 23rd Oct., 1909. It was occupied by the Austrians in 1916, and by the Italians in Nov., 1918. Pop. 2500.

Antlers, the horns of the deer tribe, or the snags or branches of the horns.

Ant-lion, the larva of a Neuropterous insect (Myrmelĕon formicārius), which in its perfect state greatly resembles a dragon-fly; curious on account of its ingenious method of catching the insects—chiefly ants—on which it feeds. It digs a funnel-shaped hole in the driest and finest sand it can find, and when the pit is deep enough, and the sides are quite smooth and sloping, it buries itself at the bottom with only its formidable mandibles projecting, and waits till some luckless insect stumbles over the edge, when it is immediately seized, its juices sucked, and the dead body jerked out. It inhabits Southern Europe.

Antofagas´ta, a Chilian seaport on the Bay of Morena, and a territory of the same name taken from Bolivia in the war of 1879-82, and definitely ceded to Chile in 1885. The territory has an area of 46,408 sq. miles; pop. (1919), 235,506. The port is connected by railway with the silver and other mines lying inland, and exports silver, copper, cubic nitre, &c., partly from Bolivia. Pop. (1919), 69,175.

Antoinette (a˙n˙-twa˙-net), Marie. See Marie Antoinette.

Antokolski, Mark, Russian sculptor of Jewish extraction, born at Vilna in 1843. He studied at the Petrograd Academy of Fine Arts, and his earliest success was a wooden statue The Jewish Tailor (1864). In 1868 he received a grant for travelling, and whilst in Italy he finished his famous statue, Ivan the Terrible. He was made an academician, and in 1878 was awarded the first prize for sculpture at the Paris International Exhibition. In 1888 he settled permanently in Paris, where he died in 1902. His works include: Peter the Great (1872), Christ before the People (1874), The Death of Socrates (1876), Spinoza (1882), Yermak and The Sleeping Beauty (1900).

Antommarchi (-mär´kē), Carlo Francesco, Italian physician, born in Corsica in 1780, died in Cuba 1838. He was professor of anatomy at Florence when he offered himself as physician to Napoleon at St. Helena. Napoleon at first received him with reserve, but soon admitted him to his confidence, and testified his satisfaction with him by leaving him a legacy of 100,000 francs. On his return to Europe he published Les Derniers Moments de Napoléon (2 vols., 8vo, 1823).

Antonell´i, Giacomo, cardinal, born 1806, died 1876. He was educated at the Grand Seminary of Rome, where he attracted the attention of Pope Gregory XVI, who appointed him to several important offices. On the accession of Pius IX in 1846 Antonelli was raised to the dignity of cardinal-deacon; two years later he became president and Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in 1850 was appointed Secretary of State. During the sitting of the Œcumenical Council (1869-70) he was a prominent champion of the papal interest. He strongly opposed the assumption of the united Italian crown by Victor Emanuel.

Antonell´o (of Messina), an Italian painter who died at Venice, probably in 1493, and is said to have introduced oil-painting into Italy, having been instructed in it by Jan Van Eyck. Three works by him are in the National Gallery, London.

Antoni´nus, Itinerary of. See Itinerary.

Antoni´nus, Marcus Aurelius. See Aurelius.

Antoni´nus, Wall of, a barrier erected by the Romans across the isthmus between the Forth and the Clyde, in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Its western extremity was at or near Dunglass Castle, its eastern at Carriden, and the whole length of it exceeded 27 miles. It was constructed A.D. 140 by Lollius Urbicus, the imperial [193]legate, and consisted of a ditch 40 feet wide and 20 feet deep, and a rampart of stone and earth on the south side 24 feet thick and 20 feet in height. It was strengthened at either end and along its course by a series of forts and watch-towers. It may still be traced at various points, and is commonly known as Graham's Dyke.

Antoni´nus Pius, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, Roman emperor, was born at Lavinium, near Rome, A.D. 86, died A.D. 161. In 120 A.D. he became consul, and he was one of the four persons of consular rank among whom Hadrian divided the supreme administration of Italy. He then went as proconsul to Asia, and after his return to Rome became more and more the object of Hadrian's confidence. In A.D. 138 he was selected by that emperor as his successor, and the same year he ascended the throne. He speedily put down the persecutions of the Christians, and carried on but a few wars. In Britain he extended the Roman dominion, and, by raising a new wall (see preceding article), put a stop to the invasions of the Picts and Scots. The senate gave him the surname Pius, that is, dutiful or showing filial affection, because to keep alive the memory of Hadrian he had built a temple in his honour. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, his adopted son.

Anto´nius, Marcus (Mark Antony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B.C., was connected with the family of Cæsar by his mother. Debauchery and prodigality marked his youth. To escape his creditors he went to Greece in 58, and from thence followed the consul Gabinius on a campaign in Syria as commander of the cavalry. He served in Gaul under Cæsar in 52 and 51. In 50 he returned to Rome to support the interests of Cæsar against the aristocratical party headed by Pompey, and was appointed tribune. When war broke out between Cæsar and Pompey, Antony led reinforcements to Cæsar in Greece, and in the battle of Pharsalia he commanded the left wing. He afterwards returned to Rome with the appointment of Master of the Horse and Governor of Italy (47). In 44 B.C. he became Cæsar's colleague in the consulship. Soon after Cæsar was assassinated, Antony, by the reading of Cæsar's will, and by the oration which he delivered over his body, excited the people to anger and revenge, and the murderers were obliged to flee. After several quarrels and reconciliations with Octavianus, Cæsar's heir (see Augustus), Antony departed to Cisalpine Gaul, which province had been conferred upon him against the will of the Senate. But Cicero thundered against him in his famous Philippics; the Senate declared him a public enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war against him to Octavianus and the consuls Hirtius and Pansa. After a campaign of varied fortunes Antony fled with his troops over the Alps. Here he was joined by Lepidus, who commanded in Gaul, and through whose mediation Antony and Octavianus were again reconciled. It was agreed that the Roman world should be divided among the three conspirators, who were called triumviri. Antony was to take Gaul; Lepidus, Spain; and Octavianus, Africa and Sicily. They decided upon the proscription of their mutual enemies, each giving up his friends to the others, the most celebrated of the victims being Cicero the orator. Antony and Octavianus departed in 42 for Macedonia, where the united forces of their enemies, Brutus and Cassius, formed a powerful army, which was, however, speedily defeated at Philippi. Antony next visited Athens, and thence proceeded to Asia. In Cilicia he ordered Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, to apologize for her insolent behaviour to the triumviri. She appeared in person, and her charms fettered him for ever. He followed her to Alexandria, where he bestowed not even a thought upon the affairs of the world, till he was aroused by a report that hostilities had commenced in Italy between his own relatives and Octavianus. A short war, followed, which was decided in favour of Octavianus before the arrival of Antony in Italy. A reconciliation was effected, which was sealed by the marriage of Antony with Octavia, the sister of Octavianus. A new division of the Roman dominions was now made (in 40), by which Antony obtained the East, Octavianus the West. After his return to Asia Antony gave himself up entirely to Cleopatra, assuming the style of an Eastern despot, and so alienating many of his adherents and embittering public opinion against him at Rome. At length war was declared at Rome against the Queen of Egypt, and Antony was deprived of his consulship and government. Each party assembled its forces, and Antony lost, in the naval battle at Actium, 31 B.C., the dominion of the world. He followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, and on the arrival of Octavianus his fleet and cavalry deserted, and his infantry was defeated. Deceived by a false report of her death which Cleopatra had disseminated, he fell upon his own sword (30 B.C.).—Bibliography: Mommsen, Roman History; Plutarch, Lives (translated by Langhorne); De Quincey, Essay on the Cæsars.

Antonoma´sia, in rhetoric, the use of the name of some office, dignity, profession, science, or trade instead of the true name of the person, as [194]when his majesty is used for a king, his lordship for a nobleman; or when, instead of Aristotle, we say, the philosopher; or, conversely, the use of a proper noun instead of a common noun; as, a Solomon for a wise man.

Antony, Mark. See Antonius (Marcus).

Antony, St. See Anthony.

An´trim, a county of Ireland, province of Ulster, in the north-east of the island; area, 702,654 acres, of which about a third are arable. The eastern and northern districts are comparatively mountainous, with tracts of heath and bog, but no part rises to a great height. The principal rivers are the Lagan and the Bann, which separate Antrim from Down and Londonderry respectively. The general soil of the plains and valleys is strong loam. Flax, oats, and potatoes are the principal agricultural produce. Cattle, sheep, swine, and goats are extensively reared. There are salt-mines and beds of iron-ore, which is worked and exported. A range of basaltic strata stretches along the northern coast, of which the celebrated Giant's Causeway is the most remarkable portion, the vast aggregates of natural rock pillars there being very striking. The interior also contains some scenes of picturesque beauty, particularly the fertile valley of the Lagan, between Belfast and Lisburn. Much of the scenery of the county, however, is dreary and monotonous. Lough Neagh, the largest lake of the United Kingdom, is principally in Antrim. Its waters are carried to the sea by the Bann, which is of no use for navigation, being obstructed by weirs and rocks. The spinning of linen and cotton yarn, and the weaving of linen and cotton, are the staple manufactures, but the cotton manufacture is small compared with that of linen. The principal towns are Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Larne, and Carrickfergus. In 1898 Belfast, the former capital, was constituted into a county borough. About fifty per cent of the inhabitants are Presbyterians, being the descendants of Scottish immigrants of the seventeenth century. The county sends four members to Parliament; Belfast returns nine. Pop. (excluding Belfast) 193,864 (1911).—The town of Antrim, at the north end of Lough Neagh, is a small place with a pop. of 1826.

Ant-thrush, a name given to certain passerine or perching birds having resemblances to the thrushes and supposed to feed largely on ants. They all have longish legs, short wings, and a short tail. The true ant-thrushes of the Old World belong to the genus Pitta. They chiefly inhabit southern and south-eastern Asia and the Eastern Archipelago, but are also found in Africa and Australia, and are birds of brilliant plumage, exhibiting black, white, scarlet, blue, and green in vivid contrast, there being generally no blending of colours by means of intermediate hues. These birds are not now regarded as allied to the thrushes, nor are they allied to the ant-birds, or ant-thrushes of the New World, which live among close foliage and bushes. Some of these are called ant-shrikes and ant-wrens. They belong to several genera.

Ant´werp (Du. and Ger. Antwerpen, Fr. Anvers), the chief port of Belgium, and one of the first on the Continent, the capital of a province of the same name, on the Scheldt, about 50 miles from the open sea. It lies in a fertile plain at an abrupt turn of the river, which is here from 160 to 280 yards wide, and has a depth varying from 25 to 50 feet. It is strongly fortified, being completely surrounded on the land side by a semicircular inner line of fortifications, the defences being completed by an outer line of forts and outworks. Fine quays have been constructed along the river banks. The general appearance of the city is exceedingly picturesque, an effect produced by the numerous churches, convents, and magnificent public buildings, the stately antique houses that line its older thoroughfares, and the profusion of beautiful trees with which it is adorned. The older streets are tortuous and irregular, but those in the newer quarters are wide and regular. Some of the squares are very handsome. The cathedral, with a spire 400 feet high, one of the largest and most beautiful specimens of Gothic architecture in Belgium, contains Rubens' celebrated masterpieces, The Descent from the Cross, The Elevation of the Cross, and The Assumption. The other churches of note are St. James's, St. Andrew's, and St. Paul's, all enriched with paintings by Rubens, Vandyck, and other masters. Among the other buildings of note are the exchange, the town hall, the palace, the theatre, academy of the fine arts, picture and sculpture galleries, &c. The harbour accommodation is extensive and excellent, large new docks and quays having been recently built, and other works being under construction or contemplated. The shipping trade is now very large, Antwerp being a great centre of the world's commerce, and the goods being largely in transit. The entries of vessels in a year aggregate over 13,000,000 tons. Much of the trade is with Britain. There are numerous but not very important industries. Antwerp is mentioned as early as the eighth century, and in the eleventh and twelfth it had attained a high degree of prosperity. In the sixteenth century it is said to have had a pop. of 200,000, and it had then an extensive foreign trade. The wars between the Netherlands and Spain greatly injured its commerce, which was almost ruined by the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt in accordance with the peace of Westphalia (1648). It was only in the nineteenth century that its prosperity revived. In the European War [195](1914-8), the Germans, under General von Beseler, entered Antwerp on 7th Oct., 1914, and remained there until Nov., 1918. Pop. (1919), 322,857.—The province consists of a fertile plain 1093 sq. miles in area, and has a pop. of over 1,000,000.

Anu´bis (Anepo on the monuments), one of the deities of the ancient Egyptians, the son of Osiris by Isis. The Egyptian sculptures represent him with the head, or under the form, of a jackal, with long pointed ears. His office was to conduct the souls of the dead from this world to the next, and in the lower world he weighed the actions of the deceased previous to their admission to the presence of Osiris.

Anúpshahr (a-nöp´shär), a town of Hindustan, United Provinces, on the Ganges, 75 miles S.E. of Delhi, a resort of Hindu pilgrims who bathe in the Ganges. Pop. 15,000.

Anu´ra, or Anou´ra (Gr. an, negative, oura, a tail), an ord. of Batrachians which lose the tail when they reach maturity, such as the frogs and toads.

Anuradhapura. See Anarajapura.

A´nus, the opening at the lower or posterior extremity of the alimentary canal through which the excrement or waste products of digestion are expelled.

An´vil, an instrument on which pieces of metal are laid for the purpose of being hammered. The common smith's anvil is generally made of seven pieces, namely, the core or body; the four corners for the purpose of enlarging its base; the projecting end, which contains a square hole for the reception of a set or chisel to cut off pieces of iron; and the beak or conical end, used for turning pieces of iron into a circular form, &c. These pieces are each separately welded to the core and hammered so as to form a regular surface with the whole. When the anvil has received its due form, it is faced with steel, and is then tempered in cold water. The smith's anvil is generally placed loose upon a wooden block. The anvil for heavy operations, such as the forging of ordnance and shafting, consists of a huge iron block deeply embedded, and resting on piles of masonry.

Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d' (jän˙ ba˙p-tēst bōr-gē-nyön˙ dän˙-vēl), a celebrated French geographer, born 1697, died 1782; published a great number of maps and writings illustrative of ancient and modern geography.

Anynaks, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Upper Sobat (a tributary of the White Nile), between the Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia. They rebelled against British authority in 1912.

Anzacs, a composite word used as the name of the British colonial troops in the Gallipoli undertaking. The men being from Australia and New Zealand, their organization was officially known as the Australian-New Zealand Army Corps. The full title, however, was much too cumbersome, and a clerk in one of the head-quarters offices at Zeitoun, where the troops were in training, hit upon the word Anzacs, formed from the initial letters of the long title. The Anzacs landed near Gaba Tepe, Gallipoli, on the morning of 25th April, 1915, and had their first encounter with the Germans on the Western Front on 6th May, 1916. In 1916 the word Anzac was officially adopted by the War Office.

Anzin (a˙n˙-zan˙), a town of France, department of Nord, about 1 mile north-west of Valenciennes, in the centre of an extensive coal-field, with blast-furnaces, forges, rolling-mills, foundries, &c. Pop. 14,325.

Aonia, in ancient geography a name for part of Bœotia in Greece, containing Mount Helicon and the fountain Aganippe, both haunts of the muses.

A´orist, the name given to one of the tenses of the verb in some languages (as the Greek), which expresses indefinite past time.

Aor´ta, in anatomy, the great artery or trunk of the arterial system, proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, and giving origin to all the arteries except the pulmonary. It first rises towards the top of the breast-bone, when it is called the ascending aorta; then makes a great curve, called the transverse or great arch of the aorta, whence it branches off to the head and upper extremities; thence proceeding towards the lower extremities, under the name of the descending aorta, it branches off to the trunk; and finally divides into the two iliacs, which supply the pelvis and lower extremities.

Aosta (a˙-os´ta˙; ancient Augusta Prætoria), a town of north Italy, 50 miles N.N.W. of Turin, on the Dora-Baltea, with an ancient triumphal arch, remains of an amphitheatre, &c. Pop. 7000.

Aoudad (a-ö´dad), the Ammotrăgus tragelăphus, a quadruped allied to the sheep, most closely to the mouflon, from which, however, it may be easily distinguished by the heavy mane, commencing at the throat and falling as far as the knees. It is a native of North Africa, inhabiting the loftiest and most inaccessible rocks.

Apaches (a˙-pä´chez), a warlike race of North-American Indians, numbering between 5000 and 6000, and inhabiting Arizona, New Mexico, and [196]Oklahoma. The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, but a few in Mexico still maintain their independence and hostility to the whites. The name Apache was assumed by Parisian hooligans, notorious for their criminal outrages.

Ap´anage, an allowance which the younger princes of a reigning house in some European countries receive from the revenues of the country, generally together with a grant of public domains, that they may be enabled to live in a manner becoming their rank.

Ap´atite, a translucent but seldom transparent mineral, which crystallizes in a regular six-sided prism, usually terminated by a truncated six-sided pyramid. It passes through various shades of colour, from white to yellow, green, blue, and occasionally red, scratches fluor-spar but is scratched by felspar, and has a specific gravity of about 3.5. It is a compound of calcium phosphate with calcium fluoride or chloride. It occurs principally in igneous rocks, particularly diorites. The very coarse-grained granites of Ontario contain apatite crystals of corresponding size, which have been picked out as a source of artificial phosphate manures. Apatite supplies to soils almost all the phosphorus available for plants in a state of nature.

Ape, a common name of a number of quadrumanous animals inhabiting the Old World (Asia and the Asiatic Islands, and Africa), and including a variety of species. The word ape was formerly applied indiscriminately to all quadrumanous mammals; but it is now limited to the anthropoid or man-like monkeys. The family includes the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-outang, &c., and has been divided into three genera, Troglodўtes, Simia, and Hylobătes. See Chimpanzee, Gibbon, Gorilla, Monkey, Orang, &c.

Apeldoorn (ä´pel-dōrn), a town of Holland, province of Guelderland, 17 miles north of Arnhem, with manufactures of paper. The royal palace Loo is here. Pop. 44,474.

Apelles (a-pel´ēz), the most famous of the painters of ancient Greece and of antiquity, was born in the fourth century B.C., probably at Colophon. Ephorus of Ephesus was his first teacher, but attracted by the renown of the Sicyonian school he went and studied at Sicyon. In the time of Philip he went to Macedonia, and there a close friendship between him and Alexander the Great was established. The most admired of his pictures was that of Venus rising from the sea and wringing the water from her dripping locks. His portrait of Alexander with a thunderbolt in his hand was no less celebrated. He died about the end of the century. Among the anecdotes told of Apelles is the one which gave rise to the Latin proverb, 'Ne sutor ultra crepidam'—'Let not the shoemaker go beyond the shoe'. Having heard a cobbler point out an error in the drawing of a shoe in one of his pictures he corrected it, whereupon the cobbler took upon him to criticize the leg, and received from the artist the famous reply.

Ap´ennines (Lat. Mons Apenninus), a prolongation of the Alps, forming the 'backbone of Italy'. Beginning at Savona, on the Gulf of Genoa, the Apennines traverse the whole of the peninsula and also cross over into Sicily, the Strait of Messina being regarded merely as a gap in the chain. The average height of the mountains composing the range is about 4000 feet, and nowhere do they reach the limits of perpetual snow, though some summits exceed 9000 feet in height. Monte Corno, called also Gran Sasso d'Italia (Great Rock of Italy), which rises among the mountains of the Abruzzi, is the loftiest of the chain, rising to the height of 9541 feet, Monte Majella (9151) being next. Monte Gargano, which juts out into the Adriatic from the ankle of Italy, is a mountainous mass upwards of 5000 feet high, completely separated from the main chain. On the Adriatic side the mountains descend more abruptly to the sea than on the western or Mediterranean side, and the streams are comparatively short and rapid. On the western side are the valleys of the Arno, Tiber, Garigliano, and Volturno, the largest rivers that rise in the Apennines, and the only ones of importance in the peninsular portion of Italy. They consist almost entirely of limestone rocks, and are exceedingly rich in the finest marbles. On the south slopes volcanic masses are not uncommon. Mount Vesuvius, the only active volcano on the continent of Europe, is an instance. The lower slopes are well clothed with vegetation, the summits are sterile and bare.

Apenrade (ä´pen-rä-de), a seaport in Schleswig-Holstein, on a fiord of the Little Belt, beautifully situated, and carrying on a considerable fishing industry. Pop. 7800.

Ape´rient, a medicine which, in moderate doses, gently but completely opens the bowels: examples, castor-oil, Epsom salts, senna, &c.

Apet´alous, a botanical term applied to flowers or flowering-plants which are destitute of petals or corolla.

Aphanip´tera, an order of wingless insects, composed of the different species of fleas. See Flea.

Apha´sia (Gr. a, not, and phasis, speaking), in pathology, a symptom of certain morbid conditions of the nervous system, in which the patient loses the power of expressing ideas by means of words, or loses the appropriate use of words, the vocal organs the while remaining intact and the intelligence sound. There is sometimes an entire loss of words as connected with ideas, and sometimes only the loss of a few. In one form of the disease, called aphemia, the [197]patient can think and write, but cannot speak; in another, called agraphia, he can think and speak, but cannot express his ideas in writing. In a great majority of cases, where post-mortem examinations have been made, morbid changes have been found in the left frontal convolution of the brain.

Aphe´lion (Gr. apo, from, and hēlios, the sun), that point of the orbit of the earth or any other planet which is remotest from the sun.

Aphe´mia. See Aphasia.

Aphides (af´i-dēz). See Aphis.

Aphis, a genus of insects (called plant-lice) of the ord. Hemiptera, the type of the family Aphĭdēs. The species are very numerous and destructive. The A. rosæ lives on the rose; the A. fabæ on the bean; the A. humŭli is injurious to the hop, the A. granaria to cereals, and A. lanigĕra or woolly aphis equally so to apple trees. The aphides are furnished with an inflected beak, and feelers longer than the thorax. In the same species some individuals have four erect wings and others are entirely without wings. The feet are of the ambulatory kind, and the abdomen usually ends in two horn-like tubes, from which is ejected the substance called honey-dew, a favourite food of ants. (See Ant.) The aphides illustrate parthenogenesis; hermaphrodite forms produced from eggs produce viviparous wingless forms, which again produce others like themselves, and thus multiply during summer, one individual giving rise to millions. Winged sexual forms appear late in autumn, the females of which, being impregnated by the males, produce eggs.

Apho´nia (Gr. a, not, and phōnē, voice), in pathology, the greater or less impairment, or the complete loss of the power of emitting vocal sound. The slighter and less permanent forms often arise from extreme nervousness, fright, and hysteria. Slight forms of structural aphonia are of a catarrhal nature, resulting from more or less congestion and tumefaction of the mucous and submucous tissues of the larynx and adjoining parts. Severer cases are frequently occasioned by serous infiltration into the submucous tissue, with or without inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx and of its vicinity. The voice may also be affected in different degrees by inflammatory affections of the fauces and tonsils; by tumours in these situations; by morbid growths pressing on or implicating the larynx or trachea; by aneurisms; and most frequently by chronic laryngitis and its consequences, especially thickening, ulceration, &c.

Aph´orism, a brief, sententious saying, in which a comprehensive meaning is involved, as 'Familiarity breeds contempt'; 'Necessity has no law'.

Aphrodite (af-ro-di´tē), the goddess of love among the Greeks; counterpart of the Roman Venus. A festival called Aphrodisia was celebrated in her honour in various parts of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. See Venus.

Aphthæ (af´thē), a disease occurring especially in infants, but occasionally seen in old persons, and consisting of small white ulcers upon the tongue, gums, inside of the lips, and palate, resembling particles of curdled milk: commonly called thrush or milk-thrush.

A´pia, the chief place and trading centre of the Samoa Islands, on the north side of the Island of Upolu. It has a wireless station.

A´piary (Lat. apis, a bee), a place for keeping bees. The apiary should be well sheltered from strong winds, moisture, and the extremes of heat and cold. The hives should face the south or south-east, and should be placed on shelves 2 feet above the ground, and about the same distance from each other. There is no place for handling bees like the open air in suitable weather, and for this reason bee-houses, or bee-sheds, formerly in use, are not much in vogue now. As to the form of the hives and the materials of which they should be constructed there are great differences of opinion. The old dome-shaped straw skep is still in general use among the cottagers of Great Britain. Its cheapness and simplicity of construction are in its favour, while it is excellent for warmth and ventilation; but it has the disadvantage that its interior is closed to inspection, and the honey can only be got out by stupefying the bees with the smoke of the common puff-ball or chloroform, or by fumigating with sulphur, which entails the destruction of the swarm. Wooden hives of square box-like form are now gaining general favour among bee-keepers. They usually consist of a large breeding chamber below and two sliding removable boxes called 'supers' above for the abstraction of honey without disturbing the contents of the main chamber. It is of great importance that the apiary should be situated in the neighbourhood of good feeding [198]grounds, such as gardens, clover-fields, or heath-covered hills. When their stores of honey are removed, the bees must be fed during the winter and part of spring with syrup or with a solution consisting of 2 lb. loaf-sugar to a pint of water. In the early spring slow and continuous feeding (a few ounces of syrup each day) will stimulate the queen to deposit her eggs, by which means the colony is rapidly strengthened and throws off early swarms. New swarms may make their appearance as early as May and as late as August, but swarming usually takes place in the intervening months. See Bee-keeping, Hives.

Apic´ius, Marcus Gabius, a Roman epicure in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, who, having exhausted his vast fortune on the gratification of his palate, and having only about £80,000 left, poisoned himself that he might escape the misery of plain diet. The book of cookery published under the title of Apicius was written by one Cælius, and belongs to a much later date.

A´pion, a Greek grammarian, born in Egypt, lived in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, A.D. 15-54, and went to Rome to teach grammar and rhetoric. Among his works, one or two fragments only of which remain, was one directed against the Jews, which was replied to by Josephus.

A´pios, a genus of leguminous climbing plants, producing edible tubers on underground shoots. An American species (A. tuberōsa) has been used as a substitute for the potato, but its tubers, though numerous, are small.

A´pis, a bull to which divine honours were paid by the ancient Egyptians, who regarded him as a symbol of Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid residence, containing extensive walks and courts for his entertainment, and he was waited upon by a large train of priests, who looked upon his every movement as oracular. He was not suffered to live beyond twenty-five years, being secretly killed by the priests and thrown into a sacred well. Another bull, characterized by certain marks, as a black colour, a triangle of white on the forehead, a white crescent-shaped spot on the right side, &c., was selected in his place. His birthday was annually celebrated, and his death was a season of public mourning. See Animal Worship.

A´pis, a genus of insects. See Bee.

A´pium, a genus of umbelliferous plants, including celery.

Aplacen´tal. See Placenta, Marsupialia, and Echidna.

Aplanat´ic. See Optics, Photography.

Aplysia. See Sea-hare.

Apoc´alypse (Gr. apokalypsis, a revelation), the name given to the last book of the New Testament, in the English version called The Revelation of St. John the Divine. Although a Christian work, the Apocalypse belongs to a class of literature dealing with eschatological subjects and much in vogue among the Jews of the first century B.C. It is generally believed that the Apocalypse was written by the apostle John in his old age (A.D. 95-97) in the Isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished by the Roman Emperor Domitian. Anciently its genuineness was maintained by Justin Martyr, Irenæus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and many others; while it was doubted by Dionysius of Alexandria, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, and, nearer our own times, by Luther. The Apocalypse has been explained differently by almost every writer who has ventured to interpret it, and has furnished all sorts of sects and fanatics with quotations to support their creeds or pretensions. The modern interpreters may be divided into three schools—namely, the historical school, who hold that the prophecy embraces the whole history of the Church and its foes from the time of its writing to the end of the world; the Præterists, who hold that the whole or nearly the whole of the prophecy has been already fulfilled, and that it refers chiefly to the triumph of Christianity over Paganism and Judaism; and the Futurists, who throw the whole prophecy, except the first three chapters, forward upon a time not yet reached by the Church—a period of no very long duration, which is immediately to precede Christ's second coming. See Bible.—Bibliography: R. H. Charles, Studies in the Apocalypse; F. C. Burkitt, Jewish and Christian Apocalypses.

Apocalyptic Number, the mystic number 666 found in Rev. xiii, 18. As early as the second century ecclesiastical writers found that the name Antichrist was indicated by the Greek characters expressive of this number. By Irenæus the word Lateinos was found in the letters of the number, and the Roman Empire was therefore considered to be Antichrist. Protestants generally believe it has reference to the Papacy, and, on the other hand, Catholics connect it with Protestantism. It is, however, almost certain that the number [199]refers to Nero, for by transliterating the Greek Kaisar Neron into Hebrew, and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew letters, we obtain the number 666.

Apocar´pous, in botany, a term applied to such fruits as are the produce of a single flower, and are formed of one carpel, or a number of carpels free and separate from each other.

Apoc´rypha (Gr., 'things concealed or spurious'), a term applied in the earliest churches to various sacred or professedly inspired writings, sometimes given to those whose authors were unknown, sometimes to those with a hidden meaning, and sometimes to those considered objectionable. The term is specially applied to the fourteen undermentioned books, which were written during the two centuries preceding the birth of Christ. They were written, not in Hebrew, but in Greek, and the Jews never allowed them a place in their sacred canon. They were incorporated into the Septuagint, and thence passed to the Vulgate. The Greek Church excluded them from the canon in 360 at the Council of Laodicea. The Latin Church treated them with more favour, but it was not until 1546 that they were formally admitted into the canon of the Church of Rome by a decree of the Council of Trent. The Anglican Church says they may be read for example of life and instruction of manners, but that the Church does not apply them to establish any doctrine. All other Protestant churches in Britain and America ignore them. The following fourteen books form the Apocrypha of the English Bible: The first and second Books of Esdras, Tobit, Judith, the rest of the Book of Esther, the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Jesus the son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus, Baruch the Prophet, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and the Elders, Bel and the Dragon, the Prayer of Manasses, and the first and second Books of Maccabees. Besides the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament there are many spurious books composed in the earlier ages of Christianity, and published under the names of Christ and his apostles, or of such immediate followers as from their character or means of intimate knowledge might give an apparent plausibility to such forgeries. These writings comprise: 1st, the Apocryphal Gospels, which treat of the history of Joseph and the Virgin before the birth of Christ, of the infancy of Jesus, and of the acts of Pilate; 2nd, the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles; and 3rd, the Apocryphal Apocalypses, none of which have obtained canonical recognition by any of the churches.—Bibliography: Wace, The Apocrypha; Porter, in Hastings' Bible Dict., i, pp. 111-23; W. D. F. Oesterley, Book of the Apocrypha; R. H. Charles, Religious Development between the Old and the New Testaments.

Apocyna´ceæ, a nat. ord. of dicotyledonous plants, having for its type the genus Apocўnum or dog-bane. The species have opposite or sometimes whorled leaves without stipules; the corolla monopetalous, hypogynous, and with the stamens inserted upon it; fruit two-celled. The plants yield a milky juice, which is generally poisonous; several yield caoutchouc, and a few edible fruits. The bark of several species is a powerful febrifuge. To the order belongs the periwinkle (Vinca). See Cow-tree, Periwinkle, Oleander, Tanghin.

Ap´oda. See Proteolepadidæ.

Ap´odal Fishes, the name applied to such malacopterous fishes as want ventral fins. They constitute a small natural family, of which the common eel is an example.

Apo´dösis, in grammar, the latter member of a conditional sentence (or one beginning with if, though, &c.) dependent on the condition or protăsis; as, if it rain (protasis) I shall not go (apodosis).

Ap´ogee (-jē; Gr. apo, from, and gē, the earth), that point in the orbit of the moon or a planet where it is at its greatest distance from the earth; also the greatest distance of the sun from the earth when the latter is in aphelion.

Apol´da, a town of Germany, in Saxe-Weimar, at which woollen goods are extensively manufactured. Pop. 22,610.

Apollina´rians, a sect of Christians who maintained the doctrine that Christ had a human body and a human sensitive soul, but no human rational mind, the Divine Logos (the Word) taking the place of the mind, and that God was consequently united in him with the human body and the sensitive soul. Apollinaris, the author of this opinion, was, from A.D. 362 till at least A.D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, and a zealous opposer of the Arians. As a man and a scholar he was highly esteemed, and was among the most popular authors of his time. He formed a congregation of his adherents at Antioch, and made Vitalis their bishop. The Apollinarians, or Vitalians, as their followers were called, soon spread their settlements in Syria and the neighbouring countries, established several societies, with their own bishops, and one even in Constantinople; but many adherents drifted away to Monophysitism, and the sect soon became extinct.

Apollina´ris Water, a natural aerated water, belonging to the class of acidulated soda waters, and derived from the Apollinarisbrunnen, a spring in the valley of the Ahr, near the Rhine, in Rhenish Prussia, forming a highly-esteemed beverage.

Apol´lo, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (Latona), who, being persecuted by the jealousy of Hera (Juno), after tedious wanderings and [200]nine days' labour, was delivered of him and his twin sister, Artĕmis (Diana), on the Island of Delos. Skilled in the use of the bow, he slew the serpent Python on the fifth day after his birth; afterwards, with his sister Artĕmis, he killed the children of Niobē. He aided Zeus in the war with the Titans and the giants. He destroyed the Cyclopes, because they forged the thunderbolts with which Zeus killed his son and favourite Asklepios (Æsculapius). According to some traditions he invented the lyre, though this is generally ascribed to Hermes (Mercury). The brightest creation of polytheism, Apollo is also the most complex, and many aspects of the people's life were reflected in his cult. He was originally the sun-god; and though in Homer he appears distinct from Helios (the sun), yet his real nature is hinted at even here by the epithet Phœbus, that is, the radiant or beaming. In later times the view was almost universal that Apollo and Helios were identical. From being the god of light and purity in a physical sense, he gradually became the god of moral and spiritual light and purity, the source of all intellectual, social, and political progress. He thus came to be regarded as the god of song and prophecy, the god that wards off and heals bodily suffering and disease, the institutor and guardian of civil and political order, and the founder of cities. His worship was introduced at Rome at an early period, probably in the time of the Tarquins. Among the ancient statues of Apollo that have come down to us, the most remarkable is the one called Apollo Belvedere, from the Belvedere Gallery in the Vatican at Rome. This statue was discovered at Frascati in 1455, and purchased by Pope Julian II, the founder of the Vatican museum. It is a copy of a Greek statue of the third century B.C., and dates probably from the reign of Nero.

Apollodo´rus, a Greek writer who flourished 140 B.C. Among the numerous works he wrote on various subjects, the only one extant is his Bibliothecē, which contains a concise account of the mythology of Greece down to the heroic age.

Apollo´nius of Perga, Greek mathematician, called the 'great geometer', flourished about 240 B.C., and was the author of many works, only one of which, a treatise on Conic Sections, partly in Greek and partly in an Arabic translation, is now extant.

Apollo´nius of Rhodes, a Greek rhetorician and poet, flourished about 230 B.C. Of his various works we have only the Argonautica, an epic poem of considerable merit, though perhaps written with too much care and labour. It deals with the story of the Argonautic expedition.

Apollo´nius of Ty´ana, in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher who was born in the beginning of the Christian era, early adopted the Pythagorean doctrines, abstaining from animal food and maintaining a rigid silence for five years. He travelled extensively in Asia, professed to be endowed with miraculous powers, such as prophecy and the raising of the dead, and was on this account set up by some as a rival to Christ. His ascetic life, wise discourses, and wonderful deeds obtained for him almost universal reverence, and temples, altars, and statues were erected to him. He died at Ephesus about the end of the first century. A narrative of his strange career, containing many fables, with, perhaps, a kernel of truth, was written by Philostratus about a century later.

Apollo´nius of Tyre, the hero of a tale which had an immense popularity in the Middle Ages and which indirectly furnished the plot of Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The story, originally in Greek, first appeared in the third century after Christ.

Apoll´os, a Jew of Alexandria, who learned the doctrines of Christianity at Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, became a preacher of the gospel in Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant of Paul in his missionary work. Some have regarded him as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews.

Apoll´yon ('the Destroyer'), a name used in Rev. ix, 11 for the angel of the bottomless pit.

Apologetics (-jet´iks), this term, as used in Christian theology, does not carry with it the idea of excuse or regretful acknowledgment, but signifies a defensive or vindicatory statement, which accords with its meaning in the original Greek. In the conventional division of systematic theology apologetics comes first in order, and is followed by the disciplines of dogmatics [201]and ethics, which expound Christian belief and Christian duty respectively. There is a tendency, however, in the more recent treatment of systematic theology, to include the defence or vindication of the various Christian doctrines within the dogmatic scheme, leaving to apologetics—in so far as it may be regarded as a separate discipline from dogmatics—the discussion of such general themes as religion and revelation, authority and inspiration, and the essence and truth of Christianity. Such discussions belong essentially to what is now often called philosophy of religion. The preference of the term philosophy of religion to that of apologetics is indicative at once of the wider theological outlook of our time and of the conciliatory, adaptable, and more sympathetic spirit in which the Christian apologist approaches the new thought and culture.—Bibliography: A. B. Bruce, Apologetics; R. Mackintosh, First Primer of Apologetics; J. R. Illingworth, Reason and Revelation; A. E. Garvie, A Handbook of Christian Apologetics.

Apologue (ap´o-log), a story or relation of fictitious events intended to convey some useful truths. It differs from a parable in that the latter is drawn from events that take place among mankind, whereas the apologue may be founded on supposed actions of brutes or inanimate things. Æsop's fables are good examples of apologues.

Apol´ogy, a term at one time applied to a defence of one who is accused, or of certain doctrines called in question. Of this nature is the Apology of Socrates written by Plato; also a work with the same title sometimes attributed to Xenophon. The name passed over to Christian authors, who gave the name of apologies to the writings which were designed to defend Christianity against the attacks and accusations of its enemies, particularly the pagan philosophers, and to justify its professors before the emperors. Of this sort were those by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tertullian, Tatian, and others.

Aponeuro´sis, in anatomy, a name of certain greyish-white shining membranes, composed of interlacing fibres, sometimes continuous with the muscular fibre, and differing from tendons merely in having a flat form. They serve several purposes, sometimes attaching the muscles to the bones, sometimes surrounding the muscle and preventing its displacement, &c. See Anatomy.

Apophthegm (ap´o-them), a short pithy sentence or maxim. Julius Cæsar wrote a collection of them, and we have a collection by Francis Bacon.

Apoph´yllite, a species of mineral of a foliated structure and pearly lustre, called also fish-eye stone. It belongs to the Zeolite family, and is a hydrated silicate of lime and potash, containing also fluorine.

Ap´oplexy, sudden abolition of consciousness, followed after recovery of consciousness by persistent disturbance of sensation or voluntary motion, from suspension of the functions of the cerebrum, resulting from blocking or rupture of the blood-vessels of the brain. In a complete apoplexy the person falls suddenly, is unable to move his limbs or to speak, gives no proof of seeing, hearing, or feeling, and the breathing is stertorous or snoring, like that of a person in deep sleep. The premonitory symptoms of this dangerous disease are drowsiness, giddiness, dulness of hearing, frequent yawning, disordered vision, noise in the ears, vertigo, &c. It is most frequent between the ages of fifty and seventy. A large head, short neck, full chest, sanguine and plethoric constitution, and corpulency are generally considered signs of predisposition to it; but the state of the heart's action, with a plethoric condition of the vascular system, has a more marked influence. Out of sixty-three cases carefully investigated only ten were fat and plethoric, twenty-three being thin, and the rest of ordinary habit. The common predisposing causes are disease or senile changes in the blood-vessels and affections of the valves of the heart; but other factors may possibly play some part either as exciting or predisposing causes, such as long and intense thought, continued anxiety, habitual indulgence of the temper and passions, sedentary and luxurious living, sexual indulgence, intoxication, &c. More or less complete recovery from a first and second attack is common, but a third is almost invariably fatal.—Cf. Grasset, Traité du système nerveux.

Aposiope´sis, in rhetoric, a sudden break or stop in speaking or writing, usually for mere effect or a pretence of unwillingness to say anything on a subject; as, 'his character is such—but it is better I should not speak of that', or Virgil's "Quos ego—sed motos praestat componere fluctus" (Aen. I, 135).

Apos´tasy (Gr. apostasis, a standing away from), a renunciation of opinions or practices and the adoption of contrary ones, usually applied to renunciation of religious opinions. It is always an expression of reproach. What one party calls apostasy is termed by the other conversion. Catholics, also, call those persons apostates who forsake a religious order or renounce their religious vows without a lawful dispensation.

A posterio´ri. See A priori.

Apos´tles (literally, persons sent out, from the Gr. apostellein, to send out), the twelve men whom Jesus selected to attend him during his ministry, and to promulgate his religion. Their names were as follows: Simon Peter, and Andrew his brother; James, and John his brother, [202]sons of Zebedee; Philip; Bartholomew; Thomas; Matthew; James, the son of Alpheus; Lebbæus his brother, called Judas or Jude; Simon, the Canaanite; and Judas Iscariot. To these were subsequently added Matthias (chosen by lot in place of Judas Iscariot) and Paul. The Bible gives the name of apostle to Barnabas also, who accompanied Paul on his missions (Acts, xiv, 14). In a wider sense those preachers who first taught Christianity in heathen countries are sometimes termed apostles; for example, St. Denis, the apostle of the Gauls; St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany; St. Augustine, the apostle of England; Francis Xavier, the apostle of the Indies; Adalbert of Prague, apostle of Prussia Proper. During the life of the Saviour the apostles more than once showed a misunderstanding of the object of His mission, and during His sufferings evinced little courage and firmness of friendship for their great and benevolent Teacher. After His death they received the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, that they might be enabled to fulfil the important duties for which they had been chosen. According to one interpretation of Matthew, xvi, 18, Christ seems to appoint St. Peter the first of the apostles; and the Pope claims supreme authority from the power which Christ thus gave to St. Peter, of whom all the Popes, according to the Catholic dogma, are successors in an uninterrupted line.

Apostles' Creed, a well-known formula or declaration of Christian belief, formerly believed to be the work of the apostles themselves, but it can only be traced to the fourth century. See Creed.

Apostol´ic, or Apostol´ical, pertaining or relating to the apostles.—Apostolic Church, the Church in the time of the apostles, constituted according to their design. The name is also given to the four churches of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, and is claimed by the Roman Catholic Church, and occasionally by the Episcopalians.—Apostolic Constitutions and Canons, a collection of regulations attributed to the apostles, but generally supposed to be spurious. They appeared in the fourth century, are divided into eight books, and consist of rules and precepts relating to the duty of Christians, and particularly to the ceremonies and discipline of the Church.—Apostolic fathers, the Christian writers who during any part of their lives were contemporary with the apostles. There are five—Clement, Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius, Polycarp.—Apostolic king, a title granted by the Pope to the kings of Hungary, first conferred on St. Stephen, the founder of the royal line of Hungary, on account of what he accomplished in the spread of Christianity.—Apostolic see, the see of the Popes or Bishops of Rome: so called because the Popes profess themselves the successors of St. Peter, its founder.—Apostolic succession, the uninterrupted succession of bishops, and, through them, of priests and deacons (these three orders of ministers being called the apostolical orders), in the Church by regular ordination from the first apostles down to the present day. All Episcopal churches hold theoretically, and the Roman Catholic Church and many members of the English Church strictly, that such succession is essential to the officiating priest, in order that grace may be communicated through his administrations.

Apostol´ics, Apostolici, or Apostolic Brethren, the name given to certain sects who professed to imitate the manners and practice of the apostles. The last and most important of these sects was founded about 1260 by Gerhard Segarelli of Parma. They went barefooted, begging, preaching, and singing throughout Italy, Switzerland, and France; announced the coming of the kingdom of heaven and of purer times; denounced the papacy, and its corrupt and worldly church; and inculcated the complete renunciation of all worldly ties, of property, settled abode, marriage, &c. This society was formally abolished, 1286, by Honorius IV. In 1300 Segarelli was burned as a heretic, but another chief apostle appeared—Dolcino, a learned man of Milan. In self-defence they stationed themselves in fortified places whence they might resist attacks. After having devastated a large tract of country belonging to Milan they were subdued, A.D. 1307, by the troops of Bishop Raynerius, in their fortress Zebello, in Vercelli, and almost all destroyed. Dolcino was burned. The survivors afterwards appeared in Lombardy and in the south of France as late as 1368.

Apo´strŏphē (Gr., 'a turning away from'), a rhetorical figure by which the orator changes the course of his speech, and makes a short impassioned address to one absent as if he were present, or to things without life and sense as if they had life and sense. The same term is also applied to a comma when used to contract a word, or to mark the possessive case, as in 'John's book'.

Apothecaries' weight, the weight used in dispensing drugs, in which the pound (lb.) is divided into 12 ounces (), the ounce into 8 drachms (), the drachm into 3 scruples (), and the scruple into 20 grains (grs.), the grain being equivalent to that in avoirdupois weight.

Apoth´ecary, in a general sense, one who keeps a shop or laboratory for preparing, compounding, and vending medicines, and for the making up of medical prescriptions. In England the term was long applied (as to some little extent still) to a regularly licensed class of medical practitioners, being such persons as were members of, [203]or licensed by, the Apothecaries' Company in London. The apothecaries of London were at one time ranked with the grocers, with whom they were incorporated by James I in 1606. In 1617, however, the apothecaries received a new charter as a distinct company. They were not yet regarded as having the right to prescribe, but only to dispense, medicines; but in 1703 the House of Lords conferred that right on them, and they afterwards became a well-established branch of the medical profession. In 1815 an Act was passed providing that no person should practise as an apothecary in any part of England or Wales unless after serving an apprenticeship of five years with a member of the society, and receiving a certificate from the society's examiners. As in country places every practitioner must be to some extent an apothecary, this Act gave the society an undue influence over the medical profession. Dissatisfaction therefore long prevailed, but nothing of importance was done till the Medical Act of 1858, which brought the desired reform. The Apothecaries' Society, governed by a master, two wardens, and twenty-two assistants, has prescribed a course of medical instruction and practice which candidates for the licence of the society must pass through. Since 1874 apprenticeship has not been necessary.

Apothe´cium, in botany, the receptacle of lichens, consisting of the spore-cases or asci, and of the paraphyses or barren threads.

Apotheo´sis (deification), a solemnity among the ancients by which a mortal was raised to the rank of the gods. The custom of placing mortals, who had rendered their countrymen important services, among the gods was very ancient among the Greeks. The Romans, for several centuries, deified none but Romulus, and first imitated the Greeks in the fashion of frequent apotheosis after the time of Cæsar. From this period apotheosis was regulated by the decrees of the senate, and accompanied with great solemnities. Almost all the Roman emperors were deified.

Appalachian Mountains (ap-pa-lā´chi-an), also called Alleghanies, a vast mountain range in N. America extending for 1300 miles from Cape Gaspé on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, s.w. to Alabama. The system has been divided into three great sections: the northern (including the Adirondacks, the Green Mountains, the White Mountains, &c.), from Cape Gaspé to New York; the central (including a large portion of the Blue Ridge, the Alleghanies proper, and numerous lesser ranges), from New York to the valley of the New River; and the southern (including the continuation of the Blue Ridge, the Black Mountains, the Smoky Mountains, &c.), from the New River southwards. The chain consists of several ranges generally parallel to each other, the altitude of the individual mountains increasing on approaching the south. The highest peaks rise over 6600 feet (not one at all approaching the snow-level), but the mean height is about 2500 feet. Lake Champlain is the only lake of great importance in the system, but numerous rivers of considerable size take their rise here. Magnetite, hematite, and other iron ores occur in great abundance, and the coal-measures are among the most extensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are also found in small quantities, while marble, limestone, fire-clay, gypsum, and salt abound. The forests covering many of the ranges yield large quantities of valuable timber, such as sugar-maple, white birch, beech, ash, oak, cherry tree, white poplar, white and yellow pine, &c., while they form the haunts of large numbers of bears, panthers, wild cats, and wolves.

Appalachicola (-chi-cō´la), a river of the United States, formed by the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers, which unite near the northern border of Florida; length, about 100 miles; it flows into the Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable.

Appam, the name of a British merchant ship of the Elder-Dempster line captured by the German raiding cruiser Moewe (Sea-gull) on 16th Jan., 1916. A German prize crew succeeded in bringing the Appam westward, and was able to pass the British cordon off Chesapeake Bay and to reach Norfolk, Virginia. The vessel was carrying, among others, an ex-governor of Sierra Leone and some military officers from the west coast of Africa, but the passengers were at once released and allowed to return to England.

Appanage. See Apanage.

Appa´rent, among mathematicians and astronomers, applied to things as they appear to the eye, in distinction to what they really are. Thus they speak of apparent motion, magnitude, distance, height, &c. The apparent magnitude of a heavenly body is the angle subtended at the spectator's eye by the diameter of that body, and this, of course, depends on the distance as well as the real magnitude of the body; apparent motion is the motion a body seems to have in consequence of our own motion, as the motion of the sun from east to west, &c.

Appari´tion, according to a belief held by some, a disembodied spirit manifesting itself to mortal sight; according to the common theory an illusion involuntarily generated, by means of which figures or forms, not present to the actual sense, are nevertheless depicted with a vividness and intensity sufficient to create a temporary belief in their reality. Such illusions are now generally held to result from an over-excited brain, a strong imagination, or some bodily malady. In perfect health the mind not only possesses a control over its powers, but the [204]impressions of the external objects alone occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is consequently checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively more feeble and faint. But in an unhealthy state of the mind, when its attention is partly withdrawn from the contemplation of external objects, the impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects, and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the eyeball is directed. This theory explains satisfactorily a large majority of the stories of apparitions; still there are some which it seems insufficient to account for.—See Crystal Gazing, Hypnotism, Spiritualism.—Bibliography: F. Podmore, Modern Spiritualism; F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality, and its survival of bodily Death.

Appeal´, in legal phraseology, the removal of a cause from an inferior tribunal to a superior, in order that the latter may revise, and if it seem needful reverse or amend, the decision of the former. The supreme court of appeal for Great Britain is the House of Lords. Certain defects in connection with the settlement of appeals by this body were remedied by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 1876, while a new court of appeal was established as a division of the Supreme Court of Judicature. In Ireland there is also a Court of Appeal similar to that in England; while in Scotland the highest court is the Court of Session. From the decisions of the Indian and all colonial courts, and the courts of the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands, appeal may be made to the Privy Council. Appeals from the decisions of justices of a borough or county may be made to the quarter-sessions of either respectively, in cases of summary jurisdiction, or upon a point of law to divisional courts of the High Court of Justice, which was established at the same time as the Court of Appeal; from quarter-sessions, county and other inferior courts, to the High Court. In Scotland the Court of Session reviews the decisions of the county courts, there being an appeal from its decisions to the House of Lords.—In France the court of final appeal in all cases is the cour de cassation.—In the United States the system of appeals differs in different States.

Appearance in law is the first formal act incumbent on a defendant who intends to resist the claim in the writ or action served upon him. It consists usually in lodging in court a written notice stating simply that the defendant intends to dispute the claim. Failure to enter appearance within the prescribed time entails decree passing against the defendant in absence, but procedure exists in all courts for enabling such decrees to be recalled within a limited period. Appearance should be entered under protest if it is desired to dispute the jurisdiction of the court or the regularity of the writ.

Appendicitis, a disease which has become well known in recent times through the more accurate methods of diagnosis and the increased safety of surgical operation. It is caused by inflammation of the vermiform appendix, a narrow, hollow, worm-like body from 2 to 4 inches long, opening at one end into the large intestine and forming a cul-de-sac at the other. In appendicitis the inflammation begins in the appendix and frequently spreads to the neighbouring parts, causing inflammation of the cæcum, a condition known as perityphlitis. The most frequent cause of appendicitis is a hard piece of insufficiently-digested food becoming lodged in the appendix. Occasionally orange pips, grape stones, &c., are the cause, though not so often as is popularly supposed.

The symptoms are: abdominal pain (especially low down at the right side), fever, nausea, vomiting, constipation; these varying according to the intensity of the attack. Three types are recognized:

1. A mild type, when the symptoms subside in a few days and the patient soon appears to be in normal health.

2. A severe type, in which, if left alone, the appendix bursts into the abdominal cavity and death from general peritonitis results.

3. Another type, in which the inflammation in the appendix leads to the formation of a localized abscess, sometimes of great size.

The treatment for the severe and for the abscess-forming types is essentially immediate operation; while for the mild type operation may either be performed at once or after the attack has passed off. Anyone who has had one attack of appendicitis is liable to have it repeated in a much severer form, hence the advisability of having the appendix removed after the first attack, however slight. During an attack, prior to surgical interference, complete rest in bed is essential. Abdominal pain should be treated with frequent hot fomentations, and the diet should be reduced to small quantities of fluid.

Appenzell (a˙p'pen-tsel), a Swiss canton, wholly enclosed by the canton of St. Gall; area, 162 sq. miles. It is divided into two independent portions or half-cantons, Outer-Rhoden, which is Protestant, and Inner-Rhoden, which is Catholic. It is an elevated district, traversed by branches of the Alps; Mount Säntis in the centre being 8250 feet high. It is watered by the Sitter and by several smaller affluents of the Rhine. Glaciers occupy the higher valleys. Flax, hemp, grain, fruit, &c., are produced, but the wealth of Inner-Rhoden lies in its herds [205]and flocks—that of Outer-Rhoden in its manufactures of embroidered muslins, gauzes, cambrics, and other cotton stuffs; also of silk goods and paper. The town of Appenzell (Ger. Abtenzelle, abbot's cell) is the capital of Inner-Rhoden, on the Sitter, with about 4300 inhabitants. Trogen is the capital of Outer-Rhoden, Herisau the largest town (pop. 11,000). Pop. Outer-Rhoden, 60,000; Inner-Rhoden, 15,000.

Apperception. See Metaphysics.

Ap´petite, in its widest sense, means the natural desire for gratification, either of the body or the mind; but is generally applied to the recurrent and intermittent desire for food. A healthy appetite is favoured by work, exercise, plain living, and cheerfulness; absence of this feeling, or defective appetite (anorexia), indicates diseased action of the stomach, or of the nervous system or circulation, or it may result from vicious habits. Depraved appetite (pica), or a desire for unnatural food, as chalk, ashes, dirt, soap, &c., depends often in the case of children on vicious tastes or habits; in grown-up persons it may be symptomatic of dyspepsia, pregnancy or chlorosis. Insatiable or canine appetite or voracity (bulimia) when it occurs in childhood is generally symptomatic of worms; in adults common causes are pregnancy, vicious habits, and indigestion caused by stomach complaints or gluttony, when the gnawing pains of disease are mistaken for hunger.

Ap´pian, a Roman historian of the second century after Christ, a native of Alexandria, was governor and manager of the imperial revenues under Hadrian, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, in Rome. He compiled in Greek a Roman history, from the earliest times to those of Augustus, in twenty-four books, of which only eleven have come down to us. Appian's style is not attractive, but he gives us much valuable information.

Appia´ni, Andrea, a painter, born at Milan in 1754, died in 1817. As a fresco-painter he excelled every contemporary painter in Italy. He displayed his skill particularly in the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Celso at Milan, and in the paintings representing the legend of Cupid and Psyche prepared for the walls and ceiling of the villa of the Archduke Ferdinand at Monza (1795). Napoleon appointed him royal court painter, and portraits of almost the whole of the imperial family were painted by him.

Appian Way, called Regina Viarum, the Queen of Roads: the oldest and most renowned Roman road, was constructed during the censorship of Appius Claudius Cæcus (313-310 B.C.). It was built with large square stones on a raised platform, and was made direct from the gates of Rome to Capua, in Campania. It was afterwards extended through Samnium and Apulia to Brundusium, the modern Brindisi. It was partially restored by Pius VI, and between 1850 and 1853 it was excavated by order of Pius IX as far as the eleventh milestone from Rome.

Appius Claudius, surnamed Cæcus, or the blind, a Roman patrician, elected censor 312 B.C., which office he held four years. While in this position he made every effort to weaken the power of the Plebs, and constructed the road and aqueduct named after him. He was subsequently twice consul, and once dictator. In his old age he became blind, but in 280 B.C. he made a famous speech in which he induced the senate to reject the terms of peace fixed by Pyrrhus. He is the earliest Roman writer of prose and verse whose name we know.

Appius Claudius Crassus, one of the Roman decemvirs, appointed 451 B.C. to draw up a new code of laws. He and his colleagues plotted to retain their power permanently, and at the expiry of their year of office refused to give up their authority. The people were incensed against them, and the following circumstances led to their overthrow. Appius Claudius had conceived an evil passion for Virginia, the daughter of Lucius Virginius, then absent with the army in the war with the Æqui and Sabines. At the instigation of Appius, Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, claimed Virginia as the daughter of one of his own female slaves, and the decemvir, acting as judge, decided that in the meantime she should remain in the custody of the claimant. Virginius, hastily summoned from the army, appeared with his daughter next day in the forum, and appealed to the people; but Appius Claudius again adjudged her to Marcus Claudius. Unable to rescue his daughter, the unhappy father stabbed her to the heart. The decemvirs were deposed by the indignant people 449 B.C., and Appius Claudius died in prison or was strangled.

Apple (Pyrus Malus), the fruit of a well-known tree of the nat. ord. Rosaceæ, or the tree itself. The apple belongs to the temperate regions of the globe, over which it is almost universally spread and cultivated. The tree attains a moderate height, with spreading branches; the leaf is ovate; and the flowers are produced from the wood of the former year; but more generally from very short shoots or spurs from wood of two years' growth. The original of all the varieties of the cultivated apple is the wild crab, which has a small and extremely sour fruit, and is a native of most of the countries of Europe. Apples have been used as food and cultivated for upwards of 4000 years, and were probably introduced into Britain by the Romans. The greater number of the varieties now grown have, however, been cultivated only within the last century or so. To the facility of multiplying varieties by grafting is to be ascribed the amazing extension [206]of the sorts of apples, the number of varieties known being over 2000. Many of the more marked varieties are known by general names, as pippins, codlins, rennets, &c. The oldest apple in cultivation is a variety called 'the lady', which originated in Britain early in the seventeenth century. Apples for the table are characterized by a firm juicy pulp, a sweetish acid flavour, regular form, and beautiful colouring; those for cooking by the property of forming by the aid of heat into a pulpy mass of equal consistency, as also by their large size and keeping properties; apples for cider must have a considerable degree of astringency, with richness of juice. The propagation of apple trees is accomplished by seeds, cuttings, suckers, layers, budding, or grafting, the last being almost the universal practice. The tree thrives best in an open situation where it will receive the maximum amount of sunshine and protection from cold winds. The protection is particularly necessary in districts where cold winds and frosts prevail during the flowering season. The wood of the apple tree or the common crab is hard, close-grained, and often richly coloured, and is suitable for turning and cabinet work. The fermented juice (verjuice) of the crab is employed in cookery and medicine. Apples are largely imported into Great Britain from the Continent and the United States and Canada. The designation apple, with various modifying words, is applied to a number of fruits having nothing in common with the apple proper, as alligator-apple, love-apple, &c.—Cf. A. E. Wilkinson, The Apple.

Ap´pleby, county town of Westmorland, England, on the Eden, 28 miles S.S.E. of Carlisle. Disfranchised in 1832, it gave its name to a parliamentary division of the county until 1918. It has an old castle, the keep of which, called Cæsar's Tower, is still fairly well preserved. Pop. (1921), 1786.

Apple of discord, according to the story in Greek mythology, the golden apple thrown into an assembly of the gods by the goddess of discord (Eris) bearing the inscription 'for the fairest'. Aphrodītē (Venus), Hera (Juno), and Athēnē (Minerva) became competitors for it, and its adjudication to the first by Paris so inflamed the jealousy and hatred of Hera to all of the Trojan race (to which Paris belonged) that she did not cease her machinations till Troy was destroyed.

Apple of Sodom, a fruit described by old writers as externally of fair appearance, but turning to ashes when plucked; probably the fruit of Solānum sodomēum.

Ap´pleton, a city of Wisconsin, United States, 100 miles N.W. of Milwaukee by rail. It has many flour, paper, saw, and woollen mills, and other manufactories, and is the seat of a collegiate institute and of the Lawrence University. Pop. (1920), 19,561.

Appliqué, in needlework or metal-work, a design or feature having the appearance of being independently made and attached to the surface of the object it adorns. When the ornament is sunk into the body of the object it is called inlay.

Appoggiatura (a˙p-poj-a˙-tö´ra˙), in music, a small additional note of embellishment preceding the note to which it is attached, and taking away from the principal note a portion of its time.

Appoint´ment, a term in English law signifying the exercise of some power, reserved in a conveyance or settlement, of burdening, selling, or otherwise disposing of the lands or property conveyed. Such a reserved power is termed a power of appointment.

Appomatt´ox Court-house, a village in Virginia, United States, 20 miles E. of Lynchburg. Here, on 9th April, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General Grant, and thus virtually concluded the American Civil War.

Apponyi, Albert, Count, Hungarian statesman, born in 1846. Leader of the Conservative National party, he joined the Liberal party in 1899, and in 1901 was elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was Minister of Education in 1906 and 1917, and again in 1918. In 1920 he was at the head of the delegation which came to Paris to settle the peace-terms with Hungary.

Apposi´tion, in grammar, the relation in which one or more nouns or substantive phrases or clauses stand to a noun or pronoun, which they explain or characterize without being predicated of it, and with which they agree in case; as Cicero, the orator, lived in the first century before Christ; the opinion, that a severe winter is generally followed by a good summer, is a vulgar error.

Apprai´ser, a person employed to value property, and duly licensed to do so by licence taken out every year. The valuation must be duly set down in writing, and there is a certain fixed scale of charges for the appraiser's services.

Apprehen´sion, the seizing of a person as a criminal whether taken in the act or on suspicion, and with or without a warrant, a warrant being necessary when the person apprehending is not present at the commission of the offence. See Arrest.

Appren´tice, one bound by indenture to serve some particular individual or company of individuals for a specified time, in order to be instructed in some art, science, or trade. In England a person under the age of twenty-one cannot bind himself apprentice, and accordingly the usual way is for a relation or friend to become a contracting party to the indenture, and engage for the faithful performance of the agreement. [207]An infant cannot be bound apprentice by his friends without his own expressed consent. In Scotland a boy under fourteen or a girl under twelve years of age cannot become a party to an indenture without the concurrence of a parent or guardian; above that age they may enter into an indenture of themselves, and thereby become personally bound. An indenture is determinable by the consent of the parties to it, and also by the death, bankruptcy, or retirement from business of the master. Parish apprentices are bound out by the guardians of the poor to suitable persons, and in this case the consent of the apprentice is not necessary. The system of apprenticing by indenture is now much less common than formerly.—Cf. R. A. Bray, Boy Labour and Apprenticeship.

Approach´es, in field-engineering, an old-fashioned name for what are now called 'communication trenches'.

Appropria´tion. See Impropriation.

Appro´ver (ap-prö´vėr), in English law, any accomplice in a crime who is allowed by the judges of jail-delivery to become king's evidence, that is, to be examined in evidence against his accomplices, it being understood that the approver will himself be pardoned upon making a full and open confession.

Approxima´tion, a term used in mathematics to signify a continual approach to a quantity required, when no process is known for arriving at it exactly. Although, by such an approximation, the exact value of a quantity cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, it may be found sufficiently correct; thus the diagonal of a square, whose sides are represented by unity, is √2, the exact value of which quantity cannot be obtained; but its approximate value may be substituted in the nicest calculations.

Appuleius. See Apuleius.

Ap´ricot (Prunus Armeniăca), a fruit of the plum genus which was introduced into Europe from Asia more than three centuries before Christ, and into England from Italy in 1524. It is a native of Armenia and other parts of Asia and also of Africa. The apricot is a low tree, of rather crooked growth, with somewhat heart-shaped leaves and sessile flowers. The fruit is sweet, more or less juicy, of a yellowish colour, about the size of a peach, and resembling it in delicacy of flavour. Some of the best varieties are 'Frogmore Early', 'Moorpark', 'Royal', &c. The wood is coarsely grained and soft. Apricot trees are chiefly raised against walls, and are propagated by budding and grafting.

Apries (ā´pri-ēz), Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, the eighth king of the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He succeeded his father Psammetichus in 590 or 589 B.C. The Jews under Zedekiah revolted against their Babylonian oppressors and allied themselves with Apries, who was, however, unable to raise the siege of Jerusalem, which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar. A still more unfortunate expedition against Cyrene brought about revolt in his army, in endeavouring to suppress which Apries was defeated and slain about 570 B.C.

A´pril (Lat. Aprīlis, from aperire, to open, because the buds open at this time), the fourth month of the year. The strange custom of making fools on 1st April by sending people upon errands which end in disappointment, and raise a laugh at the expense of the person sent, prevails throughout Europe. It has been connected with the miracle plays of the Middle Ages, in which the Saviour was represented as having been sent, at this period of the year, from Annas to Caiaphas and from Pilate to Herod. This explanation, however, is perhaps itself a piece of April fooling. In France the party fooled is called un poisson d'avril, 'an April fish'; in Scotland, a 'gowk', or cuckoo.

A prio´ri ('from what goes before'), a phrase applied to a mode of reasoning by which we proceed from general principles or notions to particular cases, as opposed to a posteriori ('from what comes after') reasoning, by which we proceed from knowledge previously acquired. Mathematical proofs are of the a priori kind; the conclusions of experimental science are a posteriori. It is also a term applied to knowledge independent of all experience.

Apse, a portion of any building forming a termination or projection semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming externally a semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to the angles of the polygon; [208]especially such a semicircular or polygonal recess projecting from the east end of the choir or chancel of a church, in which the altar is placed. The apse was developed from the somewhat similar part of the Roman basilicæ, in which the magistrate (prætor) sat.

Ap´sheron, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea formed by the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for about 40 miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense quantities of petroleum. See Baku.

Apsis, pl. Ap´sides or Apsi´des, in astronomy, one of the two points of the orbit of a heavenly body situated at the extremities of the major axis of the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of the points being that at which the body is at its greatest and the other that at which it is at its least distance from its primary. In regard to the earth and the other planets, these two points are called the aphelion and perihelion; and in regard to the moon they are called the apogee and perigee. The line of the apsides has a slow forward angular motion in the plane of the planet's orbit, being retrograde only in the case of Venus. This in the earth's orbit produces the anomalistic year. See Anomaly.

Apt (ät; ancient Apta Julia), a town of Southern France, department Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient Gothic cathedral. Pop. 6336.

Ap´tera (Gr. apteros, wingless), wingless insects, such as lice and certain others, popularly called Spring-tails, and composed of two groups, Collembola and Thysanura.

Ap´teryx, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds, distinguished from the ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary hallux, which forms a spur. They are natives of the South Island of New Zealand; are totally wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling hairs; about the size of a small goose; with long curved beak something like that of a curlew. They are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects, worms, and seeds.—A. austrālis, called Kiwi-kiwi from its cry, is the best-known species.

Apuleius, or Appuleius (ap-ū-lē´us), author of the celebrated satirical romance in Latin called the Golden Ass, born at Madaura, in Numidia, about A.D. 125; the time of his death is unknown. He studied at Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to the Platonic philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he married a rich widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent by magic, and the speech by which he successfully defended himself is still extant. Besides his Golden Ass (which is also known as the Metamorphoses, and which was translated into English by W. Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of Cupid and Psyche, he was also the author of many works on philosophy and rhetoric, some of which are still extant.

Apu´lia, a department or division in the south-east of Italy, on the Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; area, 7376 sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791.

Apure (a˙-pö´rā), a navigable river of Venezuela, formed by the junction of several streams which rise in the Andes of Colombia; it falls into the Orinoco.—Apure, one of the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of 30,008.

Apurimac (a˙-pö-rē-ma˙k´), a river of South America, which rises in the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and other streams, forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the Amazon.—The department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq. miles, and a pop. of 177,887.

Aq´ua (Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old chemistry.—Aqua fortis (= strong water), a weak and impure nitric acid. It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence is used by engravers, etchers, &c.—Aqua marina, a fine variety of beryl. See Aquamarine.—Aqua regia, or aqua regalis (= royal water), a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power of dissolving gold and other precious metals.—Aqua Tofana, a poisonous fluid made about the middle of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania, who is said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by means of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of crystallized arsenic.—Aqua vitæ (= water of life), or simply aqua, a name familiarly applied to the whisky of Scotland, corresponding in meaning with the usquebaugh of Ireland, the eau de vie (brandy) of the French. [209]

Aq´uamarine, a name given to some of the finest varieties of beryl of a sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so called.

Aqua´rium, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or partly of glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept living specimens of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic plants. In principle the aquarium is based on the interdependence of animal and vegetable life; animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic acid, plants reversing the process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. The aquarium must consequently be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare of both something like a proper proportion should exist between them. The simplest form of aquarium is that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger scale consist of a tank or a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and stone floors, and contain sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &c. By improved arrangements light is admitted from above, passing through the water in the tanks and illuminating their contents, while the spectator is in comparative darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological station at Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth, maintained by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Aquaria on a large scale have been constructed in connection with public parks or gardens, and the name is also given to places of public entertainment in which large aquaria are exhibited.—Cf. G. C. Bateman, Fresh-water Aquaria; M. J. Newbigin, The Aquarium.

Aquarius (Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which the sun enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly coincident constellation Aquarius about a month later.

Aquatint, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful effect is produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The special character of the effect is the result of sprinkling finely-powdered resin or mastic over the plate, and causing this to adhere by heat, the design being previously etched, or being now traced out. The nitric acid (aqua fortis) acts only in the interstices between the particles of resin or mastic, thus giving a slightly granular appearance.

Aqua Tofa´na. See Aqua.

Aqua vitæ. See Aqua.

Aq´ueduct (Lat. aqua, water, duco, to lead), an artificial channel or conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another: more particularly applied to structures for conveying water from distant sources for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were extensively used by the Romans, and many of them still remain in different places on the Continent of Europe, some being still in use. The Pont du Gard in the south of France, 14 miles from Nîmes, is still nearly perfect, and is a grand monument of the Roman occupation of this country. The ancient aqueducts were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes tunnelled through hills, and carried over valleys and rivers on arches. The Pont du Gard spans the River Gard, and was built to convey to Nîmes the water of springs rising in the neighbourhood of the modern Uzés. It is built of great blocks of stone; its height is 160 feet; length of the highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at Segovia, originally built by the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of arcades 100 feet high, is 2921 feet in length, and is one of the most admired works of antiquity. One of the most remarkable aqueducts of modern times is that constructed by Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure to Versailles. The extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the construction of aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be called aqueduct bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with canals and also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals exist canal aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal must be kept on a perfect level.

Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great distance, and in [210]bringing the water to the place where it is required much tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and excavating in the open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven through miles of rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may have to be lined with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work also being much employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be formed on the plan of 'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and then covered over, leaving the surface much in the same state as before. And, of course, iron piping is often used in connection with such tunnels, the water being conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and so far in one of another kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In the Thirlmere aqueduct, which brings water to Manchester, there are 45 miles of cast-iron pipes, 37 miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of tunnels proper. Pipes are naturally laid where valleys occur, and the water simply enters the pipes at one end and flows out at the other by the influence of gravity, there being a suitable chamber constructed at either end of the pipe line where there is a junction with a section of tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first introduced into England in the eighteenth century, the first being the aqueduct at Barton Bridge conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the Irwell. In such bridges the water-channel may be made of cast iron. There are great aqueduct bridges on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai bridge on the Lower Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long distances in flumes or open wooden channels, supported, where necessary, on trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large staves and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface of the ground without any covering.—Bibliography: C. Herschel, Frontinus; Wegmann, Water-supply of City of New York; J. F. Bateman, The Manchester Waterworks; J. M. Gale, The Glasgow Waterworks; A. Prescott Folwell, Water Supply Engineering.

Aq´ueous humour, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space between the cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye.

Aqueous rocks, composed of matter deposited by water from suspension or solution. Called also sedimentary rocks. See Geology.

Aquifolia´ceæ, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The species consist of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common holly (Ilex Aquifolium) and the I. paraguayensis, or Paraguayan tea tree.

Aquila (a˙k´wē-la˙), a town in Italy, capital of the province of Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an attractive and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome palaces. In 1703 and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop. 22,050.—The province has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop. 422,634.

Aq´uila, a companion of St. Paul (Acts, xviii, 2, 3). Expelled from Rome, he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with them. They were converted to Christianity by the Apostle.

Aq´uila, a native of Pontus, flourished about A.D. 130. He became a Jewish proselyte, and made a close and accurate translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, extant only in fragments.

Aq´uila, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. See Constellations.

Aquila´ria. See Aloes-wood.

Aquile´gia. See Columbine.

Aquileia (ak-wi-lē´ya), an ancient city near the head of the Adriatic Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181 B.C. Commanding the N.E. entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425 it was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place of some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen.

Aquinas (a-kwī´nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a celebrated scholastic divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the castle of Rocco Secca, near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. He was educated at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, and at the University of Naples, where he studied for six years. About the age of seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans, much against the wishes of his family. He attended the lectures of Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or 1246. Here he became involved in the dispute between the university and the Begging Friars as to the liberty of teaching, advocating the rights claimed by the latter with great energy. In 1257 he received the degree of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in Italy, lecturing in Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in Paris lecturing to the students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In 1263 he had been offered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but refused the offer. He died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a general council for the purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He was called, after the fashion of the times, the angelic doctor, and was canonized by John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are all written in Latin, are the Summa Theologica, [211]which, although only professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic summary of the knowledge of the time, and the Summa Philosophica. The work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new scientific teachings of the age—derived from Arabian and Byzantine sources—with the doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His disciples were known as Thomists. See Thomism.—Cf. P. Conway, St. Thomas Aquinas; and article in Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics.

Aquita´nia, later Aquitaine, a Roman province in Gaul, which comprehended the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from the sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection with England by the marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of Aquitaine. The title to the province was for long disputed by England and France, but it was finally secured by the latter (1453).

Arabah´, a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western Arabia, between the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation of the Jordan valley.