This is a modern-English version of The International Auxiliary Language Esperanto: Grammar & Commentary, originally written by Cox, George. It has been thoroughly updated, including changes to sentence structure, words, spelling, and grammar—to ensure clarity for contemporary readers, while preserving the original spirit and nuance. If you click on a paragraph, you will see the original text that we modified, and you can toggle between the two versions.

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      THE INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY

      LANGUAGE

ESPERANTO

      GRAMMAR & COMMENTARY
   



      COMPILED BY

Major-General George Cox

      B.A. (Cantab.)
   
COMPILED BY

Major-General George Cox

      B.A. (Cambridge)



      FOURTH EDITION

      REVISED
   
Fourth Edition
 Revised



      B.E.A. Publications Fund, No. 14
   
B.E.A. Publications Fund, #14



      LONDON :

      BRITISH ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION

INCORPORATED

LONDON:  
BRITISH ESPERANTO ASSOCIATION  
INCORPORATED



      [All rights reserved]
   
All rights reserved





Reprinted, January, 1939

Reprinted, January 1939



Printed in Great Britain

Printed in the UK


PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION



   In this Fourth Edition of a work which, since its first appearance
   in August, 1906, has had a very favourable reception among
   English-speaking Esperantists in all parts of the world, advantage
   has been taken of the necessity for reprinting the work, to make
   a thorough revision of the text, and to introduce some other
   improvements.

In this Fourth Edition of a work that, since it first came out in August 1906, has been well-received by English-speaking Esperantists globally, we've taken the opportunity to reprint the work to thoroughly revise the text and introduce some other improvements.



   Major-General Cox, born 1838, the author of the
   Commentary, died on 27th October, 1909, and
   the revision of the work has been carried out under the direction of
   the British Esperanto Association (Incorporated).

Major-General Cox, born 1838, the author of the
   Commentary, died on October 27, 1909, and
   the revision of the work has been carried out under the direction of
   the British Esperanto Association (Incorporated).



   Footnotes to the Preface to the First Edition have been introduced to
   record facts not known to the author at the time.

Footnotes in the Preface to the First Edition have been added to include facts that the author was unaware of at the time.


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION



   Esperanto is the International Auxiliary Language created by Dr. L.
   L. Zamenhof, a doctor of medicine, residing at Warsaw, Poland. It
   is now hardly necessary to mention this fact, but there was a time,
   not very long ago, when many people thought that Esperanto was a
   patent medicine, or new kind of soap, or, in fact, anything except a
   language!

Esperanto is the International Auxiliary Language created by Dr. L. L. Zamenhof, a medical doctor living in Warsaw, Poland. It’s probably unnecessary to mention this now, but not too long ago, many people thought Esperanto was a type of patent medicine, a new kind of soap, or really anything other than a language!



   Its aim is not to displace existing languages, but to be a
   second language for the world, and its merits are now recognized
   by many eminent men of all
   nationalities.[1]

Its goal isn't to replace existing languages, but to serve as a second language for the world, and many prominent individuals from various nationalities now acknowledge its benefits. [1]



   If we consider the enormous advantages of a common language,
   understood by all, we shall at once confess what a blessing Dr.
   Zamenhof has conferred upon mankind, for:—

If we think about the huge benefits of a common language that everyone understands, we will immediately agree on what a gift Dr. Zamenhof has given to humanity, because:—



Firstly.—It enables anyone to correspond on any
   topic, social, commercial, or scientific, with persons of all
   nationalities.[2]

Firstly.—It allows anyone to communicate about any topic, whether social, commercial, or scientific, with people from all nationalities.[2]



Secondly.—Books of all descriptions can at once be
   translated into this common language, and sold all over the world;
   consequently, scientific and medical men will not have to wait,
   perhaps years, before some important treatise appears in their own
   language.

Secondly.—Books of all kinds can be quickly translated into this common language and sold worldwide; as a result, scientists and medical professionals won’t have to wait, possibly years, for important works to be available in their own language.



   Lovers of fiction would also have at command the works of all the
   best foreign novelists.[3]

Lovers of fiction would also have access to the works of all the best foreign novelists.[3]



Thirdly.—At international congresses the speeches and
   discussions could be in Esperanto, and understood by all present, the
   aid of interpreters being unnecessary, by which great saving of time
   would be effected.[4]

Thirdly.—At international conferences, speeches and discussions could be in Esperanto, which everyone would understand, making interpreters unnecessary and saving a lot of time.[4]



Fourthly.—Treaties and Conventions with foreign
   Powers could be drawn up in the international language, and there
   would be no difficulty in determining their exact signification.[5]

Fourthly.—Agreements and treaties with foreign countries could be written in a universal language, and it would be easy to understand their precise meaning.[5]



   Esperanto was first introduced into Great Britain by Mr. Joseph
   Rhodes, of Keighley, Yorkshire, who formed the first group in that
   town in 1902. Shortly afterwards, in January, 1903, a group was
   formed in London, under the auspices of Mr. W. T. Stead, Editor
   of the "Review of Reviews," Miss E. A. Lawrence, and Mr. J. C.
   O’Connor, M.A., Ph.D., which resulted in the foundation of the
   present London Esperanto Club. The first English-Esperanto Gazette
   was founded by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie, in November, 1903; this
   was followed in January, 1905, by "The British Esperantist," the
   official organ of the British Esperanto Association, which
   was then founded as the official organization of the Esperantists
   of the British Empire. Progress in the language was at first slow,
   but it is now advancing by leaps and bounds, and there are at
   present, in England, Ireland, and Scotland, some
   60[6] societies, groups, and clubs,
   affiliated to the British Esperanto Association. There is also
   now an American Esperanto Association, with already a large number of
   energetic groups.[7]

Esperanto was first introduced to Great Britain by Mr. Joseph Rhodes from Keighley, Yorkshire, who started the first group in that town in 1902. Shortly after, in January 1903, a group was established in London, led by Mr. W. T. Stead, Editor of the "Review of Reviews," along with Miss E. A. Lawrence and Mr. J. C. O’Connor, M.A., Ph.D., which led to the formation of the current London Esperanto Club. The first English-Esperanto Gazette was launched by Mr. H. Bolingbroke Mudie in November 1903; this was followed in January 1905 by "The British Esperantist," the official publication of the British Esperanto Association, which was then established as the official organization for Esperantists in the British Empire. Progress in the language was initially slow, but it has since made significant strides, and there are currently about 60 societies, groups, and clubs in England, Ireland, and Scotland affiliated with the British Esperanto Association. There is also now an American Esperanto Association, which already has a large number of active groups.[7]



   I hope that those who take up this Commentary
   on Esperanto will not think it necessary to wade through all
   its pages before they can read and write the language. All that
   is necessary for this purpose is to read the 16 simple rules,
   written by Dr. Zamenhof himself (par. 94), and
   a few paragraphs and examples on the Formation of Words (par.
   40), and on the Parts of Speech (pars.
   103, 107, 125,
   149, 159, 238,
   249, 262).
   This can easily be done in two or three hours; and then, with the aid
   of a small English Dictionary, you will be able to write a letter in
   Esperanto, which will be readily understood by any Esperantist.

I hope that anyone picking up this Commentary on Esperanto won't feel the need to read through every single page before they can read and write the language. All you need to do is check out the 16 simple rules written by Dr. Zamenhof himself (par. 94), along with a few sections and examples about the Formation of Words (par. 40) and about the Parts of Speech (pars. 103, 107, 125, 149, 159, 238, 249, 262). You can easily accomplish this in two or three hours, and then, with the help of a small English Dictionary, you'll be able to write a letter in Esperanto that any Esperantist will understand.



   Or, you can buy for a few pence various primers, first lessons, or
   instruction books, most of which contain a small vocabulary of common
   words. A tiny book, costing 1d., called the "Esperanto Key," weighing
   1⁄5th of an ounce, containing a vocabulary of over 1,500 roots,
   with explanations of the suffixes, formation of words, etc., gives
   you the language in a nutshell. This little book is already published
   in nineteen different languages. If you wish to correspond with
   anyone of a different nation, all you have to do is to write your
   letter in Esperanto, enclose the "Esperanto Key" in the language of
   the person you are writing to, and he will understand your letter.
   This, you may say, is pure nonsense, but I assure you it is true, for
   on several occasions I have done this myself. In all cases my letters
   were thoroughly understood, and in two cases I received replies
   written in Esperanto, within three days of my writing, from persons
   who had never previously read a word in the language; these replies
   were in perfectly good Esperanto, with only one or two trifling
   errors, and I was quite amazed when I got them.

Or, you can buy various primers, first lessons, or instruction books for just a few cents, most of which have a small vocabulary of common words. There's a tiny book, costing 1 penny, called the "Esperanto Key," which weighs 1/5th of an ounce and contains a vocabulary of over 1,500 roots, complete with explanations of suffixes, word formation, etc. It gives you the language in a nutshell. This little book has already been published in nineteen different languages. If you want to correspond with someone from another country, all you need to do is write your letter in Esperanto, include the "Esperanto Key" in the language of the person you're writing to, and they'll understand your message. You might think this sounds crazy, but I assure you it's true because I've done this several times myself. In all cases, my letters were completely understood, and in two instances, I received replies written in Esperanto within three days from people who had never read a word of the language before; these replies were in perfectly good Esperanto, with just one or two minor mistakes, and I was quite surprised when I got them.



   But then you will say, "What is the use of this
   Commentary?" Well, it is compiled for the use
   of those who wish to go deeper into the study of this delightful,
   logical, flexible, and sonorous language, and who wish to write and
   speak it, not merely sufficiently well to be understood, but to write
   and speak it in good style. Esperanto, although so extraordinarily
   easy to learn, has, like every national language, a certain style
   and elegance of expression of its own. If we translate French, or
   any other foreign language, literally into English, we see how
   bald and strange it reads, and probably some sentences would be
   unintelligible. A language literally translated into Esperanto would
   be quite intelligible to persons of all nationalities, owing to the
   fact that Esperanto is a purely logical, clear, and unidiomatic
   language, and to the use of the accusative case; but the literal
   translation might be wanting in style, grace, and smoothness, for the
   order of the words, although perfectly correct grammatically, might,
   in some cases, entail harshness of sound, and so the easy flow and
   euphony of the language would be lost.

But then you might ask, "What's the point of this 
   Commentary?" Well, it's created for those who want to dive deeper into studying this enjoyable, logical, flexible, and melodic language and who wish to write and speak it not just well enough to be understood but with good style. Esperanto, while extremely easy to learn, has its own unique style and elegance of expression, just like any national language. If we translate French or any other foreign language literally into English, it often comes out sounding awkward and strange, and some sentences might even be confusing. A literal translation into Esperanto would be understandable to people from all backgrounds because Esperanto is a purely logical, clear, and non-idiomatic language, partly thanks to the accusative case; however, a literal translation might lack style, grace, and smoothness, as the word order, while grammatically correct, could sometimes create a harsh sound, causing the natural flow and musicality of the language to be lost.



   The standard book for good style in the language is the "Fundamenta
   Krestomatio" (Fundamental Chrestomathy), or book of extracts for
   studying a language. This book, containing 458 pages of prose and
   verse on numerous subjects, was published by Dr. Zamenhof in 1903,
   and all the articles in it were either written by himself or, if
   written, as many were, by others, were corrected by him to such a
   degree that they do not too widely differ from the Doctor’s own
   style.

The standard book for good language style is the "Fundamenta Krestomatio" (Fundamental Chrestomathy), a collection of excerpts for language study. This book, which has 458 pages of prose and poetry on various topics, was published by Dr. Zamenhof in 1903. All the articles in it were either written by him or, in the case of those written by others, were edited by him to the point that they don’t stray too far from his own style.



   The more the student studies this language, the more he will wonder
   how it could have been created by the brain of one man; for we must
   remember that Esperanto was not devised by a group of learned men of
   different nationalities, bringing the knowledge of their own language
   to bear upon the construction of an entirely new language, but that
   it was born of one individual after years of intense thought and
   labour, and it is marvellous how he has discarded the illogical, and
   introduced the logical and best points of all the European and dead
   languages into Esperanto. How this result was obtained can best be
   shown by a short history of the language, taken generally from the
   Doctor’s article on the subject in the "Krestomatio," page 241,
   and also from a letter he wrote to a friend, which was first printed
   by his consent in 1896, and reproduced in "Esperantaj Prozaĵoj,"
   page 239.

The more a student studies this language, the more they'll wonder how it was created by just one person. We must remember that Esperanto wasn't developed by a group of scholars from different countries, each contributing their own linguistic knowledge to build a new language. Instead, it emerged from one individual after years of deep thought and hard work. It's amazing how he eliminated the illogical elements and brought together the logical and best features from all European and ancient languages into Esperanto. The best way to understand how this was achieved is through a brief history of the language, drawn mainly from the Doctor's article on the topic in the "Krestomatio," page 241, and also from a letter he wrote to a friend that was first published with his consent in 1896 and later included in "Esperantaj Prozaĵoj," page 239.




Footnotes:
Footnotes:



[1] The Third Assembly of the League of
      Nations, held at Geneva in September, 1922, unanimously adopted an
      exhaustive Report favourable to Esperanto.
[1] The Third Assembly of the League of Nations, held in Geneva in September 1922, unanimously approved a detailed report in support of Esperanto.



[2] The Universala Esperanto-Asocio
      (U.E.A.), with headquarters at 12, Boulevard du Théâtre, Geneva,
      has a world-wide organization with delegates (or consuls, as they
      are sometimes called) in over 1000 towns in thirty-nine countries
      who render important international services.
[2] The Universal Esperanto Association (U.E.A.), based at 12 Boulevard du Théâtre, Geneva, has a global network with representatives (or consuls, as they are sometimes referred to) in over 1,000 towns across thirty-nine countries who provide significant international services.



[3] A book list containing titles of
      hundreds of translations and original works in Esperanto may be
      had from the British Esperanto Association (Incorporated).
   
[3] You can get a book list with titles of hundreds of translations and original works in Esperanto from the British Esperanto Association (Incorporated).



[4] International Congresses, at
      which Esperanto was the only language used, have been held
      at Boulogne-sur-Mer (1905), Geneva (1906), Cambridge (1907),
      Dresden (1908), Barcelona (1909), Washington (1910), Antwerp
      (1911), Cracow (1912), Berne (1913), Paris (1914), San Francisco
      (1915), The Hague (1920), Prague (1921), Helsingfors (1922), and
      Nurnberg (1923). A Conference of educationists was held in 1922
      at the Secretariat of the League of Nations in Geneva, at which
      twenty-eight countries and sixteen governments were represented;
      and in 1923 a Commercial Conference was held at Venice, to which
      over 200 commercial and touring associations from twenty-three
      countries sent delegates. At both of these conferences, Esperanto
      was the only language used.
   
[4] International Congresses, where Esperanto was the only language used, took place in Boulogne-sur-Mer (1905), Geneva (1906), Cambridge (1907), Dresden (1908), Barcelona (1909), Washington (1910), Antwerp (1911), Cracow (1912), Berne (1913), Paris (1914), San Francisco (1915), The Hague (1920), Prague (1921), Helsingfors (1922), and Nurnberg (1923). A Conference for educators was held in 1922 at the Secretariat of the League of Nations in Geneva, attended by representatives from twenty-eight countries and sixteen governments; in 1923, a Commercial Conference took place in Venice, which had delegates from over 200 commercial and touring associations across twenty-three countries. Esperanto was the only language used at both of these conferences.



[5] The most notable example of a modern
      treaty was the Treaty of Peace signed at Versailles in 1919.
      It was executed in French and English; but not long afterwards
      questions of the interpretation of certain parts of it were
      raised, based upon alleged divergencies of meaning in the two
      texts.
   
[5] The most significant example of a modern treaty was the Treaty of Peace signed at Versailles in 1919. It was drafted in both French and English; however, shortly after, issues regarding the interpretation of certain sections arose, stemming from claimed differences in meaning between the two texts.



[6] In 1923 more than 100.
   
In 1923, over 100.



[7] The Esperanto Association of North
      America (Inc.), 507, Pierce Buildings, Copley Square, Boston 17
      (Mass.), U.S.A., incorporates the English-speaking Esperantists of
      North America. There are also similar associations in the British
      Colonies.
   
[7] The Esperanto Association of North America (Inc.), 507, Pierce Buildings, Copley Square, Boston 17 (Mass.), U.S.A., represents the English-speaking Esperantists in North America. There are also similar associations in the British Colonies.




The Origin of Esperanto.



   Doctor Ludovic Zamenhof, Doctor of Medicine, the inventor of
   Esperanto, was born on December 3rd (15th N.S.), 1859, at Bialystok
   (Bjelostok), in the Government of Grodno, West Russia, where he spent
   his boyhood.[8] The inhabitants
   of Bjelostok were of four different nationalities, Russians, Poles,
   Germans, and Jews, all speaking different languages, and generally
   on bad terms with each other. The boy’s impressionable
   nature caused him to reflect that this animosity was occasioned by
   diversity of language, and thus the first seeds of the idea of an
   International Language were sown. Even at an early age Dr. Zamenhof
   came to the conclusion that an international language was possible
   only if it were neutral, belonging to no nationality in particular.
   When he passed from the Bjelostok gymnasium to the second classical
   school at Warsaw he was for some time allured by the dead languages,
   and dreamed of travelling through the world to revive one of them
   for common use, but he was eventually convinced that this was
   impracticable owing to the mass of grammatical forms and ponderous
   dictionaries of those languages.

Doctor Ludovic Zamenhof, a Doctor of Medicine and the inventor of Esperanto, was born on December 3rd (15th N.S.), 1859, in Bialystok (Bjelostok), located in the Government of Grodno, West Russia, where he spent his childhood.[8] The people of Bjelostok were from four different nationalities: Russians, Poles, Germans, and Jews, each speaking different languages and usually not getting along with one another. The boy’s impressionable nature led him to think that this hostility was caused by the differences in language, planting the first seeds of the idea for an International Language. Even at a young age, Dr. Zamenhof realized that an international language could only work if it was neutral, not belonging to any specific nationality. When he transitioned from the Bjelostok gymnasium to the second classical school in Warsaw, he was initially fascinated by dead languages and dreamed of traveling the world to revive one of them for common use. However, he eventually came to understand that this was impractical due to the complexity of their grammatical structures and heavy dictionaries.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[8] Dr. Zamenhof died at Warsaw on
      April 14th, 1917.
   
[8] Dr. Zamenhof passed away in Warsaw on April 14, 1917.





   In his boyhood he learnt French and German, and began to work out
   the idea of his new language, but when, in the 5th Class of the
   Gymnasium, he began to study English, the simplicity of its grammar
   was a revelation to him, and his own grammar soon melted down to a
   few pages without causing any loss to the language. But his giant
   vocabularies left him no peace of mind.

In his childhood, he learned French and German, and started developing the idea for his new language. However, when he reached the 5th Class of the Gymnasium and began studying English, its simple grammar was a revelation for him, and his own grammar quickly condensed to just a few pages without losing any essence of the language. But his vast vocabulary kept him restless.



   He tried to use similar economy in his dictionary as in the grammar,
   thinking that it did not matter what form a word took if it had a
   given meaning; so he began to invent words, taking care only that
   they should be as short as possible. For instance, he argued that the
   word "conversation" has 12 letters; why should not the same idea be
   conveyed by two, say, "pa"? He tried this by simply writing
   the shortest and most easily pronounced mathematical series of joined
   letters, and these he gave a defined meaning, e.g., ab, ac, ad, ...
   ba, ca, da, ... eb, ec, ed, ... etc. He, however, soon abandoned this
   idea, as he found these invented words very difficult to learn, and
   hard to remember, and thus he came to the conclusion that the word
   material for the dictionary must be Romance-Teutonic, changed only as
   regularity and other important conditions of the language required.
   He soon remarked that the present spoken languages possessed an
   immense store of ready-made international words known by all nations,
   and he commenced at once to make use of this unlimited supply.

He tried to apply the same efficiency in his dictionary as he did in the grammar, believing that it didn't matter what form a word took as long as it had a specific meaning. So, he started inventing words, focusing on making them as short as possible. For example, he argued that the word "conversation" has 12 letters; why couldn't the same idea be expressed with just two, like "pa"? He experimented by writing the shortest and easiest-to-pronounce combinations of letters, giving them defined meanings, such as ab, ac, ad, ... ba, ca, da, ... eb, ec, ed, ... etc. However, he soon gave up on this idea, realizing that these invented words were very difficult to learn and hard to remember. He concluded that the words for the dictionary needed to be Romance-Teutonic, altered only as regularity and other important language requirements dictated. He quickly noticed that the current spoken languages had a vast collection of ready-made international words recognized by all nations, and he immediately began to take advantage of this unlimited resource.



   One day, when he was in the 6th or 7th Class at the Gymnasium
   he, by chance, observed that the signs over shops had certain
   terminations, as we might notice in England, for instance, "Surgery,"
   "Bakery," etc., and it then struck him for the first time that these
   terminations had certain meanings, and that by using a number of
   suffixes, each always having the same meaning, he might make out
   of one word many others that need not be separately learnt. This
   thought shed a ray of light upon his great and terrible vocabularies,
   and he cried out "The problem is solved!" He at once understood how
   important it was to make use of this power, which, in the national
   languages, plays only a blind, irregular and incomplete rôle.
   So he began to compare words, and to search out the constant and
   defined relationship between them. He cast out of his vocabularies
   a vast series of words, substituting for each huge mass a single
   suffix, which had always a certain fixed relationship to a root-word.
   He next remarked that certain words, which he had hitherto regarded
   as purely roots, might easily become formed words and disappear from
   the dictionary, such as patr-ino (mother), mal-larĝa
   (narrow), tranĉ-ilo (knife). Soon after this the Doctor had
   in manuscript the whole grammar and a small vocabulary.

One day, while he was in the 6th or 7th grade at the Gymnasium, he happened to notice that signs over shops had certain endings, similar to what we see in England, like "Surgery," "Bakery," etc. It suddenly occurred to him that these endings had specific meanings, and by using various suffixes—each always carrying the same meaning—he could create many other words from a single word without needing to learn each one separately. This realization opened his eyes to the complexities of his extensive vocabulary, and he exclaimed, "The problem is solved!" He quickly grasped how essential it was to harness this ability, which in national languages plays an often chaotic, irregular, and incomplete role. He started comparing words and exploring the consistent and clear relationships between them. He eliminated a large number of words from his vocabulary, substituting each massive group with a single suffix, which always had a specific connection to a root word. He also noticed that certain words he'd previously considered pure roots could easily become formed words and vanish from the dictionary, such as patr-ino (mother), mal-larĝa (narrow), tranĉ-ilo (knife). Not long after, the Doctor had the entire grammar and a small vocabulary in manuscript.



   In 1878, when he was in the 8th Class at the Gymnasium, the language
   was more or less ready, and his fellow students commenced to study
   it. On December 17th, 1878, they celebrated the birth of the language
   by a banquet, at which a hymn was sung, the commencing words being as
   follows:—

In 1878, when he was in the 8th grade at the Gymnasium, the language was pretty much ready, and his classmates started to study it. On December 17th, 1878, they celebrated the creation of the language with a banquet, where a hymn was sung, beginning with these words:—



Malamikete of the nations

Catch the vibe, jam out!

La tot’ homoze in familje

Kings and queens so debate.



   The language then was very different from what it is now, as the
   following translation will show:—

The language back then was quite different from what it is now, as the following translation will demonstrate:—



Nations of the world

Falu, falu, it's jam time!

The whole humanity in family

Must unite.



   "Let the enmity of nations fall, fall, for the hour is come. All
   mankind must be united in one family."

"Let the conflicts between nations come to an end, for the time has arrived. All of humanity must come together as one family."



   On the table, in addition to the grammar and dictionary, were some
   translations in the new language.

On the table, along with the grammar book and dictionary, were some translations in the new language.



   The Doctor’s fellow students were at first enthusiastic, but
   meeting with ridicule when they tried to discuss the language with
   their elders, they soon renounced it, and the Doctor hid his work
   from all eyes.

The Doctor's classmates were initially excited, but when they faced mockery from their elders for trying to talk about the language, they quickly gave up on it, and the Doctor kept his work hidden from everyone.



   After he left school and was at the University, for five years
   and a half he never spoke of it to anyone. This secrecy tormented
   him. Compelled to conceal his thoughts and plans, he went scarcely
   anywhere, took part in nothing, and the best period of his life,
   his student years, were, for him, his saddest. Occasionally, he
   sought society, but it failed to enliven him, and he then tried
   to tranquillize his mind by writing poems in the language he was
   elaborating.

After he graduated and went to university, he kept quiet about it for five and a half years. This secrecy tortured him. Forced to hide his thoughts and plans, he rarely went out, participated in nothing, and the best time of his life—his student years—turned out to be his saddest. Occasionally, he tried to socialize, but it didn’t uplift him, so he attempted to calm his mind by writing poems in the language he was developing.



   For six years he worked at perfecting and testing it. This gave him
   plenty of work, notwithstanding he had considered it ready in 1878;
   but severe trials showed him that, although it might be ready in
   theory, it was not so in practice. He had much to cut out, alter,
   and radically transform. Words, forms, principles, and postulates
   opposed one another in practice, although each, taken separately,
   appeared in theory right. Such things as the universal preposition
   je, the elastic verb meti (to put), the neutral, but
   definite, ending aŭ, would probably never have entered his
   head had he proceeded only on theory. Some forms, which appeared to
   him to possess a mine of wealth, were shown in practice to be useless
   ballast, and, on this account, he discarded several unnecessary
   suffixes.

For six years, he worked on perfecting and testing it. This gave him plenty to do, even though he thought it was ready in 1878; however, harsh trials revealed that, while it might be theoretically sound, it wasn't practical. He had a lot to cut out, change, and completely transform. Words, forms, principles, and assumptions often contradicted each other in practice, even though each one seemed correct when considered in isolation. Concepts like the universal preposition je, the flexible verb meti (to put), and the neutral yet definite ending aŭ probably wouldn't have crossed his mind if he had relied solely on theory. Some forms that he thought would be very useful turned out to be unnecessary baggage, so he eliminated several extra suffixes.



   He had thought, in the year 1878, that it was sufficient for the
   language to have a grammar and vocabulary; the heaviness and want of
   grace of the language he ascribed to his not knowing it sufficiently
   well; but practice always kept convincing him that the language
   required an indescribable "something," a uniting element, giving it
   life and soul. He therefore avoided all literal translations, and
   commenced to think in the language.

He believed, back in 1878, that having a grammar and vocabulary was enough for a language. He thought the language felt heavy and lacking in grace because he didn't know it well enough. However, practice continually showed him that the language needed an indescribable "something," a connective element that would give it life and spirit. So, he steered clear of literal translations and started to think in the language.



   He soon noticed that his new language was not a mere shadowy
   reflection of the language he happened to be translating, but was
   becoming imbued with a life and spirit of its own, and was now no
   mere lifeless mixture of words, It flowed of itself as flexibly,
   gracefully, and freely as his own native tongue.

He quickly realized that his new language wasn’t just a faint echo of the language he was translating, but was developing its own unique life and character. It was no longer just a lifeless combination of words; it flowed naturally, flexibly, gracefully, and freely—just like his native tongue.



   However, another circumstance delayed for a long time its public
   appearance. He knew that everyone would say, "Your language will
   be useful to me only when the whole world accepts it, therefore
   I shall not learn it until I find everyone else is adopting it."
   This problem gave him much thought till at last it struck him that
   correspondence was carried on in cipher by means of a key possessed
   by both parties. This gave him his great idea, namely, to construct
   his language in the fashion of such a key by inserting in it not
   only the vocabulary, but the whole grammar in its separate elements.
   Such a key, alphabetically arranged, would enable anyone possessing
   the key, giving the meaning of the elements in his own language, to
   understand without further ado a letter written in Esperanto.

However, another situation delayed its public debut for a long time. He realized that everyone would say, "Your language will only be useful to me when the whole world accepts it, so I won’t learn it until I see others adopting it." This issue occupied his mind until he finally had the idea that correspondence could be done in code using a key shared by both parties. This inspired him to create his language like such a key, incorporating not just the vocabulary but the entire grammar in its individual parts. An alphabetically organized key would allow anyone who had it to understand a letter written in Esperanto by giving the meanings of the elements in their own language, with no further explanation needed.



   Dr. Zamenhof illustrates this in the "Krestomatio," page 249, by the
   following sentence:—"I do not know where I left my stick; did
   you not see it?" Now supposing that a German wished to write this to
   an Englishman or person of any other nationality, he would translate
   it from the German into Esperanto as follows, dividing the words into
   their elements by hyphens:—

Dr. Zamenhof illustrates this in the "Krestomatio," page 249, by the following sentence:—"I do not know where I left my stick; did you not see it?" Now, if a German wanted to write this to an Englishman or someone from another nationality, he would translate it from German into Esperanto like this, breaking the words into their elements with hyphens:—



Mi ne sci-as, kie mi las-is mi-a-n baston-o-n; ĉu vi ĝi-n ne
   vid-is?

I don't know where I left my stick; did you not see it?



   The Englishman, on receiving the letter, turns to his Esperanto
   dictionary, or to the Ĉefeĉ Key, if it be enclosed, and reads as
   follows:—

The Englishman, upon receiving the letter, turns to his Esperanto dictionary, or to the Ĉefeĉ Key, if it's included, and reads as follows:—






 MI= II


 NE= no, notnot


SCI-= knowknow


-AS= ending of present tense of verb


 KIE= Wherewhere


 MI= II


LAS-= leaveleft or have left


-IS= ending of past tense of verb


MI= Imy


-A-= ending of an adjective (nom. case)


-N= ending of the objective case


BASTON-= stickstick


-O-= ending of noun (nom case)


-N= ending for the objective case


 ĈU= whether; asks a questionwhether


 VI= youyou


ĜI-= it (nom case)it


-N= ending for the objective case


 NE= no, notnot


VID-= seesaw, or did see, or have seen


-IS= ending of past tense of verb







   The above, therefore, in bald English is "I not know where I left
   my stick; whether you it not have seen (or, did see)?"
   Now this is perfectly comprehensible to any Englishman. But some
   may say, "But if the German had written in his own language, and
   I had found a German dictionary, I could quite as easily have
   made out his meaning." Now the following is the German for this
   sentence:—Ich weiss nicht wo ich meinen Stock gelassen habe;
   haben Sie ihn nicht gesehen?

The above, therefore, in plain English is "I don't know where I left my stick; haven’t you seen it (or, did you see it)?" Now this is perfectly understandable to any English speaker. But some might say, "But if the German had written in his own language, and I had found a German dictionary, I could have figured out his meaning just as easily." Now here’s the German for this sentence:—Ich weiss nicht wo ich meinen Stock gelassen habe; haben Sie ihn nicht gesehen?



   On referring to the German dictionary, and looking out the words, he
   would find:—ICH=I, WEISS=white, NICHT=not, WO=where, ICH=I,
   MEINEN=to think, STOCK=stick, GELASSEN=composed, calm, HABE=property,
   goods, HABEN=to have, SIE=she, her, it, they, them, you, IHN=(not
   in the dictionary), NICHT=not, GESEHEN=(not in the dictionary).
   Therefore the sentence would read:—I white not where I to
   think stick composed property; to have she (blank) not
   (blank).

On checking the German dictionary and looking up the words, he would find:—ICH=I, WEISS=white, NICHT=not, WO=where, ICH=I, MEINEN=to think, STOCK=stick, GELASSEN=composed, calm, HABE=property, goods, HABEN=to have, SIE=she, her, it, they, them, you, IHN=(not in the dictionary), NICHT=not, GESEHEN=(not in the dictionary). Therefore, the sentence would read:—I white not where I to think stick composed property; to have she (blank) not (blank).



   It would be rather difficult to gather the meaning of this!

It would be pretty tough to figure out what this means!



   On leaving the university, Dr. Zamenhof commenced his medical
   practice, and began to consider the publication of his language. He
   prepared the manuscript of his first brochure, "An International
   Language, by Dr. Esperanto, Preface and Full Manual," and sought out
   a publisher. For two years he sought in vain, the financial question
   meeting him at every turn; but, at length, after strenuous efforts,
   he succeeded in publishing the brochure himself, in 1887. He had
   "crossed the Rubicon," and Esperanto was given to the World!

After leaving university, Dr. Zamenhof started his medical practice and began thinking about publishing his language. He worked on the manuscript for his first brochure, "An International Language, by Dr. Esperanto, Preface and Full Manual," and looked for a publisher. For two years, he faced rejection, constantly hitting financial roadblocks; however, after a lot of hard work, he finally managed to publish the brochure himself in 1887. He had "crossed the Rubicon," and Esperanto was introduced to the world!





   Before concluding this preface let me give a word of advice to
   learners. Do not think, after a few days’ study, as many do,
   that you can improve the language. If you have such thoughts, put
   down on a piece of paper your youthful would-be improvements, and
   think no more of them till you have a really good knowledge of
   the language. Then read them over, and they will go at once into
   the waste-paper basket! or, perhaps, be preserved as curiosities!
   The most skilled Esperantists have had these thoughts, and have
   wasted valuable time in thinking them out, only to find at last
   that the more they studied Esperanto, the less they found it
   needed alteration. This is what Dr. Zamenhof himself says on the
   point:—"As the author of the language, I naturally, more than
   anyone else, would wish that it should be as perfect as possible;
   it is more difficult for me than others to hold back from fancied
   improvements, and I have at times been tempted to propose to
   Esperantists some slight alterations, but I bore in mind the great
   danger of this step and abandoned my intention." Copy the Doctor in
   this, and whatever you do, do not attempt to put your crude ideas of
   improvement into print.

Before wrapping up this preface, I want to share some advice with learners. Don’t assume, after just a few days of studying, like many do, that you can enhance the language. If you feel this way, write down your youthful ideas for improvement on a piece of paper and don’t think about them again until you have a solid understanding of the language. Then read them over, and they’ll likely end up in the trash! Or maybe they’ll be kept as curiosities! Even the most skilled Esperantists have had these thoughts and wasted valuable time considering them, only to realize that the more they studied Esperanto, the less they felt it needed any changes. Dr. Zamenhof himself mentions this: “As the creator of the language, I naturally want it to be as perfect as possible; it’s harder for me than for others to hold back from imagined improvements, and I’ve been tempted at times to suggest some minor changes to Esperantists, but I remembered the great risk involved and decided against it.” Follow the Doctor’s example in this, and whatever you do, don’t try to put your unrefined ideas for improvement into print.



   In compiling this Commentary, my thanks are
   due to the following works I have consulted:—

In putting together this Commentary, I want to thank the following works I've referred to:—


    

  • "Fundamenta Krestomatio," by Dr. Zamenhof.
    • 

  • "Fundamento de Esperanto," by Dr. Zamenhof.
    • 

  • "The Student’s Complete Text Book," by Mr. J. C. O’Connor, B.A.
    • 

  • "Grammaire et Exercises," "Commentaire sur la Grammaire Esperanto,"
   "Ekzercoj de Aplikado," "Texte Synthetique," all by M. L. de Beaufront.
    • 

  • "Esperanta Sintakso," by M. Paul Fruictier.
    • 

  • Various articles in "The Esperantist" and "The British Esperantist"
   gazettes.
    • 




   As regards personal assistance, Mr. Bolingbroke Mudie very kindly
   looked over the MS. before its completion.

As for personal assistance, Mr. Bolingbroke Mudie kindly reviewed the manuscript before it was finished.



   In preparing the manuscript for publication, my warmest thanks are
   due to Mr. E. A. Millidge, F.B.E.A., who took infinite pains in
   correcting errors of all kinds. And I must take occasion here to say
   that any points of grammar that may be found incorrect, or failure in
   making explanations clear to learners, are, in all probability, due
   to my not strictly following his suggestions.

In getting the manuscript ready for publication, I want to extend my heartfelt thanks to Mr. E. A. Millidge, F.B.E.A., who dedicated a lot of effort to fixing various errors. I should also mention that any grammatical issues or unclear explanations for readers are likely a result of my not fully adhering to his recommendations.



George Cox.

August 21, 1906.





PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION


In this Second Edition of the "Grammar and Commentary" the press and
other errors which appeared in the first edition have been corrected,
and the book has been revised throughout; the text also has been
altered, where explanations were not quite clear.
In this Second Edition of the "Grammar and Commentary," the printing mistakes and other errors from the first edition have been fixed, and the book has been fully revised; the text has also been updated where explanations were not entirely clear.


In Part I an attempt has been made to give a nearer approach to the
proper pronunciation of the vowels which differ in sound from those
in English. In Part II the use of some of the pronouns, correlative
words, and adverbs has been more fully explained, and fresh pages
have been added to the verb section, showing, by numerous examples,
the rendering of the common English verbs "can, could, may, might,
shall, will, should, would, must, ought." In Part V,
additions have been made in the list of useful words and expressions.
In Part I, we've tried to provide a closer look at the correct pronunciation of the vowels that sound different from those in English. In Part II, we've explained the use of some pronouns, related words, and adverbs in more detail, and we've added new pages to the verb section, showing, through many examples, how to translate the common English verbs "can, could, may, might, shall, will, should, would, must, ought." In Part V, we've added to the list of helpful words and phrases.


My thanks, for their kind assistance in the revision of the book, are
especially due to Mr. E. A. Millidge, Mr. A. E. Wackrill, Mr. J. M.
Warden (President of the Edinburgh Group), Mr. M. C. Butler, Mr. G.
W. Bullen, Dr. R. Legge, Mr. W. Bailey, Mr. C. P. Blackham, Mr. P. J.
Cameron, Mr. H. Clegg, Mr. W. Morrison, Mr. G. Ledger, and many other
kind Esperantists, who have written to me pointing out errors and
giving useful suggestions.
I want to express my gratitude for the valuable help in revising the book, especially to Mr. E. A. Millidge, Mr. A. E. Wackrill, Mr. J. M. Warden (President of the Edinburgh Group), Mr. M. C. Butler, Mr. G. W. Bullen, Dr. R. Legge, Mr. W. Bailey, Mr. C. P. Blackham, Mr. P. J. Cameron, Mr. H. Clegg, Mr. W. Morrison, Mr. G. Ledger, and many other supportive Esperantists who reached out to me to highlight errors and provide helpful suggestions.


Even in this second edition I fear that some errors will be found,
and I shall, therefore, be extremely obliged if Esperantists will
kindly point out to me any they may meet with.
Even in this second edition, I'm afraid some mistakes might be found, so I would really appreciate it if Esperantists could let me know about any they come across.



George Cox.

April 12, 1907.





PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION


In this Third Edition of the "Grammar and Commentary" I have again to
thank many kind Esperantist friends for assisting me in correcting
errors, and for their advice in pointing out desirable alterations
and improvements.
In this Third Edition of the "Grammar and Commentary," I want to thank many generous Esperantist friends for helping me fix errors and for their suggestions on useful changes and improvements.


The book has been carefully revised, and a few additions have been
made, which I trust will be found useful.
The book has been updated, and a few additions have been made, which I hope you'll find helpful.



   George Cox.
George Cox.








L’ ESPERO.
I hope so.



A new feeling has come into the world,

Hey there, the world has a strong voice;

By kites in a gentle breeze

Now the place will fly it to a location.



Don't thirst for blood.

It attracts the human family:

Al la mond’ eterne militanta

It promises sacred harmony.



Under the holy sign of hope

Gathering peaceful warriors,

The thing is growing fast.

By the work of the Esperanto speakers.



Forte stars on millions' walls

Among divided peoples;

Sed dissaltos la obstinaj baroj,

For the holy love proclaimed.



On a neutral language basis,

Understanding one another,

La popoloj faros en konsento

One big family reunion.



Nia hardworking colleague

In work, peace won't fail.

Until the beautiful dream of humanity

For eternal good, it will take effect.









L. L. Zamenhof.

The Fundamental Krestomatio.









HOPE.
Hope.


Literal Translation.
Literal Translation.



A new outlook has emerged in the world,

A powerful call is resonating across the globe;

On the gentle wings of a light breeze

Let it fly from one place to another now.



Not to the sword craving blood.

Does it attract the entire human family?

To the perpetually fighting world

It promises spiritual harmony.



Under the sacred symbol of hope

Peaceful fighters are gathering,

And the cause is quickly gaining momentum.

Through the efforts of the hopeful.



The walls have stood strong for thousands of years.

Between the divided communities;

But the stubborn barriers will break apart,

Overwhelmed by sacred love.



On a neutral language basis,

Understanding each other,

The people will come together in agreement.

One awesome family group.



Our hardworking colleagues

Will not tire of their tranquil work,

Until the wonderful dream of humanity

Eternal blessings will be achieved.














LA VOJO.
THE WAY.



Tra densa mallumo briletas la celo,

To whatever courage we go,

Like a star in the night sky,

It doesn't say it directly.

Don't let the night phantoms scare you,

Neither by the fate of the gods, nor by the will of men,

Because clear, direct, and very defined

It's the chosen path.



We say and we say, and never get tired,

Pri l’ tempoj estontaj pensante,

A hundred seeds are lost, a thousand seeds are lost,—

Ni saĝe kaj konstante.

"Hey, stop!" people mockingly warn,

"Don't stop, don't stop!" it echoes in our hearts:

"Press on! The grandchildren will bless you."

"Please be patient."



If long dryness or sudden winds

Rips Velkantajn sheets,

I thank the wind and, repurposed, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.

Ni akiras pli freŝan forton.

Ne mortos jam nia bravega anaro,

It no longer scares me, neither the wind nor the trees:

It persistently walks, tested, hardened,

Al cel’ unu fojon signita



Only straight, brave, and without deviating

Ni iru la vojon celitan!

Even a small drop, constantly dripping,

Traboras the big mountain.

Hope, stubbornness, and patience—

Here are the signs, by whose power

Step by step, after a long effort,

Reach the goal in glory.




L. L. Zamenhof.
L. L. Zamenhof.








CONTENTS








         PART I.
      





          


         PAGES






Alphabet. —
         Pronunciation. —
         Syntax. —
         Formation of Words. —
         Definitions. —
         Primary Words. —
         Foreign Words. —
         Grammatical Terminations. —
         List of Suffixes. —
         List of Prefixes. —
         Elision. —
         Interrogation. —
         Negation. —
         Affirmation. —
         The Accusative. —
         Capital Letters. —
         Punctuation. —
         Order of Words


         1–58






         PART II.
      





Grammar and Feedback.






Rules. —
         Parts of Speech. —
         The Article. —
         Nouns. —
         Adjectives. —
         Numerals. —
         Pronouns. —
         Correlative Words. —
         Verbs. —
         Adverbs. —
         Prepositions. —
         Conjunctions. —
         Interjections. —
         Remarks on the Suffixes and Prefixes


         59–258






         PART III.
      





Exercises


         259–316






         PART IV.
      





Phrases. —
         Conversation. —
         Correspondence


         317–333






         PART V.
      





List of Primary Words. —
         List of Adverbs, Adjectives, Conjunctions, Prepositions, and Adverbial and Prepositional Expressions


         334–362






Hints To Learners


         363–364






Index


         365–371











PART I


ALPHABET (Alfabeto).




1. The Alphabet (la alfabeto) consists of 28 letters, viz.:—5
vowels (vokaloj) and 23 consonants (konsonantoj).
1. The Alphabet (el alfabeto) consists of 28 letters, specifically: 5 vowels (vocales) and 23 consonants (consonantes).






Aa,Bb,Cc,Ĉĉ,Dd,Ee,Ff,


Gg,Ĝĝ,Hh,Ĥĥ,Ii,Jj,Ĵĵ,


Kk,Ll,Mm,Nn,Oo,Pp,Rr,


Ss,Ŝŝ,Tt,Uu,Ŭŭ,Vv,Zz.










2. The Characters are written as in English, the marks over the
letters requiring them being added as printed. In telegrams ĉ,
ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, may be written ch, gh, hh, jh,
sh, u.
2. The Characters are written in English, and the diacritical marks over the letters need to be added as printed. In telegrams, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ can be written as ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.







   3. Typewriting.—If the letters ĉ, ĝ,
   ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, are not on the machine,
   type the plain letters and add the supersigns afterwards with the
   pen; most makers, however, supply a machine with the necessary
   characters, or they can be added to any machine on a "dead key" at
   the cost of a few shillings.

3. Typewriting.—If the letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ aren't available on the machine, just type the basic letters and then add the accents afterward with a pen; however, most manufacturers provide a machine with the necessary characters, or they can be added to any machine using a "dead key" for a small fee.







   4. The Names given to the letters are different from those of
   other languages. For instance, in English we add E to some of
   the consonants to name the letter, but in Esperanto O is added to
   all the 23 consonants, and the alphabet runs thus:—A,
   Bo, Co, Ĉo, Do, E, Fo, Go, Ĝo, Ho, Ĥo, I, Jo, Ĵo, Ko, Lo, Mo,
   No, O, Po, Ro, So, Ŝo, To, U, Ŭo, Vo, Zo. Note particularly the
   pronunciation of the 12 consonants, given in the next paragraph.

4. The Names assigned to the letters are different from those in other languages. For example, in English, we add E to some of the consonants to name the letter, but in Esperanto, O is added to all 23 consonants, and the alphabet goes as follows:—A, Bo, Co, Ĉo, Do, E, Fo, Go, Ĝo, Ho, Ĥo, I, Jo, Ĵo, Ko, Lo, Mo, No, O, Po, Ro, So, Ŝo, To, U, Ŭo, Vo, Zo. Pay special attention to the pronunciation of the 12 consonants, which is explained in the next paragraph.




See "Hints to Learners," page 363.

See "__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__," p. 363.



PRONUNCIATION (Prononco).




5. The Consonants are pronounced as in English, with the following
exceptions:—
5. The Consonants are pronounced like they are in English, with these exceptions:—




C pronounced tso like ts in pits, Tsar.


Ĉ pronounced cho like ch in choke or church.


G pronounced go like g in get or go, always hard.


Ĝ pronounced djo like j in Joe, or G in George.


Ĥ pronounced hHo like ch in loch (is a very strong guttural aspirate).


J pronounced yo like y in yoke.


Ĵ pronounced zho like s in pleasure, leisure.


R pronounced ro like rr in terror.


S pronounced so like s in so (never has the sound of z).


Ŝ pronounced sho like sh in show.


Ŭ pronounced oo-o or wo like w in cow.


Z pronounced zo like z in zone.




For the pronunciation of the vowels, see pars. 8 and 9.
For how to pronounce the vowels, check out sections 8 and 9.






6. In spelling a word use the Esperanto name, thus:—A, No, To, A,
Wo, spells antaŭ (before). E, Wo, Ro, O, Po, O, spells Eŭropo
(Europe). U, No, U, spells unu (one).
6. In spelling a word, use the Esperanto name, like this:—A, No, To, A, Wo, spells antaŭ (before). E, Wo, Ro, O, Po, O, spells Eŭropo (Europe). U, No, U, spells unu (one).






7. Consonants. Note the following:—
7. Consonants. Note the following:—


(a). C and J are the only consonants which have a different sound
than in English.
(a). C and J are the only consonants that sound different than in English.


(b). C, Ĉ and Ŝ are the equivalents of the English combinations
ts, ch (soft) and sh.
(b). C, Ĉ, and Ŝ represent the English sounds ts, ch (soft), and sh.


(c). G has always the English hard sound.
(c). G has always had the English hard sound.


(d). Ĝ is like the English J.
(d). Ĝ is similar to the English J.


(e). J is like the English Y.
(e). J is similar to the English Y.


(f). H is always aspirated.
H is always pronounced with breath.



(g). Ĥ is a guttural aspirate similar to the Spanish J as heard in
mujer (a woman), or like the Scotch ch in "loch," or the Irish
gh in "lough." If the learner cannot catch this sound it will be
sufficient to aspirate the character strongly, as if it were a double
letter hH, laying stress on the last H.
(g). Ĥ is a throat-based sound similar to the Spanish J in mujer (a woman), or like the Scottish ch in "loch," or the Irish gh in "lough." If the learner struggles to make this sound, it's enough to pronounce the character with a strong breath, as if it were a double letter hH, putting emphasis on the last H.


(h). S never has the sound of Z, as it has in the English words
"rose, has, was," etc.
(h). S never sounds like Z, as it does in the English words "rose, has, was," etc.


(i). ĵ, the small letter, does not require the dot in addition to
the circumflex.
(i). The lowercase "ĵ" doesn't need a dot along with the circumflex.


(j). Ŭ is a consonant, and is used in the combinations AŬ and EŬ
(see par. 10).
(j). Ŭ is a consonant and is used in the combinations AŬ and EŬ (see par. 10).






8. Vowels.—There are no short vowels in Esperanto, as heard in
the words bat, bet, bit, pot, but. All vowels should be of medium
length, but it is well to begin by sounding them long (see note,
page 12).
8. Vowels.—There are no short vowels in Esperanto, like those in the words bat, bet, bit, pot, but. All vowels should be of medium length, but it's best to start by pronouncing them long (see note, page 12).






9. The vowel A is sounded like "ah!" or the a in "father"; I like
ee in "seen"; U like oo in "fool."
9. The vowel A is pronounced like "ah!" or the a in "father"; I like ee in "seen"; U like oo in "fool."


As regards the vowels E and O, we have no words in English exactly
expressing their true sounds. The correct sound of E is something
midway between the vowels heard in "bale" and "bell," and that of O
something midway between those heard in "dole" and "doll," viz.,
"eh!" (cut short) and "oh!" (cut short), but without the prolonged
sound heard in these words. In the vowel E there should be no trace
of the ee sound heard in "cake"; its true sound is much nearer to
the e in "bell." The vowel O approaches to the sound of o in
"for," or of aw in "law."
When it comes to the vowels E and O, English doesn't have words that accurately represent their true sounds. The correct sound of E is something in between the vowels in "bale" and "bell," while O sounds like it's in between those in "dole" and "doll," specifically as "eh!" (short) and "oh!" (short), but without the extended sounds in those words. The vowel E shouldn't have any resemblance to the ee sound in "cake"; its true sound is much closer to the e in "bell." The vowel O is similar to the sound of o in "for," or aw in "law."


In the scheme of pronunciation (par. 19) we have therefore used ah
for A; eh for E; ee for I; o for O; oo for U.
In the pronunciation scheme (par. 19), we’ve used ah for A; eh for E; ee for I; o for O; and oo for U.


N.B.—Do not clip or drag the vowels.
N.B.—Don't clip or drag the vowels.







10. Combinations, Vowel and Consonant.—The following 6
combinations resemble diphthongs, but are not so, since a diphthong
consists of 2 vowels and j and ŭ are both consonants:—
10. Combinations, Vowel and Consonant.—The following 6 combinations look like diphthongs, but they aren't, since a diphthong is made up of 2 vowels and j and ŭ are both consonants:—




AJ pronounced ahye or i something like ai in aisle.


AŬ pronounced ahoo or ow something like ow in cow.


EJ pronounced ehye or ae something like aye in cayenne.


EŬ pronounced ehoo or ew something like ayw in wayward.


OJ pronounced oye or oi something like oy in joy.


UJ pronounced ooye or ooe something like uj in Hallelujah.




It will be observed that if these double sounds be rapidly made the
pronunciation will resemble the English words given, but remember
they are each pronounced as one syllable, so the examples "cayenne,"
"wayward," "Hallelujah," are not strictly correct. AJ, EJ, OJ, UJ,
resemble the sound heard in the French words "paille," "oseille,"
"boyard," "fouille," and AŬ is heard in the German word "Haus."
It will be noted that if these double sounds are produced quickly, the pronunciation will be similar to the English words provided, but keep in mind that each is pronounced as a single syllable, so the examples "cayenne," "wayward," "Hallelujah," are not entirely accurate. AJ, EJ, OJ, UJ, are similar to the sounds found in the French words "paille," "oseille," "boyard," "fouille," and AŬ is heard in the German word "Haus."


N.B.—It is difficult to explain the exact sound of EŬ. Pronounce
our word "ewe," and then give the sound of eh (cut short) to the
first letter, thus ehwe, pronouncing the word as one syllable. In
the scheme of pronunciation at page 10 we have given it as ehw. It
occurs very rarely.
N.B.—It's hard to describe the exact sound of EŬ. Say our word "ewe," and then shorten the sound of eh for the first letter, making it sound like ehwe, pronounced as one syllable. In the pronunciation guide at page 10, we have noted it as ehw. It occurs very rarely.






11. Combinations of Consonants.—There are a few which do not occur
in English, and the attention of the student is therefore called to
the following:—
11. Combinations of Consonants.—There are a few that don't appear in English, so students should pay attention to the following:—






12. GV, KN KV, SV. When these letters commence a word, both must be
clearly pronounced.
12. GV, KN KV, SV. When these letters start a word, both need to be pronounced clearly.






13. Ŝ, being the same as our Sh, must be distinctly pronounced, when
followed by one or two consonants. Ŝm = shm, Ŝn = shn, Ŝp = shp,
Ŝt = sht,



Ŝtr = shtr, Ŝv = shv. If the sh sound be not clearly
given, mistakes might occur in a few words, as, for instance,
Ŝtupo is a step (of a ladder), but Stupo is tow; Ŝtalo is
steel, but Stalo a stall.
13. Ŝ, which is the same as our Sh, must be clearly pronounced when it’s followed by one or two consonants. Ŝm = shm, Ŝn = shn, Ŝp = shp, Ŝt = sht,



Ŝtr = shtr, Ŝv = shv. If the sh sound isn’t pronounced clearly, mistakes can happen with a few words, like, for example, Ŝtupo meaning step (of a ladder), but Stupo meaning tow; Ŝtalo meaning steel, but Stalo meaning stall.






14. SC. This combination may at first be found difficult, especially
when it commences a word, since it represents STS, which, with a
following vowel, form but one syllable. There are very few words
commencing with SC, viz.:—The five given in the list of words (par.
19) and their derivatives, the word scii (to know) being the only
one in common use. First the sound of S has to be given, then T, and
lastly S. Since every letter has to be sounded, it is not sufficient
to pronounce scii as tsee-e, for then the initial S is omitted;
we must therefore mentally pronounce it estsee-e, the "es" being
uttered very rapidly (as if it were merely a short sibilant) before
the voice reaches the TS, on which the stress is made. When SC is not
preceded by a comma or other stop, or is in the middle of a word, the
pronunciation can be easily effected by joining the sound of the
preceding letter to the S. Thus mi scias = I know can be
pronounced meest-see-ahs. Mi vidis brunan sciuron = I saw a
brown squirrel—mee-vee-dees broo-nahnst-see-oo-ron. But when the
preceding word ends in S, the full sound of both of the letters S
must be given, as mi havas sciuron = I have a squirrel—mee
hahvahs (e)stsee-oo-ron (the initial e very short to help to give
the sound of the first s) . [By repeating the sentence: "You at
least see as well as I do," and then detaching the words "least see,"
the student will readily arrive at the proper pronunciation of "sc"
in "Li scias."]
14. SC. This combination might seem tricky at first, especially when it starts a word, because it represents STS, which with a following vowel, forms just one syllable. There are very few words that begin with SC, specifically: the five listed in the words section (par. 19) and their derivatives, with the word scii (to know) being the only common one. First, you need to pronounce the S sound, then T, and finally S. Since every letter needs to be articulated, it's not enough to say scii as tsee-e, because that drops the initial S; instead, you should mentally pronounce it as estsee-e, with the "es" said very quickly (like a short hiss) before the voice reaches the TS, where the emphasis is placed. When SC isn’t preceded by a comma or another stop, or is in the middle of a word, saying it can be done easily by connecting the sound of the previous letter to the S. For example, mi scias = I know can be pronounced meest-see-ahs. Mi vidis brunan sciuron = I saw a brown squirrel—mee-vee-dees broo-nahnst-see-oo-ron. However, when the preceding word ends with S, both S sounds must be clearly pronounced, as in mi havas sciuron = I have a squirrel—mee hahvahs (e)stsee-oo-ron (the initial e is very short to help emphasize the first s). [By repeating the sentence: "You at least see as well as I do," and then separating the words "least see," the student will easily get the right pronunciation of "sc" in "Li scias."]






15. KZ. In pronouncing this combination, do not follow the English
pronunciation of words like



"exempt," etc., which our dictionaries
give as "egzempt." Be careful not to turn the K into G in such words
as ekzemplo = example, ekzameni = to examine. The full sound
should be given to every letter in the three syllables, ek-zem-plo.
15. KZ. When pronouncing this combination, don’t follow the English pronunciation of words like



"exempt," etc., which our dictionaries show as "egzempt." Be careful not to turn the K into G in words like ekzemplo = example, ekzameni = to examine. Make sure to pronounce every letter fully in the three syllables, ek-zem-plo.






16. Pronunciation of Words.—Every vowel and consonant in a word is
pronounced distinctly, and the sound never varies, whether the
letters are initial, medial, or final; there is no mute letter in
Esperanto. Each syllable must be distinct, and it must be remembered
that when two vowels come together, such as ai, ae, ee, ii,
oi, etc., or two similar consonants, as kk, ll, mm, etc.,
each letter always belongs to a different syllable, and must be given
its full sound.
16. Pronunciation of Words.—Every vowel and consonant in a word is pronounced clearly, and the sound stays the same, whether the letters are at the beginning, middle, or end; there's no silent letter in Esperanto. Each syllable must be distinct, and it's important to remember that when two vowels come together, like ai, ae, ee, ii, oi, etc., or two identical consonants, such as kk, ll, mm, etc., each letter always belongs to a separate syllable and must be pronounced fully.






17. Tonic Accent.—The stress of the voice, or the tonic accent, is
always on the penultimate (last syllable but one). Even in words of
two syllables the tonic accent must be strongly perceived in the
first syllable. The euphony and beauty of the language would in a
great measure be destroyed by non-observance of this rule.
17. Tonic Accent.—The emphasis in speech, or the tonic accent, is always on the penultimate (the second to last syllable). Even in two-syllable words, the emphasis should be clearly heard on the first syllable. Ignoring this rule would significantly diminish the harmony and beauty of the language.


(a). In compound words, as in others, the accent must very
distinctly fall on the penultimate of the whole word; but when a
compound word consists of four syllables, or more, the meaning of
the prefixed word, or words, may be shown by laying a certain stress
on those syllables which would be accented if they were complete
independent words. It will be noticed how much easier it is to grasp
the meaning of a prefixed word if a slight stress of the voice be
given to that syllable on which we are accustomed to hear the accent
fall when the word stands alone, as:—Du-be-ni-gra = Blackish.
An-taŭ-vi-di = To foresee. Gas-o-me-tro = Gasometer.
Arm-il-far-ist-o = Gunsmith. Ĝar-den-la-bor-ad-o =
Gardening. In-ter-ri-lat-o = Intercourse.
Sen-la-bor-of-ic-o = Sinecure. Le-ter-pa-per-o =
Note-paper.

(a). In compound words, just like in others, the accent should clearly fall on the penultimate syllable of the whole word; however, when a compound word has four syllables or more, the meaning of the prefixed word(s) can be indicated by placing a certain emphasis on the syllables that would be accented if they were standalone words. It’s noticeable how much easier it is to understand the meaning of a prefixed word when a slight emphasis is placed on the syllable where we typically hear the accent fall when the word is on its own, such as:—Du-be-ni-gra = Blackish. An-taŭ-vi-di = To foresee. Gas-o-me-tro = Gasometer. Arm-il-far-ist-o = Gunsmith. Ĝar-den-la-bor-ad-o = Gardening. In-ter-ri-lat-o = Intercourse. Sen-la-bor-of-ic-o = Sinecure. Le-ter-pa-per-o = Note-paper.






18. Beginners should read aloud daily; at first slowly and slightly
exaggerating the sounds, making free use of the organs of speech. It
will then be



found that in more rapid utterance the exaggeration
will gradually disappear, and a good, bold, free pronunciation be
attained. (See "Hints to Learners," page 363.)
18. Beginners should read aloud every day; at first slowly and with a bit of exaggeration in the sounds, making full use of their speech organs. It will then be



noticed that in faster speech, the exaggeration will gradually fade away, leading to a clear and confident pronunciation. (See "Hints to Learners," page 363.)






19. It is advisable that the student, before proceeding to the
grammar, should get a thorough knowledge of the sounds of letters,
syllables, and words; he should, therefore, read over the following
list of words, which gives most of the combinations of sounds in the
language. The italics denote where the tonic accent falls.
19. It’s recommended that the student, before moving on to grammar, should have a solid understanding of the sounds of letters, syllables, and words. Therefore, he should read through the following list of words, which includes most of the sound combinations in the language. The italics indicate where the main stress falls.



SCHEME OF PRONUNCIATION.
PRONUNCIATION GUIDE.






Esperanto
Letter.		 


A = ah is used to represent the a in father.


E = eh (see par. 9).


I = ee is used to represent the ee in seen.


O = o (see par. 9).


U = oo is used to represent the oo in fool.


Ŭ = w is used to represent the w in wet.


G = g is used to represent the g in go.


Ĝ = dj is used to represent the g in George.


Ĥ = hH is used to represent a very strong guttural aspirate


J = y is used to represent the y in yes.


Ĵ = zh is used to represent the s in pleasure.














Esperanto.Pronunciation.English.


A abatoah-bah-toabbot.


a-a la aferolah ah-feh-rothe affair.


a-e aeroah-eh-roair.


a-i trairitrah-ee-reeto traverse.


 balaibah-lah-eeto sweep.


aj ajloahy-lo (sound "y" short, 


    as ye) (dissyllable)garlic.


 krajonokrah-yo-nopencil.


 majestamah-yehs-tahmajestic.


 ajnahyn (sound "y" short, 


     as ye) (monosyllable)ever.


  palajpah-lahy (sound "y" short, 


     as ye) (dissyllable)pale (adj., pl.)


a-o la ondolah on-dothe wave.


a-u la ungolah oon-gothe nail.


aŭ laŭdolahw-dopraise.


  antaŭahn-tahwbefore.


  hodiaŭho-dee-ahwto-day.


B BiblioBee-blee-oBible.


C centtsehnthundred.


  cititsee-teeto cite, quote.


  colotso-loinch.


  pacopah-tsopeace.


  paciencopah-tsee-ehn-tsopatience.


  oficiroo-fee-tsee-roofficer.


  procesopro-tseh-solawsuit.


Ĉ ĉarchahrbecause, for.


  ĉielochee-eh-loheaven, sky.


  senĉesasehn-cheh-sahincessant, ceaseless.


  eĉehcheven.


E elementoeh-leh-mehn-toelement.


e-a oceanoo-tseh-ah-noocean.


e-e treegetreh-eh-gehexceedingly.


e-i feinofeh-ee-nofairy.


  pereipeh-reh-eeto perish.


ej plejplehy (sound "y" short, 


     as ye) (monosyllable)most.


  malplejmahl-plehy (sound "y" short, 


     as ye) (dissyllable)least.


  hejmohehy-mo (sound "y" short, 


     as ye) (dissyllable)home.


e-o neoneh-onegative.


  teorioteh-o-ree-otheory.


e-u pereupeh-reh-ooperish (imperative).


eŭ Eŭropoehw-ro-poEurope.


G gentogehn-totribe.


gv gvidigvee-deeto guide.


  lingvoleen-gvolanguage.


g-u guanogoo-ah-noguano.


Ĝ ĝuidjoo-eeto enjoy.


  ĝojodjo-yojoy.


  paĝopah-djopage.


H harohah-rohair.


  senharasehn-hah-rahbald.


Ĥ ĥemiohHeh-mee-o (guttural aspirate)chemistry.


  eĥoeh-hHo (do.)echo.


I idilioee-dee-lee-oidyll.


i-a ialee-ahlfor any cause.


i-e tieltee-ehlthus.


i-i diigidee-ee-geeto deify.


i-o tiomtee-omas much.


i-u ĉiuchee-ooeach.


i-uj tiujtee-ooy (dissyllable)those.


J justayoos-tahjust.


  ĉiujarachee-oo-yah-rahyearly.


Ĵ ĵuszhoosjust (adv.).


  ĵaŭdozhahw-doThursday.


  bovaĵobo-vah-zhobeef.


K konkurikon-koo-reeto compete.


kn knedikneh-deeto knead.


kv kvankamkvahn-kahmalthough.


  kvitancokvee-tahn-tsoreceipt.


  malkvietecomahl-kvee-eh-teh-tsorestlessness.


k-z ekzemploehk-zehm-ploexample.


L mallumiĝomahl-loo-mee-djoeclipse.


  ellaboriehl-lah-bo-reeto achieve.


O ondoon-doa wave.


o-a boatobo-ah-toboat.


o-e troetro-ehexcessively.


o-i foirofo-ee-roa fair.


oj vojojvo-yoyroads (plur.).


o-o zoologiozo-o-lo-gee-ozoology.


o-u trouzitro-oo-zeeto abuse.


R rimarkiree-mahr-keeto remark.


rr forrampifor-rahm-peeto creep away


S sekcisehk-tseeto dissect.


sc sceno(e)stseh-no (imagine 


     a very short e to 


     help to give the 


     sound of the first s)scene.


  sceptro(e)stsehp-trosceptre.


  scienco(e)stsee-ehn-tsoscience.


  scii(e)stsee-eeto know.


  sciuro(e)stsee-oo-rosquirrel.


  konsciencokons-tsee-ehn-tsoconscience.


  nescionehs-tsee-oignorance.


sf sferosfeh-rosphere.


sv svenisveh-neeto swoon.


skl sklavosklah-voslave.


skv skvamoskvah-moscale (of fish).


Ŝ ŝaŭmoshahw-mofroth.


  malŝarĝimahl-shahr-djeeto unload (a cart).


ŝl ŝlosishlo-seeto lock.


ŝm ŝmirishmee-reeto smear.


ŝpr ŝprucishproo-tseeto spurt (intrans.).


ŝtr ŝtrumposhtroom-postocking.


ŝv ŝvelishveh-leeto swell (intrans.).


ŝt poŝtmarkoposht-mahr-kopostage stamp


T trajtotrahy-to (dissyllable)trait, feature.


U unuoo-nooone.


u-a unuaoo-noo-ahfirst.


u-e duelodoo-eh-loduel.


u-i kuirejokoo-ee-reh-yokitchen.


  detruideh-troo-eeto destroy.


uj monujomo-noo-yopurse.


  tujtooy (monosyllable)immediately.


  prujnoprooy-no (dissyllable)white frost.


  unujoo-nooy (dissyllable)some (plural of unu).


u-o duobladoo-o-blahdouble.


  paruopah-roo-otomtit.


u-u detruudeh-troo-oodestroy (imperative).


V envolviehn-vol-veeto envelop, wrap.


Z edzinoehd-zee-nowife.


  noktomezonok-to-meh-zomidnight.






Note.—Esperanto vowels are very similar in sound to those in German
and Spanish, and in the Italian do, re, mi, fa.
Note.—Esperanto vowels sound a lot like those in German and Spanish, as well as in the Italian do, re, mi, fa.





SYNTAX (Sintakso).




20. Syntax (sintakso) treats of the connection, dependence, and
arrangement of words to form intelligible speech.
20. Syntax (sintakso) deals with how words are connected, dependent on one another, and arranged to create meaningful speech.






21. Speech (parolo) consists of propositions.
21. Speech (parolo) consists of statements.






22. A Proposition (propozicio) is a collection of words by which we
assert, or question, the act, state, or quality of some person or
thing. A complete proposition consists of two chief parts, viz., the
Subject and Predicate.
22. A Proposition (propozicio) is a group of words that we use to declare or inquire about the action, condition, or characteristic of a person or thing. A complete proposition has two main parts: the Subject and the Predicate.






23. The Subject (subjekto) is the name of the person or thing
spoken of.
23. The Subject (subjekto) is the name of the person or thing being discussed.






24. The Predicate (predikato) is what is said about the subject.
24. The Predicate (predikato) is what is stated about the subject.






25. The Subject of a proposition is always:—
25. The Subject of a proposition is always:—


(a). One or more nouns.
One or more nouns.


(b). Some word used as a noun, e.g., (1), a pronoun, mi = I;
(2), an adjective, mia kara estas bona filino = my dear (one) is a
good daughter; (3), an infinitive, mensogi estas honte = to lie
(or, lying) is shameful; (4), a phrase. Estas agrable por (or,
al) mi, ke vi aĉetis tiun domon (here "ke vi aĉetis" is the
subject) = I am glad (it is agreeable to me) that you bought that
house.
(b). Some words can function as a noun, for example, (1) a pronoun, mi = I; (2) an adjective, mia kara estas bona filino = my dear (one) is a good daughter; (3) an infinitive, mensogi estas honte = to lie (or, lying) is shameful; (4) a phrase. Estas agrable por (or, al) mi, ke vi aĉetis tiun domon (here "ke vi aĉetis" is the subject) = I am glad (it's nice for me) that you bought that house.






26. The subject is always in the nominative case. When the subject
is a noun, it must, therefore, always end in -O, if the noun is
singular, or in -OJ, if the noun is in the plural. The subject of any
verb can always be determined by putting the word "who?" or "what?"
before the verb, and the word giving the reply is the subject,
as:—La riĉulo havas multe da mono = The rich man has much (of)
money. (Who has much money? The rich man = la riĉulo is the
subject.) La papero estas blanka = The paper is white. (What is
white? The paper = la papero is the subject.) De timo paliĝis
Antono = Antony grew pale from fear. (Who grew pale? Antony =
Antono is the subject.) Miaj fratoj batis min = My brothers beat
me. (Who beat me? My brothers = miaj fratoj is the subject.)
26. The subject is always in the nominative case. When the subject is a noun, it must always end in -O if the noun is singular, or in -OJ if the noun is plural. You can always identify the subject of any verb by putting "who?" or "what?" before the verb, and the word that answers is the subject, as in:—La riĉulo havas multe da mono = The rich man has a lot of money. (Who has a lot of money? The rich man = la riĉulo is the subject.) La papero estas blanka = The paper is white. (What is white? The paper = la papero is the subject.) De timo paliĝis Antono = Antony grew pale from fear. (Who grew pale? Antony = Antono is the subject.) Miaj fratoj batis min = My brothers beat me. (Who beat me? My brothers = miaj fratoj is the subject.)






27. Subject omitted.—Sometimes the subject is omitted,
as:—Pluvas = it rains. Fulmis = It lightened. (See remarks
on impersonal verbs, par. 164.)
27. Subject omitted.—Sometimes the subject is left out, as in:—Pluvas = it rains. Fulmis = It lightened. (See remarks on impersonal verbs, par. 164.)






28. The Object is the person or thing acted upon by the subject,
hence the term objective (or accusative) case, as:—Johano batas la
knabon = John beats the boy. Knabon =


the boy is acted upon
by Johano, the subject, therefore knabon is the object, and has
the accusative termination N.
28. The Object is the person or thing that receives the action from the subject, which is why it's called the objective (or accusative) case, as in:—John beats the boy = John beats the boy. Boy =


the boy is receiving the action from John, the subject, so boy is the object and has the accusative ending N.






29. The Direct Complement (rekta komplemento).—The noun or pronoun
(not governed by a preposition), which is the direct complement of a
transitive verb, must have the accusative form -N in the singular,
or -JN in the plural. The direct complement of a verb can be
determined by asking the question "whom?" or "what?" after such verb,
and the word giving the reply is the direct complement, as:—Diru al
mi vian nomon = Tell me your name. (Tell what? Your name = vian
nomon is the direct complement.) Johano min amas = John loves
me. (Loves whom? Me = min is the direct complement.)
29. The Direct Complement (rekta komplemento).—The noun or pronoun (not preceded by a preposition), which acts as the direct complement of a transitive verb, must be in the accusative form -N in the singular or -JN in the plural. You can identify the direct complement of a verb by asking "whom?" or "what?" after the verb, and the word that answers the question is the direct complement, as in:—Diru al mi vian nomon = Tell me your name. (Tell what? Your name = vian nomon is the direct complement.) Johano min amas = John loves me. (Loves whom? Me = min is the direct complement.)






30. The direct complement of an active verb becomes the subject if
the verb is put in the passive voice, as:—Mia patro amas min = My
father loves me. Here min = me is the direct complement; but Mi
estas amata de mia patro = I am loved by my father. Here mi =
I is the subject of the verb. Note, that intransitive verbs cannot
have a direct complement, for they have no passive voice (par. 162).
30. The direct object of an active verb becomes the subject when the verb is changed to the passive voice, as in: Mia patro amas min = My father loves me. Here, min = me is the direct object; but Mi estas amata de mia patro = I am loved by my father. Here, mi = I is the subject of the verb. Note that intransitive verbs cannot have a direct object because they do not have a passive voice (par. 162).






31. The Indirect Complement (nerekta komplemento) is formed with a
preposition and a noun or pronoun in the nominative, as:—Donu al la
birdoj akvon = Give (to) the birds water, or Give water to the
birds. (Here "akvon" is the direct, and la birdoj the indirect,
complement.) Venu kune kun la patro = Come together with (the)
father. But if direction towards something be implied, and the
preposition of itself does not denote movement, the noun, or pronoun,
will then be in the accusative case (see pars. 67, 256), as:—Li
eniris en la domon = He went into the house.
31. The Indirect Complement (nerekta komplemento) is created with a preposition and a noun or pronoun in the nominative, as in:—Give to the birds water = Donu al la birdoj akvon, or Give water to the birds. (Here "water" is the direct complement, and the birds is the indirect complement.) Come together with the father = Venu kune kun la patro. However, if direction toward something is implied, and the preposition alone does not indicate movement, the noun or pronoun will then be in the accusative case (see pars. 67, 256), as in:—He went into the house = Li eniris en la domon.






32. The Circumstantial Complement.—A word or phrase is termed a
circumstantial complement (cirkonstanca komplemento) when it marks
the time, place, manner, cause, etc., of an action, as:—En
printempo floroj aperas, or Printempe floroj aperas = In Spring
flowers appear. Li agas pro ĵaluzo = He acts from (owing to)
jealousy.
32. The Circumstantial Complement.—A word or phrase is called a circumstantial complement (cirkonstanca komplemento) when it indicates the time, place, manner, cause, etc., of an action, like:—En printempo floroj aperas, or Printempe floroj aperas = In Spring, flowers appear. Li agas pro ĵaluzo = He acts out of jealousy.




The Predicate (Predikato).




33. The Predicate is what is said about the subject.
33. The Predicate is what is stated about the subject.


(a). A predicative verb is one which, of itself, shows in a
definite manner some act, state, or quality, as:—Arbo kreskas = A
tree grows. La arbo verdiĝis = The tree became green.
(a). A predicative verb is one that clearly expresses some action, state, or quality on its own, such as:—Arbo kreskas = A tree grows. La arbo verdiĝis = The tree became green.



(b) A non-predicative verb is one which does not, of itself, show
an act, but is accompanied by some adjective, participle or
predicative noun, defining and describing the subject, as:—La urbo
estas belega = The city is magnificent. Kolombo estas birdo = A
pigeon is a bird. This is called a "Disjoined predicate" (disigita
predikato).
(b) A non-predicative verb is one that doesn’t, by itself, indicate an action, but is paired with an adjective, participle, or predicative noun that defines and describes the subject, as in: La urbo estas belega = The city is magnificent. Kolombo estas birdo = A pigeon is a bird. This is referred to as a "Disjoined predicate" (disigita predikato).






34. The Predicate can furthermore be precisely defined by an adverb
or a noun (or a word used as a noun) governed by a preposition. This
serves to show the object of the act and circumstances surrounding
it, as:—Arturo batis Georgon per sia pugno = Arthur struck George
with his fist.
34. The Predicate can also be clearly defined by an adverb or a noun (or a word used as a noun) that follows a preposition. This indicates what the action is directed towards and the circumstances surrounding it, as in:—Arturo batis Georgon per sia pugno = Arthur struck George with his fist.






35. A noun can be more precisely defined by the addition of another
noun or word used as a noun, as:—Eduardo, reĝo de Anglujo =
Edward, King of England. This is called "apposition" (apozicio).
35. A noun can be more clearly defined by adding another noun or a word used as a noun, such as:—Eduardo, reĝo de Anglujo = Edward, King of England. This is called "apposition" (apozicio).






36. To every noun can be added adjectives or participles, which also
can be defined by other nouns, as:—Homo mortiginta sian patrinon
estas granda krimulo = A man who has murdered (having murdered) his
mother is a great criminal. An adjective added, without any
intervening word, to a noun is termed "qualifying," in order to
distinguish it from an adjective (called a "predicative" adjective)
having the verb esti (expressed or understood) between it and the
noun, as:—Homo bona = A good man (qualifying). La homo estas
bona = The man is good (predicative). (See remarks on adjectives,
par. 108.)

36. You can add adjectives or participles to any noun, which can also be defined by other nouns, like:—A man who has murdered his mother is a great criminal = A man who has murdered (having murdered) his mother is a great criminal. An adjective added directly to a noun, without any other word in between, is called "qualifying," to distinguish it from a "predicative" adjective that has the verb to be (expressed or understood) between it and the noun, as in:—A good man = A good man (qualifying). The man is good = The man is good (predicative). (See remarks on adjectives, par. 108.)





DEFINITIONS (Difinoj).




37. A word consists of one or more syllables or distinct sounds,
and has a definite meaning.
37. A word is made up of one or more syllables or separate sounds, and has a clear meaning.






38. A root is an incomplete word conveying only an idea. It may
consist of one or more syllables, but requires one or more letters to
form it into a word.
38. A root is an unfinished word that expresses just one idea. It can have one or more syllables, but needs one or more letters to turn it into a complete word.






39. Words in Esperanto may be divided into four classes: Primary,
Simple, Compound, and Foreign.
39. Words in Esperanto can be grouped into four categories: Primary, Simple, Compound, and Foreign.


(a). A Primary word is one which requires no additional letters
to give it a distinct meaning (see list of Primary Words, Part V).
(a). A Primary word is one that doesn't need any extra letters to have a clear meaning (see list of Primary Words, Part V).


(b). A Simple word is one formed by adding a grammatical
termination to a single root, or to a primary word (which then
becomes a root), with or without suffixes or prefixes.
(b). A Simple word is created by adding a grammatical ending to a single root or to a primary word (which then becomes a root), either with or without prefixes or suffixes.


Examples.—Bon-a = Good. Ĉirkaŭ-i = To surround. Antaŭ-ul-o
= A predecessor. Dis-sem-i = To scatter. Mal-san-ul-ejo = An
infirmary.
Got it! Please provide the phrases you'd like me to modernize.—Bon-a = Good. Ĉirkaŭ-i = To surround. Antaŭ-ul-o = A predecessor. Dis-sem-i = To scatter. Mal-san-ul-ejo = An infirmary.


(c). A Compound word is one formed by adding a grammatical
termination to two or more roots, or to a primary word and a root,
with or without suffixes or prefixes. Any of the component parts may
be complete words, if euphony requires it.
(c). A Compound word is created by adding a grammatical ending to two or more roots or to a main word and a root, with or without additional suffixes or prefixes. Any of the parts can be complete words if it sounds better that way.


Examples.—Bon-intenc-a = Well-meaning. Super-natur-a =
Supernatural. Antaŭ-vid-i = To foresee. Ĉas-o-ŝtel-ist-o = A
poacher. Ĉas-gard-ist-o = A gamekeeper. Vapor-ŝipo = A
steamship. Griz-har-a = Grey-haired. Super-akv-eg-o = A deluge.
Examples.—Bon-intenc-a = Well-meaning. Super-natur-a = Supernatural. Antaŭ-vid-i = To foresee. Ĉas-o-ŝtel-ist-o = A poacher. Ĉas-gard-ist-o = A gamekeeper. Vapor-ŝipo = A steamship. Griz-har-a = Grey-haired. Super-akv-eg-o = A deluge.


(d). A Foreign word is one common to most languages, being
derived from the same root.
(d). A Foreign word is one that is common in many languages, coming from the same root.


Examples.—Teatr-o = Theatre. Teatr-a = Theatrical. Geologi-o =
Geology. Geologi-a = Geological.

Examples.—Theater = Theatre. Theatrical = Theatrical. Geology = Geology. Geological = Geological.





FORMATION OF WORDS (Vortfarado).




40. To show the manner in which words are formed in Esperanto, it
   will perhaps be better first to do so in Dr. Zamenhof’s own words, as
   given on page 248 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio." He says:—
40. To show how words are formed in Esperanto, it might be best to use Dr. Zamenhof’s own words, as found on page 248 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio." He says:—


"I arranged a complete dismemberment of ideas into independent words,
   so that the whole language, instead of being words in various
   grammatical forms, consists solely of unchangeable words. If you
   will take a work written in my language, you will find that each word
   is always in one constant form, namely, in that form in which it is
   printed in the dictionary, and that the various grammatical forms,
   reciprocal relation between words, etc., etc., are expressed by the
   union of unchanging words. But, because such a construction of
   language is quite strange to Europeans, I adapted this dismemberment
   of the language to the spirit of the European languages, so that
   anyone learning mine from a manual would not suppose that it differed
   in construction from his own. Take, for example, the word fratino,
   which in reality consists of three words, frat, in, o. Frat
   gives the idea of the offspring[9] of one’s parents, in the idea of
   the female



   sex, and o the idea of existence (person or thing),
   hence a noun. These three ideas combined, in Esperanto, make
   fratino = a sister. The first and last make frato = a
   brother. The instruction book shows this in the following
   manner:—Brother = frat-, but because every substantive in the
   nominative ends in o, therefore frato = brother. For the
   formation of the feminine, the little word -in- is inserted,
   therefore fratino = sister. In this way, the dismemberment of the
   language in no way embarrasses the learner; he does not even suspect
   that that which he calls a prefix, or suffix, or termination, is
   really an independent word, which always preserves its meaning, no
   matter whether it be used at the beginning, middle, or end of a word,
   or independently, and that every word, with equal right, can be used
   as a root word or grammatical particle."
"I broke down ideas into individual words so that the language, instead of being made up of words in different grammatical forms, consists only of unchanging words. When you read something written in my language, you'll notice that each word always appears in one fixed form, which is how it shows up in the dictionary. The different grammatical forms and relationships between words are expressed by combining these unchanging words. However, since this way of constructing language is quite unfamiliar to Europeans, I adapted this breakdown of the language to match the style of European languages, so that anyone learning my language from a manual wouldn't think it was constructed differently from their own. For example, the word fratino actually consists of three words: frat, in, o. Frat conveys the idea of a child __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ of one’s parents, in relates to the female gender, and o indicates existence (person or thing), making it a noun. These three ideas combined in Esperanto form fratino = a sister. The first and last words combine to make frato = a brother. The instruction manual presents this as follows:—Brother = frat-, but since every noun in the nominative ends in o, frato = brother. To form the feminine, we add the small word -in-, so fratino = sister. This breakdown of the language doesn’t confuse the learner at all; they don’t even realize that what they think of as a prefix, suffix, or ending is actually an independent word that always retains its meaning, whether it appears at the beginning, middle, or end of a word, or stands alone, and that every word can equally function as a root word or grammatical particle."




Footnote:
Footnote:



[9] It must be remembered that
         all roots or root-words in Esperanto are either sexless, or
         have only the sex naturally belonging to the root,
         unless the feminine suffix—IN—be added. For
         instance, vir- gives the idea of "man" (male), therefore
         viro = a man; and we always speak of viro as
         li = he, because we are sure the noun refers to
         the male sex. But the root infan- gives only the idea of
         a "child" (neuter), so, unless we actually know the child is a
         male, we speak of infano = child as ĝi =
         it, just as we do in English. When a suffix denoting a
         person, such as -estr-, -ist-, -ul-, is
         added to a root, the noun is sexless, or may be presumed to be
         masculine, unless the feminine -in- be also added.
         
[9] It's important to remember that all roots or root-words in Esperanto are either gender-neutral or have only the gender that naturally belongs to the root, unless the feminine suffix—IN—is added. For example, vir- suggests "man" (male), so viro = a man; and we always refer to viro as li = he, because we know the noun refers to the male gender. However, the root infan- only indicates a "child" (gender-neutral), so unless we know the child is male, we refer to infano = child as ĝi = it, just like we do in English. When a suffix that denotes a person, such as -estr-, -ist-, or -ul-, is added to a root, the noun is gender-neutral or can be assumed to be masculine unless the feminine -in- is also added.








41. With reference to the above, it will be observed that Dr.
   Zamenhof calls all combinations of letters,[10] which convey an idea, a "word," as for instance
   frat, in, o, but in practice the student may
   find it helpful to use the terms which are defined in pars.
   37–39, and (with
   the exception of the primary words in the list, Part V.) to call no



   combination a "word" until it receives a
   grammatical termination.
41. Referring to the above, you’ll notice that Dr. Zamenhof refers to all combinations of letters, [10], that convey an idea, as a "word," like frat, in, o. However, in practice, students might find it useful to use the terms defined in pars. 37–39, and (except for the primary words in the list, Part V.) to not consider any combination a "word" until it has a grammatical ending.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[10] Not only combinations of letters,
         but each vowel (as already shown in the case of O), conveys
         an idea, and is therefore, technically speaking, a word; for
         instance—
[10] Not just combinations of letters, but each vowel (as already shown in the case of O), represents an idea, and is therefore, technically speaking, a word; for example—


    

  • A conveys the idea of quality and marks the Adjective.
    • 

  • E conveys the idea of modification and marks the Adverb.
    • 

  • I conveys the idea of indefiniteness and marks the Infinitive mood.
    • 

  • O conveys the idea of existence, entity and marks the Noun.
    • 

  • U conveys the idea of order and marks the Imperative mood.
    • 


         In the table of Correlative Words, Dr. Zamenhof carries out
         the idea of indefiniteness in the I series, ia,
         ial, iam, etc.; all, however, be it noted,
         independent indivisible roots (see par. 147). In fact
         ia, ie, io, might be considered as adjective,
         adverb, and noun, regularly formed from the indefinite word (or
         grammatical termination as we call it) "i."
In the table of Correlative Words, Dr. Zamenhof explores the concept of indefiniteness in the I series, ia, ial, iam, and so on; all of these, however, are independent indivisible roots (see par. 147). In reality, ia, ie, io can be seen as an adjective, adverb, and noun that are regularly formed from the indefinite word (or grammatical ending as we refer to it) "i."








42. Grammatical Terminations (gramatikaj finiĝoj).—Every word
in Esperanto, except the primary words, has a grammatical termination
which shows:—
42. Grammatical Terminations (gramatikaj finiĝoj).—Every word in Esperanto, except for the root words, has a grammatical ending that indicates:—


(a). The part of speech.
The word type.


(b). Whether the word is singular or plural.
(b). Whether the word is in singular or plural form.


(c). Whether in the nominative or accusative case.
(c). Whether in the subject or object case.


(d). The mood, tense, and participles of a verb.
(d). The mood, tense, and participles of a verb.


A list of the grammatical terminations will be found in par. 53.
A list of the grammatical endings can be found in par. 53.






43. Suffixes.—Suffixes are syllables placed between the root and
grammatical termination, adding to the word the idea contained in the
suffix as well as that in the root.
43. Suffixes.—Suffixes are syllables added between the root and grammatical ending, which contribute the meaning of the suffix along with that of the root.


A list of suffixes will be found in par. 54.
A list of suffixes can be found in par. 54.






44. Prefixes.—A prefix is a syllable placed before the root,
adding to the root the idea contained in the prefix.
44. Prefixes.—A prefix is a syllable added before the root, giving the root the meaning of the prefix.


A list of prefixes will be found in par. 55.
A list of prefixes can be found in par. 55.






45. From the foregoing definitions we see that words in Esperanto are
either primary words, or words composed of:—
45. From the definitions above, we see that words in Esperanto are either primary words or words made up of:—


(a). Roots and grammatical terminations.
Roots and grammar endings.


(b). Roots, suffixes, and grammatical terminations.
(b). Roots, suffixes, and grammatical endings.


(c). Prefixes, roots, and grammatical terminations.
(c). Prefixes, roots, and grammatical endings.


(d). Prefixes, roots, suffixes, and grammatical terminations.
(d). Prefixes, roots, suffixes, and grammatical endings.






46. Order of Suffixes.—The grammatical terminations, A, E,
I, O, U, AS, IS, OS, US, showing the part of speech and
mood and tense of verbs, must end all words (except some of the
primary words), the accusative N or plural J being added if



required. Suffixes precede this termination in their natural order.
For instance, if we want to say "a tiny female kitten," we commence
with the root kat-, giving the idea only of "cat" ; then add -id-
(suffix for "offspring of") kat-id- = kitten; then -in- (female
suffix) kat-id-in- = kitten female; then -et- (diminutive
suffix) kat-id-in-et- = kitten female tiny; we have now got the
root and all the suffixes, and we might make the word an adjective by
adding A, but we want a noun, so add O; kat-id-in-et-o = a
tiny female kitten. If we place -et- after kat-, we commence by
speaking of a "tiny cat," for kateto has that meaning, so
katetidino would be the "female offspring of a tiny cat." If we
reversed the three suffixes, we should get kat-in-et-id-o =
offspring of a tiny female cat. This exaggerated example of
building up suffixes will show the importance of placing them in
their natural order. The student cannot make a mistake if he
commences with the root and forms a word of each suffix in
succession; for instance, hund-o = a dog, hund-id-o = a
puppy, hundid-in-o = a female puppy, hundidin-eg-o = a huge
female puppy.
46. Order of Suffixes.—The grammatical endings, A, E, I, O, U, AS, IS, OS, US, which indicate the part of speech as well as the mood and tense of verbs, must be used at the end of all words (except for some basic words), with the accusative N or plural J added if necessary. Suffixes come before this ending in their usual order. For example, if we want to say "a tiny female kitten," we start with the root kat-, indicating "cat”; then add -id- (the suffix for "offspring of") to get kat-id- = kitten; then add -in- (the female suffix) for kat-id-in- = kitten female; then add -et- (the diminutive suffix) to form kat-id-in-et- = kitten female tiny; now we have the root and all the suffixes, and we might convert the word into an adjective by adding A, but since we want a noun, we add O; this gives us kat-id-in-et-o = a tiny female kitten. If we place -et- after kat-, we start by describing a "tiny cat,” as kateto means that, so katetidino would refer to "the female offspring of a tiny cat." If we switched the order of the three suffixes, we would get kat-in-et-id-o = offspring of a tiny female cat. This exaggerated example of building suffixes highlights the significance of arranging them in their natural order. The student cannot go wrong if they start with the root and form a word from each suffix in sequence; for instance, hund-o = a dog, hund-id-o = a puppy, hundid-in-o = a female puppy, hundidin-eg-o = a huge female puppy.






47. Order of Prefixes.—In like manner prefixes must come in their
natural order, as:—Sano = health, mal-sano = illness,
re-mal-sano = a return of illness, a relapse.
47. Order of Prefixes.—Similarly, prefixes should appear in their natural order, such as:—Sano = health, mal-sano = illness, re-mal-sano = a return of illness, a relapse.






48. Order of roots in compound words.—The principal root is always
placed last, and receives the grammatical termination, with or
without a suffix. The root of a subordinate word is sufficient
without any suffix.
48. Order of roots in compound words.—The main root is always put at the end and takes the grammatical ending, with or without an addition. The root of a secondary word is adequate on its own without any addition.


Examples.—Ĉas-gard-ist-o = A gamekeeper, (ĉasi = to hunt,
ĉas-aĵo = a thing hunted, game; but it is unnecessary to add the
suffix -aĵ- to the subordinate root). Roz-kolora = Rose
coloured. Skrib-tablo = Writing table. Lerno-libro = Instruction
book, manual (lern-o, the root, made a full word for euphony).
Compare: librolerno, book-learning.


Tir-kesto = A drawer (tir-i = to draw, kesto = a chest).
Lum-turo = Lighthouse (lum-i = to shine, turo = a tower).
Lip-haroj = Moustache (lip-o = a lip, haroj = hairs).
Vang-haroj = Whiskers (vang-o = a cheek).
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Ĉas-gard-ist-o = A gamekeeper, (ĉasi = to hunt, ĉas-aĵo = something hunted, game; but it's unnecessary to add the suffix -aĵ- to the subordinate root). Roz-kolora = Rose-colored. Skrib-tablo = Writing table. Lerno-libro = Instruction book, manual (lern-o, the root, made a full word for euphony). Compare: librolerno, book learning.


Tir-kesto = A drawer (tir-i = to draw, kesto = a chest). Lum-turo = Lighthouse (lum-i = to shine, turo = a tower). Lip-haroj = Moustache (lip-o = a lip, haroj = hairs). Vang-haroj = Whiskers (vang-o = a cheek).






49. When the root should be a noun, adjective, or adverb.—When the
joining of the root alone makes the compound word difficult to
pronounce, the root is generally made a noun by adding O for the
sake of euphony, as:—Lerno-libro = manual, instruction book.
If the prefixed root alone would not give the required meaning, the
suitable grammatical ending must be added. Estis unu-taga laboro =
it was one day’s work. Estis la unua-taga laboro = it was the
first day’s work. La supre-citita paragrafo = the above-quoted
paragraph. In case of adverbs, N to form the accusative is also
added, if direction is implied, as:—Li supren-iris la monton = he
ascended the mountain (see 67 (b)).
49. When the root should be a noun, adjective, or adverb.—When combining the root makes the compound word hard to pronounce, it’s usually turned into a noun by adding an O for better sound, like:—Lerno-libro = manual, instruction book. If the root alone doesn’t convey the needed meaning, the appropriate grammatical ending must be added. Estis unu-taga laboro = it was one day’s work. Estis la unua-taga laboro = it was the first day’s work. La supre-citita paragrafo = the above-quoted paragraph. For adverbs, an N is also added to form the accusative if direction is implied, like:—Li supren-iris la monton = he ascended the mountain (see 67 (b)).


N.B.—The hyphens are not necessary.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.






50. The idea conveyed by the root.—In forming a word, the first
thing is to find out the exact primary idea contained in the root. Do
not think, for instance, that because you happen to know that one of
the meanings of cel-o is end, that cel-i will mean to finish
or end. The primary idea of cel- is aim, or purpose,
therefore cel-i is to aim, to purpose. Do not, in the case of a
word with one or more suffixes, think that because you know one of
its meanings, you know also the idea conveyed in its root. For
instance, kresk-aĵ-o is a plant, but do not at once say that
kresk-i is to plant; kreskaĵo comes quite logically from
kreski = to grow, therefore kreskaĵo is a thing grown, a
growth, a plant. In other words, make certain that you understand
the exact meaning of the Esperanto root; and be careful not to be
misled by the fact that many English words have a number of different
meanings.

50. The idea conveyed by the root.—When creating a word, the first step is to identify the exact primary idea within the root. For example, just because you know that one meaning of cel-o is end, it doesn’t mean that cel-i will mean finish or end. The primary idea of cel- is aim or purpose, so cel-i means to aim, to purpose. Similarly, when dealing with a word that has one or more suffixes, don’t assume that knowing one meaning means you understand the idea behind its root. For example, kresk-aĵ-o means a plant, but don’t immediately conclude that kresk-i is to plant; kreskaĵo logically comes from kreski = to grow, so kreskaĵo means a thing that has grown, a growth, a plant. In other words, make sure you fully understand the exact meaning of the Esperanto root, and be careful not to be misled by the fact that many English words have multiple meanings.





PRIMARY WORDS (Vortoj fundamentaj).




51. The Primary words are 158 in number, and must be carefully
learnt (see list, page 334). They are not only complete words in
themselves with a definite meaning, but they can be treated as
root-words and receive prefixes, suffixes, and grammatical
terminations. There is no rule to prevent any of these words, ending
in a vowel, from receiving, if logically allowable, the accusative
N or the plural J (see par. 142).
51. The Primary words are 158 in total and need to be learned carefully (see list, page 334). They are not only complete words with specific meanings, but they can also serve as root words and take on prefixes, suffixes, and grammatical endings. There are no rules that stop any of these words ending in a vowel from taking the accusative N or the plural J, as long as it makes sense logically (see par. 142).


Examples.—Jen (behold), jene = As follows. Ne (no, not), nei
= To deny. Tie (there), tieulo = A man from there (that place).
Ĉirkaŭ (around, round), ĉirkaŭi = To surround. Jes (yes),
jeso = An affirmation. Tiaj esprimoj = Such expressions. Tiuj
ĉevaloj = Those horses. Li aĉetis ĉiujn ĉevalojn = He bought
all the horses. Faru al mi ian respondon = Make me some (kind of)
reply. Venu tien ĉi = Come hither. Diru al mi tion, kion vi
faris = Tell me what (that which) you did (have done). Unuj faris
tion ĉi, aliaj tion = Some did this, others that.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Jen (look), jene = As follows. Ne (no, not), nei
= To deny. Tie (there), tieulo = A man from there (that place).
Ĉirkaŭ (around, round), ĉirkaŭi = To surround. Jes (yes),
jeso = An affirmation. Tiaj esprimoj = Such expressions. Tiuj
ĉevaloj = Those horses. Li aĉetis ĉiujn ĉevalojn = He bought
all the horses. Faru al mi ian respondon = Give me some kind of reply. Venu tien ĉi = Come here. Diru al mi tion, kion vi
faris = Tell me what you've done. Unuj faris
tion ĉi, aliaj tion = Some did this, others that.


Among the Primary Words are found all the personal and demonstrative
pronouns, all the cardinal numbers and prepositions, and also many
common adverbs and conjunctions. It is important, therefore, that the
student should thoroughly master their meaning.

Among the Primary Words are all the personal and demonstrative pronouns, all the cardinal numbers and prepositions, as well as many common adverbs and conjunctions. Therefore, it’s important for the student to thoroughly master their meanings.





FOREIGN WORDS (Vortoj fremdaj).




52. Foreign words are those which in most languages are derived
from the same source, and, being consequently much alike in
formation, are easily understood by most nations, there being only a
slight difference in spelling and that difference of termination
which occurs in all languages. Dr. Zamenhof wisely lays down that
they should undergo no change, beyond conforming to Esperanto
orthography and its grammatical terminations.
52. Foreign words are those that in most languages come from the same source, and, since they are quite similar in structure, are easily understood by many nations, with only a small difference in spelling and the typical differences in endings found in all languages. Dr. Zamenhof wisely states that they should not change, except to match Esperanto's spelling and grammatical endings.


In order to show their change from English spelling, the following
examples are given, not only of words which may be called "foreign,"
but of others that are a near approach to English in formation. It
must be borne in mind that these changes of letters by no means
invariably take place; they are only general.
In order to demonstrate their shift from English spelling, the following examples are provided, not just of words that could be considered "foreign," but also of others that are quite similar to English in structure. It's important to remember that these letter changes don't always happen; they are only general.


52 (a).—Initial and Medial Letters.
52 (a).—First and Middle Letters.


C (hard) = K generally, as:—Declare = deklari, economy =
ekonomio, decameter = dekametro, hectogram = hektogramo. In
a few cases C becomes Ĉ, as:—Dedicate = dediĉi,
carpenter = ĉarpentisto (probably from the French
charpentier).
C (hard) = K generally, as:—Declare = deklari, economy = ekonomio, decameter = dekametro, hectogram = hektogramo. In a few cases, C becomes Ĉ, as:—Dedicate = dediĉi, carpenter = ĉarpentisto (probably from the French charpentier).


C (soft) generally undergoes no change, so remains C with its
sound of TS, as:—Cipher = cifero, cigar = cigaro,
glycerine = glicerino, grimace = grimaco, spice = spico.
Some few words change to Z, as:—Price = prezo.
C (soft) generally doesn't change, so it stays as C with the sound of TS, like:—Cipher = cifero, cigar = cigaro, glycerine = glicerino, grimace = grimaco, spice = spico. A few words change to Z, like:—Price = prezo.


Ch (soft) = Ĉ generally, as:—Chamber = ĉambro, charming
= ĉarma, chaste = ĉasta, chief = ĉefo.
Ch (soft) = Ĉ, as in: Chamber = ĉambro, charming = ĉarma, chaste = ĉasta, chief = ĉefo.



Ch (hard) = Ĥ generally, as:—Chameleon = ĥameleono,
chaos = ĥaoso, chemistry = ĥemio, cholera = ĥolero,
hypochondria = hipoĥondrio, chorister = ĥoristo. It will be
seen that these words are mostly derived from the Greek.
Ch (hard) = Ĥ generally, as:—Chameleon = ĥameleono,  
chaos = ĥaoso, chemistry = ĥemio, cholera = ĥolero,  
hypochondria = hipoĥondrio, chorister = ĥoristo. It will be  
noted that these words are mainly derived from Greek.


G (soft or hard) = G generally, as:—Geology = geologio,
elegant = eleganta, general (officer) = generalo. The
exceptions in which Ĝ is used are mostly words following the
French pronunciation, as:—Danger = danĝero, garden =
ĝardeno, general (adjective) = ĝenerala, germ = ĝermo,
giraffe = ĝirafo, etc.
G (soft or hard) = G generally, as:—Geology = geologio, elegant = eleganta, general (officer) = generalo. The exceptions where Ĝ is used are mostly words that follow the French pronunciation, such as:—Danger = danĝero, garden = ĝardeno, general (adjective) = ĝenerala, germ = ĝermo, giraffe = ĝirafo, etc.


PH = F, as:—Elephantiasis = elefantiazo, sphere = sfero,
etc.
PH = F, as:—Elephantiasis = elefantiazo, sphere = sfero, etc.


QU = KV, as:—Equivalent = ekvivalenta, eloquent =
elokventa, inquisition = inkvizicio, quantity = kvanto,
quadratic = kvadrata.
QU = KV, as:—Equivalent = equivalent, eloquent = eloquent, inquisition = inquisition, quantity = quantity, quadratic = quadratic.


S = S, but in a few instances it becomes Ŝ (probably following
German pronunciation) as:—Slime = ŝlimo, smear = ŝmiri,
spare = ŝpari, spin = ŝpini, etc.
S = S, but in a few cases it turns into Ŝ (likely following German pronunciation) as:—Slime = ŝlimo, smear = ŝmiri, spare = ŝpari, spin = ŝpini, etc.


S (sounded like Z) = Z generally, as:—Desert = dezerto,
rose = rozo, present = prezenti, preside = prezidi, etc.
S (sounds like Z) = Z usually, as:—Desert = dezerto, rose = rozo, present = prezenti, preside = prezidi, etc.


Sh = Ŝ generally, as:—Shark = ŝarko, ship = ŝipo,
shoe = ŝuo.
Sh = Ŝ generally, as:—Shark = ŝarko, ship = ŝipo, shoe = ŝuo.


Th = T, as:—Theatre = teatro, mythology = mitologio.
Th = T, as:—Theater = teatro, mythology = mitologio.


X = KS or KZ, generally, as:—Example = ekzemplo,
exercise = ekzerco, dispatch = ekspedi, excite = eksciti,
exposition = ekspozicio, exist = ekzisti. In a few instances
X becomes S, as:—Extinguish = estingi, explore =
esplori, express = esprimi. Occasionally L is used for X,
as:—Expel = elpeli, excrescence = elkreskaĵo, etc. When L
is substituted it will be observed that the English prefix EX means
"out of," and that, therefore, Esperanto logically uses the
preposition EL, meaning "out of," as the prefix.
X = KS or KZ, generally, as:—Example = ekzemplo,
exercise = ekzerco, dispatch = ekspedi, excite = eksciti,
exposition = ekspozicio, exist = ekzisti. In a few cases,
X turns into S, as:—Extinguish = estingi, explore =
esplori, express = esprimi. Sometimes L is used for X,
as:—Expel = elpeli, excrescence = elkreskaĵo, etc. When L
is substituted, it will be noted that the English prefix EX means
"out of," and that, therefore, Esperanto logically uses the
preposition EL, meaning "out of," as the prefix.



52 (b).—Terminal Letters.
52 (b).—Terminal Letters.


Terminal Letters.—If the last syllable ends in the sound of a
consonant, it is generally right to add O to the last consonant of
the English word, to form a noun, as:—Diadem = diademo,
diagonal = diagonalo, granite = granito, dialogue =
dialogo, debate = debato. There are, of course, exceptions.
Beginners should always consult an Esperanto Dictionary if they have
any doubt as to internationality or spelling. Note the following
terminations, which have a peculiarity of their own:—
Terminal Letters.—If the last syllable ends with a consonant sound, it's usually correct to add O to the last consonant of the English word to create a noun, like: Diadem = diademo, diagonal = diagonalo, granite = granito, dialogue = dialogo, debate = debato. Of course, there are exceptions. Beginners should always check an Esperanto Dictionary if they have any doubts about internationality or spelling. Note the following endings, which have their own unique characteristics:—


-ER. = RO generally, for a noun, as:—December = Decembro,
diameter = diametro. Words like "centre," "theatre," etc.,
sometimes spelt "center," "theater," follow the rule, as:—Centro,
teatro.
-ER. = RO usually, for a noun, as:—December = Decembro,
diameter = diametro. Words like "centre," "theatre," etc.,
sometimes spelled "center," "theater," follow the rule, as:—Centro,
teatro.


-IC and -ICAL. = A or IA. These terminations are English
suffixes for adjectives. Esperanto, however, discards them and gives
its own adjectival suffix A, as Galvanic = galvana, hypnotic
= hipnota, theatrical = teatra, identical = identa,
theoretic = teoria, geographical = geografia. (See remarks on
-OGY and -ISM).
-IC and -ICAL. = A or IA. These endings are English suffixes for adjectives. Esperanto, however, gets rid of them and uses its own adjectival suffix A, like Galvanic = galvana, hypnotic = hipnota, theatrical = teatra, identical = identa, theoretic = teoria, geographical = geografia. (See remarks on -OGY and -ISM).


-ICS. = KO. The English termination -ICS has a plural form, but
in Esperanto -CS is generally represented by -KO, and not the
plural -KOJ, as:—Mathematics = matematiko, etc.
-ICS. = KO. The English suffix -ICS has a plural form, but in Esperanto -CS is usually represented by -KO, not the plural -KOJ, as in:—Mathematics = matematiko, etc.


-INE. The I in this termination is occasionally turned into E,
as:—Gelatine = gelateno. More commonly it is retained,
as:—Glycerine = glicerino.
-INE. The I in this ending is sometimes changed to E, for example:—Gelatine = gelateno. More often, it stays the same, as in:—Glycerine = glicerino.


-ISH. = DUBE (doubtful) may be prefixed to colours to form the
adjective in -ish, as:—Dubenigra = blackish, dubeblanka =
whitish, dubeverda = greenish. It is, however, better to use
the suffix -et, thus: nigreta, verdeta.
-ISH. = DUBE (doubtful) can be added to colors to create the adjective in -ish, for example: Dubenigra = blackish, dubeblanka = whitish, dubeverda = greenish. However, it's preferable to use the suffix -et, as in: nigreta, verdeta.


-ISM. In many cases the ending -ISM forms part of an
international root, and is thus used in Esperanto also; e.g.,
paroksismo = paroxysm, sofismo = a sophism, fallacy,
aforismo = an aphorism, are simple words, for there are no roots
paroks, sof (in this sense), afor. In the majority of cases the
English suffix -ism and the Esperanto suffix -ism coincide, thus:
komunismo = communism, vegetarismo = vegetarianism. Sometimes
the English -ism has the meaning -ec, thus: heroeco


= heroism, fanatikeco = fanaticism. Catholicism may mean
katolikismo or katolikeco.
-ISM. In many instances, the suffix -ISM is part of an international root, which is why it's used in Esperanto as well; for example, paroksismo = paroxysm, sofismo = a sophism, fallacy, aforismo = an aphorism. These are straightforward terms since there are no roots paroks, sof (in this context), afor. In most cases, the English suffix -ism and the Esperanto suffix -ism are the same, such as: komunismo = communism, vegetarismo = vegetarianism. Sometimes, the English -ism carries the meaning of -ec, like in heroeco = heroism, fanatikeco = fanaticism. Catholicism can be either katolikismo or katolikeco.


-IST. Esperanto words ending in -ism often have companion forms
in -ist, to which similar remarks apply, as:—sofisto = a
sophist, komunisto = a communist.
-IST. Esperanto words that end in -ism usually have related forms that end in -ist, and similar points apply, such as:—sofisto = a sophist, komunisto = a communist.


-MENT. When this is the English termination of a noun derived from
a root not ending in -MENT, it becomes O, as:—Embarrass =
embarasi, embarrassment = embaraso, rebate = rabati,
rebatement = rabato. But when -MENT is part of the English root
it is retained, as:—Element = elemento, experiment =
eksperimento, fundament = fundamento.
-MENT. When this is the English ending of a noun coming from a root that doesn't end in -MENT, it changes to O, like:—Embarrass = embarasi, embarrassment = embaraso, rebate = rabati, rebatement = rabato. But when -MENT is part of the English root, it stays the same, like:—Element = elemento, experiment = eksperimento, fundament = fundamento.


-OGY. Words derived from the Greek change Y into IO,
as:—Geology = geologio, theology = teologio. The adjectives
of these words end in -IC and -ICAL, and, as their Esperanto root
ends in -I, A must be added to this to form the adjectives
geologia, teologia.
-OGY. Words that come from Greek change Y to IO, like:—Geology = geologio, theology = teologio. The adjectives of these words end in -IC and -ICAL, and since their Esperanto root ends in -I, A must be added to this to form the adjectives geologia, teologia.


-SIS. = ZO generally, as:—Apotheosis = apoteozo,
hypothesis = hipotezo, oasis = oazo, synthesis = sintezo.
-SIS. = ZO generally, as:—Apotheosis = apoteozo, hypothesis = hipotezo, oasis = oazo, synthesis = sintezo.


-TH. = T, as:—Hyacinth = hiacinto.
-TH. = T, as:—Hyacinth = hiacinto.


-TION. = CIO occasionally, as:—Declaration = deklaracio,
exposition = ekspozicio, arbitration = arbitracio,
generation = generacio, situation = situacio. Usually,
however, English -tion corresponds to Esperanto -o, -ado, or
-aĵo, as:—information = inform-o, -ado, -aĵo; and such
forms are often used even when an alternative form in -cio exists,
thus: deklar-o, -aĵo.
-TION. = CIO sometimes, like:—Declaration = deklaracio,
exposition = ekspozicio, arbitration = arbitracio,
generation = generacio, situation = situacio. Generally,
though, English -tion corresponds to Esperanto -o, -ado, or
-aĵo, as:—information = inform-o, -ado, -aĵo; and such
forms are often used even when there is an alternative form in -cio, 
like: deklar-o, -aĵo.


-UM. = O generally, as:—Epithalamium = epitalamio,
gymnasium (college) = gimnazio, geranium = geranio.
-UM. = O generally, as:—Epithalamium = epitalamio, gymnasium (college) = gimnazio, geranium = geranio.


-Y. = IO generally in words derived from Latin or Greek,
as:—Philosophy = filozofio, astronomy = astronomio,
sympathy (liking) = simpatio, industry = industrio.
-Y. = IO usually in words that come from Latin or Greek, like:—Philosophy = filozofio, astronomy = astronomio, sympathy (liking) = simpatio, industry = industrio.





53. GRAMMATICAL TERMINATIONS




(Gramatikaj Finiĝoj).
(Grammar Endings).






A final denotes an Adjective. Patra, paternal.


E final denotes an Adverb. Patre, paternally.


I final denotes the Infinitive Mood. Fari, to do.


O final denotes a Noun. Patro, a father.


U final denotes the Imperative Mood. Faru, do.

Li faru, let him do.

Diru, ke li faru tion, say he is to do that.


J final denotes the Plural. Patroj, fathers.


N final denotes the Accusative Case. Patron.

Mi vidis mian patron, I saw my father.


AS final denotes the Present Tense.

Mi faras, I do, or, I am doing.


IS final denotes the Past Tense.

Li faris, he did, or, he has done.


OS final denotes the Future Tense. Ni faros, we shall do.


US final denotes the Conditional Mood.

Vi farus, you should, or would, do.


ANTA final denotes Present Participle Active.

Faranta, doing.


INTA final denotes Past Participle Active.

Farinta, having done.


ONTA final denotes Future Participle Active.

Faronta, about to do.


ATA final denotes Present Participle Passive.

Farata, being done.


ITA final denotes Past Participle Passive.

Farita, having been done.


OTA final denotes Future Participle Passive.

Farota, about to be done.






N.B.—There are three forms of participles, the adjectival,
substantival, and adverbial. The one given above is the adjectival.
In the adverbial form the final A is changed into E. Farante
tion, li ... = By (in, or through) doing that, he ... To
form the substantive, change A into O. La faranto = The doer
(the person doing). These three forms are applicable to all the
three participles in both the active and passive voices (see pars.
208–210).
N.B.—There are three types of participles: adjectival, substantival, and adverbial. The one mentioned above is the adjectival. In the adverbial form, the final A is replaced with E. Farante tion, li ... = By (in, or through) doing that, he ... To create the substantive, change A to O. La faranto = The doer (the person doing). These three forms apply to all three participles in both active and passive voices (see pars. 208–210).





LIST OF SUFFIXES (Sufiksoj).




54. The following lists of suffixes (31) and prefixes (7 in number)
should be carefully studied, since innumerable words of the finest
shade of meaning can be formed by their aid, in fact, they are the
ground-work of the language. In cases where a suffix can be used as a
root, the word it helps to form is given. The hyphens are used only
to show the root, suffix, and grammatical termination of the
examples. The student should form other words himself, and study the
works of the best authors. (For remarks on suffixes and prefixes, see
pars. 270–290.)
54. The following lists of suffixes (31) and prefixes (7 total) should be studied carefully, as countless words with subtle meanings can be created using them; in fact, they form the foundation of the language. In cases where a suffix can also act as a root, the word it helps to create is provided. The hyphens are only used to indicate the root, suffix, and grammatical ending of the examples. Students should create additional words on their own and read the works of top authors. (For comments on suffixes and prefixes, see pars. 270–290.)


    

  • -AĈ- Denotes badness of quality or condition (aĉ-a, vile,
bad), (par. 271):
    -AĈ- Represents poor quality or condition (aĉ-a, vile, bad), (par. 271):
    

    dom-o, a house, dom-aĉ-o, a tumble-down house.
    dom-o, a house, dom-aĉ-o, a rundown house.
    

    ĉeval-o, a horse, ĉeval-aĉ-o, a sorry nag.
    ĉeval-o, a horse, ĉeval-aĉ-o, a sorry horse.
    • 

  • -AD- Denotes the continuation of an action (par. 270):
    -AD- Indicates that an action is still ongoing (par. 270):
    

    paf-o, a shot, or discharge, paf-ad-o, a firing,
fusillade.
    paf-o, a shot, or discharge, paf-ad-o, a firing, gunfire.
    

    ir-i, to go, ir-ad-i, to continue going.
    ir-i, to go, ir-ad-i, to keep going.
    • 

  • -AĴ- Denotes some real or concrete thing made from, or having the
quality of, the root (aĵ-o, a thing), (par. 271):
    -AĴ- Indicates a real or tangible thing created from, or possessing the qualities of, the root (aĵ-o, a thing), (par. 271):
    

    mola, soft, mol-aĵ-o, a soft thing, or substance.
    mola, soft, mol-aĵ-o, soft item, or material.
    

    frukt-o, fruit, frukt-aĵ-o, jam.
    fruit-o, fruit, fruit-aĵ-o, jam.
    • 

  • -AN- Denotes a member, inhabitant, or partisan (an-o, a member,
etc.), (par. 272):
    -AN- Indicates a member, resident, or supporter (an-o, a member, etc.), (par. 272):
    

    vilaĝ-o, a village, vilaĝ-an-o, a villager.
    village, a village, villager, a villager.
    

    London-o, London, London-an-o, a Londoner.
    London, London, Londoner, a Londoner.
    • 


  • -AR- Denotes a collection of the idea implied in the root (ar-o,
a collection, flock), (par. 273):
    -AR- Indicates a grouping of the concept suggested by the root (ar-o, a collection, flock), (par. 273):
    

    arb-o, a tree, arb-ar-o, a wood.
    arb-o, a tree, arb-ar-o, wood.
    

    hom-o, a man, hom-ar-o, mankind.
    homo, man, humano, humanity.
    • 

  • -ĈJ- These letters, substituted for one or more of the letters of
a masculine name, make it an affectionate diminutive (par. 274):
    -CJ- These letters, used instead of one or more letters in a masculine name, create a loving nickname (par. 274):
    

    Petr-o, Peter, Pe-ĉj-o, Pete.
    Petr-o, Peter, Pe-ĉj-o, Pete.
    

    Vilhelm-o, William, Vilhel-ĉj-o, Willie, Vilhe-ĉj-o,
Will, Vil-ĉj-o, Billy, Vi-ĉj-o, Bill.
    Vilhelm-o, William, Vilhel-ĉj-o, Willie, Vilhe-ĉj-o, Will, Vil-ĉj-o, Billy, Vi-ĉj-o, Bill.
    

    For feminine names insert nj instead of ĉj (par. 274):
    For feminine names, use nj instead of ĉj (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__):
    

    Mari-o, Mary, Ma-nj-o, Polly.
    Mario, Mary, Mario, Polly.
    

    Helen-o, Helen, Hele-nj-o, Nelly, He-nj-o, Nell.
    Helen-o, Helen, Hele-nj-o, Nelly, He-nj-o, Nell.
    • 

  • -EBL- Denotes possibility, similar to the English terminations
-able, -ible (ebl-a, possible, ebl-e, perhaps), (par.
275):
    -EBL- Indicates potential, akin to the English suffixes -able, -ible (ebl-a, possible, ebl-e, maybe), (par. 275):
    

    leg-i, to read, leg-ebl-a, legible.
    leg-i, to read, leg-ebl-a, readable.
    

    tra-vid-i, to see through, tra-vid-ebl-a, transparent.
    tra-vid-i, to see through, tra-vid-ebl-a, transparent.
    • 

  • -EC- Denotes an abstract quality of the idea conveyed in the root,
like the English terminations -ness, -tude, -ity (ec-o, a
distinctive mark, or quality), (par. 271):
    -EC- Represents an abstract quality of the idea expressed in the root, similar to the English suffixes -ness, -tude, -ity (ec-o, a distinctive mark, or quality), (par. 271):
    

    bon-a, good, bon-ec-o, goodness.
    good, good, goodness, goodness.
    

    riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-ec-o, wealth.
    rich, wealth.
    • 

  • -EDZ- Denotes a married person (edz-o, a husband), (par. 276):
    -EDZ- Refers to a married person (edz-o, a husband), (par. 276):
    

    doktor-o, a doctor, doktor-edz-in-o, a doctor’s wife,
lav-ist-in-o, a washerwoman, lav-ist-in-edz-o, a washerwoman’s
husband.
    doktor-o, a doctor, doktor-edz-in-o, a doctor’s wife,
lav-ist-in-o, a washerwoman, lav-ist-in-edz-o, a washerwoman’s
husband.
    • 

  • -EG- Denotes augmentation, intensity of degree (eg-a, intense,
eg-ec-o, intensity), (par. 277):
    -EG- Indicates an increase, level of intensity (eg-a, intense,
eg-ec-o, intensity), (par. 277):
    

    grand-a, great, grand-eg-a, enormous.
    grand-a, great, grand-eg-a, huge.
    

    pord-o, a door, pord-eg-o, a portal, outer-door.
    pord-o, a door, pord-eg-o, a portal, outer-door.
    • 


  • -EJ- Denotes the place specially used for, or allotted to, the idea
implied in the root (ej-o, place, location), (par. 278):
    -EJ- Indicates the area specifically designated for, or assigned to, the concept suggested in the root (ej-o, place, location), (par. 278):
    

    preĝ-i, to pray, preĝ-ej-o, a church.
    preĝ-i, to pray, preĝ-ej-o, a place of worship.
    

    tomb-o, a grave, tomb, tomb-ej-o, a graveyard, cemetery.
    tomb-o, a grave, tomb, tomb-ej-o, a graveyard, cemetery.
    • 

  • -EM- Denotes propensity, inclination, disposition (em-o, a
disposition, bias, tendency), (par. 275):
    -EM- Indicates a tendency, inclination, or predisposition (em-o, a predisposition, bias, tendency), (par. 275):
    

    babil-i, to chatter, babil-em-a, chattering.
    babil-i, to chat, babil-em-a, chatting.
    

    pac-o, peace, pac-em-a, inclined to peace, peaceful.
    pac-o, peace, pac-em-a, peace-loving, peaceful.
    • 

  • -ER- Denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment
(er-o, an item), (par. 273):
    -ER- Indicates one of many items of the same type, a small piece
(er-o, an item), (par. 273):
    

    sabl-o, sand, sabl-er-o, a grain of sand.
    sandy, sand, sandy grain, a grain of sand.
    

    mon-o, money, mon-er-o, a coin.
    mon-o, cash, mon-er-o, a coin.
    • 

  • -ESTR- Denotes a chief, leader, ruler, or head of (estr-o, a
chief), (par. 272):
    -ESTR- Refers to a chief, leader, ruler, or head of (estr-o, a chief), (par. 272):
    

    ŝip-o, a ship, ŝip-estr-o, a captain of a ship.
    ship, a ship, ship-captain, a captain of a ship.
    

    imperi-o, an empire, imperi-estr-o, an emperor.
    imperi-o, an empire, imperi-estr-o, an emperor.
    • 

  • -ET- Denotes diminution of degree (et-a, little, small),
(par. 277):
    -ET- Indicates a decrease in degree (et-a, little, small),
(par. 277):
    

    mont-o, a mountain, mont-et-o, a hill.
    mont-o, mountain, mont-et-o, hill.
    

    rid-i, to laugh, rid-et-i, to smile.
    rid-i, to laugh, rid-et-i, to smile.
    • 

  • -ID- Denotes the young of, offspring, descendant (id-o,
offspring), (par. 279):
    -ID- Indicates the young of, offspring, descendant (id-o, 
offspring), (par. 279):
    

    ŝaf-o, a sheep, ŝaf-id-o, a lamb.
    ŝaf-o, sheep, ŝaf-id-o, lamb.
    

    Izrael-o, Israel, Izrael-id-o, an Israelite.
    Israel, Israel, Israelite, an Israelite.
    • 

  • -IG- Denotes the causing, making, or rendering anything to be in
the state implied by the root (ig-i, to cause, to make), (par.
280):
    -IG- Indicates causing, making, or putting anything into the state suggested by the root (ig-i, to cause, to make), (par. 280):
    

    mort-i, to die, mort-ig-i, to kill.
    mort-i, to die, mort-ig-i, to kill.
    

    pur-a, clean, pur-ig-i, to clean, purify.
    pur-a, clean, pur-ig-i, clean, purify.
    • 


  • -IĜ- Denotes the action of becoming, turning to, and has sometimes
a reflexive force (iĝ-i, to become, to be made), (par. 280):
    -IĜ- Indicates the act of becoming, changing into, and sometimes has a reflexive quality (iĝ-i, to become, to be made), (par. 280):
    

    ruĝ-a, red, ruĝ-iĝ-i, to become red, to blush.
    red, to turn red, to blush.
    

    riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-iĝ-i, to become, or grow rich, or to
get rich.
    rich, to become, or grow rich, or to get rich.
    • 

  • -IL- Denotes the tool or instrument or means by which something is
done (il-o, a tool, means), (par. 281):
    -IL- Refers to the tool, instrument, or method used to accomplish something (il-o, a tool, means), (par. 281):
    

    tranĉ-i, to cut, tranĉ-il-o, a knife.
    tranĉ-i, to cut, tranĉ-il-o, a knife.
    

    pres-i, to print, pres-il-o, a printing press.
    pres-i, to print, pres-il-o, printing press.
    • 

  • -IN- Denotes the feminine gender (in-o, a female), (par. 282):
    -IN- Indicates the feminine gender (in-o, a female), (par. 282):
    

    frat-o, a brother, frat-in-o, a sister.
    bro, brother, sis, sister.
    

    leon-o, a lion, leon-in-o, a lioness.
    leon-o, male lion, leon-in-o, female lion.
    • 

  • -IND- Denotes worthiness, deserving of something, worthy of
(ind-o, worth, merit), (par. 275):
    -IND- Indicates value, deserving of something, worthy of  
(ind-o, worth, merit), (par. 275):
    

    laŭd-i, to praise, laŭd-ind-a, praiseworthy.
    laŭd-i, to praise, laŭd-ind-a, worthy of praise.
    

    estim-o, esteem, estim-ind-a, estimable, worthy of esteem.
    estim-o, esteem, estim-ind-a, estimable, worthy of esteem.
    • 

  • -ING- Denotes a thing used for holding only one object (ing-o,
a socket, or sheath), (par. 278):
    -ING- Refers to something designed to hold only one item (ing-o, a socket, or sheath), (par. 278):
    

    plum-o, a pen, plum-ing-o, a penholder.
    plum-o, a pen, plum-ing-o, a pen holder.
    

    kandel-o, a candle, kandel-ing-o, a candlestick.
    kandel-o, a candle, kandel-ing-o, a candlestick.
    • 

  • -ISM- Denotes a theory, system, doctrine, school of thought
(ism-o, an "ism"), (par. 293):
    -ISM- Refers to a theory, system, doctrine, or school of thought (ism-o, an "ism"), (par. 293):
    

    real-a, real, real-ism-o, realism.
    real-a, real, real-ism-o, realism.
    

    protestant-o, a protestant, protestant-ism-o, protestantism.
    protestant-o, a Protestant, protestant-ism-o, Protestantism.
    • 

  • -IST- Denotes a person occupied with the idea contained in the root
(par. 272):
    -IST- Refers to someone who is focused on the idea represented by the root (par. 272):
    

    drog-o, a drug, drog-ist-o, a druggist.
    drug, a drug, druggist, a pharmacist.
    

    ŝtel-i, to steal, ŝtel-ist-o, a thief.
    ŝtel-i, to steal, ŝtel-ist-o, thief.
    • 

  • -NJ- See ĈJ, page 29, and par. 274.
    -NJ- See ĈJ, p. 29, and para. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.
    • 


  • -OBL- Denotes a numeral multiple (par. 284):
    -OBL- Indicates a numerical multiple (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__):
    

    du, two, du-obl-a, double.
    you, two, du-obl-a, double.
    

    tri, three, tri-obl-a, triple.
    tri, three, tri-obl-a, triple.
    • 

  • -ON- Denotes a numeral fraction (par. 284):
    -ON- Indicates a decimal fraction (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__):
    

    kvar, four, kvar-on-o, a fourth.
    kvar, 4, kvar-on-o, one fourth.
    

    kvin, five, kvin-on-o, a fifth.
    kvin, 5, kvin-on-o, a fifth.
    • 

  • -OP- Denotes a numeral collective (op-a, collective), (par.
284):
    -OP- Indicates a number of items grouped together (op-a, group), (par. 284):
    

    du, two, du-op-e, by twos.
    du, two, du-op-e, in pairs.
    

    dek, ten, dek-op-e, by tens, ten together.
    deck, ten, deck-on-up, by tens, ten together.
    • 

  • -UJ- Denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears, a
quantity or more than one article (uj-o, a receptacle), (par.
278):
    -UJ- Indicates that which holds, creates, encloses, or carries a quantity or more than one item (uj-o, a container), (par. 278):
    

    ink-o, ink, ink-uj-o, an inkpot.
    ink-o, ink, ink-uj-o, inkpot.
    

    plum-o, a pen, plum-uj-o, a pen box (not a penholder).
    plum-o, a pen, plum-uj-o, a pen box (not a holder for the pen).
    

    turk-o, a Turk, Turk-uj-o, Turkey.
    Turk, Turkish person, Turkey, Turkey.
    • 

  • -UL- Denotes a person or being characterized by the idea implied in
the root (par. 272):
    -UL- Indicates a person or being defined by the concept suggested in the root (par. 272):
    

    riĉ-a, rich, riĉ-ul-o, a rich man.
    wealthy, rich, wealthy man, a rich man.
    

    avar-a, avaricious, avar-ul-o, a miser.
    avar-a, greedy, avar-ul-o, a miser.
    • 

  • -UM- Has no defined meaning. The meaning of a word with um is
suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which
it is joined. It is rarely used (par. 285):
    -UM- has no specific meaning. The meaning of a word with um is implied by the context and the significance of the root it’s attached to. It's seldom used (par. 285):
    

    kol-o, a neck, kol-um-o, a collar.
    neck, a neck, collar, a collar.
    

    plen-a, full, plen-um-i, to fulfil.
    plen-a, full, plen-um-i, to fulfill.
    

    man-o, a hand, man-um-o, a cuff.
    man-o, a hand, man-um-o, a cuff.







55. LIST OF PREFIXES (Prefiksoj).


    

  • BO- Denotes any relationship resulting from marriage (par. 286):
    BO- Refers to any relationship that comes from marriage (par. 286):
    

    patro, a father, bo-patro, a father-in-law.
    dad, a father, father-in-law, a father-in-law.
    

    filino, a daughter, bo-filino, a daughter-in-law.
    filino, daughter, bo-filino, daugher-in-law.
    • 

  • DIS- Denotes division, dissemination, separation, etc., (dis-e,
separately), (par. 287):
    DIS- Indicates division, distribution, separation, etc., (dis-e, separately), (par. 287):
    

    ĵeti, to throw, dis-ĵeti, to throw about, to scatter.
    ĵeti, to throw, dis-ĵeti, to throw around, to scatter.
    

    ŝiri, to tear, dis-ŝiri, to tear in pieces.
    ŝiri, to tear, dis-ŝiri, to rip apart.
    • 

  • EK- Denotes the beginning of an action, or its short duration (par.
288):
    EK- Indicates the start of an action or its brief duration (par. 288):
    

    kanti, to sing, ek-kanti, to begin to sing.
    kanti, to sing, ek-kanti, to start singing.
    

    brili, to shine, ek-brili, to flash.
    brili, to shine, ek-brili, to flash.
    • 

  • EKS- Denotes late, formerly, like the English ex-.
    EKS- Means late, previously, similar to the English ex-.
    

    kolonelo, colonel, eks-kolonelo, ex-colonel.
    colonel, colonel, ex-colonel, ex-colonel.
    

    edziĝo, a wedding, eks-edziĝo, a divorce.
    edziĝo, wedding, eks-edziĝo, divorce.
    • 

  • GE- Denotes persons of both sexes taken together (par. 286):
    GE- Refers to people of all genders combined (par. 286):
    

    patro, a father, ge-patroj, parents, or father and mother.
    dad, father, parents, mom and dad.
    

    mastro, a master, ge-mastroj, master and mistress.
    mastro, master, ge-mastroj, master and mistress.
    • 

  • MAL- Denotes the direct opposite of any idea (mal-e, on the
contrary), (par. 289):
    MAL- Indicates the direct opposite of any idea (mal-e, on the contrary), (par. 289):
    

    forta, strong, mal-forta, weak.
    forta, strong, mal-forta, weak.
    

    estimi, to esteem, mal-estimi, to despise.
    esteem, to regard highly, disesteem, to disrespect.
    • 

  • MIS- Denotes mis-, amiss, wrongly, erroneously.
    MIS- Indicates mis-, incorrect, wrong, false.
    • 


  • RE- Denotes, as in English, repetition, again, back (re-e,
again), (par. 290):
    RE- Indicates, like in English, repetition, again, back (re-e, again), (par. 290):
    

    iri, to go, re-iri, to go again.
    iri, to go, re-iri, to go again.
    

    diri, to say, re-diri, to repeat.
    say, to say, re-say, to repeat.
    • 



55 (a). PREPOSITIONS AND OTHER ROOTS USED AS PREFIXES.
55 (a). PREPOSITIONS AND OTHER ROOTS USED AS PREFIXES.


On reference to par. 254, it will be seen that prepositions are
frequently used as prefixes. A good many other particles also are
used in the same way, e.g.:—
On reference to par. 254, it will be seen that prepositions are often used as prefixes. Many other particles are also used in the same way, e.g.:—






ELISION (Elizio).




56. Elision is not common in Esperanto, except in poetry, where it
is used, when required, for the purpose of rhythm. Some prose writers
use it, but it is better to avoid its use.
56. Elision isn't common in Esperanto, except in poetry, where it's used as needed for rhythm. Some prose writers use it, but it's best to avoid using it.






57. The letter A in the article la may be elided when the article
is preceded by a preposition ending in a vowel, for then the L of
the article can be sounded with the preposition and the full
pronunciation given to the first letter of the following word, e.g.,
de l’ kreo de l’ mondo (for de la) = since the creation of the
world. (Pronounce de l’ as del).
57. The letter A in the article la can be dropped when the article comes after a preposition that ends in a vowel. In that case, the L of the article blends with the preposition, allowing the first letter of the next word to be pronounced fully. For example, de l’ kreo de l’ mondo (instead of de la) means since the creation of the world. (Pronounce de l’ as del).


In poetry the letter A of the article is occasionally elided before
a word beginning with a vowel.
In poetry, the letter A of the article is sometimes dropped before a word starting with a vowel.


The final O of the substantive may also be elided, e.g., kant’
(for kanto) = a song. The tonic accent (par. 17) remains on the
same syllable on which it would fall if no elision had taken place.
The final O of the noun can also be dropped, e.g., kant’ (for kanto) = a song. The stress (par. 17) stays on the same syllable where it would be if there was no elision.


Note that kant’ may not be used as an abbreviation of anything else
but kanto. Thus, it cannot represent kanton, kantoj, kante,
kantas, etc.
Note that kant’ can only be used as an abbreviation for kanto. Therefore, it cannot stand for kanton, kantoj, kante, kantas, etc.


The dropped letter is in all cases noted by an apostrophe.
The missing letter is always indicated by an apostrophe.



To the beautiful dream of humanity (from the for of the)

For eternal good, it will work (good for blessing).

Until the beautiful dream of humanity

Will be achieved for an everlasting blessing.



About the surprising times when thinking

Thinking of times to come.

I hope, I persist, and I have patience.

Hope, determination, and patience.







INTERROGATION (Demandado).




58. Questions are asked in two ways, viz.—either by the
interrogative adverb ĉu = whether, or by one of the
interrogative words kia = what kind of, kial = why, kiam =
when, kie = where, kiel = how, kies = whose, kio =
what, kiom = how much, or how many, kiu = who, which.
58. Questions are asked in two ways: either by using the interrogative adverb ĉu = whether, or by one of the interrogative words kia = what kind of, kial = why, kiam = when, kie = where, kiel = how, kies = whose, kio = what, kiom = how much or how many, kiu = who, which.


(a). Ĉu is used when none of the other words in a sentence are
used in an interrogative sense. It is, in fact, the general word for
interrogations answerable by "yes" or "no."
(a). Ĉu is used when none of the other words in a sentence are used in a questioning sense. It is, in fact, the general term for questions that can be answered with "yes" or "no."


Examples.—Ĉu vi komprenas? = Do you understand? Ĉu li legas? =
Does he read? Ĉu vi havas mian libron? = Have you my book? Ĉu vi
havas tion, kion mi bezonas? = Have you what (that which) I want?
Ĉu Johano iris lernejon? (or, al lernejo?) = Did John go (or,
has John gone) to school? Ĉu vi pruntos al mi krajonon? = Will you
lend me a pencil? Ĉu li estos foririnta, antaŭ ol vi alvenos? =
Will he have gone away before you (will) arrive? Ĉu vi estus tion
farinta, se mi estus tie? = Would you have done that if I had been
there?
Examples.—Do you understand? = Do you understand? Does he read? = Does he read? Do you have my book? = Do you have my book? Do you have what I need? = Do you have what I need? Did John go to school? (or, has he gone to school?) = Did John go to school? Will you lend me a pencil? = Will you lend me a pencil? Will he have left before you arrive? = Will he have left before you arrive? Would you have done that if I had been there? = Would you have done that if I had been there?


When the verb following ĉu is in the Imperative mood, it shows
the ellipsis of some other verb expressing "wish, desire, etc."
(see pars. 200, 237 (m)).
When the verb after ĉu is in the Imperative mood, it indicates the ellipsis of another verb that expresses "wish, desire, etc." (see pars. 200, 237 (m)).


Examples.—Ĉu mi iru kaj kunpremu la gorĝon de tiu ĉi hundo...?
(Zamenhof, "La Rabistoj") = Shall I go and squeeze the throat of this
dog...? Here the full phrase would be, Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru...?
= Do you wish me to go...? Ĉu mi aĉetu por vi libron? = Shall I
buy you a book? Ĉu ni luu fiakron? = Shall we take a cab?
Examples.—Should I go and squeeze the throat of this dog...?
(Zamenhof, "La Rabistoj") = Should I go and squeeze the throat of this
dog...? Here the full phrase would be, Do you want me to go...?
= Do you want me to go...? Should I buy you a book? = Should I
buy you a book? Should we take a cab? = Should we take a cab?


The verb is sometimes omitted when a question is preceded by an
assertion.
The verb is sometimes left out when a question comes after an assertion.



Examples.—Hodiaŭ estas merkredo, ĉu ne? (or, ĉu ne vere?) =
To-day is Wednesday, isn’t it? Ili diris al vi la veron, ĉu ne? =
They told you the truth, didn’t they? Ili ne diris al vi la veron,
ĉu? = They didn’t tell you the truth, did they?
Examples.—Today is Wednesday, right? (or, isn't that true?) = Today is Wednesday, isn’t it? They told you the truth, right? = They told you the truth, didn’t they? They didn’t tell you the truth, did they? = They didn’t tell you the truth, did they?


(b). The following examples show the use of the nine interrogatives
kia, kial, kiam, etc.
(b). The following examples demonstrate the use of the nine question words kia, kial, kiam, etc.


Examples.—Kian leteron vi skribis? = What kind of letter did you
write? Kial vi ne respondis? Why did you not answer? Kiam li
alvenos? = When will he come? Kie estas la poŝtoficejo? = Where
is the post-office? Kiel vi faris tion? = How did you do that?
Kies domo estas tiu? = Whose house is that? Kion vi konsilas al mi
fari? = What do you advise me to do? Kiom da ĉevaloj estas tie? =
How many horses are there? (at that place)? Kiom kostas tio? = How
much does that cost? Kiu estas en la ĝardeno? = Who is in the
garden? Kiun vi vidis en la preĝejo? = Whom did you see in the
church? Kiu estas tie? = Who is there?
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—What kind of letter did you write? = Kian leteron vi skribis? Why didn’t you answer? = Kial vi ne respondis? When will he come? = Kiam li alvenos? Where is the post office? = Kie estas la poŝtoficejo? How did you do that? = Kiel vi faris tion? Whose house is that? = Kies domo estas tiu? What do you advise me to do? = Kion vi konsilas al mi fari? How many horses are there? = Kiom da ĉevaloj estas tie? (at that place) How much does that cost? = Kiom kostas tio? Who is in the garden? = Kiu estas en la ĝardeno? Whom did you see in the church? = Kiun vi vidis en la preĝejo? Who is there? = Kiu estas tie?


(c). Of the above, those ending in a consonant are invariable.
Those ending in a vowel can take the accusative N, but kia and
kiu are the only words which take the plural J (par. 142).
(c). Among those mentioned, the ones that end in a consonant do not change. The ones that end in a vowel can take the accusative N, but kia and kiu are the only words that can take the plural J (par. 142).


Examples.—Kien vi iras? = Whither are you going? Kiajn
tranĉilojn vi bezonas? = What kind of knives do you need? Kiujn
librojn vi aĉetis? = Which books did you buy? Kiuj estas la tagoj
de la semajno? = Which are the days of the week?
Examples.—Where are you going? = Whither are you going? What kind of knives do you need? = Kiajn tranĉilojn vi bezonas? Which books did you buy? = Kiujn librojn vi aĉetis? Which are the days of the week? = Kiuj estas la tagoj de la semajno?


(d). From kiom the adjective kioma = how much, how many’th is
formed, and this also may be used as an interrogative.
(d). From kiom, the adjective kioma = how much, how many’th is formed, and it can also be used as a question.


Example.—Je kioma horo vi venos? = At what o’clock (hour) will you
come?
Example.—What time will you come? = At what o’clock (hour) will you come?


(See correlative words, pars. 147–157. For further examples see pars.
64, 170. For place of interrogative see par. 91.)

(See correlative words, pars. 147–157. For more examples see pars. 64, 170. For the location of interrogative see par. 91.)





NEGATION (Neado).





      59. Double negatives are hardly ever used in Esperanto,
      for, if employed, they would, as in English, have an affirmative
      meaning.
   
59. Double negatives are rarely used in Esperanto, because, if they are used, they would have a positive meaning, just like in English.



      (a). Ne = no, not, is the word in
      general use to imply negation. It immediately precedes the word or
      words it modifies.
   
(a). Ne = no, not, is the term commonly used to indicate negation. It directly comes before the word or words it modifies.



Examples.—Ĉu vi ne vidis
      lin? = Did you not see him? Mi devas ne iri = I
      must not go.[11] Mi
      ne devas iri = I am not obliged to go.[11] Ne mi, sed li, havas katon = It is
      not I, but he, who has a cat. Mi ne havas katon = I have
      not (got) a cat.
   
Examples.—Didn't you see him? = Did you not see him? I must not go = I must not go.[11] I am not required to go = I am not obliged to go.[11] It's not me, but him, who has a cat = It is not I, but he, who has a cat. I don't have a cat = I have not (got) a cat.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[11] This distinction, however, is
         not observed by all writers.
[11] However, not all writers recognize this distinction.





      (b). The nine correlative words, nenia,
      nenial, neniam, nenie, neniel,
      nenies, nenio, neniom, neniu, also
      imply negation.
   
(b). The nine related words, nenia, 
      nenial, neniam, nenie, neniel, 
      nenies, nenio, neniom, neniu, also 
      imply negation.



Examples.—Li havas nenian
      sperton = He has no kind of experience. Li ne havas ian
      sperton = He has not any kind of experience. Nenial li
      subite foriris de Londono = For no reason he suddenly left
      London. Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing. Mi ne trovis
      ion (ion, not nenion, here) = I did not find
      anything. (See correlative words, pars. 147–157).
   
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—He has no experience = He has no kind of experience. He doesn't have any experience = He has not any kind of experience. For no reason, he suddenly left London = For no reason he suddenly left London. I found nothing = I found nothing. I didn't find anything (anything, not nothing, here) = I did not find anything. (See correlative words, pars. 147–157).



      (c). Nek = nor and nek ... nek =
      neither ... nor have also a negative meaning.
   
(c). Nek = nor and nek ... nek = neither ... nor also have a negative meaning.



Examples.—Nek mi nek li estis
      tie = Neither I nor he was there. Mi vidis nek Johanon nek
      Georgon = I saw neither John nor George.
   
Examples.—Neither I nor he was there = Nek mi nek li estis tie. I saw neither John nor George = Mi vidis nek Johanon nek Georgon.



Nek is generally used in the second clause of a sentence,
      although the first is negative.
   
Nek is usually found in the second part of a sentence when the first part is negative.



Examples.—Mi ne scias la francan
      lingvon, nek la anglan, nek la turkan = I do not know the
      French language, or (nor) English, or (nor) Turkish. Nenio
      estas al mi pli kara, nek dolĉa, ol vi = Nothing is dearer to
      me or (nor)

      sweeter than you. Mi ne renkontis lin, nek lian fraton = I
      did not meet him or (nor) his brother.
   
Examples.—I don't know French, English, or Turkish = I do not know the French language, or (nor) English, or (nor) Turkish. Nothing is more precious or sweeter to me than you = Nothing is dearer to me or (nor) sweeter than you. I didn't meet him or his brother = I did not meet him or (nor) his brother.



      (d). Compound words with ne, sen, mal,
      have also a negative signification, and such words are often
      employed with a negative to express an affirmative assertion. (See
      par. 289.)
   
(d). Compound words with ne, sen, mal, also carry a negative meaning, and these words are often used alongside a negative to make an affirmative statement. (See par. 289.)



Examples.—La okazo ne estis
      neatendita = The event was not unexpected. Lia riĉeco ne
      estis senlima = His fortune was not unlimited. Li ne estis
      malhonesta = He was not dishonest.
   
Examples.—The event was not unexpected = La okazo ne estis neatendita. His fortune was not unlimited = Lia riĉeco ne estis senlima. He was not dishonest = Li ne estis malhonesta.






60. Double Negative.—Occasionally a double negative is used to
give strong force to a negation. Dr. Zamenhof, in his translation of
Hamlet, Act I., Scene 5, renders "Lay your hands again upon my sword:
swear by my sword, never to speak of this that you have heard" by
Metu viajn manojn denove sur la glavon, kaj ripetu, ke vi neniam al
neniu diros pri la apero de la nokto, lit. = Lay your hands again
upon the sword, and repeat, that you never, to no one, will speak of
the apparition of the night.
60. Double Negative.—Sometimes a double negative is used to add emphasis to a negation. Dr. Zamenhof, in his translation of Hamlet, Act I, Scene 5, translates "Lay your hands again upon my sword: swear by my sword, never to speak of this that you have heard" as Metu viajn manojn denove sur la glavon, kaj ripetu, ke vi neniam al neniu diros pri la apero de la nokto, lit. = Lay your hands again upon the sword, and repeat, that you will never, to no one, speak of the apparition of the night.


Some Esperantists do not consider this a double negative, but it
undoubtedly is, according to the literal English translation. Another
explanation of the passage is to supply mentally an omitted kaj
after the word neniam.
Some Esperantists don't see this as a double negative, but it definitely is, based on the literal English translation. Another way to explain the passage is to mentally insert an omitted and after the word never.






61. Of course, when two negatives refer to different verbs, expressed
or unexpressed, this is not a double negative.
61. Of course, when two negatives refer to different verbs, whether they are stated or implied, this isn’t considered a double negative.


Examples.—Mi ne volis, ne skribi al vi = I did not wish, not to
write to you. Ne nur ne malamiko, sed kunbatalanto li estis = (He
was) not only not an enemy, but he was a comrade in arms (fellow
combatant).
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—I didn't want to write to you = I did not wish, not to write to you. Not just an enemy, but a comrade in arms he was = (He was) not only not an enemy, but he was a comrade in arms (fellow combatant).






62. Two negatives may be used in such an expression as "could not
help," etc.
62. You can use two negatives in phrases like "could not help," etc.


Example.—Li ne povis ne kisi la malgrandulon = He could not help
kissing the little one. Lit.:—He could not not kiss the little one.

Example.—Li ne povis ne kisi la malgrandulon = He couldn’t resist kissing the little one. Lit.:—He couldn’t not kiss the little one.





QUESTIONS AND REPLIES (Demandoj kaj Respondoj).




63. Jes = yes is the word used to answer a question
affirmatively.
63. Jes = yes is the word used to affirmatively answer a question.


Examples.—Ĉu vi vidis mian patron? Jes! = Did you see my father?
Yes. Jes, with the conjunction ke, is also used for "it is so,"
as, mi vin certigas, ke jes = I assure you that it is so.
Examples.—Did you see my dad? Yes! = Did you see my father?  
Yes. Yes, with the conjunction that, is also used for "it is so,"  
as, I assure you that it is so.


Ne = no, not, is used in a similar way to answer a question
negatively.
Ne = no, not, is used similarly to respond to a question negatively.


Example.—Mi vin certigas, ke ne = I assure you that it is not so.
Example.—I assure you that it is not so.






64. To give force to affirmative or negative replies one can add to
ne or jes any suitable adverb, as certe = certainly, ja =
indeed, kompreneble = of course, etc., etc., or repeat the verb
of the interrogation without its complement, in the same way as in
English we often repeat the auxiliary of the verb.
64. To strengthen affirmative or negative answers, you can add any suitable adverb to ne or jes, like certe = certainly, ja = indeed, kompreneble = of course, etc., or you can repeat the verb from the question without its complement, just as we often repeat the auxiliary verb in English.


Examples.—Ĉu vi faris tion? = Did you do that? Jes! Jes! Mi
faris, or Ne! Ne! Mi ne faris = Yes, yes, I did, or No, no! I
did not. Ĉu vi finis vian laboron? = Have you finished your work?
Jes! mi finis, or Ne, mi ne (finis) = Yes, I have, or, No, I
have not. Ĉu vi mortigis tiun birdon? = Did you kill that bird?
Jes! Certe mi mortigis, or, Certe jes! or, Ne, kompreneble, mi
ne mortigis, or, Kompreneble ne! = Yes! Certainly I did, or, No!
Of course, I didn’t! Ĉu vi deziras kafon? = Do you want coffee?
Jes, mi deziras, or Ne, mi ne deziras; mi jam havas = Yes, I do,
or, No, I do not; I have (some) already.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Did you do that? = Did you do that? Yes! Yes! I did, or No! No! I didn't = Yes, yes, I did, or No, no! I did not. Have you finished your work? = Have you finished your work? Yes! I finished, or No, I haven't (finished) = Yes, I have, or, No, I have not. Did you kill that bird? = Did you kill that bird? Yes! I definitely did, or, Definitely yes! or, No, of course I didn't, or, Of course not! = Yes! Certainly I did, or, No! Of course, I didn’t! Do you want coffee? = Do you want coffee? Yes, I want, or No, I don’t want; I already have = Yes, I do, or, No, I do not; I have (some) already.


64 (a). When the verb is omitted in the reply, the case must be
used which would have been used had the verb been expressed.
64 (a). When the verb is left out in the response, the case must be used that would have been used if the verb had been stated.


Examples.—Kiom kostis la ĉapelo? Naŭ ŝilingojn (aŭ, ĝi kostis
naŭ ŝilingojn) = What did the hat cost? Nine shillings (or, it
cost nine shillings). Kien vi iras? En la ĝardenon (aŭ, mi iras en
la ĝardenon) = Where (whither) are you going? Into the garden
(or, I am going into the garden). Kiom pezas la kesto? Dek naŭ
funtojn = What does the chest weigh? Nineteen pounds; but, Kiom
estas la pezo de la kesto? Dek naŭ funtoj = what is the weight of
the chest? Nineteen pounds.

Got it! Please provide the phrases you'd like me to modernize.—How much did the hat cost? Nine shillings (or, it cost nine shillings) = What did the hat cost? Nine shillings (or, it cost nine shillings). Where are you going? Into the garden (or, I am going into the garden) = Where are you going? Into the garden (or, I am going into the garden). What does the chest weigh? Nineteen pounds = What does the chest weigh? Nineteen pounds; but, What is the weight of the chest? Nineteen pounds = What is the weight of the chest? Nineteen pounds.





THE ACCUSATIVE (La Akuzativo).




65. Accusative: when used.—The accusative is used in Esperanto:—
65. Accusative: when to use it.—The accusative is used in Esperanto:—


(1). To show the direct object of a verb.
(1). To indicate the direct object of a verb.


(2). To show motion towards something (Rule 13, par. 94).
(2). To indicate movement towards something (Rule 13, par. 94).


(3). To show a preposition has been omitted (Rules 8 and 14, par.
94).
(3). To indicate that a preposition is missing (Rules 8 and 14, par. 94).


The following are examples of these three uses:—
The following are examples of these three uses:—






66 (1). To show the direct object of a verb.
66 (1). To indicate the direct object of a verb.


(a). After transitive verbs the accusative is used to show the
direct object.
(a). After transitive verbs the accusative case is used to indicate the direct object.


Examples.—Johano vidas la knabon = John sees the boy. Georgo
aĉetis bonan ĉevalon = George bought a good horse. Now in either
of these sentences the order of the words can be changed without
altering the meaning. La knabon vidas Johano would still mean "John
sees the boy," because Johano, being in the nominative, is clearly
the subject, and knabon, being in the accusative, is clearly the
object. But if we inverted the words in English, the sense would be
entirely changed (see order of words, pars. 73–93).
Examples.—John sees the boy = John sees the boy. George bought a good horse = George bought a good horse. In either of these sentences, the word order can be changed without changing the meaning. The boy sees John would still mean "John sees the boy," because John, being in the nominative, is clearly the subject, and the boy, being in the accusative, is clearly the object. But if we flipped the words in English, the meaning would be completely different (see order of words, pars. 73–93).


(b). After participles.—The accusative is also used after active
participles (adjectival or adverbial) to denote the object.
(b). After participles.—The accusative is also used after active participles (adjectival or adverbial) to indicate the object.


Examples.—Johano estis rigardanta la knabon, kiam mi lin vidis =
John was looking at the boy, when I saw him. Johano, vidante la
knabon, donas al li pomon = John, seeing the boy, gives him an
apple. Georgo estis aĉetinta ĉevalon = George had bought a horse.
Georgo, aĉetinte ĉevalon, donis ĝin al sia frato = George,
having bought (or, after buying) a horse, gave it to his brother
(par. 212 (d)).
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—John was looking at the boy when I saw him = John was looking at the boy when I saw him. John, seeing the boy, gives him an apple = John, seeing the boy, gives him an apple. George had bought a horse = George had bought a horse. George, having bought (or, after buying) a horse, gave it to his brother = George, having bought (or, after buying) a horse, gave it to his brother (par. 212 (d)).


(c). When a verb is omitted.—The accusative is also used in
exclamations and in expressions in



which some verb expressing "wish"
or "desire" is understood (see par. 64 (a)).
(c). When a verb is left out.—The accusative is also used in exclamations and in phrases where a verb indicating "wish" or "desire" is implied (see par. 64 (a)).


Examples.—Peston al la tranĉilo: Mi tranĉis al mi la fingron! =
Plague on the knife! I have cut my finger! Bonan tagon, Sinjoro =
Good day, sir. Saluton al vi, sinjorino = (lit.) Salutation to you,
madam. In reply to a question the accusative is used whenever the
verb in the reply, which is omitted, governs the accusative,
as:—Kiom kostas tiu ĉi krajono? (Ĝi kostas) du pencojn = How
much does this pencil cost? (It costs) twopence. Kiom estas la kosto
de tiu ĉi krajono? (Ĝi estas) du pencoj = What is the price of
this pencil? (It is) twopence.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Peston al la tranĉilo: Mi tranĉis al mi la fingron! = Damn the knife! I’ve cut my finger! Bonan tagon, Sinjoro = Good day, sir. Saluton al vi, sinjorino = (lit.) Greeting to you, madam. In reply to a question, the accusative is used whenever the verb in the reply, which is omitted, governs the accusative, as:—Kiom kostas tiu ĉi krajono? (Ĝi kostas) du pencojn = How much does this pencil cost? (It costs) twopence. Kiom estas la kosto de tiu ĉi krajono? (Ĝi estas) du pencoj = What is the price of this pencil? (It is) twopence.






67 (2). To show motion towards something.
67 (2). To indicate movement towards something.


(a). Accusative of direction.—To show direction towards which
movement (physical or otherwise) is made the accusative is used, and
this is generally called "the accusative of direction." It will be
observed, however, that we can also use a preposition to show the
motion, and, if such preposition in itself shows movement, its
complement must be in the nominative, since all prepositions govern
that case; but if the preposition does not in itself denote movement,
then its complement must be in the accusative.
(a). Accusative of direction.—To indicate the direction in which movement (physical or otherwise) occurs, the accusative case is used, commonly referred to as "the accusative of direction." However, it's important to note that we can also use a preposition to express motion, and if that preposition itself implies movement, its complement must be in the nominative case since all prepositions govern that case; but if the preposition does not imply movement, then its complement must be in the accusative case.


Examples.—Mi iras Romon (aŭ, al Romo) = I am going to Rome. Li
kuris en la ĝardenon = He ran into the garden. The preposition
en does not show movement, therefore ĝardenon is in the
accusative, but Li kuris en la ĝardeno = He ran in the garden.
This means he was already in the garden, and was running in it. Sur
la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn = On the Danish throne I have
rights.
Examples.—I'm going to Rome = I am going to Rome. He ran into the garden = He ran into the garden. The preposition into does not show movement, therefore garden is in the accusative, but He ran in the garden = He ran in the garden. This means he was already in the garden and was running in it. On the Danish throne I have rights = On the Danish throne I have rights.


(b). Adverbs also take the accusative of direction.
(b). Adverbs can also show the direction of the action.


Examples.—Kien vi iras? Mi iras nenien hodiaŭ = Where (whither)
are you going? I am going nowhere to-day. Ĝi falis teren (or, sur
la teron) = It fell to the ground (or, on to the ground; lit.,
earthwards). Li iris hejmen kaj restis hejme = He went home and
remained at home.
Sure, I can help with that. Please provide the text you want me to modernize.—Where are you going? I'm going nowhere today. It fell to the ground (or, onto the ground) = It fell to the ground (or, onto the ground; lit., earthwards). He went home and stayed home = He went home and remained at home.






68. (3). To show that a preposition has been omitted.
68. (3). To indicate that a preposition is missing.


As stated in Rule 8, par. 94, every preposition in Esperanto governs
the nominative case.
As stated in Rule 8, par. 94, every preposition in Esperanto controls the nominative case.


By Rule 14 we are told that every preposition has a defined and
constant meaning, but that if we must use some preposition, and the
direct sense does not show what special preposition we are to take,
we can then either use the indefinite preposition je, or the
accusative without a preposition. The following are examples under
this head in which the accusative may be used:—
By Rule 14, we're told that every preposition has a specific and consistent meaning. However, if we must use a preposition, and the direct sense doesn't indicate which specific preposition to use, we can then either use the indefinite preposition je or the accusative without a preposition. Here are examples of situations where the accusative may be used:—


(a). After doubtful verbs.—From the foregoing remarks it follows
that if we do not know whether a verb governs the accusative or not,
we can always use the accusative, if no ambiguity is occasioned
thereby. Otherwise some preposition should be employed instead.
(a). After doubtful verbs.—Based on the previous comments, if we're unsure whether a verb takes the accusative case, we can always use the accusative as long as it doesn't create any confusion. If it does, we should use a preposition instead.


For instance, we can say:—Obeu vian patron, or, Obeu je via
patro, or, Obeu al via patro = Obey your father. Ŝi helpis al
sia frato, or, Ŝi helpis sian fraton = She helped her brother.
Li pardonis sian filon, or, Li pardonis al sia filo = He forgave
his son. But in phrases where doubt as to meaning may arise we must
always use a preposition, as:—Li pardonis al sia filo lian kulpon
= He forgave his son his fault. Not Li pardonis sian filon lian
kulpon, for the two accusatives here would create confusion. Li
legis tion en la dua de Marto, or, Li legis pri tio la duan de
Marto = He read that on the 2nd of March.
For example, we can say:—Obeu vian patron, or, Obeu je via patro, or, Obeu al via patro = Obey your father. Ŝi helpis al sia frato, or, Ŝi helpis sian fraton = She helped her brother. Li pardonis sian filon, or, Li pardonis al sia filo = He forgave his son. But in phrases where there might be confusion about the meaning, we must always use a preposition, as in:—Li pardonis al sia filo lian kulpon = He forgave his son his fault. Not Li pardonis sian filon lian kulpon, because the two accusatives here would create confusion. Li legis tion en la dua de Marto, or, Li legis pri tio la duan de Marto = He read that on the 2nd of March.


(b). Duration or any point of time.
Duration or any specific time.


Examples.—Mi restis tie kvar semajnojn (or, dum or tra, kvar
semajnoj) = I remained there (during) four weeks. La proksiman
lundon (or, en la proksima lundo) mi veturos Londonon (or, al
Londono) = Next Monday I shall go to London. Printempon (or, en
printempo) floroj aperas = In spring flowers appear. Li venos
dimanĉon (or, en dimanĉo) = He will come on a Sunday. Similarly
the accusative may be used for dates, as:—Washington (pronounced
Ŭaŝington) estis naskita la dudek-duan (or, en la dudek-dua)
de Februaro = Washington was born on the 22nd of



February. La 23an Marton, 1906a, or Je la 23a de Marto, 1906 = 23rd of March, 1906.
Examples.—I stayed there for four weeks (or, during or through, four weeks) = I remained there (during) four weeks. Next Monday (or, on the upcoming Monday) I'll go to London (or, to London) = Next Monday I shall go to London. In spring (or, during spring) flowers bloom = In spring flowers appear. He will come on Sunday (or, on a Sunday) = He will come on a Sunday. Similarly, the accusative can be used for dates, such as:—Washington (pronounced Ŭaŝington) was born on the 22nd (or, on the 22nd) of February = Washington was born on the 22nd of February. The 23rd of March, 1906, or On the 23rd of March, 1906 = 23rd of March, 1906.


(c). Price, weight, measure.
(c). Cost, weight, size.


Examples.—La libroj kostis dek ŝilingojn (or, po dek ŝilingoj)
por dekduo = The books cost ten shillings (or, at the rate of ten
shillings) a dozen. La ĉambro estas alta dek du futojn (or, je
dek du futoj) = The room is twelve feet high. La kesto pezas tridek
funtojn (or, je tridek funtoj) = The chest weighs thirty pounds.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like to modernize.—The books cost ten shillings (or, at the rate of ten shillings) a dozen = The books cost ten shillings each (or, at the rate of ten shillings) for a dozen. The room is twelve feet high (or, at twelve feet) = The room is twelve feet high. The chest weighs thirty pounds (or, at thirty pounds) = The chest weighs thirty pounds.






69. General Remarks on the Accusative.
69. General Notes on the Accusative.


From the foregoing examples we see the important part the accusative
N plays in the construction of Esperanto, the clearness it gives to
the meaning of a sentence, and the advantage it affords in permitting
words to be placed in almost any order, The following examples will
further illustrate this.
From the examples above, we see how crucial the accusative N is in constructing Esperanto, the clarity it provides to the meaning of a sentence, and the benefit it offers by allowing words to be arranged in almost any order. The following examples will further illustrate this.


(a). Qualifying and Predicative Adjectives.—An adjective is
termed "qualifying" when its noun or pronoun actually possesses the
quality which the adjective denotes; and the adjective then agrees
with the noun or pronoun both in case and number. But a "predicative"
adjective, although it agrees in number, is always in the nominative
(pars. 36, 108).
(a). Qualifying and Predicative Adjectives.—An adjective is called "qualifying" when the noun or pronoun it describes actually has the quality the adjective represents; and in this case, the adjective agrees with the noun or pronoun in both case and number. However, a "predicative" adjective, while it agrees in number, is always in the nominative case (pars. 36, 108).


Examples.—Mi trovis la belajn rozojn (or, rozojn belajn) = I found
the beautiful roses. Mi trovis la rozojn belaj = I found the roses
beautiful. In the first example the assertion is that beautiful
roses were found; but in the second you assert only that you
found, or discovered, that they were beautiful; they might, in
someone else’s opinion, have been the contrary.
Understood.—I found the beautiful roses (or, beautiful roses) = I found the beautiful roses. I found the roses beautiful = I found the roses beautiful. In the first example, the claim is that beautiful roses were found; in the second, you simply state that you found out they were beautiful; someone else might think they were not.


(b). Qualifying Adverbs are invariable.
Qualifying adverbs don't change.


Examples.—Li skribis al mi tute malveran raporton pri la afero =
He wrote me an entirely false statement of the matter. Mi pensis, ke
ŝi estas treege bela = I thought (that) she was (is) extremely
beautiful.
Examples.—He wrote me an entirely false statement about the matter = He wrote me an entirely false statement of the matter. I thought (that) she was (is) extremely beautiful = I thought (that) she was (is) extremely beautiful.


(c). Nouns and Pronouns in apposition have like cases and
numbers.
(c). Nouns and Pronouns in apposition have the same case and number.


Examples.—Vi serĉas la princon, Hamleton = You seek the Prince,
Hamlet. La diablo lin prenu, la sentaŭgulon = The devil take him,
the wretch!
Examples.—You’re looking for the prince, Hamlet = You seek the Prince,
Hamlet. May the devil take him, the miserable one = The devil take him,
the wretch!


N.B.—Note the difference in case of two nouns in the following
sentences:—Kuracisto havis du infanojn, filon kaj filinon; li nomis
sian filon Johano, kaj sian filinon Mario. Kiam li parolis pri ili
kun mi, li ĉiam nomis sian filon Johanon kun voĉo de amo, sed sian
filinon Marion antipatie = A doctor had two children, a son and a
daughter; he named his son, John, and his daughter, Mary. When he
spoke to me about them, he always named his son, John, in voice of
affection, but his daughter, Mary, with antipathy.
N.B.—Note the difference in case of two nouns in the following sentences:—A doctor had two children, a son and a daughter; he named his son John and his daughter Mary. When he talked to me about them, he always mentioned his son John with affection, but his daughter Mary with disdain.


N.B.—In this example, when the nouns (Johano and Mario) are in
the nominative, they express what is predicated or said about the
objects (filon and filinon). But when they agree in case with the
objects (filon and filinon), this shows they are nouns in
apposition (see pars. 108, 109).
N.B.—In this example, when the nouns (Johano and Mario) are in the nominative case, they indicate what is predicated or stated about the objects (filon and filinon). However, when they match in case with the objects (filon and filinon), this indicates they are nouns in apposition (see pars. 108, 109).


(d). Proper names.—In the case of non-Esperanto names it is
possible to indicate the accusative, where desired, by the addition
of N after a vowel, or ON after a consonant. This is the plan
adopted by Zamenhof in La Malnova Testamento. Or the name may be
regarded as a foreign word and left unchanged for the accusative.
(d). Proper names.—For names that aren't in Esperanto, you can show the accusative form by adding N after a vowel or ON after a consonant, if you want to. This is the method Zamenhof used in La Malnova Testamento. Alternatively, you can treat the name as a foreign word and keep it the same in the accusative.


Examples.—David, Davidon. Noa, Noan. Sara, Saran.
Robinson, Robinsonon. Smith, Smithon (or simply Smith). Of
course, proper names which have been converted by use into Esperanto
are treated like other nouns in O, as, Londono, Londonon;
Berlino, Berlinon. Jones iris Berlinon, kaj renkontis Arturon
Brown = Jones went to Berlin and met Arthur Brown.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like modernized.—David, Davidon. Noa, Noan. Sara, Saran.
Robinson, Robinsonon. Smith, Smithon (or just Smith). Of
course, proper names that have been adapted into Esperanto are treated like other nouns in O, for example, Londono, Londonon;
Berlino, Berlinon. Jones iris Berlinon, kaj renkontis Arturon
Brown = Jones went to Berlin and met Arthur Brown.





CAPITAL LETTERS (Majuskloj).




70. Capital Letters (Majuskloj) may be used as they are in English,
but as their use varies in different languages, it is as well to
follow the majority of Esperanto writers. We, therefore, advise the
student to—
70. Capital Letters (Majuskloj) can be used the same way as in English, but since their use varies across different languages, it's a good idea to follow what most Esperanto writers do. We, therefore, recommend that the student to—


Use capital letters, as in English, except:—
Use capital letters, just like in English, except:—


(a). For words derived from the names of places, as:—La angla
nacio = The English nation. Li estas franco kaj loĝas en
Francujo = He is a Frenchman and lives in France. Sur la danan
tronon mi havas rajtojn = On the Danish throne I have rights.
(a). For words that come from place names, like:—The English nation = La angla nacio. He is a Frenchman and lives in France = Li estas franco kaj loĝas en Francujo. On the Danish throne I have rights = Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn.


(b). For the names of the days of the week, as:—Mi alvenos lundon
= I shall arrive on a Monday.[12]
(b). For the names of the days of the week, like:—I will arrive on Monday  
= I shall arrive on a Monday.[12]


(c). For the pronoun "I" = mi.
(c). For the pronoun "I" = mi.


In the Fundamento, Zamenhof used capital letters to begin the names
of months. In his mature style he also used capitals for nouns and
adjectives of nationality, e.g. Angla, Anglo, Dana, Franco.
In the Fundamento, Zamenhof capitalized the names of months. In his later writing style, he also capitalized nouns and adjectives of nationality, like Angla, Anglo, Dana, Franco.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[12] Note that lundon means "on
      a (or, some) Monday." If we wish to say "on Monday,"
      meaning "next Monday," the full translation would be Mi
      alvenos la proksiman lundon = I shall arrive on (the next)
      Monday (see par. 68 (b)). Mi venas lunde = I come on
      Mondays.
[12] Note that lundon means "on a (or, some) Monday." If we want to say "on Monday," referring to "next Monday," the full translation would be Mi alvenos la proksiman lundon = I will arrive on (the next) Monday (see par. 68 (b)). Mi venas lunde = I come on Mondays.





PUNCTUATION (Interpunkcio).




71. Punctuation is only necessary to make clear the sense we wish
to convey in writing. Happily it is not so important in Esperanto as
in English, where a simple comma may make a great difference in the
meaning of a sentence. Hence the verbosity of law documents in which
stops are not used.
71. Punctuation is only needed to clarify the message we want to express in writing. Fortunately, it's not as crucial in Esperanto as it is in English, where a simple comma can significantly change the meaning of a sentence. This is why legal documents tend to be so wordy since they often do not use pauses.


Every writer is free to use in Esperanto his own national or
individual method of punctuation. Nevertheless, Zamenhof and the best
writers follow a definite international usage, and the student is
strongly advised to study and imitate their writings in this respect.
Every writer is free to use their own national or personal style of punctuation in Esperanto. However, Zamenhof and the best writers adhere to a specific international standard, and students are strongly encouraged to study and emulate their work in this regard.


It is the custom, for instance, to separate every clause in a
sentence by a punctuation mark. Accordingly, words like ke, por
ke, ĉu, kiu, when they introduce a secondary sentence within
the main sentence, are usually preceded by a comma. This aids the
reader, and helps in the formation of a uniform international style.
It’s common, for example, to separate each clause in a sentence with a punctuation mark. Therefore, words like ke, por ke, ĉu, and kiu, when they start a secondary sentence within the main sentence, are typically followed by a comma. This makes it easier for the reader and supports a consistent international style.


When two verbs joined by kaj have the same subject, no comma is
needed; but a comma is used if the subjects are different. Li staras
kaj parolas (one subject). Li staras, kaj mi parolas al li (two
subjects).
When two verbs connected by kaj share the same subject, you don't need a comma; however, a comma is required if the subjects are different. Li staras kaj parolas (one subject). Li staras, kaj mi parolas al li (two subjects).


Use a comma after ho when it is part of an exclamation, but not in
naming the person spoken to. Ho Dio! Ho, tute ne!
Use a comma after ho when it’s part of an exclamation, but don't use it when you're naming the person you're speaking to. Ho Dio! Ho, tute ne!


With abbreviations like S-ro, S-ino, D-ro, it is usual to
insert a hyphen, but no following stop, thus: F-ino Jones.
With abbreviations like S-ro, S-ino, and D-ro, it's common to include a hyphen but no period after, like this: F-ino Jones.






72. The following is what Dr. Zamenhof has written on the subject in
the "Esperantisto." We



give it in Esperanto, so that the student can
see the punctuation for himself:—
72. Here’s what Dr. Zamenhof wrote about the topic in the "Esperantisto." We



present it in Esperanto, so the student can see the punctuation for themselves:—


La reguloj pri la uzado de la interpunkcioj estas en nia lingvo
pli-malpli tiaj samaj, kiel en ĉiuj aliaj lingvoj; sekve ĉiu povas
uzadi en Esperanto la interpunkciojn tiel, kiel li uzas ilin en sia
nacia lingvo. Estas vere, ke en diversaj detaloj la uzado de la
interpunkcioj estas malegala en diversaj lingvoj; sed ĉar la objekto
ne estas tre grava, tial ni pensas, ke ne venis ankoraŭ la tempo por
difini en nia lingvo severajn regulojn por tiuj ĉi detaloj. En tiuj
ĉi dubaj detaloj ĉiu povas uzi en Esperanto la interpunkciojn tiel,
kiel li uzas ilin en sia nacia lingvo, kaj nur la uzo iom post iom
ellaboros por tiuj ĉi negravaj detaloj difinitajn regulojn.
The rules for using punctuation in our language are similar to those in other languages, so everyone can use punctuation in Esperanto just like they do in their native language. It's true that punctuation varies in different languages in specific ways, but since this isn't very important, we believe it's not the right time to establish strict rules for these specifics in our language. In these unclear areas, everyone can use punctuation in Esperanto as they do in their native language, and only through consistent use will clear rules develop for these minor details.


Translation.—The rules regarding the use of stops are in our
language more or less the same as in all other languages, therefore
everyone can continue using in Esperanto stops in such a manner as he
uses them in his national language. It is true that in several
details the use of stops is different in various languages, but since
the matter is not very important, we think the time has not yet come
to lay down in our language strict rules for these details. In these
doubtful details everyone can use in Esperanto the stops he uses in
his national language, and only custom, little by little, will work
out for these unimportant details definite rules.

Translation.—The rules for using punctuation are pretty much the same in our language as in other languages, so everyone can keep using punctuation in Esperanto the same way they do in their native language. It's true that there are some differences in punctuation use among various languages, but since this isn't a major issue, we feel it's not the right time to set strict rules for these specifics in our language. In these uncertain areas, everyone can use the punctuation they typically use in their native language, and only over time will common usage establish clear rules for these minor details.





ORDER OF WORDS. (Ordigo de Vortoj).


The hints in this chapter should be considered not as hard and fast
rules to be learned by heart, but simply as an endeavour to state the
usual practice of good writers. The best guide for the student is the
study of the best authors, coupled with obedience to his own common
sense and feeling for beauty of style and clarity of expression. (See
par. 93.)
The suggestions in this chapter shouldn't be seen as strict rules to memorize but rather as an effort to explain the common habits of skilled writers. The best way for students to learn is by studying great authors while also trusting their own judgment and sense of style and clarity. (See par. 93.)




73. Since Esperanto has eliminated the defects of other languages,
and embraced only the good points of each, its flexibility as regards
the order of words in a sentence is great. This is principally owing
to the fact that the accusative N clearly distinguishes the object
from the subject, to the agreement in case and number of the
adjective with the noun it qualifies, and to the fact that
prepositions and conjunctions do not interfere with the proper
functions of other words. In English the accusative case is
distinguished only in the pronouns he (him), she (her), etc.
It is true that English has a possessive case, which in Esperanto is
applied only to the correlative group of words ending in -ES, viz.,
ies, kies, etc. (see pars. 106 (b), 154); but even this
doubtful advantage is lessened by the fact that the apostrophe S in
English is useless in speech in the plural when the word ends in
S. For instance, when one says, "That is my brothers’ house,"
does one mean it belongs to one brother or more? Certainly, as
written, with the apostrophe after the S, the meaning is two or
more, but, as spoken, one would naturally suppose it belonged to
one brother only. So, to be clear, we should have to fall back on the
Esperanto mode of expression, and say, That is the house of my
brothers = Tio estas



la domo de miaj fratoj; even then
Esperanto is clearer than English, for the pronoun (miaj) is a
plural form, whereas in English my is the same for both numbers.
73. Since Esperanto has removed the flaws of other languages and only taken the best features from each, it offers a lot of flexibility regarding the order of words in a sentence. This is mainly due to the fact that the accusative N clearly separates the object from the subject, the agreement in case and number of the adjective with the noun it describes, and the fact that prepositions and conjunctions do not interfere with the functions of other words. In English, the accusative case is only distinguished in pronouns like he (him), she (her), etc. It's true that English has a possessive case, which in Esperanto is only used with the correlative group of words ending in -ES, like ies, kies, etc. (see pars. 106 (b), 154); but even this questionable benefit is diminished by the fact that the apostrophe S in English is unnecessary in speech when the word ends in S. For example, when someone says, "That is my brothers’ house," does it belong to one brother or more? Sure, as written, with the apostrophe after the S, it indicates more than one, but, as spoken, it would naturally seem like it belongs to just one brother. So, to be clear, we would have to go back to the Esperanto way of saying it and say, That is the house of my brothers = Tio estas



la domo de miaj fratoj; even then, Esperanto is clearer than English, because the pronoun (miaj) is in the plural form, while in English, my is the same for both singular and plural.






74. Owing to the above advantages, words may be arranged in almost
any order in Esperanto, and yet be intelligible; but of course it is
advisable that they should follow one another in the natural sequence
of our thoughts. The first point is, that the meaning of a sentence
should be absolutely clear, and the second, that the sounds should be
as harmonious as they can be, combined with clearness of expression.
The student is advised to read the "Fundamenta Krestomatio," by Dr.
Zamenhof, which will familiarize him with the construction of the
language, and he will then rapidly acquire a knowledge as to the best
order for words.
74. Because of the above advantages, words can be arranged in almost any order in Esperanto and still make sense; however, it’s best for them to follow the natural flow of our thoughts. The first point is that the meaning of a sentence should be completely clear, and the second is that the sounds should be as harmonious as possible, combined with clarity of expression. Students are encouraged to read the "Fundamenta Krestomatio" by Dr. Zamenhof, which will help them understand how the language is constructed, and they will quickly learn the best order for words.






75. Place of the subject and object.—The subject is usually placed
before and the object after the verb.
75. Place of the subject and object.—The subject typically comes before the verb, and the object follows it.


Examples.—Mia fratino aĉetis libron = My sister bought a book.
Rikardo manĝas kukon = Richard is eating a cake. Kukon manĝas
Rikardo means exactly the same, and would he quite intelligible, but
the mind would not grasp the meaning so rapidly, and it would be
absurd, without a reason, to place words in such an unnatural order.
Examples.—My sister bought a book = Mia fratino aĉetis libron. Richard is eating a cake = Rikardo manĝas kukon. Kukon manĝas Rikardo means exactly the same and would be quite understandable, but it would take longer for the mind to grasp the meaning, and it would be unreasonable, without a good reason, to arrange the words in such an unnatural order.






76. Position for emphasis.—Words are often placed out of the usual
order, as they are in English, to give emphasis, or for the sake of
contrast.
76. Position for emphasis.—Words are often arranged in an unusual order, as they are in English, to create emphasis or for the sake of contrast.


Examples.—Lin mi renkontis, ne ŝin = Him I met, not her. Belon
mi trovis ĉie, bonon nenie = Beauty I found everywhere, good
nowhere.
Examples.—I met him, not her = Him I met, not her. I found beauty everywhere, goodness nowhere = Beauty I found everywhere, good nowhere.






77. Place of the predicate.—The predicate, or what is said about
the subject, is usually placed after the verb.
77. Place of the predicate.—The predicate, or what is stated about the subject, is typically positioned after the verb.


Examples.—Li estos kontenta (or Li kontentiĝos) se vi donos al
li ŝilingon = He will be satisfied if you (will) give



him a shilling. Ŝi fariĝus pli sana, se la vetero estus pli
varma, or Ŝi pli saniĝus, se la vetero pli varmiĝus = She would
get better if the weather became warmer. But after the word kiel it
is preferable to put the predicate before the verb, as:—Kiel
malsana li ŝajnas! = How ill he seems! Kiel li ŝajnas malsana
would be quite possible and correct, but Esperanto inclines to follow
the English order of words here, as also in many other cases where in
other languages the construction is quite different.
Examples.—He will be satisfied if you give him a shilling = He will be satisfied if you give him a shilling. She would get better if the weather became warmer = She would get better if the weather became warmer. But after the word kiel, it's better to place the predicate before the verb, as:—How ill he seems! How he seems ill would be possible and correct, but Esperanto tends to follow the English word order here, as well as in many other cases where other languages have a different construction.






78. Place of the direct complement.—We have stated that the object
is placed usually after the verb, but it may equally correctly
precede it.
78. Place of the direct complement.—We mentioned that the object typically comes after the verb, but it can also correctly appear before it.


Examples.—Mi lin malamas, or, Mi malamas lin = I detest him. If,
however, the object be followed by an explanatory phrase, it is
better to place it after the verb, as:—Mi vidis lin kuŝantan sur
la lito = I saw him lying on the bed. Mi renkontis ŝin, ĝuste
kiam ŝi estis eliranta = I met her just as she was going out (see
par. 29).
I'm ready for the text. Please provide the phrases you'd like me to modernize.—I dislike him, or, I hate him = I detest him. If, however, the object is followed by an explanatory phrase, it's better to place it after the verb, as:—I saw him lying on the bed = I saw him lying on the bed. I met her just as she was leaving = I met her just as she was going out (see par. 29).






79. Place of the indirect complement.—The complement is said to be
indirect when it is governed by a preposition (see Syntax, par. 31).
It is usually placed after the verb.
79. Place of the indirect complement.—The complement is called indirect when it is controlled by a preposition (see Syntax, par. 31). It’s typically located after the verb.


Examples.—Zorgu pri tio = Take care of (about) that. Alkonduku
lin al mi = Bring him to me. La domo estas konstruata de mia patro
= The house is being built by my father. Mi ĝin donis (or, donis
ĝin) al li por lia nepino = I gave it to him for his
granddaughter. Of course, we can place it before the verb if we wish,
just as we can in English, and as we probably should in the following
phrase:—El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke.... = From the said rule,
it follows that....
Sure! Just provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Zorgu pri tio = Take care of that. Alkonduku lin al mi = Bring him to me. La domo estas konstruata de mia patro = The house is being built by my father. Mi ĝin donis (or, donis ĝin) al li por lia nepino = I gave it to him for his granddaughter. Of course, we can place it before the verb if we want to, just like we can in English, and as we probably should in the following phrase:—El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke.... = From the said rule, it follows that....






80. Place of circumstantial complements (see Syntax, par.
32).—These complements, which mark the time, place, manner, cause,
etc., of an action, are usually placed first or last in a sentence.
80. Placement of circumstantial complements (see Syntax, par. 32).—These complements, which indicate the time, place, manner, cause, etc., of an action, are typically positioned at the beginning or end of a sentence.


Examples.—En printempo floroj aperas = In spring flowers appear.
Nur kelke da knaboj ludadis sur la kampo = Only a few boys were
playing in the field; or, Sur la kampo ludadis nur kelke da knaboj.
In a sentence like the following the complement might be placed last,
as:—Mi



kriegis pro la dolorego = I howled with the intense pain. But in
one like the following, where there are two or more circumstantial
complements, they naturally should come first in the sentence,
as:—Kun la haroj malordigitaj, kaj la okuloj eksaltantaj el la kapo
de (or, pro) teruro, ŝi kuregis laŭ la strato = With
dishevelled hair, and eyes starting out of her (the) head with
terror, she rushed down the street.
No changes needed.—In spring, flowers appear = In spring, flowers bloom. Only a few boys were playing in the field = Just a few boys were playing in the field; or, Only a few boys were playing in the field. In a sentence like the following, the complement might be placed last, as:—I howled with the intense pain = I cried out because of the intense pain. But in one like the following, where there are two or more circumstantial complements, they naturally should come first in the sentence, as:—With disheveled hair, and eyes popping out of her head with terror, she rushed down the street = With messy hair and eyes bulging in fear, she ran down the street.






81. The complements of nouns, adjectives, or participial
adjectives, usually follow them.
81. The complements of nouns, adjectives, or participial adjectives usually come after them.


Examples.—La amo al (or, por) Dio = Love to (for) God.
Mirigita de liaj vortoj, mi eliris el la domo = Astonished at his
words, I left (went out of) the house.
Understood. Please provide the text to modernize.—I love (to) God (or, for) God = Love to (for) God. Astonished by his words, I left the house = Astonished at his words, I left (went out of) the house.






82. Place of the infinitive.—The infinitive being really a noun,
takes its place, according as it is the subject, predicate, or
complement. When it is the subject, it generally precedes the verb,
unless one wishes to place it otherwise for the sake of emphasis.
82. Place of the infinitive.—The infinitive, being essentially a noun, fulfills its role depending on whether it's the subject, predicate, or complement. When it serves as the subject, it usually comes before the verb, unless someone wants to change the order for emphasis.


Examples.—Scii estas utile = Knowledge (to know) is useful. Honte
estas mensogi = It is shameful to lie. If the predicate, it
usually follows the verb, as:—Tion fari estas agi malsaĝe = To do
that is to act foolishly. If the complement, it follows the word of
which it is the complement, as:—Mi tre deziras paroli kun vi = I
want very much to speak with you. Ni trinkas por sensoifiĝi, kaj ni
manĝas por satigi nin (or, por satiĝi) = We drink to allay
thirst (to become without thirst), and we eat to allay hunger (to be
satiated). Mi devas iri hejmen = I must go home. La elekto tion
fari restas ĉe vi = The option of doing that rests with you. Li
estos tre feliĉa vin vidi morgaŭ = He will be very glad to see you
to-morrow. La deziro kontraŭdiri = The desire of contradicting (to
contradict).
Understood! Please provide the text for modernization.—Knowing is useful = Knowledge (to know) is useful. It's shameful to lie = It is shameful to lie. If the predicate, it usually follows the verb, as:—Doing that is acting foolishly = To do that is to act foolishly. If the complement, it follows the word it complements, as:—I really want to talk to you = I want very much to speak with you. We drink to quench our thirst, and we eat to satisfy our hunger (or, to be full) = We drink to allay thirst (to become without thirst), and we eat to allay hunger (to be satiated). I have to go home = I must go home. The choice to do that is up to you = The option of doing that rests with you. He will be very happy to see you tomorrow = He will be very glad to see you to-morrow. The desire to contradict = The desire of contradicting (to contradict).






83. Place of the noun.—The noun is placed according as it is the
subject, predicate, complement (direct, indirect, or circumstantial),
(see pars. 76–80).
83. Position of the noun.—The noun is positioned based on its role as the subject, predicate, or complement (direct, indirect, or circumstantial), (see pars. 76–80).






84. Place of the adjective.—The position of the adjective varies
in national languages. In English



it is nearly always placed before
the word it qualifies, and we may say that this is generally its
place in Esperanto. The following remarks and examples of the four
classes of adjectives, "qualifying," "predicative," "possessive," and
"demonstrative," will give an idea of its position, in accordance
with the sense or emphasis wished to be conveyed.
84. Place of the adjective.—The position of adjectives differs between languages. In English



adjectives usually come before the noun they describe, and this is generally the case in Esperanto as well. The following comments and examples of the four types of adjectives—"qualifying," "predicative," "possessive," and "demonstrative"—will illustrate their placement based on the intended meaning or emphasis.


(a). A qualifying adjective may either precede or follow the word
it qualifies.
(a). A qualifying adjective can come before or after the word it describes.


(In either position the meaning is precisely the same grammatically.
It is considered by some that it throws a shade of emphasis on the
adjective to place it after the noun it qualifies, especially when
the adjective is the last word in the sentence.)
(In either position, the meaning is exactly the same grammatically. Some people believe that placing the adjective after the noun it describes adds a slight emphasis, especially when the adjective is the last word in the sentence.)


Examples.—La malfeliĉa knabo (or, knabo malfeliĉa) perdis
sian monujon = The unfortunate boy lost his purse. Li renkontis
maljunan virinon (or, maljunulinon), tre grasan, kiu portis
grandan korbon, plenan de maturaj pomoj = He met an old woman, very
fat, who was carrying a large basket, full of ripe apples.
Examples.—The unfortunate boy lost his wallet = The unfortunate boy lost his wallet. He met an old woman (or, an elderly lady), who was very fat and carrying a large basket full of ripe apples = He met an old woman, very heavyset, who was carrying a large basket filled with ripe apples.


(b). A predicative adjective is usually placed after the verb,
and noun or pronoun, to which it relates.
(b). A predicative adjective is typically positioned after the verb and the noun or pronoun it describes.


Examples.—La papero estas blanka = The paper is white. Ili trovis
la manĝaĵojn bonaj = They found the eatables good. Mi pensis, ke
mi vidas ilin mortigantaj la homon = I thought (that) I saw (see)
them killing (that they are killing) the man.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—The paper is white = The paper is white. They found the food to be good = They found the food good. I thought I saw them killing the man = I thought I saw them killing the man.


N.B.—A predicative adjective does not agree in case, when its noun
or pronoun is in the accusative (pars. 69 (a), and 108 (b)).
N.B.—A predicative adjective doesn't match in case when its noun or pronoun is in the accusative (pars. 69 (a), and 108 (b)).


(c). A possessive adjective usually precedes the word to which it
relates. If we wish to speak in an affectionate strain, we can place
it after the noun.
(c). A possessive adjective typically comes before the noun it refers to. However, if we want to express warmth or affection, we can put it after the noun.


Examples.—Mia patrino kaj miaj gefratoj donis al mi donacon en mia
naskotago = My mother and my brothers and sisters gave me a present
on my birthday. Ne ploru, patrino mia! = Do not weep, mother dear!
(or, mother



mine!). Johano mia, ne faru tion! = John dear, do not do that.
Examples.—My mom and my siblings gave me a gift on my birthday. = My mother and my brothers and sisters gave me a present on my birthday. Don’t cry, my mom! = Do not weep, mother dear! (or, mother mine!). John, don’t do that! = John dear, do not do that.


(d). A demonstrative adjective usually precedes the word to which
it relates.
(d). A demonstrative adjective typically comes before the noun it describes.


Examples.—Tiu sinjorino estas mia fratino = That lady is my
sister. Du ŝilingoj ne sufiĉos por aĉeti tiun libron = Two
shillings will not buy that book.
Sure! Please provide the text that you would like me to modernize.—That lady is my sister = That lady is my sister. Two shillings will not buy that book = Two shillings will not buy that book.


(e). To show emphasis, adjectives can, as in English, be placed
first in phrases.
(e). To show emphasis, adjectives can, just like in English, be placed first in phrases.


Examples.—Bona, malavara kaj ĝentila, li estas estimata de ĉiuj
= Kind, generous and courteous, he was esteemed by all. Feliĉa
estas la homo, kiu ne havas malamikojn = Happy is the man who has no
enemies.
Examples.—Kind, generous, and polite, he is respected by everyone = Kind, generous, and courteous, he was esteemed by all. Happy is the man who has no enemies = Happy is the man who has no enemies.






85. Place of the pronoun.—As in English, a personal pronoun may
follow or precede the verb.
85. Place of the pronoun.—Like in English, a personal pronoun can come before or after the verb.


Examples.—"Jes," diris li (or, li diris), "vi estas prava" =
"Yes," said he, "you are right." "Kial," ekkriis la homo, "vi faris
tion?" = "Why," cried the man, "did you do that?"
Examples.—"Yes," he said (or, he said), "you are right" = "Yes," he said, "you are right." "Why," the man shouted, "did you do that?" = "Why," the man shouted, "did you do that?"






86. Place of the verb.—The verb is, as a rule, placed after the
subject, but this does not mean that it must follow it immediately,
for it can be separated by predicates, complements, and adverbs.
86. Place of the verb.—Typically, the verb comes after the subject, but this doesn’t mean it has to follow it directly, as it can be separated by predicates, complements, and adverbs.


Examples.—La lingvo Esperanto, kreita de doktoro Zamenhof, estas
jam uzata en la tuta mondo civilizita = The language Esperanto,
created by Dr. Zamenhof, is already used in the whole civilized
world. In sentences like the following it is, as in English, often
placed before the subject. "Kien ni iros," diris mi al li, "kiam via
amiko alvenos?" = "Where shall we go," said I to him, "when your
friend arrives (shall arrive)?" Nun alvenas la horo de la sukceso
por la lingvo internacia = Now comes the hour of (the) success for
the international language. Aperis sur la monteto la figuro de
rajdanto = There appeared on the hill the figure of a horseman. (For
the place of the Infinitive, see par. 82.)
Below is a short piece of text (5 words or fewer). Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links.

Examples.—The language Esperanto, created by Dr. Zamenhof, is already used all over the civilized world. In sentences like the following, it is often placed before the subject, just like in English. "Where shall we go," I said to him, "when your friend arrives?" = "Where shall we go," said I to him, "when your friend arrives?" Now comes the hour of success for the international language. There appeared on the hill the figure of a horseman. (For the place of the Infinitive, see par. 82.)






87. Place of the participle varies as follows:—
87. The position of the participle changes as follows:—


(a). When forming the compound tenses of verbs, the participle
usually follows the auxiliary



verb esti, though not necessarily
immediately after it (see (d)).
(a). When creating compound verb tenses, the participle typically comes after the auxiliary verb esti, but it doesn’t have to be right after it (see (d)).


Examples.—Mi estos fininta mian leteron, antaŭ ol li alvenos = I
shall have finished my letter before he arrives (will arrive). Ŝi
estas tre amata de ĉiuj = She is very much loved by all.
Examples.—I will have finished my letter before he arrives = I shall have finished my letter before he arrives (will arrive). She is very much loved by all = She is very much loved by all.


(b). In a qualifying or predicative sense participles generally
follow their noun or pronoun.
(b). In a qualifying or descriptive way participles usually come after their noun or pronoun.


Examples.—Mi vidis lin riproĉeganta kaj batanta la knabon = I
saw him (that he is) rebuking and beating the boy. Ĉu tio estas mia
hundo ĉasanta ŝafon? = Is that my dog chasing a sheep? La
fraŭlino leganta la ĵurnalon estas tre bela = The young lady
reading the newspaper is very beautiful. La konstruata domo (or,
domo konstruata) = The house under construction (being
constructed). Mi imagis, ke mi vidas la homon kisanta la virinon =
I fancied (that) I saw the man kissing (that he is kissing) the
woman.
Examples.—I saw him rebuking and beating the boy. Is that my dog chasing a sheep? The young lady reading the newspaper is very beautiful. The house under construction. I imagined that I saw the man kissing the woman.


(c). An adverbial participle generally precedes its noun or
pronoun.
(c). An adverbial participle usually comes before its noun or pronoun.


Examples.—Vidante sian amikon, li haltis = (On) seeing his
friend, he stopped. Leginte la libron, ŝi ekdormis = After reading
(or, having read) the book, she fell asleep (par. 212 (d)).
Sure! Please provide the phrases you'd like me to modernize.—Seeing his friend, he stopped = (On) seeing his friend, he stopped. After reading the book, she fell asleep = After reading (or having read) the book, she fell asleep (par. 212 (d)).


(d). For emphasis the participle may be put first in a sentence.
(d). For emphasis the participle can be placed at the beginning of a sentence.


Examples.—Tedita de vojaĝado, mi decidis reveni hejmen = Tired of
travelling, I decided to return home. Amataj kaj estimataj de ĉiuj,
la fratoj havis multajn amikojn = Loved and esteemed by all, the
brothers had many friends.
Examples.—Tedita de vojaĝado, mi decidis reveni hejmen = Tired of traveling, I decided to go back home. Amataj kaj estimataj de ĉiuj, la fratoj havis multajn amikojn = Loved and respected by everyone, the brothers had many friends.


Note.—If qualifying and predicative participles are not placed in
their natural position, viz., after their nouns or pronouns, the
sense may be entirely changed. For instance, in the following two
sentences the words are the same, but the sense varies with their
positions:—Ŝi, kuranta en la ĉambron, vidis mian hundon = She,
(who is) running into the room, saw my dog (here kuranta is the
qualifying participle of ŝi). Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuranta en la
ĉambron = She saw my dog (that he is) running into the room (here
kuranta is the predicative participle of hundon, and, being
predicative, does not take the accusative (see pars. 69 (a) and 108
(b)). The above two sentences might be altered as



follows,
showing different meanings, by using in the first an adverbial
participle, and in the second a qualifying participle, as:—Kurante
en la ĉambron, ŝi vidis mian hundon = (While) running
into the room, she saw my dog. Ŝi vidis mian hundon kurantan
= She saw my running dog. A phrase is often clearer if the
conjunction ke be used instead of a predicative participle. For
instance, instead of Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuranta en la ĉambron,
we can say Ŝi vidis, ke mia hundo kuras en la ĉambron = She saw
that my dog was (is) running into the room; or, Ŝi vidis mian
hundon kuri en la ĉambron = She saw my dog run into the room.
Note.—If qualifying and predicative participles aren’t placed in their natural position, which is after their nouns or pronouns, the meaning can completely change. For example, in the following two sentences, the words are the same, but the meaning varies based on their positions:—Ŝi, kuranta en la ĉambron, vidis mian hundon = She, (who is) running into the room, saw my dog (here kuranta is the qualifying participle of ŝi). Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuranta en la ĉambron = She saw my dog (that he is) running into the room (here kuranta is the predicative participle of hundon, and, being predicative, does not take the accusative (see pars. 69 (a) and 108 (b)). The two sentences above could be changed as follows, showing different meanings, by using in the first an adverbial participle and in the second a qualifying participle, as:—Kurante en la ĉambron, ŝi vidis mian hundon = (While) running into the room, she saw my dog. Ŝi vidis mian hundon kurantan = She saw my running dog. A phrase is often clearer if you use the conjunction ke instead of a predicative participle. For example, instead of Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuranta en la ĉambron, we can say Ŝi vidis, ke mia hundo kuras en la ĉambron = She saw that my dog was (is) running into the room; or, Ŝi vidis mian hundon kuri en la ĉambron = She saw my dog run into the room.






88. Place of the adverb.—The adverb, as a rule, immediately
precedes or follows the word to which it refers, or which it
qualifies.
88. Place of the adverb.—The adverb usually comes right before or right after the word it modifies or refers to.


Examples.—Li rapide kuras, or, Li kuras rapide = He runs
rapidly. La virino zorge legis (or, legis zorge) la leteron =
The woman read the letter carefully. Li ĝentile demetis la
ĉapelon = He politely took off his hat.
Examples.—He runs quickly, or, He quickly runs = He runs rapidly. The woman read the letter carefully (or, read the letter carefully) = The woman read the letter carefully. He politely took off his hat = He politely took off his hat.


N.B.—In this last example it is more elegant to place the adverb, as
in English, before the verb.
N.B.—In this last example, it's more elegant to place the adverb, like in English, before the verb.


(a). To avoid ambiguity, care, however, must be taken not to
place the adverb in a position where it might be taken to refer
either to the word which precedes or the word which follows it. For
instance, if an adverb be placed between two verbs, it sometimes
happens that we cannot tell to which it refers, and the sense is thus
materially altered.
(a). To avoid confusion, it's important not to position the adverb in a way that could make it refer to either the word before or the word after it. For example, if an adverb is placed between two verbs, it can become unclear which verb it relates to, and this can significantly change the meaning.


Example.—Li ekstreme deziris saĝiĝi = He desired extremely to
become wise. Li deziris saĝiĝi ekstreme = He desired to become
extremely wise. In this example, if we place the adverb between the
two verbs, and say Li deziris ekstreme saĝiĝi, the sentence might
be translated in either of the above two ways. See also remarks on
the use of ne (par. 59 (a)). The word nur, also, similarly
modifies the word it precedes.
Example.—He extremely desired to become wise = He desired extremely to become wise. He desired to become extremely wise = He desired to become extremely wise. In this example, if we place the adverb between the two verbs, and say He desired extremely to become wise, the sentence might be translated in either of the above two ways. See also remarks on the use of not (par. 59 (a)). The word only, also, similarly modifies the word it precedes.


(b). Adverbs of comparison, such as: iom, multe, kiel,
plej, pli, sufiĉe, tiel, tiom, tre, tro, are usually
placed before the words to which they refer.
(b). Adverbs of comparison, like: iom, multe, kiel,
plej, pli, sufiĉe, tiel, tiom, tre, tro, are generally
put before the words they relate to.


Examples.—Li iom laciĝis kaj multe senkuraĝiĝis = He became
somewhat fatigued and much discouraged. Kiel malavare li agis,
donante al sia frato tiom da mono, kiom li



bezonis! = How generously he acted in giving his brother as much
money as he needed! Li venos pli aŭ malpli frue = He will come
sooner or later (lit., more or less early). Vi agis plej saĝe,
farante tion = You acted most wisely in doing that. Kio ajn okazos,
li estis sufiĉe saĝa por tion fari = At all events he was wise
enough to do that. Ŝi tre amis sian fraton = She loved her brother
very much. Li tro manĝadas = He eats too much.
Examples.—He became somewhat fatigued and quite discouraged. How generously he acted in giving his brother as much money as he needed! He will come sooner or later. You acted very wisely in doing that. In any case, he was smart enough to do that. She loved her brother very much. He eats too much.


(c). To give emphasis, adverbs and adverbial participles may
commence a sentence.
(c). To give emphasis, adverbs and adverbial participles can start a sentence.


Examples.—Ĉarme, bele kaj kortuŝe estis vidi la birdon zorgi pri
sia ido = Charming, beautiful and touching it was to see the bird
take care of its offspring. Starante kun la brakoj etenditaj, li
paroladis al la popolamaso = Standing with arms outstretched, he
harangued the populace (see par. 245 (a)).
Examples.—It was charming, beautiful, and touching to see the bird care for its chick = Charming, beautiful, and touching it was to see the bird take care of its offspring. Standing with his arms outstretched, he spoke to the crowd = Standing with arms outstretched, he harangued the populace (see par. 245 (a)).






89. Place of the preposition.—The preposition always immediately
precedes its complement.
89. Place of the preposition.—The preposition always comes right before its complement.


Examples.—Skribu al mi = Write to me. Li venis al mia domo kune
kun la du hundoj je la tria (horo) = He came to my house (to me)
along with the two dogs at 3 o’clock.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Skribu al mi = Write to me. Li venis al mia domo kune
kun la du hundoj je la tria (horo) = He came to my house with the two dogs at 3 o’clock.






90. Place of the conjunction.—The conjunction always precedes the
verb to which it refers, but separated from it by the words which
logically intervene.
90. Place of the conjunction.—The conjunction always comes before the verb it refers to, but is separated from it by the words that logically fit in between.


Example.—Se iu hodiaŭ matene deziros min vidi, diru al ĝi, ke mi
estas tre okupita = If anyone (someone), this morning, should desire
to see me, tell him (or her) I am very busy.
Example.—If anyone wants to see me this morning, tell them I’m really busy.


N.B.—Note that iu does not give the sex, therefore ĝi is
rightly used; but, as in English, the sense would be clear without
the words al ĝi.
N.B.—Note that iu does not indicate gender, so ĝi is rightly used; however, like in English, the meaning would be clear without the words al ĝi.






91. Place of the interrogative.—In direct questions the subject
usually precedes the verb.
91. Position of the question.—In direct questions, the subject typically comes before the verb.


Examples.—Ĉu vi havas mian libron? = Have you my book? In
English, in many cases, we place the subject first; for instance, in
the present tense we often commence a question with "Do"; in the
past, with "Have" or "Did"; in the future, with "Shall" or "Will." If
we substitute Ĉu for any of these words, we have the Esperanto
construction, as:—Ĉu vi bezonas tiun plumon?


= Do you want that pen? Ĉu vi faris tion? = Did you do that? Ĉu
li venos tien ĉi? = Will he come here?
Examples.—Ĉu vi havas mian libron? = Do you have my book? In English, we usually place the subject first; for instance, in the present tense we often start a question with "Do"; in the past, with "Have" or "Did"; and in the future, with "Shall" or "Will." If we replace Ĉu with any of these words, we get the Esperanto construction, as in:—Ĉu vi bezonas tiun plumon?


= Do you need that pen? Ĉu vi faris tion? = Did you do that? Ĉu li venos tien ĉi? = Will he come here?






92. Place of the negative.—The negative ne = not, when it
relates directly to a verb, is placed immediately before such verb,
but otherwise in its natural position in the clause; i.e., it
negatives the word or words it precedes. The negative correlatives
nenia, nenial, etc., may be placed in almost any position,
according to the emphasis we wish to give to the word.
92. Place of the negative.—The negative ne = not, when it directly relates to a verb, is placed immediately before that verb, but otherwise stays in its usual position in the sentence; i.e., it negates the word or words that come after it. The negative correlatives nenia, nenial, etc., can be placed in almost any position, depending on the emphasis we want to give to the word.


Examples.—Mi lin ne vidis, or, Mi ne vidis lin = I did not see
him. Ĉu vi ne vidis lin? or, Ĉu vi lin ne vidis? = Did you not
see him? Mi neniam renkontis ŝin, or, Neniam mi renkontis ŝin,
or, Mi ŝin renkontis neniam = I never met her. Mi volas renkonti
ne nur Johanon, sed ankaŭ Georgon = I want to meet not only John,
but also George.
Examples.—I didn't see him, or, I saw him not = I did not see him. Did you not see him? or, Did you see him not? = Did you not see him? I never met her, or, Never have I met her, or, I have not met her ever = I never met her. I want to meet not only John, but also George = I want to meet not only John, but also George.






93. Order very similar to English.—The foregoing remarks show that
the order of words in Esperanto is very similar to the English
construction of sentences, and we can hardly do wrong if we follow it
nearly word for word. A slightly different order in Esperanto
sometimes makes an expression more elegant but this is generally
owing to harmony of sound rather than grammatical construction.
93. Order very similar to English.—The previous points indicate that the word order in Esperanto is quite similar to how sentences are structured in English, and we can hardly go wrong if we follow it almost word for word. A slightly different order in Esperanto can sometimes make a phrase sound more elegant, but this is usually due to the flow of sound rather than grammatical structure.


[In writing original work in Esperanto it is well to cultivate a
style as international as possible, and use the normal, simple, and
logical order of words. In translation work, when it is desired to
reproduce as far as possible the national or individual atmosphere of
the original, it is legitimate intentionally to reproduce in the
translation—so long as intelligibility is ensured, and as far as the
structure of the language permits—the characteristic order of words
in the original text. The wonderful flexibility of Esperanto is one
of the reasons why Esperanto is such an admirable language for
translation purposes.]
[When writing original works in Esperanto, it’s important to develop a style that is as international as possible and to use a normal, simple, and logical word order. In translation work, if the goal is to recreate the national or individual feel of the original, it’s acceptable to intentionally mirror the word order of the original text in the translation—provided it remains understandable and within the limits of the language’s structure. The amazing flexibility of Esperanto is one of the reasons it’s such a great language for translation.]



PART II


GRAMMAR.




94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by
Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo
Esperanto," which he says is "a book that should be in the hands of
every earnest student who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto
style." This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends,
Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto,
Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well
Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject.
94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as provided by Dr. Zamenhof on page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto," which he describes as "a book that should be in the hands of every serious student who wants to develop a proper Esperanto style." This book includes a variety of Exercises, Fables, Legends, Stories, Excerpts from Scientific Articles, Articles about Esperanto, Poetry, and Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, demonstrating how well Esperanto fits every kind of subject.


It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short
Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is
given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples,
will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule.
It can be seen that the entire Grammar consists of sixteen short Rules, which can be learned in under an hour. The Esperanto is provided alongside the translation. Comments on the Rules, with examples, can be found by looking at the paragraphs listed after each Rule.




COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO.
Complete Grammar of Esperanto.


Alphabet.
Alphabet.


The twenty-eight letters and their pronunciation are given in pars.
1–4.
The twenty-eight letters and how to pronounce them are provided in sections.  
1–4.


N.B.—Printing offices which do not possess the
letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, can use
instead of them ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.
N.B.—Printing offices that do not have the
letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ can use
ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u instead.






PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO.
Complete Grammar of Esperanto.


Alfabeto.
Alphabet.


Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee,
  Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii,
  Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn,
  Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt,
  Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.
Aa, Bb, Cc, Ĉĉ, Dd, Ee,  
  Ff, Gg, Ĝĝ, Hh, Ĥĥ, Ii,  
  Jj, Ĵĵ, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn,  
  Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ŝŝ, Tt,  
  Uu, Ŭŭ, Vv, Zz.


Rimarko.—Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn
ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ,
povas anstataŭ ili uzi ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.
Rimarko.—Names that don't have the letters 
ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ, 
can replace them with ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.







Rules.
Guidelines.


I.


The Article.—There
  is no indefinite article;
  there is only a definite
  article (la), alike for all
  sexes, cases, and numbers.
The Article.—There is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article (la), which is the same for all genders, cases, and numbers.


N.B.—The use of the
  article is the same as in
  other languages. People
  to whom the use of the
  article presents a difficulty
  need not at first
  use it at all.
N.B.—The use of the article is the same as in other languages. If people find the article challenging to use, they don't have to use it at all at first.


(See pars. 96–102.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–102.)






Reguloj.
Rules.


I.


Artikolo nedifinita ne
 ekzistas; ekzistas nur
 artikolo difinita (la),
      egala por ĉiuj seksoj,
  kazoj kaj nombroj.
Artikolo ne definite exists; there is only a definite article (the), which is the same for all genders, cases, and numbers.


Rimarko.—La uzado de la artikolo estas tia
sama, kiel en la aliaj lingvoj. La personoj, por
kiuj la uzado de la artikolo prezentas malfacilaĵon,
povas en la unua tempo tute ĝin ne uzi.
Rimarko.—The use of the article is the same as in other languages. People who find it difficult to use the article can completely avoid it at first.






II.


The Substantive.—Substantives have the
  termination o. For the
  formation of the plural
  the termination j is
  added. There are only
  two cases: nominative
  and accusative; the
  latter is obtained from
  the nominative by the
  addition of the termination
  n. The other cases
  are expressed by the help
  of prepositions (the genitive
  by de, the dative by
  al, the ablative by
  per or
    other prepositions according
  to sense).
The Substance.—Substantives end with an o. To make the plural, add j. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the accusative is formed from the nominative by adding n. The other cases are indicated using prepositions (the genitive with de, the dative with al, the ablative with per or other prepositions based on context).


(See pars. 103–106.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–106.)






II.


La substantivoj havas
  la finiĝon o. Por la formado
     de la multenombro
oni aldonas la finiĝon j.
     Kazoj ekzistas nur du:
nominativo kaj akuzativo;
la lasta estas ricevata
el la nominativo per
la aldono de la finiĝo n.
La ceteraj kazoj estas
esprimataj per helpo de
     prepozicioj (la genitivo
per de, la dativo per al,
la ablativo per per aŭ
     aliaj prepozicioj laŭ la senco).
La nouns have the ending o. To form the plural, you add the ending j. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is derived from the nominative by adding the ending n. The other cases are expressed with the help of prepositions (the genitive with de, the dative with al, the ablative with per or other prepositions depending on the meaning).







III.


The Adjective.—The
   adjective ends in a. Cases
   and numbers as with the
   substantive. The comparative
   is made by
   means of the word pli,
  the superlative by plej;
  with the comparative the
  conjunction ol is used.
The Adjective.—The adjective ends in a. It follows the same cases and numbers as the noun. The comparative form is created using the word pli, and the superlative is made with plej; the conjunction ol is used with the comparative.


(See pars 107–114.)
(See sections __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–114.)






III.


La adjektivo finiĝas per
      a. Kazoj kaj nombroj
 kiel ĉe la substantivo. La
 komparativo estas farata
 per la vorto pli, la superlativo
      per plej; ĉe la
     komparativo oni uzas la
konjunkcion ol.
La adjektivo ends with
      a. Cases and numbers are 
like those of the noun. The 
comparative is formed 
using the word pli, the superlative 
      with plej; for the 
     comparative, the 
conjunction ol is used.






IV.


The Numerals.—The
  cardinal numerals (they
  are not declined) are:
  unu, du, tri,
  kvar, kvin,
  ses, sep, ok,
  naŭ, dek,
cent, mil. The tens and
  hundreds are formed by
  the simple junction of the
  numerals. For the signification
  of ordinal numerals,
  the termination
  of the adjective is added;
  for the multiple—the suffix
  -obl, for the
  fractional—on,
  for the collective—op,
  for the distributive—the
  word po. Besides
  these, substantival
  and adverbial numerals
  can be used.
The Numbers.—The cardinal numerals (which are not declined) are: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, hundred, thousand. The tens and hundreds are formed by simply joining the numerals. To indicate the ordinal numerals, the adjective ending is added; for multiples—the suffix -fold, for fractions—th, for collectives—group, for distributives—the word per. In addition to these, numeral forms can also be used as nouns and adverbs.


(See pars. 115–124.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–124.)






IV.


La numeraloj fundamentaj
(ne estas deklinaciataj)
   estas: unu,
du, tri, kvar, kvin,
  ses, sep,
   ok, naŭ, dek,
          cent,
        mil. La dekoj kaj centoj
estas formataj per simpla
kunigo de la numeraloj.
Por la signado de numeraloj
ordaj oni aldonas
la finiĝon de la adjektivo;
por la multoblaj—la sufikson
     -obl, por la nombronaj—on,
  por la kolektaj—op,
          por
          la disdividaj—la
     vorton po.
     Krom tio povas esti
uzataj numeraloj substantivaj
kaj adverbaj.
La fundamental numbers  
(are not declined)  
   are: one,  
two, three, four, five,  
  six, seven,  
   eight, nine, ten,  
          hundred,  
        thousand. The tens and hundreds  
are formed by simply  
combining the numbers.  
For ordinals, you add  
the ending of the adjective;  
for multiples—the suffix  
     -fold, for cardinal—th,  
  for collective—-s,  
          for  
          the divisors—the  
     word per.  
     Aside from that,  
there can be used  
noun and adverbial numbers.  







V.


The Pronouns.—Personal
  pronouns = mi,
  vi, li, ŝi,
  ĝi (referring
  to thing or animal), si, ni,
  vi, ili, oni;
  the possessive
  pronouns are formed
  by the addition of the
  adjectival termination.
  Declension is as with the
  substantives.
The Pronouns.—Personal pronouns = mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (referring to a thing or an animal), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; the possessive pronouns are created by adding the adjectival ending. Declension follows the same rules as nouns.


(See pars. 125–138.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–138.)






V.


Pronomoj personaj: mi,
 vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (pri objekto
 aŭ besto), si, ni, vi,
   ili,
   oni; la pronomoj posedaj
       estas
  formataj per la
   aldono de la finiĝo adjektiva.
  La deklinacio
   estas kiel ĉe la substantivoj.
Pronouns personal: I, you, he, she, it (for objects or animals), oneself, we, you, they, one; the possessive pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival ending. The declension is like that of nouns.






VI.


The Verb.—The verb
  is not changed in person
  or number. Forms of the
  verb: the present tense
  (the time being) takes
  the termination -as; the
  past tense (the time been,
  or having been) -is; the
  future tense (the time
  about to be, or going to
  be) -os; the Conditional
  mood -us; the Imperative
  (ordering) mood -u;
  the Indefinite (infinitive)
  mood -i. Participles
  (with an adjectival or
  adverbial sense): active
  present -ant; active past
  -int; active future -ont;
  passive present -at; passive
  past -it; passive future
  -ot. All forms of the
  passive are formed by
  help of a corresponding
  form of the verb esti and
  a passive participle of the
  required verb. The preposition
  with the passive
  is de.
The Verb.—The verb
  doesn't change in person
  or number. Forms of the
  verb: the present tense
  (the current time) ends
  with -as; the past tense
  (the time that has passed)
  ends with -is; the
  future tense (the time
  to come) ends with -os; the Conditional
  mood ends with -us; the Imperative
  (commanding) mood ends with -u;
  the Indefinite (infinitive)
  mood ends with -i. Participles
  (used adjectivally or
  adverbially): active
  present ends with -ant; active past
  ends with -int; active future ends with -ont;
  passive present ends with -at; passive
  past ends with -it; passive future
  ends with -ot. All forms of the
  passive are formed by
  using a corresponding
  form of the verb esti and
  a passive participle of the
  required verb. The preposition
  used with the passive
  is de.


(See pars. 159–237.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–237.)






VI.


La verbo ne estas ŝanĝata
 laŭ personoj nek
 nombroj. Formoj de la
 verbo: la tempo estanta
 akceptas la finiĝon -as;
      la tempo estinta -is; la
 tempo estonta -os; la
      modo kondiĉa -us; la
 modo ordona -u; la
 modo sendifina -i. Participoj
      (kun senco adjektiva
      aŭ adverba):
      aktiva estanta -ant; aktiva
 estinta -int; aktiva
      estonta -ont; pasiva estanta
 -at; pasiva estinta
 -it; pasiva estonta -ot.
      Ĉiuj formoj de la pasivo
      estas formataj per helpo
 de responda formo de la
   verbo esti kaj participo
      pasiva de la bezonata
       verbo; la prepozicio ĉe
      la pasivo estas de.
La verbo ne ŝanĝiĝas
 laŭ personoj nek
 nombroj. Formoj de la
 verbo: la tempo estanta
 akceptas la finiĝon -as;
      la tempo estinta -is; la
 tempo estonta -os; la
      modo kondiĉa -us; la
 modo ordona -u; la
 modo sendifina -i. Participoj
      (kun senco adjektiva
      aŭ adverba):
      aktiva estanta -ant; aktiva
 estinta -int; aktiva
      estonta -ont; pasiva estanta
 -at; pasiva estinta
 -it; pasiva estonta -ot.
      Ĉiuj formoj de la pasivo
      estas formitaj per helpo
 de responda formo de la
   verbo esti kaj participo
      pasiva de la bezonata
       verbo; la prepozicio ĉe
      la pasivo estas de.







VII.


The Adverb.—Adverbs
  end in e; degrees
  of comparison as with
  adjectives.
The Adverb.—Adverbs end in e; they have degrees of comparison just like adjectives.


(See pars. 238–248.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–248.)






VII.


La adverboj finiĝas per
     e; gradoj de komparado
kiel ĉe la adjektivoj.
La adverboj finiĝas per
     e; gradoj de komparado
kiel ĉe la adjektivoj.






VIII.


The Preposition.—All
  prepositions require
  the nominative.
The Preposition.—All prepositions require the subject case.


(See pars. 249–261.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–261.)






VIII.


Ĉiuj prepozicioj postulas
la nominativon.
All prepositions require the nominative.






IX.


Pronunciation.—Every
  word is read as
  it is written.
Pronunciation.—Every word is pronounced exactly as it is spelled.


(See pars. 5–19.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–19.)






IX.


Ĉiu vorto estas legata,
kiel ĝi estas skribita.
Ĉiu vorto estas legata,  
kiel ĝi estas skribita.






X.


Accent.—The accent
  is always on the penultimate
  syllable.
Accent.—The accent is always on the second to last syllable.


(See par. 17.)
(See par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)






X.


La akcento estas ĉiam sur la antaŭlasta silabo.
La akcento estas ĉiam sur la næstsidela silabo.







XI.


Compound Words.—Compound words are formed by the simple junction
of words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical
terminations are also regarded as independent words.
Compound Words.—Compound words are created by simply putting words together (the main word is at the end); the grammatical endings are also considered independent words.


(See pars. 39–50.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__.)






XI.


Vortoj kunmetitaj estas
formataj per simpla
kunigo de la vortoj (la
ĉefa vorto staras en la
fino); la gramatikaj
finiĝoj estas rigardataj
ankaŭ kiel memstaraj
vortoj.
Vortoj kunmetitaj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la vortoj (la ĉefa vorto staras en la fino); la gramatikaj finiĝoj estas rigardataj ankaŭ kiel memstaraj vortoj.






XII.


Negation.—When
another negative word is present the word ne is omitted.
Negation.—When another negative word is present, the word ne is dropped.


(See pars. 59–62.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–62.)






XII.


Ĉe alia nea vorto la vorto ne estas forlasata.
Ĉe alia nea vorto la vorto ne estas forlasata.






XIII.


Direction.—In order to show direction, words
take the termination of the accusative.
Guidance.—To indicate direction, words take the accusative form.


(See par. 67.)
(See par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)






XIII.


Por montri direkton, la vortoj ricevas la finiĝon de la akuzativo.
Por montri rekte, la vortoj ricevas la finon de la akuzativo.






XIV.


Use of Prepositions.—Every
  preposition has
  a definite and constant
  meaning; but if we have
  to use some preposition
  and the direct sense does
  not indicate to us what
  special preposition we are
  to take, then we use the
  preposition je, which has
  no meaning of its own.
  Instead of the preposition
  je we can also use
  the accusative without a
  preposition.
Preposition Usage.—Every preposition has a clear and consistent meaning; however, if we need to use a preposition and the direct meaning doesn't suggest which specific one to choose, we use the preposition je, which doesn’t have its own meaning. Instead of the preposition je, we can also use the accusative without a preposition.


(See par. 251.)
(See par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)






XIV.


Ĉiu prepozicio havas
difinitan kaj konstantan
signifon; sed se ni devas
uzi ian prepozicion kaj la
rekta senco ne montras al
ni, kian nome prepozicion
ni devas preni, tiam
ni uzas la prepozicion je,
kiu memstaran signifon
     ne havas. Anstataŭ la
prepozicio je oni povas
ankaŭ uzi la akuzativon
     sen prepozicio.
Ĉiu prepozicio havas difinitan kaj konstantan signifon; sed se ni devas uzi ian prepozicion kaj la rekta senco ne montras al ni, kian prepozicion ni devas preni, tiam ni uzas la prepozicion je, kiu memstaran signifon ne havas. Anstataŭ la prepozicio je oni povas ankaŭ uzi la akuzativon sen prepozicio.







XV.


Foreign Words.—The
  so-called foreign
  words, that is, those
  which the majority of
  languages have taken
  from one source, are used
  in the Esperanto language
  without change,
  receiving only the orthography
  of the latter language;
  but with various
  words from one root it is
  better to use unchanged
  only the fundamental
  word, and to form the
  rest from this latter in
  accordance with the rules
  of the Esperanto language.
Foreign Terms.—The so-called foreign words, meaning those that most languages have borrowed from a single source, are used in the Esperanto language without modification, only adopting the spelling of Esperanto. However, when dealing with multiple words from one root, it’s preferable to keep only the basic word unchanged and to form the others from it following the rules of the Esperanto language.


(See pars. 39, 52.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__.)






XV.


La tiel nomataj vortoj
fremdaj, t.e., tiuj, kiujn
la plimulto de la lingvoj
prenis el unu fonto, estas
uzataj en la lingvo Esperanto
sen ŝanĝo, ricevante
nur la ortografion de tiu
ĉi lingvo; sed ĉe diversaj
vortoj de unu radiko
estas pli bone uzi senŝanĝe
nur la vorton fundamentan
kaj la ceterajn
formi el tiu ĉi lasta
laŭ la reguloj de la lingvo
Esperanto.
La so-called foreign words, meaning those that the majority of languages borrowed from a single source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, receiving only the spelling of this language; however, for various words from one root, it is better to use unchanged only the foundational word and form the others from that one according to the rules of the Esperanto language.






XVI.


Elision.—The final
  vowel of the substantive
  and the article can be
  dropped and replaced by
  an apostrophe.
Elision.—The final vowel of the noun and the article can be dropped and replaced with an apostrophe.


(See pars. 56, 57.)
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__.)






XVI.


La fina vokalo de la
substantivo kaj de la
artikolo povas esti forlasata
kaj anstataŭigata
de apostrofo.
La fina vokalo de la substantivo kaj de la artikolo povas esti forlasata kaj anstataŭigata de apostrofo.







COMMENTARY
 ON THE
 GRAMMAR.
COMMENTARY ON THE GRAMMAR.


PARTS OF SPEECH (Parolpartoj).




95. There are nine parts of speech in Esperanto, as found in most
other languages, viz., the Article (Artikolo), Noun (Substantivo),
Pronoun (Pronomo), Adjective (Adjektivo), Verb (Verbo), Adverb
(Adverbo), Preposition (Prepozicio), Conjunction (Konjunkcio),
Interjection (Interjekcio).
95. There are nine parts of speech in Esperanto, just like in most other languages: the Article (Artikolo), Noun (Substantivo), Pronoun (Pronomo), Adjective (Adjektivo), Verb (Verbo), Adverb (Adverbo), Preposition (Prepozicio), Conjunction (Konjunkcio), Interjection (Interjekcio).


Nouns, derived adjectives and adverbs, and verbs have distinctive
terminations. If a word ends in -O, it is a noun; if in -A, an
adjective; if in -E, an adverb; if in -I, -U, -AS, -IS,
-OS, or -US, a verb. If it ends in -N, it is in the accusative
case, and if in -J, it is plural.
Nouns, derived adjectives and adverbs, and verbs have specific endings. If a word ends in -O, it’s a noun; if it ends in -A, it’s an adjective; if it ends in -E, it’s an adverb; if it ends in -I, -U, -AS, -IS, -OS, or -US, it’s a verb. If it ends in -N, it’s in the accusative case, and if it ends in -J, it’s plural.


Examples.—Domo = a house. Facila = easy. Feliĉe = happily.
Doni = to give (Infinitive). Batu lin = beat him (Imperative and
Accusative). Mi vidas la homojn = I see the men (Present tense and
Accusative plural). Vi diris = you said (Past tense). Ni iros =
we shall go (Future tense). Se ili estus bonaj = If they were good
(Conditional mood and plural adjective).

Examples.—Domo = a house. Facila = easy. Feliĉe = happily. Doni = to give (Infinitive). Batu lin = beat him (Imperative and Accusative). Mi vidas la homojn = I see the men (Present tense and Accusative plural). Vi diris = you said (Past tense). Ni iros = we will go (Future tense). Se ili estus bonaj = If they were good (Conditional mood and plural adjective).





THE ARTICLE (La Artikolo).




96. There is no word in Esperanto for the Indefinite Article. It
is, as in Latin, implied in the noun, if the sense in English
requires it.
96. There is no word in Esperanto for the Indefinite Article. It’s implied in the noun, just like in Latin, if the meaning in English needs it.


Examples.—Tio estas floro = That is a flower. Patrino kaj filo =
Mother and son. Ĉu vi vidas birdon sur tiu arbo? = Do you see a
bird on that tree?
Please provide the phrases you would like me to modernize.—That is a flower = That is a flower. Mother and son = Mother and son. Do you see a bird on that tree? = Do you see a bird on that tree?






97. The definite article is la = the. It is, as in English, the
same for all genders, numbers, and cases.
97. The definite article is la = the. It is, like in English, the same for all genders, numbers, and cases.


Examples.—La patro = The father. La patrino = The mother. Donu
al mi la libron = Give me the book. Ili estas la lernantoj
diligentaj = They are the diligent scholars.
Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—The father = The father. The mother = The mother. Give me the book = Give me the book. They are the diligent students = They are the diligent scholars.






98. As regards its use, la is used very nearly as the definite
article "the" in English, namely, to show that one is speaking of
something known or definite, as opposed to what is indefinite.
98. As for its use, la is used almost like the definite article "the" in English, meaning it indicates that someone is talking about something known or specific, as opposed to something that is indefinite.


Examples.—En la mezo de la korto mi vidis du infanojn el la apuda
vilaĝo = In the middle of the yard I saw two children of the
neighbouring village. In this sentence the yard and village are each
defined by the article la, as they are also in English by "the."
But if we omit the article the sentence runs:—En la mezo de korto
mi vidis du infanojn el apuda vilaĝo = In the middle of a yard I
saw two children of a neighbouring village. In this case the children
might have been in any yard, and have belonged to any village in
the neighbourhood of the speaker.
Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—In the middle of the yard I saw two children from the neighboring village. In this sentence, the yard and village are both specified by the article the, just like in English. But if we drop the article, the sentence becomes:—In the middle of a yard I saw two children from a neighboring village. In this case, the children could have been in any yard and belonged to any village near the speaker.






99. There are, however, cases in which the article is often used in
Esperanto, though omitted in English, and also vice versa.
99. There are, however, cases where the article is often used in Esperanto but left out in English, and also vice versa.


(a). It is usually used before nouns denoting the totality of
persons or things.
(a). It is typically used before nouns that represent the totality of people or items.



Examples.—La homo estas mortema = Man is mortal. La homoj estas
mortemaj = Men are mortal. La medicino estas scienco kaj la
pentrado arto = Medicine is a science and painting an art. Kelkaj
kuracistoj pretendas, ke la vino estas malutila al la sano = Some
doctors maintain that wine is hurtful to health. Sen la akvo nia
terglobo rapide fariĝus dezerto = Without water our earth would
rapidly become a desert. La nokto estis tiel nigra, kiel la peĉo =
The night was as dark as pitch. La azenoj amas la kardojn = Donkeys
love thistles. La vento kaŭzas ofte teruran detruon en kelkaj
landoj = Wind often causes terrible ruin in some countries. (In this
case la vento means wind in general, spoken of as a whole, but
"To-day we shall have wind" (meaning some wind) would be: Hodiaŭ ni
havos venton.) Hajlo falas = Hail is falling (viz., some hail),
but La hajlo estas tre malutila al la vinbero = Hail is very
injurious to grapes (to the grape), means hail in general.
N/A—Humans are mortal = Man is mortal. People are mortal = Men are mortal. Medicine is a science and painting is an art = Medicine is a science and painting an art. Some doctors claim that wine is bad for health = Some doctors maintain that wine is hurtful to health. Without water, our planet would quickly become a desert = Without water our earth would rapidly become a desert. The night was as dark as coal = The night was as dark as pitch. Donkeys love thistles = Donkeys love thistles. Wind often causes terrible destruction in some countries = Wind often causes terrible ruin in some countries. (In this case the wind refers to wind in general, spoken of as a whole, but "Today we will have wind" (meaning some wind) would be: Hodiaŭ ni havos venton.) Hail is falling = Hail is falling (that is, some hail), but The hail is very harmful to grapes = Hail is very injurious to grapes (to the grape), means hail in general.


(b). It is not used before proper names, for the simple reason
that they cannot be more definite than they are in themselves. In
English it is sometimes used and sometimes not.[13]
(b). It's not used before proper names because they can't be made any more specific than they already are. In English, it can be used sometimes and sometimes not.[13]


Examples.—Danubo = The Danube. Tibro = The Tiber. Mediteraneo
= The Mediterranean. Alpoj = The Alps. Unuiĝintaj Ŝtatoj
Amerikaj (or, Usono) = The United States of America.
Examples.—Danubo = The Danube. Tibro = The Tiber. Mediteraneo = The Mediterranean. Alpoj = The Alps. Unuiĝintaj Ŝtatoj Amerikaj (or, Usono) = The United States of America.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[13] This is too strict. In practice the
      definite article is often used before proper names, and one can say
      (e.g.) la Alpoj, la Mediteraneo, etc.
   
[13] This is too strict. In practice, the definite article is often used before proper names, and you can say (e.g.) la Alpoj, la Mediteraneo, etc.




(c). If, however, a proper name is preceded by a qualifying word,
the article is used.
(c). However, if a proper name is preceded by a qualifying word, the article is used.


Examples. La glora poeto, Dante = The famous poet, Dante. La
imperiestro de Japanujo = The Emperor of Japan. La bona reĝino
Viktorio = The good Queen Victoria.
Examples. The famous poet, Dante = The famous poet, Dante. The Emperor of Japan = The Emperor of Japan. The good Queen Victoria = The good Queen Victoria.






100. The article may be used sometimes where, in English, we use a
possessive pronoun.
100. The article can sometimes be used where we use a possessive pronoun in English.


Examples.—Li havas doloron en la kapo = He has a pain in his (the)
head. Ŝi prezentis al mi la manon = She offered me her hand. Mi
malkovris la okulojn = I uncovered my eyes (see also par. 134(a)).
I'm ready to assist! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—He has a pain in his head = He has a headache. She offered me her hand = She extended her hand to me. I uncovered my eyes = I opened my eyes (see also par. 134(a)).


(a). It is also frequently used instead of a possessive pronoun in
speaking of one’s own relatives,



or when there is no doubt as to the
person to whom the article la refers.
(a). It is also often used instead of a possessive pronoun when talking about one’s own relatives,



or when it's clear who the article la is referring to.


Examples.—Mi amas la patron = I love my (the) father. Iru al la
patrino = Go to your (the) mother. Kie estas la kuzo? = Where is
your (the) cousin? La patro staras apud la filo = The father stands
by (at the side of) his (the) son.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—I love my father. Go to your mother. Where is your cousin? The father stands next to his son.






101. The article is almost always used before numeral adjectives
showing the day, hour, month, etc., when these nouns are understood.
101. The article is usually placed before numeral adjectives indicating the day, hour, month, etc., when these nouns are implied.


Example.—Hodiaŭ estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto = To-day is
the 27th of March.
Example.—Today is the 27th of March.


(a). Its use is optional before the names of the seasons, and also
before each separate noun or adjective.
(a). Its use is optional before the names of the seasons, and also before each separate noun or adjective.


Examples.—En la vintro, or, En vintro = In the winter. En la
somero, or, En somero = In the summer. La arboj, la floroj kaj la
kreskaĵoj de la ĝardeno (or, La arboj, floroj kaj kreskaĵoj) =
The trees, (the) flowers and (the) plants of the garden.
Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—In the winter, or, In winter = In the winter. In the summer, or, In summer = In the summer. The trees, the flowers, and the plants of the garden (or, The trees, flowers, and plants) = The trees, the flowers, and the plants of the garden.


(b). It is not generally used after ĉiuj = all, or, all the.
(b). It’s not usually used after ĉiuj = all, or, all the.


Example.—Mi ne vidis ĉiujn arbojn en la ĝardeno = I did not see
all the trees in the garden.
Example.—I didn't see all the trees in the garden.


(c). It is not used after da (see par. 259).
(c). It's not used after da (see par. 259).


N.B.—From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the English
student will have no difficulty in the use of the article, if he be
careful to use it with words defining a class or the totality of
persons or things. He will get a good idea of its use if he will
carefully study the first few exercises in the "Ekzercaro," or
Exercises 1 to 4 in Part III.
N.B.—From the previous comments, it's clear that the English student shouldn't have any trouble using articles, as long as they are careful to use them with words that define a class or the totality of people or things. They'll gain a solid understanding of how to use it by studying the first few exercises in the "Ekzercaro," or Exercises 1 to 4 in Part III.


In case of doubt whether the article should be used or not, it is
better to omit it.
If you're unsure whether to use the article or not, it's best to leave it out.






102. Elision.—The final A of the article may be omitted in
certain cases (see par. 56 and Rule 16, par. 94).

102. Elision.—The final A of the article can be omitted in some cases (see par. 56 and Rule 16, par. 94).





THE NOUN (La Substantivo).




103. A noun (in the singular number) in all its cases, except the
accusative, ends in -O. The accusative is formed by the addition of
N. In the plural it ends in -OJ, and the accusative plural is
formed by adding N to these letters. Thus the root arb- is made
into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:—
103. A noun (in the singular form) in all its cases, except the accusative, ends in -O. The accusative is created by adding N. In the plural, it ends in -OJ, and the accusative plural is formed by adding N to these letters. So, the root arb- is turned into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:—


    

  • Arb-o = a tree (nominative, singular).
    • 

  • Arb-on = a tree (accusative, singular).
    • 

  • Arb-oj = trees (nominative, plural).
    • 

  • Arb-ojn = trees (accusative, plural).
    • 



Examples.—Domo = A house. La domo = The house. La domoj = The
houses. Rigardu la domojn = Look at the houses. Knabo = A boy.
La knabo = The boy. Mi vidis la knabon = I saw the boy. Knabino
= A girl. La knabino = The girl.
Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Domo = A house. La domo = The house. La domoj = The houses. Rigardu la domojn = Look at the houses. Knabo = A boy. La knabo = The boy. Mi vidis la knabon = I saw the boy. Knabino = A girl. La knabino = The girl.




Declension of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns.




104. There are but two cases in Esperanto (Rule 2, par. 94), viz.,
the nominative and the accusative (or objective); the latter is
obtained from the nominative by adding N to the singular or plural.
Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions, as:—
104. There are only two cases in Esperanto (Rule 2, par. 94), namely, the nominative and the accusative (or objective); the latter is formed from the nominative by adding N to the singular or plural. Other cases are expressed with the help of prepositions, such as:—




NominativeMia bona patro= My good father.


AccusativeMian bonan patron= My good father.


Genitive or PossessiveDe mia bona patro= Of my good father, or, My good father’s.


DativeAl mia bona patro= To my good father.


AblativeDe mia bona patro= From (by, see par. 259 (9)) my good father.


Kun mia bona patro= With my good father.


Per bona glavo= With (by means of) a good sword.





Note that per = by is the instrumental ablative, meaning "by
means, or aid, or use, of," and that kun = with means "in company
with," but not in an instrumental sense, as it is sometimes in
English, e.g., I held him with both hands = Mi lin tenis per
ambaŭ manoj, not kun ambaŭ manoj (see par. 259 (22)).
Note that per = by is the instrumental ablative, meaning "by means of, or with the aid of, or using," and that kun = with means "in company with," but not in an instrumental sense, as it is sometimes in English, e.g., I held him with both hands = Mi lin tenis per ambaŭ manoj, not kun ambaŭ manoj (see par. 259 (22)).


Plural.


(a). In the plural the declension is the same, with the addition of
the plural termination J, as:—
(a). In the plural, the declension remains the same, with the addition of the plural ending J, as:—




GenitiveDe miaj bonaj filoj= Of my good sons.


AccusativeMiajn bonajn filojn= My good sons.




Examples.—La frato skribas, kaj la fratino legas = The brother is
writing and the sister reading. La patro donis la libron al sia
filo = The father gave the book to his son. Tiu ĉi kaŭĉuka
ringo (or, ringo el kaŭĉuko) estas por la infaneto = This
india-rubber ring is for the baby. Mi vidis Jozefon kun lia kuzo =
I saw Joseph with his cousin. Venu, ni atendas Vin (Cin), Savinto de
la mondo = Come, we await You (Thee), O Saviour of the world. Mi
lin salutis per la mano = I saluted him by the hand. La domo estas
kovrita per ardezoj = The house is covered with slates. Mi vidis
vian patron kun liaj du filoj = I saw your father with his two sons.
Kie estas la domo de via patro? = Where is your father’s house?
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—The brother is writing and the sister is reading = The brother is writing and the sister is reading. The father gave the book to his son = The father gave the book to his son. This rubber ring is for the baby = This rubber ring is for the baby. I saw Joseph with his cousin = I saw Joseph with his cousin. Come, we await You, Saviour of the world = Come, we await You, Saviour of the world. I greeted him with a handshake = I greeted him with a handshake. The house is covered with slates = The house is covered with slates. I saw your father with his two sons = I saw your father with his two sons. Where is your father’s house? = Where is your father’s house?






105. Ellipsis.—The case (nominative or accusative) of words in
Esperanto often depends upon the verb omitted when ellipsis occurs in
a phrase, and



unless we write the sentence in full, or think what
the ellipsis is, we may not at first know what case to use to express
our meaning. A glance at the following examples will show how easy it
is to determine the case. The words in brackets show the ellipsis:—
105. Ellipsis.—The case (nominative or accusative) of words in Esperanto often depends on the verb that is left out when ellipsis happens in a phrase, and



unless we write the sentence out completely, or consider what the ellipsis is, we may not immediately know which case to use to convey our meaning. A look at the following examples will demonstrate how simple it is to determine the case. The words in brackets indicate the ellipsis:—


    

  • Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vi (konas lin) = I know him better than
you (do, or know him).
    • 

  • Mi konas lin pli bone, ol vin (ol mi konas vin) = I know him
better than you (than I know you).
    • 

  • Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom (li amas) Johanon = Peter loves
Paul as much as (he loves) John.
    • 

  • Petro amas Paŭlon tiom, kiom Johano (amas lin) = Peter loves
Paul as much as John (loves him).


N.B.—In the above sentences we cannot, in English, tell the meaning
until the ellipsis is supplied, whereas, in Esperanto, the meaning is
at once clear from the case of the noun or pronoun (par. 112).
N.B.—In the sentences above, we can't determine the meaning in English until we fill in the missing parts, while in Esperanto, the meaning is immediately clear from the case of the noun or pronoun (par. 112).


  • Li iris tien, kiel ankaŭ vi (iris) = He went there as well as
you (went).
    • 

  • Mi vidis lin tie, kiel ankaŭ (mi vidis) vin = I saw him there
as well as (I saw) you.
    • 

  • Mi neniam vidis tian hundon, kia (estas) via = I never saw such
a dog as yours.


105 (a). Elision.—The final O of a noun may be omitted (par.
57, and Rule 16, par. 94).
105 (a). Elision.—The last O of a noun can be left out (par. 57, and Rule 16, par. 94).






106. Possession is (a) expressed by help of the preposition de.
106. Possession is shown using the preposition of.


Examples.—La domo de la patro = The father’s house, or, the
house of the father. La libro de mia patrino = My mother’s book,
or, the book of my mother. La tranĉilo de Georgo = George’s
knife. Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj = That is my brothers’
house (the house of my brothers). (See par. 73.)
Examples.—The father's house = The father’s house, or, the house of the father. My mother's book = My mother’s book, or, the book of my mother. George's knife = George’s knife. That is my brothers' house = That is my brothers’ house (the house of my brothers). (See par. 73.)


(b). Possession is also denoted by the correlative words ending in
ES, viz.:—ies = someone’s, somebody’s, ĉies =
everyone’s, kies = whose, nenies = nobody’s, ties = that
one’s, of those (see par. 154).
(b). Possession is also indicated by the related words ending in ES, such as: ies = someone’s, somebody’s, ĉies = everyone’s, kies = whose, nenies = nobody’s, ties = that one’s, of those (see par. 154).



Examples.—Ĉies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was
different. Kies domo estas tiu? = Whose house is that? Ĝi estas
nenies domo = It is nobody’s house. Ĉu ĉi tio estas ies
tranĉilo? = Is this anyone’s (someone’s) knife? (see par. 154).
Examples.—Everyone’s idea was different = Ĉies ideo estis diversa. Whose house is that? = Kies domo estas tiu? It is nobody’s house. = Ĝi estas nenies domo. Is this anyone’s knife? = Ĉu ĉi tio estas ies tranĉilo? (see par. 154).


(c). An adjective is sometimes conveniently used when in English we
employ an apostrophe.
(c). An adjective is sometimes conveniently used when in English we use an apostrophe.


Examples.—Unutaga laboro (for, la laboro de unu tago) = One
day’s work. La unuataga laboro (for, la laboro de la unua tago) =
The first day’s work. Lia unuataga laboro estis en la ĝardeno, kaj
poste li faris unutagan laboron en la domo = His first day’s work
was in the garden, and then (afterwards) he did one day’s work in the
house. Mi atendis la kapitanan respondon = I awaited the captain’s
reply.
Examples.—Unutaga laboro (meaning la laboro de unu tago) = One day's work. La unuataga laboro (meaning la laboro de la unua tago) = The first day’s work. Lia unuataga laboro estis en la ĝardeno, kaj poste li faris unutagan laboron en la domo = His first day's work was in the garden, and then he did one day's work in the house. Mi atendis la kapitanan respondon = I was waiting for the captain's reply.


(d). In speaking of places, the English preposition "of" is not
translated.
(d). When talking about places, the English preposition "of" is not translated.


Examples.—La urbo Londono = The City of London. La Kolonio
Natalo = The Colony of Natal (see par. 253 (a)).
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—The City of London = The City of London. The Colony Natal = The Colony of Natal (see par. 253 (a)).


For numeral nouns, see par. 118; for participial, pars. 208, 209; for
predicative, par. 109; for compound nouns, par. 49; for form of
accusative with proper names, par. 69 (d); for the infinitive used
as a noun, par. 180.
For numeral nouns, see par. 118; for participials, see pars. 208, 209; for predicative, see par. 109; for compound nouns, see par. 49; for the form of accusative with proper names, see par. 69 (d); for the infinitive used as a noun, see par. 180.





THE ADJECTIVE (La Adjektivo).




107. The Adjective always ends in -A in the singular. J is
added to A to form the plural. The accusative case is formed by the
addition of N to the singular or plural termination.
107. The Adjective always ends in -A in the singular. J is added to A to make the plural. The accusative case is created by adding N to the singular or plural ending.


Examples.—Forta = Strong. Saĝa = Wise. Brava = Brave. Forta
homo = A strong man. Saĝa patro = A wise father. Saĝaj patroj
= Wise fathers. La brava filo = The brave son. La bravaj filoj =
The brave sons.
Sure! Please provide the text you would like modernized.—Forta = Strong. Saĝa = Wise. Brava = Brave. Forta
homo = A strong man. Saĝa patro = A wise father. Saĝaj patroj
= Wise fathers. La brava filo = The brave son. La bravaj filoj =
The brave sons.






108. There are two kinds of adjectives, viz.:—(a) Qualifying or
attributive (apudmetita = put adjacent), and (b) Predicative
(predikateca).
108. There are two types of adjectives, namely:—(a) Qualifying or attributive (apudmetita = put adjacent), and (b) Predicative (predikateca).


(a). A qualifying adjective is one placed before or after its
noun, with which it agrees both in number and case (par. 36).
(a). A qualifying adjective is one that comes before or after its noun, and it matches the noun in both number and case (par. 36).


Examples.—Johano havas bonan panon = John has good bread.
Vilhelmo akrigis la tranĉilojn malakrajn = William sharpened the
blunt knives.
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—John has good bread = John has good bread.  
William sharpened the blunt knives = William sharpened the blunt knives.


(b). A predicative adjective, usually placed after the verb,
denotes what is said about the noun or pronoun to which it refers, or
denotes their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them
in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36).
(b). A predicative adjective, typically positioned after the verb, describes what is being said about the noun or pronoun it refers to, or indicates their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36).


Examples.—La pomo estas bona = The apple is good. Vilhelmo trovis
la tranĉilojn malakraj = William found the knives blunt. If the
adjective were in this sentence in the accusative, the meaning would
be quite altered, for, Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakrajn
would mean, "William found the blunt knives," that is to say, he was
looking for blunt knives, and he found them. A predicative adjective
shows that ellipsis has taken place, and the omitted verb is
generally esti. For instance, the ellipsis in the above sentence
might be as follows:—William found (that) the



knives (are) blunt—Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranĉiloj estas
malakraj. If we elide ke and estas, the substantive takes the
accusative (tranĉilojn) and the adjective (malakraj) remains in
the nominative. Other examples are:—La kutimo faris lin (ke li
estu) indiferenta por tio ĉi (Hamleto V., 1) = Habit made him (to
be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this. Kion vi intencas nun
fari, por vin montri (ke vi estas) inda filo de via kara patro?
(Hamleto IV.,7) = What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that
you are) a worthy son of your dear father? (see par. 105 on
ellipsis).
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—The apple is good = La pomo estas bona. William found the knives blunt = Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakraj. If the adjective were in the accusative in this sentence, the meaning would change significantly, as William found the blunt knives = Vilhelmo trovis la tranĉilojn malakrajn, meaning he was looking for blunt knives and he found them. A predicative adjective indicates that something has been left out, typically the verb to be. For example, the implied meaning in the above sentence could be expressed as follows:—William found (that) the knives (are) blunt—Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranĉiloj estas malakraj. If we remove ke and estas, the noun takes the accusative (tranĉilojn) while the adjective (malakraj) stays in the nominative. Other examples include:—Habit made him (to be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this = La kutimo faris lin (ke li estu) indiferenta por tio ĉi (Hamleto V., 1). What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that you are) a worthy son of your dear father? = Kion vi intencas nun fari, por vin montri (ke vi estas) inda filo de via kara patro? (Hamleto IV.,7) (see par. 105 on ellipsis).






109. Predicative Noun.—A noun also can be predicative (see par. 35).
109. Predicative Noun.—A noun can also function as a predicative (see par. 35).


Examples.—La patro nomis sian filon Johano = The father named his
son John. Now in English it is not clear whether the father gave the
name of "John" to his son, or whether he made mention of his son
whose name was John. In Esperanto it is quite clear that he gave the
name, for otherwise "John" would be in the accusative (Johanon,
so:—La patro nomis sian filon Johanon = The father named (made
mention of) his son John. Ili nomis lin Adolfo = They called him
(gave him the name of) Adolphus.
Examples.—The father named his son John = The father named his son John. Now in English, it’s not clear whether the father gave the name "John" to his son or if he was just mentioning his son whose name was John. In Esperanto, it’s very clear that he gave the name because otherwise "John" would be in the accusative (Johanon, so:—The father named (mentioned) his son Johanon = The father named (made mention of) his son John. They called him Adolfo = They named him Adolphus.






110. Nominative or Accusative.—The rule, therefore, for qualifying
and predicative adjectives or nouns is:—
110. Nominative or Accusative.—The rule, therefore, for qualifying and predicative adjectives or nouns is:—


(a). The word will be in the accusative if the object already
possesses the quality in question.
(a). The word will be in the accusative if the object already has the quality in question.


(b). The word will be in the nominative if that quality, which it
did not before possess, or was not known to possess, is being given
to the object.
(b). The word will be in the nominative if the quality that it didn't have before, or was not known to have, is being assigned to the object.






111. Participial Adjectives.—Participles are often used in
Esperanto to qualify nouns and pronouns, and they are then in reality
true adjectives. To distinguish them from other adjectives they are
called "Participial Adjectives" (Participaj adjektivoj).
111. Participial Adjectives.—In Esperanto, participles are often used to describe nouns and pronouns, effectively functioning as true adjectives. To set them apart from other adjectives, they are referred to as "Participial Adjectives" (Participaj adjektivoj).


Examples.—Johano kaj Georgo estis perditaj = John and George were
lost. Ni trovis ilin mortantajn = We found them (who were) dying.
Ni estis finintaj, kiam vi alvenis = We had finished when you
arrived (see par. 209 (b)).
Examples.—Johano kaj Georgo estis perditaj = John and George were lost. Ni trovis ilin mortantajn = We found them dying. Ni estis finintaj, kiam vi alvenis = We had finished when you arrived (see par. 209 (b)).







112. Comparison of Adjectives.
112. Comparing Adjectives.


(a). The comparative of equality is tiel ... kiel = as,
so ... as.
The comparative of equality is tiel ... kiel = as, so ... as.


Johano estas tiel forta, kiel Georgo = John is as strong as
George.
John is as strong as George.


(b). The comparative of superiority is pli ... ol = more
... than.
The comparative of superiority is more ... than.


Johano estas pli forta, ol Georgo = John is stronger than George.
John is stronger than George = John is stronger than George.


(c). The comparative of inferiority is malpli ... ol = less
... than.
The comparative of inferiority is less than.


Johano estas malpli forta, ol Georgo = John is less strong
(weaker) than George.
John is less strong than George.


(d). The other modes of expressing comparison are:—
(d). The other ways to express comparison are:—


    

  • tia ... kia = such, such a, such kind ... as.
    • 

  • sama ... kia = the same ... as.
    • 

  • same ... kiel = the same ... as.
    • 

  • Ju pli ... des pli = the more ... the more.
    • 

  • Ju malpli ... des malpli = the less ... the less.
    • 

  • Ju pli ... des malpli = the more ... the less.
    • 

  • Ju malpli ... des pli = the less ... the more.
    • 



Examples.—Tia domo, kia tiu, estas malofte vidata = Such a house
as that is rarely seen. Mia bastono estas tia sama, kia via, or,
Mia bastono estas same, kiel via = My stick is the same as yours.
Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas = The more I know him,
the more I esteem him. Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la
bezonon dormi = The less I sleep, the less I feel the want (need) to
sleep. Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi = The more
I see him, the less he pleases me. Ju malpli mi manĝas, des pli mi
trinkas = The less I eat, the more I drink.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Tia domo, kia tiu, estas malofte vidata = A house like that is rarely seen. Mia bastono estas tia sama, kia via, or, Mia bastono estas same, kiel via = My stick is the same as yours. Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas = The more I know him, the more I respect him. Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi = The less I sleep, the less I feel the need to sleep. Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi = The more I see him, the less I like him. Ju malpli mi manĝas, des pli mi trinkas = The less I eat, the more I drink.


Be careful to note that the second term in a comparison is in the
nominative or accusative, according as it is the subject or
complement, e.g., Mi amas



mian fraton pli, ol mia fratino = I
love my brother more than my sister (loves him). Mia fratino is in
the nominative, amas lin being understood. But Mi amas mian fraton
pli, ol mian fratinon = I love my brother more than my sister.
Here fratinon is in the accusative, and the meaning is perfectly
clear. In English we should have to add "does" to the first example
to make the phrase clear: "I love my brother more than my sister
does" (see par. 105).
Be careful to note that the second term in a comparison is in the nominative or accusative, depending on whether it is the subject or the complement, e.g., I love my brother more than my sister = Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mia fratino (loves him). Mia fratino is in the nominative, with amas lin being understood. But I love my brother more than my sister = Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mian fratinon. Here fratinon is in the accusative, and the meaning is perfectly clear. In English, we would need to add "does" to the first example to clarify the phrase: "I love my brother more than my sister does" (see par. 105).






113. Superlatives (Superlativoj).
113. Superlatives (Superlativoj).


(a). The superlative of superiority is la plej = the most.
(a). The superlative of superiority is la plej = the most.


(b). The superlative of inferiority is la malplej = the
least.
(b). The superlative of inferiority is la malplej = the least.


The preposition el = out of, of, is used with the superlative
when it relates to numbers, or something collective, as a "group,"
"society," etc. But when the superlative relates to the place or
position where the superiority is or was, then some other appropriate
preposition is used.
The preposition el = out of, of, is used with the superlative when it refers to numbers or something collective, like a "group," "society," etc. However, when the superlative refers to the place or position of superiority, then a different appropriate preposition is used.


Examples.—Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj = John is the
strongest of the boys. Petro estis la plej malforta el ĉiuj =
Peter was the weakest of (out of) all. Georgo estas la malplej
kuraĝa knabo en la domo = George is the least courageous boy in the
house. Ŝi estis la plej bela virino, kiun mi iam vidis = She was
the most beautiful woman whom I ever saw. Tiuj ĉi estas la plej
grandaj arboj en la arbaro = These are the largest trees in the
wood. Li estis la plej bona Esperantisto el la grupo (klubo,
societo) = He was the best Esperantist of the group (club,
society). Metu la plej grandajn glasojn sur la tablon = Put the
largest glasses upon the table. Ne ĵetu la plej grandajn ŝtonojn
en la puton, sed la plej malgrandajn (malplej grandajn) = Do not
throw the largest stones into the well, but the smallest (the least
large).
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj = John is the strongest of the boys. Petro estis la plej malforta el ĉiuj = Peter was the weakest of all. Georgo estas la malplej kuraĝa knabo en la domo = George is the least courageous boy in the house. Ŝi estis la plej bela virino, kiun mi iam vidis = She was the most beautiful woman I have ever seen. Tiuj ĉi estas la plej grandaj arboj en la arbaro = These are the largest trees in the forest. Li estis la plej bona Esperantisto el la grupo (klubo, societo) = He was the best Esperantist in the group (club, society). Metu la plej grandajn glasojn sur la tablon = Put the largest glasses on the table. Ne ĵetu la plej grandajn ŝtonojn en la puton, sed la plej malgrandajn (malplej grandajn) = Do not throw the largest stones into the well, but the smallest (the least large).


(c). The superlative absolute is indicated by tre


= very, or
treege = exceedingly, or troe = excessively, or some other
suitable adverb.
(c). The absolute superlative is shown by tre


= very, or
treege = exceedingly, or troe = excessively, or another
appropriate adverb.


Example.—Tiu virino estas tre malbela kaj treege grasa = That
woman is very ugly and exceedingly fat.
Example.—That woman is really unattractive and extremely overweight.






114. Degrees of intensity of adjectives can also be shown by the
aid of the suffixes -EG- and -ET- with or without an adverb. The
suffix -EG- is stronger in its application than the adverb tre =
very. For instance, take the adjective bela = beautiful, or
fine. Tre bela = very beautiful, or very fine; but belega =
magnificent, or superb. So, the diminutive -ET- shows more
diminution than the adjective malgranda = small, or little,
would show when qualifying a noun. For instance, malgranda rivero =
a small river, but rivereto = a brook, or stream. The
following list shows how twelve adjectives of varying shades of
intensity can be formed from the root varm-, between the extremes
tre varmega = broiling hot and tre malvarmega = intensely
cold, supposing we were speaking of the weather:—
114. Degrees of intensity for adjectives can also be expressed with the suffixes -EG- and -ET-, with or without an adverb. The suffix -EG- is more intense than the adverb tre = very. For example, consider the adjective bela = beautiful or fine. Tre bela = very beautiful or very fine; but belega = magnificent or superb. Additionally, the diminutive -ET- indicates less size than the adjective malgranda = small or little would suggest when describing a noun. For instance, malgranda rivero = a small river, but rivereto = a brook or stream. The following list illustrates how twelve adjectives of different intensities can be created from the root varm-, ranging from tre varmega = broiling hot to tre malvarmega = intensely cold, assuming we are discussing the weather:—




Tre varmega = Broiling hot.Tre malvarmega = Intensely cold.


Varmega = Hot.Malvarmega = Bitterly cold.


Tre varma = Very warm.Tre malvarma = Very cold.


Varma = Warm.Malvarma = Cold.


Iom varma = Warmish.Iom malvarma = Coldish.


Varmeta = Mild.Malvarmeta = Cool.




See remarks on the suffixes -EG- and -ET-, par. 277.
See remarks on the suffixes -EG- and -ET-, par. 277.





NUMERALS.


Cardinal Numbers (Numeraloj fundamentaj).




115. The cardinal numbers are:—
115. The cardinal numbers are:—


(1) unu, (2) du, (3) tri, (4) kvar, (5) kvin, (6) ses,
(7) sep, (8) ok, (9) naŭ, (10) dek, (100) cent, (1,000)
mil, (0) (zero, naught) = nulo.
(1) one, (2) two, (3) three, (4) four, (5) five, (6) six,
(7) seven, (8) eight, (9) nine, (10) ten, (100) hundred, (1,000)
thousand, (0) (zero, naught) = zero.


Miliono (million) is a noun, the root being milion-.
Miliono (million) is a noun, with the root being milion-.


(a). The numbers 11 to 19 are formed by simply placing (10) dek
before the first nine, as:—(11) dek unu, (12) dek du, (13) dek
tri, (14) dek kvar, (15) dek kvin, (16) dek ses, (17) dek
sep, (18) dek ok, (19) dek naŭ.
(a). The numbers 11 to 19 are created by placing (10) dek before the first nine, like this:—(11) dek unu, (12) dek du, (13) dek tri, (14) dek kvar, (15) dek kvin, (16) dek ses, (17) dek sep, (18) dek ok, (19) dek naŭ.


(b). The numbers (101 to 119), or (1,001 to 1,019), are formed by
the addition cent, or mil, as:—(101) cent unu, (102) cent
du, (110) cent dek, (116) cent dek ses, (1,001) mil unu,
(1,006) mil ses, (1,114) mil cent dek kvar.
(b). The numbers (101 to 119), or (1,001 to 1,019), are created by adding cent or mil, such as:—(101) cent one, (102) cent two, (110) cent ten, (116) cent ten six, (1,001) mil one, (1,006) mil six, (1,114) mil cent ten four.


(c). The tens, hundreds, and thousands are formed by prefixing one
of the numbers 2 to 9 before dek, cent, or mil, as:—(20)
dudek, (30) tridek, (40) kvardek, (200) ducent, (500)
kvincent, (900) naŭcent, (2,000) dumil, (4,000) kvarmil,
(8,000) okmil.
(c). The numbers for tens, hundreds, and thousands are created by adding one of the numbers 2 to 9 in front of dek, cent, or mil, such as:—(20) dudek, (30) tridek, (40) kvardek, (200) ducent, (500) kvincent, (900) naŭcent, (2,000) dumil, (4,000) kvarmil, (8,000) okmil.


(d). The intermediate numbers (21 to 29), (31 to 39), etc., are
formed by adding the required number to the tens, as:—(21) dudek
unu, (22) dudek du, (33) tridek tri, (96) naŭdek ses, (121)
cent dudek unu, (342) tricent kvardek du, (1,021) mil dudek
unu, (8,754) okmil sepcent kvindek kvar.
(d). The numbers in between (21 to 29), (31 to 39), etc., are created by adding the necessary number to the tens, like this:—(21) dudek unu, (22) dudek du, (33) tridek tri, (96) naŭdek ses, (121) cent dudek unu, (342) tricent kvardek du, (1,021) mil dudek unu, (8,754) okmil sepcent kvindek kvar.



(e). The cardinal numbers never change their forms for case or
number.
(e). Cardinal numbers never change their forms for case or number.


Examples.—La du infanoj dividis inter si sep pomojn = The two
children divided between themselves seven apples. Unu prenis tri kaj
la alia prenis kvar el la pomoj = One took three and the other took
four of the apples. Kvin kaj sep faras (or, estas) dek du = 5
and 7 make (are) 12.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—The two children shared seven apples. One took three and the other took four of the apples. Five and seven make twelve.


(f). Unu is sometimes used in the plural, and unuj then means
some. It is used generally in relation with aliaj = others.
(f). Unu is occasionally used in the plural, and unuj then means some. It's usually used in connection with aliaj = others.


Examples.—El ŝiaj multaj infanoj, unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj
malbonaj = Among (out of) her many children, some are good and
others bad. Li ekzamenis la pomojn, kaj trovis unujn bonaj kaj
aliajn malbonaj = He examined the apples, and found some good and
others bad. Note that bonaj and malbonaj are predicative
adjectives, and therefore in the nominative (see pars. 36, 108
(b)).
Examples.—Among her many children, some are good and others are bad. = Among (out of) her many children, some are good and others bad. He examined the apples and found some good and others bad. = He examined the apples, and found some good and others bad. Note that good and bad are predicative adjectives, and therefore in the nominative (see pars. 36, 108 (b)).


(g). Unu is sometimes used when our indefinite article is
employed as a numeral.[14]
(g). Unu is sometimes used when our indefinite article is used as a number.[14]


Example.—Ĉar ĉiu el ni havas unu vortaron, prenu vian kaj lasu
mian = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine.
Example.—Because each of us has a dictionary, take yours and leave mine = Since we each have a dictionary, take yours and leave mine.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[14] This use of unu is not recommended.
   
This use of unu isn't recommended.






Ordinal Numbers (Numeraloj ordaj).




116. Ordinal numbers, being really adjectives, are, in Esperanto,
made such in the usual way by adding A to the cardinals,
as:—unua = first, dua = second, tria = third, kvara =
fourth, kvina = fifth, sesa = sixth, sepa = seventh,
oka = eighth, naŭa = ninth, deka = tenth.
116. Ordinal numbers, which are actually adjectives, are formed in Esperanto by adding A to the cardinal numbers, like this:—unua = first, dua = second, tria = third, kvara = fourth, kvina = fifth, sesa = sixth, sepa = seventh, oka = eighth, naŭa = ninth, deka = tenth.


(a). If the cardinal is composed of two or more numbers, A is
added to the last only, as:—dek-unua = eleventh, dek-dua =
twelfth, dek-naŭa = nineteenth, dudeka = twentieth,
dudek-unua = twenty-first, cent-tridek-naŭa = hundred and
thirty-ninth.
(a). If the cardinal number consists of two or more digits, A is added only to the last one, for example: dek-unua = eleventh, dek-dua = twelfth, dek-naŭa = nineteenth, dudeka = twentieth, dudek-unua = twenty-first, cent-tridek-naŭa = hundred and thirty-ninth.


N.B.—Note that the ordinal numbers are linked by hyphens.
N.B.—Keep in mind that the ordinal numbers are connected by hyphens.



(b). The Ordinals follow all the rules of adjectives as to case and
number.
(b). The Ordinals follow all the rules of adjectives regarding case and number.


Examples.—Donu al li la trian, kaj prenu la kvaran = Give him the
third, and take the fourth. La kvinaj etaĝoj de tiuj domoj estas
tre altaj = The fifth stories of those houses are very high.
Examples.—Give him the third, and take the fourth = Give him the third one, and take the fourth one. The fifth stories of those houses are very high = The fifth floors of those houses are really high.


(c). The Ordinals are usually used in speaking of pages, hours,
days, months, years, kings, etc.
(c). Ordinal numbers are typically used when referring to pages, hours, days, months, years, kings, and so on.


Examples.—Paĝo trideka = Page thirty. Vidu paĝon kvardekan
(or, 40an) = See page forty (40). Henriko kvara = Henry IV. La
dek-unua horo = 11 o’clock. En la dek-sesa (tago) de Aprilo =
On the 16th of April. En la jaro mil-okcent-naŭdek-naŭa = In
1899. Mil-naŭcent-kvara = 1904.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Page thirty = Page thirty. See page forty (or, 40th) = See page forty (40). Henry IV = Henry IV. 11 o’clock = 11 o’clock. On the 16th (day) of April = On the 16th of April. In the year nineteen hundred ninety-nine = In 1899. Nineteen oh-four = 1904.


In asking questions about the above, the adjective kioma is often
used.
In asking questions about the above, the adjective kioma is often used.


Examples.—Sur kioma paĝo vi vidis tion? = On what page did you
see that? Kioma paĝo estas? = What page is it? Kioma horo estas?
= What o’clock is it? Estas la dua = It is two o’clock. Kiun daton
ni havas? = What is the date (or, day of the month)? Hodiaŭ estas
la dudek-sepa (or, 27a) de Marto = To-day is the 27th of March.
Examples.—On what page did you see that? = On what page did you see that? Which page is it? = What page is it? What time is it? = What o’clock is it? It's two o’clock. = It is two o’clock. What date do we have? = What is the date (or, day of the month)? Today is the 27th of March. = Today is the 27th of March.






117. Ordinal adverbs are formed by adding E to the cardinals,
as:—unue, firstly, due, secondly, sepe, seventhly, etc.
117. Ordinal adverbs are created by adding E to the cardinal numbers, for example:—unue, firstly, due, secondly, sepe, seventhly, etc.






118. Substantives are formed from the cardinals by adding O. They
have various meanings, as:—Unuo = a unit, or a one. Duo = a
duet, or a two (of cards). Trio = a trio, or triplet, or a
three (of cards). Kvaro, etc. = a four, etc. (of cards, etc., up
to ten). Dek-duo = a dozen. Deko = half a score. Dudeko =
a score. Cento = a hundred. Milo = a thousand. Miliono =
a million.
118. Nouns are formed from the cardinal numbers by adding O. They have various meanings, such as:—Unuo = a unit, or one. Duo = a duet, or two (of cards). Trio = a trio, or triplet, or three (of cards). Kvaro, etc. = four, etc. (of cards, etc., up to ten). Dek-duo = a dozen. Deko = half a score. Dudeko = a score. Cento = one hundred. Milo = one thousand. Miliono = one million.


Examples.—Li havas dudekojn da ĉevaloj, centojn da ŝafoj, kaj
milojn da birdoj = He has scores of horses, hundreds of sheep, and
thousands of birds. Tiuj ludkartoj estas la kvaro pika kaj la seso
kera = Those cards are the four of spades and the six of hearts.
Tiu cifero estas oko = That figure is an eight.
Examples.—He has a bunch of horses, hundreds of sheep, and thousands of birds. Those cards are the four of spades and the six of hearts. That number is an eight.





Multiples (Numeraloj multoblaj).




119. Multiples are formed by the addition of the suffix -OBL- to
the cardinals, and then adding A, E, or O to mark the
adjective, adverb, or noun. They can also be formed into transitive
verbs by the suffix -IGI-, or intransitive by the suffix -IĜI-.
119. Multiples are created by adding the suffix -OBL- to the cardinal numbers, followed by adding A, E, or O to indicate whether it's an adjective, adverb, or noun. They can also be turned into transitive verbs by using the suffix -IGI-, or into intransitive verbs by using the suffix -IĜI-.


Examples.—Unuobla = Single. Unuoble = Singly. Duobla = Double,
twofold. Duoble = Doubly. La duoblo = The double. Duobligi = To
double, to duplicate. Duobliĝi = To become double. Triobla =
Triple, threefold. Trioble = Trebly. La trioblo = The treble
(of). Triobligi = To treble, to triplicate. Kvarobla = Fourfold,
quadruple. Kvaroble = Quadruply. Kvaroblo = A quadruple.
Kvarobligi = To quadruple, to make fourfold. Kvarobliĝi = To
become quadruple. Sepobla = Sevenfold, septuple. Centoblo = A
centuple. Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin = Five times (fivefold) 7
is 35. Naŭoble ok estas sepdek du = Nine times (ninefold) 8 is 72.
Kvaroble kvar estas dek ses = Four times four is 16. Dudek estas
la kvaroblo de kvin = Twenty is the quadruple of five. Duobla
fadeno estas pli forta ol unuobla = A double thread is stronger than
a single (one). Kvarobligante sepdek kvin vi ricevas la centoblon de
tri = By quadrupling 75 you get the centuple of 3.
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Unuobla = One. Unuoble = One at a time. Duobla = Two, double. Duoble = Twice. La duoblo = The double. Duobligi = To double, to copy. Duobliĝi = To turn into double. Triobla = Three, triple. Trioble = Three times. La trioblo = The triple. Triobligi = To triple, to make threefold. Kvarobla = Four, quadruple. Kvaroble = Four times. Kvaroblo = A quadruple. Kvarobligi = To quadruple, to make four times. Kvarobliĝi = To become quadruple. Sepobla = Seven, septuple. Centoblo = A hundredfold. Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin = Five times 7 is 35. Naŭoble ok estas sepdek du = Nine times 8 is 72. Kvaroble kvar estas dek ses = Four times four is 16. Dudek estas la kvaroblo de kvin = Twenty is four times five. Duobla fadeno estas pli forta ol unuobla = A double thread is stronger than a single one. Kvarobligante sepdek kvin vi ricevas la centoblon de tri = By quadrupling 75 you get a hundred times 3.




Fractional Numbers (Numeraloj nombronaj).




120. Fractional numbers are formed by the addition of the suffix
-ON- to the cardinals, and then adding A, E, or O to mark the
adjective, adverb, or noun, as:—Duona = half, duone = by
halves, duono = a half (1⁄2), triona = third, trione = by
thirds, triono = a third (1⁄3).
120. Fractional numbers are created by adding the suffix -ON- to the cardinal numbers, followed by adding A, E, or O to indicate whether it’s an adjective, adverb, or noun, as in:—Duona = half, duone = by halves, duono = a half (1⁄2), triona = third, trione = by thirds, triono = a third (1⁄3).


Examples.—La kvarona parto de dudek kvar estas la duono de dek du,
tio estas ses = The fourth part of 24 is the half of 12, that is 6.
Unu triono = One third (1⁄3). Tri okonoj = Three eighths (3⁄8).
Neniam faru ion poduone = Never do anything by halves. Duone ses
estas tri = half of six is three.
Examples.—The fourth part of 24 is half of 12, which is 6 = The fourth part of 24 is the half of 12, that is 6. One third = One third (1⁄3). Three eighths = Three eighths (3⁄8). Never do anything halfway = Never do anything by halves. Half of six is three = half of six is three.





The Collectives (Numeraloj kolektaj).




121. The collectives are formed by the addition of the suffix
-OP- to the cardinals, and then adding A or E to mark
adjectives or adverbs, as:—Duopa = double, two together,
duope = by twos, in pairs, triope = in threes, in
triplets, dekope = by tens.
121. The collectives are created by adding the suffix -OP- to the cardinal numbers, then adding A or E to indicate adjectives or adverbs, as follows:—Duopa = double, two together, duope = by twos, in pairs, triope = in threes, in triplets, dekope = by tens.


Example.—Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min = Five together (five at a
time) they threw themselves upon me.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—They came at me all at once = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me.




Reiteratives (Numeraloj ripetaj).




122. Reiteratives are formed by adding the adverb foje to the
cardinals, as:—Unufoje = once, dufoje = twice, trifoje =
thrice, kvarfoje = four times.
122. Reiteratives are created by adding the adverb foje to the cardinal numbers, for example: Unufoje = once, dufoje = twice, trifoje = thrice, kvarfoje = four times.


Examples.—Hieraŭ mi renkontis lin unufoje (or, unu fojon), sed
hodiaŭ dufoje (or, du fojojn) = Yesterday I met him once, but
to-day twice.
Examples.—Yesterday I met him once (or, one time), but today twice (or, two times) = Yesterday I met him once, but today twice.


N.B.—Note that when the substantive fojo is used, it is in the
accusative, as denoting point of time (par. 68 (b)).
N.B.—Note that when the noun fojo is used, it is in the accusative, indicating a point in time (par. 68 (b)).




Distributives (Numeraloj disdividaj).




123. Distributives are marked by the preposition po placed before
the cardinals, meaning at the rate of, in the proportion of.
123. Distributives are indicated by the preposition po placed before the cardinals, meaning at the rate of, in the proportion of.


Examples.—Al ĉiu el la laborantoj mi pagis po kvin ŝilingoj = I
paid each of the workmen at the rate of five shillings. Tiu ĉi
libro enhavas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek
kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj = This book
contains 60 pages, therefore if I (shall) read (in) each day at the
rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days (see "po"
in list of prepositions, par. 259 (22)).
N/A—I paid each of the workers five shillings. This book has 60 pages; so if I read 15 pages a day, I'll finish the whole book in 4 days. (see "per" in the list of prepositions, par. 259 (22)).




The Time of Day (La horo).




124. There are several possible ways of expressing the time of day.
"A quarter to three" (2.45) may be either:—
124. There are several ways to say the time of day. "A quarter to three" (2:45) can mean either:—



(a). Tri kvaronoj de la tria = three-quarters of the 3rd
(hour).
(a). Three-quarters of the 3rd = three-quarters of the 3rd (hour).


(b). La dua kaj tri kvaronoj = the 2nd (hour) and
three-quarters.
(b). The second hour and three-quarters = the 2nd (hour) and three-quarters.


(c). Kvarono antaŭ la tria = a quarter before the 3rd
(hour).
(c). A quarter to three = a quarter before the 3rd (hour).


The last example is the only one which would be easily understood by
an Englishman. Other nations use one or two of these methods, hence
we find a diversity of methods used in Esperanto also. There is,
however, one way used by nearly all nations, namely, that in railway
time tables, and it is to be hoped that this will come into general
use. Therefore to the question:—Kioma horo estas? = What time
(hour) is it? we might simply say as follows:—
The last example is the only one that would be easily understood by an English speaker. Other countries use one or two of these methods, which is why we see a variety of methods used in Esperanto as well. However, there is one method used by nearly all nations, specifically in railway timetables, and it is hoped that this will become widely adopted. So, to the question:—Kioma horo estas? = What time is it? we might simply say as follows:—




2.0=La dua (horo).


2.15=La dua (horo) kaj dek kvin (minutoj).


3.5=La tria (horo) kvin.


10.2=La deka (horo) du.


11.45=La dek-unua (horo) kvardek kvin.




In Italy, Belgium, etc., where the hours are numbered from one to
twenty-four, this system is equally applicable, as:—4.10 p.m. in
Italy = 16.10 = La dek-sesa (horo) dek.
In Italy, Belgium, and other places where time is counted from one to twenty-four, this system works just as well, as:—4:10 p.m. in Italy = 16:10 = La dek-sesa (horo) dek.





PRONOUNS (Pronomoj).




125. There are seven classes of Pronouns:—(1) Personal, (2)
Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6)
Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite.
125. There are seven types of pronouns: (1) Personal, (2) Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6) Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite.


As, however, the last five classes are so intimately connected with
other parts of speech, and as some of the pronouns represent two
classes, and some two parts of speech, it is better to treat them as
correlative words (see pars. 139–157), so under the head of
"Pronouns" we give only the personal and possessive.
As the last five classes are closely related to other parts of speech, and since some pronouns represent two classes and some represent two parts of speech, it makes more sense to treat them as correlative words (see pars. 139–157). Therefore, under "Pronouns," we will only include the personal and possessive.




Personal Pronouns (personaj pronomoj).




126. The personal pronouns are:—
126. Personal pronouns are:—


Nominative.
Nominative case.




Singular.1st Person.Mi = I.


   "2nd Person.Vi = you, thou. (Ci = thou is rarely used).


   "3rd Person.Li = he, Ŝi = she, Ĝi = it.


Plural.1st Person.Ni = we.


   "2nd Person.Vi = you, ye.


   "3rd Person.Ili = they.




Accusative.
Accusative case.




Singular.1st Person.Min = me.


   "2nd Person.Vin = you, thee. (Cin = thee is rarely used).


   "3rd Person.Lin = him,  Ŝin = her, Ĝin = it.


Plural.1st Person.Nin = us.


   "2nd Person.Vin = you.


   "3rd Person.Ilin = them.





Oni = one, people, they, we (like the French "on"), is an
indefinite pronoun of the 3rd person. Oni may be deemed singular or
plural.
Oni = one, people, they, we (similar to the French "on"), is an
indefinite pronoun in the 3rd person. Oni can be considered singular or
plural.


Owing to the fact that in most languages the word corresponding to
oni is invariable, Esperanto authors have generally avoided the
accusative and possessive forms onin and onia, although they are
occasionally met with. These forms are, however, perfectly regular,
and may be used without hesitation if desired.
Because in most languages the word that corresponds to oni does not change, Esperanto authors have generally steered clear of the accusative and possessive forms onin and onia, although they do appear from time to time. However, these forms are completely regular and can be used confidently if desired.


Si = self, selves, oneself, is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd
person, singular or plural.
Si = self, selves, oneself, is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, singular or plural.


Vi, like "you" in English, represents both the singular and plural,
but when it refers to more than one person, words depending on it
take the plural form.
Vi, similar to "you" in English, serves both singular and plural purposes, but when it refers to multiple people, the words that follow it use the plural form.


Ĝi, like "it" in English, is used to represent things, and also
persons and animals when the name does not reveal the sex.
Ĝi, similar to "it" in English, is used to refer to things, as well as people and animals when their name doesn't indicate gender.


Examples.—Mi lin amas = I love him. Li min vidas = He sees me.
Ili trovis lin kaj min en la ĝardeno = They found him and me in
the garden. Vi ne vidis nin = You did not see us. Vi (plural)
estas pli saĝaj, ol ili (estas) = You are wiser than they are.
Ŝi vidis ilin en la dormoĉambro = She saw them in the bedroom.
Oni diras, "Per mono oni povas aĉeti ĉion" = They (people) say
(it is said), "With money one (or, we) can buy everything. Mi
vidis la domon, sed ĝi estis tro malgranda = I saw the house, but
it was too small. Se oni estus riĉa, or riĉaj = If one were
rich.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—Mi lin amas = I love him. Li min vidas = He sees me. Ili trovis lin kaj min en la ĝardeno = They found him and me in the garden. Vi ne vidis nin = You didn’t see us. Vi (plural) estas pli saĝaj, ol ili (estas) = You are wiser than they are. Ŝi vidis ilin en la dormoĉambro = She saw them in the bedroom. Oni diras, "Per mono oni povas aĉeti ĉion" = They (people) say (it is said), "With money one (or, we) can buy everything. Mi vidis la domon, sed ĝi estis tro malgranda = I saw the house, but it was too small. Se oni estus riĉa, or riĉaj = If one were rich.


(a).—In words like infano = child, persono = person,
individuo = individual, etc., the sex is not revealed; neither is
it in the general name of an animal, as:—leono = a lion, hundo
= a dog, birdo = a bird, etc., unless we add the feminine
suffix -ino. In all such cases, when we do not know the sex, we use
the pronoun ĝi. If, however, the sex is known, and we wish to
demonstrate it, we can use the pronouns li or ŝi respectively.
Zamenhof advises the use of li and ŝi for human beings only, and
of ĝi for all other animals, even when the sex of the animal is
known and indicated; the use of li or ŝi in such cases is
nevertheless legitimate if desired.
(a).—In words like infano = child, persono = person, individuo = individual, etc., gender isn't specified; the same goes for the general term for an animal, such as:—leono = a lion, hundo = a dog, birdo = a bird, etc., unless we add the feminine suffix -ino. In all these cases, when we don’t know the gender, we use the pronoun ĝi. However, if the gender is known and we want to specify it, we can use the pronouns li or ŝi accordingly. Zamenhof recommends using li and ŝi for humans only, and ĝi for all other animals, even if the animal's gender is known and specified; the use of li or ŝi in such cases is still acceptable if preferred.



Examples.—La infano forkuris, kiam mi parolis al ĝi (or li if
we know the sex) = The child ran away when I spoke to it. Tio estas
bela ĉevalino, ĝi (or, ŝi) trotas bone = That is a fine mare,
she trots well. Se iu vizitos min dum mi forestas, diru al ĝi, ke
ĝi revenu morgaŭ = If anyone (someone) should call upon (visit) me
whilst I am away, tell him or her (it) to come again to-morrow.[15]
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—The child ran away when I spoke to it (or he if we know the sex) = The child ran away when I talked to it. That is a fine mare, she trots well = That’s a nice mare, she trots well. If anyone visits me while I'm away, tell him or her to come back tomorrow = If someone stops by to see me while I'm out, let them know to come back tomorrow.[15]




Footnote:
Footnote:



[15] This use of ĝi for a person
      is not recommended, and li (or tiu) would be better
      in a case where there is doubt as to the sex.
   
[15] Using ĝi to refer to a person is not advisable, and li (or tiu) would be a better choice when there is uncertainty about someone's gender.








127. The word mem = self or selves is sometimes used with a
personal pronoun or noun to give emphasis.
127. The word mem = self or selves is sometimes used with a personal pronoun or noun for emphasis.


Examples.—Mi mem ĝin vidis = I myself saw it. Ni mem ĝin
trovis, or, Ni ĝin trovis mem = We found it ourselves. Vi venu
mem = Come yourself. Ŝi mem parolos = She herself will speak. Li
mem respondu = Let him answer (for) himself. La virinoj venu mem =
Let the women come themselves.
Keep it as is.—I saw it myself = I myself saw it. We found it ourselves, or, We found it ourselves = We found it ourselves. Come yourself = Come yourself. She will speak herself = She herself will speak. Let him answer for himself = Let him answer (for) himself. Let the women come themselves = Let the women come themselves.






128. Si is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, and therefore
cannot refer to the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons.[16] We
cannot say Mi lavas sin, or Ni, or Vi lavas sin, for "I wash
myself," "We wash ourselves," "You wash yourself." We must, in each
of these cases, use the pronoun which is the subject of the verb,
as:—Mi lavas min—Ni lavas nin—Vi lavas vin = I wash
myself—We wash ourselves—You wash yourself (or if vi = you
is plural), You wash yourselves. Si, therefore, is used for the
3rd person, singular or plural, when it refers to the subject of
the verb. It takes the accusative termination N when necessary, and
then represents "himself, herself, itself, oneself,
themselves."
128. Si is a reflexive pronoun used for the 3rd person, so it can't refer to the 1st and 2nd person pronouns.[16] We can't say Mi lavas sin, or Ni, or Vi lavas sin, for "I wash myself," "We wash ourselves," "You wash yourself." Instead, we need to use the pronoun that is the subject of the verb, like this:—Mi lavas min—Ni lavas nin—Vi lavas vin = I wash myself—We wash ourselves—You wash yourself (or if vi = you is plural), You wash yourselves. Si is therefore used for the 3rd person, either singular or plural, when it refers to the subject of the verb. It takes the accusative ending N when needed, and then it means "himself, herself, itself, oneself, themselves."


Examples.—Li razis sin = He shaved himself. Petro razis sin =
Peter shaved himself (Petro razis lin would mean Peter shaved
him, viz., some other man referred to in the sentence). Ŝi diris
al si = She said to herself (Ŝi diris al ŝi would mean "She said
to her," viz., some other woman). Ĝi vundis sin = It wounded
itself (Ĝi vundis ĝin


would mean "It wounded it," viz., some
other animal). Ili mortigis sin = They killed themselves. Li
pensis en si mem, ke ... = He thought to (in) himself that ... La du
fratoj renkontas la rabistojn: la fratoj atakas kaj vundas ilin, sed,
tiel farante, ili vundas sin (or, sin mem) = The two brothers meet
the robbers: the brothers attack and wound them, but, in so doing,
they wound themselves. Mia fratino havas amikinon, kiu faras ĉion
por si, kaj nenion por ŝi = My sister has a friend, who does
everything for herself, and nothing for her. Oni kelkfoje tro
laŭdas sin = One (or people) sometimes praises oneself (or
praise themselves) too much (see conjugation of a reflexive verb,
par. 170).
Examples.—Li razis sin = He shaved himself. Petro razis sin = Peter shaved himself (Petro razis lin would mean Peter shaved him, meaning another man mentioned in the sentence). Ŝi diris al si = She said to herself (Ŝi diris al ŝi would mean "She said to her," meaning another woman). Ĝi vundis sin = It wounded itself (Ĝi vundis ĝin would mean "It wounded it," meaning another animal). Ili mortigis sin = They killed themselves. Li pensis en si mem, ke ... = He thought to himself that ... La du fratoj renkontas la rabistojn: la fratoj atakas kaj vundas ilin, sed, tiel farante, ili vundas sin (or, sin mem) = The two brothers meet the robbers: the brothers attack and wound them, but in doing so, they wound themselves. Mia fratino havas amikinon, kiu faras ĉion por si, kaj nenion por ŝi = My sister has a friend who does everything for herself and nothing for her. Oni kelkfoje tro laŭdas sin = One (or people) sometimes praises oneself (or themselves) too much (see conjugation of a reflexive verb, par. 170).




Footnote:
Footnote:



[16] The reason for the use of si
      is the avoidance of ambiguity. Si is not used with the 1st
      and 2nd persons, because there is no possibility of ambiguity in
      these cases.
[16] The reason for using si is to avoid confusion. Si is not used with the 1st and 2nd persons, since there’s no chance of misunderstanding in these situations.








129. The pronoun "it" is not expressed with impersonal verbs (see
par. 164).
129. The pronoun "it" isn't used with impersonal verbs (see par. 164).


Examples.—Kiu estas tie? Estas mi = Who is there? It is I.
Neĝas = It snows. Pluvis = It rained. Necesas, ke oni manĝu =
It is necessary to eat.
Examples.—Who is there? It's me. It snows. It rained. It's necessary to eat.




Possessive Pronouns (Pronomoj posedaj).




130. Possessive Pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival A to
the personal pronouns. They are essentially adjectives, and follow
the adjectival rules as to the formation of the plural and the
accusative.
130. Possessive Pronouns are created by adding the adjectival A to the personal pronouns. They function as adjectives and follow the same rules for forming the plural and the accusative.






131. They are mia = my, mine, via = your, yours, thy,
thine (cia = thy, thine, like its personal pronoun, ci, is
rarely used), lia = his, ŝia = her, hers, ĝia = its,
nia = our, ours, ilia = their, theirs, sia = his
(own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own),
theirs, one’s (own).
131. They are mia = my, mine, via = your, yours, thy,
thine (cia = thy, thine, like its personal pronoun, ci, is
rarely used), lia = his, ŝia = her, hers, ĝia = its,
nia = our, ours, ilia = their, theirs, sia = his
(own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own),
theirs, one’s (own).


Examples.—Mia patro, via frato, lia fratino, ŝia onklo, kaj iliaj
onklinoj, estas en la domo = My father, your brother, his sister,
her uncle, and their aunts are in the house. Mi vidis vian libron,
lian bastonon, ŝian ombrelon, kaj ilian keston en la stacidomo = I
saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their box in the station.
Mi havas viajn librojn = I have your books. Ĝia koloro estas
ruĝa = Its colour is red. Mia fratino renkontis vian fraton kaj
viajn amikojn = My sister met your brother and your friends.
Examples.—My father, your brother, his sister, her uncle, and their aunts are in the house. I saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their box at the station. I have your books. Its color is red. My sister met your brother and your friends.







132. When a possessive pronoun stands alone, as in sentences like the
following, it may or may not be preceded by the article la, at the
writer’s option, but many authors prefer to omit the article on the
ground that it is superfluous.
132. When a possessive pronoun is used alone, as in sentences like the following, it may or may not have the article la in front of it, depending on the writer's choice, but many authors prefer to leave out the article because it seems unnecessary.


Examples.—Ĉar ni ĉiuj havas (or, ĉar ĉiu el ni havas) unu
vortaron, prenu (la) vian kaj lasu (la) mian = Since we have each a
dictionary, take yours and leave mine. Ŝiaj infanoj estas pli
grandaj, ol (la) viaj = Her children are bigger than yours.
Examples.—Since we all have (or, since each of us has) a dictionary, take yours and leave mine = Since we each have a dictionary, take yours and leave mine. Her children are bigger than yours = Her children are bigger than yours.


Note in the first example that ĉiuj is in the plural because it is
in apposition to ni (see par. 69 (c)).
Note in the first example that ĉiuj is in the plural because it is in apposition to ni (see par. 69 (c)).






133. Mia is sometimes placed after a noun to denote affection.
133. Mia is sometimes added after a noun to show affection.


Examples.—Patrino mia = Mother mine, or Mother dear. Fratino mia
= Sister dear.
Examples.—Patrino mia = My mother, or Dear mother. Fratino mia = Dear sister.






134. When a possessive pronoun refers to two or more nouns, it may,
as in English, be repeated or not, but if it is not repeated the
possessive pronoun is usually put in the plural.
134. When a possessive pronoun refers to two or more nouns, it can, like in English, be repeated or not. However, if it isn’t repeated, the possessive pronoun is usually written in the plural form.


Example.—Lia patro, lia patrino, kaj lia fratino, or, liaj patro,
patrino, kaj fratino, estis en la domo = His father, his mother, and
his sister were in the house.
Sure!—His father, his mother, and his sister, or, his father, mother, and sister were in the house = His father, his mother, and his sister were in the house.


134 (a). Personal pronouns, preceded by the preposition al, are
sometimes used in a possessive sense.
134 (a). Personal pronouns, when preceded by the preposition al, are sometimes used to indicate possession.


Examples.—Mi kovris al mi la orelojn = I covered my (to myself
the) ears. Li fermis al si la okulojn = He closed his (to himself
the) eyes (see also par. 100).
Examples.—I covered my ears. = I covered my (to myself) ears. He closed his eyes. = He closed his (to himself) eyes (see also par. 100).






135. Sia, Lia, etc.—Great care must be taken not to use sia,
when the sense requires one of the other possessives of the 3rd
person, or vice versâ. Sia can only refer to the subject of
the sentence or proposition in which it occurs, and being
reflexive, it



can never form part of the subject of a sentence,
as:—Li diris al ni, ke lia (not, sia) hundo ĵus mortis = He
told us that his dog had just died. Like its root si, it is used
for the 3rd person, singular or plural, and may represent "his (own),
her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, or one’s (own)."
135. Sia, Lia, etc.—You must be careful not to use sia when you mean to use one of the other third-person possessives, or vice versa. Sia can only refer to the subject of the sentence or proposition it’s in, and since it’s reflexive, it



can never be part of the subject of a sentence, as in: Li diris al ni, ke lia (not sia) hundo ĵus mortis = He told us that his dog had just died. Like its root si, it is used for the third person, singular or plural, and can represent "his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, or one’s (own)."


Since sia, being reflexive, can never form part of the subject
of a sentence, we cannot say Li kaj sia edzino iris Parizon,
because li and edzino are equally subjects of the same clause.
But if we substitute kun for kaj, then li becomes the sole
subject, and we can correctly say, Li kun sia edzino iris
Parizon, or, Li iris Parizon kun sia edzino = He went to Paris
with his wife. If we use kaj we must say, Li kaj lia edzino
iris Parizon = He and his wife went to Paris.
Since sia is reflexive, it can never be part of the subject of a sentence, so we can't say Li kaj sia edzino iris Parizon, because li and edzino are both subjects of the same clause. But if we replace kaj with kun, then li becomes the only subject, and we can correctly say, Li kun sia edzino iris Parizon, or Li iris Parizon kun sia edzino = He went to Paris with his wife. If we use kaj, we must say, Li kaj lia edzino iris Parizon = He and his wife went to Paris.






136. In the four following examples sia refers to the subject of
the sentence:—
136. In the four examples that follow, sia refers to the subject of the sentence:—


Mia patrino forgesis sian libron = My mother forgot (or, has
forgotten) her book. Tiuj infanoj perdis siajn gepatrojn = Those
children have lost their parents. La hundo amas sian mastron = The
dog loves its master. Oni devas ami sian najbaron, kiel sin mem =
One must love one’s neighbour as oneself. N.B.—Sin is here in the
accusative owing to ellipsis, the words oni amas after kiel being
understood (see par. 105).
Mia patrino forgesis sian libron = My mother forgot her book. Tiuj infanoj perdis siajn gepatrojn = Those children have lost their parents. La hundo amas sian mastron = The dog loves its owner. Oni devas ami sian najbaron, kiel sin mem = One must love their neighbor as themselves. N.B.—Sin is here in the accusative due to ellipsis, the words oni amas after kiel being understood (see par. 105).






137. In the following three sentences the possessive pronoun does
not refer to the subject of the sentence, and therefore we use
lia, ŝia, ĝia, or ilia, as the case may be:—
137. In the next three sentences, the possessive pronoun does not refer to the subject of the sentence, so we use lia, ŝia, ĝia, or ilia, depending on the situation:—


Li vidis mian amikon kaj lian edzinon = He saw my friend and his
(his friend’s) wife. Ŝi venis al mi hieraŭ, por ke mi redonu
ŝiajn leterojn al ŝi = She came to me yesterday in order that I
might return her letters to her. La reĝo amas Johanon kaj lian
filon = The king loves John and his son.
He saw my friend and his wife. She came to me yesterday so I could return her letters to her. The king loves John and his son.


N.B.—Here the English does not show whether it is John’s son or his
own son whom the king loves, but in Esperanto it is clear it is
John’s son, otherwise it would be


sian filon; lian filon is in the accusative here, because the
conjunction kaj connects like cases (see par. 266).
N.B.—Here the English doesn't make it clear whether the king loves John’s son or his own son, but in Esperanto, it’s clear it is John’s son; otherwise, it would be 


sian filon; lian filon is in the accusative here because the conjunction kaj connects similar cases (see par. 266).


(a). Note in the following examples how the possessive varies in
accordance with the construction of the sentence.
(a). Observe in the following examples how the possessive changes based on the structure of the sentence.


El ĉiuj siaj amikinoj, ŝi plej amas Marion = Of all her friends
(female), she loves Mary best. (Here siaj refers to ŝi).
Of all her friends, she loves Mary the most.


El ĉiuj ŝiaj amikinoj, Mario estas le plej amata = Of all her
friends, Mary is the most loved. (Here ŝiaj refers to some woman
not mentioned.)
Of all her friends, Mary is the most loved.


Leginte sian libron, li ekdormis = After reading (having read) his
book, he fell asleep. (Here sian refers to li, understood in
leginte = When he had read his book, he ...). Leginte lian
libron, li ekdormis = After reading his book, he fell asleep. (Here
lian refers to some man not mentioned, who might have lent him the
book.)
After reading his book, he fell asleep. (Here sian refers to he, understood in leginte = When he had read his book, he ...). After reading the book he borrowed, he fell asleep. (Here lian refers to a man not mentioned, who might have lent him the book.)


Johano, legante sian libron, venkiĝis de dormo = John, while
reading his book, was (became) overcome by sleep.
John, while reading his book, was overcome by sleep.






138. The following are sentences more complicated, showing the
advantage of Esperanto over English, or indeed over most national
languages, in respect of its great clearness of expression:—
138. The following are more complex sentences that demonstrate the advantages of Esperanto over English, or really over most national languages, in terms of its clarity of expression:—


Petro skribis al Paŭlo, ke li konduku al li sian hundon = Peter
wrote to Paul to bring him his dog (sian refers to Paul because
li = he (Paul) becomes the subject, and sia always, as we have
said, refers to the subject of its own particular clause; if,
therefore, lian had been the possessive, it would have been Peter’s
dog.)
Peter wrote to Paul to bring him his dog = Peter wrote to Paul to bring him his dog (sian refers to Paul because li = he (Paul) becomes the subject, and sia always, as we have said, refers to the subject of its own particular clause; if, therefore, lian had been the possessive, it would have been Peter’s dog.)


Post kiam la reĝo mortis, lia filo edziĝis kun sia/lia kuzino
= After the king died, his son married his cousin. Here sia would
refer to filo, the son’s cousin, but lia to reĝo, the king’s
cousin.
After the king died, his son married his cousin. Here his would refer to son, the son’s cousin, but his would refer to king, the king’s cousin.


Mia patrino petis sian filinon, ke ŝi donu al sia/ŝia fratino
sian/ŝian libron. This sentence in English, whichever of the
possessives be used, would be "My mother requested her daughter to
give (that she give) to her sister her book."



Now the mother is the first subject in this sentence, therefore sian
filinon is the mother’s daughter (ŝian would mean someone else’s
daughter). But afterwards ŝi (the daughter) becomes the subject,
therefore sia fratino would be the daughter’s sister, and ŝia
fratino the mother’s. For the remainder of the sentence ŝi (the
daughter) still remains the subject, therefore sian libron would be
the daughter’s book, and ŝian libron the sister’s or the mother’s
book. Ties libron would definitely specify it as the sister’s book.
My mother asked her daughter to give her sister her book. This sentence in English, regardless of which possessive is used, would be "My mother requested her daughter to give (that she give) to her sister her book."



Now the mother is the first subject in this sentence, so her daughter refers to the mother’s daughter (the use of her would mean someone else’s daughter). But afterwards, she (the daughter) becomes the subject, so her sister would refer to the daughter’s sister, and her sister would refer to the mother’s. For the rest of the sentence, she (the daughter) remains the subject, so her book would be the daughter’s book, and her book could be the sister’s or the mother’s book. That book would definitely specify it as the sister’s book.


138 (a). From the examples given in paragraphs 128, 135, 136, and
138, we see that the reflexive pronoun si and the possessive sia
always refer to the subject (noun or pronoun) of their own
clause.
138 (a). From the examples provided in paragraphs 128, 135, 136, and 138, we see that the reflexive pronoun si and the possessive sia always refer to the subject (noun or pronoun) of their own clause.


(b). Si and sia are likewise used when the noun or pronoun to
which they refer is not expressed, but only understood.
(b). Si and sia are also used when the noun or pronoun they refer to isn't stated, but is still understood.


Example.—Tio estas nova metodo brosi sian (or, la) ĉapelon! =
That is a new method of brushing one’s hat!
Understood! Please provide the text you would like modernized.—This is a new way to brush your (or, the) hat!


(c). Phrases introduced by an infinitive or a participle may be
regarded as new sentences, the subject of which is mentally supplied:
i.e., the infinitive or the participle may be expanded to make the
full sentence implied.
(c). Phrases that start with an infinitive or a participle can be seen as separate sentences, with the subject understood: that is, the infinitive or participle can be expanded to form the complete sentence that is implied.


Examples of Infinitive.—Estas bone ne trompi (ke oni ne trompu)
sin = It is well not to deceive oneself. La patrino lasis
Marion legi (ke ŝi legu) sian libron (Mary’s book); ŝian
libron (the mother’s book). La oficiro petis Aŭguston rigardi
(ke li rigardu) lin (him) sin (himself). La patro petis sian
filon, helpi (ke la filo helpu) sian (the son’s) amikon;
lian (the father’s) amikon.
Infinitive Examples.—It's good not to deceive (so that one doesn't deceive) 
yourself = It is good not to deceive oneself. The mother let Marion read (so that she reads) her book (Mary’s book); her book (the mother’s book). The officer asked August to watch (so that he watches) him (him) himself (himself). The father asked his son to help (so that the son helps) his (the son’s) friend; his (the father’s) friend.


Examples of Participle.—La reĝo ordonis, ke ĉiuj renkontante
(kiam ili renkontis) lin, eliru. La princo montris viron,
starantan post li. La knabo vidis siajn fratinojn, ludantajn
(kiuj ludas) per sia (their own) pupo—per lia (with his)
pupo. La reĝo forveturis, ne sciiginte (kaj ne sciigis) sian
ministron pri sia (the king’s) devo—pri lia (the minister’s)
devo.
Examples of participles.—The king ordered that everyone meeting (when they met) him should go out. The prince pointed out a man standing behind him. The boy saw his sisters, playing (who play) with their (their own) doll—with his (with his) doll. The king left without informing (and did not inform) his minister about his (the king’s) duty—about the minister’s (the minister’s) duty.



(d). Boirac names lia, ŝia, ĝia, etc., the direct or normal
form of the pronoun, "La rekta formo," and sia the secondary or
accessory form, "flanka kaj akcesora." He points out that where the
use of the normal form could cause no possible ambiguity, the use of
the reflexive form, though always advisable if justified by rule, is
nevertheless not obligatory. It is even possible, as shown by
Millidge, that the non-use of si may in some cases be felt to be
somewhat clearer than its use, e.g., "La Ĥino legas siajn skribajn
signojn en sia dialekto, kaj la aliaj popoloj de Azio legas tiujn
samajn signojn en ilia (instead of sia) lingvo (F.K., p. 258).
In any case it is better, in case of doubt, to use the normal form.
It is worse to use the reflexive form when it should not be used,
than to omit it when it might be used.
(d). Boirac refers to lia, ŝia, ĝia, etc., as the direct or normal form of the pronoun, "La rekta formo," and sia as the secondary or accessory form, "flanka kaj akcesora." He notes that when the normal form can’t create any ambiguity, using the reflexive form, while always recommended if supported by a rule, is not obligatory nonetheless. It's even possible, as shown by Millidge, that not using si may, in some instances, be clearer than using it, for example, "La Ĥino legas siajn skribajn signojn en sia dialekto, kaj la aliaj popoloj de Azio legas tiujn samajn signojn en ilia (instead of sia) lingvo (F.K., p. 258). In any case, when in doubt, it's better to use the normal form. It's worse to use the reflexive form when it shouldn't be used than to leave it out when it could have been used.





CORRELATIVE WORDS. (Korelativaj Vortoj.)




139. The 45 correlative words (see table, par. 147) form a very
important part in the construction of the Esperanto language. Their
uses and meanings are very easily learnt and remembered, since they
have been exceedingly cleverly devised on a simple and uniform plan.
They are all to be found in the list of Primary Words given in Part V.
139. The 45 correlative words (see table, par. 147) play a crucial role in constructing the Esperanto language. Their uses and meanings are easy to learn and remember because they have been cleverly designed based on a simple and consistent pattern. You can find them all in the list of Primary Words provided in Part V.






140. They consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many
of them can be applied to denote not only one word, but also
expressions which require several English words to define clearly.
140. They include nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many of them can refer to not just a single word, but also phrases that need several English words to explain clearly.






141. The words in the table (par. 147) are placed in series
horizontally and vertically. All the words in each of the vertical
series commence with the same letter, and all in each horizontal
series have the same termination. It will be seen that the letter I
is the first letter in the first vertical series, and that this is a
central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first
letter of a word conveys an idea of its meaning, and the terminal
letters following I show how that idea is applied, and consequently
the full meaning of the word.
141. The words in the table (par. 147) are arranged horizontally and vertically. All the words in each vertical column start with the same letter, and all the words in each horizontal row end with the same letters. You'll see that the letter I is the first letter in the first vertical column, and it’s a central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first letter of a word suggests its meaning, and the ending letters that follow I show how that meaning is used, revealing the full meaning of the word.


(a). The initial letters convey the following ideas:—
(a). The initial letters communicate the following concepts:—


    

  • I- that the word is "indefinite."
    • 

  • Ĉ- that the word is "distributive" or "collective."
    • 

  • K- that the word is "interrogative" or "relative."
    • 

  • NEN- that the word is "negative" (nen- = ne, not,
  and N added for euphony).
    • 

  • T- that the word is "demonstrative."
    • 




(b). The terminal letters following I denote that the idea is
to be applied, in accordance with the termination, as follows:—
(b). The terminal letters that come after I indicate that the idea should be applied, based on the termination, as follows:—


    

  • -A in relation to "quality" or "the kind of" (adjectival).
    • 

  • -AL in relation to "motive" or "reason for" (adverbial).
    • 

  • -AM in relation to "time" (adverbial).
    • 

  • -E in relation to "place" (adverbial).
    • 

  • -EL in relation to "manner" (adverbial).
    • 

  • -ES in relation to "possession" (pronominal).
    • 

  • -O in relation to "a thing" (substantival or pronominal).
    • 

  • -OM in relation to "quantity" or "number of" (adverbial).
    • 

  • -U in relation to "person" or "thing specified". (pronominal or adjectival).
    • 







142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some
of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations
when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels
A, E, O, U, must not necessarily be presumed to be the
parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not
grammatical terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how
the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those
ending in a vowel all take the accusative N, and those ending in
A and U also take the plural J.
142. The correlative words are all complete on their own, but some can function as root words, taking grammatical endings when needed to express the intended meaning. Those ending in the vowels A, E, O, U should not necessarily be assumed to be the parts of speech these letters suggest; the letters are not grammatical endings, they simply indicate, as mentioned before, how the idea expressed in the preceding letters is to be used. Those ending in a vowel all take the accusative N, and those ending in A and U also take the plural J.


Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in O also to take
the plural J; but in practice this is seldom useful.
Theoretically, words ending in O can also take the plural J; however, in practice, this is rarely useful.







143. The demonstrative pronouns, tio = that (thing), tiu =
that one, the former, and sometimes ĉio, are followed by the
separate word ĉi = near, to express the demonstrative pronoun,
"this." Ĉi is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as
before stated. Thus tio = that (thing), tio ĉi = this
(thing) (lit., "that here"), tion ĉi (accusative) = this
(thing). Tiu = that one, the former, tiu ĉi = this one,
the latter. Tiuj = those, tiuj ĉi = these (lit., "those
here"). Often ĉi is placed first, as:—Ĉi tiu = this one. In
fact, other things being equal, it is preferable to place ĉi
before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally
correct. Ĉio ĉi = all this.
143. The demonstrative pronouns, tio = that (thing), tiu = that one, the former, and sometimes ĉio, are followed by the separate word ĉi = near to express the demonstrative pronoun, "this." Ĉi is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as mentioned before. So, tio = that (thing), tio ĉi = this (thing) (literally, "that here"), tion ĉi (accusative) = this (thing). Tiu = that one, the former, tiu ĉi = this one, the latter. Tiuj = those, tiuj ĉi = these (literally, "those here"). Often ĉi is placed first, as in:—Ĉi tiu = this one. In fact, when other things are equal, it’s better to place ĉi before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally correct. Ĉio ĉi = all this.






144. The adverb, tie = there, is also followed by ĉi to
denote "here." Thus tie = there, tie ĉi = here, tien
(accusative) = thither, tien ĉi = hither. Occasionally ĉi
is placed first, thus: ĉi tie, ĉi tien.
144. The adverb, tie = there, is also followed by ĉi to denote "here." So tie = there, tie ĉi = here, tien (accusative) = thither, tien ĉi = hither. Sometimes ĉi is placed first, like this: ĉi tie, ĉi tien.






145. The interrogative or relative series (viz., those commencing
with K) may be followed by the word ajn = ever, as kia ajn =
whatever kind of, kial ajn = for whatever reason, kiam ajn =
whenever, kie ajn = wherever, kiel ajn = however, kies
ajn = whosesoever, kio ajn = whatever, kiom ajn = however
much, whatever quantity, kiu ajn = whoever, whichever.
145. The interrogative or relative series (that is, those starting with K) can be followed by the word ajn = ever, such as kia ajn = whatever kind of, kial ajn = for whatever reason, kiam ajn = whenever, kie ajn = wherever, kiel ajn = however, kies ajn = whosesoever, kio ajn = whatever, kiom ajn = however much, whatever quantity, kiu ajn = whoever, whichever.


Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof
himself has rarely used it except after the series kia, kial,
etc. However, he does not say it is wrong to extend its use, for when
asked the question whether it could be employed after the series
ia, ial, etc., he replied that it could, because, in Esperanto,
any word could be combined with any other. See par. 158 (c) (d).
Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof himself has rarely done so except after the series kia, kial, etc. However, he doesn’t say it’s wrong to broaden its use, since when he was asked whether it could be used after the series ia, ial, etc., he responded that it could, because, in Esperanto, any word can be combined with any other. See par. 158 (c) (d).






146. Grammatical terminations and suffixes may be added to the
correlatives if required, thus making them nouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs, etc.,



as shown in the following examples. The hyphens are
given to show the construction of the words, but should not be used
in writing.
146. Grammatical endings and suffixes can be added to the correlatives if needed, turning them into nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc.,



as demonstrated in the following examples. The hyphens are provided to illustrate how the words are constructed, but they should not be used in writing.


Ĉiam-a = Everlasting, continual. Ĉiam-e = Everlastingly,
forever. Ĉie-a = Of everywhere. Ĉi-tie-a (ĉi tiea) = Of
here. Tie-a = Of there. Ĉi-tie-ulo (ĉi tieulo) = A man of
this place. Tie-ulo = A man of that place. Kiom-a = Of what
quantity. Kioma horo estas? = What time is it? Neni-igi = To
reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. Neni-iĝi = To become
nothing, to vanish. Tiam-a = Of then, of that time. Tiam-ulo = A
man of that time, a contemporary. La kial-o = The why and
wherefore, the reason (cause). Tiel-e = In that way.
Ĉiam-a = Everlasting, continual. Ĉiam-e = Everlastingly, forever. Ĉie-a = Of everywhere. Ĉi-tie-a (ĉi tiea) = Of here. Tie-a = Of there. Ĉi-tie-ulo (ĉi tieulo) = A person from this place. Tie-ulo = A person from that place. Kiom-a = Of what quantity. Kioma horo estas? = What time is it? Neni-igi = To reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. Neni-iĝi = To become nothing, to vanish. Tiam-a = Of then, of that time. Tiam-ulo = A person from that time, a contemporary. La kial-o = The reason (cause). Tiel-e = In that way.







147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.
147. CORRELATIVE WORDS TABLE.




Indefinite.Distributive, General or Collective.
Interrogative and Relative.Negative.Demonstrative.


Quality

Kind of

(adjectival)		
IA

some (any) kind or sort of

some (any)

of some kind		
ĈIA

every kind of

every

of every kind		
KIA

what kind of?

of what kind?

what a!

... as		
NENIA

no kind of

no, no such

of no kind

(not any kind of)		
TIA

that kind of

such a

of that kind


Motive

Reason for

(adverbial)		
IAL

for some (any) reason or cause		
ĈIAL

for every reason/cause

for all reasons		
KIAL

for what reason/cause

why? wherefore		
NENIAL

for no reason/cause		
TIAL

for that reason/cause

therefore


Time

(adverbial)		
IAM

at some (any) time

ever

once		
ĈIAM

always

every time

for all time

ever		
KIAM

at what time?

when		
NENIAM

at no time

never		
TIAM

at that time

then


Place

(adverbial)		
IE

in some (any) place

somewhere

(anywhere)		
ĈIE

in every place

everywhere		
KIE

in what place

where		
NENIE

in no place

nowhere

(not anywhere)		
TIE

in that place

there

yonder



Manner

(adverbial)		
IEL

in some manner/way

somehow (anyhow)

(in any manner)		
ĈIEL

(in) every manner/way

(in) every way

all ways		
KIEL

in what manner/way

how?

... as

like		
NENIEL

in no manner/way

nohow

by no means

not at all		
TIEL

in that manner/way

thus, so, like (that)

as ...

in such a manner


Possession

(pronominal)		
IES

somebody’s

(someone’s)

(anyone’s)		
ĈIES

everybody’s

everyone’s

each one’s

of each, of all		
KIES

whose

of which		
NENIES

no one’s

nobody’s

of none		
TIES

that one’s

of that

of those


Thing

(not specified)

(substantival or pronominal)		
IO

something

(anything)		
ĈIO

everything

all things

all		
KIO

what (thing)

which		
NENIO

nothing

not anything		
TIO

that (thing)


Quantity

(adverbial)		
IOM

some quantity

somewhat

rather, some

a little, at all

(any)		
ĈIOM

every quantity

all, the whole

all of it		
KIOM

what quantity

how much

how many		
NENIOM

no quantity

none

none at all		
TIOM

that quantity

so much/many

as much/many


Individuality

Person or thing

(pronominal or adjectival)		
IU

some one

(anyone)		
ĈIU

each one, each

everybody

ĉiuj=all,

all the ...		
KIU

which one

who, he who

which, that		
NENIU

no one

nobody		
TIU

that one

the former







Examples of the Use of Correlative Words.




148. In the following examples (pars. 149–157) we have taken the
correlative words in the table in the nine horizontal series, since
in this way we can best show how some of the words are used in pairs.
148. In the following examples (pars. 149–157), we've taken the related words from the table in the nine horizontal rows, as this allows us to best demonstrate how some of the words are used together.






149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.
149. Series ending in A (quality, type), adjective.


    

  • Ia = some sort of, some, a, an.
    • 

  • Ĉia = every (each) kind of, every sort of.
    • 

  • Kia = what a! what kind of? of what kind, ... as.
    • 

  • Nenia = no, no such, no kind of, of no kind, not any kind
of.
    • 

  • Ia ajn, of any kind (whatever).
    • 

  • Tia = such a, that kind of, of that kind.
    • 

  • Tia ... kia = such ... as.
    • 



Examples.—Ĉu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion? = Have
you not some book which will explain that?
Examples.—Don't you have a book that explains this? = Have you not some book which will explain that?


Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari = I have some (or, an) idea how
to do it.
Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari = I have an idea of how to do it.


Ekster ĉia dubo = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt.
Ekster ĉia dubo = Without a doubt.


Tiaj frazoj troviĝas en ĉiaj libroj = Such (kind of) phrases are
found in all kinds (sorts) of (or, in any) books.
Such phrases are found in all kinds of books.


Ni ne scias, kiel ili fariĝis tiaj, kiaj ili estas = We do not
know how they became what (such as) they are.
We don't know how they became who they are.


Nenia antaŭa sperto estas necesa = No (kind of) previous
experience is necessary.
No previous experience is necessary = No (kind of) previous experience is necessary.


Tian virinon oni ĉiam estimas = Such a woman one always esteems.
Tian virinon oni ĉiam respektas = Such a woman one always respects.


Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia ĝi estas = I gave him the book
such as it was.
I gave him the book just as it was = I gave him the book such as it was.


Kiun aĝon li havas? = How old is he? (what age has he?)
How old is he now?


Kia estas la vetero? = How (what kind) is the weather?
How's the weather?


Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento = Commencing at any (whatever)
moment.
Starting at any moment = Starting at any (whatever) moment.


Kia bela domo! = What a beautiful house!
Kia bela domo! = What a beautiful house!


Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj? = What are the stipulations (or terms)?
Kiaj estas la kondiĉoj? = What are the terms?


Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj = They are proud, we are not so.
Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj = They are proud, we are not.


Ŝi eksentis ion tian, kion ŝi mem komence ne povis kompreni = She
began to feel something such as she herself at first could not
understand.
She started to feel something that she initially couldn't understand.



Mi ĵus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne plaĉas al mi = I have just
learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like).
I've just found out some things that I don't like.


Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis = Here is the
monument such as they described.
Here is the monument just as they described it


Via aĝo estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato = Your age is the
same as your brother’s.
Your age is the same as your brother’s.


N.B.—Do not confuse the series ending in A with that ending in
U.
N.B.—Don't confuse the series ending in A with the one ending in U.


Examples.—Kian libron vi bezonas? = What (sort of) book do you
want? Kiun libron vi bezonas? = What (or which) book do you want?
Tia homo = Such a man, that sort of man. Tiu homo = That man.
Ĉiaj libroj = All (kinds of) books. Ĉiuj libroj = All (or,
all the) books. Mi ĝin prenos, kia ajn ĝi estas = I shall take it
whatever (sort of thing) it is.
Examples.—What kind of book do you want? = What (sort of) book do you want? Which book do you want? = What (or which) book do you want? Such a man = Such a man, that kind of man. That man = That man. All kinds of books = All (kinds of) books. All the books = All (or, all the) books. I’ll take it, no matter what it is = I shall take it whatever (sort of thing) it is.






150. Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.
150. Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.


    

  • Ial = for some reason or cause (for any reason)
    • 

  • Ĉial = for all reasons, for every reason, for every cause.
    • 

  • Ial ajn, for any reason (whatever).
    • 

  • Kial = why? wherefore, for what reason.
    • 

  • Nenial = for no reason, or cause.
    • 

  • Tial = therefore, for that reason.
    • 



Examples.—Ial li subite forlasis Londonon = For some reason he
suddenly left London.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—He suddenly left London = For some reason, he left London out of the blue.


Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best.
Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best.


Kial vi ne respondis? = Why did you not answer?
Kial vi ne respondis? = Why didn't you answer?


Li nenial ĉesis skribi al mi = He for no reason ceased writing to
me.
He suddenly stopped writing to me.


Ŝi neniam volis sekvi mian konsilon, tial mi forlasis ŝin = She
never would follow my advice, therefore I forsook her.
She never wanted to follow my advice, so I left her.


Mi ne povas imagi kial ajn li ĝin faris = I cannot imagine why
ever he did it.
I can’t imagine why he did it = I cannot imagine why ever he did it.






151. Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.
151. Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.


    

  • Iam = ever, at some time (any time), once, one day, once
upon a time.
    • 

  • Ĉiam = always, for all time, ever, at every time.
    • 


  • Kiam = when, at what time, as (relating to time).
    • 

  • Neniam = never, at no time.
    • 

  • Tiam = then, at that time.
    • 



Examples.—Se iam mi venos = If ever I come (shall come).
Examples.—If I ever come = If ever I come (shall come).


Ĉiam skribu legeble = Always write legibly.
Always write clearly = Always write legibly.


En tiaj okazoj ĉiam mankas io = On such occasions something is
always wanting.
On such occasions something is always missing.


Kiam vi skribis tiel? = When did you write like that (thus)?
Kiam vi skribis tiel? = When did you write like that?


Kiam la pastro venos, diru al li la veron = When the priest comes
(shall come), tell him the truth.
When the priest comes, tell him the truth.


Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa, or, Kiam mi estis
riĉa, tiam mi ne estis feliĉa = At that time when (or, when) I
was rich I was not happy, or, When I was rich then I was not happy,
or the sentence might be simply Kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis
feliĉa = When I was rich I was not happy.
When I was rich, I wasn’t happy, or, At that time when I was rich, I wasn’t happy = At that time when (or, when) I was rich I was not happy, or, When I was rich then I was not happy, or the sentence might be simply When I was rich, I wasn't happy = When I was rich I was not happy.


Mi neniam skribas longajn leterojn = I never write long letters.
I never write long emails.


Mi neniam aŭdis tion = I never heard that.
I’ve never heard that.


Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me whenever he
comes.
Send him to me whenever he comes = Send him to me whenever he comes.


Kiam ajn li venos? = Whenever will he come?
Kiam ajn li venos? = When will he come?


N.B.—Kiam is used after tiam, and any word denoting "time"
except antaŭ = before, when ol is generally used, though
kiam is used occasionally after antaŭ also (see par. 259 (3)).
N.B.—Kiam is used after tiam, and any word indicating "time" except antaŭ = before, when ol is typically used, although kiam is sometimes used after antaŭ as well (see par. 259 (3)).


Examples.—Unutage, kiam = One day, when. Iun tagon, kiam = On a
day, when. Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when. Samtempe,
kiam = At the same time, when. De l’ tempo kiam = From the time
when, since. Post kiam = After. Antaŭ ol li venis = Before he
came.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Unutage, kiam = One day, when. Iun tagon, kiam = On a day, when. Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when. Samtempe, kiam = At the same time, when. De l’ tempo kiam = From the time when, since. Post kiam = After. Antaŭ ol li venis = Before he came.






152. Series ending in E (place), adverbial.
152. Series ending in E (location), adverb.


    

  • Ie = somewhere (anywhere), in some (any) place.
    • 

  • Ĉie = everywhere, in every place, in all places.
    • 

  • Ie ajn, anywhere (whatever).
    • 

  • Kie = where, in what place, in which place.
    • 

  • Tie = there, yonder, in that place. Ĉi tie or tie ĉi =
here, in this place.
    • 




Examples.—Mi ne povis trovi mian libron ie en la ĉambro = I could
not find my book anywhere in the room.
Examples.—I couldn't find my book anywhere in the room.


Ĉu vi metis ĝin ien? = Did you put it anywhere (somewhere)?
Did you put it somewhere?


Ĉie mi trovis amikojn = Everywhere I found friends.
I found friends everywhere


Tion oni povas aĉeti ĉie = That can be bought (one can buy)
anywhere (everywhere).
That can be bought anywhere = That can be purchased (one can buy) everywhere.


Kien vi iras? = Where are you going?
Kien vi iras? = Where are you headed?


Mi iras nenien = I am going nowhere.
I'm going nowhere = I am going nowhere.


Kie estas la poŝtoficejo? = Where is the post office?
Where's the post office?


Ĝi estas tie, kie staras tiu domo = It is there where that house
stands.
It is there where that house stands.


Kien vi iras? = Whither are you going?
Kien vi iras? = Where are you going?


Mi iras tien = I am going thither.
I'm going there = I am going there.


Ĉu vi estas ĉi tie? = Are you here?
Are you here?


Li venas ĉi tien = He is coming here.
He's coming here.


Kie ajn li estas? = Wherever is he?
Kie ajn li estas? = Where is he?


Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ĉi = Wherever he is, he is not
here.
Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ĉi = Wherever he is, he is not here.






153. Series in EL (manner), adverbial.
153. Series in EL (style), adverb.


    

  • Iel—somehow (anyhow), in some way, in some manner.
    • 

  • Iel ajn, in any way (whatever).
    • 

  • Ĉiel = in every way, in every manner, in all ways.
    • 

  • Kiel = how, in what manner, like, ... as.
    • 

  • Neniel = nohow, in no manner, not at all, by no means.
    • 

  • Tiel = thus, in that manner, like (that), so, as ...
    • 

  • Tiel ... kiel (in comparison) = as ... as; so ... as.
    • 



Examples.—Iel li ĉiel sukcesas = Somehow he succeeds in every
way.
Examples.—He somehow manages to succeed in every way.


Mi havis nenian ideon, kiel ĝin fari = I had no idea how to do it.
I had no idea how to do it.


Kiel vi fartas? = How do you do? or, How are you?
Kiel vi fartas? = How are you?


Ŝi neniel povis lin kompreni tiel longe, kiel li parolis la lingvon
francan = She could nohow (or, not at all) understand him as long
as he spoke in the French language.
She couldn't understand him at all as long as he spoke French.


Same kiel la prudento estas donita al la homo, tiel la instinkto
estas donita al la besto = Just as reason has been given to man, so
instinct has been given to beasts.
Just as reason has been given to man, so instinct has been given to beasts.


Kaj tiel plu (often written k.t.p.) = And so on, and so forth.
Kaj tiel plu (often written k.t.p.) = And so on, and so forth.



Kiel eble plej baldaŭ (k.e.p.b.) = As soon as possible.
Kiel eble plej baldaŭ (k.e.p.b.) = As soon as possible.


Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you.
He is as strong as you


Kiel ajn malmulte = However little.
However little.






154. Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; relate to thing
or person, singular or plural.
154. Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; refer to a thing or person, singular or plural.


    

  • Ies = somebody’s, someone’s (anyone’s, anybody’s).
    • 

  • Ĉies = everyone’s, each one’s, of each, of all.
    • 

  • Kies = whose, of whom, of which.
    • 

  • Nenies = no one’s, nobody’s, of none.
    • 

  • Ties = that one’s, of that, of those.
    • 



Examples.—Ĉies devo estas nenies = Anybody’s (everybody’s) duty
is nobody’s.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Ĉies devo estas nenies = Anyone's duty is nobody's.


Ies perdo ne estas ĉiam ies gajno = Someone’s loss is not always
somebody’s gain.
Ies perdo ne estas ĉiam ies gajno = Someone's loss isn't always someone else's gain.


Ĉies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was different.
Everyone had a different idea.


Kies libro estas tiu ĉi? = Whose book is this?
Kies libro estas tiu ĉi? = Whose book is this?


Kies plumon vi uzas? = Whose pen are you using?
Kies plumon vi uzas? = Whose pen are you using?


La domo, kies tegmenton vi vidas, apartenas al mia patro = The
house the roof of which you see belongs to my father.
The house you see the roof of belongs to my father.


El kies ĉiuj paŝoj, oni povas konkludi, ke ili estas lacaj = From
all of whose steps we can conclude that they are tired.
From all of their steps, we can conclude that they are tired.


Tiu libro estas tre malpura, kies ajn ĝi estas = That book is very
dirty, whosesoever it is.
This book is really dirty, no matter whose it is.


Ties opinio ne multe valoras = That one’s opinion is not worth
much.
Ties opinio ne multe valoras = That person's opinion doesn't hold much weight.


Mi neniam sekvas ties konsilon = I never take (follow) that one’s
(his, her, their) advice.
I've never followed that person's advice.


N.B.—Be careful not to use kies for "of which," when these words
do not mean possession. We cannot say La afero kies ni parolis for
"The affair of which we spoke"; we must say La afero, pri kiu ni
parolis.
N.B.—Be careful not to use kies for "of which," when these words do not mean possession. We cannot say La afero kies ni parolis for "The affair of which we spoke"; we must say La afero, pri kiu ni parolis.






155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite),
substantival or pronominal.
155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite),  
substantial or pronoun-based.


    

  • Io = something.
    • 

  • Io ajn, anything (whatever).
    • 

  • Ĉio = everything, all things, all.
    • 

  • Kio = what (thing), which.
    • 

  • Nenio = nothing, not any thing.
    • 

  • Tio = that (thing). Ĉi tio or tio ĉi = this (thing).
    • 




Examples.—Kio estas tio, kion vi skribas? = What is that (or,
that which) you are writing?
Understood.—What is that you are writing?


Io estis sub la tablo, sed mi ne povis vidi ion tie = Something was
under the table, but I could not see anything (something) there.
There was something under the table, but I couldn't see anything there.


Li vidis ion, kion li tre amis = He saw something he liked very
much.
He saw something he really liked.


Estas tempo por ĉio = There is a time for everything.
There's a time for everything = There is a time for everything.


Ĉio (tio) ĉi montras, ke ... = All this shows that ...
Ĉio (tio) ĉi montras, ke ... = All this shows that ...


Ĉio, kion mi havas, estas (la) via = All I have is yours.
All I have is (yours) yours = All I have is yours.


Kio estas tio ĉi, kion mi vidas? = What is this that I see?
What is this that I see?


Nenio estas preta = Nothing is ready.
Nenio estas preta = Nothing is ready.


Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing.
Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing.


Tio havas malbonan odoron, kio ajn ĝi estas = It (that) has a bad
smell, whatever it is.
It has a bad smell, whatever it is.


Li ne diris eĉ unu vorton pri ĉio tio ĉi (or, ĉio ĉi) al
iu = He did not say even one word about all this to anyone.
He didn't say a single word about all this (or, all this) to anyone.






156. Series ending in OM (quantity), adverbial.
156. Series ending in OM (amount), adverbial.


    

  • Iom = somewhat, some quantity, rather, a little, some.
    • 

  • Ĉiom = all, all of it, the whole, every quantity.
    • 

  • Kiom = how much, how many, what quantity.
    • 

  • Neniom = none, none at all, no quantity.
    • 

  • Tiom = so much, so many, as much, as many, that quantity.
    • 

  • Tiom ... kiom = as much (many) ... as.
    • 



Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat
(a little) warmer.
Modernize it to contemporary English.—The weather is a bit warmer = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer.


Jen estas sukero, prenu iom, sed ne ĉiom = Here is sugar, take
some, but not all (the whole).
Here’s some sugar, take a little, but not all of it.


Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have you?
How many horses do you have?


Mi havas neniom = I have none (none at all).
Mi havas neniom = I have nothing (not even a little).


Tiom pli bone = So much the better.
Even better.


Tiom estas malfacile memori = So much is difficult to remember.
It's really hard to remember = So much is difficult to remember.


Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino = Give me as much water as
wine.
Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino = Give me as much water as wine.


Kiom vi scias = As far (much) as you know.
Kiom vi scias = As much as you know.


Kiom eble = As far (much) (many) as possible.
Kiom eble = As far (much) (many) as possible.


Kiom ajn da teo tiu kesto povas enhavi, tiu ĉi povas enhavi duoble
tiom = Whatever quantity (however much) of tea that chest will (can)
hold, this one will hold twice as much.

Whatever quantity of tea that chest can hold, this one will hold twice as much.







157. Series ending in U (persons or specified things), pronominal
or adjectival.
157. Series ending in U (people or specific things), pronouns or adjectives.


    

  • Iu = someone, somebody.
    • 

  • Iu ajn, anyone (whatever).
    • 

  • Ĉiu = everyone, each one. Ĉiuj = all, all (of) the....
    • 

  • Kiu = who, which, that, which one.
    • 

  • Neniu = nobody, no one, no.
    • 

  • Tiu = that (one), the former. Ĉi tiu, or tiu ĉi = this
one, the latter. Tiuj, those; Ĉi tiuj, these.
    • 



Examples.—Iu estas tie = Someone is there.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—Someone is there = Someone is there.


Mi ne vidis iun = I did not see anyone (someone).
Mi ne vidis iun = I didn't see anyone.


Ĉiu aĝo havas siajn devojn = Each age has its duties.
Every generation has its responsibilities.


Ŝi legis ĉiun libron, kiun ŝi povis ricevi = She read every book
she could get.
She read every book she could get.


Kiu estas en la ĝardeno? = Who is in the garden?
Kiu estas en la ĝardeno? = Who is in the garden?


Mi konis ĉiun viron, kiun mi renkontis = I knew every man whom I
met.
I knew every man I met = I knew every man I met.


Mi legis ĉiujn librojn, kiujn vi pruntis al mi = I read all the
books that you lent to me.
I read all the books that you lent to me.


Tiu pano estas freŝa, sed tiu ĉi estas pli freŝa = That bread is
new, but this is newer.
Tiu pano estas freŝa, sed tiu ĉi estas pli freŝa = That bread is fresh, but this one is fresher.


Tiu, kiu havas la harojn nigrajn = He who has the black hair.
He who has black hair = He who has the black hair.


Neniu estis tie, tial mi vidis neniun = No one was there, therefore
I saw nobody.
No one was there, so I didn't see anyone.


Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsaĝulo = That man, whoever
he is, is not a fool.
Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsaĝulo = That man, whoever he is, is not a fool.


Ŝi fariĝis edzino de iu bankiero, kiun ŝi konis pli bone, ol
ĉiun alian = She became wife of a certain (someone, a) banker,
whom she knew better than anyone (everyone) else.
She became the wife of a banker, whom she knew better than
anyone else.


Ĉiu vorto povas esti kombinata kun ĉiu alia = Any (each) word
can be combined with any (each) other word.
Each word can be combined with any (each) other word.


Li pli sincere malĝojis je li, ol (k)iu ajn el liaj parencoj =
He was more sincerely sorry for him, than any of his relations.
He was more sincerely sorry for him than any of his relatives.


La pafilo povos en ĉiu tempo (ĉiam) esti ŝargita = The gun
can be (will be able to be) loaded at any time.
The gun can be loaded = The gun can be loaded at any time.


Li ne permesos al (k)iu ajn tion fari = He will not allow
anyone (whatever) to do that (see par. 158 (d)).
He will not allow anyone to do that = He will not allow anyone (whatever) to do that (see par. 158 (d)).






158. General Remarks.—The foregoing remarks on the correlative
words show the importance of a



correct knowledge of their true
meanings. Twenty or more of them will be found in nearly every page
of the "Krestomatio." Note the following difference in meaning of
those ending in:—
158. General Remarks.—The comments above about the related words highlight how important it is to understand their actual meanings. You’ll find twenty or more of them on almost every page of the "Krestomatio." Pay attention to the different meanings of those that end in:—


(a). -AL and -EL. It will be noticed that the series AL
represent phrases in English commencing with "for," as:—"for some
reason," "for every reason," etc.; whereas in the series EL the
phrases commence with "in," as:—"in some way," "in every way." Bear
in mind that -AL relates to motive, and -EL to manner. Note
the difference of meaning in tial and tiel when followed by ke.
Tial, ke = for the reason that, forasmuch as, because that.
Tiel, ke = in such a manner that, so that. Some beginners seem
to think that kial and kiel have no difference in meaning, which
is equivalent to using "why" and "how" indiscriminately. Kial li
faras tion? = Why (for what reason) is he doing that? Kiel li
faras tion? = How (in what way) is he doing that?
(a). -AL and -EL. You'll notice that the series AL includes phrases in English that start with "for," such as: "for some reason," "for every reason," etc.; while in the series EL, the phrases start with "in," like: "in some way," "in every way." Remember that -AL relates to motive, and -EL to manner. Pay attention to the difference in meaning between tial and tiel when followed by ke. Tial, ke = for the reason that, forasmuch as, because that. Tiel, ke = in such a manner that, so that. Some beginners seem to think that kial and kiel have the same meaning, which is like using "why" and "how" interchangeably. Kial li faras tion? = Why (for what reason) is he doing that? Kiel li faras tion? = How (in what way) is he doing that?


(b). -O and -U. The series O is rarely used in the plural; it
relates to things which are not mentioned by name or referred to by a
personal pronoun. Examples.—Kio estas tio? = What is that?
Kiu estas tiu? = Who is that? Tiu estas mia frato, kiu
promenadas kun sia edzino = That is my brother who is walking with
his wife. Tio estas, kion mi bezonis = That is what I wanted.
Tio, kio kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas arbo = That which is
growing in my garden is a tree. Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia
ĝardeno, estas kverko = That tree, which is growing in my garden,
is an oak.
(b). -O and -U. The series O is rarely used in the plural; it refers to things that are not named or referred to by a personal pronoun. Examples.—What is that? = Kio estas tio? Who is that? = Kiu estas tiu? That is my brother who is walking with his wife. = Tiu estas mia frato, kiu promenadas kun sia edzino That is what I wanted. = Tio estas, kion mi bezonis That which is growing in my garden is a tree. = Tio, kio kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas arbo That tree, which is growing in my garden, is an oak. = Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia ĝardeno, estas kverko


Tio is sometimes used for "it," relating to both persons and
things, as:—Tio (or, ĝi) estis mi, kiu lin vidis = It was I
who saw him. Tio estas ponto = It (that) is a bridge.
Tio is sometimes used for "it," referring to both people and things, for example:—Tio (or, ĝi) estis mi, kiu lin vidis = It was me who saw him. Tio estas ponto = It (that) is a bridge.


(c). -I: "ANY" (= SOME). It will be seen from the table of
Correlative Words on pages 98, 99, that the words in the column
commencing with I have as their main idea indefiniteness,
corresponding to the English some (or other). Thus: Li estas ie
= he is somewhere (or other). Mi manĝos ion = I shall eat
something (or other). Iu faris tion = Someone (or other)
did that.
(c). -I: "ANY" (= SOME). It will be evident from the table of Correlative Words on pages 98, 99, that the words in the column starting with I have as their main idea indefiniteness, which corresponds to the English some (or other). Therefore: Li estas ie = he is somewhere (or other). Mi manĝos ion = I will eat something (or other). Iu faris tion = Someone (or other) did that.


In English, especially in a sentence which is negative,
interrogative, or suppositional, the word any is often used in this
sense instead of the word some. In such cases (as shown in brackets
in the table) the i- words may be translated with any; thus: Ĉu
vi manĝis ion? = Did you eat anything (something)? Mi ne
manĝos ion = I shall not eat



anything. Se li estus ie en la ĉambro = If he were anywhere
(somewhere) in the room. Ĉu iu faris tion? = Did anyone
(someone) do that? Mi ne konas iun, kiu povus = I do not know
anyone who could. Se iu faris tion = If anyone did that....
In English, especially in sentences that are negative, questioning, or hypothetical, the word any is often used instead of some. In such cases (as indicated in brackets in the table), the i- words can be translated with any; for example: Ĉu vi manĝis ion? = Did you eat anything (something)? Mi ne manĝos ion = I will not eat anything. Se li estus ie en la ĉambro = If he were anywhere (somewhere) in the room. Ĉu iu faris tion? = Did anyone (someone) do that? Mi ne konas iun, kiu povus = I don't know anyone who could. Se iu faris tion = If anyone did that....


(d). "ANY" (= ANY WHATEVER). Sometimes, however, the word any
is used not with the meaning of some (as in the preceding
paragraph), but with the meaning any whatever. Take, for example,
the questions: What will you eat for breakfast? Where shall we go?
The answers might be: Oh, anything (you like, it doesn’t matter
what); and Anywhere (you like). This meaning of any (any
whatever) may be expressed in various ways: (1) By a k-word
followed by ajn, thus: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the words vi volas
or similar words being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by
ajn, thus: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is usually adopted by
Zamenhof, but method 2 is increasingly used. (3) Sometimes a
ĉ-word may be used. Thus, the sentence: Anyone could do that,
may be translated: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ĉiu) povus tion
fari.
(d). "ANY" (= ANY WHATEVER). However, sometimes the word any is used not to mean some (as in the previous paragraph), but to mean any whatever. For example, consider the questions: What will you eat for breakfast? Where should we go? The answers could be: Oh, anything (you like, it doesn’t matter what); and Anywhere (you prefer). This meaning of any (any whatever) can be expressed in different ways: (1) By a k-word followed by ajn, like: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the phrases vi volas or similar ones being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by ajn, like: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is typically used by Zamenhof, but method 2 is becoming more popular. (3) Sometimes a ĉ-word can be used. For instance, the sentence: Anyone could do that, can be translated as: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ĉiu) povus tion fari.


(e). AJN. The word ajn is used not only as shown in the
preceding paragraph, but also after the k-series, to correspond to
the English -ever (see par. 248 (b)). It is also occasionally
used with the ĉ-series and the nen-series, thus: Mi serĉis lin
ĉie ajn = I looked for him absolutely everywhere. Li estas nenie
ajn = He was nowhere at all, absolutely nowhere.
(e). AJN. The word ajn is used not just as mentioned in the previous paragraph, but also after the k-series, to match the English -ever (see par. 248 (b)). It is also sometimes used with the ĉ-series and the nen-series, as follows: Mi serĉis lin ĉie ajn = I looked for him everywhere. Li estas nenie ajn = He was nowhere at all.





THE VERB (La Verbo).




159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is
conjugated exactly the same.
159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is
conjugated exactly the same way.






160. The following are the grammatical terminations of all verbs,
from which it will be seen that there are only three tenses (see
pars. 214–236), three moods (see pars. 171–202), and six
participles (see pars. 203–213).
160. Here are the grammatical endings for all verbs, which show that there are only three tenses (see pars. 214–236), three moods (see pars. 171–202), and six participles (see pars. 203–213).


TENSES. (Indicative Mood.)




-AS,Present, as:Mi faras = I do, or, make.


-IS,Past, as:Vi faris = you did, or, have (or, had) done.


-OS,Future, as:Ili faros = they will do.




CONDITIONAL, or US MOOD.
CONDITIONAL, or US MOOD.


-US, as: Se mi farus = if I did, or, should (or,
    would) do, or, were to do.
-US, as: Se mi farus = if I did, or, should (or, would) do, or, were to do.


IMPERATIVE, or U MOOD.
IMPERATIVE or U MOOD.


-U, as: Diru al li, ke li tion faru = tell him to do that
    (lit., that he do that).

Ni faru tion = let us do that.
-U, as: Tell him to do that = tell him to do that (lit., that he do that).

Let's do that = let us do that.


INFINITIVE MOOD.
INFINITIVE FORM.


-I, as: Fari = to do.
-I, as: Fari = to perform.



PARTICIPLES.




-ANTA,Active, Present, as:Faranta = doing.


Farante (adv.) = in (when, or, other prep.) doing.


-INTA,Active, Past, as:Farinta = having done.


Farinte (adv.) = in having done.


-ONTA,Active, Future, as:Faronta = (being) about to do.


Faronte (adv.) = on being about to do.


-ATA,Passive, Present, as:Farata = being done, or, done.


Farate (adv.) = on being done.


-ITA,Passive, Past, as:Farita = been done, or, having been done.


Farite (adv.) = on having been done.


-OTA,Passive, Future, as:Farota = (being) about to be done.


Farote (adv.) = on being about to be done.




N.B.—For examples of the noun-participles see par. 209.
N.B.—For examples of the noun-participles, see par. 209.




CLASSES OF VERBS.


There are two classes of verbs—transitive and intransitive.
There are two types of verbs—transitive and intransitive.


Transitive Verbs (transitivaj verboj).




161. A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and
the passive.
161. A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and the passive.



(a). A verb is in the active voice when the subject is acting
upon the object. The object then, being governed by the verb, must be
in the accusative case; as:—Johano batis la hundon = John beat
the dog. Here Johano is the subject acting upon hundon, the
object; therefore hundon is in the accusative.
(a). A verb is in the active voice when the subject performs an action on the object. The object, influenced by the verb, must be in the accusative case; for example:—Johano batis la hundon = John beat the dog. In this sentence, Johano is the subject performing the action on hundon, the object; therefore, hundon is in the accusative.


(b). A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject
is acted upon; as:—La hundo estis batata de Johano = The dog was
(being) beaten by John. The preposition "by" or "with," preceding
the complement of a verb in the passive voice, is de or per. De
is used for the agent, and per for the means or manner, as:—La
domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house
built by my father is (having been) covered with slates.
(b). A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject is affected by an action; for example:—La hundo estis batata de Johano = The dog was being beaten by John. The prepositions "by" or "with," that come before the complement of a verb in the passive voice, are de or per. De is used to indicate the agent, while per is used for the means or method, as in:—La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house built by my father is covered with slates.




Intransitive Verbs (netransitivaj verboj).




162. An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the
actor, as:—Johano dormas = John sleeps, or, is sleeping.
Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no passive voice.
162. An intransitive verb expresses an action that stays with the subject, like:—Johano dormas = John sleeps, or, is sleeping. Intransitive verbs, therefore, have no object and cannot be used in the passive voice.




Auxiliary Verb (helpa verbo).




163. There is but one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = to
be. This verb is used to form the passive voice, and also all the
compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = to have is
in no sense an auxiliary, but is an ordinary active verb denoting
ownership, and governing the accusative case, as: Mi havas libron =
I have a book.
163. There is only one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = to be. This verb is used to create the passive voice and all the compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = to have is not an auxiliary verb at all; it's a regular active verb that indicates ownership and takes the accusative case, as in: Mi havas libron = I have a book.


In Esperanto the following and other verbs are often used where
English would usually employ "to be," viz., kuŝi = to lie;
sidi = to be situate; sin trovi = to find oneself; troviĝi
= to be found; stari = to stand; farti, or, stati = to be
(well or ill).
In Esperanto, the following and other verbs are often used where English would typically use "to be," like kuŝi = to lie; sidi = to be situated; sin trovi = to find oneself; troviĝi = to be found; stari = to stand; farti, or stati = to be (well or ill).



Examples.—La krajono kuŝas (estas) sur la tablo = The pencil is
(lies) on the table. Sur la kameno staris (estis) fera kaldrono, en
kiu sin trovis (estis) bolanta akvo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovis
(estis) apud la pordo, la vaporo iris sur la korton = On the hearth
was (stood) an iron kettle, in which was (found itself) boiling
water; through the window, which was near the door, steam went out
into (on to) the yard. Kiel statas via tuso? = How is your cough?
Examples.—The pencil is on the table. On the hearth, there was an iron kettle, which had boiling water in it; through the window, which was next to the door, steam went out into the yard. How's your cough?




Impersonal Use of Verbs.




164. Verbs used impersonally (senpersone) express a fact or
action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In
English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by
"it," but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following
are cases of their impersonal use:—
164. Verbs used impersonally (senpersone) express a fact or action without specifying a person as the subject or actor. In English, they are only used in the third person singular, preceded by "it," but in Esperanto, they are completely impersonal. The following are examples of their impersonal use:—


(a). Verbs which relate to the weather.
(a). Verbs that are connected to the weather.


Examples.—Pluvas = It rains. Pluvos = It will rain. Fulmis =
It lightened. Neĝus = It would snow. Hajlis = It hailed.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Pluvas = It's raining. Pluvos = It will rain. Fulmis = It flashed. Neĝus = It would snow. Hajlis = It hailed.


(b). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but
occasionally without.
(b). Verbs that are usually used with the subject stated, but sometimes without it.


Examples.—Okazas = It happens. Ŝajnos = It will seem.
Prosperis al mi trovi = It was my fortune to find.
Examples.—Okazas = It happens. Ŝajnos = It will seem.  
Prosperis al mi trovi = I was lucky to find.


(c). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb,
or passive participle-adverb.
(c). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective or a passive participle.


Examples.—Estas pli bone forkuri = It is better to run away.
Estas dirite, ke ... = It is said that ...
Examples.—It's better to run away = It is better to run away. It's said that ... = It is said that ...


(d). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial
form, since there is no noun or pronoun with which it can agree (see
par. 245).
(d). In compound tenses, the participle uses the adverbial form because there isn’t a noun or pronoun to agree with it (see par. 245).


Examples.—Se estus pluvinte hieraŭ, ni ne estus povintaj eliri =
If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been
able to go out. Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte = I
shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained.
Examples.—If it had rained yesterday, we wouldn't have been able to go out. = If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been able to go out. I'll cut the grass when it rains. = I shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained.





Reflexive Verbs (refleksivaj verboj).




165. Reflexive verbs show the action of the subject on itself. They
are used only when the subject really acts on itself, and not, as in
many other languages, on other occasions (see par. 128 on the use of
the reflexive pronoun si, and par. 170, conjugation of a reflexive
verb).
165. Reflexive verbs indicate when the subject is acting on itself. They're used only when the subject genuinely affects itself, not like in many other languages, where they might be used in other situations (see par. 128 for the use of the reflexive pronoun si, and par. 170, for conjugating a reflexive verb).


Examples.—Mi lavas min = I wash myself. Li lavis sin = He washed
himself. Vi razos vin = You will shave yourself. Ili vestis sin =
They dressed themselves.
Got it! Please provide the phrases you'd like me to modernize or retain.—I wash myself = I wash myself. He washed himself = He washed himself. You will shave yourself = You will shave yourself. They dressed themselves = They dressed themselves.






166. When there are more subjects than one, and the act goes from one
to another of the subjects, the word reciproke, or the expression
unu la alian, may be used. With the latter the personal pronoun is
not repeated.
166. When there are multiple subjects, and the action shifts from one subject to another, the word reciproke or the phrase unu la alian can be used. With the latter, the personal pronoun is not repeated.


Examples.—Ili batis sin reciproke, or, Ili batis unu la alian =
They beat one another. Ili ĵetis terbulojn al la kapo unu de la
alia = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another’s heads.
Understood. Please provide the text that needs to be modernized.—They beat each other, or, They hit one another = They beat one another. They threw clods (lumps of earth) at each other’s heads = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another’s heads.






167. CONJUGATION OF ESTI.
167. CONJUGATION OF ESTI.


The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, by the aid
of which all the compound tenses in the active voice and all the
tenses in the passive voice of every verb in Esperanto are formed.
The compound tenses of esti, such as mi estas estanta = I am
being, etc., are very rarely used.
The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, which are used to form all the compound tenses in the active voice and all the tenses in the passive voice of every verb in Esperanto. The compound tenses of esti, like mi estas estanta = I am being, etc., are very rarely used.


INFINITIVE MOOD.
INFINITIVE FORM.


Esti = to be.
Esti = to exist.


PARTICIPLES.
Participles.




Present,Estanta= being.


Past,Estinta= been, or, having been.


Future,Estonta= about to be, or, going to be.




Note that participles take the plural J and accusative N if
required (see par. 207); also the adverbial E (see par. 209 (c)).
Note that participles take the plural J and accusative N if needed (see par. 207); also the adverbial E (see par. 209 (c)).



INDICATIVE MOOD.
Indicative Mood.


Present.
Now.




Miestas= I am.


Vi, ciestas= You (thou) are (art).


Li, ŝi, ĝi, oniestas= He, she, it, one is.


Niestas= We are.


Viestas= You are.


Iliestas= They are.




N.B.—The pronoun ci = thou is rarely used.
N.B.—The pronoun ci = you is rarely used.


Past.
History.




Miestis= I was.


Viestis= You were.


Li, etc.estis= He was.


Niestis= We were.


Viestis= You were.


Iliestis= They were.




Future.
Future.




Singular.Miestos= I shall be.


Viestos= You will be.


Li, etc.estos= He will be.


Plural.Niestos= We shall be.


Viestos= You will be.


Iliestos= They will be.




CONDITIONAL MOOD.
CONDITIONAL MOOD.


The Conditional or US mood has no tenses (see par. 192). We can
show its meaning best by using the conjunction se, which frequently
introduces it. It has no time value in itself, and may relate to the
past, present, or future.
The Conditional or US mood doesn't have tenses (see par. 192). We can best demonstrate its meaning by using the conjunction se, which often introduces it. It has no time value on its own and can refer to the past, present, or future.





Sing.(Se)Miestus= (If) I should be, were, had been.


(Se)Viestus= (If) you would, were, had been.


(Se)Li, etc.estus= (If) he would, were, had been.


Plural.(Se)Niestus= (If) we would, were, had been.


(Se)Viestus= (If) you would, were, had been.


(Se)Iliestus= (If) they would, were, had been.




IMPERATIVE MOOD.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.


The imperative or U mood has no tenses.
The imperative or U mood has no tenses.


The following is its form and meaning in a chief proposition (see
par. 199).
The following is its form and meaning in a main proposition (see 
par. 199).




Singular.Mi estu= Let me be.


Estu= Be, or, be you, or, be thou.


Li, ŝi, ĝi, estu= Let him, her, it be.


Plural.Ni estu= Let us be.


Estu= Be, or, be you, or, be ye.


Ili estu= Let them be.




The following is its meaning in a dependent proposition, which is
usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that (par. 200).
The following is its meaning in a dependent proposition, which is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that (par. 200).




Sing.(Ke) Miestu= (That) I
(may, might, should) be.


(Ke) Viestu= (That) you


(Ke)Li, etc.estu= (That) he


Plural.(Ke)Niestu= (That) we


(Ke)Viestu= (That) you


(Ke)Iliestu= (That) they








168. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB.
168. ACTIVE VERB CONJUGATION.


The conjugation of the compound forms is given in par. 169. When
simple forms sufficiently convey the meaning, they are preferable to
the compound forms.
The conjugation of the compound forms is given in par. 169. When simple forms clearly express the meaning, they are better than the compound forms.



INFINITIVE MOOD.
INFINTIVE FORM.




SimplePresent,Teni= To hold.


CompoundPresent,Esti tenanta= To be holding.


CompoundPast,Esti teninta= To have held.


CompoundFuture,Esti tenonta= To be about (or, going) to hold.




PARTICIPLES.
Participles.




Present,Tenanta= Holding.


Past,Teninta= Having held.


Future,Tenonta= About (or, going) to hold.




INDICATIVE MOOD.


Present (Simple).
Present (Simple).




Sing.Mitenas= I hold, am holding, do hold.


Vi (or, ci)tenas= You hold, are holding, do hold.


Li, ŝi, ĝitenas= He, she, it holds, is holding, does hold.


Plural.Nitenas= We hold, are holding, do hold.


Vitenas= You (or, ye) hold, are holding, do hold.


Ilitenas= They hold, are holding, do hold.




N.B.—Ci = thou is rarely used. Vi = you is used, as in
English, for both singular and plural; but when vi is plural, the
participle in compound tenses takes the plural J.
N.B.—Ci = you is rarely used. Vi = you is used, like in English, for both singular and plural; but when vi is plural, the participle in compound tenses takes the plural J.


Past (Simple).
Simple Past.


Mi, vi, etc., tenis = I, you, etc., held, have (or,
had) held, was holding, did hold.
Me, you, etc., tennis = I, you, etc., held, have (or, had) held, was holding, did hold.



Future (Simple).
Future (Simple).


Mi, vi, etc., tenos = I, you, etc., shall hold, or,
shall be holding.
Mi, vi, etc., tenos = I, you, etc., will hold, or, will be holding.


CONDITIONAL MOOD (OR "US" MOOD).


The translation of this mood into English depends upon the context,
viz., whether we use the auxiliaries "should," "would," "were,"
"had," or simply the English past tense. It is frequently introduced
by the conjunction se = if (see pars. 190–194).
The translation of this mood into English depends on the context, specifically whether we use the auxiliaries "should," "would," "were," "had," or just the English past tense. It's often introduced by the conjunction se = if (see pars. 190–194).


(Se) mi tenus = (If) I held, or, should hold, or, should
be holding, or, were holding, or, were to hold, or, had held.
(Se) mi tenus = (If) I held, or, I should hold, or, I should be holding, or, I were holding, or, I were to hold, or, I had held.


IMPERATIVE MOOD (OR "U" MOOD).
IMPERATIVE MOOD ("U" MOOD).




Singular.Mi tenu= Let me hold.


Tenu= Hold.


Li, ŝi, ĝi, tenu= Let him, her, it hold.


Plural.Ni tenu= Let us hold.


Tenu= Hold.


Ili tenu= Let them hold.






Sing.(Ke) mi tenu
= (That) I
may, might, should hold.


(Ke) vi (or, ci)
 tenu= (That) you (or, thou)


(Ke) li tenu= (That) he


Plural.(Ke) ni tenu= (That) we


(Ke) vi tenu= (That) you (or, ye)


(Ke) ili tenu= (That) they




(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202).
(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202).





CONJUGATION OF THE COMPOUND FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES.
CONJUGATION OF THE COMPOUND FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES.




169. The following shows the compound tenses in the active and
passive voices, and the compound forms of the conditional and
imperative moods:—For the three persons of the plural add J to the
participle (see pars. 173, 174, 235, 236).
169. The following displays the compound tenses in the active and passive voices, along with the compound forms of the conditional and imperative moods:—For the three plural subjects, add J to the participle (see pars. 173, 174, 235, 236).




The Present in thePresent
Mi estas tenanta= I am holding.


Mi estas tenata= I am (being) held.


Past
Mi estis tenanta= I was holding.


Mi estis tenata= I was (being) held.


Future
Mi estos tenanta= I shall be holding.


Mi estos tenata= I shall be (being) held.






The Past in thePresent
Mi estas teninta= I have held.


Mi estas tenita= I have been, or, was held.


Past
Mi estis teninta= I had held.


Mi estis tenita= I had been held, or, was held, if
the action is completed.


Future
Mi estos teninta= I shall have held.


Mi estos tenita= I shall have been held.






The Future in thePresent
Mi estas tenonta= I am about (or, going) to hold.


Mi estas tenota= I am about (or, going) to be held.


Past
Mi estis tenonta= I was about (or, going) to hold.


Mi estis tenota= I was about (or, going) to be held.


Future
Mi estos tenonta= I shall be about to hold.


Mi estos tenota= I shall be about to be held.





CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD.
Conditional, or "Us" Mood.


Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.
Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.




Se mi estus tenanta= If I should be, or, were, holding.


Se mi estus tenata= If I should be or, were (being) held, or, if I be held.


Se mi estus teninta= If I should have held, or, if I had held.


Se mi estus tenita= If I should have been held, or, if I had been, or, were, held.


Se mi estus tenonta= If I should be, or, were, about to hold.


Se mi estus tenota= If I should be about to be held.




N.B.—In the active voice use the simple form instead of the present
and past participle, unless the compound form is necessary to
emphasize the meaning. For instance, in the sentence "He would not
have struck me if you had held him," we use the past participle to
show the anteriority, but we need not use it for the first clause; so
we say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi estus teninta lin. If we use the
simple form, Li ne frapus min, se vi tenus lin, it would be
read:—"He would not strike me if you held him," unless the context
clearly showed the action was completed. We could, however, use the
adverb antaŭe instead of the compound form, and say:—Li ne
frapus min, se vi antaŭe tenus lin = He would not have struck me if
you had held him (lit., if you beforehand held him) (see par. 226 (a)
and remarks on the Conditional mood, pars. 190–194).
N.B.—In the active voice, use the simple form instead of the present and past participle, unless the compound form is necessary to emphasize the meaning. For example, in the sentence "He would not have struck me if you had held him," we use the past participle to show that it happened earlier, but we don’t need to use it for the first clause; so we say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi estus teninta lin. If we use the simple form, Li ne frapus min, se vi tenus lin, it would be read as:—"He would not strike me if you held him," unless the context clearly indicates the action was completed. However, we could use the adverb antaŭe instead of the compound form, and say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi antaŭe tenus lin = He would not have struck me if you had held him (literally, if you beforehand held him) (see par. 226 (a) and remarks on the Conditional mood, pars. 190–194).



IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD.
COMMAND, OR "U" MOOD.


Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.
Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.




(Por ke) mi estu tenanta= (In order that) I may be holding.


(Por ke) mi estu tenata= (In order that) I may be held.


(Por ke) mi estu teninta= (In order that) I may have held, or, might hold.


(Por ke) mi estu tenita= (In order that) I may have been held, or, might be held.


(Por ke) mi estu tenonta= (In order that) I may be about to hold.


(Por ke) mi estu tenota= (In order that) I may be about to be held.




(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202.)
(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202.)






170. CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB.
170. CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB.


(INDICATIVE MOOD).
(Indicative mood).


Present (Simple).
Simple Present.




Singular.Mi lavas min= I wash myself.


Vi lavas vin= You wash yourself.


Li, ŝi, ĝi, lavas sin= He, she, it washes
himself, herself, itself.


Plural.Ni lavas nin= We wash ourselves.


Vi lavas vin= You, ye wash yourselves.


Ili lavas sin= They wash themselves.





Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.




Ili ne estas lavantaj sin= They are not washing themselves.


Ĉu ni estas lavintaj nin?= Have we washed ourselves? (lit.,
are we having washed ourselves?)


Mi estas lavonta min= I am about (or, going) to wash
myself.




Past (Simple).
Simple Past.




Ŝi ne lavis sin= She did not wash herself.


Ĉu ni lavis nin?= Did we wash ourselves?


Ĉu ili ne lavis sin?= Did they not wash themselves?




Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.




Kiam vi estis lavantaj vin?= When were you washing yourselves?


Ni estis lavintaj nin= We had washed ourselves.


Kiam li estis lavonta sin?= When was he about (or, going) to wash himself?




Future (Simple).
Future (Simple).




Ĉu ni lavos nin?= Shall we wash ourselves?


Li ne lavos sin= He will not wash himself.




Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.




Ŝi estos lavanta sin= She will be washing herself.


Kiam li estos lavinta sin?= When will he have washed himself?


Mi estos lavonta min= I shall be about (or, going) to
wash myself.





CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD (Simple Form).
CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD (Simple Form).




Se li lavus sin= If he should wash himself.


Ĉu ŝi lavus sin, se...?= Would she wash herself, if...?




Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.




Se ni estus lavantaj nin kiam....= If we should be washing
ourselves when....


Ĉu ili estus lavintaj sin, se....= Would
they have washed themselves if...?


Se li estus lavonta sin kiam....= If he should be about to wash himself when....




IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD (Simple Form).
IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD (Simple Form).




Singular.
Mi lavu min= Let me wash myself.


Mi ne lavu min= Let me not wash myself.


Lavu vin= Wash yourself.


Ne lavu vin= Do not wash yourself.


Li lavu sin= Let him wash himself.


Li ne lavu sin= Let him not wash himself.


Plural.Ni lavu nin= Let us wash ourselves.


Ni ne lavu nin= Let us not wash ourselves.


Lavu vin= Wash yourselves.


Ne lavu vin= Do not wash yourselves.


Ili lavu sin= Let them wash themselves.


Ili ne lavu sin= Let them not wash themselves.






MOODS (Modoj).
MOODS (Modoj).




171 (a). The moods in Esperanto differ from those in English.
They are three in number, the Conditional, Imperative, and
Infinitive. Dr. Zamenhof makes no mention of any other mood. In
Rule 6 (see par. 94) he mentions only the three



tenses:—Present,
ending in -AS, Past, in -IS, Future, in -OS; the
Conditional (kondiĉa) mood in -US, the Imperative (ordona)
mood in -U, and the Infinitive (sendifina) mood in -I; the
three Active Participles:—Present, -ANT-, Past, -INT-,
Future, -ONT-, and the three Passive Participles:—Present,
-AT-, Past, -IT-, Future, -OT-. These twelve forms serve
amply to represent all the various tenses and moods in English.
However, to make the forms of the verb clearer to the student
accustomed to the use of our indicative mood, we have called the
tenses -AS, -IS, -OS, by that name.
171 (a). The moods in Esperanto are different from those in English. There are three of them: the Conditional, Imperative, and Infinitive. Dr. Zamenhof does not mention any other mood. In Rule 6 (see par. 94), he only refers to the three tenses:—Present, ending in -AS, Past, in -IS, Future, in -OS; the Conditional (kondiĉa) mood in -US, the Imperative (ordona) mood in -U, and the Infinitive (sendifina) mood in -I; the three Active Participles:—Present, -ANT-, Past, -INT-, Future, -ONT-, and the three Passive Participles:—Present, -AT-, Past, -IT-, Future, -OT-. These twelve forms are enough to represent all the different tenses and moods in English. However, to make the verb forms clearer for the student who is used to the indicative mood, we have named the tenses -AS, -IS, -OS accordingly.


(b). There is no Subjunctive mood, and it is not required. This
mood has been defined as one governed by conjunctions, but since
conjunctions have no bearing on any mood in Esperanto, it is clear
that a mood, under the name of "subjunctive," is not required (see
remarks on ke, par. 198).
(b). There is no Subjunctive mood, and it is not necessary. This mood was defined as one influenced by conjunctions, but since conjunctions don't affect any mood in Esperanto, it's clear that a mood called "subjunctive" is not needed (see comments on ke, par. 198).


The English Subjunctive, in the Present and Perfect, is represented
by the Esperanto Imperative, and in the Pluperfect, Future, and
Future Perfect, by the Esperanto Conditional mood. The auxiliaries
"may" and "might" of the English Subjunctive are often rendered by
the aid of such verbs as permesi, povi, or some word expressing
possibility, as eble (see par. 237 (m)).
The English Subjunctive, both Present and Perfect, is reflected by the Esperanto Imperative, while in the Pluperfect, Future, and Future Perfect, it corresponds to the Esperanto Conditional mood. The auxiliaries "may" and "might" found in the English Subjunctive are often expressed using verbs like permesi, povi, or other words that indicate possibility, such as eble (see par. 237 (m)).






172. The mood to be used in Esperanto is determined solely by the
meaning the speaker wishes to convey, and as Esperanto is a purely
logical language, we must be careful not to pedantically copy our
own, but to use the logical mood and tense required by the ideas we
wish to convey. If, therefore, we translate English literally into
Esperanto, we may, in some points, be misunderstood by a foreigner,
although our translation might be perfectly clear to an Englishman.
For instance, our



verbs in the present and past tenses of the
Indicative and Subjunctive moods have the same inflection in the
first person singular and in the three persons of the plural. In
Esperanto there is no such ambiguity. In such a phrase as "If they
were rich, they would be happy," we must be careful to use the proper
mood. Both the first and second propositions are conditional or
suppositive, therefore in Esperanto the Conditional mood is logically
employed, as:—Se ili estus riĉaj, ili estus feliĉaj = If they
were rich, they would be happy. There is nothing of the past in the
first proposition; the idea to be conveyed is of something that has
not occurred, but which might occur.
172. The mood used in Esperanto is determined solely by the meaning the speaker wants to express, and since Esperanto is a completely logical language, we need to be careful not to rigidly copy our own language but instead use the appropriate logical mood and tense that reflect the ideas we want to communicate. Therefore, if we translate English directly into Esperanto, we might, in some cases, be misunderstood by someone from another country, even if our translation seems perfectly clear to an English speaker. For example, our



verbs in the present and past tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods have the same form in the first person singular and in all three persons of the plural. In Esperanto, there's no such confusion. In a phrase like "If they were rich, they would be happy," we must make sure to use the correct mood. Both parts of the statement are conditional or hypothetical, so in Esperanto, the Conditional mood is logically used, as:—Se ili estus riĉaj, ili estus feliĉaj = If they were rich, they would be happy. There is nothing past in the first part; the idea to convey is about something that hasn't happened but could happen.




THE INFINITIVE MOOD (Sendifina Modo).
THE INFINITIVE MOOD (Sendifina Modo).




173. The Infinitive mood in the active voice is formed by adding
-I to the root of the verb for the simple tense, and by the
auxiliary verb esti = to be with one of the active participles
-ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA of the verb for the compound tenses, as:—
173. The Infinitive mood in the active voice is created by adding -I to the root of the verb for the simple tense, and by using the auxiliary verb esti = to be with one of the active participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA of the verb for the compound tenses, such as:—




Present (simple), Skribi= To write.


Present (compound), Esti skribanta= To be writing
  (lit., to be being-writing).


Past (compound), Esti skribinta= To have written
  (lit., to be having-written).


Future (compound), Esti skribonta= To be about
  to write (lit., to be being-about-to-write).








174. The passive voice is formed by the verb esti and one of the
passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.
174. The passive voice is created using the verb esti along with one of the passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.


Present, Esti skribata = To be written (lit., to be
being-written).
Present, Esti skribata = To be written (lit., to be in the process of being written).


Past, Esti skribita = To have been written (lit., to be
having-been-written).
Past, Esti skribita = To have been written (lit., to be having-been-written).


Future, Esti skribota = To be about to be written.
Future, Esti skribota = To be about to be written.







175. The Infinitive mood expresses the state of action denoted by the
verb.
175. The infinitive mood shows the state of action indicated by the verb.






176. In Esperanto the infinitive is almost always used without a
preposition, whereas in English the preposition "to" nearly always
precedes the verb.
176. In Esperanto, the infinitive is almost always used without a preposition, while in English, the preposition "to" almost always comes before the verb.


Examples.—Mi volas lerni danci = I wish to learn to dance. Li
devigis min kuri = He compelled me to run. Mi hontas esti laŭdata
de li = I am ashamed to be praised by him. Mi devas peni atingi
tiun rezultaton = I must try to attain that result.
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—I want to learn to dance = I wish to learn to dance. He made me run = He compelled me to run. I’m embarrassed to be praised by him = I am ashamed to be praised by him. I have to try to achieve that result = I must try to attain that result.






177. The only prepositions that can be used before the infinitive
are:—(a). Por = To, or, in order to. (b). Anstataŭ =
Instead of. (c). Antaŭ ol = Before. (d). Krom =
Except, or, besides.
177. The only prepositions that can be used before the infinitive are:—(a). Por = To, or, in order to. (b). Anstataŭ = Instead of. (c). Antaŭ ol = Before. (d). Krom = Except, or, besides.






178. Por is used before the infinitive, when in English for the
word "to" we could substitute the words "in order to" or "for to";
or, in some cases, when we could use "for" or "of" with a participle
instead of the infinitive (par. 259 (24)).
178. Por is used before the infinitive when in English we could replace "to" with "in order to" or "for to"; or, in some cases, when we could use "for" or "of" with a participle instead of the infinitive (par. 259 (24)).


Examples.—La plej bonaj metodoj por ricevi ĝin.... = The best
methods to (in order to) obtain it (or, for, or, of obtaining
it).... Mi havas ion por diri al vi = I have something to (for to)
say to you. Kion vi havas ankoraŭ por skribi? = What have you
still to (for to) write? La tempo por legi = The time to read (for
reading). Tio estas malfacila por kompreni = That is difficult (for
to) understand.
Examples.—The best methods to get it.... = The best methods to obtain it (or, for, or, of obtaining it).... I have something to tell you = I have something to say to you. What do you still have to write? = What have you still to write? The time to read = The time to read. That is hard to understand = That is difficult to understand.






179. Anstataŭ, Antaŭ ol and Krom are used before the
infinitive, when in English we use the participle or a simple tense.
179. Anstataŭ, Antaŭ ol and Krom are used before the infinitive, where in English we use the participle or a simple tense.


Examples.—Anstataŭ trinki = Instead of drinking. Anstataŭ agi
honeste, li fariĝis ŝtelisto = Instead of acting honestly, he
became a thief. Antaŭ ol manĝi = Before eating. Antaŭ ol
foriri, ili surmetis la ĉapelojn = Before going away (before they
went away), they put on their (the) hats. Ne ekzistas alia bono por
la homo krom manĝi kaj trinki = There is nothing better for a man,
than that he should eat and drink (than eating and drinking) (Pred.
II, 14; III, 12).

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__—Instead of drinking = Instead of drinking. Instead of acting honestly, he became a thief = Instead of acting honestly, he became a thief. Before eating = Before eating. Before going away, they put on their hats = Before going away, they put on their hats. There is nothing better for a man than eating and drinking = There is nothing better for a man than eating and drinking (Pred. II, 14; III, 12).







180. As in English, the infinitive is used:—
180. Just like in English, the infinitive is used:—


(a). As the subject when the act demonstrated is general.
(a). As the subject when the action shown is general.


Examples.—Erari estas home = To err is human. Bone pensi kaj bone
agi sufiĉas por vivi bone kaj feliĉe = To think well and to act
well suffice for living well and happily.
Sure!—To err is human. Thinking well and acting well is enough to live well and happily.


(b). As the complement to explain an idea.
(b). As a complement to explain an idea.


Examples.—Vivi estas agi; kiu ne agas, tiu ne vivas = To live is
to act; he who acts not, lives not. Li ĉesis kuri = He ceased to
run (running, or, from running).
Examples.—To live is to act; those who do not act do not live. He stopped running.






181. The infinitive, used thus as the subject, resembles a noun, but,
of course, never takes the article before it. The qualifying word,
used as its predicate, takes the adverbial -E. The infinitive, when
used as the subject, can always be changed into the noun by
substituting -O or -ADO for -I; the noun then takes the
article, since it is used in a general sense (see 99 (a)).
181. The infinitive, when used as the subject, acts like a noun, but it never has an article in front of it. The descriptive word that serves as its predicate uses the adverbial -E. When the infinitive is used as the subject, it can always be turned into a noun by replacing -I with -O or -ADO; then, the noun can take the article, as it is used in a general sense (see 99 (a)).


Examples.—Scii estas utile = To know (or, to have knowledge) is
useful; or, La scio estas utila = Knowledge is useful. Legi estas
agrabla okupo, or, La legado estas agrabla okupo = Reading is an
agreeable occupation.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Knowing is useful = To know is beneficial; or, Knowledge is valuable = Knowledge is useful. Reading is a pleasant activity, or, The act of reading is a nice pastime = Reading is an enjoyable occupation.






182. The infinitive, or its noun, is used for the gerund, or a
gerundial phrase in English.
182. The infinitive, or its noun form, is used instead of the gerund or a gerundial phrase in English.


Examples.—Promenadi estas sanige, or, La promenado estas saniga
= Walking is healthy. Instrui infanojn diligentajn (or, La
instruado al infanoj diligentaj) estas agrabla okupo = Teaching
diligent children is an agreeable occupation.
Examples.—Walking is healthy, or, Taking a walk is healthy = Walking is healthy. Teaching diligent children (or, The teaching of diligent children) is a pleasant activity = Teaching diligent children is a pleasant activity.






183. Occasionally another mood, a participle, or the suffix -EBLA
is used for our infinitive (par. 275 (c)).
183. Sometimes another mood, a participle, or the suffix -EBLA is used in place of our infinitive (par. 275 (c)).


Examples.—Vi bone faris, ke vi venis (or, venante) = You did
well to come (that you came). Diru do al li, ke li al mi respondu =
Tell him, then, to answer me. Estos pli saĝe, se ni ne piediros
domen = It will be wiser not to walk (go on foot) home (lit., if we
shall not walk). Estus malfacile renkontebla sindonemo pli plena, ol
lia = It would be difficult to



meet with more complete devotion than his. Ŝi ŝajnis (esti)
forgesinta, ke ŝi estas maljunulino = She seemed to have forgotten
that she was (is) an old woman.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—You did well to come (or, coming) = You did well to show up. Tell him, then, to answer me = Tell him to reply to me. It will be wiser not to walk home = It would be smarter not to walk home. It would be difficult to meet with more complete devotion than his = It would be hard to find someone more devoted than he is. She seemed to have forgotten that she was an old woman = She seemed to forget that she's an old woman. 








184. Sometimes the infinitive is used when we use another mood or the
participle.
184. Sometimes the infinitive is used when we use another mood or the participle.


Examples.—Mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj iros por gliti = I shall
take my skates and go skating. Mi ĉesos kanti, se vi farados tiom
de bruo = I shall cease singing if you go on making so much noise.
Mi kredis vidi ŝipon = I thought I saw a ship.
Got it! Ready to help.—I'm going to take my skates and go skating = I shall take my skates and go skating. I will stop singing if you keep making that much noise = I shall cease singing if you go on making so much noise. I thought I saw a ship = I thought I saw a ship.






185. In the following examples it will be seen that the infinitive
(present or past) is used in Esperanto after a noun, adjective, or
participle, when in English a participial form is usually employed,
as:—
185. In the following examples, you will see that the infinitive (present or past) is used in Esperanto after a noun, adjective, or participle, whereas in English, a participial form is usually used, as:—


La deziro morti = The desire of dying (to die). La ĝojo esti
venkinta = The joy of having conquered. Tro laca marŝi = Too
tired for walking. Lerta paroli = Clever in speaking. Bona por
manĝi = Good for eating.
La deziro morti = The desire to die. La ĝojo esti venkinta = The joy of having won. Tro laca marŝi = Too tired to walk. Lerta paroli = Skilled at speaking. Bona por manĝi = Good for eating.




INDICATIVE MOOD.
Indicative Mood.




186. As stated in par. 171 (a), the indicative is not an Esperanto
mood, but we use the name in order to explain more clearly to the
English student the present, past, and future tenses of Esperanto
verbs.
186. As mentioned in par. 171 (a), the indicative is not a mood in Esperanto, but we use that term to better explain the present, past, and future tenses of Esperanto verbs to English students.


The Indicative mood, in the Active Voice, has three terminations,
viz., -AS for the Present, -IS for the Past, and -OS for the
Future simple tenses. For the Compound tenses the auxiliary verb
esti = to be, is used with one of the three Active participles of
the verb, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA.
The indicative mood, in the active voice, has three endings: -AS for the present, -IS for the past, and -OS for the future simple tenses. For the compound tenses, the auxiliary verb esti = to be, is used with one of the three active participles of the verb: -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA.






187. The Passive Voice is formed by the auxiliary esti with one
of the Passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.
187. The Passive Voice is formed by the auxiliary esti with one of the Passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.







188. By the Indicative mood we express something as actually true,
either affirmatively, or negatively, or interrogatively. It is
therefore the mood of certainty.
188. The Indicative mood is used to express something as actually true, whether affirmatively, negatively, or interrogatively. It is, therefore, the mood of certainty.


Examples.—La patro venas = Father comes, or, is coming. Patrino
venis = Mother came, has come, or, did come. Kiam mia frato
venos, ni foriros = When my brother comes (shall come), we will go
away. Se li estas malsana, mi senkulpigas lin = If he is ill, I
excuse him. Li estis juste rekompencita = He had been justly
rewarded. Oni devas pardoni al li = One must pardon him. Li estis
amata de ĉiuj = He was (being) loved by all. Mi estas vestita du
horojn = I have been dressed for two hours (lit., I am
having-been-dressed two hours).
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Father comes = Father is coming. Mother came = Mother has come, or, did come. When my brother comes = When my brother arrives, we will leave. If he is ill = If he is sick, I excuse him. He had been justly rewarded = He was justly rewarded. One must pardon him = You have to forgive him. He was loved by all = Everyone loved him. I have been dressed for two hours = I’ve been dressed for two hours.






189. The Indicative is therefore obligatory in Esperanto after
verbs, adjectives, participles, and nouns expressing in a positive
manner what one thinks or feels about an act presented as certain.
189. The Indicative is therefore required in Esperanto after verbs, adjectives, participles, and nouns that express positively what someone thinks or feels about an act that is presented as certain.


Examples.—Mi esperas, ke li venos hodiaŭ = I hope that he will
come to-day. Ŝi ne estas certa, ĉu Petro sukcesis = She is not
sure whether Peter succeeded (or, has succeeded). Mi ne dubas, ke
li venos = I do not doubt that he will come. Mi timas, ke la
respondo alvenos, dum mi estos promenanta = I fear that the answer
will arrive whilst I am (shall be) taking a walk. Mi timas, ke li
venos, kaj eble difektos la ĝardenon = I fear that he will come,
and possibly (perhaps) damage (or, and may damage) the garden. Mi
ne dubas, ke ŝi estos vestita kiam mi alvenos = I do not doubt that
she will be (will have been) dressed when I arrive. Ĉu vi opinias,
ke li estas juste rekompencita? = Do you think that he has been
justly rewarded?
Examples.—I hope he comes today. She isn't sure if Peter succeeded. I don't doubt he will come. I'm afraid the answer will arrive while I'm out for a walk. I'm afraid he will come and might damage the garden. I don't doubt she'll be dressed when I arrive. Do you think he has been justly rewarded?




THE CONDITIONAL MOOD (Kondiĉa Modo).
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD.




190. In the Active Voice the Conditional mood is formed by adding
-US to the root of the verb for the simple form, and by ESTUS and
one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA for the compound
forms. These compound forms are not often used.
190. In the Active Voice the Conditional mood is created by adding -US to the base form of the verb for the simple version, and by ESTUS along with one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA for the compound versions. These compound forms are not commonly used.






191. In the Passive Voice it is formed by ESTUS and one of the
participles -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.

191. In the Passive Voice it is formed by ESTUS and one of the participles -ATA, -ITA, -OTA.







192. It shows that the matter spoken of is conditional, namely, that
it depends on supposition; that an act had not taken place (past),
and was not taking place (present), but that it might happen or have
happened if something else actually occurred. In English the
pluperfect, future, and future perfect tenses of the Subjunctive mood
represent the Conditional mood in Esperanto.
192. It shows that the matter being discussed is conditional, meaning it relies on a supposition; that an act hadn’t happened (past) and isn’t happening (present), but that it might happen or may have happened if something else had actually occurred. In English, the pluperfect, future, and future perfect tenses of the subjunctive mood represent the conditional mood in Esperanto.






193. After the conjunction "if," expressing a supposition, both the
chief and dependent propositions are in the Conditional mood in
Esperanto, when the act is conditional.
193. After the conjunction "if," which indicates a supposition, both the main and subordinate clauses are in the Conditional mood in Esperanto when the action is conditional.


Examples.—Se li estus riĉa, li havus multajn amikojn = If he were
rich, he would have many friends. Se vi volus, vi estus feliĉa =
If you wished, you would be happy. Se ni estus avertitaj, ni estus
defendintaj vin = If we had been (should have been) warned, we
should have defended you. Se li forirus, li riskus, ke la patrino ne
trovus lin = If he went (should go) away he would risk that his
(the) mother would not find him.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—If he were rich, he would have many friends. If you wanted to, you would be happy. If we had been warned, we would have defended you. If he left, he would risk his mother not finding him.


193. (a). Note the various ways in which estus may be translated
with the present and past passive participles in the following two
sentences:—
193. (a). Pay attention to the different ways estus can be translated using the present and past passive participles in the next two sentences:—


(1). Se li estus sendata Berlinon, li estus devigata lasi sian
edzinon hejme.
(1). If he had been sent to Berlin, he would have been forced to leave his wife at home.


(2). Se li estus sendita Berlinon, li estus devigita lasi sian
edzinon hejme.
(2). If he had been sent to Berlin, he would have been forced to leave his wife at home.


(1). If he were (should be) sent to Berlin he would be compelled to
leave his wife at home.
(1). If he were sent to Berlin, he would have to leave his wife at home.


(2). If he had (should have) been sent to Berlin he would have been
compelled to leave his wife at home.
(2). If he had been sent to Berlin, he would have had to leave his wife at home.






194. As in other languages, the Conditional is used in Esperanto to
attenuate or soften an expression that would be harsh or imperative,
if the verb were in the Indicative; in fact, such attenuation implies
some unexpressed condition.
194. Like in other languages, the Conditional is used in Esperanto to make a statement gentler or less direct than it would be if the verb were in the Indicative; in fact, this gentleness suggests an unspoken condition.


Example.—Mi volus, ke tiu laboro estu finita hodiaŭ vespere = I
should like that work (to be) finished this evening. Here the
condition might be, "if you possibly can do it" (see par. 202 as to
estu, Imperative mood, for the Infinitive).

Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—I would like that work to be finished this evening. Here the condition might be, "if you can possibly do it" (see par. 202 regarding to be, Imperative mood, for the Infinitive).





THE IMPERATIVE or "U" MOOD (Ordona Modo).
THE IMPERATIVE or "U" MOOD (Ordona Modo).




195. In the Active Voice the Imperative (or "U") mood is formed by
adding -U to the root of the verb, or by estu and one of the
participles -ANTA, -INTA, or -ONTA for the compound forms;
but the latter are very rarely used.
195. In the Active Voice the Imperative (or "U") mood is created by adding -U to the root of the verb, or by using estu along with one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, or -ONTA for the compound forms; however, the latter are very rarely used.






196. In the Passive Voice it is formed by estu and one of the
participles, -ATA, -ITA, or -OTA.
196. In the Passive Voice, it is created using estu and one of the participles, -ATA, -ITA, or -OTA.






197. The "U" mood implies order (ordono), purpose (celo),
entreaty (peto), wish (volo), obligation (devo), fitness
(konveno), necessity (neceso), merit (merito), intention
(intenco), etc. It will be seen that the Esperanto u has a wider
application than what is usually understood by the "Imperative" mood,
for it may indicate not only a direct command or order, but also
desire or expediency of any degree, expressed or understood.
197. The "U" mood implies order (ordono), purpose (celo), request (peto), wish (volo), obligation (devo), suitability (konveno), necessity (neceso), merit (merito), intention (intenco), etc. It will be noted that the Esperanto u has a broader application than what is typically understood by the "Imperative" mood, as it can express not only a direct command or order, but also a desire or need of any kind, whether stated or implied.






198. The ending u is used not only in a chief but also in a
dependent proposition, and in the latter case it is usually
introduced by the conjunction ke = that; but it must be borne in
mind that conjunctions have no more influence in the Imperative than
they have in other moods (pars. 171, 263), although when ke is
followed by the Imperative we translate the phrase into English
either by some tense of the Subjunctive mood, or, perhaps, more
frequently, by the Infinitive.
198. The ending u is used not only in a main clause but also in a dependent clause, and in the latter case, it’s usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that; however, it’s important to remember that conjunctions don’t have any more effect in the Imperative than they do in other moods (pars. 171, 263), even though when ke is followed by the Imperative, we translate the phrase into English using some tense of the Subjunctive mood, or, more often, the Infinitive.






199. In a chief proposition it is used to command or entreat, and
when the verb of a chief proposition is in the Imperative, if the
dependent proposition also contains an order of entreaty, its verb
will, naturally, likewise be in the Imperative.
199. In a main statement it is used to command or request, and when the verb of the main statement is in the Imperative, if the dependent statement also includes a command or request, its verb will, of course, also be in the Imperative.


Examples.—Venu tien ĉi = Come here. Donu al mi tiun libron =
Give me that book. Li venu tien ĉi tuj = Let him come here at
once. Ni iru Parizon morgaŭ = Let us go to



Paris to-morrow. Do ne maltrankviligu vin (or, Vi do ne
maltrankviliĝu) pri la afero = Do not then trouble yourself about
the matter. Ordonu, ke li venu = Order him to come (that he come).
Diru al ŝi, ke ŝi foriru = Tell her to go away (that she go
away). Atentu, ke vi ne falu = Take care not to fall (or, lest
you fall). Ni ne toleru, ke li tiamaniere kontraŭstaru al ni = Let
us not suffer him in that way to oppose us (or, Let us not tolerate
that he oppose us in that manner). Ni zorgu, ke li nenion povu
difekti = Let us take care that he can damage nothing. Diru al li,
ke mi deziras, ke li estu silenta = Tell him that I desire him to be
silent (that he be silent). For other examples see par. 237 (m).
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—Venu tien ĉi = Come here. Donu al mi tiun libron = Give me that book. Li venu tien ĉi tuj = Let him come here right away. Ni iru Parizon morgaŭ = Let us go to



Paris tomorrow. Do ne maltrankviligu vin (or, Vi do ne maltrankviliĝu) pri la afero = So don’t worry yourself about the matter. Ordonu, ke li venu = Order him to come (that he come). Diru al ŝi, ke ŝi foriru = Tell her to leave (that she leave). Atentu, ke vi ne falu = Be careful not to fall (or, so you don't fall). Ni ne toleru, ke li tiamaniere kontraŭstaru al ni = Let’s not allow him to oppose us like that (or, Let’s not put up with him opposing us in that way). Ni zorgu, ke li nenion povu difekti = Let’s ensure that he can’t damage anything. Diru al li, ke mi deziras, ke li estu silenta = Tell him that I want him to be silent (that he be silent). For other examples see par. 237 (m).






200. In a dependent proposition the ending u is also used when
the verb in the chief proposition, although not in the Imperative,
implies order, entreaty, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. And
also after such verbs as, to advise, invite, write, etc., etc., when
the idea to be conveyed is in the nature of an order, wish, etc.
(pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)).
200. In a dependent proposition, the ending u is used when the verb in the main proposition, even if it’s not in the Imperative form, suggests an order, request, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. It also follows verbs like advise, invite, write, etc., when the idea is related to an order, wish, etc. (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)).


Examples.—Mi ordonis al li, ke li donu al mi la libron = I ordered
him to give me the book. Mi petas, ke vi sendu al mi la hundon = I
beg you to send me the dog. Li ne postulis, ke mi fermu la
fenestron = He did not require me to shut the window. Mi volas, ke
vi skribu al via frato = I wish you to write to your brother. Estas
necese, ke ni tien iru = It is necessary for us to go thither. Vi
meritas, ke oni pendigu vin = You deserve to be hanged (that they
hang you). Mi bezonas, ke li venu = I want him to come (I have need
that he come). Mi ne volis, ke li venu = I did not wish him to come
(that he should come). Ŝi konsilis, ke mi ne sendu la leteron =
She advised me not to send the letter (she advised "do not send the
letter"). Mi lin tien ĉi invitis, ke li klarigu la aferon = I
invited him here to explain (that he might explain) the matter. Ili
skribis, ke mi ne venu hodiaŭ = They wrote to me not to come to-day
(They wrote that I should not come to-day, or, They wrote "do not
come to-day").
Understood! Please provide the text for modernization.—I ordered him to give me the book. I beg you to send me the dog. He did not require me to shut the window. I wish you would write to your brother. It’s necessary for us to go there. You deserve to be hanged. I want him to come. I didn’t want him to come. She advised me not to send the letter. I invited him here to explain the matter. They wrote to me not to come today.






201. The expression por ke = in order that, to the end that,
so that, etc., is always followed by the Imperative, because this
expression implies "order."
201. The phrase por ke = in order that, to the end that,
so that, etc., is always followed by the Imperative, because this
phrase implies "order."


Examples.—Por ke vi povu pagi tiun ĉi ŝuldon, estas necese, ke vi
kunportu sufiĉe grandan sumon da mono = In



order to be able to pay (in order that you may be able to pay) this
debt it is necessary for you to bring (that you bring) a sufficient
large sum of money. Por ke vi estu elektata, vi bezonas batali kun
ekstrema energio = In order to be elected (that you may be elected),
you need to fight with extreme energy. Por ke oni rekompencu vin,
konvenas, ke vi tion meritu = In order that they may reward you, it
is fitting that you merit it. Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu
kontenta pri mi = I wish to do everything to satisfy you (so that
you may be satisfied with me). Respondu al mi antaŭ morgaŭ, por ke
mi sciu, kion mi devos diri al li = Answer me before to-morrow, so
that I may know what I must (shall have to) say to him. Mi volas, ke
li estu ordonata atendi mian alvenon = I wish that he may be ordered
to await my arrival, or, I wish him to be ordered to await my
arrival.
Please provide the phrases you'd like me to modernize.—To be able to pay this debt, you need to bring a sufficiently large amount of money. = In



order to be able to pay (so that you can pay) this debt, you need to bring (that you bring) a sufficiently large amount of money. To be elected, you need to fight with extreme energy. = In order to be elected (so that you can be elected), you need to fight with extreme energy. For them to reward you, it's appropriate that you deserve it. = In order that they may reward you, it is fitting that you merit it. I want to do everything to make you happy with me. = I wish to do everything to satisfy you (so that you may be satisfied with me). Answer me before tomorrow, so I know what I need to say to him. = Answer me before tomorrow, so that I may know what I must (shall have to) say to him. I want him to be ordered to wait for my arrival. = I wish that he may be ordered to await my arrival, or, I want him to be ordered to wait for my arrival.


201 (a). The compound forms of the Imperative in the active voice
are very rarely used, but they are occasionally useful to give
exactitude to an expression.
201 (a). The compound forms of the Imperative in the active voice are rarely used, but they can sometimes be helpful to provide precision in an expression.


Examples.—Mi deziras, ke li estu min atendanta en la stacidomo je
la dua horo morgaŭ posttagmeze = I desire that he be awaiting me in
the station at 2 o’clock to-morrow afternoon. Estas necese, ke li
estu fininta sian laboron, je la tria horo = It is necessary that he
have (for him to have) finished his work at 3 o’clock. Mi ne volas,
ke li estu fininta sian laboron, kiam mi alvenos, sed ke li estu
finonta ĝin = I do not wish that he shall have finished his work
when I (shall) come, but that he be about to finish it.
Examples.—I want him to be waiting for me at the station at 2 o’clock tomorrow afternoon. = I desire that he be awaiting me in the station at 2 o’clock to-morrow afternoon. It’s necessary for him to have finished his work by 3 o’clock. = It is necessary that he have (for him to have) finished his work at 3 o’clock. I don’t want him to have finished his work when I arrive, but for him to be about to finish it. = I do not wish that he shall have finished his work when I (shall) come, but that he be about to finish it.






202. From the examples given of the use of the Imperative mood, we
see that in Esperanto the verb in a dependent proposition is almost
always preceded by the conjunction ke = that, and that the
English rendering generally puts the verb in the Infinitive, the
conjunction being omitted, or if it be retained, that the verb is in
the Subjunctive mood. It is not generally advisable to translate this
infinitive rendering literally into Esperanto, except when the
actor of the first verb is also the actor of the second.
202. From the examples provided about using the Imperative mood, we can see that in Esperanto, the verb in a dependent clause is almost always preceded by the conjunction ke = that, and the English translation usually puts the verb in the Infinitive, often omitting the conjunction. If the conjunction is kept, the verb appears in the Subjunctive mood. It’s usually not a good idea to translate this infinitive rendering directly into Esperanto, unless the actor of the first verb is also the actor of the second.



Examples.—Mi volas lin vidi morgaŭ = I wish to see him to-morrow.
La lernejestro deziris rekompenci la knabon = The schoolmaster
desired to reward the boy. Ni bezonos forte labori, se ni deziras
fini la falĉadon hodiaŭ vespere = We shall need to work hard if we
wish to finish the mowing this evening.
Examples.—I want to see him tomorrow = I wish to see him to-morrow. The school principal wanted to reward the boy = The schoolmaster desired to reward the boy. We’ll need to work hard if we want to finish the mowing this evening = We shall need to work hard if we wish to finish the mowing this evening.




THE PARTICIPLES (Participoj).
THE PARTICIPLES.


There are three forms of the participle, viz.:—The adjectival in
-A, the adverbial in -E, and the substantival in -O.
There are three forms of the participle: the adjectival in -A, the adverbial in -E, and the substantival in -O.




203. In the active voice the adjectival is formed by adding
-ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA to the root of the verb, as:—
203. In the active voice the adjectival is formed by adding
-ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA to the root of the verb, as:—


    

  • Present, Skribanta = Writing (lit., being writing).
    • 

  • Past, Skribinta = Having written.
    • 

  • Future, Skribonta = About (going) to write.






204. In the passive voice by adding -ATA, -ITA, -OTA, as:—
204. In the passive voice by adding -ATA, -ITA, -OTA, as:—


    

  • Present, Skribata = Being written.
    • 

  • Past, Skribita = Written, or, having been written.
    • 

  • Future, Skribota = About (or, going) to be written.






205. The active participles, preceded by the auxiliary verb esti
= to be, in its various moods and tenses, form the compound
tenses of the active voice.
205. The active participles, preceded by the auxiliary verb esti
= to be, in its various moods and tenses, create the compound
tenses of the active voice.






206. The passive participles, with the verb esti, form all the
moods and tenses in the passive voice.
206. The passive participles, with the verb esti, create all the moods and tenses in the passive voice.






207. Participles, like adjectives, agree in number and case with
the nouns or pronouns to which they refer.
207. Participles, just like adjectives, match in number and case with the nouns or pronouns they refer to.


Examples. Ni estas vidintaj la viron = We have seen the man. Ŝi
vidis la virojn legantajn = She saw the men who were reading (the
reading men). Ni vidas la krimojn elfaratajn ĉiutage sur la
stratoj = We see the crimes being perpetrated daily in the streets.
Examples. We have seen the man = We have seen the man. She saw the men who were reading = She saw the men who were reading (the reading men). We see the crimes being perpetrated daily in the streets = We see the crimes being committed every day in the streets.







208. All the participles can be used as adjectives and also as
nouns and adverbs, by substituting -O for -A for a noun, and -E
for -A for an adverb. The words still retain the signification of
the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in
the active voice govern the accusative.
208. All the participles can be used as adjectives, as well as nouns and adverbs, by replacing -O for -A for a noun, and -E for -A for an adverb. The words still keep the meaning of the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in the active voice take the accusative.






209. Examples in the active voice.
209. Active voice examples.


(a). Participial nouns, as:—La leganto = The reader (person
now reading). La leginto = The reader (person who has been
reading). La legonto = The reader (person about to read).
(a). Participial nouns, such as:—La leganto = The reader (person currently reading). La leginto = The reader (person who has read). La legonto = The reader (person who is about to read).


Examples.—La leganto havas bonan voĉon, sed la leginto havis pli
bonan; mi kredas, tamen, ke la legonto havos la plej bonan voĉon el
ĉiuj = The (present) reader has a good voice, but the (previous)
reader had a better; I believe, however, that the (coming) reader
will have the best voice of all. Ĉi tiu (or, tiu ĉi) ideo
okupis la grandan pensanton ĝis la fino de lia vivo = This idea
occupied the great thinker up to the end of his life.
Examples.—The current reader has a good voice, but the previous reader had a better one; I believe, however, that the next reader will have the best voice of all. This idea occupied the great thinker until the end of his life.


(b). Participial adjectives agree with their nouns in number and
case, but when predicative they agree in number only (see remarks
on adjectives, pars. 36, 108, 110, also par. 87 (d)).
(b). Participial adjectives match their nouns in both number and case, but when they are used in a predicative form, they only match in number (see notes on adjectives, pars. 36, 108, 110, also par. 87 (d)).


Examples.—La mortanta viro vidis mortintan virinon sur la apuda
lito = The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. Ŝi paliĝis
kaj aspektis kiel virino mortonta = She grew pale and appeared like
a woman about to die. In the above sentences participial nouns might
be used when the translation in English would be word for word the
same, as:—La mortanto vidis mortintinon sur la apuda lito. Ŝi
paliĝis, kaj aspektis kiel mortontino. This shows the wonderful
flexibility of Esperanto!
Examples.—The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. She grew pale and looked like a woman who was about to die. In the sentences above, participial nouns could be used when the English translation would be exactly the same, like:—The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. She grew pale and looked like a woman about to die. This demonstrates the amazing flexibility of Esperanto!


(c). Participial adverbs are invariable.
Participial adverbs are unchanging.


Examples.—Legante ni lernas = In reading we learn. Fininte sian
laboron, li iris hejmen = Having finished his work, he went home.
Aĉetonte libron, li petas, ke mi pruntu al li tri ŝilingojn =
Being about to buy a book, he begs me to lend him (that I lend him)
three shillings.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—We learn by reading = In reading we learn. After finishing his work, he went home = Having finished his work, he went home. While about to buy a book, he asks me to lend him three shillings = Being about to buy a book, he begs me to lend him (that I lend him) three shillings.







210. Examples in the passive voice.
210. Examples in passive voice.


(a). Participial nouns, as:—La aludato = The person being
spoken of, or, the person in question. La aludito = The
aforesaid (person). La aludoto = The person about to be spoken
of.
(a). Participial nouns, like:—La aludato = The person we're talking about, or, the person in question. La aludito = The aforementioned (person). La aludoto = The person who is about to be talked about.


Examples.—La pendigotino nun aperis sur la eŝafodo = The woman
about to be hanged now appeared on the scaffold. La batito tute
meritis la punon, kiun la batinto donis al li = The beaten one quite
deserved the punishment that the beater gave him.
Examples.—The woman about to be hanged now appeared on the scaffold = The woman who is about to be hanged has now shown up on the platform. The beaten one quite deserved the punishment that the beater gave him = The person who was beaten fully deserved the punishment that the attacker gave him.


(b). Participial adjectives and adverbs. La konstruata domo =
The house under construction. La konstruita domo = The
(actually) constructed house. La konstruota domo = The house
(about) to be constructed. Konstruota does not show obligation to
construct, but simply that it is intended to build the house, and
that it will be eventually built.
(b). Participial adjectives and adverbs. The house under construction = The house under construction. The constructed house = The (actually) constructed house. The house about to be constructed = The house (about) to be constructed. Constructed does not indicate a requirement to build, but rather that there are plans to build the house, and that it will eventually be built.


Examples.—Li venis al mi tute ne atendite = He came to me quite
unexpectedly. Ne estas atendate ke li venos = It is not expected
(being expected) that he will come. La domo estas vendota morgaŭ =
The house is to be sold to-morrow.
N/A—He came to me completely unexpectedly = He came to me quite unexpectedly. It is not expected that he will come = It is not expected (being expected) that he will come. The house is going to be sold tomorrow = The house is to be sold to-morrow.


N.B.—Note that when the subject is not expressed, the participle
takes the adverbial form (see par. 245).
N.B.—Keep in mind that when the subject isn't stated, the participle takes the adverbial form (see par. 245).






211. Relation of the participle to the subject.
211. The connection between the participle and the subject.


(a). When a participle, relating to the subject of a sentence, but
not qualifying it, expresses the circumstances, manner, time,
occasion, etc., of an act, it takes the adverbial form. Zamenhof
states that the "ablative absolute" does not exist in Esperanto, as
its use would be against the spirit of the language.
(a). When a participle refers to the subject of a sentence but does not qualify it, and instead expresses the circumstances, manner, time, occasion, etc., of an action, it takes on an adverbial form. Zamenhof states that the "ablative absolute" does not exist in Esperanto, as its use would go against the spirit of the language.


Examples.—Promenante sur la strato, mi falis = (While) walking in
the street, I fell. Trovinte pomon, mi ĝin manĝis = Having found
an apple, I ate it (see par. 245 (a)).
Examples.—Walking down the street, I fell = (While) walking in the street, I fell. After finding an apple, I ate it = Having found an apple, I ate it (see par. 245 (a)).


(b). If, however, the participle does not relate to the subject
of the sentence, we must either change the construction so as to make
the participial



portion of the sentence relate to the subject, or
else use another mood with a conjunction, adverb, etc.
(b). If, however, the participle does not relate to the subject of the sentence, we must either adjust the structure to ensure the participial portion of the sentence connects to the subject, or use a different mood with a conjunction, adverb, etc. 




For instance, we might say in English, "The enemy having run away, we
crossed the bridge," but we cannot translate this literally into
Esperanto, because "having run away" does not relate to those who
crossed the bridge; therefore it would be wrong to say La malamiko
forkurinte, ni transiris la ponton. So we must change the
construction, thus:—"Having put to flight (made to run away) the
enemy, we crossed the bridge" = Forkuriginte la malamikon, ni
transiris la ponton. Or, another construction would be:—"After the
enemy ran away, we crossed the bridge" = Post kiam la malamiko
forkuris, ni transiris la ponton. In the sentence, "Swimming in the
lake, the man saw a large swan," it is not clear whether the man or
the swan was swimming, but in Esperanto there is no ambiguity. In the
sentence, Naĝante sur la lago, la homo vidis grandan cignon, the
participle, naĝante, relates to the man, the subject of vidis.
If we wish it to relate to the swan, we make it agree with cignon,
and say, Naĝantan sur la lago, etc. But it would be better to
alter the order, thus: La homo vidis grandan cignon naĝantan (kiu
naĝis) sur la lago.
For example, we might say in English, "The enemy having run away, we crossed the bridge," but we can't translate this directly into Esperanto, because "having run away" doesn't connect to those who crossed the bridge; so it's incorrect to say La malamiko forkurinte, ni transiris la ponton. Instead, we need to modify the structure to: "Having put to flight (made to run away) the enemy, we crossed the bridge" = Forkuriginte la malamikon, ni transiris la ponton. Another way to phrase it would be: "After the enemy ran away, we crossed the bridge" = Post kiam la malamiko forkuris, ni transiris la ponton. In the sentence, "Swimming in the lake, the man saw a large swan," it's unclear whether the man or the swan was swimming, but in Esperanto, there's no confusion. In the sentence, Naĝante sur la lago, la homo vidis grandan cignon, the participle, naĝante, refers to the man, the subject of vidis. If we want it to refer to the swan, we make it agree with cignon, and say, Naĝantan sur la lago, etc. However, it would be better to change the order, like this: La homo vidis grandan cignon naĝantan (kiu naĝis) sur la lago.






212. Participial expressions with prepositions.
212. Participial phrases with prepositions.


(a). Without can be rendered by the negative ne and an
adverbial participle, or by sen followed by a noun.
(a). Without can be expressed using the negative ne along with an adverbial participle, or by sen followed by a noun.


Examples.—Li alvenis, ne avertinte min (or, sen averto al mi) =
He arrived without (not) having warned me. Mi ne povos tion ĉi
fari, ne estante subtenata (or, ne subtenate, or, sen subteno) =
I shall not be able to do this without being supported. Ni iru al la
danĝero, ne timante la morton (or, sen timo pri la morto) = Let
us go to the danger without fearing death.
Understood! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—He arrived without warning me (or, without a heads-up) = He arrived without (not) having warned me. I won’t be able to do this without support (or, without being supported, or, without help) = I shall not be able to do this without being supported. Let’s face the danger without fearing death (or, without fear of death) = Let us go to the danger without fearing death.


(b). For can be rendered by ke = that (or, pro tio, ke or,
tial, ke) and the indicative.
(b). For can be translated as ke = that (or, pro tio, ke or, tial, ke) along with the indicative.


Examples.—Mi estas al vi danka, ke vi avertis min = I am thankful
to you for having (that you) warned me. Pardonu al mi, ke mi tiel
faras = Pardon me for so doing. Pardonu al mi pro tio, ke mi tiel
faris = Pardon me for having done so (that I so did).
Examples.—I'm grateful to you for warning me = I am thankful to you for having (that you) warned me. Excuse me for doing this = Pardon me for so doing. Excuse me for having done this = Pardon me for having done so (that I so did).



(c). Of, by por and the infinitive.
(c). Of, by for and the infinitive.


Example.—Mi pripensis pri rimedo por deturni lin de lia projekto =
I reflected on a means of turning him from his project.
Example.—I thought about a way to steer him away from his project.


(d). After, by an adverbial past participle.
(d). After, by using a past participle as an adverb.


Example.—"Kion ni faros?" li diris, sidinte momenton silente =
"What shall we do?" he said, after sitting (having sat) for a moment
in silence.
Understood.—"What should we do?" he asked, sitting quietly for a moment.


(e). Before, by antaŭ ol and the infinitive.
Before, by and the infinitive.


Example.—Li ludis antaŭ ol labori = He played before working.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—He played before working = He played before working.






213. The participle for the adjective.
213. The participle of the adjective.


(a). Be careful not to use the participle terminations -ANTA,
-INTA for simple adjectives that have a form of their own. Some
English words ending in "ing" and "ed" may be used either as
participles or as simple adjectives. Note that the participle denotes
action, whilst the adjective denotes quality, state, etc.
(a). Be careful not to use the participle endings -ANTA, -INTA for simple adjectives that have their own forms. Some English words that end in "ing" and "ed" can be used as either participles or simple adjectives. Remember that the participle indicates action, while the adjective indicates quality, state, etc.


(b). Such words have, in Esperanto, an adjectival as well as a
participial form, and we must be careful to use the right one in
accordance with the sense.
(b). Such words in Esperanto have both an adjectival and a participial form, and we need to be careful to use the correct one based on the context.


Examples..—Laboranta and labora = Working. Ĉarmanta and
ĉarma = Charming. Interesanta and interesa = Interesting.
Sufokanta and sufoka = Suffocating. Kontentigita and kontenta
= Satisfied; pleased, content.
Understood..—Laboranta and labora = Working. Ĉarmanta and ĉarma = Charming. Interesanta and interesa = Interesting. Sufokanta and sufoka = Suffocating. Kontentigita and kontenta = Satisfied; pleased, content.


(c). Observe the difference in meaning of the following:—
(c). Notice the difference in meaning in the following:—


Rigardu tiun homon, laborantan (kiu laboras) sur la kampo! = Look
at that man, working in the field! Rigardu tiun homon laboran
(better, tiun laboriston) sur la kampo! = Look at that
working-man in the field! In the first sentence, laborantan, the
participle, denotes the action of the man: in the second, laboran,
the adjective, denotes his state, condition, etc. Ŝi estas
ĉarmanta nin per sia



kantado = She is charming us with her singing. Ŝi estas ĉarma,
kiam ŝi kantas = She is charming when she sings. It would be
better, instead of using the participle ĉarmanta, to say, Ŝi
ĉarmas nin per sia kantado. Mi ne estas kontentigita per liaj
respondoj = I have not been satisfied with his replies. Mi ne estas
kontenta je li = I am not pleased with him.
Look at that man, working in the field! = Look at that man, working in the field! Look at that working man (better, that laborer) in the field! = Look at that laborer in the field! In the first sentence, working, the participle, indicates the man's action: in the second, working, the adjective, describes his state, condition, etc. She is charming us with her singing. = She is charming us with her singing. She is charming when she sings. = She is charming when she sings. It would be better, instead of using the participle charming, to say, She charms us with her singing. I have not been satisfied with his replies. = I have not been satisfied with his replies. I am not pleased with him. = I am not pleased with him.




THE TENSES (La Tempoj).
THE TENSES (La Tempoj).


The Tenses, Active Voice.
The Tenses, Active Voice.




214. The Tenses indicate the time of action, and its state of
completeness or incompleteness. They are either simple or compound.
The simple tenses are formed by adding -AS, -IS or -OS to the
root of the verb, and the terminations remain the same for all
persons and numbers. The compound tenses are formed by the auxiliary
verb esti = to be, and one of the participles of the verb which
must agree in number with its subject. Esti is conjugated in
exactly the same way as all other verbs.
214. The Tenses indicate when an action takes place and whether it is complete or not. They can be simple or compound. Simple tenses are created by adding -AS, -IS, or -OS to the root of the verb, with the endings remaining the same for all subjects and numbers. Compound tenses are formed using the auxiliary verb esti = to be, along with one of the verb's participles, which must match the number of its subject. Esti is conjugated just like all other verbs.






215. The three Tenses used in Esperanto are the Present, Past, and
Future.
215. The three tenses used in Esperanto are the present, past, and future.






216. Duration of action of the verb.—(a). In English, to express
the continuance of an action, the present participle of a transitive
verb is used after the verb "to be" in all the moods and tenses—as
"I am loving," or "I was (have been, shall be, should be) loving";
imperative, "Be thou loving." If great exactness as regards time be
necessary, these forms can be represented in Esperanto word for word
as they are in English, viz., by the compound forms, mi estas
(estis, estos, estus) amanta, estu amanta.
216. Duration of action of the verb.—(a). In English, to show that an action is ongoing, we use the present participle of a transitive verb after the verb "to be" in all moods and tenses—like "I am loving," or "I was (have been, shall be, should be) loving"; imperative, "Be loving." If it's important to be very precise about time, these forms can be translated into Esperanto word for word just as they are in English, namely, with the compound forms, mi estas (estis, estos, estus) amanta, estu amanta.



(a). To show that an action is continuous or habitual, the suffix
-AD- may be added to the verb (see remarks on suffix -AD-, par.
270 (1)).
(a). To indicate that an action is ongoing or habitual, the suffix -AD- can be appended to the verb (see comments on suffix -AD-, par. 270 (1)).


Examples.—Ŝi kantadas la tutan tagon = She keeps on singing the
whole day. La birdoj flugadis de arbo al arbo = The birds were
(kept on) flying from tree to tree.
Examples.—She sings all day long = She keeps on singing the whole day. The birds were flying from tree to tree = The birds kept flying from tree to tree.


(b). The commencement of an action, or a sudden action, is shown by
adding the prefix EK-.
(b). The start of an action, or a sudden action, is indicated by adding the prefix EK-.


Examples.—Ŝi ekkantis = She began to sing. La lumo brilis = The
light shone. La lumo ekbrilis = The light flashed (see remarks on
prefix EK-, par. 288).
Examples.—Ŝi ekkantis = She started to sing. La lumo brilis = The light was shining. La lumo ekbrilis = The light flashed (see remarks on prefix EK-, par. 288).






217. Emphatic form of verb.—In English this form consists of the
verb, preceded by "do" or "did," and is confined to the present and
past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the
imperative mood of the active voice, as:—"I do love," "He does
love," "I did love," "Do love." This form in Esperanto can be
represented by the adverb ja = indeed, or by suitable adverbs,
such as tre, tre multe, vere, certe, efektive, etc.
217. Emphatic form of verb.—In English, this form consists of the verb, preceded by "do" or "did," and is limited to the present and past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, as well as the imperative mood of the active voice, such as:—"I do love," "He does love," "I did love," "Do love." In Esperanto, this form can be represented by the adverb ja = indeed, or by appropriate adverbs like tre, tre multe, vere, certe, efektive, etc.


Examples.—Mi ja lin amas = I do love him. Mi tiel multe amis
ŝin = I did so love her.
No changes needed.—Mi ja lin amas = I really love him. Mi tiel multe amis
ŝin = I really loved her a lot.




The Present.
Today.




218. The Present tense (simple) ends in -AS. It is used to
express not only what is happening at the moment, but also what
happens in all time, or what is understood to be present.
218. The Present tense (simple) ends in -AS. It is used to express not only what is happening right now, but also what happens at all times, or what is considered to be present.


Examples.—Mi kuras = I run, or am running. La vero ĉiam
venkas = Truth always conquers. La aŭtoro diras en sia verko, ke
.... = The author says in his book that.... Kiun vi vidas? = Whom do
you see? Mi vidas neniun = I see nobody. Mi foriras, ĉar mia
patro min atendas = I am going away, for my father awaits (or
expects) me. Mi ĉiam leviĝas tre frue = I always get up (rise)
very early. Nenion oni faras sen peno = One does nothing without
effort.
None—Mi kuras = I run, or am running. La vero ĉiam venkas = Truth always wins. La aŭtoro diras en sia verko, ke.... = The author says in his book that.... Kiun vi vidas? = Who do you see? Mi vidas neniun = I see nobody. Mi foriras, ĉar mia patro min atendas = I'm leaving because my father is waiting for me. Mi ĉiam leviĝas tre frue = I always get up very early. Nenion oni faras sen peno = Nothing gets done without effort.







219. The Present in place of the Past or Future.—In Esperanto, as
in other languages, the Present is often used for the Past or Future,
to give vividness to an expression.
219. The Present in place of the Past or Future.—In Esperanto, like in other languages, the Present is often used to refer to the Past or Future to make an expression more vivid.


Examples.—Mi haltas, perdante la spiron, kiam subite mi aŭdas post
mi voĉon = I stop, losing breath, when suddenly I hear behind me a
voice. Hodiaŭ plenaj de vivo, ni estas morgaŭ la akiro de la
tombo = To-day full of life, to-morrow we shall be (are) the prey
(acquirement) of the tomb.
Examples.—I stop, gasping for breath, when suddenly I hear a voice behind me. = I stop, losing breath, when suddenly I hear behind me a voice. Today full of life, tomorrow we will be the prey of the grave. = Today full of life, tomorrow we shall be (are) the prey (acquirement) of the tomb.






220. Esperanto logically always employs the Present, even in a phrase
relating to what has past, if the action is present relatively to the
time in question.
220. Esperanto always uses the Present tense logically, even in a phrase about something that has already happened, if the action is relevant to the time in question.


Example.—Ĉiuj, kiuj ŝin vidis povis pensi, ke ili vidas la
patrinon = All who saw her could think that they saw (see) her (the)
mother. In this sentence, what did they think? Their thought was, "We
see her mother," not "We saw her mother." The sight was present to
them, hence ili vidas.
Example.—Everyone who saw her could think that they were seeing the mother = All who saw her could think that they were seeing (the) mother. In this sentence, what did they think? Their thought was, "We see her mother," not "We saw her mother." The sight was present to them, hence they are seeing.






221. Present in place of the Past.—If it is a question of the
truth of all time, or of a fact existing at the moment spoken of,
English generally uses the Past tense, but in Esperanto the Present
is always employed.
221. Present in place of the Past.—When discussing the truth of all time or a fact that exists at the time being referred to, English usually uses the Past tense, while in Esperanto the Present tense is always used.


Examples.—Ni eksciis, ke vi estas en Londono ok tagojn = We learnt
that you were (are) in London for eight days. Ni kredis, ke vi estas
kuracisto = We believed that you were (are) a doctor. Li instruis
nin, he ĉiam oni devas esti indulga = He taught us that one must
always be forbearing (merciful).
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—We found out that you were in London for eight days = We learned that you were (are) in London for eight days. We thought you were a doctor = We believed that you were (are) a doctor. He taught us that one should always be understanding = He taught us that one must always be forbearing (merciful).






222. The Present tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary
esti = to be and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA,
-ONTA. The compound tenses are seldom used in Esperanto, and their
use is to be avoided if the simple tenses suffice to convey our
meaning. Their use, therefore, is confined to giving exactitude to
the time of an action or to an idea (see par. 169).
222. The Present tense (compound) is formed using the auxiliary verb esti = to be along with one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. The compound tenses are rarely used in Esperanto, and you should avoid them if the simple tenses are enough to express our meaning. Therefore, their use is limited to providing precision regarding the timing of an action or an idea (see par. 169).



Examples.—Li estas vojaĝanta = He is travelling. The simple form,
Li vojaĝas, might mean that he travels generally, but possibly is
not at this moment on his way to any place. If, therefore, we wish to
convey that he is actually on his way to some place, we use the
compound form, or some additional word, as nun, e.g., li nun
vojaĝas. Kiam la abeloj estas forflugontaj, ili zumadas laŭte =
When bees are about to fly away, they (are accustomed to) hum loudly
(see par. 216 (a)). Esti skribanta = To be writing.
Examples.—He is traveling = He is traveling. The simple form, He travels, might suggest that he generally travels, but he might not actually be on his way to anywhere at this moment. If we want to express that he is currently on his way to somewhere, we use the compound form or add a word like now, e.g., he is traveling now. When bees are about to fly away, they hum loudly (see par. 216 (a)). To be writing = To be writing.




The Past.
The Past.




223. The Past tense (simple) ends in -IS. It expresses
something that has passed. It is used for the three tenses in
English; the past, imperfect, and perfect; and sometimes for the
pluperfect, if its use does not cause ambiguity.
223. The Past tense (simple) ends in -IS. It expresses something that has already happened. It is used for the three tenses in English: past, imperfect, and perfect; and sometimes for the pluperfect, as long as it doesn't create confusion.


Examples.—Mi skribis = I wrote, I was writing, or, I have
written. Li venis antaŭ du horoj = He came two hours ago. Pluvis
hieraŭ = It rained yesterday. Se li estis malsana, li ne povis
veni = If he was ill, he could not come. Ĉu vi lin vidis? = Did
you see (or, have you seen) him? Li foriris, antaŭ ol mi alvenis
= He had left before I arrived. Mi promenis hieraŭ, kaj renkontis
vian amikon = I took a walk (or, I was walking, better
promenadis) yesterday, and met your friend.
Examples.—I wrote = I wrote, I was writing, or, I have written. He came two hours ago = He came two hours ago. It rained yesterday = It rained yesterday. If he was ill, he couldn't come = If he was ill, he couldn't come. Did you see him? = Did you see (or, have you seen) him? He had left before I arrived = He had left before I arrived. I took a walk yesterday, and met your friend = I took a walk (or, I was walking, better promenadis) yesterday, and met your friend.






224. The Past tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary verb
esti = to be and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA,
-ONTA. This form should not be used when the simple form suffices
to convey the required meaning. It is better employed only when we
wish to give to an expression more exactitude as regards the state of
the subject at the time of the principal action than is conveyed by
the simple form (see pars. 169, 226 (a)).
224. The Past tense (compound) is created using the auxiliary verb esti = to be along with one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. This form shouldn't be used when the simple form is enough to express the intended meaning. It’s better used when we want to make a statement more precise regarding the condition of the subject at the time of the main action than what the simple form conveys (see pars. 169, 226 (a)).


Examples.—Kiam li estis fininta sian laboron, li iris hejmen =
When he had finished his work, he went home. Mi estis skribanta
leteron, kiam okazis tertremo = I was writing a letter when an
earthquake took place. Ili interkonsentis kaj estis enirontaj la
landon, sed io okazis, kio ilin malhelpis = They mutually agreed,
and were about to enter the country, but something happened which
prevented them.
Examples.—When he finished his work, he went home. I was writing a letter when an earthquake happened. They agreed and were about to enter the country, but something happened that stopped them.







225. To show that something has just happened, or is very soon going
to happen, the words ĵus = just, or tuj = immediately, are
often used respectively.
225. To indicate that something has just happened, or is about to happen very soon, the words ĵus = just, or tuj = immediately, are commonly used respectively.


Examples.—Mi ĵus vidis tre belan pentraĵon = I have just seen a
very beautiful picture. Ni estis tuj elirontaj, kiam ekpluvis = We
were on the point of (or, just) going out when it began to rain.
Examples.—I just saw a really beautiful painting = I have just seen a very beautiful picture. We were just about to go out when it started to rain = We were on the point of (or, just) going out when it began to rain.






226. The past tense of esti (estis) and the past participle
(-INTA) of the verb correspond with the pluperfect in English. It
denotes an action that was completed at a time now past. As before
stated, it need not be employed when the simple past tense in -IS
sufficiently expresses the meaning wished to be conveyed.
226. The past tense of esti (estis) and the past participle (-INTA) of the verb correspond to the pluperfect in English. It indicates an action that was completed at a time in the past. As mentioned earlier, it doesn't have to be used when the simple past tense in -IS clearly conveys the intended meaning.


Examples.—Kiam ŝi estis rakontinta ĉion, kio okazis, ŝi
ekploris = When she had related everything that happened, she began
to weep. Here, in English, we should probably say "everything that
had happened," but "ĉion, kio estis okazinta" is unnecessary in
Esperanto, as the meaning is quite clear with "okazis." Li ne
estis parolinta du sekundojn, kiam mi diris al li "Silentu!" = He
had not spoken for two seconds when I said to him, "Be silent!"
Examples.—When she had told everything that happened, she started to cry. Here, in English, we should probably say "everything that had happened," but "ĉion, kio estis okazinta" is unnecessary in Esperanto, as the meaning is quite clear with "okazis." He hadn't spoken for two seconds when I told him, "Be quiet!"


226 (a). The adverb antaŭe = beforehand (or jam, or jam
antaŭe) is sometimes used with the past and future simple tenses,
or with the simple forms of the Conditional or Imperative mood,
instead of the compound tenses or forms (see Part III, Exercise 8).
226 (a). The adverb antaŭe = beforehand (or jam, or jam
antaŭe) is sometimes used with the past and future simple tenses,
or with the simple forms of the Conditional or Imperative mood,
instead of the compound tenses or forms (see Part III, Exercise 8).


Examples.—Kiam vi eniris en la ĉambron, la gastoj jam antaŭe
foriris (or, estis foririntaj) = When you entered the room, the
guests had departed (lit., already beforehand departed). Kiam vi
venos al mi, mi jam antaŭe finos (or, estos fininta) la laboron
= When you have (will) come to me, I shall have finished the work.
Li ne aĉetus la libron, se vi antaŭe ne donus (or, estus
doninta) al li la monon = He would not have bought the book unless
you had given him the money (lit., if you beforehand should not give
him the money).
Understood. Please provide the text you would like modernized.—When you walked into the room, the guests had already left = When you entered the room, the guests had departed (lit., already beforehand departed). When you come to me, I will have already finished the work = When you have (will) come to me, I shall have finished the work. He wouldn’t buy the book if you hadn’t given him the money = He would not have bought the book unless you had given him the money (lit., if you beforehand should not give him the money).




The Future.
The Future.




227. The Future (simple) ends in -OS. The future (compound) is
formed by the auxiliary esti


and one of the three participles,
-ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA, but the compound form should be used only
when we wish to express anteriority, that is to say, action taking
place previous to that of the principal action.
227. The Future (simple) ends in -OS. The future (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti


and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA, but the compound form should be used only when we want to express something that happened before the main action.






228. The future denotes an action yet to take place.
228. The future refers to something that hasn't happened yet.


Examples.—La patro venos post du tagoj = Father will come in two
days. Ĉu vi pruntos al mi la libron? = Will you lend me the book?
Kiam li alvenos? = When will he arrive? Li venos la lundon
proksiman = He will come next Monday.
I'm ready for the text to modernize. Please provide the phrases you would like me to work on.—Father will come in two days = Father will come in two days. Will you lend me the book? = Will you lend me the book? When will he arrive? = When will he arrive? He will come next Monday = He will come next Monday.






229. If we wish to mark a near future, we can use with the verb the
adverbs tuj = immediately, baldaŭ = soon, tre baldaŭ =
very soon.
229. If we want to indicate the near future, we can use the verb with the adverbs tuj = immediately, baldaŭ = soon, tre baldaŭ = very soon.


Examples.—Li tuj alvenos = He will arrive immediately. Li tre
baldaŭ estos tie ĉi = He will very soon be here.
Examples.—He will arrive immediately. He will be here very soon.






230. The future compound with the present participle is used when
we wish to mark that an action will be going on at some particular
time in the future.
230. The future compound with the present participle is used when we want to indicate that an action will be happening at a specific time in the future.


Example.—Je la deka morgaŭ matene mi estos veturanta Parizon = At
10 o’clock to-morrow morning I shall be travelling to Paris.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Tomorrow morning at 10 o’clock, I will be traveling to Paris.






231. The future compound with the past participle is used when we
wish to mark that an action will be finished at some particular
time in the future (see par. 226 (a)).
231. The future perfect is used when we want to indicate that an action will be completed by a specific time in the future (see par. 226 (a)).


Example.—Mi estos fininta mian laboron je la sesa horo morgaŭ
vespere = I shall have finished my work at six o’clock to-morrow
evening.
Example.—I will have finished my work at six o’clock tomorrow evening.






232. The future for the present indicative or subjunctive.—Be
careful not to imitate English in using the present or subjunctive
for the future.
232. The future for the present indicative or subjunctive.—Be careful not to mimic English by using the present or subjunctive for the future.


Examples.—Se pluvos, li ne venos = If it rains, he will not come.
Kion vi faros, kiam mi estos en la tombo? = What will you do when I
am in the grave? Mi skribos la leteron dum vi ripozos = I shall
write the letter whilst you are



resting. Ŝi skribis al ni, ke ŝi estos tie ĉi morgaŭ = She
wrote to us that she would (will) be here to-morrow (she wrote what?
not "that she would," but "that she will," so the future is the
correct tense).
Understood! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—If it rains, he won't come. = If it rains, he will not come. What will you do when I’m in the grave? = What will you do when I am in the grave? I’ll write the letter while you rest. = I shall write the letter whilst you are



resting. She wrote to us that she’ll be here tomorrow. = She wrote to us that she would (will) be here to-morrow (she wrote what? not "that she would," but "that she will," so the future is the correct tense).




The Tenses, Passive Voice.
The Tenses, Passive Voice.




233. The tenses of the passive voice are formed by the simple tenses
of the auxiliary verb esti and the passive participles, -ATA,
-ITA, -OTA. All the tenses are therefore compound. As with the
active participles, J is added to the three persons of the plural
in all the tenses.
233. The passive voice tenses are created using the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb esti along with the passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA. As a result, all tenses are compound. Similar to active participles, J is added to all three plural forms in every tense.






234. The signification of the tenses is the same as in the active
voice, except, of course, that the subject of a passive verb is acted
upon. Since esti is the only auxiliary verb used in Esperanto, it
represents the two English auxiliaries, "to be" and "to have"; we
must, therefore, translate it accordingly.
234. The meaning of the tenses is the same as in the active voice, except that the subject of a passive verb is acted upon. Since esti is the only auxiliary verb used in Esperanto, it represents both English auxiliaries, "to be" and "to have"; therefore, we must translate it accordingly.






235. Care must be taken in the use of these participles. For
instance, the participles of skribi = to write used alone mean—
235. Care must be taken when using these participles. For example, the participles of skribi = to write used alone mean—


Present, Skribata = Written, or, being written (action going
on).
Present, Skribata = Written, or, being written (action in progress).


Past, Skribita = Written, or, been written (lit., having been
written) (action completed).
Past, Skribita = Written, or, been written (lit., having been written) (action completed).


Future, Skribota = About to be, or, going to be, written
(action about to occur).
Future, Skribota = About to be, or, going to be, written  
(action about to occur).






236. The various tenses of the verb esti show the time of the
action, and the three participles the state of the subject at that
time. Note carefully the various shades of meaning in the following
examples:—
236. The different tenses of the verb esti indicate the time of the action, and the three participles reflect the subject's state at that time. Pay close attention to the various nuances in the following examples:—


La pordego estas fermata, ĉar la ludo estas ludota = The gate is
being shut, for the game is about to be played.
The gate is being shut, because the game is about to start.


La pordego estas fermita, ĉar la ludo estas ludata = The gate is
(or, has been) shut, for the game is being played.
The gate is shut, for the game is being played.



La pordego estis fermita, dum la ludo estis ludata = The gate was
(or, had been) shut whilst the game was being played.
The gate was shut while the game was being played.


Kiam estos pendigata la homo? = When will the man be (being)
hanged?
Kiam estos pendigata la homo? = When will the man be hanged?


Li estis pendigota morgaŭ, sed oni diras, ke li ne estos pendigata
ĝis mardo = He was to have been (was about to be) hanged to-morrow,
but they say he will not be hanged till Tuesday.
He was supposed to be hanged tomorrow, but they say he won’t be hanged until Tuesday.


Kaj kiam li estos pendigita, kie li estos enterigota? = And when he
is (has been) hanged, where is he to be buried? (lit., and when he
shall have been hanged, where will he be about to be buried?). Note
that after the interrogative kiam the English present tense is
often future in Esperanto, as:—Kiam li venos? When is he coming?
or, When will he come?
And when he is hanged, where will he be buried? (lit., and when he shall have been hanged, where will he be about to be buried?). Note that after the interrogative when the English present tense is often future in Esperanto, as:—When is he coming? or When will he come?


Pasero estis kaptita kaj enmetita en kaĝon, sed kiam la pordeto de
la kaĝo estis malfermata, ĝi forflugis = A sparrow was (or, had
been) caught and put into a cage, but when the door of the cage was
being opened it flew away.
A sparrow was caught and put into a cage, but when the door of the cage was opened, it flew away.


N.B.—In the above sentence we see that the sparrow was (estis)
first in the state of having been caught (kaptita); then in the
state of having been put (enmetita) into a cage; then that the door
was in the state of being opened (malfermata), and that during this
action the bird flew away (forflugis).
N.B.—In the above sentence, we see that the sparrow was (estis) first in the state of having been caught (kaptita); then in the state of having been put (enmetita) into a cage; then that the door was in the state of being opened (malfermata), and that during this action the bird flew away (forflugis).


(For examples of the passive conditional mood see par. 193.)
(For examples of the passive conditional mood see par. 193.)


(For examples of the rare use of the passive imperative mood see par. 201.)
(For examples of the rare use of the passive imperative mood see par. 201.)




THE USE OF CERTAIN VERBS.


Devi.
Devi.




237 (a). Devi = to be obliged to, to have to, means to be
physically or morally obliged to do something, as:—Vi devas fari
tion = You must (have to, are to) do that. Vi ne devas fari tion
= You are not obliged to do that. If, however, the action is not
immediate, the future tense is used for "must," as:—Vi devos fari
tion morgaŭ = You must (will have to) do that to-morrow. In its
Conditional form devi may be used, like other verbs, to soften an



expression, and then it can be translated by "ought," as:—Vi devus
ne fari tion = You ought not to (should not) do that. Here devus
is used instead of the more peremptory form, devas; Vi devas ne fari
tion would mean You must not (are not to) do that (see par. 194,
also pars. 237 (o), (p), on "should," "must," "ought," and par.
59 (a)).
237 (a). Devi = to be obliged to, to have to, means to be
physically or morally obligated to do something, as:—Vi devas fari tion = You must (have to, are to) do that. Vi ne devas fari tion
= You are not obliged to do that. If, however, the action is not
immediate, the future tense is used for "must," as:—Vi devos fari tion morgaŭ = You must (will have to) do that tomorrow. In its
Conditional form devi can be used, like other verbs, to soften an



expression, and then it can be translated by "ought," as:—Vi devus
ne fari tion = You ought not to (should not) do that. Here devus
is used instead of the more forceful form, devas; Vi devas ne fari
tion would mean You must not (are not to) do that (see par. 194,
also pars. 237 (o), (p), on "should," "must," "ought," and par.
59 (a)).


Examples.—Mi devas vin forlasi, ĉar oni atendas min = I must
(have to) leave you, for they are waiting for me. Ĉu mi devas fari
tion tuj? = Must I (am I to) do that at once? Ĉu mi devos veni
morgaŭ = Must I (shall I have to, am I to) come to-morrow? Mi
devis skribi leteron = I had (have had) to write a letter. Li devis
min vidi hodiaŭ, sed li ne povas veni = He was to see me to-day,
but he cannot come. Ili devis vidi min hieraŭ, sed ili ne povis
veni = They were to have seen me yesterday, but they could not come.
Li estis kolera hieraŭ, ĉar li devis iri lernejon = He was angry
yesterday, because he was obliged to (had to) go to school. Sed por
tio ĉi mi devos atendi iom da tempo = But for this I shall have to
(I must) wait some time. Se mi lin vidus, mi devus paroli kun li =
If I saw him, I should have to speak to him. Se mi lin vidus, mi
estus devinta paroli kun li = If I had seen (saw) him, I should have
been obliged (have had) to speak to him. La celo de ĉiu estas, aŭ
devus esti, bonfaradi = The aim of everyone is, or ought to (should)
be, to do good. Li devus kolekti kaj aranĝi siajn faktojn = He
ought to (should) collect and arrange his facts. Kiam vi estas tie,
vi devus vidi la kastelon = When you are there, you ought to see the
castle. Kiam vi estis tie, vi devus vidi (or, vi devus esti
vidinta) la kastelon = When you were there, you ought to have seen
the castle. Mi devus tute ne aŭskulti ŝin = I ought not to listen
to her at all.
Examples.—I have to leave you because they're waiting for me. Do I need to do that right away? Do I have to come tomorrow? I had to write a letter. He was supposed to see me today, but he can't come. They were supposed to see me yesterday, but they couldn't come. He was angry yesterday because he had to go to school. But for that, I will have to wait a little while. If I saw him, I would have to talk to him. If I had seen him, I would have been obligated to talk to him. The goal of everyone is, or should be, to do good. He should collect and organize his facts. When you are there, you should see the castle. When you were there, you should have seen the castle. I really shouldn't listen to her at all.


From these examples we see that the following is the meaning of
devi in its moods and tenses. The compound forms should not be used
unless absolutely necessary to render the meaning clear.
From these examples, we understand that the following is the meaning of devi in its moods and tenses. The compound forms should only be used when absolutely necessary to clarify the meaning.


Present.
Now.


    

  • Vi devas (paroli) = You must, have to, are to (speak).
    • 



Past.
History.


    

  • Mi devis (paroli) = I had to (speak); or, I was to (speak, or,
have spoken).
    • 


  • Mi estas devinta (paroli) = I have been obliged, or, I have had
to (speak).
    • 

  • Mi estis devinta (paroli) = I had been obliged to (speak).
    • 



Future.
Future.


    

  • Mi devos (paroli) = I shall have to, I am to, I must (speak).
    • 



Conditional.
Conditional.


    

  • Mi devus (paroli), se ... = I should have to, or, be obliged to
(speak), if ...
    • 

  • Mi estus devinta (paroli), se ... = I should have had to, or,
have been obliged to (speak), if ...
    • 



Conditional (softened sense).
Conditional (less strict).


    

  • Vi devus (paroli) = You ought to, or, you should (speak, or, have
spoken).
    • 

  • Vi devus (esti parolinta) = You ought to have, or, you should have
(spoken).
    • 



N.B.—Do not use devi for "were to," when no obligation is implied.
Note the difference in meaning in the following sentences:—Se ili
venus, mi vidus ilin = If (supposing) they were to come (if they
came), I would see them. Ili devis veni la lastan semajnon, sed io
malhelpis ilin = They were to (have) come last week, but something
prevented them.
N.B.—Do not use devi for "were to," when no obligation is implied.  
Note the difference in meaning in the following sentences:—Se ili venus, mi vidus ilin = If (assuming) they came, I would see them. Ili devis veni la lastan semajnon, sed io malhelpis ilin = They were supposed to come last week, but something prevented them.


Also do not use devi for "am to," "was to," etc., when these words
express not "obligation," but "purpose" or "intention." For
instance, "Are you to speak at the meeting?" may mean either (1) "Do
you intend to (Shall you) speak?" or, (2) "Have you to (Must you)
speak?" So we translate (1) Ĉu vi intencas paroli (Ĉu vi parolos)
ĉe la kunveno? or, (2) Ĉu vi devos paroli ĉe la kunveno? In
such a phrase as "You are to do that" the obligation is clear, so we
say Vi devas tion fari.
Also, don’t use devi for "am to," "was to," etc., when these words express not "obligation," but "purpose" or "intention." For instance, "Are you to speak at the meeting?" can mean either (1) "Do you intend to (Shall you) speak?" or (2) "Have you to (Must you) speak?" So we translate (1) Ĉu vi intencas paroli (Ĉu vi parolos) ĉe la kunveno? or (2) Ĉu vi devos paroli ĉe la kunveno? In a phrase like "You are to do that," the obligation is clear, so we say Vi devas tion fari.


Further, do not use devi in translating such a sentence as "The man
must be a fool," which is La viro sendube estas malsaĝulo, not,
devas esti ...
Further, do not use devi in translating a sentence like "The man must be a fool," which is La viro sendube estas malsaĝulo, not, devas esti ...


Kuŝi.
Hide.


237 (b). Kuŝi = to lie, to be situated, is sometimes used to
denote anything in a state of rest, or in a recumbent position. It
has, therefore, also the meaning of "to be."
237 (b). Kuŝi = to lie, to be situated, is sometimes used to refer to anything at rest or lying down. It can also mean "to be."


Examples.—La krajono kuŝas sur la libro = The pencil lies (is) on
the book. La libroj kuŝas sur la breto = The books are (lie) on
the shelf.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—The pencil is on the book = The pencil lies on the book. The books are on the shelf = The books lie on the shelf.



Koni and Scii.
Koni and Scii.


237 (c). Koni and scii are used in the same sense as the French
verbs connaître and savoir.
237 (c). Koni and scii are used in the same way as the French verbs connaître and savoir.


Koni means to know, to be acquainted with, to know a person,
or, thing.
Koni means to know, to be familiar with, to be acquainted with a person, or, thing.


Examples.—Mi konas vian fraton = I know your brother. Li konas la
hundon, sed li ne konas ĝian posedanton = He knows the dog, but he
does not know its owner.
Examples.—I know your brother = I know your brother. He knows the dog, but he does not know its owner = He knows the dog, but he doesn't know its owner.


N.B.—It is never followed by the conjunction KE; Mi konas, ke,
is wrong. Mi scias, ke vi ... = I know that you ...
N.B.—It is never followed by the conjunction KE; Mi konas, ke is incorrect. Mi scias, ke vi ... = I know that you ...


Scii means to know, to be aware of, to know something is or
was happening, etc.
Scii means to know, to be aware of, to know something is or
was happening, etc.


N.B.—It is never used of persons.
N.B.—It is never used for people.


Examples.—Mi scias, ke li estas prava = I know that he is right.
Mi sciis, ke li estis tie hieraŭ = I knew he was there yesterday.
Mi ne sciis, ke vi konas lin = I did not know that you knew him.
Mi konas la francan lingvon, sed mi ne scias ĝin = I know
(recognize) the French language (when I see it), but I do not know
it.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—I know that he is right = I know that he is right.  
I knew he was there yesterday = I knew he was there yesterday.  
I did not know that you knew him = I did not know that you knew him.  
I know the French language, but I do not know it = I recognize the French language (when I see it), but I do not know it.


Lasi.
Lasi.


237 (d). Lasi, like the English verb "to leave," has various
meanings.
237 (d). Lasi, similar to the English verb "to leave," has multiple meanings.


(1). To let remain, as:—Li lasis la libron sur la tablo = He left
the book on the table.
(1). To let remain, as:—He left the book on the table = He left the book on the table.


(2). To leave in a place, not to take with one, as:—Li lasis sian
edzinon en la domo = He left his wife in the house. Lasu vian
bastonon tie ĉi = Leave your stick here.
(2). To leave in a place, not to take with one, as:—He left his wife in the house = He left his wife in the house. Leave your stick here = Leave your stick here.


(3). To lose restraint upon something, as:—Li lasis fali la libron
= He let the book fall.
(3). To let go of control over something, as:—Li lasis fali la libron
= He let the book fall.


(4). To leave in a certain state, as:—Li lasis min en la plej
granda embaraso = He left me in the greatest embarrassment. Li
lasis la domon tre malpura = He left the house very dirty.
(4). To leave in a certain state, as:—He left me in the greatest embarrassment. He left the house very dirty.


(5). To leave to the care of someone, as:—La juĝisto lasis la
infanojn al la patro = The judge left the children to the father.
(5). To leave to the care of someone, as:—The judge left the children to the father.


(6). To have remaining at death, to leave behind one, as:—Kiam li
mortis, li lasis (or, postlasis) grandan riĉaĵon, kiun li
testamentis al diversaj bonfaraj institucioj = When



he died, he left great wealth, which he left to various charitable
institutions (note that to "leave," "bequeath," is testamenti).
(6). To have remaining at death, to leave behind one, as:—Kiam li mortis, li lasis (or, postlasis) grandan riĉaĵon, kiun li testamentis al diversaj bonfaraj institucioj = When



he died, he left great wealth, which he bequeathed to various charitable institutions (note that to "leave," "bequeath," is testamenti).


(7). Lasi, followed by the preposition en, means to "leave in,"
or to "let into," according as the complement is in the nominative or
accusative, e.g.:—Mi lasis la hundon en la domo = I left the dog
in the house. Mi lasis la hundon en la domon = I let the dog into
the house.
(7). Lasi, followed by the preposition en, means to "leave in" or "let into," depending on whether the complement is in the nominative or accusative, e.g.:—Mi lasis la hundon en la domo = I left the dog in the house. Mi lasis la hundon en la domon = I let the dog into the house.


(8). In the "Krestomatio," page 25, it is used in the sense to "leave
off," "cease," as:—Aleksandro lasis sian paroladon pri batalo kaj
petis de ili panon = Alexander left off talking of battle, and asked
them for bread.
(8). In the "Krestomatio," page 25, it is used to mean "stop," "quit," as:—Aleksandro lasis sian paroladon pri batalo kaj petis de ili panon = Alexander stopped talking about battle and asked them for bread.


(9). Lasi, followed by an infinitive, means to "let," or, "allow,"
as:—Lasu al mi ĝin fari = Let me do it, or, Leave it to me to
do. Sometimes we find it used in the sense "allow to be," as:—Neniu
volis lasi rimarki, ke li nenion vidas = No one wished to let it be
noticed that he saw (sees) nothing. This imitates the idiom of some
national languages. It can be explained as an omission of onin or
some other pronoun, thus:—Neniu volis lasi onin (nin) rimarki,
ke ... = No one wished to let people (us) notice that ...
(9). Lasi, followed by an infinitive, means to "let," or "allow," as in:—Lasu al mi ĝin fari = Let me do it, or, Leave it to me to do. Sometimes we see it used in the sense of "allow to be," as in:—Neniu volis lasi rimarki, ke li nenion vidas = No one wanted to let it be noticed that he sees nothing. This mirrors the idiom of some national languages. It can be understood as an omission of onin or some other pronoun, thus:—Neniu volis lasi onin (nin) rimarki, ke ... = No one wanted to let people (us) notice that ...


(10). Allasi = to admit (own the truth), as:—Li allasis, ke li
estas malprava = He admitted he was (is) wrong.
(10). Allasi = to admit (own the truth), as:—Li allasis, ke li estas malprava = He admitted he was wrong.


(11). Delasi = to allow to leave, as:—Li delasis lin de la domo
= He let him leave the house.
(11). Delasi = to let go, as:—Li delasis lin de la domo = He let him leave the house.


(12). Enlasi (like lasi en) = to let go in, as:—Enlasu min! =
Let me in!
(12). Enlasi (like lasi en) = to let go in, as:—Enlasu min! = Let me in!


(13). Forlasi = to abandon, as:—Li forlasis sian postenon = He
abandoned his post.
(13). Forlasi = to abandon, as:—Li forlasis sian postenon = He abandoned his post.


(14). Preterlasi = to let pass, as:—Li preterlasis la okazon =
He let the opportunity pass, or, He missed the opportunity. Li ne
povis uzi sian bileton, ĉar ĝia limtempo preterlasiĝis = He could
not use his ticket because its time limit had expired.
(14). Preterlasi = to let pass, as:—Li preterlasis la okazon = He let the opportunity pass, or, He missed the opportunity. Li ne povis uzi sian bileton, ĉar ĝia limtempo preterlasiĝis = He could not use his ticket because its time limit had expired.


(15). Tralasi = to allow to pass through, as:—Li tralasis la
homon tra la pordo = He let the man pass through the door. Kiam ŝi
atingis la pordegon, ili ŝin tralasis = When she reached the gate,
they let her through.
(15). Tralasi = to allow to pass through, as:—Li tralasis la
homon tra la pordo = He let the man pass through the door. Kiam ŝi
atingis la pordegon, ili ŝin tralasis = When she reached the gate,
they let her through.


Pesi and Pezi.
Pesi and Pezi.


237 (e). Pesi = to weigh, to examine by balance (transitive).
237 (e). Pesi = to weigh, to check using a scale (transitive).


    

  • Pezi = to weigh, to have weight (intransitive).
    • 

  • Peso = the weighing, the act of weighing.
    • 


  • Pezo = the weight, or, heaviness of a thing.
    • 

  • Pesilo = the scales, or, the weighing machine.
    • 

  • Pezilo = a (metal) weight.
    • 



From the above words we see that the roots pes- and pez- both
signify "weight," and care must be taken to use the words in their
transitive or intransitive sense.
From the above words, we see that the roots pes- and pez- both mean "weight," and it's important to use the words in their transitive or intransitive sense.


Examples. Tiuj ĉi tabloj estas de granda pezo: mi kredas, ke ilia
pezo estas pli ol cent okdek funtoj = These tables are a great
weight; I believe that their weight is more than a hundred and eighty
pounds. Tiu kesto estas tre peza; mi estas certa ke ĝi pezas
almenaŭ naŭdek funtojn; metu ĝin sur la pesilon, alportu la
pezilojn, pesu ĝin, kaj diru al mi la ĝustan pezon = That chest is
very weighty (heavy); I am certain that it weighs at least ninety
pounds; put it on the scales (weighing machine), bring the weights,
weigh it, and tell me the exact weight.
Examples. These tables are really heavy; I think they weigh over a hundred and eighty pounds = These tables are a great weight; I believe that their weight is more than a hundred and eighty pounds. That box is very heavy; I’m sure it weighs at least ninety pounds; put it on the scale, get the weights, weigh it, and tell me the exact weight = That chest is very weighty (heavy); I am certain that it weighs at least ninety pounds; put it on the scales (weighing machine), bring the weights, weigh it, and tell me the exact weight.


Povi.
Povi.


237 (f). Povi = to be able. Beginners sometimes find a
difficulty in dealing with this verb, owing to the irregularity of
the English equivalents. For instance, the beginner may say, "How can
‘can’ be both present and future, or ‘could’ both past and
conditional?" The following examples giving translations of povi in
its various tenses should be helpful in removing the difficulty.
237 (f). Povi = to be able. Beginners often struggle with this verb because the English equivalents are irregular. For example, a beginner might ask, "How can ‘can’ refer to both present and future, or ‘could’ to both past and conditional?" The following examples that show translations of povi in its different tenses should help clarify this issue.


    

  • Present, Mi povas = I am able to, I can.
    • 

  • Past, Mi povis = I have been (or, was) able to, I could.
    • 

  • Future, Mi povos = I shall be able to, I can.
    • 

  • Future, Ni estos povintaj = We shall have been able to.
    • 

  • Conditional, Mi povus = I should (or, would) be able to, or,
I could, or, I might.
    • 

  • Conditional, Li estus povinta = He would have been able to, or,
He could have.
    • 



Examples.—Ĉu vi povas tion fari? Jes, mi povas = Are you able to
(can you) do that? Yes, I can. Mi ne povas



vidi la arbon, kiun vi montras = I cannot see the tree which you
point out. Mi povis fari tion, kion vi volis = I was (have been)
able to do what you wished. Mi ne povis fari tion, kion vi postulis
= I was not (have not been) able to do (I could not do) what you
required. Mi povos tion fari morgaŭ = I shall be able to (I can)
do that to-morrow. Se vi povus veni mardon, mi povus vin vidi = If
you should be able to (if you could) come on a Tuesday, I could see
you. Mi povus tion fari morgaŭ, se.... = I could (should be able
to) do that to-morrow if.... Ĉu li estos povinta plenumi la
laboraĵon, kiam vi lin vidos morgaŭ? = Will he have been able to
complete the work when you (will) see him to-morrow? Se vi venus
hieraŭ, mi estus povinta vin vidi = If you had come yesterday, I
could have seen you. Li povus veni, se li volus = He might (would
be able to) come if he wished (see pars. 237 (l), (m)).
No changes needed.—Can you do that? Yes, I can. I can't see the tree you're pointing out. I was able to do what you wanted. I wasn't able to do what you required. I will be able to do that tomorrow. If you could come on Tuesday, I could see you. I could do that tomorrow if.... Will he have been able to finish the work by the time you see him tomorrow? If you had come yesterday, I could have seen you. He could come if he wanted to.


Sidi.
Sidi.


237 (g). Sidi = to sit, to be sitting. Sidi has sometimes
the signification "to be" in some defined place.
237 (g). Sidi = to sit, to be sitting. Sidi can also mean "to be" in a specific location sometimes.


Examples.—En la ĉambro sidis nur kelke da homoj = In the room
were (sat) only a few (some) men. La kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo =
The cook is (sits) in the kitchen. En la kandelingo sidis brulanta
kandelo = In the candlestick was (sat) a burning candle.
Examples.—In the room sat only a few men. The cook is in the kitchen. In the candlestick was a burning candle.


Sin trovi.
No sin.


237 (h). Sin trovi = to find oneself. This expression (or,
troviĝi = to be found, to find oneself, to be, or, to be
situated) is often used for the English verb "to be."
237 (h). Sin trovi = to find oneself. This phrase (or, troviĝi = to be found, to find oneself, to be, or, to be situated) is commonly used for the English verb "to be."


Examples.—Sur la arbo sin trovis multe da birdoj = On the tree
were (found themselves) many birds. Super la tero troviĝas aero =
Over the earth is air.
Understood. Please provide the text you want me to modernize.—On the tree, there were many birds. Above the earth, there is air.


Ĉesi, Daŭri, Pasi, Fini, Komenci.[17]
Stop, Continue, Pass, Finish, Start.[17]


237 (i). In English the following and many other verbs are used in
both a transitive and intransitive sense:—to stop, to continue,
to pass, to finish,


to commence. In Esperanto ĉesi,
daŭri, pasi are intransitive; so, to make them transitive, we
must add IGI. On the other hand, fini and komenci are
transitive; therefore, to make them intransitive, we must add IĜI
(par. 280).
237 (i). In English, the following and many other verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively:—to stop, to continue, to pass, to finish, 


to commence. In Esperanto, ĉesi, daŭri, and pasi are intransitive; to make them transitive, we need to add IGI. On the flip side, fini and komenci are transitive; so, to make them intransitive, we need to add IĜI (par. 280).




Transitive.Intransitive.


Ĉesigu tiun bruon = Cease (stop) that noise.
La pluvo ĉesis fali = The rain ceased to fall (stopped).


Li daŭrigis sian rakonton = He continued his story.
La ventego daŭris unu horon = The storm lasted an hour.


Li pasigis du horojn en la budo = He passed two hours in the booth.
La tempo pasas rapide = Time passes rapidly.


Li finis sian laboron = He finished his work.
La monato finiĝos morgaŭ = The month will finish to-morrow.


Ŝi komencos sian vojaĝon morgaŭ = She will commence her journey tomorrow.
La semajno komenciĝis hieraŭ = The week commenced yesterday.






Footnote:
Footnote:



[17] The following is a list of the
      chief Esperanto verb roots whose English equivalents are used
      both transitively and intransitively. (E.g., wakes, in
      he wakes her, is transitive; in she wakes it is
      intransitive.) Esperanto follows international usage in giving
      such verbs one meaning only, either transitive or intransitive.
   
[17] Here’s a list of the main Esperanto verb roots whose English equivalents can be used both transitively and intransitively. (For example, wakes in he wakes her is transitive; in she wakes, it is intransitive.) Esperanto aligns with international usage by assigning these verbs just one meaning, either transitive or intransitive.



Transitive Verbs (can be used in the
      passive, and with -ebla, -inda; may be used
      intransitively with -iĝ-):—
   
Action Verbs (can be used in the passive voice, and with -ebla, -inda; may also be used intransitively with -iĝ-):—



      Aplik, balanc, ban, ĉagren, etend, fend, ferm, fin, flar, fleks,
      izol, klin, kolekt, komenc, lev, mezur, montr, mov, nask, paŝt,
      renvers, romp, rul, renkont, sku, sving, sufok, ŝancel, ŝanĝ,
      ŝir, tren, turn, vek, verŝ.
   
Aplik, balanc, ban, ĉagren, etend, fend, ferm, fin, flar, fleks,  
      izol, klin, kolekt, komenc, lev, mezur, montr, mov, nask, paŝt,  
      renvers, romp, rul, renkont, sku, sving, sufok, ŝancel, ŝanĝ,  
      ŝir, tren, turn, vek, verŝ.



Intransitive Verbs (cannot be used in
      the passive, nor with -ebla, -inda, unless made
      transitive by -ig-):—
   
Intransitive Verbs (cannot be used in the passive voice, nor with -ebla, -inda, unless made transitive by -ig-):—



      Bol, brul, ĉes, daŭr, degel, dolor, dron, eksplod, fal, glit,
      halt, kresk, krev, kuŝ, lum, odor, pas, pend, sid, son, sonor,
      ŝpruc, ŝrump, ŝvel, velk.
   
Bol, burn, stop, continue, melt, pain, drown, explode, fall, slide, halt, grow, burst, lie down, shine, smell, pass, hang, sit, sound, ring, splash, shrink, swell, wilt.




Do, Did.
Do, Did.


237 (j). The English verb "to do" is represented as follows:—
237 (j). The English verb "to do" is represented like this:—


(1). In the sense of to "perform," "make," "commit," "execute," etc.,
it is represented by fari or agi.
(1). In the sense of to "perform," "make," "commit," "execute," etc., it is represented by fari or agi.



Examples.—Ne faru tion = Don’t do that. Batante la knabon, li
faris (or, agis) malprave = He did wrong in beating the boy. La
ĉambristino faris tion, kion mi ordonis = The chambermaid did what
I ordered.
Examples.—Ne faru tion = Don’t do that. Batante la knabon, li
faris (or, agis) malprave = He did wrong by hitting the boy. La
ĉambristino faris tion, kion mi ordonis = The chambermaid did what I asked.


(2). In interrogation and negation it is represented by the present
and past tenses (pars. 58, 63, 64).
(2). In questioning and denying, it is shown by the present and past tenses (pars. 58, 63, 64).


Examples.—Ĉu vi pensas, ke li venos? = Do you think that he will
come? Ĉu vi lin vidis hieraŭ? = Did you see him yesterday? Mi ne
konas lin = I do not know him.
Examples.—Do you think he will come? = Do you think he will come? Did you see him yesterday? = Did you see him yesterday? I don't know him. = I do not know him.


(3). As an emphatic auxiliary, it may be represented by ja =
indeed, in fact, or other similar adverb: e.g., sincere (par.
217).
(3). As an emphatic auxiliary, it can be represented by ja = indeed, in fact, or other similar adverbs: e.g., sincere (par. 217).


Example.—Mi ja esperas, ke li venos = I do hope he will come.
Example.—I hope he comes = I do hope he will come.


(4). As an inquiry after health.
(4). As a search for well-being.


Example.—Kiel vi fartas? or, Kia estas via sano? or, Kiel vi
statas? = How do you do? or, How are you?
Example.—How are you? or, How's your health? or, How are you doing? = How do you do? or, How are you?


(5). To "do," in the sense of "to cheat," by trompi or friponi.
In the sense of "to suffice" by sufiĉi.
(5). To "do," in the sense of "to cheat," by trompi or friponi. In the sense of "to be enough" by sufiĉi.


Examples.—Li friponis min = He did (cheated) me. Tio sufiĉos =
That will do.
Got it! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Li friponis min = He cheated me. Tio sufiĉos = That will be enough.


(6). Followed by prepositions, it must be translated in accordance
with the sense of the phrases.
(6). When followed by prepositions, it needs to be translated according to the meaning of the phrases.


Examples:—
Got it! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.


    

  • To do away with (abolish) = neniigi, (destroy) = detrui.
    • 

  • To do business = komerci, fari negocon kun.
    • 

  • To do for, or away with (murder, kill) = mortigi.
    • 

  • To do into (translate) = traduki.
    • 

  • To do well (prosper) = prosperi.
    • 

  • To do up (arrange) = aranĝi, (tie up) = kunligi, (repair) = ripari.
    • 

  • To do with (make use of) = fari uzon el.
    • 

  • To do without (dispense with) = forlasi, ne bezoni.
    • 



Get.
Get it.


237 (k). The English verb to "get" must be translated in accordance
with its numerous meanings. For instance:—
237 (k). The English verb "get" needs to be translated based on its many meanings. For example:—



(1). To "get," in the sense of to "become," may be rendered by iĝi
= to become, or the suffix -IĜ-.
(1). To "get," in the sense of to "become," can be expressed as iĝi = to become, or by using the suffix -IĜ-.


Examples.—Edziĝi = To get married (man). Edziniĝi = To get
married (woman). Leviĝi = To get up. Alproksimiĝi = To get
near. Laciĝi = To get tired. Tediĝi = To get bored. Ĉu vi
pretiĝas = Are you getting ready? Mi malsatiĝas = I am getting
hungry. Mi kutimiĝas je tio = I am getting accustomed (used) to
that. Mallumiĝas (or, Iĝas mallume) = It is getting dark. La
tagoj pli mallongiĝas = The days are getting shorter. La infanoj
kuŝiĝis = The children got into bed (lit., lay down). La
vespermanĝo malvarmiĝas = The dinner is getting cold; but
malvarmumi = to get (or catch) a cold.
Examples.—Edziĝi = To get married (man). Edziniĝi = To get married (woman). Leviĝi = To get up. Alproksimiĝi = To get near. Laciĝi = To get tired. Tediĝi = To get bored. Ĉu vi pretiĝas = Are you getting ready? Mi malsatiĝas = I am getting hungry. Mi kutimiĝas je tio = I am getting used to that. Mallumiĝas (or, Iĝas mallume) = It is getting dark. La tagoj pli mallongiĝas = The days are getting shorter. La infanoj kuŝiĝis = The children went to bed (lit., lay down). La vespermanĝo malvarmiĝas = The dinner is getting cold; but malvarmumi = to catch a cold.


(2). To "get," in the sense of to "make," to "cause," is rendered by
igi = to make, or the suffix -IG- added to a verb.
(2). To "get," in the sense of to "make," to "cause," is rendered by  
igi = to make, or the suffix -IG- added to a verb.


Examples.—Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = Get her to come to our
dance. Mi presigos la libron baldaŭ = I shall get the book printed
soon.
Examples.—Get her to come to our dance = Get her to come to our dance. I will print the book soon = I will get the book printed soon.


(3). To "get," in the sense of to "have got," or to "possess," is not
translated.
(3). To "get," in the sense of to "have," or to "possess," is not translated.


Examples.—Mi havas (or, posedas) du ĉevalojn = I have got two
horses. Kion vi havas? = What have you got?
Examples.—I have (or, I possess) two horses = I have two horses. What do you have? = What do you have?


(4). To "get," in the sense of to "procure," "fetch," is rendered by
havigi, or, venigi.
(4). To "get," meaning to "procure" or "fetch," is expressed as havigi or venigi.


Examples.—Mi havigos al mi tiom, kiom mi povos = I shall get as
much as I can. Venigu al mi veturilon = Get me a carriage. Venigu
la kuraciston = Send for (get) the doctor.
Examples.—I will get as much as I can = I’ll get as much as I can. Get me a carriage = Get me a ride. Send for the doctor = Call the doctor.


(5). "Get" is translated in various other ways according to its
meaning. Note the following examples:—
(5). "Get" is translated in different ways depending on its meaning. Check out the following examples:—


    

  • Alveni en = To get to, to arrive at.
    • 

  • Alkonduku mian ĉevalon = Get my horse.
    • 

  • Alportu al mi la mustardon = Get me the mustard.
    • 

  • Mi ricevis vian leteron = I got your letter.
    • 




(6). To "get," followed by prepositions, etc., must be translated in
accordance with the sense of the phrase.
(6). The word "get," when used with prepositions and so on, must be translated according to the meaning of the phrase.


Examples:—
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.


    

  • To get across = transiri.
    • 

  • To get along, forward, on = antaŭeniri.
    • 

  • To get at (attain, reach) = atingi.
    • 

  • To get back (something lent) = rericevi, (to a place) = reveni.
    • 

  • To get down = deiri, malsupreniri.
    • 

  • To get off (be acquitted) = senkulpiĝi, (escape) = forkuri,
           (a horse or coach) = deiri.
    • 

  • To get dirty = malpuriĝi.
    • 

  • To get on (a horse or coach) = supreniri, (in learning) = progresadi,
           (in business) = prosperi.
    • 

  • To get on with (continue) = daŭrigi.
    • 

  • To get out (of doors) = eliri, (publish) = eldoni, or, elirigi.
    • 

  • To get over (across) = transiri, (surmount) = venki.
    • 

  • To get ready = pretigi (trans.), pretiĝi (intrans.).
    • 

  • To get round (coax, allure) = logi, allogi, (persuade) = konvinki.
    • 

  • To get up (rise) = leviĝi, (ascend) = supreniri.
    • 



Can and Could.
Can and Could.


237 (l). "Can" and "could" are translated by povi = to be able,
except when "can" has the permissive sense of "may" (see par. 237 (m) (3)).
237 (l). "Can" and "could" are translated by povi = to be able, except when "can" means "may" in the sense of permission (see par. 237 (m) (3)).


Examples.—Mi ne povas lin vidi nuntempe = I cannot see him at
present. Li ne povis iri hieraŭ = He could not go yesterday. Li
povus iri hodiaŭ, se li volus = He could (would be able to) go to
day, if he would.
Examples.—I can't see him right now = I cannot see him at present. He couldn't go yesterday = He could not go yesterday. He could go today if he wanted to = He could (would be able to) go today, if he would.


For other examples of "can" and "could," see povi, par. 237 (f).
For more examples of "can" and "could," see povi, par. 237 (f).


May and Might.
May and Might.


237 (m). These verbs are used (1) as auxiliaries in the English
Subjunctive mood; also to express (2) wish, (3) permission, (4)
possibility, (5) power or ability.
237 (m). These verbs are used (1) as helpers in the English Subjunctive mood; also to express (2) a wish, (3) permission, (4) possibility, (5) power or ability.


(1). When used as auxiliary verbs, they can be expressed by the
Esperanto Imperative mood.
(1). When used as auxiliary verbs, they can be expressed using the Esperanto Imperative mood.



Examples.—Li rapidas, por ke li alvenu ĝustatempe = He hastens
that he may arrive in time. Li kuris rapide, por ke li ne maltrafu
la vagonaron = He ran quickly that he might not miss the train.
Examples.—He hurried so he could arrive on time = He hastens that he may arrive in time. He ran fast so he wouldn't miss the train = He ran quickly that he might not miss the train.


(2). When they express "wish," the Esperanto Imperative is also
used.
(2). When they say "wish," the Esperanto Imperative is also used.


Examples.—Vi estu feliĉa! = May you be happy! Via deziro
efektiviĝu! = May your wish be realized! Ĉielo vin benu! = May
Heaven bless you! Nenio difektu vian feliĉon! = May nothing mar
your happiness! Ĉia beno estu via! = May every blessing be yours!
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like modernized.—May you be happy! = May your wish come true! = May Heaven bless you! = May nothing ruin your happiness! = May every blessing be yours!


In the above examples ellipsis takes place both in Esperanto and
English, some such words as mi deziras, ke ... = I wish that...,
being omitted (par. 66 (c)). Ke vi prosperu, estas mia fervora
deziro! = That you may succeed, is my fervent desire! Ke li vivu,
estis mia ĉiutaga preĝo! = That he might live, was my daily
prayer! Mi mortu, se mi iom mensogas! = May I die, if I am lying at
all!
In the examples above, ellipsis occurs in both Esperanto and English, with phrases like mi deziras, ke ... = I wish that... being left out (par. 66 (c)). Ke vi prosperu, estas mia fervora deziro! = That you may succeed is my heartfelt wish! Ke li vivu, estis mia ĉiutaga preĝo! = That he might live was my daily prayer! Mi mortu, se mi iom mensogas! = May I die if I’m lying at all!


(3). When they express "permission," some word denoting this must
be used, or the imperative may be used, the verb expressing
permission being omitted (par. 58 (a)). The English verb "can" is
sometimes employed to express the permissive sense of "may"; in
that case it is better to avoid the use of povi = to be able.
(3). When they express "permission," some word indicating this must be used, or the imperative may be used, omitting the verb that expresses permission (par. 58 (a)). The English verb "can" is sometimes used to convey the permissive sense of "may"; in that case, it's better to avoid using povi = to be able.


Examples.—Ĉu vi (oni) permesas, ke mi parolu kun vi? = May (can)
I speak to you? (lit., Do you permit that I speak to you?) Ĉu oni
permesas, (or, ĉu estas permesate), ke mi vidu la kastelon? =
May (can) I see the castle? Mi permesas, ke vi tion faru, se vi
volas, or, Vi faru tion, se vi volas = You may (I permit that you)
do that, if you like. Se mi estus permesita tion diri (or, se
estus permesite, or, se oni permesus, ke mi tion diru) = If I
might (were permitted to) say so (that).
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—Is it okay for me to talk to you? = May I speak to you? (lit., Do you allow that I speak to you?) Is it allowed, (or, is it permitted), for me to see the castle? = May I see the castle? I allow you to do that, if you want, or, You can do that if you want = You may do that, if you like. If I were allowed to say that (or, if it were permitted, or, if it were allowed, for me to say that) = If I might say so.


The above questions may be shortened thus:—Ĉu mi parolu kun vi?
Ĉu mi vidu la kastelon? in this sense. The ellipsis understood here
might, however, equally well be Ĉu (vi volas, ĉu necesas,
ĉu estas bone, ke) mi parolu? vidu la kastelon? = Shall I (Am
I to) speak (see the castle)?
The above questions can be simplified like this:—Should I talk to you? Should I see the castle? In this sense, the implied words could also be Should (you want, is it necessary, is it good, that) I speak? see the castle? = Should I (Am I supposed to) talk (see the castle)?


(4). When they express "possibility," some word showing that the
action is more or less a matter of



doubt must be used, as eble =
possibly, kredeble = probably, etc.
(4). When they express "possibility," some word indicating that the action involves a degree of



doubt must be used, such as eble = possibly, kredeble = probably, etc.


Examples.—Eble li venos = He may come, or, Maybe (possibly) he
will come. Eble li tranĉos la fingron, se vi donos al li
tranĉilon = He may (possibly he will) cut his finger, if you (will)
give him a knife. Eble li venus, se vi lin invitus = He might
(possibly he would) come, if you invited (were to invite) him. Se vi
tien irus, eble (kredeble) vi lin vidus = If you went (were to
go) there, you might (possibly, probably would) see him.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—He may come = He might come, or, Maybe he will come. He may cut his finger if you give him a knife = He might cut his finger if you give him a knife. He might come if you invite him = He might come if you invited him. If you go there, you might see him = If you go there, you might see him.


Note that the possibility of something happening varies with the
adverb used. "May" rendered by eble throws greater doubt on the
contingency than kredeble.
Note that the chance of something happening changes depending on the adverb used. "May" expressed as eble indicates more uncertainty about the situation than kredeble.


(5). When they express "power," or "ability," povi = to be
able can be used.
(5). When they express "power" or "ability," povi = to be able can be used.


Examples.—La malsano povas konduki el komplikaĵoj = The illness
may lead to complications. Li povus tion fari, se li antaŭe volus
(or, estus volinta) ĝin fari = He might (could) have done that,
if he had wished to do it.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—The illness may lead to complications. He could have done that if he had wanted to.


Shall and Will.
Shall and Will.


237 (n). These verbs are used in English to denote:—
237 (n). These verbs are used in English to indicate:—


    

  • (1). Futurity.
    • 

  • (2). Determination or will.
    • 



As they are sometimes misplaced, it would be well for the student,
not thoroughly conversant with their proper use, to consult some good
English Grammar.
As they can sometimes be used incorrectly, it would be wise for the student, who isn't completely familiar with their proper use, to check a decent English Grammar.


(1). Futurity. As the auxiliary for the Future tense, "shall," in
direct speech, is generally used for the first person, and "will"
for the second and third persons, as "I, or we, shall go,"
"He, you, or they will go," except in interrogation, when
"shall" is generally used for the second person, as "Shall you go?"
But in indirect speech "shall" is used for all three persons, as,
"He says he shall come." "You say you shall write." In any of
these cases they are translated by the future in -os.
(1). Futurity. In the future tense, "shall" is typically used in direct speech for the first person, while "will" is used for the second and third persons, as in "I, or we, shall go" and "He, you, or they will go," except in questions, where "shall" is usually used for the second person, like "Shall you go?" However, in indirect speech, "shall" is applied to all three persons, for example, "He says he shall come." and "You say you shall write." In any of these instances, they're translated as the future in -os.



(2). Determination or Will. When the meaning is not futurity, but
determination on the part of the speaker, then, in direct speech,
"will" is used for the first person, and "shall" for the second and
third persons, as, "I will do it, you cannot stop me." "You shall
not kill that bird." "Thou shalt not steal." But in indirect
speech "will" is used for all the persons, as, "He says he will go"
(it is his determination to go). "You say you will try it" (you are
determined to try it). In such cases one must, in Esperanto, use not
the future, but the imperative, or some word expressing "will" or
"determination."
(2). Determination or Will. When the meaning isn't about the future, but rather determination from the speaker, then in direct speech, "will" is used for the first person, and "shall" for the second and third persons, as in, "I will do it, you can't stop me." "You shall not kill that bird." "You shall not steal." However, in indirect speech, "will" is used for all persons, as in, "He says he will go" (it's his determination to go). "You say you will try it" (you are determined to try it). In these cases, one must use not the future, but the imperative, or some word that expresses "will" or "determination" in Esperanto.


N.B.—In some cases it is difficult to tell in which of the above
senses "shall" or "will" is used, unless the context makes it clear;
so, in writing, we have to underline the words, or, in speaking, to
emphasize them strongly when they mean "determination." Note
carefully their meaning in the following sentences. The number
prefixed to each example denotes the heading under which it comes.
N.B.—Sometimes it's hard to tell which meaning of "shall" or "will" is being used unless the context makes it clear; so, when writing, we should underline the words, or when speaking, emphasize them strongly when they indicate "determination." Pay close attention to their meaning in the sentences that follow. The number before each example indicates the category it falls under.


Examples.—(1). Mi revenos, kiam ili foriros = I shall come back
when they go away. (2). Mi intencas ĝin fari, ĉu vi konsentos, aŭ
ne = I will (intend to) do it whether you consent or not. (1). Vi
mortigos tiun birdon, se vi rekte pafos = You will kill that bird if
you shoot straight. (2). Mi ne permesas, ke vi mortigu tiun birdon
= You shall not (I do not allow you to) kill that bird. (1). Mi
scias, ke vi ĝin faros = I know that you will do it. (2). Mi
scias, ke vi povas ĝin fari, se vi volos = I know you can do it if
you will.
Examples.—(1). I'll be back when they leave = I shall come back when they go away. (2). I plan to do it, whether you agree or not = I will (intend to) do it whether you consent or not. (1). You will kill that bird if you shoot straight = You will kill that bird if you shoot straight. (2). I won't allow you to kill that bird = You shall not (I do not allow you to) kill that bird. (1). I know you'll do it = I know that you will do it. (2). I know you can do it if you want = I know you can do it if you will.


Note the difference in meaning of "shall" and "will" in the following
sentences:—I shall/will not see you to-morrow unless you come early.
If "shall" be used, it means that something will prevent the speaker
from seeing the individual; the speaker may be out, or engaged;
therefore, since the reason is unimportant, we can translate the
sentence, as in English, by the future, as:—(1). Mi ne vidos vin
morgaŭ, se vi ne (or, krom se vi) venos frue. But if "will" be
used, determination on the part of the speaker



is implied; nothing
prevents him; he could see you if he wished, but he will not
(won’t). Therefore, in Esperanto, we must express this determination,
and say (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi ne intencas) vin vidi morgaŭ,
krom se vi venos frue = I will not (I do not intend to) see you
to-morrow unless you come early. (1). Mi ne mortos sola = I shall
not die alone. (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi certe ne intencas) morti
sola = I will not (I certainly do not intend to) die alone. (1).
Ĉu vi estos (or, ĉeestos) tie ĉi morgaŭ? = Will you be here
to-morrow? (1). Jes, mi estos = Yes, I will. Note that "will" here
repeats the verb in the question, and is used instead of "shall."
(1). Li diras, ke li venos, sed (1) ĉu li venos? or, (2) ĉu li
volos? = He says he will come, but will he? Here the words "but will
he?" must be translated in accordance with the sense to be conveyed,
viz.:—(1) will something prevent him? (2) will he have the will?
Note the difference in meaning of "shall" and "will" in the following sentences:—I shall/will not see you tomorrow unless you come early. If "shall" is used, it means that something will prevent the speaker from seeing the individual; the speaker may be out or engaged; therefore, since the reason is unimportant, we can translate the sentence, as in English, by the future, as:—(1). Mi ne vidos vin morgaŭ, se vi ne (or, krom se vi) venos frue. But if "will" is used, determination on the part of the speaker is implied; nothing prevents him; he could see you if he wanted, but he will not (won’t). Therefore, in Esperanto, we must express this determination, and say (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi ne intencas) vin vidi morgaŭ, krom se vi venos frue = I will not (I do not intend to) see you tomorrow unless you come early. (1). Mi ne mortos sola = I shall not die alone. (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi certe ne intencas) morti sola = I will not (I certainly do not intend to) die alone. (1). Ĉu vi estos (or, ĉeestos) tie ĉi morgaŭ? = Will you be here tomorrow? (1). Jes, mi estos = Yes, I will. Note that "will" here repeats the verb in the question and is used instead of "shall." (1). Li diras, ke li venos, sed (1) ĉu li venos? or, (2) ĉu li volos? = He says he will come, but will he? Here the words "but will he?" must be translated in accordance with the sense to be conveyed, viz.:—(1) will something prevent him? (2) will he have the will?


The phrase "Shall I do that?" can be translated by the future, Ĉu
mi tion faros? = Is it a fact that I shall do that? or, Ĉu estos
plej bone tion fari = Is it best to do that? or, Ĉu estos
profite, saĝe, k.c. = Will it be expedient, wise, etc., or,
Ĉu decos, ke mi tion faru? = Will it be proper (right) to do that?
or, Ĉu vi volas (or, deziras), ke mi tion faru, or, Ĉu mi
faru tion? = Shall I (do you wish me to, Am I to) do that? (1). Ĉu
vi iros? = Shall you go? (2). Ĉu vi volas iri? = Will you go?
Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru? or, Ĉu mi iru? = Shall I go? Am I to
go? (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)). "Will I go" is bad English, and
untranslatable!
The question "Should I do that?" can be interpreted in the future tense as, Ĉu mi tion faros? = Is it true that I will do that? or, Ĉu estos plej bone tion fari = Is it best to do that? or, Ĉu estos profite, saĝe, k.c. = Will it be useful, wise, etc., or, Ĉu decos, ke mi tion faru? = Is it right (appropriate) for me to do that? or, Ĉu vi volas (or, deziras), ke mi tion faru, or, Ĉu mi faru tion? = Should I (do you want me to, Am I to) do that? (1). Ĉu vi iros? = Are you going? (2). Ĉu vi volas iri? = Will you go? Ĉu vi volas, ke mi iru? or, Ĉu mi iru? = Should I go? Am I to go? (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)). "Will I go" is incorrect English and untranslatable!


Should and Would.
Should and Would.


237 (o). "Should" and "would" follow the rules of "shall" and
"will" when employed in parallel circumstances. They express:—
237 (o). "Should" and "would" follow the rules of "shall" and "will" when used in similar situations. They express:—


(1). Supposition, or a future that is doubtful, conditional, or
merely supposed (par. 192), as "I should do it if I knew how."
(1). Supposition, or a future that is uncertain, conditional, or just assumed (par. 192), as "I would do it if I knew how."


(2). Duty or obligation (par. 237 (a)) as "He should not do
that."
Duty or obligation as "He shouldn't do that."


(3). Determination, as "Nothing could influence him, he would do
it."
(3). Determination, as "Nothing could sway him; he would do it."


(4). The softening of an expression (par. 194), as "Would you
object to do that?"
(4). The softening of an expression (par. 194), as in "Would you mind doing that?"



(5). The future in indirect speech (par. 232), as "She said she
would (will) come."
(5). The future in indirect speech (par. 232), as "She said she would (will) come."


(6). Would, when it signifies custom or habit, is sometimes
translated by adding the suffix -AD- to the verb.
(6). Would, when it signifies custom or habit, is sometimes translated by adding the suffix -AD- to the verb.


The following sentences will show how these various meanings may be
expressed in Esperanto. The number before each example shows under
which class of meanings it comes.
The following sentences will show how these different meanings can be expressed in Esperanto. The number before each example indicates which class of meanings it belongs to.


Examples.—(1). Mi ĝin farus, se vi min permesus = I should do it
if you would permit me. (1). Li min frapus, se li ne timus = He
would strike me if he were not afraid. (3). Li insistis ĝin fari
malgraŭ la danĝero = He would do it in spite of the danger. (4).
Ĉu vi donus al mi tiun libron? = Would you give me that book? (1).
Se vi vidus Johanon morgaŭ (2) vi devus diri al li, ke li ne
aĉetu tiun domon = If you should see John to-morrow, you should
tell him not to buy that house. (5). Ŝi diris al mi, ke ŝi venos
= She told me that she would (will) come. (1). Mi iomete suspektis,
ke ili venos = I had a slight suspicion that they would come. (6).
Ili ofte rajdadis tra la arbaroj, kie la branĉoj tuŝadis iliajn
ŝultrojn, kaj la birdoj kantadis inter la freŝaj folioj = They
would often ride through the woods, where the branches would touch
their shoulders, and the birds would sing amid the fresh leaves.
Examples.—(1). I would do it if you would let me = I should do it if you would permit me. (1). He would hit me if he weren’t afraid = He would strike me if he were not afraid. (3). He insisted on doing it despite the danger = He would do it in spite of the danger. (4). Would you give me that book? = Would you give me that book? (1). If you see John tomorrow (2) you should tell him not to buy that house = If you should see John to-morrow, you should tell him not to buy that house. (5). She told me that she would come = She told me that she would (will) come. (1). I had a little suspicion that they would come = I had a slight suspicion that they would come. (6). They often rode through the woods, where the branches brushed their shoulders, and the birds sang among the fresh leaves = They would often ride through the woods, where the branches would touch their shoulders, and the birds would sing amid the fresh leaves.


Must, Ought.
Must, Should.


237 (p). "Must" and "Have to" always signify physical or moral
obligation, and are stronger terms than "ought," which implies moral
obligation or duty. Compare "You must (have to, are to) go"
with "You ought to go." The former can be rendered by devi, and
the latter, "ought," by deci, or some word implying moral
obligation. Devi is also used for "ought" in the Conditional mood;
devus, in this case, being the softened form of the Conditional
mood (see par. 194). Care must be taken



not to translate "must" when
it signifies "have to" or "am to" by havi or esti (see
par. 237 (a) on devi).
237 (p). "Must" and "Have to" always mean physical or moral obligation, and are stronger terms than "ought," which suggests moral duty. Compare "You must (have to, are to) go" with "You ought to go." The former can be expressed as devi, and the latter, "ought," by deci, or another term that implies moral obligation. Devi is also used for "ought" in the Conditional mood; devus, in this case, is the softer form of the Conditional mood (see par. 194). Care must be taken



not to translate "must" when it means "have to" or "am to" by havi or esti (see par. 237 (a) on devi).


Examples.—Li devas labori = He must (has to) work. Mi devas havi
tiun libron = I must have that book. Ĉio, kio troviĝas en tiu ĉi
libro, devas esti rigardata kiel deviga por ĉiuj = Everything which
is in this book must be regarded as obligatory for all. La
"Fundamento de Esperanto" devas resti severe netuŝebla = The
"Fundamento de Esperanto" must remain strictly unalterable
(untouchable). Vi devus ne fari tion, or, Ne decas, ke vi tion
faru = You ought not to (it is not proper, right that you should) do
that. Vi devus viziti (Decas, ke vi vizitu) la patron = You ought
to see (it is proper that you should see) your father. Li devus ne
forgesi (or, esti forgesinta) = He ought not to have forgotten.
Decas, ke mi alportu miajn servojn al la reĝo = I ought to offer
my services to the king. Kiam vi devos vidi la homon? = When must
you (will you have to) see the man? Mi devus vidi lin hieraŭ, sed
li malsaniĝis, tial nun mi devos atendi ĝis morgaŭ = I ought to
have seen him yesterday, but he fell ill, so now I must wait till
to-morrow.
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—He has to work = He must (has to) work. I have to have that book = I must have that book. Everything in this book must be seen as mandatory for everyone = Everything which is in this book must be regarded as obligatory for all. The "Fundamentals of Esperanto" must stay completely unchanged = The "Fundamento de Esperanto" must remain strictly unalterable (untouchable). You shouldn't do that, or, It's not right for you to do that = You ought not to (it is not proper, right that you should) do that. You should see your father = You ought to see (it is proper that you should see) your father. He shouldn't have forgotten (or, he must have forgotten) = He ought not to have forgotten. I should offer my services to the king = I ought to offer my services to the king. When will you have to see the man? = When must you (will you have to) see the man? I should have seen him yesterday, but he got sick, so now I have to wait until tomorrow = I ought to have seen him yesterday, but he fell ill, so now I must wait till to-morrow.


N.B.—Note, in the last example, that the adverb hieraŭ =
yesterday, clearly shows the action is past; it is therefore
unnecessary to use the past infinitive esti vidinta.
N.B.—Note, in the last example, that the adverb hieraŭ = yesterday clearly indicates the action is in the past; therefore, it's not necessary to use the past infinitive esti vidinta.





ADVERBS (Adverboj).




238. Adverbs are more widely used in Esperanto than in any other
language. The root of every word, and any grammatical termination or
affix, the sense of which permits this, can be made into an adverb by
adding the adverbial termination E. This facility enables the
Esperantist to express in one word, to an unlimited extent, what in
other languages often takes two, three, or more words to express
adequately. E.g., Tiamaniere = In such a manner. Matene = In
the morning. Vespere = In the evening.
238. Adverbs are used more frequently in Esperanto than in any other language. You can turn the root of any word, along with any grammatical endings or affixes that allow it, into an adverb by adding the adverbial ending E. This makes it possible for Esperanto speakers to convey, in a single word, what often requires two, three, or more words in other languages. For example, Tiamaniere = In such a manner. Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening.






239. An adverb answers to a preposition accompanied by a
complement.
239. An adverb responds to a preposition with a complement.


Example.—Li parolas saĝe = "He speaks wisely," has the same
signification as Li parolas kun saĝeco = He speaks with wisdom.
Understood. Ready for your text.—Li parolas saĝe = "He speaks wisely," has the same meaning as Li parolas kun saĝeco = He speaks with wisdom.






240. Adverbs are used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives,
or other adverbs.
240. Adverbs are used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.


Examples.—Li agas bone = He acts well. Tiu ĉi estas tre granda
domo = This is a very large house. Li skribas treege bone = He
writes extremely well.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Li agas bone = He performs well. Tiu ĉi estas tre granda
domo = This is a really big house. Li skribas treege bone = He writes really well.


N.B.—When an adverb seems to qualify a preposition, it really
qualifies an adverbial phrase, as:—Multe antaŭ la horo = Much
before the time (hour).
N.B.—When an adverb appears to modify a preposition, it actually modifies an adverbial phrase, as in:—Multe antaŭ la horo = Much before the time (hour).






241. Position.—Adverbs, as a rule, immediately precede or follow
the words which they modify (see par. 88).
241. Position.—Adverbs usually come right before or after the words they modify (see par. 88).






242. There are two classes of adverbs in Esperanto, which for the
sake of distinction we will call (a) "Primary" and (b)
"Grammatical."
242. There are two types of adverbs in Esperanto, which for clarity we will refer to as (a) "Primary" and (b) "Grammatical."



(a). Primary adverbs are all to be found in the list of primary
words in Part V. They have no distinctive termination.
(a). Primary adverbs can be found in the list of primary words in Part V. They don’t have a specific ending.


(b). Grammatical adverbs are those which are formed by adding E
to a root, grammatical termination, or affix. Some are formed by
adding E to a primary word.
(b). Grammatical adverbs are created by adding E to a root, grammatical ending, or affix. Some are made by adding E to a base word.


A list of adverbs will be found at page 166.
A list of adverbs can be found at page 166.






243. No influence on case.—Adverbs exercise no influence on the
case of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. If such be in the accusative,
it is not by the influence of the adverb. For example:—Mi amas
Johanon tiel varme, kiel mian fraton = I love John as warmly as my
brother. Here kiel exercises no influence on mian fraton, for
both mian fraton and Johanon are governed by the verb amas.
Therefore the meaning is that the speaker loves my brother and John
equally warmly. Or, we can place mian fraton in the nominative,
as:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mia frato = I love John as
warmly as my brother (does). Ask yourself the question, "as my
brother does what?" and the answer is "loves John." In English we are
obliged to add "does" or "loves him," but in Esperanto the meaning is
quite clear from the case of the noun (see also pars. 247 and 105).
243. No influence on case.—Adverbs do not affect the case of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. If something is in the accusative case, it’s not because of the adverb. For example:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mian fraton = I love John as warmly as my brother. Here, kiel does not influence mian fraton, since both mian fraton and Johanon are controlled by the verb amas. This means that the speaker loves my brother and John with the same warmth. Alternatively, we can put mian fraton in the nominative, as follows:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mia frato = I love John as warmly as my brother (does). Ask yourself, "as my brother does what?" and the answer is "loves John." In English, we have to add "does" or "loves him," but in Esperanto, the meaning is clear from the case of the noun (see also pars. 247 and 105).






244. Adverbs formed from Prepositions.—When a preposition has no
complement, noun or pronoun, the preposition then takes the adverbial
termination E. For instance, in the phrase mi staras apud li (I
am standing by him); apud here is a preposition because it is
followed by its complement li. But if li be omitted, we must
alter the sentence, as:—Li staras apude = He is standing by
(near).
244. Adverbs formed from Prepositions.—When a preposition doesn’t have a complement, like a noun or pronoun, it takes on the adverbial ending E. For example, in the phrase mi staras apud li (I am standing by him); apud is a preposition here because it's followed by its complement li. But if we leave out li, we need to change the sentence to:—Li staras apude = He is standing by (near).







245. Subject not expressed.—When, in a sentence in Esperanto,
there is no noun or pronoun which the adjective can qualify (as in
case of verbs in the infinitive, or used impersonally), the adverb is
used in Esperanto in place of the adjective.
245. Subject not expressed.—When a sentence in Esperanto doesn’t have a noun or pronoun that the adjective can describe (like with verbs in the infinitive or used impersonally), an adverb is used instead of the adjective in Esperanto.


Examples.—Mensogi estas honte (not honta) = To lie is shameful.
Estas necese, ke.... = It is necessary that.... Estas bele, varme,
malvarme = It is fine, warm, cold. Ne estas atendate, ke.... = It
is not expected that.... If, however, a noun or pronoun is expressed,
then the adjective is used, as:—La vetero (or, ĝi) estas
bela, varma, malvarma = The weather (or, it) is fine, warm,
cold.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—Mensogi estas honte (not honta) = Lying is shameful. Estas necese, ke.... = It’s necessary that.... Estas bele, varme, malvarme = It’s nice, warm, cold. Ne estas atendate, ke.... = It’s not expected that.... However, if a noun or pronoun is included, the adjective is used, like:—La vetero (or, ĝi) estas bela, varma, malvarma = The weather (or, it) is nice, warm, cold.


245 (a). Participle-Adverbs.—In Esperanto, when the participle
relates to the subject (par. 211), but does not qualify it, then the
participle takes the adverbial form. For impersonal use see par. 164
(d).
245 (a). Participle-Adverbs.—In Esperanto, when the participle relates to the subject (par. 211), but doesn’t modify it, the participle takes the adverbial form. For impersonal use, see par. 164 (d).


Examples.—Legante, ni lernas = In (by, when, while) reading we
learn. Starante sur la supro de la monteto, li povis vidi la
preĝejon = By standing on the top of the hill, he could see the
church. Estante kolera, ŝi ne volis paroli al sia nevo = Being (as
she was) angry, she did not wish to speak to her nephew. Malferminte
la fenestron, li vidis la amason sur la strato = Having opened
(or, after opening) the window, he saw the crowd in (on) the
street. Ekrigardinte la libron, ŝi ĝin metis sur la tablon =
Having glanced (or, after glancing) at the book, she put it on the
table. Forpelite el la urbo, ili rifuĝis en la arbarego = Having
been (or, after being) driven from the town, they took refuge in
the forest. Batate de la lernejestro, la knabo terure kriegis =
Being beaten by the schoolmaster, the boy howled terribly.
Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Legante, ni lernas = While reading, we learn. Starante sur la supro de la monteto, li povis vidi la preĝejon = Standing on the top of the hill, he could see the church. Estante kolera, ŝi ne volis paroli al sia nevo = Being angry, she didn't want to talk to her nephew. Malferminte la fenestron, li vidis la amason sur la strato = After opening the window, he saw the crowd on the street. Ekrigardinte la libron, ŝi ĝin metis sur la tablon = After glancing at the book, she put it on the table. Forpelite el la urbo, ili rifuĝis en la arbarego = After being driven from the town, they took refuge in the woods. Batate de la lernejestro, la knabo terure kriegis = After being beaten by the schoolmaster, the boy howled terribly.






246. Adverbs of quantity, like other words signifying quantity,
usually have their complement introduced by the preposition da.
246. Adverbs of quantity, like other words that indicate quantity, usually have their complement introduced by the preposition da.


Examples.—Multe da homoj = Many men. Nur malmulte da virinoj =
Only a few women. Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have
you? Multe pli da bovaĵo, ol (da) ŝafaĵo = Much more beef than
mutton. Malpli da pano, ol (da) vino = Less bread than wine. Tro
da kuiristoj malbonigas la buljonon = Too many cooks spoil the
broth. Ne estas sufiĉe da supo = There is not sufficient soup.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—Many men = Multe da homoj. Only a few women = Nur malmulte da virinoj. How many horses do you have? = Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? Much more beef than mutton = Multe pli da bovaĵo, ol (da) ŝafaĵo. Less bread than wine = Malpli da pano, ol (da) vino. Too many cooks spoil the broth = Tro da kuiristoj malbonigas la buljonon. There isn’t enough soup = Ne estas sufiĉe da supo.



246. (a). Expressions such as "more and more," "at most," etc., are
thus rendered:—
246. (a). Phrases like "more and more," "at most," etc., are now expressed as:—


Pli-malpli, pli aŭ malpli, plie aŭ malplie = More or less.
Pli-malpli, pli aŭ malpli, plie aŭ malplie = More or less.


Plie = In addition, besides, moreover. Malplie = Less and
less.[18]
Plie = Additionally, moreover. Malplie = Less and less. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Pleje = At (the) most, mostly. Malpleje = At (the) least,
least.[18]
Pleje = At most, mostly. Malpleje = At least, least. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Troe = In excess, too many.
Troe = Excessively, too numerous.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[18] These usages are seldom employed.
   
These uses are rarely used.




Examples.—Unu pomo plie aŭ malplie ne gravas = One apple more or
less does not signify. Plie, mi devas diri al vi, ke.... =
Moreover, I must tell you that.... Ni estos kvin pleje haj ili sep
malpleje = We shall be five at most and they seven at least. En la
kesto mi trovis du librojn troe = In the box I found two books too
many (in excess).
Examples.—One apple more or less doesn't matter = One apple more or less does not signify. Also, I have to tell you that.... = Moreover, I must tell you that.... We'll be five at most and they'll be seven at least = We shall be five at most and they seven at least. I found two books too many in the box = In the box I found two books too many (in excess).






247. Adverbs and the accusative case.—Adverbs exercise no
influence on case (see par. 243), but used adverbially, participles
of active verbs are followed by the accusative if used without a
preposition (see par. 66 (b)).
247. Adverbs and the accusative case.—Adverbs do not affect case (see par. 243), but when used as adverbs, participles of active verbs are followed by the accusative if they are used without a preposition (see par. 66 (b)).


After such adverbs as konforme, rilate, escepte, spite, etc.,
it is optional either to use the accusative or to add a suitable
preposition with the complement in the nominative, as konforme al,
kun, or je; rilate al; escepte de (or, kun la escepto de =
with the exception of); spite de (see par. 258 (a)).
After adverbs like konforme, rilate, escepte, spite, etc., you can either use the accusative or add a fitting preposition with the complement in the nominative, such as konforme al, kun, or je; rilate al; escepte de (or, kun la escepto de = with the exception of); spite de (see par. 258 (a)).






248. Comparatives and superlatives.—These are marked in the same
way as adjectives (see pars. 112–114).
248. Comparatives and superlatives.—These are indicated in the same way as adjectives (see pars. 112–114).


Examples.—Pli rapide, ol bone = More quickly than well. Malpli
forte, ol kutime = Weaker (less strong) than customary. Tiel
dolĉe, kiel eble (or, kiel eble plej dolĉe) = As sweetly as
possible. Ŝi kantas la plej bone el ĉiuj = She sings best of all.
Li agis tre saĝe = He acted very wisely.
I'm ready for the text.—More quickly than well = More quickly than well. Weaker than usual = Weaker (less strong) than customary. As sweetly as possible (or, as sweetly as can be) = As sweetly as possible. She sings the best of anyone = She sings best of all. He acted very wisely = He acted very wisely.


248 (a). Adverbs and adjectives.—Be careful not to use the
adjective for the adverb.
248 (a). Adverbs and adjectives.—Be careful not to use the adjective instead of the adverb.



Examples.—Li kuras rapide = He runs rapidly. Parolu pli laŭte
(not laŭta) = Speak louder (more loudly). Ŝi vidis lin
piediranta pli malrapide, ol kutime = She saw him walking (that he
was (is) walking) more slowly than usual.
Examples.—He runs quickly = He runs fast. Speak louder (not loud) = Speak more loudly. She saw him walking more slowly than usual = She saw him walking more slowly than he normally does.


N.B.—Note that piediranta is predicative (see par. 209 (b)).
N.B.—Note that piediranta is a predicate (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ (b)).


LIST OF ADVERBS.
ADVERB LIST.


248 (b). The following list of adverbs contains all those found
amongst the primary words and some formed from them, also a number of
useful grammatical adverbs.
248 (b). The following list of adverbs includes all those found among the main words and some that are formed from them, along with a number of useful grammatical adverbs.


Adiaŭ = Adieu, farewell, good-bye.
Adiaŭ = Goodbye.


Example.—Li diris al ŝi adiaŭ, kaj foriris = He said good-bye to
her, and departed.
Example.—Li diris al ŝi adiaŭ, kaj foriris = He said goodbye to her and left.


Afrankite = Post-paid.
Afrankite = After payment.


Ajn = Ever. Ajn is generally used after the correlative words
beginning with K, as kia, kiam, etc. (see table of correlative
words, par. 147). It then answers to words ending in "ever," but,
unlike English, it is never joined to the preceding word (par. 145).
Ajn = Ever. Ajn is usually used after correlative words that start with K, like kia, kiam, etc. (see the table of correlative words, par. 147). It corresponds to words that end in "ever," but, unlike in English, it is never attached to the preceding word (par. 145).


Examples.—Kia ajn = Whatever kind of. Kiam ajn = Whenever,
whensoever. Kie ajn = Wherever, wheresoever. Kiel ajn = However.
Kies ajn = Whosesoever. Kio ajn = Whatever, whatsoever. Kiom
ajn = However much. Kiu ajn = Whoever, whosoever, whichever,
whichsoever.
Sure! Please provide the short phrases you would like me to modernize.—Kia ajn = Any kind of. Kiam ajn = Any time, whenever. Kie ajn = Any place, wherever. Kiel ajn = Any way, however. Kies ajn = Whichever person’s. Kio ajn = Anything, whatever. Kiom ajn = Any amount, however much. Kiu ajn = Anyone, whichever person, whichever.


Aliloke = Elsewhere.
Aliloke = Somewhere else.


Alivorte = In other words.
Alivorte = That is.


Almenaŭ = At least.
At least


Example.—Donu al mi almenaŭ la duonon de tiu biskvito = Give me
at least the half of that biscuit.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Donu al mi almenaŭ la duonon de tiu biskvito = Give me at least half of that biscuit.


Alvenante, Alveninte = On arrival.
Alvenante, Alveninte = When arriving.


Ambaŭ = Both, one and the other (pronoun).
Ambaŭ = Both, either one (pronoun).


Examples.—Ili ambaŭ kuris al la stacidomo = They both ran to the
station.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—They both ran to the station.



Ankaŭ = Also, too.
Also, too.


Examples.—Li ankaŭ ĝin faris = He, too, did it. Nek mi ankaŭ
= Nor I either (also).
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like modernized.—He did it too = He, too, did it. Nor I either = Nor I either (also).


Ankoraŭ = Yet, still. (See remarks on Jam).
Ankoraŭ = Yet, still. (See notes on Jam).


Examples.—Ĉu li estas ankoraŭ tie ĉi? = Is he still here? Mi
ankoraŭ ne vidis lin = I have not seen him yet.
Examples.—Is he still here? = Is he still here? I haven't seen him yet. = I have not seen him yet.


Antaŭe = Formerly, previously, beforehand, in front.
Antaŭe = Previously, before, in front.


Aparte = Aside, apart, separately, specially.
Aparte = Aside, apart, separately, specially.


Apenaŭ = Hardly, scarcely.
Apenaŭ = Hardly, scarcely.


Example.—Mi apenaŭ pensas tion = I hardly think that (or, so).
Example.—I hardly think that = I barely think that (or, so).


Baldaŭ = Soon.
Soon = Soon.


Example.—Mi esperas, ke li venos baldaŭ = I hope he will (may)
come soon.
Example.—I hope he arrives soon.


Bis = Once more, again, encore.
Bis = Again, once more, encore.


Example.—Bis! = Encore!
Example.—Bis! = Repeat Performance!


Bonstate = In good condition.
Bonstate = In good shape.


Certe = Certainly.
Certe = For sure.


Ĉi = The nearest (tio = that, tio ĉi or ĉi tio =
this), (tiu = that, the former, tiu ĉi or ĉi tiu =
this, the latter), (tie = there, tie ĉi or ĉi tie =
here), (tien = thither, tien ĉi = hither), (ĉio =
all, ĉio ĉi = all this) (par. 143).
This = The nearest (that = that, this or this one = this), (that one = that, the first, this one or the latter = this, the second), (there = there, here or this place = here), (to there = to there, to here = to here), (everything = all, all this = all this) (par. 143).


Examples.—Restu ĉi tie = Remain here. Venu ĉi tien = Come
hither.
Examples.—Stay here = Remain here. Come here = Come hither.


Ĉial = For all reasons, for every reason (par. 150).
Ĉial = For all reasons, for every reason (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is
the best.
Example.—Ĉial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason, that is the best.


Ĉiam = Always, ever (par. 151).
Ĉiam = Always, ever (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Li venas ĉiam, kiam oni ne bezonas lin = He always comes
when one does not want him.
Example.—He always shows up when he's not needed.


Ĉiame = Perpetually, continually.
Always = Perpetually, continually.


Example.—La infano ploras ĉiame (or, senĉese) = The child
cries perpetually.
Example.—The child cries all the time (or, constantly) = The child cries perpetually.


Ĉie = Everywhere (par. 152).
Ĉie = Everywhere (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Ĉie mi lin vidas = Everywhere I see him. Li iras
ĉien = He goes everywhere.
Examples.—I see him everywhere = Everywhere I see him. He goes everywhere = He goes everywhere.



Ĉiel = In every (manner) way, all ways (par. 153).
In every way = In every manner, all ways (par. 153).


Example.—Tiu estas ĉiel la plej bona sidejo = That is in every
way the best seat.
Example.—This is absolutely the best seat = That is in every way the best seat.


Ĉiom = All of it, the whole, all, every quantity (par. 156).
All = Everything, the entire amount, all, every quantity (par. 156).


Example.—Prenu iom, ne ĉiom = Take some, not the whole.
Example.—Take a bit, not everything = Take some, not the whole.


Ĉirkaŭe = Round about.
Ĉirkaŭe = Around.


Ĉiufoje kiam, or, ĉiun fojon kiam, or, kiam ajn = whenever.
Whenever = whenever.


Ĉiujare = Yearly, annually, every year.
Yearly


Ĉiumonate = Monthly, every month.
Ĉiumonate = Monthly.


Ĉiusemajne = Weekly, every (each) week.
Ĉiusemajne = Weekly.


Ĉiutage = Daily. Laŭtage = By the day. Tage = By day.
Nokte = By night.
Ĉiutage = Daily. Laŭtage = Daily. Tage = During the day.  
Nokte = At night.


Ĉu = Whether. An interrogative adverb used at the beginning of a
direct question; it has no English equivalent. Ĉu simply shows
that the sentence is interrogative, and therefore, to translate it,
we must look to the tense of the verb and to the subject, so as to
preface the interrogation with "do," "does," "did," "have," "has,"
"is," "will," "shall," "was," "were," "should," "would," "can," etc.
etc.
Ĉu = Whether. An interrogative adverb used at the beginning of a direct question; it has no English equivalent. Ĉu simply indicates that the sentence is a question, so to translate it, we need to consider the tense of the verb and the subject to start the question with "do," "does," "did," "have," "has," "is," "will," "shall," "was," "were," "should," "would," "can," etc.


Examples.—Ĉu vi komprenis? = Did you understand? Ĉu Johano
skribas? = Is John writing? Ĉu vi povas fari tion? = Can you do
that? (see remarks on Interrogation, par. 58).
Examples.—Did you get it? = Did you understand? Is John writing? = Is John writing? Can you do that? = Can you do that? (see remarks on Interrogation, par. 58).


Ĉu = whether (or if in the sense of whether) (a conjunction)
is used in indirect questions, when we generally use "if."
Ĉu = whether (or if in the sense of whether) (a conjunction) is used in indirect questions, when we generally use "if."


Examples.—Diru al mi, ĉu li venos = Tell me if (whether) he will
come. Diru al mi, se li venos = Tell me if he comes.
Examples.—Tell me if he will come = Diru al mi, ĉu li venos. Tell me if he comes = Diru al mi, se li venos.


Ĉu ... Ĉu = Whether ... whether.
Whether ... whether = Whether ... whether.


Example.—Ĉu li venos, ĉu li ne venos, Paŭlo foriros = Whether
he comes (will come) (or) whether he does not (will not come), Paul
will depart.
Example.—Will he come or not, Paul will leave.



Dekstre = On the right. Maldekstren = To the left.
Right = On the right. Left = To the left.


Denove = Afresh, again, once again.
Denove = Afresh, again, once more.


Due = Secondly, in the second place.
Due = Secondly.


Dum = While, whilst, as (also a preposition and conjunction).
Dum = While, whilst, as (also a preposition and conjunction).


Dume = Meanwhile.
Dume = In the meantime.


Eble = Possibly, perhaps.
Eble = Maybe, possibly.


Eĉ = Even.
Even = Even.


Examples.—Li eĉ pensis, ke.... = He even thought that.... Eĉ la
infanoj insultis min = Even the children abused me.
Understood! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—He even thought that.... = He even thought that.... Even the children insulted me = Even the children abused me.


Efektive = In fact, really, as a matter of fact.
Effective = In fact, really, as a matter of fact.


Ekstere = Outwardly. Interne = inwardly, internally,
within, inside.
Ekstere = Outwardly. Interne = Inwardly, internally, within, inside.


Entute = On the whole, as a whole.
Entute = Overall, in general.


Facile = Easily. Malfacile = With difficulty.
Facile = Easy. Malfacile = Difficult.


Fine = In conclusion, lastly.
Fine = To sum up, finally.


For = Away, forth.
For = Away, forward.


Example.—For de ĉi tie fripono! = Get thee hence (away), rascal!
Example.—Get out of here, you little rascal!


Forme = In shape, in form.
Form = In shape, in form.


Galope = At a gallop.
Galope = Galloping.


Grandnombre = In great numbers.
Grandnombre = In large quantities.


Ĝisdate = Up to date. Ĝisnune = Up to now, hitherto.
Ĝisplue = Until further notice.
Ĝisdate = Current. Ĝisnune = Up to this point, so far.  
Ĝisplue = Until further notice.


Ĝissate = Till satiety (is reached).
Ĝissate = Until full.


Ĝustatempe = Opportunely, to time.
Ĝustatempe = On time.


Hieraŭ = Yesterday.
Yesterday = Yesterday.


Examples.--Mi lin vidis hieraŭ = I saw him yesterday.
Antaŭhieraŭ = The day before yesterday.
Examples.--I saw him yesterday = I saw him yesterday.  
The day before yesterday = The day before yesterday.


Hieraŭ matene = Yesterday morning.
Yesterday morning.


Hodiaŭ = To-day.
Today = To-day.


Example.—Li alvenos hodiaŭ = He will arrive to-day.
Example.—He will arrive today = He will arrive today.


Hodiaŭ vespere = This (to-day) evening.
Tonight = This (to-day) evening.



Ial = For some (any) reason, or cause (par. 150).
Ial = For some (any) reason, or cause (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Ial li venis Londonon = For some reason he came to
London.
Example.—He came to London for some reason.


Iam = At some (any) time, once, ever (par. 151).
I am = At some (any) time, once, ever (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Venu iam morgaŭ = Come some time to-morrow. Ĉu vi iam
renkontis lin? = Did you ever meet him?
Examples.—Come by some time tomorrow. Have you ever met him?


Ie = Somewhere, (anywhere) (par. 152).
Ie = Somewhere, (anywhere) (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Mi ne povas ĝin trovi ie en la ĉambro = I cannot find
it anywhere in the room. Ĝi estas ie = It is somewhere. Ĉu vi
metis ĝin ien? = Did you put it anywhere?
Understood. Ready for the text.—I can’t find it anywhere in the room = I cannot find it anywhere in the room. It is somewhere = It is somewhere. Did you put it anywhere? = Did you put it anywhere?


Iel = Somehow, in some way, in some manner, anyhow, (in
any way) (par. 153).
Iel = Somehow, in some way, in some manner, anyhow, (in any way) (par. 153).


Examples.—Iel li sukcesas en ĉio = Somehow he succeeds in
everything. Respondu iel = Answer in some manner.
Examples.—He somehow succeeds in everything = Somehow he succeeds in everything. Answer in some way = Answer in some manner.


Iom = Somewhat, some quantity, a little, some (par. 156).
Iom = Somewhat, some quantity, a little, some (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat
(a little) warmer. Jen estas cigaroj, ĉu vi deziras iom? = Here
are cigars, do you want some?
Examples.—The weather is a bit warmer = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer. Here are cigars, do you want some? = Here are cigars, do you want some?


Iomete = A very little, in a very slight degree, at all.
Iomete = A tiny bit, to a small extent, in any way.


Example.—Ĝi estis iomete pli granda, ol kulo = It was slightly
larger than a gnat.
Example.—It was a bit bigger than a gnat = It was slightly larger than a gnat.


Intence = Intentionally, on purpose.
Intense = Intentionally, on purpose.


Ja = In fact, indeed.
Ja = In fact, indeed.


Examples.—Li ja alvenos morgaŭ = He in fact will arrive
to-morrow. Ja may be used to express the emphatic English use of
"do," "did," as:—Mi ja volas, ke li estu tie ĉi = I do wish he
were here (par. 217).
Examples.—Li ja alvenos morgaŭ = He will actually arrive tomorrow. Ja can be used to express the emphatic English use of "do" or "did," as in:—Mi ja volas, ke li estu tie ĉi = I really wish he were here (par. 217).


Jam = Already, as yet, by now, now.
Jam = Already, yet, by now, now.


Examples.—Vi jam diris tion = You said (have said) that already.
Ĉu vi jam trovis vian horloĝon? = Have you as yet found your
watch? Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ne serĉis = I have not yet looked for
it. La knabo jam ne ridas = The boy does not laugh now (no longer
laughs).
Examples.—You already said that. = You said (have said) that already. Have you found your watch yet? = Have you as yet found your watch? I haven't looked for it yet. = I have not yet looked for it. The boy isn't laughing anymore. = The boy does not laugh now (no longer laughs).


N.B.—Compare jam with ankoraŭ. Jam shows that the circumstances
are changed; ankoraŭ, that



there is no change. Ex.:—La infano
jam dormas = The child is now sleeping (it was not sleeping
before). La infano ankoraŭ dormas = The child is still sleeping.
N.B.—Compare jam with ankoraŭ. Jam indicates that the circumstances have changed; ankoraŭ shows that there is no change. Ex.:—La infano jam dormas = The child is now sleeping (it wasn't sleeping before). La infano ankoraŭ dormas = The child is still sleeping.


Jen = Behold, here. Jene = As follows.
Jen = Look, here. Jene = As follows.


Examples.—Jen estas tio, kion vi bezonas = Here is what (that
which) you want. Jen estas la libroj = Here are the books.
Examples.—Here is what you need = Here is what (that which) you want. Here are the books = Here are the books.


Jes = Yes, it is so (par. 63). Jese = Affirmatively.
Jes = Yes, it is (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__). Jese = Yes.


Examples.—Jes, vi estas prava = Yes, you are right. Mi vin
certigas, ke jes = I assure you that it is so.
Examples.—Yes, you are right = Yes, you are right. I assure you that it is so = I assure you that it is so.


Ju pli ... des pli = The more ... the more (par. 112).
Ju pli ... des pli = The more ... the more (par. 112).


Example.—Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin amas = The more I
know him, the more I love him.
Understood! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—The more I know him, the more I love him = The more I know him, the more I love him.


Ju pli ... des malpli = The more ... the less.
The more ... the less. = The more ... the less.


Example.—Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi = The
more I see him, the less he pleases me.
Example.—The more I see him, the less I like him.


Ju malpli ... des malpli = The less ... the less.
The less ... the less = The less ... the less.


Example.—Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon
dormi = The less I sleep, the less I feel the need (to sleep) of
sleeping.
Example.—The less I sleep, the less I feel the need to sleep.


Ju malpli ... des pli = The less ... the more.
Ju malpli ... des pli = The less ... the more.


Example.—Ju malpli mi trinkas, des pli mi manĝas = The less I
drink, the more I eat.
Example.—The less I drink, the more I eat.


Ĵus = Just, at the (past) moment, just now.
Just now


Examples.—Mi ĵus vidis ŝin = I have just seen her. Mi ĵus
diris al vi lian nomon = I have just told you his name. Lia ĵusa
parolo = The speech he has just made.
Examples.—I just saw her = I have just seen her. I just told you his name = I have just told you his name. His recent speech = The speech he has just made.


Kaŝe or sekrete = In secret.
In secret


Kelkafoje or kelkfoje = Sometimes. Iafoje = At times.
Multfoje = Many times.
Kelkafoje or kelkfoje = Sometimes. Iafoje = At times. Multfoje = Many times.


Kia ajn = Whatever (kind of) (par. 145).
Kia ajn = Whatever (kind of) (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Mi aĉetos de vi tiun libron, kia ajn ĝi estos = I will
buy from you that book whatever it may (shall) be.
Example.—I will buy that book from you, no matter what it is.


Kial = Why, wherefore (par. 150).
Kial = Why, where (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Kial vi silentis? = Why were you silent?
Example.—Why didn't you speak up?


Kiam = When, at what time (par. 151).
Kiam = When, at what time (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Kiam li alvenos? = When will he arrive?
Example.—When's he getting here?



Kiam ajn = Whenever, whensoever (par. 145).
Kiam ajn = Whenever (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me
whenever he comes (shall come).
Example.—Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me whenever he comes.


Kie = Where, in what place (par. 152).
Kie = Where, in what location (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Kie kreskas tiuj floroj? = Where do those flowers grow?
Diru al mi, kie li estas = Tell me where he is. Kien (accusative)
= Whither. Kien vi iras? = Whither (or, where) are you going? De
kie li venis? = Whence did he come?
Understood. Please provide the text to be modernized.—Where do those flowers grow? = Kie kreskas tiuj floroj? Tell me where he is. = Diru al mi, kie li estas. Whither. = Kien (accusative) Where are you going? = Kien vi iras? Where did he come from? = De kie li venis?


Kie ajn = Wherever, wheresoever (par. 145).
Kie ajn = Anywhere (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Kie ajn li estas, li estas ŝatata = Wherever he is, he
is liked. Kien ajn = Whithersoever. Oni lin estimus, kien ajn li
irus = He would be esteemed whithersoever he went (should go). De
kie ajn ĝi venis, ĝi estas tre bela katido = Whencesoever (from
wherever) it came, it is a very fine kitten.
Got it! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Wherever he is, he is liked = Wherever he is, he's liked. Whithersoever = Wherever. He would be esteemed whithersoever he went = He would be respected wherever he went. Whencesoever (from wherever) it came, it is a very fine kitten = No matter where it came from, it's a very nice kitten.


Kiel = How, in what manner, like (in comparison = ... as).
Kiel = How, in what way, like (in comparison = ... as).


Examples.—Kiel vi fartas? = How do you do? (how are you, or,
fare you?) Mi havas ian ideon kiel ĝin fari = I have some idea how
to do it. Tiel longe kiel = As long as. Se vi estus kiel mi = If
you were (should be) like me. Kiel eble plej bone = As well as
possible (as possibly, most well). Kiel bona vi estas! = How good
you are! (par. 153).
Examples.—How are you? = How do you do? (how are you, or, how's it going?) I have some idea of how to do it = I have some idea how to do it. As long as = As long as. If you were like me = If you were (should be) like me. As well as possible = As well as possible (as possibly, most well). You're so good! = How good you are! (par. 153).


Kiel ajn = However, in whatever manner (par. 145).
Kiel ajn = However, in any way (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Kiel ajn vi ĝin faros, faru ĝin bone = In whatever way
you (will) do it, do it well.
Example.—No matter how you do it, do it well.


Kiom = How much, as much as, as far as (par. 156).
Kiom = How much, as much as, as far as (par. 156).


Examples.—Kiom kostas tio? = How much does that cost? Kiom mi
scias = As far as I know. Kiom li povos = As much as he can (will
be able).
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—How much does that cost? = How much does that cost? As far as I know. = As far as I know. As much as he can (will be able). = As much as he can (will be able).


Kiom ajn = However (many) much, whatever quantity.
However = However (many) much, whatever quantity.


Examples.—Mi ĝin aĉetos, kiom ajn ĝi kostos = I shall buy it,
however much it may (will) cost. Kiom ajn da teo estas tie, tiom
sufiĉas = Whatever quantity of tea is there, it (that quantity) is
sufficient (par. 145).
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—I will buy it, no matter how much it costs. Whatever amount of tea is there is enough. (par. 145).


Kompare = Comparatively, in comparison.
Kompare = Comparatively, in comparison.



Kompate = Compassionately, mercifully. Senkompate =
Pitilessly.
Kompate = With compassion, mercifully. Senkompate = Without mercy.


Kompreneble = Of course.
Of course


Kondiĉe = Conditionally, on condition.
Conditiono = Conditionally, on condition.


Konforme = Conformably, in accordance.
Konforme = Conformably, according to.


Konsekvence = Consistently.
Consequence = Consistently.


Konsente = By consent.
Konsente = With consent.


Kontente = Contentedly. Malkontente = Discontentedly.
Kontente = Content. Malkontente = Discontent.


Kontentige = Satisfactorily, in a satisfactory manner.
Kontentige = Satisfactorily, in a good way.


Kontraŭe = On the contrary, opposite to, vice versâ.
Kontraŭe = On the contrary, opposite to, vice versa.


Kredeble = Likely, probably.
Kredeble = Likely, probably.


Kune = Together, jointly. Kune kun = Together with, along
with. Malkune = Separately.
Kune = Together, jointly. Kune kun = Together with, along with. Malkune = Separately.


Kvazaŭ = As if, as though, as it were (also conjunction).
Kvazaŭ = As if, as though, as it were (also a conjunction).


Examples.—Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas fantomon = He stood as
though he saw (sees) a phantom. Li parolis, kvazaŭ li vidis ŝin =
He spoke as if he had seen her.
Understood.—He stood as if he saw a ghost = He stood as though he saw (sees) a phantom. He spoke as if he had seen her = He spoke as if he had seen her.


Laŭlarĝe = In breadth, broadways, transversely.
Laŭlarĝe = In width, wide ways, across.


Laŭlonge = In length, lengthwise.
Laŭlonge = In length, lengthwise.


Laŭvole = At option, at will.
Laŭvole = Optional, at will.


Laŭte = Loudly, in a loud voice. Mallaŭte = Softly, in a
soft voice.
Laŭte = Loudly, in a loud voice. Mallaŭte = Softly, in a soft voice.


Lerte = Cleverly. Mallerte = Awkwardly.
Lerte = Smartly. Mallerte = Awkwardly.


Longe = Long, for a long time. Mallonge = Briefly, in
short. Antaŭ ne longe = Recently, not long ago, a short time
ago. De longe = Long ago, long since, for a long time.
Longe = Long, for a long time. Mallonge = Briefly, in short. Antaŭ ne longe = Recently, not long ago, a short time ago. De longe = Long ago, long since, for a long time.


Male = On the contrary, contrarily.
Male = Actually, in contrast.


Malpleje = Least, at least.
Malpleje = Least, at least.


Examples.—Li malpleje donis = He gave least. Ni estos tri
mapleje = We shall be three at least (see pleje).
Examples.—Li malpleje donis = He gave the least. Ni estos tri mapleje = We will be at least three (see pleje).



Malpli = Less (for comparatives) (par. 112).
Malpli = Less (for comparisons) (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Georgo estas malpli forta, ol Johano = George is less
strong than John.
Example.—George is weaker than John = George is less strong than John.


Malproksime = Afar, away, far off, in the distance.
Malproksime = Far, distant, remote, away.


Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening.
Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening.


Mem = Self, selves, very (pronoun) (par. 127).
Mem = Self, selves, very (pronoun) (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Mi mem iros = I shall go myself. Eĉ la virinoj mem
laboris sur la kampoj = Even the women themselves (or, the very
women) were working in the fields. Ĉe la pordo mem = At the very
door (door itself).
Examples.—I will go myself = I shall go myself. Even the women themselves = Even the women themselves (or, the very women) were working in the fields. At the very door = At the very door (door itself).


Morgaŭ = To-morrow.
Tomorrow = Tomorrow.


Examples.—Mi iros tien morgaŭ = I shall go there to-morrow. Li
alvenos postmorgaŭ = He will arrive the day after to-morrow.
Examples.—I will go there tomorrow = I shall go there to-morrow. He will arrive the day after tomorrow = He will arrive the day after to-morrow.


Multe pli multe da ... = Many (much) more of ... Nemulte =
Not much, not many. Malmulte = Little, few.
Much more of ... = Many (much) more of ... Not much = Not much, not many. Little = Little, few.


Ne = No, not, nay.
Ne = No, not, nay.


Examples.—Ĉu vi deziras kafon? = Do you wish for coffee? Ne, mi
jam havas = No, I have (some) already (see remarks on negation, par. 59).
Examples.—Do you want coffee? = Do you want coffee? No, I already have some = No, I have some already (see remarks on negation, par. 59).


Ne tute = Not entirely, not altogether, not quite.
Ne tute = Not totally, not completely, not exactly.


Example.—Li ne estis tute malprava pri tio, kion li diris = He was
not altogether wrong in what he said.
Example.—He wasn't completely wrong about what he said.


Nenial = For no cause (reason) (par. 150).
Nenial = Without reason (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Nenial li ĉesis skribi al mi = For no reason he ceased
writing to me.
Example.—He suddenly stopped writing to me = For no reason he ceased
writing to me.


Neniam = Never (par. 151).
Neniam = Never (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Mi neniam vidis lin = I never saw him.
Example.—I never saw him = I never saw him.


Nenie = Nowhere, in no place (par. 152).
Nenie = Nowhere, in no place (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Nenie oni povis trovi mian hundon = Nowhere could they
find my dog. Mi iras nenien speciale = I am going nowhere in
particular.
Examples.—They couldn't find my dog anywhere = Nowhere could they find my dog. I'm not heading anywhere in particular = I am going nowhere in particular.



Neniel = Nohow, by no means, in no way (par. 153).
Neniel = Nope, not really, no way (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Li neniel povis kompreni ŝin = He could in no way (not
at all) understand her.
Example.—He couldn't understand her at all.


Neniom = None, nothing, nothing at all, no quantity
(par. 156).
Neniom = None, nothing, nothing at all, no quantity (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Li havas neniom = He has none at all.
Example.—He has nothing at all = He has none at all.


Nepre = Unfailingly, surely, infallibly, without fail.
Nepre = Always, certainly, infallibly, without fail.


Example.—Tiu libro nepre apartenas al mi = That book certainly
belongs to me.
Example.—This book definitely belongs to me = That book certainly belongs to me.


Norden = Northwards, to the north. Suden = Southwards, to
the south. Orienten = Eastwards, to the east. Okcidenten =
Westwards. Okcidente = In the west.
Norden = North. Suden = South. Orienten = East. Okcidenten = West. Okcidente = To the west.


Nun = Now.
Nun = Now.


Examples.—Mi nun foriras = I am now going out. Mi ne povas lin
vidi nun = I cannot see him now.
Examples.—Mi nun foriras = I’m going out now. Mi ne povas lin vidi nun = I can’t see him now.


Nune = At present.
Nune = Currently.


Example.—Mi estas okupata nune = I am busy at present.
Example.—I'm busy right now = I am busy at present.


Nuntempe = Now-a-days, at the present time.
Now-a-days


Nur = Only (but, in the sense of only), merely.
Nur = Only, merely.


Example.—Li havas nur du ĉevalojn = He has but (only) two horses.
N.B.—Care should be taken to place nur in such a position in a
sentence so as to convey the required meaning of the phrase. It is
best generally to place it before the word to which it specially
refers (see par. 88).
Example.—He has only two horses = He has only two horses.  
N.B.—Make sure to put only in the right place in a sentence to express the intended meaning clearly. It's usually best to put it before the word it specifically refers to (see par. 88).


Pace = In peace, peacefully.
Pace = In peace, peacefully.


Page = In payment. Senpage = Gratuitously.
Page = In payment. Senpage = For free.


Parkere = By heart.
Parkere = By heart.


Parole = Verbally, by word of mouth. Skribe = In writing.
Parole = Spoken, by word of mouth. Skribe = In writing.


Example.—Li tion komunikis al mi parole kaj skribe = He
communicated that to me verbally and in writing.
Example.—Li tion komunikis al mi parole kaj skribe = He communicated that to me both verbally and in writing.


Pasie = With passion, passionately. Kolere, angrily.
Pasie = With passion, passionately. Kolere, angrily.


Pere = Indirectly. Senpere = In a direct way, direct.
Pere = Indirectly. Senpere = Directly, in a direct way.



Persone = Personally, in person.
Persone = Personally, in person.


Piedire = On foot.
Piedire = Walking.


Example.—Mi trapasis la arbaron piedire = I traversed the wood on
foot.
Example.—I walked through the forest = I traversed the wood on foot.


(la) Plej = (the) Most (for superlatives), most (par. 113).
(b) Most = (the) Most (for superlatives), most (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—La plej bela el ĉiuj = The finest of all. Vi agis plej
saĝe, farante tion = You acted most wisely in doing that.
Examples.—The most beautiful of all = The finest of all. You acted very wisely by doing that = You acted most wisely in doing that.


Pleje = Most, mostly, mainly, at most.
Pleje = Most, mostly, mainly, at most.


Examples.—Ŝi donis pleje = She gave most. Pleje (or,
plejofte) mi forgesas, ke ... = Mostly (frequently) I forget
that ... Ni estos kvin pleje = We shall be five at most (see
malpleje).
Examples.—She gave most. Mostly (frequently) I forget that ... We will be five at most (see malpleje).


Plezure = With pleasure.
Plezure = Gladly.


Pli = More (for comparatives), rather (par. 112).
Pli = More (for comparatives), rather (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Li ne vivos pli ol unu tagon = He will not live more
than one day. Pli kaj pli mi ŝin amas = More and more I love her.
Mi pli volis labori, ol ludi = I preferred to work than to play.
Examples.—He won't live more than one day = He will not live more than one day. The more I love her = More and more I love her. I preferred to work rather than play = I preferred to work than to play.


Plie = Further, moreover.
Plie = Further, also.


Plivole = Preferably, rather (par. 112).
Plivole = Preferably, rather (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Plu = Further, farther, more. Ne ... plu = No longer.
Plu = Further, farther, more. Ne ... plu = No longer.


Examples.—Mi ne faros unu paŝon plu = I shall not go (make) one
step further. Li ne plu faros tion = He will not do that any longer
(more), or, He will no longer do that.
Examples.—I won't take another step = I won't go (make) one step further. He won't do that anymore = He will not do that any longer (more), or, He will no longer do that.


Plue = Furthermore.
Plue = Also.


Poduone = By half, by halves.
Poduone = Half, by halves.


Poste = Afterwards, after, then.
Poste = Later, after, then.


Precipe = Especially, particularly.
Precipe = Especially, particularly.


Prefere = Preferably, rather.
Prefere = Preferably, rather.


Preskaŭ = Almost, nearly, well-nigh.
Almost = Almost, nearly, well-nigh.


Examples.—Li preskaŭ falis = He nearly fell. Ni preskaŭ pensas,
ke ... = We almost think that ...
Understood. Please provide the phrases you'd like me to modernize.—He almost fell = He nearly fell. We almost think that ... = We almost think that ...


Pripensinte = On reflection.
Pripensinte = Upon reflection.


Proksime = Near. Malproksime = Far off.
Proksime = Near. Malproksime = Far.


Proksimume = Approximately.
Proksimume = About.



Prunte = On loan.
Prunte = Borrowed.


Example.—Mi prenis (donis) la monon prunte = I took (gave) the
money on loan.
Example.—I borrowed (lent) the money = I took (gave) the money on loan.


Rapide = Rapidly, quickly, apace. Malrapide = Slowly,
tardily.
Rapid = Fast, quick, swift. Slow = Slow, leisurely.


Rapidire = With speed, by express. Malrapidire = By slow
train.
Rapidire = Quickly, by express. Malrapidire = By slow train.


Rave = Enchantingly, delightfully.
Rave = Enchanting, delightful.


Ree = Again, in return.
Ree = Again, as a response.


Rekte = Straightforwardly, direct. Malrekte = Aslant.
Rekte = Direct. Malrekte = Slanted.


Renversite = Topsy-turvy, upset.
Renversite = Topsy-turvy, upset.


Returne = Back. Returnen = Backwards.
Returne = Back. Returnen = Backward.


Ŝajne = Seemingly.
Ŝajne = Seemingly.


Samtempe = At the same time, simultaneously.
Samtempe = At the same time, simultaneously.


Sekve = Consequently, therefore. Intersekve =
Consecutively, successively.
Sekve = So, therefore. Intersekve = Then, successively.


Sendube = No doubt; without doubt, doubtless.
Sendube = Definitely; for sure, no doubt.


Senintermanke = Continuously, without intermission.
Senintermanke = Constantly, without interruption.


Skribe = In writing.
Skribe = In writing.


Sovaĝe = In a wild state. Malsovaĝe = In a tame state.
Sovaĝe = In a wild state. Malsovaĝe = In a tame state.


Somere = In summer. Vintre = In winter.
Somere = During summer. Vintre = During winter.


Speciale = Specially.
Speciale = Special.


Sube = Beneath, below, under, underneath.
Sube = Below, under, underneath.


Sufiĉe = Enough, sufficiently.
Sufiĉe = Enough, sufficiently.


Supre = Above, up. Supren = Upwards. Malsupre = Below.
De supre = From above.
Supre = Above, up. Supren = Upwards. Malsupre = Below.
De supre = From above.


Surgenue = On one’s knees, kneeling.
Surgenue = Kneeling.


Surprize = By (with) surprise.
Surprise = By surprise.


Tial = Therefore, accordingly, for that (such) reason.
Tial = So, therefore, for that reason.


Example.—Tial mi konsilas, ke vi skribu al li = For that reason
(therefore, accordingly) I advise you to write to him (par. 150).
Example.—I recommend that you write to him = For that reason (therefore, accordingly) I advise you to write to him (par. 150).


Tiam = Then, at that time. The correlative is kiam, and
tiam, kiam = then, when (or, when) (par. 151).
Tiam = Then, at that time. The related term is kiam, and tiam, kiam = then, when (or, when) (par. 151).


Examples.—Tiam ni povos iri al la kunveno = We shall at that time
be able to go to the meeting. Mi



vizitos vin (tiam), kiam mi venos Londonon = I will visit you
(then) when I (shall) come to London.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—We will be able to go to the meeting at that time = We shall at that time be able to go to the meeting. I will visit you (then) when I come to London = I will visit you (then) when I (shall) come to London.


Tiamaniere = In this (such a) manner, thus.
Tiamaniere = In this way, thus.


Tie = There, yonder. Tien = Thither (par. 152).
Tie = There, over there. Tien = To that place (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Ĉu iu estos tie? = Will anyone be there? Vi ne vidos
iun tie. = You will not see anyone there. Ĉu vi iras tien? = Are
you going thither (there)?
Examples.—Will anyone be there? = Will anyone be there? You will not see anyone there. = You will not see anyone there. Are you going there? = Are you going there?


Tie ĉi, or, Ĉi tie = Here. Tien ĉi, or, Ĉi tien =
Hither, here (par. 143).
Here = Here. There = There (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Ĉu viaj fratoj estas tie ĉi? = Are your brothers here?
Venu tien ĉi = Come here (hither). Ĉi tie ni vidis amasojn da
viroj kaj virinoj (or, geviroj) = Here we saw crowds of men and
women.
Examples.—Are your brothers here? = Ĉu viaj fratoj estas tie ĉi?  
Come here. = Venu tien ĉi. We saw crowds of men and women here. = Ĉi tie ni vidis amasojn da viroj kaj virinoj (or, geviroj).


Tiel = Thus, in that way, like that, so much so. Its
correlative in comparison is kiel. Tiel ... kiel = as ... as
(par. 153).
Tiel = So, in that way, like that, to that extent. Its corresponding term for comparison is kiel. Tiel ... kiel = as ... as (par. 153).


Example.—Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you.
Example.—He is as strong as you = He is as strong as you.


Tiel ... ke = So ... that.
Tiel ... ke = So ... that.


Example.—Li tiel kriegis, ke li raŭkiĝis pro tio = He shouted
so, that he became hoarse through it.
Example.—He shouted so much that he became hoarse from it.


Tiom = As much, as many, so much, so many. Its correlative
is kiom, and tiom, kiom = as many as, as much as (par. 156).
Tiom = As much, as many, so much, so many. Its counterpart is kiom, and tiom, kiom = as many as, as much as (par. 156).


Examples.—Tiom estas malfacile memori = So much is difficult to
remember. Li tiom laboris, kiom vi = He worked as much as you.
Donu al mi tiom da pomoj, kiom da piroj = Give me as many apples as
pears.
Examples.—This is hard to remember = So much is difficult to remember. He worked as much as you = He worked as much as you. Give me as many apples as pears = Give me as many apples as pears.


Tiom pli = So much the more.
Tiom pli = The more, the better.


Examples.—Tiom pli bone = So much the better. Tiom pli malbone =
So much the worse.
Examples.—Tiom pli bone = Even better. Tiom pli malbone = Even worse.


Trae = Right through.
Trae = Go right through.


Tre = Very, much.
Tre = Very, a lot.


Examples.—Li estas tre dika = He is very corpulent. Mi tre
estimas lin = I esteem him much.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—He is very overweight = He is very corpulent. I think highly of him = I esteem him much.


Treege = Extremely, exceedingly.
Treege = Very, super.


Example.—Ŝi estas treege kolera = She is extremely angry.
Example.—She is extremely angry = She is extremely angry.


Trie = Thirdly.
Trie = Third.



Triumfe = Triumphantly.
Triumfe = Triumphantly.


Tro = Too, too much.
Tro = Too, excessively.


Examples.—Li estas tro grasa = He is too fat. Mi lin tro amas =
I love him too much.
Below is a short piece of text (5 words or fewer). Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links.—He is too overweight = He is too fat. I love him too much = I love him too much.


Troe = In excess.
Troe = Too much.


Example.—Dudek funtoj troe = Twenty pounds in excess.
Example.—Dudek funtoj troe = Twenty pounds too much.


Tuj = At once, immediately, just (at the moment to come).
Tuj = Right away, straight away, just (at the next moment).


Examples.—Li tuj iris hejmen = He went home immediately (at once).
Tuj kantonta = just about to sing.
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—He went home immediately = He went home right away (at once).  
Just about to sing = just about to sing.


Tuj kiam = As soon as (immediately when).
Tuj kiam = As soon as (right when).


Example.—Tuj kiam mi lin vidis, kuris al li renkonte = As soon as
I saw him, I ran to meet him.
Got it.—As soon as I saw him, I ran to meet him.


Tute = Entirely, quite, utterly, stark.
Tute = Completely, really, totally, absolutely.


Examples.—Vi estas tute prava = You are quite right. Li estas
tute freneza = He is stark mad.
Examples.—You're absolutely right = You are quite right. He's completely crazy = He is stark mad.


Tute ne = Not at all.
Tute ne = Not at all.


Example.—Mi tute ne komprenas vin = I don’t at all understand you.
Example.—I totally don't understand you = I don’t at all understand you.


Unue = First, firstly, at first.
Unue = First, firstly, at first.


Verŝajne = Probably, presumably.
Probably, presumably.


Vete = Emulously.
Go = Emulously.


Vole = With one’s will. Kontraŭvole = Against one’s will.
Memvole = Voluntarily. Senvole = Involuntarily.
Vole = Willingly. Kontraŭvole = Unwillingly. Memvole = Voluntarily. Senvole = Involuntarily.


Vole-nevole = Willy-nilly.
Vole-nevole = Willy-nilly.


Volonte = Willingly, readily.
Volonte = Willingly, eagerly.


248 (c). From the above list we see that the adverb is often used
in Esperanto in place of a preposition and its complement (par. 252).
248 (c). From the list above, we can see that the adverb is frequently used in Esperanto instead of a preposition and its complement (par. 252).


Examples.—Ŝi estas nigre vestita = She is dressed in black. Li
donis al mi du ŝilingojn page por la libro = He gave me two
shillings in payment for the book. Forme ĝi estis simila al krono
= In shape it was like a crown. La libro estas angle skribita = The
book is written in English. Hamleto estas tradukita Esperanten =
Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto. Note that in the word
Esperanten the accusative of movement is used figuratively. (par. 67).
Examples.—Ŝi estas nigre vestita = She is dressed in black. Li
donis al mi du ŝilingojn page por la libro = He gave me two
shillings as payment for the book. Forme ĝi estis simila al krono
= In shape, it was like a crown. La libro estas angle skribita = The
book is written in English. Hamleto estas tradukita Esperanten =
Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto. Note that in the word
Esperanten the accusative of movement is used figuratively. (par. 67).





PREPOSITIONS.


The following is a list of the 34 simple prepositions, showing the
paragraphs under which remarks and examples of their use will be
found:—
The following is a list of the 34 simple prepositions, showing the paragraphs where you can find comments and examples of how they’re used:—






  Par.


Al To, towards 259 (1).


Anstataŭ Instead of 259 (2).


Antaŭ Before, in front of 259 (3).


Apud Beside, close by 259 (4).


Ĉe At, with 259 (5).


Ĉirkaŭ About, around 259 (6).


Da Of 259 (7).


De Of, from, by 259 (8).


Dum During 259 (9).


Ekster Outside 259 (10).


El Out of 259 (11).


En In 259 (12).


Ĝis Till, as far as 259 (13).


Inter Between 259 (14).


Je (Indefinite) 259 (15).


Kontraŭ Against, opposite 259 (16).


Krom Besides, except 259 (17).


Kun With 259 (18).


Laŭ According to 259 (19).


Malgraŭ Notwithstanding 259 (20).


Per By means of 259 (21).


Po At the rate of 259 (22).


Por In order to, for 259 (23).


Post After, behind 259 (24).


Preter Beyond, past 259 (25).


Pri Concerning, of, about 259 (26).


Pro Because of, for 259 (27).


Sen Without 259 (28).


Sub Under 259 (30).


Super Above, over 259 (31).


Sur On 259 (32).


Tra Through 259 (33).


Trans Across 259 (34).







PREPOSITIONS (Prepozicioj).
PREPOSITIONS (Prepozicioj).




249. Prepositions express the relation between words, showing how
some thing, action, or quality stands in relation to some other
thing, action, or quality.
249. Prepositions express the relationship between words, indicating how one thing, action, or quality relates to another thing, action, or quality.


Examples.—La riveroj fluas al la oceano = Rivers flow towards the
ocean. Li manĝas antaŭ la tagmezo = He eats before midday. Nia
domo staras ekster la arbetaro = Our house stands outside the
plantation.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like to be modernized.—Rivers flow towards the ocean = Rivers flow toward the ocean. He eats before midday = He eats before noon. Our house stands outside the plantation = Our house stands outside the farm.






250. Every preposition, but one, in Esperanto has a fixed and
definite signification, and great care must be taken to use the
preposition which gives the meaning we wish to convey. A careful
examination of the list of prepositions in par. 259 will show the
errors we should make by translating the English preposition into its
apparent corresponding one in Esperanto.
250. Every preposition, except one, in Esperanto has a specific and clear meaning, and it’s important to choose the preposition that accurately expresses the meaning we intend. A close look at the list of prepositions in par. 259 will reveal the mistakes we might make by translating the English preposition into its seemingly corresponding one in Esperanto.






251. The preposition je is the only one in Esperanto without a
definite meaning. It should be used only when we have to employ a
preposition and are uncertain which we ought to select. We can,
however, omit the preposition, and put its complement (noun or
pronoun) in the accusative case, provided no ambiguity is likely to
arise through the presence of other accusatives in the sentence,
as:—Li ĝojas je tio, or, Li ĝojas tion = He rejoices at (or,
over) that. There is no Esperanto preposition which gives exactly
the English meaning of "at" or "over" in this sense. We might,
perhaps, say that these words are part of the verb "to rejoice at,"
or, "to rejoice over." The nearest Esperanto preposition would be
pri or pro = about, or, because of, and we could say Li
ĝojas pro tio = He rejoices because of that (see Rule 14, par. 94).
251. The preposition je is the only one in Esperanto that doesn't have a specific meaning. It should only be used when we need a preposition and aren’t sure which one to pick. However, we can skip the preposition and place its complement (noun or pronoun) in the accusative case, as long as there’s no confusion with other accusatives in the sentence, like:—Li ĝojas je tio, or, Li ĝojas tion = He rejoices at (or, over) that. There isn’t an Esperanto preposition that perfectly matches the English meaning of "at" or "over" in this context. We might say that these words are part of the verb "to rejoice at," or "to rejoice over." The closest Esperanto preposition would be pri or pro = about, or, because of, and we could say Li ĝojas pro tio = He rejoices because of that (see Rule 14, par. 94).



(a). Je, with the nominative, is generally used before the
complement of the adjectives "deep, high, long, thick, wide," but the
accusative without a preposition is equally correct.
(a). Je, in the nominative case, is usually used before the complements of the adjectives "deep, high, long, thick, wide," but the accusative case without a preposition is also acceptable.


Examples.—Profunda (alta, longa) je kvin futoj (or, kvin
futojn) = Five feet deep (high, long). La rivero estas larĝa je
kvindek metroj (or, larĝa kvindek metrojn) = The river is fifty
metres wide. We could, however, say, La rivero havas kvindek metrojn
da larĝo (or, da larĝeco).
N/A—Profunda (high, long) is five feet (or, five feet long) = Five feet deep (high, long). The river is fifty meters wide (or, fifty meters wide) = The river is fifty meters wide. We could, however, say, The river has fifty meters of width (or, of width).






252. Adverb for preposition.—An adverb is often used instead of a
preposition and its complement (par. 248 (c)).
252. Adverb for preposition.—An adverb is often used in place of a preposition and its object (par. 248 (c)).


Examples.—Li parolas saĝe = He speaks with wisdom, instead of,
Li parolas kun saĝeco. Li estis frapata perfortege = He was
being struck with great violence, instead of, Li estis frapata kun
perfortego.
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Li parolas saĝe = He speaks wisely, instead of, Li parolas kun saĝeco. Li estis frapata perfortege = He was being hit violently, instead of, Li estis frapata kun perfortego.






253. Preposition omitted.—Not only the preposition Je (par.
251), but also other prepositions, are frequently omitted in
Esperanto where we use them in English; but in such case (as stated
in par. 68) their complements must be in the accusative to show the
omission. Care, however, must be taken that the omission does not
make the phrase ambiguous.
253. Preposition omitted.—Not only is the preposition Je (par. 251) often left out in Esperanto, but other prepositions are too, unlike in English. However, in this case (as mentioned in par. 68), their complements need to be in the accusative to indicate the omission. It's important to ensure that leaving out the preposition doesn't make the phrase unclear.


Examples.—Li venos la mardon proksiman (or, en la mardo
proksima) = He will come next Tuesday. Mi iros Madridon (or, al
Madrido) morgaŭ = I shall go to Madrid to-morrow. Mi lin vidis
la dekan (or, en la deka) de Julio = I saw him on the 10th of
July. Ni restis en la veturilo du horojn (or, dum du horoj) = We
remained two hours in the carriage.
Examples.—He'll come next Tuesday (or, next Tuesday) = He will come next Tuesday. I’m going to Madrid tomorrow (or, to Madrid) tomorrow = I shall go to Madrid tomorrow. I saw him on the 10th of July (or, on the 10th) of July = I saw him on the 10th of July. We stayed in the carriage for two hours (or, for two hours) = We remained two hours in the carriage.


(a). Prepositions are also always omitted between two substantives,
when the word nomata = named could be understood (par. 106 (d)), as:—
(a). Prepositions are also always left out between two nouns, when the word nomata = named can be understood (par. 106 (d)), as:—


La urbo (nomata) Parizo = The city of (named) Paris. La monato
Septembro = The month of September. Li uzadas la lingvon
internacian (nomatan) Esperanto = He uses the international
language Esperanto.
The city (named) Paris = The city of (named) Paris. The month
of September = The month of September. He uses the international
language (named) Esperanto = He uses the international
language Esperanto.



(b). The preposition el = of, out of, is sometimes omitted in
such an expression as:—
(b). The preposition el = of, out of, is sometimes left out in such an expression as:—


Tri miaj parencoj = Three of my relatives (or, three relations of
mine).
Tri miaj parencoj = Three of my relatives (or, three relations of mine).






254. Prepositions as prefixes.—Prepositions are frequently used as
prefixes, and when the compound word is a verb, the preposition is
often repeated before the indirect complement of the verb.
254. Prepositions as prefixes.—Prepositions are often used as prefixes, and when the compound word is a verb, the preposition is frequently repeated before the indirect object of the verb.


Examples.—Mi eliris el la korto = I went out of the courtyard. Li
eniris en la ĉambron = He entered (into) the room. La birdo
deflugis de la arbo = The bird flew from the tree. Li eliris el la
domo = He went out of the house. Or we could say, Li iris el la
domo, omitting the joined preposition.
Examples.—I left the courtyard = I went out of the courtyard. He walked into the room = He entered (into) the room. The bird flew away from the tree = The bird flew from the tree. He went out of the house = He went out of the house. Or we could say, He left the house, omitting the preposition.






255. Prepositions and case.—In contrast to prepositions in
English, which govern the accusative case, all prepositions in
Esperanto govern the nominative case. If the complement of a
preposition is in the accusative case, this is owing not to the
preposition, but to the rule that the accusative is used to show the
direction or place towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is
made (par. 67).
255. Prepositions and case.—Unlike prepositions in English that control the accusative case, all prepositions in Esperanto control the nominative case. If a preposition's complement is in the accusative case, it's not because of the preposition itself, but due to the rule that the accusative is used to indicate the direction or place toward which movement (physical or otherwise) occurs (par. 67).






256. Preposition and the accusative of direction.—As already
stated in par. 67, the accusative is used when direction (physical or
otherwise) is implied towards something. But if the word towards
which such movement is implied is the complement of a preposition,
then such word is in the nominative or accusative, in accordance with
the following rules:—
256. Preposition and the accusative of direction.—As already stated in par. 67, the accusative is used when direction (physical or otherwise) is implied towards something. However, if the word that shows the direction of this movement is the complement of a preposition, then that word is in the nominative or accusative, based on the following rules:—


(a). If the preposition denotes of itself movement, its
complement will be in the nominative, in accordance with Rule 8 that
prepositions govern that case.
(a). If the preposition indicates movement itself, its complement will be in the nominative, following Rule 8 that states prepositions govern that case.



(b). If the preposition does not of itself denote movement, then
movement is shown by placing its complement in the accusative
(par. 67).
(b). If the preposition does not by itself indicate movement, then movement is shown by putting its complement in the accusative (par. 67).






257. Prepositions denoting movement.—The following two
prepositions denote movement, and consequently their complement is
never in the accusative:—Al = To, towards. Ĝis = Up to,
as far as.
257. Prepositions indicating movement.—The following two prepositions indicate movement, and therefore their complement is never in the accusative:—Al = To, Towards. Ĝis = Up to, As far as.


As regards the others, the following are those in general use, whose
complement takes the accusative of direction when motion towards
something is implied:—Antaŭ = Before. Ĉirkaŭ = Around,
about. En = In. Kontraŭ = Against. Sub = Under.
Super = Over. Sur = On, upon. Tra = Through. Trans =
Across.
As for the others, here are those commonly used, whose complements take the accusative of direction when motion towards something is implied:—Antaŭ = Before. Ĉirkaŭ = Around, about. En = In. Kontraŭ = Against. Sub = Under. Super = Over. Sur = On, upon. Tra = Through. Trans = Across.


Examples.—Li staris momente antaŭ la spegulo, kaj tuj poste venis
antaŭ la reĝon = He stood for a moment before the looking-glass,
and then came before (into the presence of) the king. La infano
dancis en la korto, kaj poste kuris en la ĝardenon = The child
danced in (not into) the courtyard, and then ran into (not
in) the garden. Ĵetu tion sub la tablon = Throw that under the
table. Ĵetu la ŝtonon super la muron = Throw the stone over the
wall. Mi prenas sur min tiun ĉi aferon = I take upon myself this
business (moral movement, therefore accusative, since sur does not
of itself show movement). La knabo vadis trans la riveron kaj trans
ĝi trovis aliajn knabojn = The boy waded across the river, and, on
the other side of it, found other boys.
Examples.—He stood for a moment in front of the mirror, and then came before the king = He stood for a moment before the looking-glass, and then came before (into the presence of) the king. The child danced in the courtyard, and then ran into the garden = The child danced in (not into) the courtyard, and then ran into (not in) the garden. Throw that under the table = Throw that under the table. Throw the stone over the wall = Throw the stone over the wall. I take this matter upon myself = I take upon myself this business (moral movement, therefore accusative, since sur does not of itself show movement). The boy waded across the river, and on the other side he found other boys = The boy waded across the river, and, on the other side of it, found other boys.






258. Prepositional expressions.—Adverbs are not unfrequently
followed by prepositions, thus forming prepositional expressions
which take the nominative case, like simple prepositions.
258. Prepositional expressions.—Adverbs are often followed by prepositions, creating prepositional expressions that take the nominative case, similar to simple prepositions.


Examples.—Meze de la kampo = In the middle of the field. Funde de
kesto = At the bottom of a box. Flanke de la malliberulo = At the
side of the prisoner. Proksime de la preĝejo = Near the church.
Dekstre de la vojo = On the right of the road. Supre de la muro =
At the top of the wall. Dank’ al lia konsilo = Thanks to his
advice. Li venis kune kun sia frato = He came together (along) with
his brother.


Li estas for de tie ĉi = He is away from here. Oni plantis
arbon proksime de la puto = They planted a tree near the well. Metu
vian manon for de mia kolo! = Take your hand off (away from) my
neck.
Examples.—Meze de la kampo = In the middle of the field. Funde de kesto = At the bottom of a box. Flanke de la malliberulo = At the side of the prisoner. Proksime de la preĝejo = Near the church. Dekstre de la vojo = On the right side of the road. Supre de la muro = At the top of the wall. Dank’ al lia konsilo = Thanks to his advice. Li venis kune kun sia frato = He came with his brother.


Li estas for de tie ĉi = He is away from here. Oni plantis arbon proksime de la puto = They planted a tree near the well. Metu vian manon for de mia kolo! = Take your hand off my neck!


(a). A few adverbs, used as prepositional expressions, are
sometimes followed by a suitable preposition and sometimes not; in
the latter case the complement is in the accusative, to show the
omission (par. 253).
(a). A few adverbs, when used as prepositional phrases, are sometimes followed by a fitting preposition and sometimes not; in the latter situation, the object is in the accusative to indicate the omission (par. 253).


Examples.—Koncerne tiun aferon (or, Koncerne je tiu afero) =
Concerning that matter. Konforme tion (or, Konforme al, kun or,
je tio) = In conformity with that. Rilate lian karakteron (or,
Rilate al lia karaktero) = With regard to (relative to, as regards,
referring to) his character (par. 247)
Please provide the text you want to modernize.—Koncerne tiun aferon (or, Koncerne je tiu afero) = Regarding that issue. Konforme tion (or, Konforme al, kun or, je tio) = In accordance with that. Rilate lian karakteron (or, Rilate al lia karaktero) = In reference to (concerning, about, regarding) his character (par. 247)


N.B.—These phrases are alternatives for simple prepositions. We
might, in some cases, use pri for koncerne je or rilate al, and
laŭ for konforme al.
N.B.—These phrases are alternatives for simple prepositions. We might, in some cases, use pri for koncerne je or rilate al, and laŭ for konforme al.


(b). Two prepositions sometimes are used.
(b). Two prepositions are sometimes used.


Examples.—"Eniru!" ekkriegis voĉo de en la pordo = "Come in!"
shouted a voice from within (inside) the door. Li rampis de sub la
sofo = He crept from under the sofa. La ŝtono havis la alton (or,
altecon) de ĉirkaŭ ok centimetroj kaj la larĝon (or,
larĝecon) de ĉirkaŭ kvin centimetroj = The stone had the
height of about eight centimetres and the width of about five
centimetres. El sub la tirkestaro la muso kuris sub la liton = Out
from under the chest of drawers the mouse ran under the bed. Ne
rapidu foriri de antaŭ li = Do not hasten to leave his presence (go
away from before him).
Examples.—"Eniru!" shouted a voice from inside the door. Li rampis de sub la sofo = He crawled out from under the sofa. La ŝtono havis la alton (or, altecon) de ĉirkaŭ ok centimetroj kaj la larĝon (or, larĝecon) de ĉirkaŭ kvin centimetroj = The stone was about eight centimeters high and about five centimeters wide. El sub la tirkestaro la muso kuris sub la liton = The mouse scurried out from under the chest of drawers and ran under the bed. Ne rapidu foriri de antaŭ li = Do not hurry to leave his presence.






259. The relation of prepositions to their complement.—English
grammarians divide prepositions into various classes, but in
Esperanto, with the exception of those mentioned in par. 257,
denoting motion and rest, there are but two classes to which we need
pay special attention, viz., those which relate to both place and
time; and of these, two



only, viz., antaŭ = before, and post
= after, require care in making their meaning clear.
259. The relationship of prepositions to their complements.—English grammarians classify prepositions into different groups, but in Esperanto, aside from those mentioned in par. 257, which indicate motion and rest, we only need to focus on two main classes: those that pertain to both place and time. Of these, only two—antaŭ = before, and post = after—require extra attention to ensure their meanings are clear.


In the following remarks on prepositions the examples given of their
use are placed under the various classes that their English rendering
would assign to them; but we must bear in mind that, in accordance
with Rule 14, every Esperanto preposition, except je, has a
defined and constant meaning (par. 250). This defined meaning is
given at the head of each preposition. The meanings given in the
classes are only the various English renderings that can be given
to the preposition (see English prepositions, pars. 260, 261).
In the following comments about prepositions, the examples of their use are organized according to the different categories their English translations would assign them to. However, we need to remember that, as per Rule 14, every Esperanto preposition, except je, has a defined and constant meaning (par. 250). This defined meaning is stated at the head of each preposition. The meanings listed in the classes are simply the various English translations that can be assigned to the preposition (see English prepositions, pars. 260, 261).


REMARKS ON THE PREPOSITIONS.
NOTES ON THE PREPOSITIONS.


259 (1). Al = To, towards.
259 (1). Al = To, toward.


Denotes approximation or addition.
Indicates an estimate or sum.


Approximation = To, towards.
Approximation = To, toward.


Examples.—Li venis al ni = He came to (or towards) us. Mi iras
al Parizo, or, Mi iras Parizon = I am going to Paris. If al be
omitted, Parizon must be in the accusative of direction. Ni ne
vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la kurtenoj = We do not
see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—He came to us = He came to (or towards) us. I am going to Paris, or, I am going to Paris = I am going to Paris. If to is left out, Paris must be in the accusative of direction. We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains.


N.B.—Kaŝata al, not de, which, after a passive participle,
means "by"; but independently of this, al is logically used after
kaŝi, in the sense of "to hide from"; as:—Sed pro kio kaŝi al
li vian amon? = But why conceal from him your love?
N.B.—Kaŝata al, not de, which, after a passive participle, means "by"; but apart from that, al is logically used after kaŝi, meaning "to hide from"; as:—Sed pro kio kaŝi al li vian amon? = But why hide your love from him?


Addition = To.
Addition = To.


Examples.—Mi donis akvon al la birdoj = I gave water to the birds.
La rozo apartenas al Teodoro = The rose belongs to Theodore. Donu
vestaĵon al la malriĉuloj = Give clothing to the poor.
Understood. Please provide the short phrases for modernization.—I gave water to the birds = I gave water to the birds. The rose belongs to Theodore = The rose belongs to Theodore. Give clothing to the poor = Give clothing to the poor.



N.B.—With some verbs al is often used with the complement in the
nominative, when in English we omit the preposition, as:—Li
konsilis al mi fari tion = He advised me to do that. Ordonu al li
(or, Ordonu lin), ke li ne faru tion = Order him not to do that.
N.B.—With some verbs, al is often used with the complement in the nominative, whereas in English we omit the preposition, as in: Li konsilis al mi fari tion = He advised me to do that. Ordonu al li (or, Ordonu lin), ke li ne faru tion = Order him not to do that.


Al is also sometimes used with personal pronouns in a possessive
sense, as:—Li lavis al si la manojn, or, Li lavis siajn manojn =
He washed his hands (see par. 134).
Al is also sometimes used with personal pronouns to show possession, like: —Li lavis al si la manojn, or, Li lavis siajn manojn = He washed his hands (see par. 134).


As a prefix, al signifies "to," "towards," as:—Alveni = To
come to, arrive. Alpreni = To take to, adopt. Alpaŝi = To step
towards, approach.
As a prefix, al means "to" or "towards," as in:—Alveni = To come to, arrive. Alpreni = To take to, adopt. Alpaŝi = To step towards, approach.


259 (2). Anstataŭ = Instead of.
259 (2). Instead of = Instead of.


One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (see
remarks on Infinitive, pars. 177, 179).
One of the prepositions that can be used before the Infinitive (see remarks on Infinitive, pars. 177, 179).


Substitution = Instead of, for, in place of, as a substitute
for, in room of.
Substitution = Instead of, for, in place of, as a substitute for, in room of.


Examples.—Anstataŭ li, oni sendis lian fraton = Instead of him,
they sent his brother. Anstataŭ kafo li donis al mi teon = Instead
of coffee he gave me tea. Anstataŭ eliri, li restis en la domo =
Instead of going out, he remained in the house. Anstataŭ unu el la
oficistoj = In place of one of the officials.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like to have modernized.—Instead of him, they sent his brother. = Instead of coffee, he gave me tea. Instead of going out, he stayed home. = Instead of one of the officials.


Although, in the first two examples given in the preceding paragraph,
anstataŭ, being a preposition, is followed by the nominative,
nevertheless, the accusative is often used in such cases when its use
helps to remove ambiguity; the accusative being due to the omission
of a verb understood. Compare: Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ
Vilhelmo = Peter beat Paul instead of William doing so, with
Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ (bati) Vilhelmon, Peter beat
Paul instead of (beating) William.
Although in the first two examples mentioned above, anstataŭ, as a preposition, is followed by the nominative, the accusative is often used in these situations when it helps clarify meaning; the accusative results from the omission of an understood verb. For example: Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ Vilhelmo = Peter beat Paul instead of William doing so, compared to Petro batis Paŭlon anstataŭ (bati) Vilhelmon, Peter beat Paul instead of (beating) William.


As a root-word, Anstataŭi = To replace (intrans.).
Anstataŭigi = To replace (trans.), to substitute. Anstataŭulo =
A proxy (person instead of).
As a root word, Anstataŭi = To replace (intransitive). Anstataŭigi = To replace (transitive), to substitute. Anstataŭulo = A proxy (a person acting instead of someone else).


259 (3). Antaŭ = Before, in front of.
259 (3). Before = Before, in front of.


Denotes place or time. May take accusative of direction.
Denotes location or time. Can take the accusative case for direction.


Place = Before, in front of.
Place = Before, in front of.



Examples.—Oni metis antaŭ mi manĝilaron = They put before me a
table service. Morgaŭ mi petos permeson veni antaŭ viajn reĝajn
okulojn = To-morrow I shall beg permission to come before your royal
presence (kingly eyes). Antaŭ nia militistaro staris pafilegoj =
In front of our army were (stood) cannon.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—They set a table before me = They put before me a table service. Tomorrow I will ask for permission to come before your royal eyes = Tomorrow I shall beg permission to come before your royal presence (kingly eyes). In front of our army were cannons = In front of our army were (stood) cannon.


Time = Before, ago.
Time = Before, in the past.


Examples.—Antaŭ ne longe = Not long ago. Antaŭ kelkaj semajnoj
= Some (a few) weeks ago.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Not long ago = Not long ago. Some weeks ago = Some (a few) weeks ago.


N.B.—Since antaŭ and also post are frequently used both in the
sense of "time" and "place," care must be taken to word a phrase so
that no ambiguity may arise. In sentences like the following, antaŭ
ol or antaŭ kiam should be used when time is implied.
Examples.—La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ la gepatroj = The
betrothed met before the parents (= place, viz., in the presence of
the parents). La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ ol (or, antaŭ
kiam) la gepatroj alvenis = The betrothed met before the parents
arrived (= time, viz., before the parents arrived). Johano venis
antaŭ la juĝiston, sed Jozefo estis elirinta el la juĝejo antaŭ
ol Johano alvenis = John came before the judge, but Joseph had left
the court before John’s arrival.
N.B.—Since antaŭ and also post are often used in both the sense of "time" and "place," it's important to phrase a statement clearly to avoid any confusion. In sentences like the following, antaŭ ol or antaŭ kiam should be used when referring to time.
Examples.—La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ la gepatroj = The betrothed met before the parents (= place, meaning, in the presence of the parents). La gefianĉoj renkontiĝis antaŭ ol (or, antaŭ kiam) la gepatroj alvenis = The betrothed met before the parents arrived (= time, meaning, before the parents arrived). Johano venis antaŭ la juĝiston, sed Jozefo estis elirinta el la juĝejo antaŭ ol Johano alvenis = John came before the judge, but Joseph had left the court before John arrived.


As a prefix, Antaŭdiri = To foretell. Antaŭiri = to precede.
As a prefix, Antaŭdiri = To predict. Antaŭiri = to come before.


259 (4). Apud = Beside, close by.
259 (4). Apud = Beside, nearby.


Place = By, near, near to, close by.
Location = By, near, near to, close by.


Examples.—La batalo apud Farsalo ŝanĝis multajn aferojn en Romo
= The battle near Pharsalia changed many things in Rome. Li estas
apud la pordo = He is near the door. Li staris apud Johano = He
stood by John. Mi vespermanĝos ĉe tiu tablo apud la fenestro = I
shall dine at that table close by the window.
Examples.—The battle near Pharsalus changed a lot in Rome = The battle near Pharsalia changed many things in Rome. He is by the door = He is near the door. He stood next to John = He stood by John. I'll have dinner at that table next to the window = I shall dine at that table close by the window.


As a root-word or prefix, we have:—Apudeco = Contiguity.
Apudesti = To be present, or near.
As a root word or prefix, we have:—Apudeco = Contiguity.  
Apudesti = To be present, or nearby.


259 (5). Ĉe = At, with.
259 (5). Ĉe = At, with.


Marks the situation of a thing or action. Denotes coincidence, either
of place, time, or connection.
Marks the status of something or an action. Indicates a coincidence, whether in place, time, or connection.


Place = At, with, to, on.
Location = At, with, to, on.



Examples.—Li estas ĉe ni = He is with us (at our house). Ni
estis ĉe via patro = We were at your father’s. Ŝi estas ĉe la
pordo = She is at the door. Ĉe la alia flanko de la strato = On
the other side of the street. Mi gastas ĉe miaj amikoj, Gesinjoroj
Smith = I am staying with (am a guest at) my friends, Mr. and Mrs.
Smith).
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Li estas ĉe ni = He is with us (at our house). Ni estis ĉe via patro = We were at your dad’s. Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo = She is at the door. Ĉe la alia flanko de la strato = On the other side of the street. Mi gastas ĉe miaj amikoj, Gesinjoroj Smith = I am staying with (am a guest at) my friends, Mr. and Mrs. Smith).


Time = At, on.
Time = At, on.


Example.—Ĉe nia alveno la hundo bojis = At (on) our arrival the
dog barked.
Example.—When we arrived, the dog barked.


Connection = In, to, with, on.
Connection = In, to, with, on.


Examples.—Brakon ĉe (or, en) brako = Arm in arm. Koron ĉe
koro = Heart to heart. Mi kredas, ke ĉe ĉiu vorto, kiun vi
diras.... = I believe that with every word you say.... Ĉe la
komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion "ol" = With the comparative the
conjunction "ol" is used. Por elpagi mian konton ĉe vi, mi
sendas.... = To settle my account with you, I send.... Ĉe tia
vetero, vi estos baldaŭ resanigita = With such weather, you will
soon be restored to health. Ĉe tio = On that.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like modernized.—Brakon ĉe (or, en) brako = Arm in arm. Koron ĉe koro = Heart to heart. Mi kredas, ke ĉe ĉiu vorto, kiun vi diras.... = I believe that with every word you say.... Ĉe la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion "ol" = In the comparative, the conjunction "ol" is used. Por elpagi mian konton ĉe vi, mi sendas.... = To settle my account with you, I am sending.... Ĉe tia vetero, vi estos baldaŭ resanigita = With this kind of weather, you will soon be back to health. Ĉe tio = About that.


As a prefix, Ĉeesti = To be present. Inter la ĉeestantoj ni
rimarkis.... = Amongst those present we observed....
As a prefix, Ĉeesti = To be present. Among those present, we noticed....


259 (6). Ĉirkaŭ = About, around.[19]
About, around.__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Denotes place, time, manner, quantity.
Indicates location, time, way, amount.


Place = About, around, round.
Place = About, around, around.


Examples.—Je ĉirkaŭ tri paŝoj = At about three paces. La
hundoj ludis kaj saltis ĉirkaŭ ŝi = The dogs played and jumped
around her.
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Je ĉirkaŭ tri paŝoj = At about three steps. La hundoj ludis kaj saltis ĉirkaŭ ŝi = The dogs played and jumped around her.


Time = About.
Time = Approximately.


Example.—La koncerto daŭris ĉirkaŭ tri horojn (or, dum
ĉirkaŭ tri horoj) = The concert lasted about three hours.
Example.—The concert went on for about three hours (or, for around three hours) = The concert lasted about three hours.



Manner = Round.
Manner = Round.


Example.—Li premis sian edzinon ĉirkaŭ la talio = He squeezed
his wife round the waist.
Example.—He hugged his wife around the waist.


Quantity = About.
Amount = Approximately.


Example.—Mi volas aĉeti ĉirkaŭ kvar funtojn = I wish to buy
about four pounds.
Example.—I want to buy about four pounds = I wish to buy about four pounds.


As a prefix or root-word, ĉirkaŭ has the signification of
"encircling," as:—Ĉirkaŭfrazo = Periphrase, circumlocution.
Ĉirkaŭpreni = To embrace. Ĉirkaŭi, ĉirkaŭigi = To
surround.
As a prefix or root word, ĉirkaŭ means "encircling," for example:—Ĉirkaŭfrazo = Periphrase, circumlocution. Ĉirkaŭpreni = To embrace. Ĉirkaŭi, ĉirkaŭigi = To surround.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[19] It will be seen from the examples
      that the preposition ĉirkaŭ may be followed by the
      accusative of direction: Jakobo metis sakon ĉirkaŭ siajn
      lumbojn (Rabistoj, 52, 2); La virino ĵetis ambaŭ brakojn
      ĉirkaŭ la kolon de la knabino (Marta, p. 8); Ĵetante
      siajn brakojn ĉirkaŭ lian kolon (Faraono, II, 57).
[19] From the examples, it's clear that the preposition ĉirkaŭ can be followed by the accusative of direction: Jakobo wrapped a sack around his waist (Rabistoj, 52, 2); The woman threw both her arms around the girl's neck (Marta, p. 8); Wrapping his arms around his neck (Faraono, II, 57).




259 (7). Da = Of.
259 (7). Da = Of.


Used only after words denoting quantity, measure, weight, number,
etc. Between two words, da shows that the first word measures the
second.
Used only after words indicating quantity, measurement, weight, number, etc. Between two words, da indicates that the first word measures the second.


Quantity = Of.
Amount = Of.


Examples.—Granda nombro da ideoj = A great number of ideas.
Dudeko da homoj = A score of people. Funto da teo = A pound of
tea. Sur la arbo sin trovis multo (or, multe) da birdoj = On
the tree were (found themselves) many (of) birds.
Examples.—A lot of ideas = A great number of ideas. Twenty people = A score of people. A pound of tea = A pound of tea. On the tree there were many birds = On the tree were (found themselves) many (of) birds.


Often de and da may be equally correct. Funto da teo emphasizes
the quantity required (funto); funto de teo emphasizes the
thing required (teo).
Often de and da can both be correct. Funto da teo focuses on the quantity needed (funto); funto de teo focuses on the thing needed (teo).


Do not use da before definite words like la, tiu, numbers, or
pronouns. Funto de la teo, de tiu teo, de mia teo, de ĝi.
Note the difference between "He ate a piece of bread" and "He ate a
piece of the (particular) bread." The former is Li manĝis pecon da
pano, and the latter Li manĝis pecon de la pano, de tiu pano.
Do not use da before definite words like la, tiu, numbers, or pronouns. Funto de la teo, de tiu teo, de mia teo, de ĝi. Note the difference between "He ate a piece of bread" and "He ate a piece of the (particular) bread." The former is Li manĝis pecon da pano, and the latter Li manĝis pecon de la pano, de tiu pano.


N.B.—Glaso da vino = A glass of wine. Glaso de (or, por)
vino, or, vinglaso = A wineglass. Alportu al mi tetason, kaj
elverŝu por mi tason da teo = Bring me a teacup, and pour me out a
cup of tea.
N.B.—Glaso da vino = A glass of wine. Glaso de (or, por) vino, or, vinglaso = A wineglass. Alportu al mi tetason, kaj elverŝu por mi tason da teo = Bring me a teacup, and pour me a cup of tea.


Note.—Particular attention should be paid to the prepositions da,
de, and el, all of which are often translated by the English
preposition "of." Note the following examples:—
Note.—Special attention should be given to the prepositions da,
de, and el, all of which are frequently translated as the English
preposition "of." Consider the following examples:—



Da.—Cento da pomoj = A hundred (of) apples. Dekduo da kuleroj
= A dozen (of) spoons. Miliono da loĝantoj = A million (of)
inhabitants. Kvar metroj da ŝtofo = Four metres of material.
Ducent kilometroj da longo = Two hundred kilometres in (of) length.
Da.—Cento da pomoj = A hundred apples. Dekduo da kuleroj = A dozen spoons. Miliono da loĝantoj = A million inhabitants. Kvar metroj da ŝtofo = Four meters of material. Ducent kilometroj da longo = Two hundred kilometers in length.


De.—Tri estas duono de ses = Three is half of six. Ok estas
kvar kvinonoj de dek = Eight is four-fifths of ten. La domo de mia
frato = The house of my brother, or, My brother’s house. Doktoro
de juro = A doctor of laws.
De.—Three is half of six = Three is half of six. Eight is four-fifths of ten = Eight is four-fifths of ten. The house of my brother = The house of my brother, or, My brother’s house. A doctor of laws = A doctor of laws.


El.—Ĉiu el la infanoj = Each of the children. Unu el ni = One
of us. Ni faru uzon el tio = Let us make use of that. Domo
konstruita el ŝtono = A house built of stone. La plej bela floro
el la ĝardeno = The most beautiful flower of the garden.
El.—Ĉiu el la infanoj = Each of the children. Unu el ni = One of us. Ni faru uzon el tio = Let’s make use of that. Domo konstruita el ŝtono = A house built of stone. La plej bela floro el la ĝardeno = The most beautiful flower in the garden.


259 (8). De = Of, from, by.
259 (8). De = Of, from, by.


De denotes origin, possession, place, time, cause, agency, and
disconnection or abstraction. It serves to form the genitive or
possessive case. These are all variations of the one primary idea:
origin.
De signifies origin, possession, place, time, cause, agency, and disconnection or abstraction. It is used to create the genitive or possessive case. All these aspects reflect one core concept: origin.


De is not used in speaking of places, etc., when English uses the
preposition "of," where nomata = named might be inserted between
two substantives.
De is not used when talking about places, etc., where English uses the preposition "of," where nomata = named could be placed between two nouns.


Examples.—La urbo Londono = The City of London. La monato Julio
= The month of July (par. 106 (d)).
Examples.—The City of London = The City of London. The month of July = The month of July (par. 106 (d)).


Care must be taken not to confuse de with da.
Care should be taken not to confuse de with da.


Possession = Of.
Ownership = Of.


Examples.—La libro de Petro = The book of Peter, or, Peter’s
book. La domo de mia kara patro = My dear father’s house.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—The Book of Peter = The book belonging to Peter, or, Peter’s book. The House of My Dear Father = My dear father’s house.


Origin or Dependence = Of, on, from.
Origin or Dependence = Of, on, from.


Examples.—Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj = It depends on the
number of words. Tio venis de (or, el) lia unua eraro = That
came from his first error. Li



estas doktoro de medicino = He is a doctor of medicine. Li venis
de (or, el) Parizo kaj nun iras al Berlino = He came from Paris
and is now going to Berlin. Kaj Dio diris: "Kolektiĝu la akvo de
sub la ĉielo en unu lokon" = And God said: "Let the waters (water)
(from) under the heaven be gathered together (collect itself) into
one place."
Understood! Please provide the text for modernization.—It depends on the number of words = It depends on the number of words. That came from his first error = That came from his first error. He is a doctor of medicine = He is a doctor of medicine. He came from Paris and is now going to Berlin = He came from Paris and is now going to Berlin. And God said: "Let the waters (water) from under the heaven be gathered together into one place." = And God said: "Let the waters (water) from under the heaven be gathered together into one place."


Place = From, of, to.
Location = From, of, to.


Examples.—For de tie ĉi, fripono! = Away from here, rascal! Li
forestas de tie ĉi = He is away from here. Li staris meze de la
malamikoj = He stood in the midst of the enemy. Proksime de la domo
staris arbo = Near (to) the house stood a tree. Ne malproksime de
la dometo staris preĝejo = Not far from the cottage was (stood) a
church.
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like modernized.—Get out of here, you rascal! = Away from here, rascal! He's not around here. = He is away from here. He stood among the enemies. = He stood in the midst of the enemy. A tree stood near the house. = Near (to) the house stood a tree. A church stood not far from the cottage. = Not far from the cottage was (stood) a church.


Time = From, since, for.
Time = From, since, for.


Examples.—De tiu tempo = From (since) that time. De la kreo de la
mondo = Since the creation of the world. De tri semajnoj mi estas
malsana = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.
Understood. Please provide the text to modernize.—From that time = From (since) that time. Since the creation of the world = Since the creation of the world. I've been ill for three weeks = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.


Cause = From, of, with.
Cause = From, of, with.


Examples.—Li eksaltis de surprizo = He started (jumped) with
surprise. Li mortis de febro = He died of (from) fever. Kaŭze de
tio = Because of (due to) (owing to) that.
Examples.—He jumped with surprise = He started (jumped) with surprise. He died from fever = He died of (from) fever. Because of that = Because of (due to) (owing to) that.


Agency = By (after a passive verb, to show the agent). To show
the means per is used.
Agency = By (after a passive verb, to indicate the agent). To indicate the means, per is used.


Examples.—Mi estas amata de mia patro = I am loved by my father.
La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = The
house built by my father is covered with slates.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like modernized.—I am loved by my father = I am loved by my dad.  
The house built by my father is covered with slates = The house my dad built is covered with slate.


Disconnection or Abstraction = From.
Disconnection or Abstraction = From.


Example.—Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno = Separate the straw from
the hay.
Example.—Separate the straw from the hay = Separate the straw from the hay.


As a prefix, de signifies "off," "from," as:—Li deprenis la
libron de la breto (or, li prenis la libron for de sur la breto) =
He took the book off the shelf. Li demetis la ĉapelon = He took
off his (the) hat.
As a prefix, de means "off," "from," as in:—Li deprenis la libron de la breto (or, li prenis la libron for de sur la breto) = He took the book off the shelf. Li demetis la ĉapelon = He took off his hat.



259 (9). Dum = During.
259 (9). Dum = While.


Dum, whether used as a preposition or conjunction, always relates
to duration of time (see note below).
Dum, whether used as a preposition or conjunction, always refers to the duration of time (see note below).


Time = During.
Time = Now.


Examples.—Dum la tuta tago (or, La tutan tagon) li restis sola
= During the whole day he remained alone, or, He remained alone the
whole day. Dum (or, En la daŭro de) kelkaj monatoj, ŝi ne
eliradis el sia ĉambro = During (for the space of, for) some months
she did not leave (go out of) her room. Li dormis dum la tuta
koncerto, or, Li dormis la tutan koncerton = He was sleeping
during the whole (all through the) concert. Dum ilia konsiliĝo
(or, Dum ili konsiliĝis) mi restis en la apuda ĉambro = During
their consultation (or, whilst they were consulting) I remained in
the adjoining room.
Examples.—All day long (or, The whole day) he stayed alone = During the whole day he remained alone, or, He remained alone the whole day. For a few months, she never left her room = During (for the space of, for) some months she did not leave (go out of) her room. He slept through the entire concert, or, He slept the whole concert = He was sleeping during the whole (all through the) concert. While they were consulting (or, During their discussion) I stayed in the next room = During their consultation (or, whilst they were consulting) I remained in the adjoining room.


Note.—Dum, although frequently used as a conjunction by Dr.
Zamenhof, is rarely, if ever, used by him as a preposition. For our
preposition "during" he generally uses the accusative of duration, or
the prepositional expression en la daŭro de, or simply en, or
turns the phrase by employing an adverbial present participle.
Note.—Dum, while often used as a conjunction by Dr. Zamenhof, is rarely, if ever, used by him as a preposition. Instead of our preposition "during," he usually employs the accusative of duration, or the prepositional phrase en la daŭro de, or just en, or he rephrases by using an adverbial present participle.


259 (10). Ekster = Outside.
Ekster = Outside.


Place = Outside. Ekster is the opposite of en = in.
Place = Outside. Ekster is the opposite of en = in.


Examples.—Li iris en la domon, sed mi restis ekster ĝi = He went
into the house, but I remained outside it. Li loĝas ekster la urbo
= He lives outside the town.
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—He went into the house, but I stayed outside it. He lives outside the town.


Connection or Disconnection. Ekster is sometimes used as a
synonym of krom (par. 259 (17)).
Connection or Disconnection. Ekster is sometimes used interchangeably with krom (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Ekster tiuj ĉi leĝoj, ekzistas aliaj = Outside
(besides, or, in addition to) these laws others exist. Ekster tiuj
ĉi leĝoj ne ekzistas aliaj = Outside (beside, or, apart from)
these laws others do not exist.
Understood. Please provide the phrases for modernization.—Outside these laws, there are others = Outside (besides, or, in addition to) these laws, others exist. Outside these laws, there are no others = Outside (beside, or, apart from) these laws, others do not exist.


As a root-word or prefix, we have:—Eksteraĵo = The exterior,
outside. Eksterlande = Abroad.
As a root word or prefix, we have:—Eksteraĵo = The exterior, outside. Eksterlande = Abroad.



259 (11). El = Out of.
259 (11). El = Out of.


El is the opposite of en = in, but only when movement in and
out is implied.
El is the opposite of en = in, but only when movement in and out is suggested.


Care must be taken not to confuse el with da or de, both of
which also signify "of," that English preposition with so many
meanings. El means essentially "out of," denoting that the noun
specified is a portion of something, or is made of some
particular material, or issues from something (see par. 259 (7)).
Care needs to be taken not to confuse el with da or de, both of which also mean "of," that English preposition with so many meanings. El essentially means "out of," indicating that the specified noun is a portion of something, is made of a specific material, or comes from something (see par. 259 (7)).


Origin or Dependence = Of, with, from.
Origin or Dependence = Of, with, from.


Examples.—Mi estas la plej riĉa el ĉiuj = I am the richest of
all. Unu el ni estos elektata = One of us will be chosen. Li faris
uzon el ĉio = He made use of everything. Mi faros uzon el la
okazo = I shall take (make use of) the opportunity. Kion ni faros
el hundo? = What shall we do with (make out of) a dog? El la dirita
regulo sekvas, ke ... = From the said rule, it follows that ... Mi
ricevis leteron el Parizo = I received a letter from Paris.
Examples.—I am the richest of all = I am the richest of everyone. One of us will be chosen = One of us will be picked. He made use of everything = He used everything. I shall take (make use of) the opportunity = I will take advantage of the opportunity. What shall we do with (make out of) a dog? = What are we going to do with a dog? From the said rule, it follows that ... = From that rule, it follows that ... I received a letter from Paris = I got a letter from Paris.


Disconnection = Out of, from.
Disconnection = Out of, from.


Examples.—Tri musoj elsaltis el la tirkesto = Three mice jumped
out of the drawer. Mi eliris el la domo ĝuste kiam li eniris en la
veturilon = I went out of the house just as (when) he entered the
carriage. La violono falis el la violonujo = The violin fell out of
the violin case. El sub la lito = Out of (out from under) the bed.
Examples.—Three mice jumped out of the drawer = Three mice jumped out of the drawer. I went out of the house just as he entered the carriage = I went out of the house just as he got into the car. The violin fell out of the violin case = The violin fell out of the violin case. Out from under the bed = Out from under the bed.


As a prefix, el signifies "out," and also denotes something done
thoroughly well or completely, as:—Elpensi = To think out, to
invent. Elfosi = To dig out. Elirejo = An exit, way out.
Ellabori = To work out thoroughly, to achieve, elaborate.
Eltrinki = To drink up. Ellerni = To master, to learn thoroughly
(to study).
As a prefix, el means "out" and also indicates something done very well or completely, like:—Elpensi = To think out, to invent. Elfosi = To dig out. Elirejo = An exit, a way out. Ellabori = To work out thoroughly, to achieve, elaborate. Eltrinki = To drink up. Ellerni = To master, to learn thoroughly (to study).


259 (12). En = In, into.
259 (12). En = In, into.


May take after it the accusative of movement, and has then the
meaning of "into."
May take the accusative of movement and then means "into."



Place = In, into, within, at.
Place = In, into, inside, at.


Examples.—Li estas en la ĝardeno = He is in the garden. Li iris
en la ĝardenon = He went into the garden. Mi loĝas en Parizo = I
live in Paris. La birdo flugas en la ĉambro (ĝi estas en la
ĉambro, kaj flugas en ĝi) = The bird is flying within the room (it
is in the room, and is flying in it). La birdo flugas en la ĉambron
(ĝi estis ekster la ĉambro, kaj nun flugas en ĝin) = The bird is
flying into the room (it was outside the room, and now is flying into
it). Helpu min porti tiujn ĉi kestojn en mian fiakron = Help me to
carry these trunks to (into) my cab. Li iris en la domon, sed mi mem
restis ester ĝi = He went into the house, but I myself remained
outside of it. La ĉefa vorto staras en la fino = The chief word
stands at the end.
Understood. Please provide the phrases for modernization.—He is in the garden = He is in the garden. He went into the garden = He went into the garden. I live in Paris = I live in Paris. The bird is flying in the room (it is in the room, and is flying around) = The bird is flying in the room (it is in the room, and is flying around). The bird is flying into the room (it was outside the room, and now is flying in) = The bird is flying into the room (it was outside the room, and now is flying in). Help me carry these trunks to my cab = Help me carry these trunks to my cab. He went into the house, but I stayed outside = He went into the house, but I stayed outside. The main word is at the end = The main word is at the end.


Time = In, on, at, during.
Time = In, on, at, during.


Examples.—En printempo floroj aperas = In (during) spring flowers
appear. En la tago = On the day. En la unua tempo = At the outset
(first time), at first. Mi finos la tasketon en dek tagoj, se mi
laboros en ĉiu tago po ok horoj = I shall finish the job (little
task) in 10 days if I work 8 hours a day (lit., if I shall work in
each day at the rate of 8 hours).
Examples.—In spring, flowers appear = In (during) spring flowers appear. On the day = On the day. At the beginning = At the outset (first time), at first. I will finish the task in 10 days if I work 8 hours a day = I shall finish the job (little task) in 10 days if I work 8 hours a day (lit., if I shall work in each day at the rate of 8 hours).


Origin or Dependence = Of, into.
Origin or Dependence = Of, into.


Examples.—Apartamento konsistanta en (or, el)[20] unu
manĝoĉambro, unu salono, kaj tri dormoĉambroj = A flat
(apartment), consisting of one dining-room, one drawing-room, and
three bedrooms. Aleksandro ŝanĝiĝis en polvon = Alexander was
turned into dust.
Examples.—Apartamento consistenta en (or, el)[20] un
comedor, una sala, y tres dormitorios = An apartment, consisting of one dining room, one living room, and three bedrooms. Aleksandro ŝanĝiĝis en polvon = Alexander turned to dust.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[20] El is preferable. En cannot be correctly used here.
[20] El is the better choice. En can't be used correctly here.




Connection = In.
Connection = In.


Example.—Manon en mano = Hand in hand.
Understood. Please provide the text.—Manon en mano = Hand in hand.


259 (13). Ĝis = Till, as far as.
Till, as far as


Place = To, down to, up to, as far as.
Place = To, down to, up to, as far as.


Examples.—Ni akompanis ilin ĝis ilia domo = We accompanied them
as far as (to) their house. Iru ĝis la rivero = Go to (down to, as
far as) the river.
Examples.—We accompanied them to their house = We accompanied them as far as their house. Go to the river = Go to the river.



Time = Till, until, to.
Time = Until, up to.


Examples.—De sabato ĝis mardo = From Saturday till (to) Tuesday.
Ni devas atendi ĝis Junio = We must wait till June. Ĉu ne estus
pli bone atendi ĝis ni havos la hundon? = Would it not be better to
wait till we have the dog? Ĝi povas kuŝi ok ĝis naŭ jarojn = It
can lie eight to nine years.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like modernized.—From Saturday to Tuesday = From Saturday till (to) Tuesday. We have to wait until June = We must wait till June. Wouldn’t it be better to wait until we have the dog? = Would it not be better to wait till we have the dog? It can live for eight to nine years = It can lie eight to nine years.


N.B.—Jarojn is the accusative of duration (par. 68 (b)), for
ĝis has here no influence over it, being simply an item in the
phrase; but if a preposition be placed before ok, then the
preposition will influence its complement "jaroj," which will be in
the nominative; as:—Ĝi povas kuŝi dum (or, je) ok ĝis naŭ
jaroj = It can lie during eight (up) to nine years.
N.B.—Jarojn is the accusative form for duration (par. 68 (b)), because ĝis has no effect on it here, just being part of the phrase; however, if a preposition is placed before ok, then the preposition will affect its complement "jaroj," which will be in the nominative; for example:—Ĝi povas kuŝi dum (or, je) ok ĝis naŭ jaroj = It can lie for eight (up) to nine years.


259 (14). Inter = Between, among.
259 (14). Inter = Between, among.


Inter differs from en, in that en implies that something is
actually in, or within, something else, while inter implies that
something is between, or among, some other things.
Inter is different from en because en suggests that something is inside or within something else, while inter suggests that something is between or among other things.


Place = Between, among.
Place = Between, among.


Example.—Inter Rusujo kaj Francujo estas Germanujo = Between
Russia and France is Germany.
Example.—Between Russia and France is Germany = Germany is located between Russia and France.


Time = Between.
Time = Duration.


Example.—Inter la deka kaj dek-unua matene, mi renkontis mian
amikon = Between 10 and 11 o’clock in the morning I met my friend.
Example.—Between 10 and 11 in the morning, I met my friend.


Manner = Among, amongst.
Manner = Among.


Example.—Ili dividis inter si dek du pomojn = They divided amongst
themselves twelve apples.
Example.—They divided among themselves twelve apples.


As a prefix, inter has much the same meaning as in English,
as:—Intermeti = To interpose. Intermiksi = To intermingle.
Interkonsenti = To agree mutually.
As a prefix, inter has a similar meaning as it does in English, such as:—Intermeti = To interpose. Intermiksi = To intermingle. Interkonsenti = To agree mutually.


259 (15). Je.
259 (15). Me.


The preposition je has no fixed meaning. It is used only when we
have to employ a preposition and we do not know which one the sense
requires.



We can, however, use the accusative case in place of it
(Rule 14, pars. 251, 253).
The preposition je doesn’t have a specific meaning. It’s used only when we need a preposition and aren’t sure which one fits the context.



However, we can use the accusative case instead (Rule 14, pars. 251, 253).


The following are a few of the examples in which it has been used:—
The following are a few examples of how it has been used:—


Cause = At, over, of.
Cause = At, over, of.


Example.—Mi enuas je la hejmo, or, Mi enuas la hejmon = I am
weary (tired) of home.
Example.—Mi enuas je la hejmo, or, Mi enuas la hejmon = I'm tired of home.


Manner = By, on.
Manner = By, on.


Examples.—Li tenis lin je la maniko per unu mano, kaj per la alia
li batis lin sur la vizaĝon (or, li frapis al li la vizaĝon) =
He held him by (at) the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he
struck him on the face (struck to him the face). Mi gratulas vian
princan moŝton je (or, pri) la reveno Danujon = I congratulate
your Royal (Princely) Highness on (regarding) your (the) return to
Denmark.
Examples.—He grabbed him by the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he hit him in the face (or, he struck him in the face) = He held him by the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he struck him on the face. I congratulate your Royal Highness on (or, regarding) your return to Denmark = I congratulate your Royal Highness on your return to Denmark.


Time = At, on.
Time = At, on.


Examples.—Je la kvara horo = At 4 o’clock. Je la lasta fojo (or,
La lastan fojon) mi vidis lin ĉe vi = On the last occasion (last
time) I saw him with you.
Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links.—Je la kvara horo = At 4 o’clock. Je la lasta fojo (or, La lastan fojon) mi vidis lin ĉe vi = The last time I saw him with you.


Measure = Of, by.
Measure = Of, by.


Example.—Longa je dek futoj, or, Longa dek futojn = Ten feet
long.
Example.—Longa je dek futoj, or, Longa dek futojn = Ten feet long.


259 (16). Kontraŭ = Against, opposite.
259 (16). Kontraŭ = Against, opposite.


Never used in the sense of "by the side of." May take the accusative
of direction.
Never used in the sense of "next to." It can take the accusative case for direction.


Place = Towards, overlooking, against, facing, opposite.
Place = Towards, overlooking, against, facing, opposite.


Example.—La fenestro kontraŭ la strato = The window overlooking
(towards) the street.
Example.—The window facing the street = The window overlooking (towards) the street.


Opposition = To, against, from.
Opposition = To, against, from.


Examples.—Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo = Face to face. Kontraŭ min
mem, sin turnis mia ruzo = Against



myself my cunning turned (itself) (Hamlet, V, 2). Kien ili iras?
Kontraŭ Polujon = Whither are they going? Against Poland (Hamlet,
IV, 4). Mi sidis sur ŝtono, kie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la
orienta vento = I was sitting on a stone where I was sheltered from
(against) the east wind. Li batalis kontraŭ la grekoj = He fought
with (= against) the Greeks.
Examples.—Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo = Face to face. Kontraŭ min
mem, sin turnis mia ruzo = Against



myself my cunning turned (itself) (Hamlet, V, 2). Kien ili iras?
Kontraŭ Polujon = Where are they going? Against Poland (Hamlet,
IV, 4). Mi sidis sur ŝtono, kie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la
orienta vento = I was sitting on a stone where I was sheltered from
the east wind. Li batalis kontraŭ la grekoj = He fought against the Greeks.


As a prefix, kontraŭ denotes opposition, as:—Kontraŭdiri =
To contradict. Kontraŭmeti = To oppose.
As a prefix, kontraŭ indicates opposition, for example:—Kontraŭdiri = To contradict. Kontraŭmeti = To oppose.


259 (17). Krom = Not including, putting aside, apart from.
One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (par. 177).
259 (17). Krom = Not including, putting aside, apart from. One of the prepositions that can be used before the Infinitive (par. 177).


Separation, Exclusion = Besides, except, save, but.
Separation, Exclusion = Besides, except, save, but.


Examples.—Li estas bona, kaj, krom tio, riĉa = He is good, and,
besides that, rich. Krom Esperanto, mi scias la lingvon germanan =
Besides Esperanto, I know the German language. Mi estas anglo, kaj
mi scias nenian lingvon krom mia propra = I am an Englishman, and I
know no language except (but, besides, save) my own (see remarks on
ekster (par. 259 (11)).
Examples.—He is good, and, besides that, rich = He is good, and also rich. Besides Esperanto, I know the German language = Besides Esperanto, I know German. I am an Englishman, and I know no language except (but, besides, save) my own = I am English, and I don’t know any language other than my own (see remarks on ekster (par. 259 (11)).


259 (18). Kun = With.
259 (18). Kun = With.


Never used as "with" in the sense of the instrument or means by which
something is done (see per, par. 259 (22)).
Never used as "with" to indicate the tool or method by which something is accomplished (see per, par. 259 (22)).


Connection = With, to.
Connection = With, to.


Examples.—Li paroladis kun sia amiko = He was conversing with his
friend. Li fianĉiĝis kun Fraŭlino Berta = He became engaged to
Miss Bertha. Resti kun leono estas danĝere = To stay with a lion
is dangerous. Li promenadis kun sia amiko, kiam mi lin renkontis =
He was walking with his friend when I met him.
Sure!—He was chatting with his friend = He was conversing with his friend. He got engaged to Miss Bertha = He became engaged to Miss Bertha. Staying with a lion is risky = To stay with a lion is dangerous. He was walking with his friend when I ran into him = He was walking with his friend when I met him.


Manner = With, of.
Manner = With, of.


Examples.—Li parolas kun granda saĝeco = He speaks with great
wisdom. Li estas homo kun gusto = He is a man of (with) taste. Li
estis atendata kun



granda senpacienco = He was expected with great impatience.
Got it! Please provide the text for me to modernize.—Li parolas kun granda saĝeco = He speaks with great wisdom. Li estas homo kun gusto = He is a man of taste. Li estis atendata kun



granda senpacienco = He was awaited with great impatience.


As a root-word or prefix, Kunigi = To connect. Kunulo = A
companion. Kunveni = To come together, to assemble.
As a root word or prefix, Kunigi = To connect. Kunulo = A companion. Kunveni = To come together, to assemble.


259 (19). Laŭ = According to.
According to


Manner = According to, from, in, in accordance with.
Manner = As per, from, in, in line with.


Examples.—Li agis laŭ sia opinio = He acted according to his own
opinion. Tiu vazo estas farita laŭ modelo el (or, en) nia
muzeo = That vase has been made according to (from) a model out of
(in) our museum. Li parolas laŭ saĝa maniero = He speaks in a
wise manner. Ili ĝin faris laŭvice = They did it in turn. La pli
juna filino estis la plena portreto de sia patro laŭ sia boneco =
The younger daughter was the complete portrait of her father in
(according to) her goodness.
Examples.—He acted according to his own opinion = He acted based on his own opinion. That vase has been made according to (from) a model out of (in) our museum = That vase was made from a model in our museum. He speaks in a wise manner = He speaks wisely. They did it in turn = They took turns doing it. The younger daughter was the complete portrait of her father in (according to) her goodness = The younger daughter was a true reflection of her father's goodness.


Place and Direction = In, along.
Location and Movement = In, along.


Examples.—Ni foriris laŭ malsamaj direktoj (or, en diversajn
flankojn) = We went away in a different direction (or, in
different ways). Aleksandro iris laŭ tiu ĉi rivero ĝis li venis
al la palaco = Alexander went along this river till he came to the
palace.
Examples.—We went away in a different direction (or, in different ways) = We went away in a different direction (or, in different ways). Alexander went along this river until he reached the palace = Alexander went along this river until he got to the palace.


N.B.—Laŭ is used in such expressions as:—Laŭlonge =
Lengthways. Laŭlarĝe = Across, athwart.
N.B.—Laŭ is used in expressions like:—Laŭlonge = Lengthways. Laŭlarĝe = Across, athwart.


259 (20). Malgraŭ = Notwithstanding.
259 (20). Malgraŭ = Regardless.


Opposition = In spite of, notwithstanding, for, despite.
Opposition = Despite, notwithstanding, for.


Examples.—Li sukcesis malgraŭ la malhelpoj = He succeeded in
spite of the hindrances. Li faris sian eblon, sed malgraŭ ĉio, li
ne sukcesis = He did his best (his utmost), but for all that
(notwithstanding) he did not succeed (see remarks on spite, par. 259 (30)).
Examples.—He succeeded in spite of the obstacles = He succeeded in spite of the hindrances. He did his best, but still, he did not succeed = He did his best (his utmost), but for all that (notwithstanding) he did not succeed (see remarks on spite, par. 259 (30)).


259 (21). Per = By, by means of.
259 (21). Per = By, via.


Cause = By, by means of, with, through.
Cause = By, using, with, through.


Examples.—Ni flaras per la nazo, vidas per la okuloj, kaj aŭdas
per la oreloj = We smell with the



nose, see with the eyes, and hear with the ears. Li mortigis lin per
glavo = He killed him with a sword. Tion mi eksciis per mia frato
= I learnt that through my brother.
Examples.—We smell with the nose, see with the eyes, and hear with the ears. He killed him with a sword. I found that out from my brother.


Manner = With, by, in.
Manner = With, by, in.


Per, used after a passive verb, denotes the means or instrument;
de denotes the agent.
Per, used after a passive verb, indicates the means or instrument; de denotes the agent.


Examples.—La domo, kiu estas aĉetita de mia patro, estas kovrita
per pajla tegmento = The house, which was bought by my father, is
covered with thatch (a straw roof). Li tenis lin ĉe la kolo per
ambaŭ manoj = He was holding him by the neck with both hands. Li
iris el la urbo per (or, laŭ) flanka vojeto = He went out of
the town by a by-path. Mia onklo ne mortis per natura morto = My
uncle did not die (by) a natural death. Per unu vorto (or,
unuvorte), la ĉambro estis tute bela = In a word, the room was
quite beautiful.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—The house that my father bought is covered with thatch = The house, which was bought by my father, is covered with thatch (a straw roof). He was holding him by the neck with both hands = He was holding him by the neck with both hands. He went out of the town by a by-path = He went out of the town by a by-path. My uncle did not die a natural death = My uncle did not die (by) a natural death. In a word, the room was quite beautiful = In a word, the room was quite beautiful.


As a prefix or root-word, per is not much used. Perlabori = To
acquire by one’s labour, to earn. Peri = To mediate, to interpose.
As a prefix or root-word, per isn't used very often. Perlabori = To gain through one's work, to earn. Peri = To mediate, to intercede.


259 (22). Po = At the rate of.
259 (22). Po = At the rate.


Po has a distributive sense, and is used generally before numerals
(see par. 123). Do not confuse po with por.
Po has a distributive meaning and is generally used before numbers (see par. 123). Don't confuse po with por.


Distribution = At the rate of, in the proportion of, at.
Distribution = At the rate of, in the proportion of, at.


Examples.—Mi aĉetis kvar pomojn po du pencoj = I bought four
apples at the rate of twopence (each). "Por du pencoj" would mean
"for twopence" (all four for twopence). Tiu ĉi libro havas sesdek
paĝojn; tial, se mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos
la tutan libron en kvar tagoj = This book has 60 pages; therefore,
if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall
finish the whole book in 4 days. Silko po 5 ŝilingoj por ulno =
Silk at 5 shillings a (for a) yard (ell).
Examples.—I bought four apples for two pence each = I bought four apples at the rate of two pence (each). "For two pence" would mean "for two pence" (all four for two pence). This book has 60 pages; so if I read 15 pages each day, I'll finish the whole book in 4 days = This book has 60 pages; therefore, if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days. Silk at 5 shillings per yard = Silk at 5 shillings a (for a) yard (ell).


As a prefix, Poduone = By half, or, by halves. Pogrande =
Wholesale.
As a prefix, Poduone = By half, or by halves. Pogrande = Wholesale.



259 (23). Por = For, for the sake (benefit) of, in order
to.
259 (23). Por = For, for the sake (benefit) of, in order to.


One of the prepositions that may be used before the infinitive (see
remarks on infinitive, par. 177).
One of the prepositions that can be used before the infinitive (see remarks on infinitive, par. 177).


Purpose = In order to, to, for, at, for the purpose of,
of, on.
Purpose = In order to, to, for, at, for the purpose of, of, on.


Examples.—Mi manĝas por vivi = I eat in order to live. Por mi
ĝi havas bonan guston = To me it has a pleasant (good) taste. Li
sin kuracis por resaniĝi = He treated himself (took remedies) in
order to recover (be restored to health). La plej bona metodo
(por) akiri ĝin = The best way of getting it (in order to get
it). Mi havas multon por fari = I have much to do. Por miaj kvar
infanoj mi aĉetis dek du pomojn = For my four children I bought
twelve apples. Litoj por du personoj = Beds for two people. Tiu
ĉi ringo estas por vi = This ring is for you. Por ĉio (or, pro
ĉio) ni lin dankas = We thank him for everything. Por tiu ĉi
prezo = At this price. Ni devas konfesi por ŝia laŭdo, ke ... =
We must confess to her praise that ... Mi ne havas tempon por fari
tion = I have not time to do that. Kiam la momento por foriri
alvenis, or, Kiam la momento de foriro alvenis ... = When the
moment for departure arrived ... Tiu libro estas facile komprenebla
por ĉiuj = That book is easily comprehensible by (for) all. Li
aĉetis por unu penco da teo = He bought a pennyworth (for a penny)
of tea.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—I eat to live = I eat in order to live. To me it has a good taste = To me it has a pleasant (good) taste. He treated himself to recover = He treated himself (took remedies) to recover (be restored to health). The best way to get it = The best way of getting it (in order to get it). I have a lot to do = I have much to do. I bought twelve apples for my four children = For my four children I bought twelve apples. Beds for two people = Beds for two people. This ring is for you = This ring is for you. We thank him for everything (or, for everything) we thank him = We thank him for everything. At this price = At this price. We must confess to her praise that ... = We must confess to her praise that ... I don't have time to do that = I have not time to do that. When the moment to leave arrived, or, When the moment of departure arrived ... = When the moment for departure arrived ... That book is easy to understand for everyone = That book is easily comprehensible by (for) all. He bought a penny's worth of tea = He bought a pennyworth (for a penny) of tea.


259 (24). Post = After, behind.
Post = After, behind.


Is a preposition of place and time. Like its English equivalent
"after," care must be taken not to confuse its meaning. For instance,
"He came after me" might mean (a) next in succession or behind me,
(b) after my arrival, (c) in pursuit of me. In Esperanto we
should say:—(a). Li venis post mi. (b) Li venis post mia
alveno. (c). Li postsekvis min (see also remarks on antaŭ,
which is the opposite of post (259 (3)).
Is a preposition of place and time. Like its English equivalent "after," it's important not to confuse its meaning. For example, "He came after me" could mean (a) next in line or behind me, (b) after my arrival, or (c) in pursuit of me. In Esperanto, we should say:—(a). Li venis post mi. (b) Li venis post mia alveno. (c). Li postsekvis min (see also remarks on antaŭ, which is the opposite of post (259 (3)).



Place = After, behind.
Place = After, behind.


Examples.—Post la reĝo venis lia sekvantaro = After (behind) the
king came his suite. "Da" post ia vorto montras, ke tiu ĉi vorto
havas signifon de mezuro = "Da" after any (some) word shows that
this word has the signification of measure.
Examples.—After the king came his entourage = After (behind) the king came his suite. "Da" after any word indicates that this word signifies a measure = "Da" after any (some) word shows that this word has the meaning of measure.


Time = After, in, by, hence.
Time = After, in, by, thus.


Examples.—Resendu al mi la libron (post) kiam vi estos traleginta
ĝin = Send back to me the book after you have read it through.
Post tri monatoj estos la edziĝo = The wedding will be three
months hence (in three months). Post kvarono da horo = In a quarter
of an hour. Tagon post tago = Day by day.
Examples.—Send the book back to me after you've read it = Send back to me the book after you have read it through. In three months, the wedding will happen = The wedding will be three months hence (in three months). In fifteen minutes = In a quarter of an hour. Every day = Day by day.


Manner = After, by.
Manner = After, by.


Examples.—Ili sekvis unu post la alia = They followed one after
another. Iom post iom ŝi pli trankviliĝis = Little by little she
became more tranquil.
Examples.—They followed one after another = They followed one after another. Little by little she became more tranquil = Little by little she became more at ease.


As a prefix, Postveni = To come after, to succeed. Posttagmezo
= Afternoon. Postvivi = To survive.
As a prefix, Postveni = To come after, to succeed. Posttagmezo = Afternoon. Postvivi = To survive.


259 (25). Preter = Beyond, past, by.
259 (25). Preter = Beyond, past, by.


Differs from trans = across (beyond), in that preter shows
the movement of something passing by, or alongside, something else.
Trans signifies that something is on the other side of a boundary,
or is crossing, or has crossed that boundary (see also tra, par. 259 (33)).
Differs from trans = across (beyond), in that preter indicates the movement of something going past or alongside something else. Trans means that something is on the other side of a boundary, or is crossing, or has already crossed that boundary (see also tra, par. 259 (33)).


Place = Beside, by, past.
Place = Next to, by, beyond.


Examples.—Mi iris preter la fenestroj de la domo = I went by
(past, beside) the windows of the house. Du sinjorinoj iris preter
ni, kaj transiris la straton = Two ladies passed (went) by us, and
crossed the street.
Examples.—I walked past the windows of the house = I went by the windows of the house. Two ladies walked past us and crossed the street = Two ladies passed us, and crossed the street.


Preter, as a prefix, has a similar meaning.
Preter, as a prefix, has a similar meaning.


Examples.—Mi preteriris la fenestrojn de la domo = I passed by the
windows of the house. Du sinjorinoj preteriris nin = Two ladies
went by (passed) us. Mi preterlasis lin = I let him pass by (I let
him beyond). Li preterlasis la okazon = He let the occasion
(opportunity) pass, or, he missed the opportunity.
Sure!—I passed by the windows of the house = Mi preteriris la fenestrojn de la domo. Two ladies went by us = Du sinjorinoj preteriris nin. I let him pass by = Mi preterlasis lin. He missed the opportunity = Li preterlasis la okazon, or, he let the occasion pass.



259 (26). Pri = Concerning.
259 (26). Pri = About.


Pri can be translated in various ways.
Pri can be interpreted in different ways.


Reference = Concerning, respecting, regarding, as regards,
with regard to, as to, as for, about, of, on.
Reference = About, concerning, regarding, in regard to, with respect to, as for, on.


Examples.—Pri mia lerteco, mi povas diri ... = Concerning my
skill, I can say ... (In this sentence it will be observed that any
of the above meanings of pri instead of "concerning" will give the
exact sense.) Pri tio ne diru vorton = As to that, don’t say a
word. Ne pensu pri ĝi = Do not think of (about) it. Li parolis
pri la pentrarto = He spoke about (the art of) painting. Ili
miregis pri (or, je) lia kolero = They were astounded at (about)
his anger. Sed pri ŝia fratino, ni povas diri, ke ... = But of her
sister, we can say that ... Tio estas verko pri la politiko = That
is a work on politics. Vi estas prova pri tio = You are right in
that.
Examples.—Regarding my skill, I can say ... = Concerning my skill, I can say ... (In this sentence, it's clear that any of the meanings of pri instead of "concerning" will convey the same sense.) Don’t say a word about that = As to that, don’t say a word. Don’t think about it = Do not think of (about) it. He talked about painting = He spoke about (the art of) painting. They were amazed by his anger (or, at) his anger = They were astounded at (about) his anger. But about her sister, we can say that ... = But of her sister, we can say that ... That is a work on politics = That is a work on politics. You are right about that = You are right in that.


As a prefix, Pripensi = To think about, to reflect.
As a prefix, Pripensi = To think about, to reflect.


See par. 258 (a) as regards the use of the prepositional
expressions rilate, koncerne.
See par. 258 (a) regarding the use of the prepositional expressions rilate, koncerne.


259 (27). Pro = Because of.
Pro = Because of.


Pro always relates to the cause or reason for something happening
or being done. Do not confuse it with por.
Pro always refers to the cause or reason behind something happening or being done. Don't confuse it with por.


Cause = Because of, by reason of, on account of, for the
sake of (cause), through, owing to, from, for, of.
Cause = Because of, by reason of, on account of, for the sake of (cause), through, owing to, from, for, of.


Examples.—Li demandis ŝin, pro kio ŝi ploras = He asked her for
what reason (because of what) she wept (weeps). Li min mokis pro mia
kredemo = He ridiculed me owing to (for) my credulity. Li estas
mortanta (or, ekmortas) pro (or, de) malsato = He is dying
of (from) hunger. Ŝi agas pro ĵaluzemo = She acts from jealousy.
Li ne povis piediri pro sia malforteco = He could not walk owing to
(on account of, through) his weakness. Pro tio, mi ne povas akompani
vin = On that account, I cannot accompany you. Li ĝin faris pro
sia edzino = He did it because of his wife.
Understood.—He asked her why she was crying = He asked her for what reason (because of what) she wept (weeps). He made fun of me for my gullibility = He ridiculed me owing to (for) my credulity. He is dying (or, is about to die) from (or, due to) hunger = He is dying of (from) hunger. She acts out of jealousy = She acts from jealousy. He couldn’t walk because of his weakness = He could not walk owing to (on account of, through) his weakness. Because of this, I can't accompany you = On that account, I cannot accompany you. He did it for his wife = He did it because of his wife.


Pro is not used much as a prefix. Propeti = To intercede.
Propekulo = A scapegoat.
Pro isn’t commonly used as a prefix. Propeti = To intercede. Propekulo = A scapegoat.



259 (28). Sen = Without.
259 (28). Sen = Without.


Sen always denotes disconnection.
Sen always indicates disconnection.


Disconnection = Without, less, minus.
Disconnection = Without, less, minus.


Examples.—Li alvenis sen sia amiko = He arrived without his
friend. Sen vi, ni estus kiel sen kapo = Without you we should be
as without a head. Dek sen tri estas sep = Ten less (minus) three
is seven.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—He arrived without his friend = He arrived without his friend. Without you we would be like being without a head = Without you we should be as without a head. Ten minus three is seven = Ten less (minus) three is seven.


Sen is frequently used as a prefix, having the same meaning as our
English suffix "less," as:—Sendube = Doubtless, without doubt.
Sensenta = Senseless, without feeling. Sensenca = Senseless,
without meaning. Senhonta = Shameless, without shame.
Sen is often used as a prefix, meaning the same as the English suffix "less," as in:—Sendube = Doubtless, without doubt. Sensenta = Senseless, without feeling. Sensenca = Senseless, without meaning. Senhonta = Shameless, without shame.


259 (29). Spite = In defiance of.[21]
Spite = In defiance of __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__


Spite, like malgraŭ, marks opposition, but in a stronger sense.
Spite means "in defiance of opposition," whilst malgraŭ has more
the sense of "notwithstanding." Spite is not a preposition, but an
adverb, and to translate the prepositional form "in spite of" it is
usually better to use malgraŭ.
Spite, like malgraŭ, shows opposition, but in a stronger way. Spite means "despite opposition," while malgraŭ is more about "regardless of." Spite is not a preposition but an adverb, and to translate the prepositional form "in spite of," it's usually better to use malgraŭ.



Opposition = In defiance of, defiantly.
Opposition = Against, resistantly.


Examples.—Spite ĉion, kion mi povis diri, li vangfrapis la
infanon = In defiance of all I could say, he slapped the child’s
face. Spite mian malamikon = In defiance of my enemy.
Examples.—No matter what I said, he slapped the child's face = In defiance of all I could say, he slapped the child’s face. No matter what my enemy said = In defiance of my enemy.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[21] The root spit is often used
      as a verb: spiti, to brave, flout, act
      in defiance of. Amason ne spitu (Prov. 1191). Se
      vi malgraŭ tio spitos min (Lev. 26, 21). From this root we
      get the adjective spitema (Ps. 37, 35) and the adverb
      spite. Hence there are often found in the literature
      such forms as spite al vi, spite de tio; and,
      consequently (with the accusative instead of the preposition),
      spite vin, spite tion, spite mian malamikon
      (par. 247).
   
[21] The root spit is frequently used as a verb: spiti, to challenge, defy, act against. Amason ne spitu (Prov. 1191). Se vi malgraŭ tio spitos min (Lev. 26, 21). From this root, we get the adjective spitema (Ps. 37, 35) and the adverb spite. Therefore, you often see such phrases in literature like spite al vi, spite de tio; and, consequently (with the accusative instead of the preposition), spite vin, spite tion, spite mian malamikon (par. 247).





259 (30). Sub = Under.
259 (30). Sub = Under.


Sub may be followed by the accusative of direction. It is the
opposite of sur = on.
Sub can be followed by the accusative of direction. It is the opposite of sur = on.


Place = Under, beneath.
Place = Under, below.


Examples.—La hundo kuris sub la tablon por ekkapti la katon, kiu
kuŝis sub la tablo = The dog ran under the table to seize the cat
that was lying under the table. Muso estas sub la kanapo = A mouse
is under the sofa.
Examples.—The dog ran under the table to grab the cat that was lying under the table = The dog ran under the table to seize the cat that was lying under the table. A mouse is under the couch = A mouse is under the sofa.


Manner = In, on.
Manner = In, On.


Examples.—Io, sub la formo de kato, transkuris la straton =
Something, in the shape of a cat, ran across the street. Li iris sub
la kondiĉo, ke neniu lin akompanu = He went on (under) the
condition that no one should accompany him.
Sure! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Io, sub la formo de kato, transkuris la straton = Something that looked like a cat ran across the street. Li iris sub la kondiĉo, ke neniu lin akompanu = He went on the condition that no one would accompany him.


As a prefix, Subetaĝo = A basement (floor below). Submeti = To
put under, to subdue. Subtegmento = A garret (under roof).
As a prefix, Subetaĝo = A basement (floor below). Submeti = To put under, to subdue. Subtegmento = A garret (under roof).


259 (31). Super = Over, above.
Super = Over, above.


May be followed by the accusative of direction. It differs from
sur, since sur generally means that something is upon or touching
something else, whilst super signifies that the object is over or
above something, but not in actual contact.
May be followed by the accusative of direction. It differs from sur, since sur usually means that something is on or touching something else, while super indicates that the object is over or above something, but not actually in contact.


Place = Over, above, beyond.
Place = Over, above, past.


Examples.—La balono estis vidata super la urbo = The balloon was
seen over the town. Super mia kapo preterflugis birdo = A bird flew
by, over my head. Li ĵetis ŝtonon super la muron, sed li ne havis
sufiĉe da forto, kaj la ŝtono falis sur la muron = He threw a
stone over the wall, but he had not sufficient (of) strength, and the
stone fell upon (on to) the wall. La spirito de Dio ŝvebis super la
akvo = The Spirit of God moved upon the face of (above) the waters
(water). Mi konas nenion super tio = I know nothing beyond that.
Got it. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—The balloon was seen over the town. A bird flew by, over my head. He threw a stone over the wall, but he didn't have enough strength, and the stone fell onto the wall. The Spirit of God moved over the waters. I know nothing beyond that.


Super is the root of Superi = To surpass. As a prefix,
Superflui = To overflow. Superhoma = Super-human. Supervesto
(or, palto) = An overcoat.
Super is the root of Superi = To surpass. As a prefix, Superflui = To overflow. Superhoma = Super-human. Supervesto (or, palto) = An overcoat.



259 (32). Sur = On, upon, on to.
259 (32). Sur = On, upon, onto.


May be followed by the accusative of direction. See remarks on sub
and super. Do not confound sur with super.
May be followed by the accusative of direction. See remarks on sub and super. Do not confuse sur with super.


Place = On, upon (resting on, touching).
Place = On, upon (resting on, touching).


Examples.—Sur lia vizaĝo mi vidis ĝojan rideton = On his face I
saw a joyful smile. Vi trovos la paperojn sur la skribtablo = You
will find the papers on the writing-table. La birdo (sur)flugis
sur la tegmenton = The bird flew on to the roof. Li metis la
ĉapelon sur sian kapon = He put his (the) hat on his head. Li
staris supre sur la monto, kaj rigardis malsupren sur la kampon = He
stood above on the mountain, and looked down (below) upon the field
(note the accusatives of direction, malsupren and kampon). Laŭ
la komando "tri" vi ekpafos sur la arbon = At the command "three"
you will shoot at (on to) the tree.
Examples.—Sur lia vizaĝo mi vidis ĝojan rideton = On his face I saw a joyful smile. Vi trovos la paperojn sur la skribtablo = You will find the papers on the desk. La birdo (sur)flugis sur la tegmenton = The bird flew onto the roof. Li metis la ĉapelon sur sian kapon = He put the hat on his head. Li staris supre sur la monto, kaj rigardis malsupren sur la kampon = He stood up on the mountain and looked down at the field (note the accusatives of direction, malsupren and kampon). Laŭ la komando "tri" vi ekpafos sur la arbon = At the command "three" you will shoot at the tree.


Dependence = On, to.
Dependence = On, to.


Examples.—Tio ĉi povas tre influi sur la sukceson de nia afero =
This can have much influence on the success of our business. Sur la
danan tronon mi havas rajtojn = I have rights on (to) the Danish
throne.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like modernized.—This can significantly impact the success of our business = This can have much influence on the success of our business. I have rights to the Danish throne = I have rights on (to) the Danish throne.


As a prefix, Surmeti = To put on.
As a prefix, Surmeti = To wear.


259 (33). Tra = Through.
259 (33). Tra = Through.


Tra, trans, and preter. The following compound verbs will best
show the meaning of the three prepositions:—
Tra, trans, and preter. The following compound verbs will clearly illustrate the meaning of the three prepositions:—


Preterpasi = To pass by, go beyond.
Preterpasi = To bypass, go further.


Trapasi = To pass through, to traverse.
Trapasi = To pass through, to cross.


Transpasi = To pass over, to cross over.
Transpasi = To pass over, to cross over.


Example.—Trapasinte la arbaron, li preterpasis la preĝejon, kaj
poste transpasis la riveron per la ponto = Having passed through
(traversed) the wood, he passed by the church, and then crossed the
river by the bridge.
Sure!—After making his way through the woods, he walked past the church and then crossed the river on the bridge.



Place = Through, across.
Place = Through, across.


Examples.—Li iris tra la amaso, kaj eniris en la domon = He went
through the crowd and entered the house. Tra la mondo iras forta
voko = Through the world goes a powerful call. Li estas tiel dika,
ke li ne povas trairi tra nia mallarĝa pordo = He is so stout
(thick) that he cannot go through our narrow door.
Examples.—He walked through the crowd and went into the house = He went through the crowd and entered the house. A powerful call travels through the world = Through the world goes a powerful call. He is so heavy that he can't fit through our narrow door = He is so stout (thick) that he cannot go through our narrow door.


Adverb: trae = right through.
Adverb: trae = straight through.


Occasionally the accusative of direction is used after tra, when
this seems useful for emphasis, or to remove ambiguity.
Occasionally, the accusative of direction is used after tra when it helps emphasize or eliminate confusion.


As a prefix, Tralegi = To read through. Trapasi = To pass
through, to traverse. Traguti = To percolate.
As a prefix, Tralegi = To read through. Trapasi = To pass through, to traverse. Traguti = To filter.


259 (34). Trans = Across; on the other side of, beyond.
259 (34). Trans = Across; on the other side of, beyond.


May be followed by the accusative of direction.
May be followed by the accusative case indicating direction.


Place = Across, beyond, on the other side of.
Place = Across, beyond, on the other side.


Examples.—La hirundo flugis trans la riveron, ĉar trans la rivero
sin trovis aliaj hirundoj = The swallow flew across the river,
because on the other side of (beyond) the river were (found
themselves) other swallows.
Examples.—The swallow flew across the river, because on the other side of the river were other swallows.


As a prefix, Transiri = To go over, to cross. Transmigri = To
migrate. Transvivi = To outlive, survive (a period of time).
As a prefix, Transiri = To go over, to cross. Transmigri = To migrate. Transvivi = To outlive, survive (a period of time).





ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS.




260. English prepositions are used with many various meanings. In
fact, to express the sense of some of those in common use correctly,
five or six or more Esperanto prepositions have to be used to give
the different meanings of one English preposition. For instance,
"by" has five different meanings in the following
expressions:—"He went by the house." "He was hit by a stone."
"By his advice." "Little by little." "He stood by the door."
260. English prepositions have many different meanings. Actually, to accurately express some of the commonly used ones, you need to use five, six, or even more Esperanto prepositions to convey the various meanings of a single English preposition. For example, "by" has five distinct meanings in these phrases:—"He went by the house." "He was hit by a stone." "By his advice." "Little by little." "He stood by the door."






261. The following common English prepositions are given with their
Esperanto equivalents and examples of their use, viz., "At, by,
for, from, in, of, on, to, with."
261. The following common English prepositions are listed with their Esperanto equivalents and examples of how to use them: "At, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, with."


At.
At


261. (a). Represented by:—
261. (a). Represented by:—


Apud, as:—La gefianĉoj staris apud la altaro = The betrothed
stood at the altar.
Apud, as:—The engaged couples stood at the altar = The betrothed stood at the altar.


Ĉe, as:—Ĉe ĉiu paŝo kiun ŝi faris = At every step that she
took. Ŝi estas ĉe la pordo = She is at the door.
At, as:—At every step that she took = At every step that she took. She is at the door = She is at the door.


De, as:—Li estas mirigita de la lukso de la kortego = He was
astonished at the lŭury of the court.
De, as:—Li estas mirigita de la lukso de la kortego = He was amazed by the luxury of the court.


En, as:—En la unua tempo = At (in) the outset. En Parizo = At
Paris. En la fino = At the end. En la kunveno = At the meeting.
En la interspaco de ... = At the distance of ...
In, as:—In the beginning = At the outset. In Paris = At Paris. At the end = At the end. At the meeting = At the meeting. At the distance of ... = At the distance of ...


Je, as:—Je la kvara horo = At four o’clock.
Je, as:—Je la kvara horo = At four o’clock.


Po, as:—Piroj po du pencoj por funto = Pears at (at the rate of)
twopence a (for a) pound.
Po, as:—Pears at two pence a pound.


Por, as:—Por tiu ĉi prezo = At (for) this price.
Por, as:—Por tiu ĉi prezo = At (for) this price.



Pri, as:—Ŝi ridetis pri (je) lia kolero = She smiled at
(about) his anger.
Pri, as:—She smiled at (about) his anger = She smiled at his anger.


Sur, as:—Ili pafis unu sur la alian = They fired at one another.
Sur, as:—They shot at each other = They fired at one another.


Accusative, as:—Ŝi mokadas lian kredemon = She jeers at his
credulity.
Accusative, as:—She mocks his gullibility = She jeers at his credulity.


Adverb, as:—Tuj = At once. Almenaŭ = At least. Iafoje = At
times. Nune = At present, etc.
Adverb, as:—Tuj = Right away. Almenaŭ = At least. Iafoje = Sometimes. Nune = Currently, etc.


By.
By.


261 (b). Represented by:—
261 (b). Represented by:—


Apud, as:—Mi volus stari apud la patrino = I would like to stand
by mother.
Apud, as:—I want to stand by mom = I would like to stand by mother.


Ĉe, as:—Mi tenis lin ĉe la kruro per ŝnurego = I held him by
the leg with a rope.
At, as:—I held him by the leg with a rope = I held him by the leg with a rope.


De, as:—Li estas amata de ĉiuj siaj amikoj = He is loved by all
his friends.
De, as:—He is loved by all his friends = He is loved by all his friends.


Laŭ, as:—Mi restadas tie ĉi laŭ la konsilo de mia kuracisto =
I am remaining (staying) here by (according to) the advice of my
doctor.
According to, as:—I am staying here according to the advice of my doctor = I am remaining here based on my doctor's recommendation.


Per, as:—Li eliris el la urbo per flanka vojeto = He left the
town by a by-path.
Per, as:—He left the town by a side road = He left the town by a by-path.


Post, as:—Iom post iom, ŝi pli trankviliĝis = Little by
(after) little she became more tranquil.
Post, as:—Little by little, she became more at ease.


Preter, as:—En tiu momento iris preter ni du sinjorinoj = At
that moment two ladies passed by (beside) us.
Preter, as:—At that moment, two ladies passed by us.


Adverb, as:—Legante, ni lernas = By reading, we learn. Tage =
by day. Laŭtage = By the day. Mi staris apude dum li paroladis =
I stood by (near to, close by) whilst he was talking.
Adverb, as:—Legante, ni lernas = We learn by reading. Tage = during the day. Laŭtage = Throughout the day. Mi staris apude dum li paroladis = I stood nearby while he was talking.


For.
For.


261 (c). Represented by:—
261 (c). Represented by:—


Al, as:—Ili ekiris al Berlino (or, Berlinon) = They started
for Berlin.
Al, as:—They started for Berlin (or, Berlinon) = They started for Berlin.



Anstataŭ, as:—Li skribis trion anstataŭ kvaro = He wrote a
three for (instead of) a four.
Anstataŭ, as:—Li skribis trion anstataŭ kvaro = He wrote a three instead of a four.


De, as:—Tro baldaŭ alvenis la horo de foriro = Too soon came
the hour for (of) departure. De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana = For
three weeks I have been (am) ill.
De, as:—Too soon came the time to leave = Too soon came the hour for (of) departure. For three weeks I have been sick = For three weeks I have been (am) ill.


Dum, as:—Dum la tuta tago li restis sola = For (during) the
whole day he remained alone.
Dum, as:—Dum la tuta tago li restis sola = For (during) the whole day he stayed alone.


Laŭ, as:—Ŝi estas granda laŭ sia aĝo = She is big for
(according to) her age.
According to, as:—She is big for her age.


Malgraŭ, as:—Malgraŭ ĉio li ne estis feliĉa = For
(notwithstanding) all that, he was not happy.
Malgraŭ, as:—Malgraŭ ĉio li ne estis feliĉa = For
(notwithstanding) all that, he was not happy.


Por, as:—Tiu ĉi monujo estas por vi = This purse is for you.
For, as:—This purse is for you = This purse is for you.


Pri, as:—Li petis lin pri helpo, or, Li petis helpon de li =
He asked him for help. Vi ne devas peti pri tio, kio estas nia
ŝuldo = You have not to beg for that which is our obligation.
Pri, as:—He asked him for help = Li petis helpon de li. You shouldn’t have to beg for what is our responsibility = Vi ne devas peti pri tio, kio estas nia ŝuldo.


Pro, as:—Oni laŭdis lin pro lia boneco = They praised him for
(because of) his goodness. La domo estis vendita pro ŝuldoj = The
house was (had been) sold for debt. Mi volas esti amata pro mi mem,
ne pro mia riĉeco = I want to he loved for myself, not for my
wealth.
Pro, as:—They praised him for his goodness = They praised him for (because of) his goodness. The house was sold for debts = The house was (had been) sold for debt. I want to be loved for who I am, not for my wealth = I want to be loved for myself, not for my wealth.


Pro tio, ke, as:—Li riproĉis min pro tio, ke mi foriris = He
reproached me for having gone away (lit., because of that that I went
away).
Pro tio, ke, as:—He criticized me for leaving.


Tra, as:—Li ne povas ĝin porti tra tia interspaco = He cannot
carry it for (through) such a distance.
Tra, as:—He can't carry it through such a distance = He cannot carry it for (through) such a distance.


Accusative, as:—Li restis sola la tutan tagon = He remained
alone all day long (for the whole day) (see the example under
dum).
Accusative, as:—He stayed alone all day = He remained alone all day long (for the whole day) (see the example under during).



From.
From.


261 (d). Represented by:—
261 (d). Represented by:—


Al, as:—Ni ne vidas, ĉar la lumo estas kaŝata al ni per la
kurtenoj = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards)
us by the curtains.
Al, as:—We don’t see, because the light is blocked from us by the curtains.


De, as:—Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno = Separate the straw from
the hay. De tiu tempo = From that time. De lundo ĝis vendredo =
From Monday to Friday.
De, as:—Separate the straw from the hay = Separate the straw from the hay. From that time = From that time. From Monday to Friday = From Monday to Friday.


El, as:—Mi konkludis el lia mieno, ke li estas oficiro = I
concluded from (out of) his appearance that he was (is) an officer.
He, as:—I concluded from his appearance that he was an officer = I concluded from his appearance that he was an officer.


Kontraŭ, as:—Tie mi estis ŝirmata kontraŭ la vento = There I
was sheltered from (against) the wind.
Against, as:—That’s where I was sheltered from the wind = There I was sheltered from (against) the wind.


Laŭ, as:—Tiu ĉi figuro estas skulptita laŭ mia modelo = This
figure is sculptured (carved) from (in accordance with) my model.
According to, as:—This figure is sculpted based on my model = This figure is sculpted (carved) from (in accordance with) my model.


Per, as:—Tion mi eksciis per mia frato = I learnt that from (by
means of) my brother.
Per, as:—I learned that from my brother = I learned that from (by means of) my brother.


Pro, as:—Li tremis pro (or, de) timo = He trembled from
(because of) fear.
Pro, as:—Li tremis pro (or, de) timo = He trembled from (because of) fear.


Sen, as:—Ok sen du estas ses = Two from eight (lit., eight
without two) is six.
Sen, as:—Ok sen du estas ses = Two taken from eight (literally, eight minus two) is six.


In.
In.


261 (e). Represented by:—
261 (e). Represented by:—


Ĉe, as:—Tio donas helpon ĉe la lernado de la vortoj = That
gives help in the learning of the words.
At, as:—That helps in learning the words = That
gives help in the learning of the words.


Da, as:—Tri metroj da longo = Three metres in length.
Yes, as:—Three meters long = Three meters in length.



En, as:—Li estas en la domo = He is in the house.
En, as:—He is in the house = He is in the house.


Je, as:—La suna disko ŝajne duobliĝis je grandeco = The sun’s
disc apparently became doubled in size.
Je, as:—The sun's disk apparently doubled in size = The sun’s disc apparently became doubled in size.


Laŭ, as:—Laŭ mia opinio (or, miaopinie) ili estas tute
pravaj = In (according to) my opinion they are quite right. Li
edukiĝis laŭ la timo al Dio = He was brought up in (according to)
the fear of God.
According to, as:—In my opinion (or, my opinion) they are completely right = In my view, they are totally right. He was raised in the fear of God = He was brought up with respect for God.


Per, as:—La ambaŭ estis similaj per la vizaĝo kaj la karaktero
= The two were alike in (by means of) features (the face) and (the)
character.
Per, as:—Both were similar in terms of appearance (the face) and personality.


Post, as:—Ni foriros post du aŭ tri tagoj = We are (shall be)
going away in (after) two or three days.
Post, as:—Ni foriros post du aŭ tri tagoj = We are leaving in two or three days.


Pri, as:—La instruisto povas pri nenio lin instrui = The teacher
can instruct him in nothing.
Pri, as:—The teacher can’t teach him anything = The teacher can instruct him in nothing.


Sub, as:—Io, sub la formo de homo, aperas = Something, in
(under) the shape of a man, appears.
Sub, as:—Io, sub la formo de homo, aperas = Something, in (under) the shape of a man, appears.


Sur, as:—Promenante sur la strato, mi falis = While walking in
(on) the street, I fell.
Sur, as:—Walking on the street, I fell = While walking on the street, I fell.


Accusative, as:—Li estis naskita la vintron de 1902a
 = He was born in the winter of 1902.
Accusative, as:—He was born in the winter of 1902a.


Adverb, as:—Forme = In shape. Troe = In excess. Vespere = In
the evening. Alivorte = In other words, etc.
Adverb, as:—Forme = In shape. Troe = In excess. Vespere = In the evening. Alivorte = In other words, etc.


Of.
Of.


261 (f). Represented by:—
261 (f). Represented by:—


Al, as:—La amo al Dio = The love of (towards) God. Ilia timo al
la morto estas granda = Their fear of (to) death is great. Pro
malamo al mi li foriris = Through hatred of me he went away.
Al, as:—I love God = The love of (towards) God. Their fear of death is great = Their fear of (to) death is great. He left because of his hatred for me = Through hatred of me he went away.


Da, as:—Granda nombro da ideoj = A great number of ideas.
Da, as:—A large number of ideas = A great number of ideas.



De, as:—La unua vorto de la linio = The first word of the line.
La amo de Dio = The love of (from) God, God’s love.
De, as:—The first word of the line = The first word of the line.  
The love of God = The love of (from) God, God’s love.


Dum, as:—Vojaĝo dum dek kvin tagoj, or, Dekkvintaga vojaĝo =
A journey of (during) fifteen days.
Dum, as:—Vojaĝo dum dek kvin tagoj, or, Dekkvintaga vojaĝo = A journey for fifteen days.


El, as:—Unu el ni estos elektata = One of (out of) us will be
chosen. El ĉiuj miaj amikoj, li estas la plej forta = Of (out of)
all my friends, he is the strongest.
El, as:—One of us will be chosen = One of (out of) us will be chosen. Of all my friends, he is the strongest = Of (out of) all my friends, he is the strongest.


En, as:—La plej granda ĉambro en la domo = The largest room of
(in) the house.
In, as:—The largest room in the house = The biggest room in the house.


Inter, as:—La plej malgranda inter (or, el) ĉiuj arboj en la
ĝardeno = The smallest of (among) all the trees in the garden.
Inter, as:—The smallest of (among) all the trees in the garden = The smallest of (among) all the trees in the garden.


Kun, as:—Ŝi estas virino kun gusto = She is a woman of (with)
taste.
Kun, as:—She is a woman with taste = She is a woman of taste.


Pri, as:—Ne pensu pri ĝi = Do not think of (about) it. Ŝi
parolis pri sia frato = She spoke of (about) her brother.
Pri, as:—Don't think about it = Do not think of (about) it. She talked about her brother = She spoke of (about) her brother.


Pro, as:—Li mortis pro (or, de) malsato = He died of (owing
to) hunger.
Pro, as:—Li mortis pro (or, de) malsato = He died from (due to) hunger.


Adjective, as:—Li estas sperta homo = He is a man of experience
(an experienced man).
Adjective, as:—He is an experienced man = He is a man with experience.


On.
On.


261 (g). Represented by:—
261 (g). Represented by:—


Al, as:—Peston al la tranĉilo! = Plague on the knife!
Al, as:—Peston al la tranĉilo! = Curse the knife!


Ĉe, as:—Ĉe (or better, sur) la alia flanko de la strato =
On (at) the other side of the street. Ĉe tio mi eliris el la
ĉambro = On that, I left the room.
At, as:—At (or better, on) the other side of the street = On (at) the other side of the street. At that, I left the room = At that, I left the room.


Ĉirkaŭ, as:—La rado turniĝis ĉirkaŭ sia akso = The wheel
turned on its axis.
About, as:—The wheel turned on its axis = The wheel turned on its axis.



De, as:—Ĝi dependas de la nombro de vortoj = It depends on
(from) the number of words.
It, as:—It depends on the number of words = It depends on the number of words.


En, as:—En la tago difinita = On (in) the appointed day.
En, as:—On the designated day = On (in) the appointed day.


Je, as:—Mi gratulas vin je (or, pri) via reveno = I
congratulate you on (concerning) your return.
Me, as:—I congratulate you on (or, about) your return = I congratulate you on (concerning) your return.


Kun, as:—Ŝi ĝin donis al mi kun (or, sub) tiu kondiĉo =
She gave it me on (with) that condition.
Kun, as:—She gave it to me with (or, under) that condition = She gave it to me on (with) that condition.


Post, as:—Post plua konsiderado = On (after) further
consideration.
Post, as:—Post plus consideration = After thinking it over.


Pri, as:—Li gratulis min pri mia edziĝo = He congratulated me
on (concerning) my marriage.
Pri, as:—He congratulated me on my marriage.


Pro, as:—Pro tio mi lin lasis = On that account I left him.
Pro, as:—Pro tio mi lin lasis = Because of that, I left him.


Sub, as:—Li vizitis min sub la preteksto, ke li estas parenco =
He visited me on (under) the pretext that he was (is) a relation.
Sub, as:—He visited me under the pretext that he was a relative = He visited me on the pretext that he was a relation.


Sur, as:—La paperoj kuŝas sur la tablo = The papers are lying
on the table.
Sur, as:—The papers are lying on the table = The papers are lying on the table.


Accusative, as:—Li ĝin donis al mi lundon = He gave it me on a
Monday.
Accusative, as:—He gave it to me on a Monday.


Adjective, as:—La veturilo estas luebla = The carriage is on
hire (is able to be hired).
Adjective, as:—The carriage is available for rent = The carriage can be hired.


Adverb, as:—Li staris dekstre = He stood on the right. Li ĝin
faris intence = He did it on purpose. Prunte = On loan.
Adverb, as:—He stood on the right. He did it on purpose. On loan.


To.
To.


261 (h). Represented by:—
261 (h). Represented by:—


Al, as:—Mi iras al Parizo = I am going to Paris. Li diris al
mi = He said to me.
Al, as:—I'm going to Paris = I am going to Paris. He said to me = He said to me.


En, as:—Li ridetis en si mem = He smiled to (in) himself. Li
reiris en la urbon = He went back to (into) the town.
En, as:—He smiled to himself = He smiled to (in) himself. He went back into the town = He went back to (into) the town.



Ĝis, as:—De sabato ĝis mardo = From Saturday to (till)
Tuesday. Li amis ĝis freneziĝo = He loved to frenzy.
Until, as:—From Saturday to Tuesday = From Saturday to (till) Tuesday. He loved to the point of madness = He loved to frenzy.


Ke (with a personal pronoun), as:—Vi bone faris, ke vi venis =
You did well to come (that you came).
Ke (with a personal pronoun), as:—You did well to come = You did well that you came.


Kontraŭ, as:—Vizaĝon kontraŭ vizaĝo = Face to (opposite)
face.
Kontraŭ, as:—Face to face = Face to (opposite) face.


Kun, as:—Li fianĉiĝis kun mia kuzino = He became engaged
(affianced) to my cousin.
Kun, as:—He got engaged to my cousin.


Por, as:—Mi havas multe (or, multon) por fari = I have much
to do (for to do). Ŝi estis muta por ĉiuj liaj demandoj = She was
dumb to (for) all his questions. Tia agado estas danĝera por ni =
Such action is dangerous to (for) us.
For, as:—I have a lot (or, a lot of) to do = I have much to do (to do). She was silent to (for) all his questions = She was mute to (for) all his questions. Such action is dangerous to (for) us = Such action is dangerous for us.


Pri, as:—Pri tio lasu min zorgi = Let me look to that.
Pri, as:—Pri tio lasu min zorgi = Let me take care of that.


Sub, as:—Sub la sono de muziko = To (under) the sound of music.
Sub, as:—Sub la sono de muziko = Under the sound of music.


Sur, as:—Iri sur la kamparon = To go to (into) the country.
Sur, as:—Iri sur la kamparon = To go to the countryside.


Adverb, as:—Li iris dekstren = He went to the right. Morte
kondamnita = Condemned to death.
Adverb, as:—He went to the right = He went to the right. Condemned to death = Condemned to death.


Accusative, as:—Mi iris Parizon = I went to Paris.
Accusative, as:—I went to Paris = I went to Paris.


With.
With.


261 (i). Represented by:—
261 (i). Represented by:—


Ĉe, as:—Por esti ĉe li, mi fordonis ĉion = To be with (at)
him, I gave up everything.
At, as:—To be with him, I gave up everything = To be with (at) him, I gave up everything.


De, as:—Li eksaltis de surprizo = He started with (from)
surprise.
De, as:—Li eksaltis de surprizo = He reacted with surprise.


El, as:—Kion ni faros el tio? = What shall we do (make) with
(out of) that?
El, as:—Kion ni faros el tio? = What should we do with that?



Je, as:—Li okupis sin je (or, pri) meĥaniko = He occupied
himself with (concerning, about) mechanics.
He, as:—He occupied himself with (or, about) mechanics = He occupied himself with (concerning, about) mechanics.


Kontraŭ, as:—Li batalis kontraŭ la malamiko = He fought with
the enemy.
Against, as:—He fought against the enemy = He fought with the enemy.


Kun, as:—Li paroladas kun sia amiko = He is conversing (talking)
with (to) his friend.
Kun, as:—He is talking to his friend = He is conversing with his friend.


Laŭ, as:—Li kuris laŭ granda rapideco = He ran with great
rapidity.
According to, as:—He ran with great speed = He ran with great speed.


Per, as:—Li mortigis sin per glavo = He killed himself with (by
means of) a sword.
Per, as:—He took his own life with a sword = He killed himself with (by means of) a sword.


Pri, as:—Pri tio mi havas nenion por diri = With regard to
(concerning) that, I have nothing to say.
Pri, as:—Pri tio mi havas nenion por diri = About that, I have nothing to say.


Sub, as:—Mi ĝin donis al li sub tiu kondiĉo = I gave it to him
with (under) that condition.
Sub, as:—I gave it to him with that condition = I gave it to him under that condition.


Adverb, as:—Rilate vian leteron = With reference to (relating
to) your letter.
Adverb, as:—Rilate vian leteron = In relation to your letter.





CONJUNCTIONS (Konjunkcioj).




262. Conjunctions serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or
sentences.
262. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.


Examples.—Somero kaj Vintro = Summer and Winter. Tage aŭ
nokte = By day or by night. Li diras, ke vi estas mallaborema
= He says that you are lazy. Li estas fiera, sed vi estas
humila = He is proud, but you are humble.
Examples.—Somero and Vintro = Summer and Winter. Tage or nokte = By day or by night. Li diras, ke vi estas mallaborema = He says that you are lazy. Li estas fiera, sed vi estas humila = He is proud, but you are humble.






263. Conjunctions are of two kinds, Co-ordinating and Subordinating.
They have no influence over the moods of verbs (par. 171 (b)).
263. Conjunctions come in two types: coordinating and subordinating. They don't affect the moods of verbs (par. 171 (b)).






264. Co-ordinating conjunctions connect two sentences, or two
members of a sentence that are independent of each other. These are
of five classes:—
264. Coordinating conjunctions connect two sentences or two parts of a sentence that are independent from each other. There are five types:—


    

  • (1). Copulative, as:—kaj = and; kaj ... kaj = both ... and.
    • 

  • (2). Alternative, as:—aŭ = or; aŭ ... aŭ = either ... or;
nek = nor, nek ... nek = neither ... nor.
    • 

  • (3). Adversative, as:—sed = but.
    • 

  • (4). Causative, as:—ĉar = for.
    • 

  • (5). Illative, as:—tial = therefore.






265. Subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that is
dependent on another. There are six classes, viz., conjunctions of:—
265. Subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that depends on another clause. There are six classes, namely, conjunctions of:—


    

  • (1). Manner or Degree, as:—kiel = as, kvazaŭ = as if, as
though, ol = than, etc.
    • 

  • (2). Consequence, as:—ke = that, tiel ke = so that.
    • 

  • (3). Reason or Cause, as:—ĉar = because, since, tial ke =
inasmuch as, since, etc.
    • 

  • (4). Purpose, as:—timante ke = lest, for fear that, fearing
that, etc.
    • 

  • (5). Condition, as:—se = if, esceptinte ke, krom se =
unless, except, se nur = provided that, if only, etc.
    • 

  • (6). Concession, as:—kvankam = though, although, tamen =
however, notwithstanding, eĉ se = even if, etc.
    • 








266. Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns, pronouns, and
adjectives. When there is a diversity of case, it is due to ellipsis
(see par. 105).
266. Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. When there’s a variety of cases, it’s because of ellipsis (see par. 105).


Example.—Mi vidis lin kaj lian fraton, sed ne lian fratinon = I
saw him and his brother, but not his sister.
Example.—I saw him and his brother, but not his sister.






267. The co-ordinating conjunction is sometimes omitted.
267. The coordinating conjunction is sometimes omitted.


Examples.—Li venis, li vidis, li venkis = He came, he saw, he
conquered! Vi iros, Johano restos tie ĉi = You will go, John will
remain here.
Understood. Please provide the text.—He came, he saw, he conquered! You will go, John will stay here.






268. Conjunctions and adverbs.—Some English words are sometimes
adverbs and sometimes conjunctions, more especially those introducing
clauses of time or place. Some are also prepositions as well as
conjunctions and adverbs, and care must be taken to use the correct
Esperanto words in such cases. For instance, in English "before,"
"after," and "since" are prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions.
268. Conjunctions and adverbs.—Some English words can function as adverbs or conjunctions, especially those that introduce clauses of time or place. Some words can also be prepositions in addition to serving as conjunctions and adverbs, so it's important to use the right Esperanto terms in those situations. For example, in English, "before," "after," and "since" can be prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions.


Before (prep.) = Antaŭ.
Before (prep.) = Before.


Example.—Li staris antaŭ la reĝo = He stood before the king.
Example.—He stood before the king = He stood before the king.


Before (adv.) = Antaŭe.
Before (adv.) = Previously.


Example.—La reĝo neniam lin vidis antaŭe = The king never saw
him before.
Example.—The king had never seen him before.


Before (conj.) = Antaŭ ol.
Before (conj.) = Before.


Example.—Pripensu antaŭ ol paroli = Reflect before speaking.
Example.—Think before you speak = Reflect before speaking.


After (prep.) = Post, or, malantaŭ.
Post


Example.—Post la hundoj, venis la homoj = After (behind) the dogs
came the men.
Example.—After the dogs, the men came = After (behind) the dogs came the men.


After (adv.) = Poste, or, malantaŭe.
After (adv.) = Poste, or, malantaŭe.


Example.—La rajdantoj iris antaŭe, kaj la hundoj venis poste (or,
malantaŭe) = The riders went in advance, and the dogs came after.
Example.—The riders went ahead, and the dogs followed (or, behind) = The riders went ahead, and the dogs followed.


After (conj.) = Post kiam, or, kiam.
After (conj.) = Post when, or, when.


Example.—Resendu
al mi la libron, post kiam (or, kiam) vi estos ĝin
traleginta = Send me back the book after you (will) have read it
through.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Send me back the book after you have read it through = Send me back the book after you have finished reading it.



Since (prep.) = De.
Since = De.


Example.—De la kreo de la mondo = Since the creation of the world.
Example.—De la kreo de la mondo = Since the creation of the world.


Since (adv.) = De tiu tempo; de tiam; de kiam; de la tempo, kiam.
Since (adv.) = From that time; from then; from when; from the time when.


Example.—Mi lin vidis hieraŭ, sed mi lin ne vidis de tiu tempo =
I saw him yesterday, but I have not seen him since.
Example.—I saw him yesterday, but I haven't seen him since.


Since (conj.) = Ĉar.
Since (conj.) = Because.


Example.—Mi devas ĝin fari, ĉar vi insistas = I must do it,
since you insist.
Example.—I have to do it because you insist.


LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS
CONJUNCTIONS LIST


(Including Conjunctive Adverbs).
(Including Conjunctive Adverbs).


268. (a). The following is a list of the principal conjunctions.
Some of them, according to the sense in which they are used, are
employed also as adverbs or prepositions, and will be found in the
lists of adverbs and prepositions in pars. 248 (b) and 259.
268. (a). Here’s a list of the main conjunctions. Depending on how they're used, some of them also function as adverbs or prepositions and can be found in the lists of adverbs and prepositions in pars. 248 (b) and 259.


Alie = Otherwise, or, else.
Alie = Otherwise, or, else.


Example.—Mi ne vidis lin, alie mi estus vin sciiginta = I did not
see him, otherwise (else, or) I should have told (informed) you.
Example.—I didn’t see him; otherwise, I would have told you.


Aliflanke = On the other hand.
Aliflanke = On the flip side.


Example.—Kelkaj personoj diras, ke Johano estas fripono: aliflanke,
aliaj diras, ke li estas naivulo = Some persons say John is a knave;
on the other hand, some say he is a simpleton.
Example.—Some people say John is a fraud; on the other hand, others say he is gullible.


Almenaŭ = At least.
At least


Example.—Almenaŭ li provis ĝin fari = At least he tried to do
it.
Example.—At least he tried to do it = At least he tried to do it.



Ankaŭ = Also, too, as well (also adverb).
Also = Also, too, as well (also adverb).


Examples.—Mi ankaŭ ĝin vidis = I, too, saw it. Johano kaj
ankaŭ Mario estis tie = John and also Mary were there.
Examples.—I also saw it = I, too, saw it. John and also Mary were there = John and Mary were there, too.


Antaŭ ol = Before, ere.
Before = Before, in the past.


Examples.—Antaŭ ol morti, li diris ... = Before dying he said ...
Li vespermanĝis, antaŭ ol li foriris = He dined before he went
away. Antaŭ ol ni atingos lin, li estos malproksime = Ere we
(shall) reach him, he will be far away. Antaŭ ol iri Londonon, ni
veturis Berlinon = Before going to London, we travelled to Berlin.
Examples.—Before he died, he said ... = Before dying he said ... He had dinner before he left = He dined before he went away. By the time we reach him, he will be far away = Ere we (shall) reach him, he will be far away. Before going to London, we traveled to Berlin = Before going to London, we travelled to Berlin.


Aŭ = Or.
Aŭ = Or.


Example.—Oni ne scias, ĉu li ploras aŭ ridas = One does not know
whether he is weeping or laughing.
Example.—You can't tell if he’s crying or laughing = One does not know whether he is weeping or laughing.


Aŭ ... aŭ = Either ... or.
Aŭ ... aŭ = Either ... or.


Example.—Aŭ vi aŭ mi devos ĝin fari = Either you or I must
(will have to) do it.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Either you or I will have to do it.


Cetere = Besides, for the rest, for the matter of that.
Cetere = Additionally, for the rest, about that.


Example.—Li ne venis; cetere, se li estus veninta, mi ne estus
vidinta (or, vidus) lin = He did not come; besides, if he had
(should have) come, I should not have seen him.
Example.—He didn’t come; besides, if he had come, I wouldn’t have seen him.


Ĉar = Because, for, since.
Because = Because, for, since.


Examples.—Tion mi scias, ĉar tie mi estas = I know that, because
(for) I was there. Ĉar vi ne estis tie, vi ne povas ĝin scii =
Since you were not there, you cannot know it.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—I know that, because I was there = I know that, because I was there. Since you weren't there, you can't know it = Since you weren't there, you can't know it.


Ĉiufoje kiam, ĉiun fojon kiam = Every time when, each time
when.
Every time when, each time when = Every time when, each time when.


Example.—Mi lin renkontadis ĉiufoje, kiam mi iris Londonon = I
met him every time (when) I went to London.
Example.—I met him every time I went to London.


Ĉu = Whether, or, if (see remarks on ĉu in the list of
adverbs, par. 248 (b)).
Ĉu = Whether, or, if (see notes on ĉu in the list of adverbs, par. 248 (b)).


Ĉu ... aŭ = Whether ... or.
Whether ... or.


Example.—Mi iros, ĉu li venos aŭ ne = I shall go, whether he
come (will come) or not.
Example.—I will go, whether he comes or not.



Ĉu ... ĉu = Whether ... whether.
Ĉu ... ĉu = Whether ... whether.


Example.—Ĉu li skribos, ĉu li ne skribos, mi ne respondos al li
= Whether he writes, whether he does not write, I shall not reply to
him.
Example.—Will he write, or will he not write, I won’t respond to him  
= Whether he writes, whether he does not write, I shall not reply to him.


De l’ tempo kiam, or, de kiam = Since, from the time when.
De l’ tempo kiam, or, de kiam = Since, from the time when.


Example.—De l’ tempo kiam li mortis.... = Since he died....
Example.—About the time when he died.... = Since he died....


Des pli = So much the. Des pli is generally used with Ju pli
(which see), but sometimes alone in reply to questions (par. 112).
Des pli = So much the. Des pli is usually used with Ju pli (which see), but can also be used alone in response to questions (par. 112).


Example.—Mi devas averti vin, ke li eble ne estos hejme = I must
warn you, that perhaps he will not be (or, that he may not be) at
home. Des pli bone! mi tute ne deziras lin vidi = So much the
better, I don’t at all wish to see him.
Example.—I have to warn you that he might not be = I must warn you that he might not be at home. Great! I really don’t want to see him at all. 


Do = Then, therefore, consequently (argumentative).
Do = Then, therefore, consequently.


Examples.—Mi do povas dormi trankvile = Then I can sleep
tranquilly. Estis do vidaĵo mirinda! = It was then a wonderful
sight! Kion do Johano diros? = What then will John say?
Understood! Please provide the text you'd like modernized.—Then I can sleep peacefully. It was a truly amazing sight! What will John say then?


Dum (also preposition) = While, whilst (par. 259 (10)).
Dum (also preposition) = While, whilst (see __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Dum li estis parolanta, ni eliris el la ĉambro = Whilst
he was speaking, we went out of the room. Li povas labori, dum mi
estas for = He can work, whilst I am away.
Examples.—While he was talking, we left the room = While he was speaking, we went out of the room. He can work, while I'm gone = He can work, whilst I am away.


Dume = Meantime, meanwhile (also adverb).
Dume = In the meantime, meanwhile (also adverb).


Example.—Ili ekbruligis la fajron, dume ni pretigis la manĝaĵon
= They lighted the fire, meanwhile we got the food ready.
Example.—They lit the fire while we prepared the food.


Eĉ se = Even if.
Even if = Even if.


Example.—Ili ne volus iri, eĉ se ili estus invititaj = They would
not wish to go, even if they were (should be) invited.
Understood! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—They wouldn't want to go, even if they were invited.


Foje kiam = Once when, one day when, once upon a time.
Foje kiam = Once when, one day when, once upon a time.


Example.—Foje kiam mi promenis, mi renkontis vian amikon = Once
(one day), when walking, I met your friend.
Example.—Foje kiam mi promenis, mi renkontis vian amikon = One time, when I was walking, I ran into your friend.



Ĝis (also preposition) = Till, until (par. 259 (13)).
Till, until (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Atendu, ĝis mi revenos[22] = Wait till I (shall) return.
Example.—Wait until I get back[22] = Wait till I (shall) return.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[22] N.B.—Some writers would say
      ĝis kiam. Zamenhof never did—the second word appears
      superfluous.
[22] N.B.—Some writers might say ĝis kiam. Zamenhof never did—the second word seems unnecessary.




Jen = Behold, here (also an adverb and interjection).
Jen = Look, here.


Example.—Jen la malsameco de la rezulto klariĝas = Here the
difference of the result is explained.
Example.—The difference in the result is clarified here = Here the difference of the result is explained.


Jen ... jen = Now ... now, sometimes ... at other times.
Jen ... jen = Now ... now, sometimes ... at other times.


Example.—Jen li kuras rapide, jen li haltas! = Now he runs
rapidly, now he stops!
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Now he runs quickly, now he stops! = Now he runs rapidly, now he stops!


Ju malpli ... des malpli = The less ... the less (par. 112).
Ju malpli ... des malpli = The less ... the less (par. 112).


Example.—Ju malpli li laboras, des malpli li enspezas = The less
he works, the less he earns.
Example.—The less he works, the less he earns.


Ju malpli ... des pli = The less ... the more.
Ju malpli ... des pli = The less ... the more.


Example.—Ju malpli li trinkas, des pli li manĝas = The less he
drinks, the more he eats.
Example.—The less he drinks, the more he eats = The less he drinks, the more he eats.


Ju pli ... des malpli = The more ... the less.
The more ... the less = The more ... the less.


Example.—Ju pli ni trinkas, des malpli ni manĝas = The more we
drink, the less we eat.
Example.—The more we drink, the less we eat = The more we drink, the less we eat.


Ju pli ... des pli = The more ... the more.
Ju pli ... des pli = The more ... the more.


Example.—Ju pli bona vi estos, des pli vi estos amata = The better
you are, the more you will be loved.
Example.—The better you are, the more you will be loved.


Kaj = And.
Kaj = And.


Example.—Vi kaj mi devas ĝin fari = You and I must do it.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Vi kaj mi devas ĝin fari = You and I have to do it.


Kaj ... kaj = Both ... and.
Kaj ... kaj = Both ... and.


Example.—Mi vidis tie kaj Johanon kaj Georgon = I saw both John
and George there.
Example.—I saw both John and George there.


Kaj ceteraj = And the rest, et cetera (commonly written k.c.).
Kaj ceteraj = And the rest, etc. (commonly written k.c.).


Kaj tiel plu = And so forth, and so on (commonly written
k.t.p.).
Kaj tiel plu = And so forth, and so on (usually written k.t.p.).



Ke = That. Be careful not to use ke for the pronouns kio,
kiu, tio, or tiu = that.
Ke = That. Be careful not to use ke for the pronouns kio, kiu, tio, or tiu = that.


Examples.—Mi esperas, ke tio, kion vi havas en la mano, ne estas
venena insekto = I hope that that which you have in your (the) hand
is not a poisonous insect. Mi pensas, ke tiu vorto estas malĝuste
tradukita = I think that that word is wrongly translated.
Examples.—I hope that what you have in your hand isn't a poisonous insect = I hope that what you have in your hand is not a poisonous insect. I think that word is translated incorrectly = I think that word is incorrectly translated.


Kial = Wherefore, why (par. 150) (also adverb).
Kial = Why (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__) (also adverb).


Example.—Demandu lin, kial li tion faras = Ask him why he does
that.
Example.—Ask him why he does that.


Kiam = When, as, after (kiam = after, when used with the
English pluperfect) (par. 151).
Kiam = When, as, after (kiam = after, when used with the English pluperfect) (par. 151).


Examples.—Pluvis forte, kiam ni atingis (alproksimiĝis) la
lagon = It rained heavily when (as) we reached the lake. Kiam mi
estis kolektinta la sumon, mi aĉetis novan libron = After (when) I
had collected the amount, I bought a new book.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—It rained heavily when we reached the lake. After I had collected the amount, I bought a new book.


Kiam ajn = Whenever (par. 145).
Anytime = Whenever (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Li balbutis, kiam ajn li parolis = He stammered whenever
he spoke.
Example.—He stuttered whenever he spoke.


Kie = Where (par. 152) (also adverb).
Kie = Where (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__) (also as an adverb).


Example.—Sciigu min, kie li estas = Tell (inform) me where he is.
Example.—Tell me where he is = Let me know where he is.


Kie ajn = Wherever (par. 145).
Kie ajn = Anywhere (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Mi lin trovos, kie ajn li estas = I shall find him
wherever he is.
Example.—I will find him wherever he is = I shall find him wherever he is.


Kiel = As (in comparison) (par. 153).
Kiel = As (compared to) (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—He is as strong as you = He is as strong as you.


Kiel ajn malmulte = However little.
Kiel ajn malmulte = No matter how little.


Example.—Kiel ajn malmulte vi volos (or, volas) ... = However
little you may (will) wish....
Example.—No matter how little you may want (or, want) ... = However little you may (will) wish....


Kiel ankaŭ = As also, as well as.
Also


Example.—Mia patro, kiel ankaŭ mi, pensas, ke.... = My father, as
well as I, thinks that....
Example.—My father, just like me, thinks that....


Kiel eble plej baldaŭ = As soon as possible (lit., as possible,
most soon). Kiel eble plej should be used as follows:—
Kiel eble plej baldaŭ = As soon as possible (literally, as possible, most soon). Kiel eble plej should be used like this:—



Examples.—Kiel eble plej frue = As early as possible. Kiel eble
plej rapide = As quickly as possible. Sendu lin al mi kiel eble
plej baldaŭ = Send him to me as soon as possible.
Examples.—As early as possible = As early as possible. As quickly as possible = As quickly as possible. Send him to me as soon as possible = Send him to me as soon as possible.


Kiel ekzemple = As for example.
Kiel ekzemple = For example.


Example.—Oni ne manĝas kelkajn birdojn, kiel ekzemple aglojn,
akcipitrojn, vulturojn, cikoniojn, kaj aliajn = People do not eat
some birds, as, for example, eagles, hawks, vultures, storks, and
others.
Example.—They don't eat certain birds, like eagles, hawks, vultures, storks, and others = People do not eat some birds, as, for example, eagles, hawks, vultures, storks, and others.


Kio ajn okazos (or, ĉiuokaze) = At all events (lit., whatever
shall happen).
Kio ajn okazos (or, ĉiuokaze) = At all events (literally, whatever happens).


Example.—Mi venos morgaŭ, kio ajn okazos = I shall come to-morrow
whatever happens.
Example.—I'll come tomorrow, no matter what happens.


Kondiĉe, ke = On condition that.
Kondiĉe, ke = As long as.


Example.—Mi vin forpermesos, kondiĉe, ke vi revenu postmorgaŭ =
I will give you leave of absence, on condition that you return the
day after to-morrow.
Example.—I'll give you a leave of absence, as long as you come back the day after tomorrow.


Konsente, ke = It being agreed that.
Konsente, ke = It is agreed that.


Example.—Mi iros, konsente, ke vi ankaŭ estu tie = I will go, it
being understood that (agreed that) you also be there.
Example.—I’ll go, as long as it’s understood that you’ll be there too.


Kontraŭe = On the contrary (also adverb).
On the contrary


Example.—Vi preferas la bovaĵon, mi, kontraŭe, preferas la
ŝafaĵon = You prefer beef, I, on the contrary, prefer mutton.
Example.—You prefer beef; I, on the other hand, prefer lamb.


Krom se = Unless.
Krom se = Unless.


Examples.—Krom se ili rapidos (or, se ili ne rapidos), ili
maltrafos la vagonaron = Unless they (will) make haste, they will
miss the train.
Certainly! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—If they don't hurry (or, if they don't rush), they will miss the train = Unless they make haste, they will miss the train.


Krom tio = Besides, moreover, apart from that.
Krom tio = Besides, also, on top of that.


Example.—Ŝi estis krom tio tre bela knabino = She was, besides
(moreover), a very beautiful girl.
Example.—She was, on top of that, a very beautiful girl.


Kun la kondiĉo, ke = On (with) the condition that.
On the condition that = On (with) the condition that.


Example.—Mi pruntis al li la libron kun la kondiĉo, ke li redonu
ĝin al mi postmorgaŭ = I lent him the book on the condition that
he should (is to) return it to me the day after to-morrow.
Understood.—I lent him the book with the condition that he would return it to me the day after tomorrow.



Kvankam = Although, though.
Kvankam = Although, though.


Examples.—Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa =
Although he is rich, yet he is not happy. Kvankam mi konsentas vian
opinion, tamen mi ne povas akordiĝi kun vi = Though I agree with
your opinion, I cannot nevertheless be in accord with you.
Got it!—Even though he is rich, he isn’t happy = Although he is rich, yet he is not happy. Even though I agree with your opinion, I still can’t align with you = Though I agree with your opinion, I cannot nevertheless be in accord with you.


Kvazaŭ = As if, as though (also adverb).
Kvazaŭ = Like, as though (also adverb).


Example.—Li staris, kvazaŭ li vidas teruraĵon = He stood as if
he saw a terrible object.
Example.—He stood as if he were looking at something horrifying = He stood as if he saw a terrible object.


Laŭ tio ... ke = According as.
According to ... that = According as.


Example.—Laŭ tio, ke vi estos atenta aŭ maldiligenta, la
lernejestroj vin laŭdos aŭ mallaŭdos = According as you are (will
be) attentive or idle, the schoolmaster will praise or blame you.
Example.—Depending on whether you are attentive or lazy, the principal will praise or criticize you.


Malgraŭ ĉio = In spite of all (everything), after all.
In spite of everything = In spite of all (everything), after all.


Example.—Li foriris malgraŭ ĉio, kion mi diris = He went away in
spite of all I said.
Example.—He left despite everything I said.


Malgraŭ tio, ke = Notwithstanding that.
Malgraŭ tio, ke = Even though.


Example.—Malgraŭ tio, ke mi ne havis palton, mi eliris =
Notwithstanding that I had no overcoat, I went out.
Example.—Even though I didn’t have a coat, I went out = Notwithstanding that I had no overcoat, I went out.


Malpli ... ol = Less ... than (par. 112).
Less ... than = Less ... than (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Li estas malpli kuraĝa, ol lia frato = He is less
courageous than his brother.
Example.—He is less brave than his brother.


Ne nur, ne sole = Not only.
Not only.


Example.—Li ne nur ŝtelis, sed li mortigis ankaŭ = He not only
stole, but he committed murder (murdered) also.
Example.—He not only stole, but he also committed murder.


Nek = Nor (par. 59 (c)).
Nek = Nor (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ (c)).


Example.—Li ne estis tie, nek mi = He was not there, nor I.
Example.—He wasn't there, and neither was I.


Nek ... ankaŭ = Nor ... also, nor ... too, nor ... either.
Nek ... ankaŭ = Nor ... also, nor ... too, nor ... either.


Example.—Vi ne estis tie, nek mi ankaŭ = You were not there, nor
I either.
Got it! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—You weren't there, and neither was I.


Nek ... nek = Neither ... nor (par. 59 (c)).
Nek ... nek = Neither ... nor (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ (c)).


Example.—Nek vi nek mi estis tie = Neither you nor I was there.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—Neither you nor I were there.


Ol = Than (par. 112).
Ol = Than (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Examples.—Pli bone malfrue, ol neniam = Better
late than never. La libro ne kostos pli ol tri ŝilingojn = The
book will not cost more than three shillings.
None.—Better late than never = Better late than never. The book won't cost more than three shillings = The book will not cost more than three shillings.



Per (or, pro) tio, ke = In that, since.
Per (or, pro) tio, ke = In that, since.


Example.—La akvo diferencas de la glacio per tio, ke tiu estas
fluida, kaj ĉi tiu malfluida = Water differs from ice, in that the
former is fluid and the latter solid.
Understood! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Water differs from ice, in that the former is fluid and the latter solid.


Pli ... ol = More ... than (par. 112).
Pli ... ol = More ... than (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Li estas pli forta, ol vi = He is stronger than you.
Example.—He is stronger than you = He is stronger than you.


Plie = Moreover, further (also adverb).
Plie = Also, furthermore (also adverb).


Example.—Plie, mi diras al vi, ke ... = Moreover, I tell you
that....
Example.—Plie, mi diras al vi, ke ... = Also, I’m telling you that....


Por ke = In order that, so that, to the end that. Por ke is
always followed by the Imperative mood, because, when used, this
expression implies order (see remarks on Imperative, par. 201).
Por ke = In order that, so that, to the end that. Por ke is always followed by the imperative mood because using this expression implies an order (see remarks on imperative, par. 201).


Examples.—Por ke mi rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi ĝin meritu =
In order that I may recompense you, it is proper (fitting) that you
merit it. Mi volas ĉion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta je mi = I
wish to do everything, so that you may be satisfied with me, or, I
will do everything to please you.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—For me to reward you, it's essential that you deserve it = In order for me to reward you, it is right that you deserve it. I want to do everything so that you are happy with me = I want to do everything to make you happy, or, I will do anything to please you.


Post kiam = After.
After = After.


Example.—Post kiam la suno subiris, ni revenis hejmen = After the
sun set we returned home.
Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—After the sun set, we returned home.


Same kiel = As, just as (par. 112).
Same kiel = As, just like (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Same kiel la patrino amas sian infanon, tiel mi amas vin
= Just as the mother loves her child, so do I love you.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Just like the mother loves her child, I love you.


Se = If.
Se = If.


Example.—Mi ĝin faros, se mi povos = I shall do it if I can
(shall be able).
Understood. Please provide the text you would like modernized.—Mi ĝin faros, se mi povos = I will do it if I can


Se ne = If not, otherwise, lest.
If not, otherwise, lest.


Example.—Lernu vian lecionon, se ne, mi vin vergos! = Learn your
lesson, otherwise I shall cane you!
Example.—Learn your lesson, or I'll punish you!


Se nur = If only, provided that.
Se nur = If only, as long as.


Example.—Vi vidos Johanon, se nur vi alvenos frue = You will see
John, provided that you (will) arrive early.
Example.—If you arrive early, you will see John = You will see John, provided that you arrive early.



Se okaze = If perchance, in case, in the event of.
Se okaze = If by chance, in case, in the event of.


Example.—Se okaze vi venus malfrue, Johano ne estus tie ĉi = If
perchance you should come late, John would not be here.
Example.—If you happen to arrive late, John wouldn't be here.


Se tamen = If however, if still, if though, if
notwithstanding.
Se tamen = If however, if still, if though, if
notwithstanding.


Example.—Se tamen vi ne povos veni morgaŭ matene, venu vespere =
If, however, you are not (will not be) able to come to-morrow
morning, come in the evening.
Example.—If you can't make it tomorrow morning, come in the evening.


Sed = But.
Sed = But.


Example.—Li legas, sed ne komprenas tion, kion li legas = He
reads, but does not understand what he reads.
Example.—He reads, but doesn't understand what he reads = He reads, but does not understand what he reads.


Sed ankaŭ = But also.
But also


Example.—Ŝi donis al mi ne nur hundon, sed ankaŭ ĉevalon = She
gave me not only a dog, but also a horse.
Example.—She gave me not only a dog, but also a horse.


Sed eĉ = But even.
But even.


Example.—Ne sole viroj, sed eĉ infanoj estis tie = Not only men,
but even children were there.
Example.—Not only men, but even children were there.


Sekve = Consequently.
Sekve = So.


Example.—Ekpluvis, sekve ni revenis domen = It began to rain,
consequently we returned home.
Example.—Ekpluvis, sekve ni revenis domen = It started to rain, so we went back home.


Tamen = However, yet, still, nevertheless, but.
However = However, yet, still, nevertheless, but.


Examples.—Kvankam li estas riĉa, tamen li ne estas feliĉa =
Although he is rich, yet (still) he is not happy. Mi ne povis veni
hodiaŭ, tamen mi venos morgaŭ = I could not come to-day, however,
I will come to-morrow. Kvankam li perdis monon, tamen li ne mortis
malriĉulo = Although he lost money, nevertheless he did not die a
poor man.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Although he is rich, he is still not happy = Although he is rich, yet (still) he is not happy. I couldn't come today, but I will come tomorrow = I could not come to-day, however, I will come to-morrow. Even though he lost money, he still didn't die poor = Although he lost money, nevertheless he did not die a poor man.


Tia, ke = Such that.
Tia, ke = So that.


Example.—Mia teruro estis tia, ke mi ne povis paroli unu vorton =
My terror was such, that I could not utter a single word.
Example.—My fear was so intense that I couldn't say a single word.


Tial = So, therefore (par. 150) (also adverb).
Tial = So, therefore (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__) (also adverb).


Example.—Li rifuzis labori, tial mi eksigis lin = He refused to
work, therefore (so) I dismissed him.
Example.—He refused to work, so I let him go.


Tial, ke = Inasmuch as, since, because.
Tial, ke = As much as, since, because.


Example.—Mi vin ne mallaŭdas, tial, ke tio ne estis
via eraro = I do not blame you, inasmuch as (since) it (that) was
not your mistake.
Understood. Please provide the text to be modernized.—I don’t blame you because it wasn’t your mistake.


N.B.—Do not confuse tial, ke with tiel, ke = so that.
N.B.—Don't confuse tial, ke with tiel, ke = so that.


Tiam, kiam = Then when, when (par. 151).
Then when = Then when, when (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Tiam, kiam mi estis riĉa, mi ne estis feliĉa, or, Kiam
mi estis riĉa, (tiam) mi ne estis feliĉa = When I was rich,
(then) I was not happy.
Example.—When I was rich, I wasn't happy = When I was rich, (then) I wasn't happy.


Tiamaniere, ke = In such a manner that, so that.
Tiamaniere, ke = In such a way that, so that.


Example.—Parolu tiamaniere (or, tiel), ke mi povu vin kompreni
= Speak in such a manner (so) that I can (may be able to) understand
you.
Example.—Parolu tiamaniere (or, tiel), ke mi povu vin kompreni = Speak in a way that I can understand you.


Tiel, ke = So that.
Tiel, ke = So that.


Example.—Estis muro inter ili, tiel, ke ili ne povis vidi unu la
alian = There was a wall between them so that they could not see one
another.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—There was a wall between them so that they could not see one another.


Tiel ... ke = So ... that.
Tiel ... ke = So ... that.


Example.—Li estas tiel bona, ke li ĉion pardonas = He is so good
that he pardons everything.
Understood.—He is so good that he forgives everything.


Tiel ... kiel = As ... as (par. 112).
Tiel ... kiel = As ... as (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Example.—Ŝi estas tiel bona, kiel (ŝi estas) bela = She is
as good as she is beautiful.
Example.—She is as good as (she is) beautiful = She is as good as she is beautiful.


Timante, ke, or, pro la timo, ke = For fear that, fearing
that, lest.
Timante, ke, or, pro la timo, ke = For fear that, fearing that, lest.


Example.—Mi tion diris, timante, ke li venos = I said that,
fearing that (lest) he would (will) come. Note the use of the future
tense here. "What is my fear?" I fear he will perhaps come.
Example.—I said that, fearing that he would come = I said that, worried that he might show up. Note the use of the future tense here. "What is my fear?" I'm afraid he might come.


Tio estas (t.e.) = That is, that is to say, to wit. The
initial letters are nearly always used just as we say id est =
i.e.
Tio estas (t.e.) = That is, that is to say, namely. The initial letters are almost always used just like we say id est = i.e.


Tiom ... ke = So many ... that, so much ... that.
Tiom ... ke = So many ... that, so much ... that.


Example.—Mi havis tiom da pomoj, ke mi devis ilin fordoni = I had
so many apples that I was obliged to give them away.
Example.—I had so many apples that I had to give them away.


Tiom ... kiom = As much ... as, as many ... as.
Tiom ... kiom = As much ... as, as many ... as.


Example.—Donu al mi tiom, kiom vi povas = Give me as much (many)
as you can.
Example.—Donu al mi tiom, kiom vi povas = Give me as much as you can.


Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when, directly.
Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately, directly.


Example.—Mi fermis la pordon, tuj kiam li eliris = I shut the door
as soon as (directly) he went out.
Example.—I shut the door as soon as he went out.





INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.




269. Interjections (interjekcioj) and interjectional expressions
vary so considerably in force and meaning in different languages that
it is impossible to translate some of them. If we translated our
English interjections literally into Esperanto, many of them would
have no meaning to a foreigner. The following short list appears at
present to be in use, but, no doubt, as the language becomes more
widely spoken, more will be added.
269. Interjections (interjekcioj) and interjectional expressions
differ so much in intensity and meaning across languages that
some of them can't be translated. If we translated our
English interjections literally into Esperanto, many would
be meaningless to someone from another country. The following short list seems to be in use for now, but as the language becomes more widely spoken, more will likely be added.


Adiaŭ! = Adieu! farewell! good-bye!
Later! = Goodbye!


Ah! Aha! = Ah! hah!
Ah! Aha! = Ah! ha!


Aj! = An exclamation of disgust.
Aj! = An expression of disgust.


Antaŭen! = Forward!
Forward! = Forward!


Atentu! = Look out! Take care! Attention!
Watch out! = Look out! Take care! Attention!


Aŭskultu! = Hark! hist!
Listen! = Listen! hush!


Bis! = Encore!
Bis! = Do it again!


Bone! = Good!
Awesome! = Good!


Bonvenu! Bonvenon! = Welcome!
Welcome! Welcome! = Welcome!


Brave! = Bravo! capital! splendid!
Awesome! = Bravo! capital! splendid!


Certe! = Certainly!
Sure! = Certainly!


Ĉu estas eble! = Is it possible!
ĉu eblas! = Is it possible!


Ĉu ne! = Isn’t it! etc. Ĉu! = Is it! etc.
Isn’t it! = Isn’t it! etc. Is it! = Is it! etc.


Ĉu ne vere! = Is it not so!
Isn't that true! = Is it not so!


Dio gardu! = God save us!
Dio gardu! = God save us!


Dio mia! = God bless me!
Dio mia! = Oh my God!


Dio min savu! = God save me!
Dio min savu! = God save me!


Dio volu! = Would to God! may God!
Dio volu! = Would to God! May God!


Efektive! = Really!
Awesome! = Really!


Fi! = Fie! for shame!
Fi! = Shame on you!


For! = Away! be off!
For! = Go away!


For de tie ĉi! = Begone! be off! avaunt!
For de tie ĉi! = Get lost! Go away! Shoo!



Ha! = Ah! ha!
Ha! = Ah ha!


Haltu! = Stop!
Stop!


He! = Halloo! hey!
Hey!


Helpon! Helpu! = Help!
Help! Help! = Help!


Ho! = O! oh! ho!
Hey! = O! oh! ho!


Ho ve! = Alack! alas! oh dear! welladay!
Oh no! = Oh no! oh dear! yikes!


Hontu! = For shame!
No way! = For shame!


Hura! = Hurrah! huzza!
Hura! = Yay! Hooray!


Ja! = Indeed!
Yeah! = Definitely!


Jen! = Lo! there! behold! see!
Jen! = Hey! Look!


Kial do! = Why indeed! why then!
Kial do! = Why indeed! Why then!


Kiel abomene! = How abominable!
Kiel abomene! = This is awful!


Kion! = What! Kion do! = What then!
Kion! = What! Kion do! = What next!


Kompreneble! = Of course!
Of course!


Kuraĝe! = Courage!
Kuraĝe! = Courage!


Ne! = No!
No!


Nu! = Well!
Nu! = So!


Nu do! = Well then!
Well then!


Pacience! Paciencu! Paciencon! = Be quiet! Patience!
Shh! Patience! = Be quiet! Patience!


Peston! = Plague on’t!
Peston! = Curse it!


Pluen! Daŭrigu! = Proceed! Go on!
Pluen! Daŭrigu! = Keep going! Continue!


Pro Dio! = For God’s sake!
For God's sake!


Rapidu! Rapide! = Quick!
Quick! Quick! = Fast!


Silentu! Silenton! = Hist! hush!
Silentu! Silenton! = Shh! Hush!


Ŝŝ! = ’Sh! Hush!
Sh! = ’Sh! Hush!


Ts! = Hist!
Shh! = Listen!


Ve! = Woe!
Wow! = Woe!


Vere! = Really! True!
For real! = Really! True!


Verege! Tre vere! = Very true!
Totally true! = Very true!


Vivu! = Long live!
Vivu! = Cheers!


269 (a). When adjectives are used as interjections, the adverbial
form in E is used, because there is neither noun nor pronoun with
which they can agree, as:—Neeble! = Impossible! (par. 245).
269 (a). When adjectives are used as interjections, the adverbial form in E is used, because there is neither noun nor pronoun with which they can agree, as:—Neeble! = Impossible! (par. 245).





REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES.




270. Suffix -AĈ-. Prefixes FI- and FUŜ-.
270. Suffix -AĈ-. Prefixes FI- and FUŜ-.


The suffix -aĉ- denotes badness of quality or condition, and is
used with any part of speech to show disparagement, contempt.
Fuŝi, to botch, bungle, do blunderingly, is sometimes used
as a prefix with a similar meaning, though it is less frequently used
than -aĉ.
The suffix -aĉ- indicates poor quality or condition, and it can be used with any part of speech to express disparagement or contempt. Fuŝi, meaning to botch, bungle, or to do something clumsily, can sometimes be used as a prefix with a similar meaning, although it's not as commonly used as -aĉ.


Aĉa = nasty; domaĉo = a hovel; veteraĉo = vile
weather; ĉapelaĉo = a shabby hat; fuŝkonstrui, or,
konstruaĉi = to jerry-build.
Aĉa = mean; domaĉo = a rundown place; veteraĉo = bad weather; ĉapelaĉo = a worn-out hat; fuŝkonstrui, or, konstruaĉi = to build poorly.


The exclamation Fi = fie! for shame! is used as a prefix to
denote shamefulness, disgustingness, nastiness. Fi- denotes
moral rather than physical badness, and is stronger than -aĉ-,
which has a more general sense.
The exclamation Fi = fie! for shame! is used as a prefix to indicate shamefulness, disgustingness, nastiness. Fi- signifies moral rather than physical badness and is stronger than -aĉ-, which has a broader meaning.


Fidomo = a house of ill repute; fivorto = a naughty word;
firakonto = a low story.
Fidomo = a brothel; fivorto = a bad word; firakonto = a dirty story.


270 (1). Suffix -AD-. (Ex. 19.)
270 (1). Suffix -AD-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(a). This suffix marks that an action is being continued or is
habitual. It marks an action of some duration, not momentary. Thus,
pafo = a shot from a gun (the gun is fired, and the action is
over); but pafado = a fusillade (a continuance of shots of more
or less duration).
(a). This suffix indicates that an action is ongoing or habitual. It signifies an action that lasts for some time, rather than a brief moment. So, pafo = a shot from a gun (the gun is fired, and the action is complete); but pafado = a fusillade (a series of shots that continues for a certain length of time).


Thus dancado = dancing, desegnado = designing, drawing, kantado
= singing, legado = reading, pentrado = painting, skulptado =
(the art of) sculpture, skribado = writing. These words signify not
momentary acts, but habitual actions; in fact, they are used to
denote arts or practices, as the art of painting, singing, etc.
Kanto = A song. Ŝia kanto plaĉas al mi = Her song pleases me.
Ŝia kantado ĉarmas min = Her singing charms me.
Thus dancado = dancing, desegnado = designing, drawing, kantado
= singing, legado = reading, pentrado = painting, skulptado =
(the art of) sculpture, skribado = writing. These words signify not
momentary acts, but habitual actions; in fact, they are used to
denote arts or practices, such as the art of painting, singing, etc.
Kanto = A song. Ŝia kanto plaĉas al mi = Her song pleases me.
Ŝia kantado ĉarmas min = Her singing charms me.



(b). If we wish to speak of the faculties of hearing, smelling,
touching, thought, feeling, will, we say aŭdado, flarado,
palpado, pensado, sentado, volado; but if we speak of
isolated acts of such faculties, we say aŭdo, flaro, palpo,
penso, sento, volo.
(b). If we want to talk about the faculties of hearing, smelling, touching, thinking, feeling, and willing, we say aŭdado, flarado, palpado, pensado, sentado, volado; but if we refer to isolated acts of these faculties, we say aŭdo, flaro, palpo, penso, sento, volo.


(c). Sometimes the word arto is used when we wish to specify that
some -ado is an art.
(c). Sometimes the term arto is used when we want to indicate that some -ado is an art.


Examples.—Danc-arto (dancado) = the art of dancing, kant-arto
(kantado) = the art of singing, pentr-arto (pentrado) = the art
of painting.
Examples.—Danc-arto (dancado) = the art of dancing, kant-arto (kantado) = the art of singing, pentr-arto (pentrado) = the art of painting.


N.B.—The hyphens are not necessary.
Got it! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.


(d). The difference in meaning of words with and without the suffix
is seen in such words as:—
(d). The difference in meaning between words with and without the suffix is seen in words like:—


Movo = a motion, movado = movement (general), progreso = a step
of progress, progresado = progress (general), parolo = word
(spoken), parolado = speech, discourse, fumo = smoke, fumado =
smoking (habit of smoking), verko = a work (literary or musical),
verkado = composition (lit.).
Movo = a motion, movado = movement (in general), progreso = a step
toward progress, progresado = progress (in general), parolo = word 
(spoken), parolado = speech, discourse, fumo = smoke, fumado =
smoking (the habit of smoking), verko = a work (literary or musical), 
verkado = composition (literary).


(e). In the verb itself we use this suffix to show that the action
is not merely momentary, but is being continued, repeated, or is
habitual; an aspect of the verb which is, in English, often
expressed by the words "keep on," "used to," etc.
(e). In the verb itself, we use this suffix to indicate that the action is not just momentary, but is ongoing, repeated, or habitual; an aspect of the verb that is often expressed in English with phrases like "keep on," "used to," etc.


Examples.—Mi saltadis la tutan tagon de loko al loko = I jumped
(about) all day long from place to place (kept on jumping). Viziti
= To visit. Vizitadi = To frequent, to haunt.
Examples.—I jumped around all day long = I jumped (about) all day long from place to place (kept on jumping). To visit = To visit. To frequent = To hang out, to haunt.


(f). Where the root plus o denotes the name of an object, the
ending -ado introduces the idea of action, thus: krono = a
crown; kronado = coronation; martelo = a hammer; martelado
= hammering, etc.
(f). When the root plus o indicates the name of an object, the ending -ado introduces the idea of action, as in: krono = a crown; kronado = coronation; martelo = a hammer; martelado = hammering, etc.


(g). Do not therefore use -AD- without thinking of its
significance, or merely for the sake of euphony.
(g). So, don’t use -AD- without considering what it means, or just for the sake of sounding good.







271. Suffixes -AĴ- and -EC-. (Ex. 20).
271. Suffixes -AĴ- and -EC-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(a). -AĴ- denotes something having the quality denoted by the
root, or made or derived from that which is named by the root. It is
also used to denote the flesh of animals intended for food.
(a). -AĴ- indicates something that has the quality described by the root, or that is made or derived from what the root names. It is also used to refer to the meat of animals meant for food.


Examples.—Ĉasi = to hunt, ĉasaĵo = game. Armi = to arm,
armaĵo = armour. Bovo = an ox, bovaĵo = beef. Ovo = an egg,
ovaĵo = an omelet.
Below is a short piece of text (5 words or fewer). Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links.—Ĉasi = to hunt, ĉasaĵo = game. Armi = to arm, armaĵo = armor. Bovo = an ox, bovaĵo = beef. Ovo = an egg, ovaĵo = an omelet.


(b). -EC- denotes an abstract quality, similar to the English
suffixes, -nce, -ncy, -ness, -tude, -ity.
(b). -EC- represents an abstract quality, similar to the English suffixes, -nce, -ncy, -ness, -tude, -ity.


Examples.—Pura = clean, pureco = purity, cleanness. Feliĉa =
happy, feliĉeco = happiness, felicity. Sen = without, seneco =
dearth, want. Kuraĝa = courageous, kuraĝeco = fortitude.
Danki = to thank, dankeco = gratitude, thankfulness. Riĉa =
rich, riĉeco = wealth.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Pura = clean, pureco = purity, cleanliness. Feliĉa = happy, feliĉeco = happiness, joy. Sen = without, seneco = lack, need. Kuraĝa = courageous, kuraĝeco = bravery. Danki = to thank, dankeco = gratitude, thankfulness. Riĉa = rich, riĉeco = wealth.


(c). Both suffixes apply to good or bad qualities. They can be used
as roots, as aĵo = a thing, eco = a quality, a distinctive
mark.
(c). Both suffixes relate to positive or negative characteristics. They can serve as roots, with aĵo meaning a thing, eco meaning a quality, and a distinctive mark.


(d). A comparison of the following words will best illustrate their
meaning.
(d). Comparing the following words will best show their meaning.


Amiko = a friend, amikaĵo = a friendly act, amikeco =
friendship. Bona = good, bonaĵo = a good (action or thing),
boneco = goodness. Fortika = solid, robust, fortikaĵo = a
stronghold, fortikeco = robustness. Mola = soft, molaĵo = a
soft substance, pulp, moleco = softness. Sprita = witty,
spritaĵo = a witticism, spriteco = wittiness. Malsprita =
dull, stupid, malspritaĵo = a stupidity, a bêtise, malspriteco
= stupidity, a state of silliness.
Amiko = a friend, amikaĵo = a friendly act, amikeco =
friendship. Bona = good, bonaĵo = a good (action or thing),
boneco = goodness. Fortika = solid, robust, fortikaĵo = a
stronghold, fortikeco = robustness. Mola = soft, molaĵo = a
soft substance, pulp, moleco = softness. Sprita = witty,
spritaĵo = a witticism, spriteco = wittiness. Malsprita =
dull, stupid, malspritaĵo = a stupidity, a bêtise, malspriteco
= stupidity, a state of silliness.


(e). To express an idea itself, namely, one that is
neither concrete (-AĴ-) nor abstract (-EC-), we add
only the grammatical termination to the root. For instance, la
bono = the good, good (itself), and from this
arises bonaĵo = a good action, or, something
good, the abstract quality being boneco = goodness.
Again, acido = an acid, acidaĵo = an acid
thing, something which has an acid taste, acideco =
acidity. So, heroo = a hero, heroaĵo =
an exploit (something heroic), heroeco = heroism.
The student should guard against the tendency of some writers to
over-use -ec-: e.g., to use feliĉeco, kuraĝeco,
boneco, rapideca, in cases where the sense does not call
for a qualitative suffix, and simple feliĉo, kuraĝo,
bono, rapida, would be more appropriate. In other words,
use eco only when you wish to accentuate the abstractness, the
"nessness" of the idea.
(e). To convey an idea itself, meaning one that is neither concrete (-AĴ-) nor abstract (-EC-), we simply add the grammatical ending to the root. For example, la bono = the good, good (itself), which leads to bonaĵo = a good action, or something good, with the abstract quality being boneco = goodness. Similarly, acido = an acid, acidaĵo = an acidic thing, something with an acid taste, acideco = acidity. Likewise, heroo = a hero, heroaĵo = an exploit (something heroic), heroeco = heroism. The student should be cautious of some writers who tend to overuse -ec-: for instance, using feliĉeco, kuraĝeco, boneco, rapideca, in situations where a qualitative suffix is not needed, and simple feliĉo, kuraĝo, bono, rapida, would be more suitable. In other words, use eco only when you want to emphasize the abstract nature or the "nessness" of the idea.



Examples.—La bono, kiun vi faras estas rimarkinda, ĉar via boneco
ĉiam instigadas vin fari bonaĵojn = The good that you are doing is
remarkable, for your goodness is always prompting you to do kind
acts. Vitriolo estas acido, sed vinagro estas nur acidaĵo, kvankam
ambaŭ posedas acidecon = Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is only a
sour fluid, although both possess acidity. La heroo de la heroaĵo
montris grandan heroecon = The hero of the exploit showed great
heroism. La amiko montras sian amikecon per amikaĵoj = A friend
shows his friendship by friendly acts.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—The good that you are doing is remarkable, for your kindness always encourages you to perform good deeds. Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is just a sour liquid, although both have acidity. The hero of the story displayed great bravery. A friend shows his friendship through kind gestures.






272. Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. 21).
272. Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root,
one or other of them serves to show a person’s country, religion,
profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its distinct
meaning, and care must be taken not to confuse them. The feminine
suffix -IN- is added to denote females.
These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root, one or another of them indicates a person’s country, religion, profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its unique meaning, and it's important not to confuse them. The feminine suffix -IN- is used to indicate females.


(a). Like the English -an, -man, -AN- denotes a member of
something, such as a club, society, etc.; an inhabitant of a place or
country; a partisan; an adherent to a party, faction, religion, etc.
(a). Similar to the English -an, -man, -AN- indicates a member of something, like a club, society, etc.; a resident of a place or country; a supporter; someone who follows a party, faction, religion, etc.


Examples.—Klubo = a club, klubano = a member of a club. Senato
= senate, senatano = a senator. Ameriko = America, amerikano =
an American. Londono = London, londonano = a Londoner. Parizo =
Paris, parizano = a Parisian. Urbo = a town or city, urbano = a
townsman or citizen. Kamparo = country (rural), kamparano = a
countryman. Vilaĝo = a village, vilaĝano = a villager. Insulo
= an island, insulano = an islander. Kristo = Christ, Kristano = a
Christian. Partio = a party, partiano = a partisan.
Sure! Please provide a phrase for me to modernize.—Klubo = a club, klubano = a club member. Senato = senate, senatano = a senator. Ameriko = America, amerikano = an American. Londono = London, londonano = a Londoner. Parizo = Paris, parizano = a Parisian. Urbo = a town or city, urbano = a townsman or citizen. Kamparo = the countryside, kamparano = a country person. Vilaĝo = a village, vilaĝano = a villager. Insulo = an island, insulano = an islander. Kristo = Christ, Kristano = a Christian. Partio = a party, partiano = a partisan.


(b). The suffix -AN- itself is used as a root. Ano = a
member, anaro = a band (a collection of members of something).
(b). The suffix -AN- is used as a root. Ano = a member, anaro = a band (a group of members of something).


(c). -IST-, like the English affix -ist, denotes a person
following a profession or trade, or some occupation by which he gains
his livelihood, or who is habitually engaged in science, art, etc. In
short, it denotes habitual occupation (not necessarily for the sake
of gain).
(c). -IST-, similar to the English suffix -ist, refers to a person pursuing a profession or trade, or any job through which they earn a living, or who regularly participates in science, art, etc. In summary, it signifies habitual occupation (not always for profit).


Examples.—Juĝi = to judge, juĝisto = a judge. Kuraci = to
treat the sick, kuracisto = a doctor. Drogo = a drug, drogisto
= a druggist. Maro = sea, maristo = a sailor (by occupation).
Rabi = to rob, rabisto = a robber. Ŝteli = to steal,
ŝtelisto = a thief. Pentri = to paint, pentristo = a painter
(art). Kolorigi = to colour, paint, kolorigisto = a painter
(house). Servi = to serve, servisto or servistino = servant
(male or female). Astrologio = astrology, astrologiisto (or,
astrologo) = an astrologer.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like modernized.—Juĝi = to judge, juĝisto = a judge. Kuraci = to treat the sick, kuracisto = a doctor. Drogo = a drug, drogisto = a pharmacist. Maro = sea, maristo = a sailor (by occupation). Rabi = to rob, rabisto = a robber. Ŝteli = to steal, ŝtelisto = a thief. Pentri = to paint, pentristo = an artist (painter). Kolorigi = to color, paint, kolorigisto = a house painter. Servi = to serve, servisto or servistino = a servant (male or female). Astrologio = astrology, astrologiisto (or, astrologo) = an astrologer.


(d). -IST- is used only when there is a root to which it may be
added to form the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation,
etc., as shown in the above examples. Thus, from Kudri = to sew,
ŝuo = a shoe, boto = boot, we get kudristino = a
seamstress or dressmaker, ŝuisto = a shoemaker, botisto =
a bootmaker. When there is no such root, Esperanto provides an
independent root, as:—Tajloro = a tailor, lakeo = a lackey,
or valet.
(d). -IST- is only used when there’s a root that it can be added to in order to create the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation, etc., as shown in the examples above. So, from Kudri = to sew, ŝuo = a shoe, and boto = boot, we get kudristino = a seamstress or dressmaker, ŝuisto = a shoemaker, and botisto = a bootmaker. When there isn’t a root, Esperanto provides an independent root, like: Tajloro = a tailor, lakeo = a lackey, or valet.


(e). When the person is engaged in a temporary occupation, or is
not a professional, but an amateur, a participle is often used.
(e). When a person is engaged in a temporary job, or is not a professional but an amateur, a participle is often used.


Examples.—Juĝanto = a judge (of something), juĝisto, a judge
(by occupation or profession). Amanto = a lover, amisto = a
lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. Fotografanto = a photographer, one
who is now photographing, fotografisto = a professional
photographer. Laboranto = a person working, laboristo = a
labourer, or man who works for a livelihood.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Juĝanto = a judge (of something), juĝisto, a judge (by occupation or profession). Amanto = a lover, amisto = a lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. Fotografanto = a photographer, someone currently taking photos, fotografisto = a professional photographer. Laboranto = a person who works, laboristo = a laborer, or a man who works for a living.



(f). -ESTR- denotes a person who is a chief, leader, ruler,
principal, or head of a State, party, body, etc. In the same way as
the suffix -AN- denotes a member of some profession, body, etc., so
-ESTR- would designate the head of it, as:—Urbo = a city,
urbano = citizen, urbestro = a mayor, a chief citizen.
(f). -ESTR- refers to someone who is a chief, leader, ruler, principal, or head of a state, party, organization, etc. Similar to how the suffix -AN- indicates a member of a profession or group, -ESTR- would identify the leader of it, such as:—Urbo = a city, urbano = citizen, urbestro = mayor, chief citizen.


Examples.—Imperio = an empire, imperiestro = an emperor,
imperiestrino = an empress. Regno = (the) State, regnestro = a
ruler, head of (the) State. Ŝipo = a ship, ŝipestro = a captain
of a merchant vessel, a skipper. Lernejo = a school, lernejestro
= a schoolmaster, head master (a teacher would be instruisto). From
polico = police, we get policano = a policeman (a member of the
police force), policisto = an officer of police (one who has made
the police his profession), policestro = chief of police.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Imperio = an empire, imperiestro = an emperor, imperiestrino = an empress. Regno = (the) State, regnestro = a ruler, head of (the) State. Ŝipo = a ship, ŝipestro = a captain of a merchant vessel, a skipper. Lernejo = a school, lernejestro = a schoolmaster, headmaster (a teacher would be instruisto). From polico = police, we get policano = a policeman (a member of the police force), policisto = a police officer (one who has made the police his profession), policestro = chief of police.


(g). Ĉefo = chief, head, is used as a prefix as an
equivalent of the English chief, main, head-, prime.
(g). Ĉefo = chief, head, is used as a prefix that means the same as the English chief, main, head-, prime.


Examples.—Episkopo = a bishop, ĉefepiskopo = archbishop.
Anĝelo = an angel, ĉefanĝelo = archangel.
Examples.—Episkopo = bishop, ĉefepiskopo = archbishop.  
Anĝelo = angel, ĉefanĝelo = archangel.


Compare -estro (the one in command over) with ĉef- (principal in
honour, in comparison with the others). Ĉefŝipo = principal
ship, ŝipestro = ship’s captain.
Compare -estro (the one in charge of) with ĉef- (primary in status, compared to the others). Ĉefŝipo = main ship, ŝipestro = ship's captain.


(h). -UL- denotes a person characterized by the idea contained in
the root, the root being used in an adjectival sense to express that
an individual is "rich," "poor," "just," "good," etc.
(h). -UL- indicates a person identified by the concept in the root, which is used as an adjective to show that someone is "wealthy," "broke," "fair," "kind," etc.


Examples.—Riĉa = rich, riĉulo = a rich man. Malriĉa = poor,
malriĉulo = a poor man, a pauper. Justa = just, justulo = a
just or righteous man. Bona = good, bonulo = a good man. Bela =
beautiful, belulino = a beauty, a beautiful woman. Paca =
peaceful, paculo = a man of peace. Juna = young, junulo = a
youth, junulino = a young woman. Avara = avaricious, avarulo = a
miser.
Understood. Please provide the text for modernization.—Riĉa = rich, riĉulo = a rich man. Malriĉa = poor, malriĉulo = a poor man, a pauper. Justa = just, justulo = a just or righteous man. Bona = good, bonulo = a good man. Bela = beautiful, belulino = a beauty, a beautiful woman. Paca = peaceful, paculo = a man of peace. Juna = young, junulo = a youth, junulino = a young woman. Avara = avaricious, avarulo = a miser.


(i). Primary words can be used also as roots when applicable.
(i). Primary words can also be used as roots when relevant.


Examples.—Tie = there, tieulo = an aborigine (a man of there).
Tiam = then, at that time, tiamulo = a contemporary (a man of
that time). Kun = with, kunulo = a companion (a person with you).
Modern examples.—Tie = there, tieulo = an aborigine (a man from there).  
Tiam = then, at that time, tiamulo = a contemporary (a person from that time). Kun = with, kunulo = a companion (a person with you).



(j). Since words like legi = to read, viziti = to visit,
etc., are not adjectival in character, we use with them (in
describing a person) by preference not -UL- but -IST- or a
participial termination.
(j). Since words like legi = to read, viziti = to visit, etc., are not adjectives, we prefer to use -IST- or a participial ending when describing a person instead of -UL-.


Examples.—Leganto = a reader (who is reading), leginto = a
reader (who has read), legonto = a reader (who is about to read),
legisto = a reader (by habitual occupation). But legemulo = a
person who is fond of reading.
Examples.—Leganto = someone who is reading, leginto = someone who has read, legonto = someone who is about to read, legisto = someone who reads as a regular activity. But legemulo = a person who loves reading.






273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. 22.)
273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


Aro = a collection, and ero = an item; therefore aro da
eroj might be termed "a collection of items."
Aro = a collection, and ero = an item; therefore aro da eroji could be called "a collection of items."


(a). -AR- denotes a reunion or a collection of the idea contained
in the root; a whole formed from a union of the parts.
(a). -AR- indicates a coming together or a gathering of the concept found in the root; a complete entity created from the combination of its components.


Examples.—Vorto = a word, vortaro = a collection of words, a
dictionary. Homo = a man, homaro = mankind. Arbo = a tree,
arbaro = a wood, arbareto = a small wood, clump of trees.
Arbeto = shrub, small tree, arbetaro = shrubbery, a grove.
Insulo = an island, insularo = an archipelago. Vagono = a
(railway) carriage, vagonaro = a train. Sekvanto = a follower,
sekvantaro = suite, cortège, retinue. Nomo = a name, nomaro =
list of names, a register. Ŝtupo = a step, ŝtuparo = a
staircase, ŝtupetaro = a ladder, succession of small steps.
Aristokrato = an aristocrat, aristokrataro = (the) aristocracy.
Aro = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we wish to specify the
animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:—Bruto = cattle,
brutaro = a herd of cattle. Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafaro = a flock
of sheep. Abelo = a bee, abelaro = a swarm of bees.
Examples.—Vorto = a word, vortaro = a collection of words, a dictionary. Homo = a man, homaro = humanity. Arbo = a tree, arbaro = a forest, arbareto = a small forest, a grove of trees. Arbeto = a shrub, small tree, arbetaro = shrubbery, a thicket. Insulo = an island, insularo = an archipelago. Vagono = a (railway) car, vagonaro = a train. Sekvanto = a follower, sekvantaro = a group of followers, a procession, retinue. Nomo = a name, nomaro = a list of names, a register. Ŝtupo = a step, ŝtuparo = a staircase, ŝtupetaro = a ladder, a series of small steps. Aristokrato = an aristocrat, aristokrataro = the aristocracy. Aro = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we want to specify the animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:—Bruto = cattle, brutaro = a herd of cattle. Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafaro = a flock of sheep. Abelo = a bee, abelaro = a swarm of bees.


(b). -ER- denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small
fragment, one of many similar parts which together form the whole.
(b). -ER- represents one of many objects of the same type, a small piece, one of many similar parts that come together to create the whole.


Examples.—Sablo = sand, sablero = a grain of sand. Hajlo =
hail, hajlero = a hailstone. Fajro = fire, fajrero = a spark.
Mono = money, monero = a coin. Polvo = dust, polvero = an
atom or speck of dust. Pulvo = gunpowder, pulvero = a grain of
gunpowder. Sukero = sugar, sukerero = a grain of sugar.
Examples.—Sablo = sand, sablero = a grain of sand. Hajlo = hail, hajlero = a hailstone. Fajro = fire, fajrero = a spark. Mono = money, monero = a coin. Polvo = dust, polvero = an atom or speck of dust. Pulvo = gunpowder, pulvero = a grain of gunpowder. Sukero = sugar, sukerero = a grain of sugar.







274. Suffixes -ĈJ- and -NJ-. (Ex. 23.)
274. Suffixes -ĉj- and -nj-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(a). -ĈJ- is an affectionate diminutive to the Christian name of
a man. It is placed after any letter of the name not later than the
fifth (occasionally, the sixth).
(a). -CJ- is a friendly short form of a man's Christian name. It's added after any letter of the name, but no later than the fifth (sometimes, the sixth).


Examples.—Vilhelmo = William, Vilhelĉjo = Willie, Vilheĉjo =
Will, Vilĉjo = Billy, Viĉjo = Bill. Petro = Peter, Peĉjo =
Pete. Johano = John, Johanĉjo = Johnnie, Joĉjo = Jack.
Nikolao = Nicholas, Nikolĉjo = Nickie, Nikoĉjo, Nikĉjo, or
Niĉjo = Nick. Ernesto = Ernest, Erneĉjo, Ernĉjo, or
Erĉjo = Ernie. Patro = father, patreto, paĉjo = papa.
Sure! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Vilhelmo = William, Vilhelĉjo = Willie, Vilheĉjo = Will, Vilĉjo = Billy, Viĉjo = Bill. Petro = Peter, Peĉjo = Pete. Johano = John, Johanĉjo = Johnnie, Joĉjo = Jack. Nikolao = Nicholas, Nikolĉjo = Nickie, Nikoĉjo, Nikĉjo, or Niĉjo = Nick. Ernesto = Ernest, Erneĉjo, Ernĉjo, or Erĉjo = Ernie. Patro = father, patreto, paĉjo = dad.


(b). -NJ- is a similar diminutive for a female Christian name.
(b). -NJ- is a similar short form for a female Christian name.


Examples.—Mario = Mary, Marinjo = Molly, Manjo = Polly.
Klaro = Clara, Klanjo = Clarrie. Sofio = Sophia, Sonjo =
Sophy. Patrineto, patrinjo, panjo = mamma, mammy, ma.
Examples.—Mario = Mary, Marinjo = Molly, Manjo = Polly. Klaro = Clara, Klanjo = Clarrie. Sofio = Sophia, Sonjo = Sophy. Patrineto, patrinjo, panjo = mom, mommy, ma.






275. Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. 24.)
275. Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(a). These three suffixes, when used as roots, form the words
ebla = possible; emo = propensity, tendency; indo =
worth, merit, value. As suffixes they are mostly used to form
adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = to
believe, will give an idea of their different shades of meaning.
Kredebla = credible, possible of belief, believable;
kredema = credulous, having a tendency to believe; kredinda =
worthy of belief.
(a). These three suffixes, when used as roots, create the words  
ebla = possible; emo = propensity, tendency; indo =  
worth, merit, value. As suffixes, they are mainly used to create  
adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = to  
believe, illustrate their different shades of meaning.  
Kredebla = credible, capable of being believed, believable;  
kredema = credulous, having a tendency to believe; kredinda =  
worthy of belief.


(b). -EBL- denotes possibility, or what is likely to happen,
similar to the English suffix -able, -ible.
(b). -EBL- signifies possibility, or what is likely to occur, similar to the English suffix -able, -ible.


Examples.—Pagi = to pay, pagebla = payable. Fleksi = to bend,
fleksebla = flexible. Rompi = to break, rompebla = breakable.
Fidi = to rely upon, fidebla = reliable. Kompreni = to
understand, komprenebla = comprehensible, kompreneble = of
course, comprehensibly.
Got it! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Pagi = to pay, pagebla = payable. Fleksi = to bend, fleksebla = flexible. Rompi = to break, rompebla = breakable. Fidi = to rely on, fidebla = reliable. Kompreni = to understand, komprenebla = comprehensible, kompreneble = of course, comprehensibly.



(c). Do not confuse -EBL- with -EM- or -IND- in words which
in English end in -able or -ible, but have two distinct meanings.
For instance, "readable" may mean either "able to be read" or "worth
reading." In Esperanto there is no such confusion, for legebla =
readable, legible, but leginda = readable, worth reading.
Hence we see that -EBL- must always denote possibility. It is
possible to love or to honour all persons, whether they merit this or
not; but when, in English, we talk of a lovable or honourable
individual, we imply not possibility, but worthiness; therefore, in
Esperanto, aminda = lovable, and honorinda = honourable.
-EBL- is sometimes used for the infinitive.
(c). Don’t mix up -EBL- with -EM- or -IND- in words that end in -able or -ible in English, as they have two different meanings. For example, "readable" can mean either "able to be read" or "worth reading." In Esperanto, there's no such confusion because legebla equals readable or legible, but leginda equals readable or worth reading. Thus, we see that -EBL- always indicates possibility. It’s possible to love or honor everyone, whether they deserve it or not; however, when we say someone is lovable or honorable in English, we imply worthiness, not just possibility. Therefore, in Esperanto, aminda means lovable, and honorinda means honorable. -EBL- is sometimes used for the infinitive.


Examples.—Tiuj ĉi vortoj ne estas troveblaj en la vortaro = These
words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. Tia amo
estas malfacile imagebla = It is difficult to imagine such love.
Understood. Please provide the text you would like modernized.—These words cannot be found in the dictionary = These words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. It is hard to picture such love = It is difficult to imagine such love.


(d). -EM- denotes propensity, tendency, inclination, disposition,
similar to the English suffix, -ful.
(d). -EM- indicates a propensity, tendency, inclination, or disposition, similar to the English suffix, -ful.


Examples.—Paco = peace, pacema = peaceful. Helpi = to help,
helpema = helpful, obliging. Trompi = to deceive, trompema =
deceitful, trompemo = duplicity. Servi = to serve, servema =
obliging, servemo = inclination to serve. Labori = to work,
laborema = laborious. Pura = clean, pure, purema = cleanly,
purigebla = cleanable. Babili = to chatter, babilema =
talkative, chattering. Koleri = to be angry, kolerema =
irascible, ekkolerema = quick-tempered. Dormi = to sleep,
dormema = disposed to sleep, sleepy, drowsy.
Examples.—Paco = peace, pacema = peaceful. Helpi = to help, helpema = helpful, accommodating. Trompi = to deceive, trompema = deceitful, trompemo = duplicity. Servi = to serve, servema = accommodating, servemo = inclination to serve. Labori = to work, laborema = hard-working. Pura = clean, pure, purema = cleanly, purigebla = able to be cleaned. Babili = to chatter, babilema = talkative, chattering. Koleri = to be angry, kolerema = irritable, ekkolerema = short-tempered. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = prone to sleep, sleepy, drowsy.


(e). Do not confuse -EM- with -IND- (or with -AM- (love) in
compound words). For instance:—
(e). Do not confuse -EM- with -IND- (or with -AM- (love) in compound words). For example:—


Envii = to envy, enviema = envious, inclined to envy, enviinda
= enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. Honti = to be ashamed,
hontema = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, hontemo = bashfulness,
hontinda = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. Dormi = to
sleep, dormema = drowsy, dormama = fond of sleep.
Envii = to envy, enviema = envious, inclined to envy, enviinda = enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. Honti = to be ashamed, hontema = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, hontemo = bashfulness, hontinda = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = drowsy, dormama = fond of sleep.



(f). -IND- denotes worthiness, worthy of.
(f). -IND- means worthy of.


Examples.—Inda = worthy, malinda = unworthy. Laŭdi = to
praise, laŭdinda = praiseworthy. Memori = to remember,
memorinda = memorable, worthy of being remembered. Estimi = to
esteem, estiminda = esteemable, or estimable. If we use "estimable"
in the sense of "able to be valued," we must form the word from
taksi = to estimate, to value, taksebla = estimable, appraisable.
Examples.—Inda = worthy, malinda = unworthy. Laŭdi = to praise, laŭdinda = praiseworthy. Memori = to remember, memorinda = memorable, worthy of being remembered. Estimi = to esteem, estiminda = esteemable, or estimable. If we use "estimable" in the sense of "able to be valued," we must form the word from taksi = to estimate, to value, taksebla = estimable, appraisable.






276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.)
276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.)


-EDZ- denotes a married person, and can scarcely be called a
suffix, although classed as such, since it is generally used as a
root.
-EDZ- indicates a married person and can hardly be considered a suffix, even though it's categorized that way, because it is usually used as a root.


Examples.—Edzo = a husband, a married man, edzino = a wife, a
married woman, edzeco = matrimony, a state of marriage, edziĝo =
a wedding, nuptials, edziĝa = nuptial, geedzoj = a married
couple, husband and wife.
Examples.—Edzo = a husband, a married man, edzino = a wife, a married woman, edzeco = marriage, the state of being married, edziĝo = a wedding, nuptials, edziĝa = nuptial, geedzoj = a married couple, husband and wife.


When reference is made to a woman, the feminine suffix -IN- is
added to verbs as well as nouns and adjectives.
When talking about a woman, the feminine suffix -IN- is added to verbs, nouns, and adjectives.


Examples.—Doktoredzino = a doctor’s wife; kudristinedzo = a
seamstress’s husband; laboristedzino = a labourer’s wife;
lavistinedzo = a washerwoman’s husband; tajloredzino = a tailor’s
wife; edzigi (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a
woman), edzinigi (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; edziĝi
(intrans.) = to get (to be) married (man), edziniĝi (intrans.) =
to get (to be) married (woman). Note the following sentences:—Li
edziĝis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun
alia sinjorino = He was married to (with) his cousin, although his
parents wished to marry him to (with) another lady. Ŝi edziniĝis
kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis edzinigi ŝin kun alia
sinjoro = She was married to her cousin, although her parents wished
to marry her to another gentleman.
Examples.—Doktoredzino = a doctor’s wife; kudristinedzo = a seamstress’s husband; laboristedzino = a laborer’s wife; lavistinedzo = a washerwoman’s husband; tajloredzino = a tailor’s wife; edzigi (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a woman), edzinigi (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; edziĝi (intrans.) = to get married (man), edziniĝi (intrans.) = to get married (woman). Note the following sentences:—Li edziĝis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun alia sinjorino = He married his cousin, although his parents wanted him to marry another woman. Ŝi edziniĝis kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis edzinigi ŝin kun alia sinjoro = She married her cousin, although her parents wanted her to marry another man.






277. Suffixes -EG- and -ET-. (Ex. 26.)
277. Suffixes -EG- and -ET-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(a). These two suffixes are opposites, -EG-
denoting augmentation, and -ET- diminution of degree. When
employed in adjectives, the adverb "very" is often loosely used to
denote the degree, as:—Grandega (very large),
malgrandega (very little), but a better translation
of these words is grandega = huge, enormous;
malgrandega = tiny (see remarks on degrees of intensity
of adjectives, par. 114). If we cannot find English adjectives as
equivalents of -EG- or -ET-, we should use not the adverb
"very," but a stronger term, as "excessively," "enormously," etc.
(a). These two suffixes are opposites, -EG- indicating increase, and -ET- decrease in degree. When used in adjectives, the adverb "very" is often loosely applied to indicate the degree, as in:—Grandega (very large), malgrandega (very little), but a better translation of these words is grandega = huge, enormous; malgrandega = tiny (see remarks on degrees of intensity of adjectives, par. 114). If we can't find English adjectives that correspond to -EG- or -ET-, we should not use the adverb "very," but instead a stronger term, like "excessively," "enormously," etc.



(b). In the case of nouns we must be careful to use the right words
to express the English meaning.
(b). When it comes to nouns, we need to be careful to use the right words to convey the English meaning.


Examples.—Montego = a huge mountain, granda monto = a big
mountain, monto = a mountain, malgranda monto = a small mountain,
monteto = a hill, altaĵo = an eminence, altaĵeto = a hillock.
Again:—Riverego = a huge river, larĝa rivero = a wide river,
rivero = a river, malgranda rivero = a small river, rivereto =
a brook, stream, malgranda rivereto = a streamlet.
Understood. Please provide the phrases you would like me to modernize.—Montego = a massive mountain, granda monto = a large mountain, monto = a mountain, malgranda monto = a small mountain, monteto = a hill, altaĵo = an elevation, altaĵeto = a hillock. Again:—Riverego = a massive river, larĝa rivero = a wide river, rivero = a river, malgranda rivero = a small river, rivereto = a brook, stream, malgranda rivereto = a streamlet.


(c). -EG- denotes augmentation, intensity of degree. Used as a
root, ega = intense, egeco = intensity.
(c). -EG- indicates increase, strength of degree. When used as a root, ega = intense, egeco = intensity.


(d). -ET- denotes diminution of degree. Equivalent to the English
suffixes -let in "streamlet," -ule in "globule," "pustule." Used
as a root, eta = little, tiny, etulo = a little one.
(d). -ET- indicates a reduction in size. It’s similar to the English suffixes -let in "streamlet," -ule in "globule," and "pustule." When used as a root, eta means little or tiny, while etulo means a little one.


Examples.—Pluvo = rain, pluvego = a downpour, pluveto = a
shower. Ridi = to laugh, ridegi = to guffaw, rideti = to smile.
Plori = to shed tears, ploregi = to weep bitterly, ploreti = to
whimper. Dormi = to sleep, dormegi = to sleep heavily, dormeti
= to doze, dormeto = a nap. Domo = a house, domego = a mansion,
dometo = a cottage. Ŝnuro = cord, ŝnurego = rope, cable,
ŝnureto = string, twine. Ami = to love, amegi = to idolize,
ameti = to have some liking for.
Examples.—Pluvo = rain, pluvego = a downpour, pluveto = a shower. Ridi = to laugh, ridegi = to guffaw, rideti = to smile. Plori = to shed tears, ploregi = to weep bitterly, ploreti = to whimper. Dormi = to sleep, dormegi = to sleep heavily, dormeti = to doze, dormeto = a nap. Domo = a house, domego = a mansion, dometo = a cottage. Ŝnuro = cord, ŝnurego = rope, cable, ŝnureto = string, twine. Ami = to love, amegi = to idolize, ameti = to like.


N.B.—From the above we see that -EG- and -ET- may generally be
translated by distinct words, and are not merely a substitute for
adverbs, which will often more accurately express the meaning than
the added suffix.
N.B.—From the above, we see that -EG- and -ET- can usually be translated with different words, and they aren't just a replacement for adverbs, which often convey the meaning more accurately than the additional suffix.







278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. 27.)
278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


These suffixes are akin, since they denote either a place or thing
from which the idea of the root is produced, or in which it is
contained.
These suffixes are similar, as they refer to either a place or thing from which the idea of the root originates, or in which it is contained.


(a). -EJ- denotes the place of, used for, or allotted to, the
idea contained in the root. As a root, ejo = a place, a
locality.
(a). -EJ- signifies the location of, used for, or assigned to, the concept found in the root. As a root, ejo = a place, a locality.


Examples.—Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafejo = a sheepfold, or a place
specially used for sheep. Preĝi = to pray, preĝejo = a church,
a place allotted to prayer. Fruktarbo = a fruit-tree, fruktarbejo
= an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. Kafo = coffee, kafejo
= a café. Vinbero = a grape, vinberejo = a vineyard. Armilo = a
weapon, armilejo = an armoury. Tombo = a tomb, grave, tombejo =
a cemetery. Manĝi = to eat, manĝejo = a refectory, manĝaĵo
= food, manĝaĵejo = a larder. Planti = to plant, plantejo =
nursery. Mallibera = captive, malliberejo = a prison. Bovino =
a cow, bovinejo = cowshed. Lerni = to learn, lernejo = a
school. Juĝi = to judge, juĝejo = a court of justice. Dormi =
to sleep, dormejo = a dormitory. Herbo = grass, herbejo = a
meadow, a field. Paperfari = to make paper, paperfarejo = a paper
manufactory.
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafejo = a sheep pen, or a place specifically used for sheep. Preĝi = to pray, preĝejo = a church, a place designated for prayer. Fruktarbo = a fruit tree, fruktarbejo = an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. Kafo = coffee, kafejo = a café. Vinbero = a grape, vinberejo = a vineyard. Armilo = a weapon, armilejo = an armory. Tombo = a tomb, grave, tombejo = a cemetery. Manĝi = to eat, manĝejo = a dining hall, manĝaĵo = food, manĝaĵejo = a pantry. Planti = to plant, plantejo = a nursery. Mallibera = captive, malliberejo = a prison. Bovino = a cow, bovinejo = a cowshed. Lerni = to learn, lernejo = a school. Juĝi = to judge, juĝejo = a court of law. Dormi = to sleep, dormejo = a dormitory. Herbo = grass, herbejo = a meadow, a field. Paperfari = to make paper, paperfarejo = a paper factory.


(b) -ING- denotes a thing for holding one object only. Used as
a root, ingo = a socket, a sheath, a holder.
(b) -ING- represents something that holds one object only. When used as a root, ingo means a socket, a sheath, a holder.


Examples.—Kandelo = a candle, kandelingo = a candlestick.
Plumo = a pen, plumingo = a penholder. Fingro = a finger,
fingringo = a thimble. Cigaredo = a cigarette, cigaredingo = a
cigarette mouthpiece. Glavo = a sword, glavingo = scabbard,
sheath (sword). Bajoneto = bayonet, bayonetingo = a scabbard
(bayonet).
Understood. Please provide the text you would like to be modernized.—Kandelo = a candle, kandelingo = a candlestick. Plumo = a pen, plumingo = a penholder. Fingro = a finger, fingringo = a thimble. Cigaredo = a cigarette, cigaredingo = a cigarette mouthpiece. Glavo = a sword, glavingo = scabbard, sheath (sword). Bajoneto = bayonet, bayonetingo = a scabbard (bayonet).


(c). -UJ- denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or
bears. Used as a root, ujo = a receptacle, a container. It has
a wide signification, for it can be used for:—
(c). -UJ- represents something that holds, creates, surrounds, or carries. As a root, ujo means a receptacle, a container. It has a broad meaning, as it can be used for:—


(1). The names of countries in cases where the root-word denotes
the inhabitant, as being the places which contain their various
races.
(1). The names of countries in instances where the root word indicates the inhabitants, as referring to the locations that include their different ethnic groups.



Examples.—Franco = a Frenchman, Francujo = France. Turko = a
Turk, Turkujo = Turkey. Anglo = an Englishman, Anglujo =
England. Germano = a German, Germanujo = Germany. Italo = an
Italian, Italujo = Italy. Brito = a Briton, Granda Britujo =
Great Britain. Hispano = a Spaniard, Hispanujo = Spain.
Examples.—Franco = a Frenchman, Francujo = France. Turko = a Turk, Turkujo = Turkey. Anglo = an Englishman, Anglujo = England. Germano = a German, Germanujo = Germany. Italo = an Italian, Italujo = Italy. Brito = a Briton, Granda Britujo = Great Britain. Hispano = a Spaniard, Hispanujo = Spain.


N.B.—Lando can be used instead of -ujo, if desired.
N.B.—Lando can be used instead of -ujo, if you want.


Where the root-word denotes not the inhabitant, but the country, uj
is of course not used, e.g., Aŭstralio, Nederlando, Usono. In
these cases the name of the inhabitant is formed by an from that of
the country, thus: aŭstraliano. See par. 272 (a).
Where the root word refers to the country and not the resident, uj is obviously not used, e.g., Aŭstralio, Nederlando, Usono. In these cases, the name for the resident is made by adding an to the name of the country, resulting in aŭstraliano. See par. 272 (a).


(2). The names of trees producing fruits.
The names of fruit trees.


Examples.—Pruno = a plum, prunujo = a plum-tree. Kaŝtano = a
chestnut, kaŝtanujo = a chestnut-tree. Piro = a pear, pirujo =
a pear-tree. Migdalo = an almond, migdalujo = an almond-tree.
Moruso = a mulberry, morusujo = a mulberry-tree. Ĉerizo = a
cherry, ĉerizujo = a cherry-tree.
Understood! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Pruno = a plum, prunujo = a plum tree. Kaŝtano = a chestnut, kaŝtanujo = a chestnut tree. Piro = a pear, pirujo = a pear tree. Migdalo = an almond, migdalujo = an almond tree. Moruso = a mulberry, morusujo = a mulberry tree. Ĉerizo = a cherry, ĉerizujo = a cherry tree.


Arbo can be used instead of ujo in such cases, and is preferable,
because clearer, thus: prunarbo, ĉerizarbo.
Arbo can be used instead of ujo in these situations, and is preferred because it’s clearer, for example: prunarbo, ĉerizarbo.


(3). The names of receptacles commonly used for certain articles.
(3). The names of containers typically used for specific items.


Examples.—Teo = tea, teujo = a tea-caddy or canister (a teapot
is a vessel in which tea is made, not kept, therefore tekruĉo = a
teapot, from kruĉo = a vessel for fluids). Mono = money,
monujo = a purse. Papero = paper, paperujo = a portfolio.
Sukero = sugar, sukerujo = a sugar-basin. Karto = a card,
kartujo = a card-case. Abelo = a bee, abelujo = a, beehive.
Mustardo = mustard, mustardujo = mustard-pot.
Examples.—Teo = tea, teujo = a tea canister or container (a teapot is used to brew tea, not store it, so tekruĉo = a teapot, from kruĉo = a container for liquids). Mono = money, monujo = a wallet. Papero = paper, paperujo = a portfolio. Sukero = sugar, sukerujo = a sugar bowl. Karto = a card, kartujo = a cardholder. Abelo = a bee, abelujo = a beehive. Mustardo = mustard, mustardujo = a mustard container.


(d). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in
the following examples:—
(d). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in the following examples:—


For instance, cigaro = a cigar, cigarejo = a cigar depot; but if
we wish to distinguish the kind of depôt, viz., store, shop, etc., we
add the word required. If it be a store, we add tenejo = a
storehouse, as:—Cigartenejo = a cigar storehouse or depôt. If a
shop, we add vendejo = a market, or place where things are sold,
as:—Cigarvendejo = a cigar shop, or we might say also
cigarbutiko. Cigaringo = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which
holds one cigar. Cigarujo = a cigar case or box, which contains
several cigars. Pomo = an apple, pomejo (or, pomarbejo) = an
apple orchard, pomujo, pomarbo = an apple-tree.
For example, cigaro = a cigar, cigarejo = a cigar store; but if we want to specify the type of store, like a shop or warehouse, we add the necessary word. If it’s a store, we add tenejo = a storehouse, as in:—Cigartenejo = a cigar storehouse or depot. If it’s a shop, we add vendejo = a market or place where things are sold, as in:—Cigarvendejo = a cigar shop, or we could also say cigarbutiko. Cigaringo = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which holds one cigar. Cigarujo = a cigar case or box, which contains several cigars. Pomo = an apple, pomejo (or, pomarbejo) = an apple orchard, pomujo, pomarbo = an apple tree.







279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. 25.)
279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


-ID- denotes the young of, offspring, descendant. Used as a root,
ido = offspring, descendant; idaro = issue, posterity.
-ID- refers to the young of, offspring, or descendant. Used as a root, ido = offspring, descendant; idaro = issue, posterity.


Examples.—Kato = a cat, katido = a kitten. Bovo = an ox, or a
general term for the animal, hence bovido = a calf; if we wished to
say a cow’s calf, we make bovo feminine, viz., bovino = a cow,
bovinido = a cow’s calf of either sex. A cow calf we should call
bovidino, and a bull calf, to determine it exactly, would be
virbovido, viz., a male calf. It is important that suffixes should
follow in their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. 46).
Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafido = a lamb. Cervo = a stag, cervido =
a fawn. Hundo = a dog, hundido = a puppy. Ĉevalo = a horse,
ĉevalido = a foal. Koko = a cock, kokido = a chicken,
kokideto = a chick, a tiny chicken. Birdo = a bird, birdido = a
fledgeling, a young bird. Izraelo = Israel, izraelido = an
Israelite. Napoleono = Napoleon, napoleonido = a descendant of
Napoleon. Reĝo = a king, reĝido = a prince, king’s son.
Examples.—Kato = a cat, katido = a kitten. Bovo = an ox, or a general term for the animal, so bovido = a calf; if we wanted to say a cow’s calf, we make bovo feminine, namely, bovino = a cow, bovinido = a cow’s calf of either sex. A female calf we would call bovidino, and a male calf, to specify, would be virbovido, meaning a male calf. It's important that suffixes should follow their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. 46). Ŝafo = a sheep, ŝafido = a lamb. Cervo = a stag, cervido = a fawn. Hundo = a dog, hundido = a puppy. Ĉevalo = a horse, ĉevalido = a foal. Koko = a rooster, kokido = a chicken, kokideto = a chick, a small chicken. Birdo = a bird, birdido = a fledgling, a young bird. Izraelo = Israel, izraelido = an Israelite. Napoleono = Napoleon, napoleonido = a descendant of Napoleon. Reĝo = a king, reĝido = a prince, king’s son.






280. Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ-. (Ex. 28.)
280. Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(a). These two are the most important and most widely used of all
the suffixes. They form an infinity of words, especially verbs. Used
as roots, (1). Igi = to make, to cause, as:—Igu ŝin veni al
nia dancado = Make her come to our dance. Li penis igi sian
amikon tuŝi la aferon = He tried to make his friend broach the
subject (touch upon the matter). (2). Iĝi = to become (to be
made, to get), as La vetero iĝas pli varma = The weather is
getting (becoming) warmer. Li baldaŭ iĝos maljunulo = He
will soon become an old man.
(a). These two are the most important and commonly used suffixes. They create countless words, especially verbs. Used as roots, (1). Igi = to make, to cause, as:—Igu ŝin veni al nia dancado = Make her come to our dance. Li penis igi sian amikon tuŝi la aferon = He tried to make his friend bring up the subject (touch upon the matter). (2). Iĝi = to become (to be made, to get), as La vetero iĝas pli varma = The weather is getting (becoming) warmer. Li baldaŭ iĝos maljunulo = He will soon become an old man.


(b). Used as suffixes:—
Used as suffixes:—


(1). -IG- denotes (like the English suffix -fy) to make, to cause
(to get), to render, as ruĝa = red, ruĝigi = to make red,
to redden, and from this verb is formed ruĝigo = the action of
reddening, ruĝiga = reddening (adj.).
(1). -IG- represents (similar to the English suffix -fy) the action of making or causing something to happen, as in ruĝa = red, ruĝigi = to make red, or to redden, and from this verb comes ruĝigo = the action of reddening, ruĝiga = reddening (adjective).



(2). -IĜ- denotes to become, to get (in the sense of to become).
Note the following difference in meaning of ruĝa with this suffix
and with -IG- in the preceding paragraph; ruĝiĝi = to become
or get red, to blush; ruĝiĝo = the action of getting red, a
blush; ruĝiĝa = blushing (adj.).
(2). -IĜ- means to become or to get (in the sense of becoming).  
Notice the difference in meaning of ruĝa with this suffix compared to -IG- in the previous paragraph; ruĝiĝi = to become or get red, to blush; ruĝiĝo = the action of getting red, a blush; ruĝiĝa = blushing (adj.).


(c). The above instances are words derived from an adjective, but
the suffixes can be applied to almost any part of speech, as the
following examples will show:—
(c). The above examples are words derived from an adjective, but the suffixes can be used with nearly any part of speech, as the following examples will demonstrate:—


(d). From adjectives.
From adjectives.


Examples.—Bona = good, bonigi = to make or render good,
boniĝi = to become good. Plibonigi = to make better, to improve,
pliboniĝi = to become better, to improve, plibonigo = the act of
making better, improvement (made), pliboniĝo = the state of
becoming better, improvement (experienced). Laca = tired, fatigued,
lacigi = to tire (active), laciĝi = to get tired, lacigo = the
act of tiring others, laciĝo = the state of growing tired. Preta
= ready, pretigi = to make ready, pretiĝi = to get (become)
ready. From all these verbs nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be
formed.
Examples.—Bona = good, bonigi = to make or render good, boniĝi = to become good. Plibonigi = to make better, to improve, pliboniĝi = to become better, to improve, plibonigo = the act of making better, improvement (made), pliboniĝo = the state of becoming better, improvement (experienced). Laca = tired, fatigued, lacigi = to tire (actively), laciĝi = to get tired, lacigo = the act of tiring others, laciĝo = the state of growing tired. Preta = ready, pretigi = to make ready, pretiĝi = to get (become) ready. From all these verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be formed.


(e). From nouns.
From nouns.


Examples.—Fianĉo = a fiancé (man), fianĉigi = to betroth, to
affiance, fianĉiĝi = to become betrothed, to be engaged,
fianĉiĝo = betrothal, engagement, fianĉiĝa = betrothing,
fianĉiĝe = by betrothal. These words speak of the betrothal of a
man, but in case of a woman we add the feminine suffix,
as:—fianĉino, fianĉinigi, fianĉiniĝi, fianĉinigo, etc.,
etc.
Got it! Please provide the short phrases you'd like me to modernize.—Fianĉo = a fiancé (man), fianĉigi = to betroth, fianĉiĝi = to become engaged, fianĉiĝo = engagement, fianĉiĝa = betrothing, fianĉiĝe = by betrothal. These words refer to the betrothal of a man, but for a woman, we add the feminine suffix, such as:—fianĉino, fianĉinigi, fianĉiniĝi, fianĉinigo, etc., etc.


(f). From verbs.
From verbs.


Examples.—Morti = to die, mortigi = to cause to die, to kill,
mortiĝi = to die out, to expire (become dead), mortigo = killing
(murder), mortiga = deadly, mortiganto = a murderer, mortige =
mortally. Sinmortigo = suicide, sinmortigi = to commit suicide.
Sidi = to be sitting, to sit, sidigi = to cause to sit, sidiĝi
= to sit down, to seat oneself, sidigo = the act of causing to sit,
seating, sidiĝo = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself,
as:—Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de
tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, ĉar la sidiĝo de eĉ unu
sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidiĝo de
hundo, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antaŭ ol sidiĝi = He conducted
the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but the seating of so
many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the sitting
down of even one lady needs some little time, although not so much as
the sitting down of a dog, which often continues turning itself round
many times before seating itself. Sciigi = to cause (someone) to
know, or, to make (something) known. Mi sciigis la homon pri la
novaĵo, or, Mi sciigis la novaĵon al la homo = I caused the man
to know (or, I informed the man, or, I made the news known to the
man). Sciiĝi = to become informed, to learn. Mi sciiĝis pri la
novaĵo = I learnt the news.
Examples.—Morti = to die, mortigi = to cause to die, to kill, mortiĝi = to die out, to expire (become dead), mortigo = killing (murder), mortiga = deadly, mortiganto = a murderer, mortige = mortally. Sinmortigo = suicide, sinmortigi = to commit suicide. Sidi = to be sitting, to sit, sidigi = to cause to sit, sidiĝi = to sit down, to seat oneself, sidigo = the act of causing to sit, seating, sidiĝo = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself, as:—Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, ĉar la sidiĝo de eĉ unu sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidiĝo de hundon, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antaŭ ol sidiĝi = He led the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but seating so many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the act of one lady sitting down takes a bit of time, although not as much as a dog, which often keeps turning around many times before sitting down. Sciigi = to cause (someone) to know, or, to make (something) known. Mi sciigis la homan pri la novaĵo, or, Mi sciigis la novaĵon al la homo = I made the man aware of the news (or, I informed the man, or, I shared the news with the man). Sciiĝi = to become informed, to learn. Mi sciiĝis pri la novaĵo = I learned the news.



(g). Verbs formed by -IGI are transitive (par. 161), but those by
-IĜI are intransitive, and therefore have no passive voice (par.
162); with verbs in -IĜI, therefore, we cannot use the passive
participles, -ATA, etc., but only the active forms -ANTA, etc.,
as:—Li estis fariĝinta (or, li fariĝis) maljunulo, antaŭ ol
mi lin konis = He had become an old man before I knew him.
(g). Verbs formed with -IGI are transitive (par. 161), while those formed with -IĜI are intransitive and therefore do not have a passive voice (par. 162); with verbs in -IĜI, we can't use the passive participles, -ATA, etc., but only the active forms -ANTA, etc., as in:—He had become an old man before I knew him (or, he became) before I met him.


(h). Intransitive verbs.—Some verbs, such as ĉesi = to
cease, daŭri = to continue, pasi = to pass, are neuter or
intransitive.
(h). Intransitive verbs.—Some verbs, like ĉesi = to cease, daŭri = to continue, pasi = to pass, are neuter or intransitive.


Examples.—La pluvo ĉesas fali (or, ĉesiĝas) = The rain ceases
to fall (or, comes to an end). La pafado daŭris kelkan tempon =
The shooting continued some time. La tempo pasas = Time passes.
Examples.—The rain stops falling (or, comes to an end) = The rain ceases to fall (or, comes to an end). The shooting went on for a while = The shooting continued some time. Time goes by = Time passes.


In English these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively,
but if we wish to give them a transitive signification in Esperanto
we must add the suffix -IGI.
In English, these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, but if we want to give them a transitive meaning in Esperanto, we need to add the suffix -IGI.


Examples.—Ĉesigu tion! vi surdigas min per via bruo! = Cease
that, you deafen me with your noise! Daŭrigu vian rakonton =
Continue your narrative. Pasigu al mi la karafon = Pass me the
decanter (see par. 237 (i)).
Sure, please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Stop that! You're deafening me with your noise! = Cease
that, you deafen me with your noise! Keep telling your story =
Continue your narrative. Pass me the decanter = Pass me the
decanter (see par. 237 (i)).


(i). Transitive verbs.—On the contrary,
fini = to finish, and komenci = to commence,
are transitive, and therefore do not require the addition of -IG
to make them transitive.
(i). Transitive verbs.—On the other hand, fini = to finish, and komenci = to begin, are transitive, so they don’t need -IG added to become transitive.



Examples.—Finu vian laboron = Finish your work. Ni komencis nian
vojaĝon je la dua horo = We commenced our journey at 2 o’clock.
Examples.—Finish your work = Finish your work. We started our journey at 2 o’clock = We commenced our journey at 2 o’clock.


But if we wish to give an intransitive sense to these verbs we may
use the suffix -IĜI.
But if we want to give an intransitive sense to these verbs, we can use the suffix -IĜI.


Examples.—Lia laboro finiĝas = His work finishes. La jaro
finiĝos post kelkaj tagoj = The year will end in a few days. La
vojaĝo komenciĝis je la tria horo = The journey commenced at 3
o’clock (see par. 237 (i)).
Examples.—Lia laboro finiĝas = His work ends. La jaro
finiĝos post kelkaj tagoj = The year will end in a few days. La
vojaĝo komenciĝis je la tria horo = The journey started at 3
o’clock (see par. 237 (i)).


(j). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.—Joined to
these, -IG- and -IĜ- serve to form numerous words.
(j). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.—Along with these, -IG- and -IĜ- help create many words.


Examples.—Unuigi = to unify, unuigo = union, unuiĝi = to
unite together, to be combined, unuiĝo = union (undergone).
Duobligi = to double, duobliĝi = to become double. Aligi al =
to attribute to, aliĝi = to join (oneself) to, to adhere, aliĝo
= adhesion. Eksigi = to dismiss, eksiĝi = to become ex-, to
resign (a position). Disigi = to separate, disiĝi = to separate
mutually, disigo = act of separating, disjunction, disiĝo =
disunion, schism. Kunigi = to connect, kuniĝi = to join
together, to coalesce, kunigo = connection, kuniĝo = junction.
Forigi = to do away with, foriĝi = to withdraw.
Examples.—Unuigi = to unify, unuigo = union, unuiĝi = to unite, to come together, unuiĝo = union (experienced). Duobligi = to double, duobliĝi = to become double. Aligi al = to attribute to, aliĝi = to join (oneself) to, to stick to, aliĝo = adhesion. Eksigi = to dismiss, eksiĝi = to become ex-, to resign (from a position). Disigi = to separate, disiĝi = to separate mutually, disigo = act of separating, disconnection, disiĝo = disunion, schism. Kunigi = to connect, kuniĝi = to join together, to merge, kunigo = connection, kuniĝo = junction. Forigi = to eliminate, foriĝi = to withdraw.






281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. 29.)
281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


-IL- denotes the tool, instrument, or means by which something is
done. As a root, ilo = a tool, an instrument, an implement, a
means of.
-IL- refers to the tool, instrument, or method used to accomplish something. As a root, ilo = a tool, an instrument, an implement, a method of.


Examples.—Kombi = to comb, kombilo = a comb. Razi = to shave,
razilo = a razor. Tranĉi = to cut, tranĉilo = a knive. Haki
= to hack, to chop, hakilo = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. Kudri
= to sew, kudrilo = a needle. Tondi = to shear, to clip,
tondilo = shears, scissors. Presi = to print, presilo = a
printing press. Fermenti = to ferment, fermentilo = yeast, leaven
(a means of fermenting). Batali = to fight, batalilo = a weapon.
Armi = to arm, armiloj = arms, armilejo = an arsenal (a place
for arms, see -EJ-, 278).
Understood. Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Kombi = to comb, kombilo = a comb. Razi = to shave, razilo = a razor. Tranĉi = to cut, tranĉilo = a knife. Haki = to hack, to chop, hakilo = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. Kudri = to sew, kudrilo = a needle. Tondi = to shear, to clip, tondilo = shears, scissors. Presi = to print, presilo = a printing press. Fermenti = to ferment, fermentilo = yeast, leaven (a means of fermenting). Batali = to fight, batalilo = a weapon. Armi = to arm, armiloj = arms, armilejo = an arsenal (a place for arms, see -EJ-, 278).







282. Suffix -IN-. (Ex. 25.)
282. Suffix -IN-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


-IN- denotes the feminine gender. As a root, ino = a female,
ina = female.
-IN- indicates the feminine gender. As a root, ino = a female, ina = female.


Examples.—Frato = a brother, fratino = a sister. Patro = a
father, patrino = a mother. Kuzo = a male cousin, kuzino = a
female cousin. Avo = grandfather, avino = grandmother. Nepo = a
grandson, nepino = a granddaughter. Onklo = an uncle, onklino =
an aunt. Nevo = a nephew, nevino = a niece. Patra = paternal,
patrina = maternal, patrineco = maternity. Frata = brotherly,
fraternal, fratina = sisterly. Ĉevalo = a horse, ĉevalino = a
mare, ĉevalido = a colt, ĉevalidino = a filly. Ŝafo = a
sheep, ŝafino = a ewe. Hundo = a dog, hundino = a bitch.
Bovo = an ox, bovino = a cow.
Got it! Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Frato = a brother, fratino = a sister. Patro = a father, patrino = a mother. Kuzo = a male cousin, kuzino = a female cousin. Avo = grandfather, avino = grandmother. Nepo = grandson, nepino = granddaughter. Onklo = uncle, onklino = aunt. Nevo = nephew, nevino = niece. Patra = paternal, patrina = maternal, patrineco = maternity. Frata = brotherly, fraternal, fratina = sisterly. Ĉevalo = horse, ĉevalino = mare, ĉevalido = colt, ĉevalidino = filly. Ŝafo = sheep, ŝafino = ewe. Hundo = dog, hundino = female dog. Bovo = ox, bovino = cow.






283. MOŜTO. (Ex. 23.)
283. MOŜTO. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(a). This is not a suffix, since it does not form part of a word.
It is a word used by itself or added after a title to denote respect.
Via moŝto is a higher expression of respect than sinjoro =
sir.
(a). This is not a suffix, since it does not form part of a word. It is a word used on its own or added after a title to show respect. Via moŝto is a more respectful expression than sinjoro = sir.


(b). No special rule has been laid down for the use of moŝto,
but the usual practice is to make the title an adjective and add
moŝto.
(b). There isn't a specific rule for using moŝto, but the common practice is to treat the title as an adjective and add moŝto.


(c). In speaking to persons bearing titles by birth or profession
it would be well to address them by their full title first, as shown
below, and afterwards use the expression via moŝto to represent
"Your Majesty," "Your Royal Highness," "Your Grace," "Your Lordship,"
"Your Ladyship," "Your Honour," "Your Worship," "Your Excellency,"
"Your Eminence," "Your Highness," etc. The suffix -IN is hardly
ever added.
(c). When speaking to people with titles by birth or profession, it’s a good idea to first address them by their full title, as shown below, and then use the term via moŝto to mean "Your Majesty," "Your Royal Highness," "Your Grace," "Your Lordship," "Your Ladyship," "Your Honour," "Your Worship," "Your Excellency," "Your Eminence," "Your Highness," and so on. The suffix -IN is rarely added.



Examples:—
Understood. Please provide the text for modernizing.


    

  • Emperor = Via imperiestra moŝto = Your Imperial Majesty.
    • 

  • King = Via reĝa moŝto = Your Majesty.
    • 

  • Queen = Via reĝina moŝto = Your Majesty.
    • 

  • Royal Family = Via reĝida moŝto = Your Royal Highness.
    • 

  • Prince = Via princa moŝto = Your Highness, or, Serene
Highness.
    • 

  • Duke = Via duka moŝto = Your Grace.
    • 

  • Duchess = Via dukina moŝto = Your Grace.
    • 

  • Archbishop = Via ĉefepiskopa moŝto = Your Grace.
    • 

  • Marquis = Via markiza moŝto = Your Lordship, My Lord.
    • 

  • Earl, Count = Via grafa moŝto = Your Lordship, My Lord.
    • 

  • Viscount = Via vicgrafa moŝto = Your Lordship, My Lord.
    • 

  • Lord, Baron (Judge) = Via barona moŝto = Your Lordship, My Lord.
    • 

  • Viceroy = Via vicreĝa moŝto = Your Excellency.
    • 

  • Governor = Via rega moŝto = Your Excellency.
    • 

  • Judge (not a Baron) = Via juĝista moŝto = Your Honour.
    • 

  • Mayor = Via urbestra moŝto = Your Worship.
    • 

  • General (Officer) = Via generala moŝto = General.


N.B.—No title beyond his rank is given to a General in England, like
"Monsieur le General" in France. We usually say "General," or "Sir,"
but moŝto might be used in Esperanto.
N.B.—No title beyond his rank is given to a General in England, like "Monsieur le General" in France. We usually say "General" or "Sir," but moŝto might be used in Esperanto.


(d). As regards addresses of letters, we can say:—
(d). When it comes to writing addresses on letters, we can say:—


    

  • Al Lia Duka Moŝto de ... or, Al Lia Duka Moŝto, la Duko de ...
= To His Grace the Duke of ...
    • 

  • Al Ŝia Grafina Moŝto de ... = To the Countess of ...
    • 

  • Al Lia Rega Moŝto de ... = To His Excellency the Governor of ...;
or if we mention him by name:—
    • 

  • Al Lia Moŝto, Sir Henry Smith La Reganto de ... = To His
Excellency, Sir Henry Smith, The Governor of ...






284. Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP-. (Ex. 18.) These three suffixes are
used with numerals, making them multiples, fractions, or collectives
(see pars. 119, 120, 121).
284. Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP-. (Ex. 18.) These three suffixes are used with numbers to create multiples, fractions, or collectives (see pars. 119, 120, 121).


(a). -OBL- added to a cardinal number denotes the number is a
multiple. It is equivalent to the English suffixes "-fold" or
"-uple."
(a). -OBL- added to a cardinal number indicates that the number is a multiple. It is equivalent to the English suffixes "-fold" or "-uple."



Examples.—Multoblo = a multiple, multobla = manifold. Unu =
one, unuobla = single, unuoble = singly. Du = two, duobla =
double, la duoblo = the double. Kvar = four, kvarobla =
fourfold, quadruple, la kvaroblo = the quadruple. Cent = hundred,
centoblo = a centuple. It is used in the multiplication table:—
Understood. Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.—Multoblo = a multiple, multobla = manifold. Unu = one, unuobla = single, unuoble = singly. Du = two, duobla = double, la duoblo = the double. Kvar = four, kvarobla = fourfold, quadruple, la kvaroblo = the quadruple. Cent = hundred, centoblo = a centuple. It is used in the multiplication table:—




kvaroble tri estas (or, faras) dek du4 times 3 = 12


kvinoble kvar estas dudek5 times 4 = 20


sesoble kvin estas tridek6 times 5 = 30


sepoble ses estas kvardek du7 times 6 = 42


okoble sep estas kvindek ses8 times 7 = 56


naŭoble ok estas sepdek du9 times 8 = 72


dekoble naŭ estas naŭdek10 times 9 = 90


dek-unuoble dek estas cent dek11 times 10 = 110


dek-duoble dek unu estas cent tridek du12 times 11 = 132




(b). -ON- added to a cardinal number denotes a fraction. As a
root, ona = fractional.
(b). -ON- added to a cardinal number indicates a fraction. As a root, ona = fractional.


Examples.—Du = two, duona = half, duone = by halves, duono =
a half (1⁄2). Tri = three, triona = third, triono = a third
(1⁄3). Kvar = four, kvarona = quarter, kvarono = a fourth
(1⁄4). Dek = ten, dekona = tenth, dekono = a tenth (1⁄10), tri
dekonoj = 3⁄10ths. Dek du = twelve, dek-duona = twelfth,
dek-duono = a twelfth (1⁄12), kvin dek-duonoj = 5⁄12ths. Sesdek
kvin centonoj = sixty-five hundredths (65⁄100). La kvinona parto
(la kvinono) de cent estas la triona parto (la triono) de sesdek, tio
estas dudek = The 5th part of 100 is the 3rd part of 60, that is 20.
Examples.—Du = two, duona = half, duone = by halves, duono = a half (1⁄2). Tri = three, triona = third, triono = a third (1⁄3). Kvar = four, kvarona = quarter, kvarono = a fourth (1⁄4). Dek = ten, dekona = tenth, dekono = a tenth (1⁄10), tri dekonoj = 3⁄10ths. Dek du = twelve, dek-duona = twelfth, dek-duono = a twelfth (1⁄12), kvin dek-duonoj = 5⁄12ths. Sesdek kvin centonoj = sixty-five hundredths (65⁄100). La kvinona parto (la kvinono) de cent estas la triona parto (la triono) de sesdek, tio estas dudek = The 5th part of 100 is the 3rd part of 60, which is 20.


(c). -OP- added to a cardinal number denotes that the number must
be taken in a collective sense. As a root, opa = collective.
(c). -OP added to a cardinal number means that the number should be understood in a collective way. As a root, opa = collective.


Examples.—Du = two, duope = two together, in twos. Tri =
three, triope = in threes, in triplets. Dek = ten, dekope = in
tens. Dudek = twenty, dudekope = in twenties, by scores. Cent =
hundred, centope = in hundreds. Mil = thousand, milope = in
thousands. Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min = Five together (five at
a time) they threw themselves upon me. La soldatoj marŝis kvarope
= The soldiers were marching in fours.
Examples.—Du = two, duope = two together, in twos. Tri = three, triope = in threes, in triplets. Dek = ten, dekope = in tens. Dudek = twenty, dudekope = in twenties, by scores. Cent = hundred, centope = in hundreds. Mil = thousand, milope = in thousands. Kvinope ili sin ĵetis sur min = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me. La soldatoj marŝis kvarope = The soldiers were marching in fours.






285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. 30.)
285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


-UM- has no special meaning. Its different meanings are easily
suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it
is joined. There are but few words in which it is used, and these should
be learnt as simple words.
-UM- has no special meaning. Its various meanings are easily indicated by the context and the meaning of the root it's attached to. There are only a few words that use it, and these should be learned as basic words.



The following embrace nearly all:—
The following covers almost everything:—


  • *Aerumi = to air, aerate. Aero = air.
    • 

  • *Amindumi = to court, woo. Amo = love.
    • 

  • Brulumo = a swelling, inflammation. Bruli = to burn.
    • 

  • *Buŝumo = a muzzle (for a dog), a nose-band. Buŝumi = to
muzzle, to gag. Buŝo = mouth.
    • 

  • *Butonumi = to button. Butonumilo = a buttonhook. Butono = a
button.
    • 

  • Cerbumi = to rack one’s brains. Cerbo = a brain.
    • 

  • *Gustumi = to taste (something). Gustumado = tasting, the sense
of tasting. Gusto = taste.
    • 

  • Kalkanumo = a heel of a boot, etc. Kalkano = heel (of the foot).
    • 

  • *Kolumo = a shirt collar. Kolo = neck.
    • 

  • Kolombumi = to spoon, bill and coo. Kolombo = a dove.
    • 

  • *Komunumo = a commune, a community. Komuna = common.
    • 

  • *Krucumi = to crucify. Kruco = a cross.
    • 

  • *Laktumo = milt, melt, soft roe. Lakto = milk.
    • 

  • Lekumi = to lap. Leki = lick.
    • 

  • *Lotumi = to allot. Loti = to draw lots.
    • 

  • *Malvarmumo = a cold, chill. Malvarmumi = to catch cold.
Malvarma = cold.
    • 

  • *Manumo = a cuff, a wristband. Mano = hand.
    • 

  • *Mastrumi = to manage (the household), keep house. Mastrumado =
household management. Mastro = master.
    • 

  • *Nazumo = a pince-nez. Nazo = nose.
    • 

  • Okulumi = to make eyes at. Okulo = an eye.
    • 

  • *Palpebrumi = to wink, blink. Palpebro = an eyelid.
    • 

  • Partumo = a fraction (mathematics). Parto = a part, a share.
    • 

  • *Plenumi = to fulfil, accomplish. Plenumiĝi = to be
accomplished, fulfilled. Plena = full, complete.
    • 

  • Proksimuma, proksimume = approximately. Proksima near.
    • 

  • Sapumi = to soap, lather. Sapo = soap.
    • 

  • *Ventumi = to ventilate, to use a fan. Ventumilo = a fan. Vento
= wind.


N.B.—The 17 words marked * are given in Dr. Zamenhof’s "Fundamento
de Esperanto."
N.B.—The 17 words marked * are listed in Dr. Zamenhof’s "Fundamento de Esperanto."







286. Prefixes BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA-. (Ex. 25.)
286. Prefixes BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


These four prefixes all denote relationship in a greater or less
degree.
These four prefixes all indicate a relationship to varying degrees.


(a). BO- denotes relationship by marriage, and is equivalent to
the English suffix -in-law, as patro = father, bopatro =
father-in-law.
(a). BO indicates a relationship by marriage and is the same as the English suffix -in-law, for example, patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law.


(b). DUON- also denotes relationship by marriage, and is also a
prefix in such words as duonpago = half-pay, duonjara =
half-yearly, etc. As a root, duono = a half, so properly it
should signify only half-blood relationship. As, however, there are
few relationships of this nature, it is used also for step
relationship, as:—Duonfrato = stepbrother or half-brother.
(b). DUON also refers to a relationship by marriage, and serves as a prefix in words like duonpago = half-pay, duonjara = half-yearly, etc. As a root, duono = a half, so it technically signifies only half-blood relationships. However, since there aren’t many relationships of that kind, it’s also used for step relationships, such as:—Duonfrato = stepbrother or half-brother.


(c). GE- denotes both sexes taken together. The words are always
in the plural, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never added.
(c). GE - refers to both genders combined. The terms are always in the plural form, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never included.


Examples.—Edzo = a husband, geedzoj = husband and wife, a
married couple. Sinjoro = Sir, Mr., gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs.,
or, ladies and gentlemen. Patro = father, gepatroj = father and
mother, parents. Mastro = a master (of a household), gemastroj =
master and mistress. Frato = brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and
sister(s).
Got it! Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.—Edzo = a husband, geedzoj = husband and wife, a married couple. Sinjoro = Sir, Mr., gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., or, ladies and gentlemen. Patro = father, gepatroj = father and mother, parents. Mastro = a master (of a household), gemastroj = master and mistress. Frato = brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s).


(d). PRA- denotes great distance of time, past or future. As
regards relationship, it is the equivalent of the English prefixes
"fore-," "great," or "grand." As a root, praa = primeval.
(d). PRA refers to a significant period of time, whether in the past or the future. In terms of relationship, it is similar to the English prefixes "fore-," "great," or "grand." As a root, praa means primeval.


Examples.—Pratempo = primitive time. Praarbarego = primeval
forest. Prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. Praonklo = grand, or
great, uncle. Praavino = great-grandmother.
Examples.—Pratempo = early time. Praarbarego = ancient forest. Prapatroj = forebears, ancestors. Praonklo = granduncle. Praavino = great-grandmother.


(e). The following are examples of these four prefixes:—
(e). Here are examples of these four prefixes:—


Patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law, duonpatro =
stepfather, gepatroj = father and mother, parents.
Patro = dad, bopatro = father-in-law, duonpatro = stepdad, gepatroj = parents.



Patrino = mother, bopatrino = mother-in-law, duonpatrino =
stepmother.
Patrino = mom, bopatrino = mother-in-law, duonpatrino = stepmom.


Avo = grandfather, boavo = grandfather-in-law, duonavo =
stepgrandfather, geavoj = grandparents, prageavoj =
great-grandparents.
Avo = grandpa, boavo = step-grandpa, duonavo = step-grandfather, geavoj = grandparents, prageavoj = great-grandparents.


Filo = son, bofilo = son-in-law, duonfilo = stepson.
Filo = son, bofilo = son-in-law, duonfilo = step-son.


Filino = daughter, bofilino = daughter-in-law, duonfilino =
stepdaughter.
Filino = daughter, bofilino = daughter-in-law, duonfilino = stepdaughter.


Nepo = grandson, pranepo = great-grandson, genepoj =
grandson(s) and granddaughter(s), grandchildren.
Nepo = grandson, pranepo = great-grandson, genepoj = grandchildren (grandsons and granddaughters).


Nepino = granddaughter, pranepino = great-granddaughter.
Nepino = granddaughter, pranepino = great-granddaughter.


Frato = brother, bofrato = brother-in-law, duonfrato = step, or
half, brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s), bogefratoj =
brother(s) and sister(s)-in-law.
Frato = brother, bofrato = brother-in-law, duonfrato = stepbrother or half-brother, gefratoj = siblings, bogefratoj = siblings-in-law.


Fratino = sister, bofratino = sister in law, duonfratino =
step, or half, sister.
Fratino = sister, bofratino = sister-in-law, duonfratino = step-sister or half-sister.


Onklo = uncle, praonklo = grand, or great, uncle, geonkloj =
uncle(s) and aunt(s).
Onklo = uncle, praonklo = grand or great uncle, geonkloj = uncle(s) and aunt(s).


Onklino = aunt, praonklino = grand, or great, aunt.
Onklino = aunt, praonklino = grand aunt or great aunt.


Nevo = nephew, pranevo = grandnephew, genevoj = nephew(s) and
niece(s).
Nevo = nephew, pranevo = grandnephew, genevoj = nephew(s) and niece(s).


Nevino = niece, pranevino = grandniece.
Nevino = niece, pranevino = grandniece.


Infano = child, duoninfano = stepchild.
Infano = child, duoninfano = stepchild.






287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. 31.)
287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


These three prefixes give the idea of separation or change of
position.
These three prefixes suggest the concept of separation or a change in position.


(a). DE- as a preposition = from, of. As a prefix it marks the
point of departure, or movement from one place or position to
another.
(a). DE - as a preposition = from, of. As a prefix, it indicates the starting point or movement from one location or position to another.


(b). DIS- denotes a separation, in the sense of a rupture, or
breaking up into parts, or in several different directions.
(b). DIS- indicates a separation, meaning a rupture, or breaking apart into pieces, or in various different directions.


(c). FOR- as an adverb = away. As a prefix it denotes distance
from something.
(c). FOR- as an adverb = away. As a prefix, it indicates distance from something.


(d). Thus, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground
= deflugi; or fly in different directions, viz., disperse =
disflugi; or fly away altogether from the tree = forflugi.
(d). So, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground = deflugi; or fly in different directions, that is, disperse = disflugi; or fly away completely from the tree = forflugi.



(e) The following examples will give a good idea of the meanings of
these prefixes:—
(e) The following examples will give a clear idea of what these prefixes mean:—




Ŝiri = to tear,deŝiri = to tear from, to pluck.


disŝiri = to tear to pieces, to lacerate.


forŝiri = to tear away from.


Iri = to go,deiri = to go from (a place).


disiri = to go in different directions, to separate.


foriri = to go away, to depart.


Ĵeti =to throw,deĵeti = to throw down, to overthrow.


disĵeti = to throw about, to demolish, scatter.


forĵeti = to throw away, to discard.


Meti = to put,demeti = to put down, take off, doff.


dismeti = to disperse, to distribute.


formeti = to put away, to omit.


Porti = to carry,deporti = to carry from, to deport.


disporti = to carry here and there.


forporti = to carry away.








288. Prefix EK-. (Exs. 19, 32.)
288. Prefix EK-. (Exs. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__.)


EK- denotes an action just begun, of short duration, sudden,
momentary.
EK refers to an action that has just started, is brief, sudden, and fleeting.


Examples.—Kanti = to sing, ekkanti = to begin to sing, or to
start singing. Ridi = to laugh, ekridi = to burst out laughing.
Krii = to cry, ekkrii = to exclaim, to cry out. Lerni = to
learn, eklerni = to begin to learn. Iri = to go, ekiri = to
start, to set out. Plori = to shed tears, ekplori = to burst out
crying. Kapti = to catch, ekkapti = to seize. Dormi = to sleep,
ekdormi = to fall asleep. Vidi = to see, ekvidi = to perceive.
Tremi = to tremble, ektremi = to start (with fear, etc.).
Examples.—Kanti = to sing, ekkanti = to start singing. Ridi = to laugh, ekridi = to burst out laughing. Krii = to cry, ekkrii = to exclaim, to cry out. Lerni = to learn, eklerni = to start learning. Iri = to go, ekiri = to set out. Plori = to shed tears, ekplori = to burst into tears. Kapti = to catch, ekkapti = to seize. Dormi = to sleep, ekdormi = to fall asleep. Vidi = to see, ekvidi = to perceive. Tremi = to tremble, ektremi = to jump (from fear, etc.).


EK- is useful in such expressions as "begin to," "come to,"
frequently used in English before a verb, as:—Kiam mi ekpripensas
= When I begin to (or, come to) reflect. Kiam mi ekpensas pri
ĝi = When I come to think of it.
EK is helpful in phrases like "begin to" or "come to," often used in English before a verb, such as:—When I begin to (or, come to) reflect. When I come to think of it = When I think about it.






289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. 33.)
289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(a). These three prefixes give an opposite or negative meaning to
the words before which they are placed, the nature of which varies
with the prefix used.
(a). These three prefixes add an opposite or negative meaning to the words they precede, and the specifics depend on which prefix is used.



(b). MAL- is used as a root in the adjective mala = contrary,
and the adverb male = on the contrary, conversely. As a prefix it
signifies that the word has a meaning exactly the contrary to that
which it had before MAL- was prefixed. It is never used to give the
meaning of badness, unless because it is prefixed to some word
signifying goodness. For instance, timulo = a coward has a bad
signification, but its opposite maltimulo = a bold man has no
such meaning. Bona = good, malbona = bad, simply because
"bad" is the opposite of "good."
(b). MAL is used as a root in the adjective mala = contrary, and the adverb male = on the contrary, conversely. As a prefix, it means that the word has a meaning that is the exact opposite of what it was before MAL was added. It's never used to imply badness, unless it precedes a word that means goodness. For example, timulo = a coward has a negative connotation, but its opposite maltimulo = a bold man does not carry that meaning. Bona = good, malbona = bad, simply because "bad" is the opposite of "good."


(c). NE is a primary adverb, meaning "no," "not," and is often
used as a prefix to give a negative signification to a word,
as:—Plena = complete, full, neplena = incomplete, not full.
Ne estas certe = it is not certain has the same signification as
estas necerte = it is uncertain. Used as a root, it forms nei =
to deny, nea = negative, etc.
(c). NE is a primary adverb that means "no" or "not," and it's commonly used as a prefix to create a negative meaning for a word, for example: Plena = complete, full, neplena = incomplete, not full. Ne estas certe = it is not certain has the same meaning as estas necerte = it is uncertain. When used as a root, it forms nei = to deny, nea = negative, etc.


(d). SEN is a preposition meaning "without," and as a prefix it
has the same signification; as ĉesi = to cease, senĉesa =
without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless; senco = meaning, sense,
sensenca = without meaning, senseless; senkapigi = to
decapitate. Used as a root, it forms senigi je = to deprive of,
seneco = want, etc.
(d). SEN is a preposition that means "without," and as a prefix, it has the same meaning; for example, ĉesi = to cease, senĉesa = without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless; senco = meaning, sense, sensenca = without meaning, senseless; senkapigi = to decapitate. As a root, it forms senigi je = to deprive of, seneco = want, etc.


(e). The student may at first wonder which of these three prefixes
to use in a given case. He should bear in mind that MAL- denotes
the exact opposite of the root, and therefore it may be much stronger
in signification than the mere negative ne = not, or the
privative sen = without. For instance, plena = complete,
full, but neplena = incomplete, not full. Now the opposite to
"complete" or "full" is not "incomplete" or "not full," but something
stronger, viz., "void" or "empty," therefore malplena = empty,
void, vacuous. Again, from riĉa = rich, we form the opposite,
malriĉa = poor, which is clearly a worse state than neriĉa =
not rich, or senriĉa, which, in its literal sense, means
"without wealth or riches." A man not rich might be well off, a man
without riches might have enough to live upon. Fermita = shut,
closed; the opposite is malfermita = opened, open. Applied to a
window it would mean the window was wide open, but if it were only
ajar it would be better to say nefermita = not closed.
(e). The student might initially be unsure which of these three prefixes to use in a specific situation. He should remember that MAL- indicates the complete opposite of the root and can therefore be significantly stronger in meaning than the simple negative ne = not, or the privative sen = without. For example, plena = complete, full, but neplena = incomplete, not full. However, the opposite of "complete" or "full" isn’t "incomplete" or "not full," but something more extreme, like "void" or "empty," so malplena = empty, void, vacuous. Similarly, from riĉa = rich, we create the opposite, malriĉa = poor, which clearly describes a worse condition than neriĉa = not rich, or senriĉa, which literally means "without wealth or riches." A person who is not rich might be comfortable, while a person without riches might have enough to get by. Fermita = shut, closed; the opposite is malfermita = opened, open. If applied to a window, it would mean the window is fully open, but if it were just slightly open, it would be better to say nefermita = not closed.


(f) In using MAL- we must consider the strength of the word to
which we are giving an opposite meaning, and not oppose a word like
"destitute" to "rich," for "destitute" is the opposite to "rolling in
wealth," the adjective for which would be "riĉega," therefore
malriĉega = destitute. So bela = beautiful, belega =
splendid, magnificent; therefore their opposites are malbela =
ugly, malbelega = hideous.
(f) When using MAL, we need to think about the strength of the word we’re giving an opposite meaning to, and we shouldn't compare a word like "destitute" to "rich," since "destitute" is more accurately the opposite of "rolling in wealth," the adjective for which would be "riĉega," so malriĉega = destitute. Similarly, bela = beautiful, belega = splendid, magnificent; hence their opposites are malbela = ugly, malbelega = hideous.


(g). Generally speaking, it will be right (1), to use MAL- if we
wish to give a stronger idea than NE or SEN would infer; (2), to
use NE in cases where a simple negative will give the meaning; (3),
to use SEN if "without" is more applicable than "not,"
as:—Senmova = without motion, stationary, but nemovebla =
not movable, immovable. It will generally be right to employ SEN
to represent the English suffix -less, as:—Sendanka =
thankless, senmona = penniless, senhara = hairless, bald,
senutila = useless. The opposite to "useful" is something
stronger than "useless," therefore malutila = detrimental,
prejudicial.
(g). Generally speaking, it will be correct (1) to use MAL if we want to convey a stronger idea than NE or SEN would suggest; (2) to use NE in situations where a simple negative effectively conveys the meaning; (3) to use SEN if "without" is more suitable than "not," as:—Senmova = without motion, stationary, but nemovebla = not movable, immovable. It is generally appropriate to use SEN to represent the English suffix -less, as:—Sendanka = thankless, senmona = penniless, senhara = hairless, bald, senutila = useless. The opposite of "useful" is something stronger than "useless," therefore malutila = detrimental, prejudicial.


(h). The following examples will give an idea of the use of these
three prefixes:—
(h). The examples below will illustrate how to use these three prefixes:—



Venko = victory, malvenko = defeat. Videbla = visible,
nevidebla = invisible. Ŝanĝebla = changeable (in the sense
"able to be changed"), neŝanĝebla = unchangeable. Ofta =
frequent, neofta = infrequent, malofta = scarce, rare. Simple =
simple, malsimpla = intricate, complex. Permesi = to permit,
malpermesi = to forbid. Helpi = to help, malhelpi = to hinder,
nehelpi = to give no assistance. Sobreco = sobriety, malsobreco
= intemperance, drunkenness. Saĝeco = wisdom, malsaĝeco =
foolishness. Modesta = modest, nemodesta = officious,
malmodesta = conceited. Justa = just, maljusta = unjust. Pura
= clean, nepura = soiled, malpura = dirty. Pia = pious,
malpia = impious. Agrabla = agreeable, neagrabla = unpleasant,
malagrabla = disagreeable, nasty. Glata = smooth, malglata =
rough. Atento = attention, malatento = negligence. Respekto =
respect, nerespekto = non-respect, malrespekto = violation.
Brua = noisy, senbrua = noiseless.
Venko = victory, malvenko = defeat. Videbla = visible, nevidebla = invisible. Ŝanĝebla = changeable (meaning "able to be changed"), neŝanĝebla = unchangeable. Ofta = frequent, neofta = infrequent, malofta = rare. Simple = simple, malsimpla = complex. Permesi = to allow, malpermesi = to forbid. Helpi = to assist, malhelpi = to block, nehelpi = to offer no help. Sobreco = sobriety, malsobreco = drunkenness. Saĝeco = wisdom, malsaĝeco = foolishness. Modesta = modest, nemodesta = pushy, malmodesta = conceited. Justa = just, maljusta = unjust. Pura = clean, nepura = soiled, malpura = dirty. Pia = pious, malpia = impious. Agrabla = pleasant, neagrabla = unpleasant, malagrabla = disagreeable. Glata = smooth, malglata = rough. Atento = attention, malatento = negligence. Respekto = respect, nerespekto = disrespect, malrespekto = violation. Brua = noisy, senbrua = quiet.






290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. 32.)
290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(a). RE-, like the English prefix re-, means "back" or "again."
It denotes (1) the repetition of an action, or (2) the return of some
person or thing to the person, place, or state with whom, or in
which, such person or thing originally was. As a root, ree =
again, in return.
(a). RE-, similar to the English prefix re-, means "back" or "again." It indicates (1) repeating an action, or (2) the return of someone or something to the person, place, or state where it originally was. As a root, ree = again, in return.


(b) (1). Repetition.
Repetition.


Examples.—Refari = to make afresh, to remake; rediri = to say
again, to repeat (ripeti is, however, more frequently used for
"repeat"); rekanti = to sing again; rejuniĝi = to grow young
again; renaskiĝo = rebirth, regeneration; repagi = to repay, to
reimburse; reenmeti = to put in again, to reinstate; rekunigi =
to reunite; rebruligi = to rekindle; reformi = to reform, to
remodel; reprodukti = to reproduce.
Examples.—Refari = to make fresh, to remake; rediri = to say again, to repeat (ripeti is, however, used more often for "repeat"); rekanti = to sing again; rejuniĝi = to become young again; renaskiĝo = rebirth, regeneration; repagi = to repay, to reimburse; reenmeti = to put in again, to reinstate; rekunigi = to reunite; rebruligi = to rekindle; reformi = to reform, to remodel; reprodukti = to reproduce.


(2). Return, etc.
(2). Return, etc.


Examples.—Redoni = to give back, to restore; repreni = to take
back; reĵeti = to throw back; resalti = to rebound; rebrili =
to shine back, to reflect; reveni = to come back, to return;
reporti = to carry back, to carry to the original place.
Examples.—Redoni = to give back, to restore; repreni = to take back; reĵeti = to throw back; resalti = to rebound; rebrili = to shine back, to reflect; reveni = to come back, to return; reporti = to carry back, to bring to the original place.



N.B.—In addition to the 12 prefixes given in pars. 286–290, nearly
all the prepositions are in common use as prefixes. Examples of these
will be found in par. 259. When prefixed to a verb, the preposition
is frequently repeated before the indirect complement (see par. 254).
N.B.—Along with the 12 prefixes mentioned in pars. 286–290, almost all prepositions are commonly used as prefixes. You'll find examples of these in par. 259. When a preposition is added to a verb, it is often repeated before the indirect complement (see par. 254).






291. Prefixes SIN- and MEM-.
291. Prefixes SIN- and MEM-.


SIN- and MEM- are used as prefixes to translate the English
-self. If the idea is reflexive, it is better to use sin-,
otherwise mem-. Singardo = caution; sinmortigo = suicide;
sinteno = attitude; memstara = independent; memvola =
voluntary.
SIN- and MEM- are used as prefixes to translate the English -self. If the idea is reflexive, it's better to use sin-; otherwise, use mem-. Singardo = caution; sinmortigo = suicide; sinteno = attitude; memstara = independent; memvola = voluntary.






292. Prefix VIC-.
292. Prefix VIC-.


The prefix VIC- denotes the English vice-; vicprezidanto = a
vice-president; vicadmiralo = a vice-admiral.
The prefix VIC- indicates the English vice-; vicprezidanto = a vice-president; vicadmiralo = a vice-admiral.






293. Suffix -ISM-.
293. Suffix -ISM-.


The suffix -ISM- was officialized in 1914 with the rather wide
meaning given it by international usage in most European languages:
system, doctrine, school of thought, theory, party.
The suffix -ISM- was officially recognized in 1914 with a broad meaning that was established by international use in many European languages: system, doctrine, school of thought, theory, party.


Thus: absolutismo = absolutism. Similarly, we have agnostik-,
alkohol-, braman-, despot-, epikur-, Esperant-, fatal-,
fetiĉ-, homaran-, katolik-, kvaker-, komun-, ideal-,
liberal-, mistik-, presbiter-, protestant-, puritan-,
radikal-, real-, respublik-, vegetar-ismo.
Thus: absolutismo = absolutism. Similarly, we have agnostic-,
alcohol-, brahman-, despot-, epicurean-, Esperanto-, fatalistic-,
fetish-, humanitarian-, catholic-, quaker-, communist-, idealistic-,
liberal-, mystic-, presbyterian-, protestant-, puritan-,
radical-, realistic-, republican-, vegetarianism.


It does not follow that if from any Esperanto word ending in -ism
this syllable is subtracted, the remainder is an Esperanto root.
Thus, -ism is not a suffix in the roots atavism, feminism,
optimism, pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, any more
than ist, in, il, ul, an, are suffixes in the roots
optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin; bacil, asimil;
okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. 52 (b).
It doesn't mean that if you take the -ism ending off any Esperanto word, the rest will be an Esperanto root. So, -ism isn't a suffix in the words atavism, feminism, optimism, pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, just like ist, in, il, ul, an aren't suffixes in the words optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin; bacil, asimil; okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. 52 (b).





PART III


EXERCISES


EXERCISE 1.


Article, Nouns, Adjectives (singular), (see pars. 96, 103, 107).
Article, Nouns, Adjectives (singular), (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_2__).


(1) Patro kaj frato. (2) Leono estas besto. (3) Rozo estas floro. (4)
Kolombo estas birdo. (5) La rozo apartenas al Teodoro. (6) La suno
brilas. (7) La patro estas tajloro. (8) Infano ne estas matura homo.
(9) La infano jam ne ploras. (10) La ĉielo estas blua. (11) Kie
estas la libro kaj la krajono? (12) La libro estas sur la tablo, kaj
la krajono kuŝas sur la fenestro. (13) Sur la fenestro kuŝas
krajono kaj plumo. (14) Jen estas pomo. (15) Sur la tero kuŝas
ŝtono. (16) Iru al la frato.
(1) Brother and sister. (2) A lion is an animal. (3) A rose is a flower. (4) A dove is a bird. (5) The rose belongs to Theodore. (6) The sun is shining. (7) The father is a tailor. (8) A child is not an adult. (9) The child no longer cries. (10) The sky is blue. (11) Where is the book and the pencil? (12) The book is on the table, and the pencil is lying on the window sill. (13) On the window sill lies a pencil and a pen. (14) Here is an apple. (15) A stone is on the ground. (16) Go to your brother.


TRANSLATION 1.


(1) A father and brother. (2) A lion is an animal. (3) A rose is a
flower. (4) A pigeon is a bird. (5) The rose belongs to Theodore. (6)
The sun shines. (7) (The, my, our) father is a tailor. (8) A child is
not a mature man. (9) The child no longer cries (already does not
cry). (10) The sky (heaven) is blue. (11) Where are the book and the
pencil? (12) The book is on the table and the pencil lies on the
window. (13) On the window lie a pencil and a pen. (14) Here is an
apple. (15) On the ground lies a stone. (16) Go to (the, your)
brother.
(1) A father and a brother. (2) A lion is an animal. (3) A rose is a flower. (4) A pigeon is a bird. (5) The rose belongs to Theodore. (6) The sun shines. (7) (The, my, our) father is a tailor. (8) A child is not an adult. (9) The child no longer cries. (10) The sky is blue. (11) Where are the book and the pencil? (12) The book is on the table and the pencil is on the window. (13) On the window are a pencil and a pen. (14) Here is an apple. (15) There is a stone on the ground. (16) Go to (the, your) brother.


N.B.—See par. 100 (a) as to the use of the article in speaking of
one’s own relatives.
N.B.—See par. 100 (a) for guidance on using the article when talking about your own family members.



EXERCISE 2.


Article, Nouns, Adjectives (accusative and plural), (see pars. 66,
96, 103, 107).
Article, Nouns, Adjectives (accusative and plural), (see pars. 66,
96, 103, 107).


(1) Jen estas pomo, kiun mi trovis. (2) La leono estas forta besto.
(3) La dentoj de leono estas akraj. (4) Mi vidas leonon. (5) Kiu
kuraĝas rajdi sur leono? (6) La virino estas bona. (7) Jen kuŝas la
ĉapelo de la patro. (8) Mi amas la filon. (9) La manoj de Johano
estas puraj. (10) Mi konas Johanon. (11) La viroj, virinoj kaj
infanoj estas en la ĉambro. (12) La kanto de la birdoj estas
agrabla. (13) La kantoj de la birdoj estas agrablaj. (14) La patro
donas la librojn al la infanoj. (15) Kie estas la libroj, kiujn vi
aĉetis? (16) Kien vi iras? (17) Mi vidas kelkajn homojn. (18) La
knabo forpelis la birdojn. (19) De la patro mi ricevis libron, kaj de
la fratoj mi ricevis plumon. (20) Mi legas libron. (21) La patro ne
legas libron, sed li skribas leteron.
(1) Here is the apple that I found. (2) The lion is a strong animal. (3) A lion's teeth are sharp. (4) I see a lion. (5) Who dares to ride a lion? (6) The woman is good. (7) Here lies the father's hat. (8) I love the son. (9) John's hands are clean. (10) I know John. (11) The men, women, and children are in the room. (12) The song of the birds is pleasant. (13) The birds' songs are pleasant. (14) The father gives the books to the children. (15) Where are the books that you bought? (16) Where are you going? (17) I see some people. (18) The boy chased away the birds. (19) I received a book from the father, and a pen from the brothers. (20) I am reading a book. (21) The father isn't reading a book, but he is writing a letter.


TRANSLATION 2.


(1) Here is an apple which I found. (2) The lion is a strong animal.
(3) The teeth of a lion (a lion’s teeth) are sharp. (4) I see a lion.
(5) Who dares (has courage) to ride on a lion? (6) The woman is good.
(7) Here is (lies) (the, my, our) father’s hat. (8) I love the (my)
son. (9) John’s hands (the hands of John) are clean. (10) I am
acquainted with (know) John. (11) The men, women, and children are in
the room. (12) The song of birds (birds generally, therefore the
article la) is agreeable. (13) The songs of birds are agreeable.
(14) The father gives the books to the children. (15) Where are the
books which (accus. plu.) you bought? (16) Where (accus.) are you
going? (17) I see some men. (18) The boy drove away the birds. (19)
From (the, my) father I received a book, and from (the, my) brothers
I received a pen. (20) I am reading a book. (21) (The, my, our)
father is not reading a book, but he is writing a letter.
(1) Here’s an apple I found. (2) The lion is a powerful animal.  
(3) A lion's teeth are sharp. (4) I see a lion.  
(5) Who has the guts to ride a lion? (6) The woman is kind.  
(7) Here’s my father’s hat. (8) I love my son.  
(9) John’s hands are clean. (10) I know John.  
(11) The men, women, and children are in the room. (12) The sound of birds is pleasant.  
(13) The songs of birds are nice. (14) The father gives the books to the kids.  
(15) Where are the books you bought? (16) Where are you going?  
(17) I see some men. (18) The boy scared away the birds.  
(19) I received a book from my father and a pen from my brothers. (20) I’m reading a book. (21) My father isn’t reading a book; he’s writing a letter.



EXERCISE 3.


Adverbs with Grammatical Terminations (see pars. 238–248).
Adverbs with Grammar Endings (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–248).


(1) Resti kun leono estas danĝere.[23] (2) La birdoj gaje flugas,
kaj kelkaj ĝoje kantas sur la grandaj arboj. (3) La knaboj kaj
(la[24]) knabinoj kuras rapide sur la sablo de la marbordo. (4) La
patro agas saĝe kaj bone, sed la filo lernas malrapide, skribas tre
malbone, kaj legas malfacile. (5) Mi vidis Johanon matene, Georgon
tagmeze, Arturon posttagmeze, kaj Vilhelmon vespere. (6) Ŝi skribas
treege bone. (7) Pripensinte mi faros tion. (8) Certe mi ne estimas
lin. (9) Li lernis ĝin parkere. (10) Kelkafoje mi promenas en la
ĝardeno. (11) Dekstre vi vidos la domon, kaj maldekstre la
preĝejon.
(1) Resting with a lion is dangerous.[23] (2) The birds are happily flying, and some are joyfully singing in the big trees. (3) The boys and (the[24]) girls are running quickly on the sand of the beach. (4) The father acts wisely and well, but the son learns slowly, writes very poorly, and reads with difficulty. (5) I saw Johan in the morning, George at noon, Arthur in the afternoon, and Wilhelm in the evening. (6) She writes extremely well. (7) After thinking it over, I will do that. (8) I certainly don't respect him. (9) He learned it by heart. (10) Sometimes I stroll in the garden. (11) To the right, you will see the house, and to the left, the church.




Footnotes:
Footnotes:



[23] Adverb, because there is no noun or
      pronoun in the sentence which danĝera could qualify (see
      par. 245).
[23] Adverb, because there isn't a noun or pronoun in the sentence that danĝera could modify (see par. 245).



[24] Before each separate noun it is
      optional (as in English) to repeat the article or not (see par.
      101 (a)).
[24] Before each individual noun, it's optional (like in English) to repeat the article or not (see par. 101 (a)).




TRANSLATION 3.


(1) To remain with a lion is dangerous. (2) The birds are flying
merrily, and some are singing joyfully on the large trees. (3) The
boys and girls run quickly on the sand of the seashore. (4) The
father acts wisely and well, but the son learns slowly, writes very
badly, and reads with difficulty. (5) I saw John in the morning,
George at mid-day, Arthur in the afternoon, and William in the
evening. (6) She writes extremely well. (7) On reflection I shall do
that (so). (8) Certainly I do not esteem him. (9) He learnt it by
heart. (10) Sometimes I walk in the garden. (11) On the right you
will see the house, and on the left the church.
(1) Staying close to a lion is risky. (2) The birds are flying happily, and some are singing cheerfully in the big trees. (3) The boys and girls are running quickly on the sand at the beach. (4) The father acts wisely and well, but the son learns slowly, writes poorly, and struggles with reading. (5) I saw John in the morning, George at noon, Arthur in the afternoon, and William in the evening. (6) She writes really well. (7) After thinking about it, I'll do that. (8) I definitely don’t respect him. (9) He memorized it. (10) Sometimes I walk in the garden. (11) On the right, you'll see the house, and on the left, the church.



EXERCISE 4.


Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs—Superlatives (see pars. 112,
113, 248).
Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs—Superlatives (see pars. 112,
113, 248).


(1) Mi estas tiel forta, kiel vi. (2) La homoj estas tiel fortaj,
kiel la ĉevaloj. (3) La knabinoj ne estas tiel fortaj, kiel la
knaboj. (4) Johano estas pli forta, ol Georgo. (5) Ŝi kuras pli
rapide, ol vi. (6) Vilhelmo estas malpli forta, ol Karlo. (7) Ju pli
mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas. (8) Ju malpli mi manĝas, des
pli mi trinkas. (9) Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li plaĉas al mi.
(10) Mia bastono estas tia sama, kiel (or, kia) via. (11) Mia frato
amas mian filinon pli, ol mian filon.[25] (12) Mi amas mian filinon
pli, ol mia filo.[25] (13) Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj.
(14) Ili estas la malplej fortaj el ĉiuj. (15) Georgo estas la
malplej kuraĝa knabo en[26] la lernejo.
(1) I am as strong as you. (2) People are as strong as horses. (3) Girls are not as strong as boys. (4) John is stronger than George. (5) She runs faster than you. (6) William is weaker than Carl. (7) The more I get to know him, the more I respect him. (8) The less I eat, the more I drink. (9) The more I see him, the less I like him. (10) My stick is the same as yours. (11) My brother loves my daughter more than my son.[25] (12) I love my daughter more than my son.[25] (13) John is the strongest of the boys. (14) They are the weakest of all. (15) George is the least courageous boy in[26] the school.




Footnotes:
Footnotes:



[25] Note the difference in case (see
      par. 112).
[25] Note the difference in case (see par. 112).



[26] See par. 113 (b).
[26] See par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ (b).




TRANSLATION 4.


(1) I am as strong as you. (2) The men are as strong as the horses.
(3) Girls (in a general sense, par. 99 (a)) are not as strong as
boys. (4) John is stronger than George. (5) She runs more quickly
than you. (6) William is weaker (less strong) than Charles. (7) The
more I know him, the more I esteem him. (8) The less I eat, the more
I drink. (9) The more I see him, the less he pleases (is pleasing to)
me. (10) My stick is the same as yours. (11) My brother loves my
daughter more than my son. (12) I love my daughter more than my son
(does) (loves her). (13) John is the strongest of (out of) the boys.
(14) They are the weakest (least strong) of all. (15) George is the
least courageous boy in the school.
(1) I'm as strong as you. (2) The men are as strong as the horses. (3) Girls (generally speaking, par. 99 (a)) aren't as strong as boys. (4) John is stronger than George. (5) She runs faster than you. (6) William is weaker than Charles. (7) The more I get to know him, the more I respect him. (8) The less I eat, the more I drink. (9) The more I see him, the less he appeals to me. (10) My stick is the same as yours. (11) My brother loves my daughter more than he loves my son. (12) I love my daughter more than my son does. (13) John is the strongest of the boys. (14) They are the weakest of all. (15) George is the least courageous boy in the school.



EXERCISE 5.


Personal and Possessive Pronouns (see pars. 126–134).
Personal and Possessive Pronouns (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–134).


(1) Li amas min, sed mi lin ne amas. (2) Mi volis lin bati, sed li
forkuris de mi. (3) Diru al mi vian nomon. (4) Ne skribu al mi tiajn
longajn leterojn. (5) Venu al mi hodiaŭ vespere. (6) Mi rakontos al
vi historion. (7) Ŝi diris al mi la veron. (8) La domo apartenas al
ni. (9) Ili vidis mian patron, sed ne vian fraton. (10) Li estas mia
onklo, ĉar mia patro estas lia frato. (11) Mi ne vidis iliajn
librojn. (12) Sinjoro Petro kaj via kuzo amas miajn infanojn. (13) Mi
havas mian ĉapelon, nun serĉu vian. (14) Mi lavas min en mia
ĉambro, sed vi lavas vin en la ĉambro de via patro. (15) Mi vidis
la beston, sed ĝi ne vidis min. (16) Ĉu vi vidis ĝin? (17) Oni
diras, "Per mono oni povas aĉeti ĉion." (18) Mi vidis vian libron,
lian bastonon, ŝian ombrelon kaj ilian keston.
(1) He loves me, but I don't love him. (2) I wanted to hit him, but he ran away from me. (3) Tell me your name. (4) Don’t write me long letters like that. (5) Come to me tonight. (6) I’ll tell you a story. (7) She told me the truth. (8) The house belongs to us. (9) They saw my father, but not your brother. (10) He is my uncle because my father is his brother. (11) I haven't seen their books. (12) Mr. Peter and your cousin love my children. (13) I have my hat, now find yours. (14) I wash myself in my room, but you wash in your father's room. (15) I saw the animal, but it didn't see me. (16) Did you see it? (17) They say, "With money, you can buy anything." (18) I saw your book, his cane, her umbrella, and their box.


TRANSLATION 5.


(1) He loves me, but I do not love him. (2) I wished to beat him, but
he ran away from me. (3) Tell me your name. (4) Do not write to me
such long letters. (5) Come to me this (to-day) evening (lit., to-day
in the evening). (6) I will relate (to) you a story. (7) She told
(to) me the truth. (8) The house belongs to us. (9) They saw my
father, but not your brother. (10) He is my uncle, for my father is
his brother. (11) I did not see their books. (12) Mr. Peter and your
cousin love my children. (13) I have my hat, now look for yours. (14)
I wash myself in my room, but you wash yourself in your father’s room
(in the room of your father). (15) I saw the animal, but it did not
see me. (16) Did you see it? (17) People (one, they) say, "With money
one can buy anything (everything)." (18) I saw your book, his stick,
her umbrella, and their chest.
(1) He loves me, but I don’t love him. (2) I wanted to hit him, but he ran away from me. (3) Tell me your name. (4) Don’t write me such long letters. (5) Come to me this evening. (6) I’ll tell you a story. (7) She told me the truth. (8) The house belongs to us. (9) They saw my dad, but not your brother. (10) He’s my uncle because my dad is his brother. (11) I didn’t see their books. (12) Mr. Peter and your cousin love my kids. (13) I have my hat; now look for yours. (14) I wash up in my room, but you wash up in your dad’s room. (15) I saw the animal, but it didn’t see me. (16) Did you see it? (17) People say, "With money, you can buy anything." (18) I saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their chest.



EXERCISE 6.


Possessive Reflexive Pronouns (see pars. 130–138).
Possessive Reflexive Pronouns (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–138).


(1) Mia patro estas en sia ĝardeno. (2) Mia patrino estas ankaŭ en
sia ĝardeno. (3) Via frato rajdas sian ĉevalon. (4) La hundo amas
sian mastron. (5) La patrinoj amas siajn infanojn. (6) Mi vidis mian
amikon kaj lian edzinon. (7) Johano renkontis mian patron kaj
lian[27] amikon. (8) Johano renkontis mian patron kaj
sian[28]
amikon. (9) Vilhelmo kaj Jozefo vidis siajn kuzojn kun iliaj hundoj.
(10) Vilhelmo kaj Jozefo vidis siajn kuzojn kun siaj hundoj. (11)
Niaj hundoj estas en siaj hundejoj. (12) Ni vidis niajn ĉevalojn sur
la kampo. (13) Mi vidis vian hundon, ŝian ĉevalon, lian azenon,
iliajn bovinojn, niajn ŝafojn, kaj miajn birdojn. (14) Ŝi vidis la
birdon sur ĝia nesto, sed ĝi baldaŭ forflugis de sia nesto. (15)
Mia frato lavis sin en sia ĉambro kaj mia fratino lavis sin en sia
ĉambro. (16) Mi lavas min en lia ĉambro.
(1) My dad is in his garden. (2) My mom is also in her garden. (3) Your brother is riding his horse. (4) The dog loves its owner. (5) Moms love their children. (6) I saw my friend and his wife. (7) John met my dad and his[27] friend. (8) John met my dad and his[28] friend. (9) William and Joseph saw their cousins with their dogs. (10) William and Joseph saw their cousins with their dogs. (11) Our dogs are in their kennels. (12) We saw our horses in the field. (13) I saw your dog, her horse, his donkey, their cows, our sheep, and my birds. (14) She saw the bird on its nest, but it soon flew away from its nest. (15) My brother washed up in his room, and my sister washed up in her room. (16) I wash up in his room.




Footnotes:
Footnotes:



[27] Lian = his, viz., the
      father’s friend.
[27] Lian = his, meaning the father’s friend.



[28] Sian = his own, viz.,
      John’s friend.
[28] Sian = his own, that is, John's friend.


See par. 135 as to use of Lia and Sia.
See par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ for the use of *Lia* and *Sia*.




TRANSLATION 6.


(1) My father is in his garden. (2) My mother is also in her garden.
(3) Your brother rides his horse. (4) The dog loves its master. (5)
Mothers love their children. (6) I saw my friend and his wife. (7)
John met my father and his (my father’s) friend. (8) John met my
father and his (John’s) friend. (9) William and Joseph saw their
cousins with their (cousins’) dogs. (10) William and Joseph saw their
cousins with their (William’s and Joseph’s) dogs. (11) Our dogs are
in their kennels. (12) We saw our horses in the field. (13) I saw
your dog, her horse, his ass, their cows, our sheep, and my birds.
(14) She saw the bird on its nest, but it soon flew away from its
nest. (15) My brother washed (himself) in his room, and my sister
washed (herself) in her room. (16) I am washing (myself) in his
room.
(1) My dad is in his garden. (2) My mom is also in her garden.  
(3) Your brother is riding his horse. (4) The dog loves its owner. (5)  
Moms love their kids. (6) I saw my friend and his wife. (7)  
John met my dad and his (my dad’s) friend. (8) John met my dad and his (John’s) friend. (9) William and Joseph saw their cousins with their (cousins’) dogs. (10) William and Joseph saw their cousins with their (William’s and Joseph’s) dogs. (11) Our dogs are in their kennels. (12) We saw our horses in the field. (13) I saw your dog, her horse, his donkey, their cows, our sheep, and my birds.  
(14) She saw the bird on its nest, but it soon flew away from its nest. (15) My brother washed up in his room, and my sister washed up in her room. (16) I am washing up in his room.



EXERCISE 7.


Verbs, Simple Tenses, Negatives, and Questions (see pars. 58–64,
91, 92, 168, 214).
Verbs, Simple Tenses, Negatives, and Questions (see pars. 58–64,
91, 92, 168, 214).


(1) Mi legas. (2) Li ne legas. (3) Ni legas. (4) Ili legas. (5) Vi
legas. (6) Mi legis la libron. (7) Mi ne legis la libron. (8) Ĉu vi
legis la libron? Ne! mi ne (legis ĝin).[29] (9) Ĉu vi vidas mian
ĉevalon? Jes! mi vidas. (10) Mi promenos en la ĝardeno. (11) Mi ne
promenos en la ĝardeno. (12) Ĉu vi ne promenos en la ĝardeno? Ne!
Mi ne (promenos). Jes! mi promenos. (13) Se mi estus sana, mi estus
feliĉa. (14) Se mi ne estus sana, mi ne estus feliĉa. (15) Ĉu vi
rekonus min, se vi min vidus sen mia peruko? Jes! mi rekonus. Ne! mi
ne rekonus. (16) Ĉu vi deziras kafon? Ne! mi jam havas. (17) Ne
tuŝu la spegulon. (18) Li venu, kaj mi pardonos al li. (19) Ordonu
al li, ke li ne babilu. (20) Petu ŝin, ke ŝi donu al mi kandelon.
(21) Ni estu gajaj, ni uzu bone la vivon, ĉar la vivo ne estas
longa. (22) Kial vi ne respondas al mi? Ĉar mi ne komprenas vin.
(1) I read. (2) He doesn't read. (3) We read. (4) They read. (5) You read. (6) I read the book. (7) I didn't read the book. (8) Did you read the book? No! I didn't (read it).[29] (9) Do you see my horse? Yes! I see it. (10) I will walk in the garden. (11) I won't walk in the garden. (12) Won't you walk in the garden? No! I won't (walk). Yes! I will walk. (13) If I were healthy, I would be happy. (14) If I weren't healthy, I wouldn't be happy. (15) Would you recognize me if you saw me without my wig? Yes! I would recognize. No! I wouldn't recognize. (16) Do you want coffee? No! I already have some. (17) Don't touch the mirror. (18) Let him come, and I will forgive him. (19) Tell him not to chatter. (20) Ask her to give me a candle. (21) Let's be cheerful, let's make the most of life, because life isn't long. (22) Why don't you answer me? Because I don't understand you.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[29] In replying to questions the
      complement is usually omitted (par. 64).
[29] When answering questions, the complement is usually left out (par. 64).




TRANSLATION 7.


(1) I read. (2) He does not read. (3) We are reading. (4) They read.
(5) You are reading. (6) I read (perfect) the book. (7) I did not read
the book. (8) Did you read the book? No! I did not (read it). (9) Do you
see my horse? Yes! I do (see). (10) I shall walk in (not into)
the garden. (11) I shall not walk in the garden. (12) Shall you not walk
in the garden? No! I shall not (walk). Yes! I shall (walk). (13) If I
were (should be) well, I should be happy. (14) If I were not (should
not be) well, I should not be happy. (15) Should you recognize me if
you saw (should see) me without my wig? Yes! I should (recognize). No!
I should not (recognize). (16) Do you want coffee? No! I already have
(some). (17) Do not touch the looking glass. (18) Let him come, and I
will pardon him. (19) Order (to) him not to chatter (that he do not
chatter). (20) Beg her to give (that she give) me a candle. (21) Let us
be merry, let us use life well, for life is not long. (22) Why do you
not answer (to) me? Because I do not understand you.
(1) I read. (2) He doesn't read. (3) We are reading. (4) They read.  
(5) You are reading. (6) I read the book. (7) I didn't read the book. (8) Did you read the book? No! I didn’t. (9) Do you see my horse? Yes! I do. (10) I will walk in the garden. (11) I will not walk in the garden. (12) Will you not walk in the garden? No! I won’t. Yes! I will. (13) If I were well, I would be happy. (14) If I were not well, I would not be happy. (15) Would you recognize me if you saw me without my wig? Yes! I would. No! I would not. (16) Do you want coffee? No! I already have some. (17) Don’t touch the mirror. (18) Let him come, and I will forgive him. (19) Tell him not to chat. (20) Ask her to give me a candle. (21) Let’s be cheerful, let’s make the most of life, for life is not long. (22) Why don’t you answer me? Because I don’t understand you.



EXERCISE 8.


Verbs, Compound Tenses, Active Voice (see par. 214).
Verbs, Compound Tenses, Active Voice (see par. 214).


(1) Nun li diras al mi la veron. (2) Hieraŭ li diris al mi la veron.
(3) Li ĉiam diradis al mi la veron. (4) Kiam vi vidis nin en la
salono, li jam antaŭe diris[30] al mi la veron (aŭ, li estis
dirinta al mi la veron). (5) Li diros al mi la veron. (6) Kiam vi
venos al mi, li jam antaŭe diros[30] al mi la veron (aŭ, li estos
dirinta al mi la veron). (7) Se mi petus lin, li dirus al mi la
veron. (8) Mi ne farus la eraron, se li antaŭe dirus[30] al mi la
veron (aŭ, se li estus dirinta al mi la veron). (9) Kiam mi venos,
diru al mi la veron. (10) Kiam mia patro venos, diru al mi antaŭe la
veron (aŭ, estu dirinta al mi la veron). (11) Mi volas diri al vi la
veron. (12) Tuj kiam mi estos ricevinta vian leteron, mi foriros.
(13) Kiam mi estis kolektinta la sumon, mi aĉetis novan libron. (14)
Estas necese, ke vi estu[31] fininta (or, finu) vian laboron, antaŭ
ol mi revenos.
(1) Now tell me the truth. (2) Yesterday he told me the truth.  
(3) He always used to tell me the truth. (4) When you saw us in the  
living room, he had already told[30] me the truth (or, he had told me the truth). (5) He will tell me the truth. (6) When you come to me, he will have already told[30] me the truth (or, he will have told me the truth). (7) If I asked him, he would tell me the truth. (8) I wouldn’t make the mistake if he had already told[30] me the truth (or, if he had told me the truth). (9) When I come, tell me the truth. (10) When my father comes, tell me the truth beforehand (or, have told me the truth). (11) I want to tell you the truth. (12) As soon as I receive your letter, I will leave.  
(13) When I had collected the amount, I bought a new book. (14) It is necessary for you to have[31] finished (or, finish) your work before I return.




Footnotes:
Footnotes:



[30] Always use the compound tense
      if the simple form is likely to confuse the meaning. Note that
      the words jam antaŭe (already beforehand), or, simply,
      jam, show the action has passed, and that therefore the
      simple tense can be used. If these words be omitted, the compound
      tense must be used. The same remarks apply to the Sentences 8 and
      10 (see par. 226 (a)).
[30] Always use the compound tense if the simple form might create confusion. Keep in mind that the words jam antaŭe (already beforehand) or just jam indicate that the action has already happened, so the simple tense can be used. If these words are left out, then you must use the compound tense. The same comments apply to Sentences 8 and 10 (see par. 226 (a)).



[31] Note the imperative mood after
      verbs expressing "wish," "necessity," etc. (par. 200).
[31] Pay attention to the command form that comes after verbs that show "wish," "necessity," etc. (par. 200).





TRANSLATION 8.


(1) Now he tells (is telling) me the truth. (2) Yesterday he told me
the truth. (3) He always told (habitually) me the truth. (4) When you
saw us in the drawing-room, he already previously (had) told me the
truth (or, he had told me the truth). (5) He will tell me the truth.
(6) When you (have) (shall) come to me, he will already previously
have told me the truth (or, will have told me the truth). (7) If I
(should, were to) ask him, he would tell me the truth. (8) I should
not have made the mistake if he previously told me the truth (or, had
told me the truth). (9) When I (shall) come, tell me the truth. (10)
When my father comes (shall come), tell me beforehand the truth (or,
may you have told me the truth). (11) I wish to tell you the truth.
(12) As soon as (immediately when) I (shall) have received your
letter, I shall go away. (13) When I had collected the sum, I bought
a new book. (14) It is necessary that you finish (have finished) your
work before I (shall) return.
(1) Now he’s telling me the truth. (2) Yesterday he told me the truth. (3) He always told me the truth. (4) When you saw us in the drawing room, he had already told me the truth. (5) He will tell me the truth. (6) When you come to me, he will have already told me the truth. (7) If I ask him, he would tell me the truth. (8) I wouldn’t have made the mistake if he had told me the truth. (9) When I come, tell me the truth. (10) When my father comes, tell me the truth beforehand. (11) I want to tell you the truth. (12) As soon as I have received your letter, I will go away. (13) When I collected the money, I bought a new book. (14) You need to finish your work before I return.


EXERCISE 9.


Verbs, Passive Voice (see pars. 169, 233).
Verbs, Passive Voice (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__).


(1) Mi estas amata. (2) Li estis amata. (3) Ni estos amataj. (4) Vi
estus amata. (5) Mi estas lavita. (6) Ŝi estis lavita. (7) Ili estis
lavitaj. (8) Vi estos lavita. (9) Ĝi estus lavita. (10) Ni estas
invitotaj. (11) Mi estis invitota. (12) Li estus invitota. (13) Estu
amata. (14) Estu lavita. (15) Tiu ĉi komercaĵo estas ĉiam volonte
aĉetata de mi. (16) La surtuto estas aĉetita de mi, sekve ĝi
apartenas al mi. (17) Kiam via domo estis konstruata, mia domo estis
jam longe konstruita. (18) Mi sciigas, ke de nun la ŝuldoj de mia
filo ne estos pagataj de mi. (19) Estu trankvila, mia tuta ŝuldo
estos pagita al vi baldaŭ. (20) Mia ora ringo ne
estus nun tiel
longe serĉata, se ĝi ne estus tiel lerte kaŝita de vi. (21) Laŭ
la projekto de la inĝenieroj tiu ĉi fervojo estas konstruota en la
daŭro de du jaroj; sed mi pensas, ke ĝi estos konstruata pli ol tri
jarojn.[32] (22) Sur la kameno inter du potoj staras fera kaldrono;
el la kaldrono, en kiu sin trovas bolanta akvo, eliras vaporo; tra la
fenestro, kiu sin trovas apud la pordo, la vaporo iras sur la
korton.[33]
(1) I am loved. (2) He was loved. (3) We will be loved. (4) You would be loved. (5) I am washed. (6) She was washed. (7) They were washed. (8) You will be washed. (9) It would be washed. (10) We are invited. (11) I was supposed to be invited. (12) He would be invited. (13) Be loved. (14) Be washed. (15) This merchandise is always willingly bought by me. (16) The coat was bought by me, so it belongs to me. (17) When your house was being built, my house was already completed long ago. (18) I inform you that from now on, my son's debts will not be paid by me. (19) Be calm, my entire debt will be paid to you soon. (20) My gold ring wouldn't have been searched for so long if it hadn't been so cleverly hidden by you. (21) According to the engineers' project, this railroad is going to be built over the course of two years; but I think it will take more than three years to build. [32] (22) On the stove between two pots stands an iron kettle; from the kettle containing boiling water, steam rises; through the window next to the door, the steam goes into the yard. [33]





Footnotes:
Footnotes:



[32] Jarojn, being in the accusative,
      shows that a preposition (dum) has been omitted (see par. 68 (b)).
[32] Jarojn, in the accusative case, indicates that a preposition (dum) has been left out (see par. 68 (b)).



[33] Accusative of direction (see par. 67 (a)).
   
Accusative of direction (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ (a)).




TRANSLATION 9.


(1) I am (being) loved. (2) He was loved. (3) We shall be loved. (4)
You would be loved. (5) I have been washed. (6) She had been washed.
(7) They had been washed. (8) You will have been washed. (9) It would
have been washed. (10) We are (about) to be invited. (11) I was
(about) to be invited. (12) He would be about to be invited. (13) Be
loved. (14) Be (having been) washed. (15) This merchandise is always
willingly (being) bought by me. (16) The overcoat has been (was)
bought by me, consequently it belongs to me. (17) When your house was
being built, my house had already long been built. (18) I make known
that from now my son’s debts will not be paid by me. (19) Be
tranquil, my entire debt will soon be (have been) paid to you. (20)
My gold ring would not now be so long being looked for if it had not
(should not have) been so cleverly hidden by you. (21) According to
the project of the engineers this railway is (about) to be
constructed in the space (duration) of two years; but I think it will
take (be under construction, be being constructed during) more than
three years. (22) Upon the fireplace between two pots stands an iron
kettle; from the kettle, in which is (finds itself) boiling water,
issues steam; through the window, which is (finds itself) near the
door, the steam goes into (on to) the yard.
(1) I am loved. (2) He was loved. (3) We will be loved. (4) You would be loved. (5) I have been washed. (6) She had been washed. (7) They had been washed. (8) You will have been washed. (9) It would have been washed. (10) We are about to be invited. (11) I was about to be invited. (12) He would be about to be invited. (13) Be loved. (14) Be washed. (15) I always willingly buy this merchandise. (16) I bought the overcoat, so it belongs to me. (17) When your house was being built, my house had already been built for a long time. (18) I want you to know that from now on, I will not pay my son’s debts. (19) Don’t worry, my entire debt will soon be paid to you. (20) My gold ring wouldn’t have taken so long to find if you hadn’t hidden it so cleverly. (21) According to the engineers' plan, this railway is supposed to be built in two years, but I think it will take more than three years. (22) On the fireplace between two pots, there's an iron kettle; steam is coming from the kettle, where water is boiling, and the steam goes out the window near the door into the yard.



EXERCISE 10.


Correlative Words (see pars. 139–157).
Connecting Words (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–157).


(1) Ia, Ial, Iam, Ie, Iel, Ies, Io, Iom, Iu. (2) La montritajn naŭ
vortojn ni konsilas bone ellerni, ĉar el ili ĉiu povas jam fari al
si grandan serion da aliaj pronomoj kaj adverboj. (3) Se ni aldonas
al ili la literon K, ni ricevas vortojn demandajn aŭ rilatajn: Kia,
Kial, Kiam, Kie, Kiel, Kies, Kio, Kiom, Kiu. (4) Se ni aldonas la
literon T, ni ricevas vortojn montrajn: Tia, Tial, Tiam, Tie, Tiel,
Ties, Tio, Tiom, Tiu. (5) Aldonante la literon Ĉ, ni ricevas
vortojn komunajn: Ĉia, Ĉial, Ĉiam, Cie, Ĉiel, Ĉies, Ĉio,
Ĉiom, Ĉiu. (6) Aldonante la prefikson NEN-, ni ricevas vortojn
neajn: Nenia, Nenial, Neniam, Nenie, Neniel, Nenies, Nenio, Neniom,
Neniu. (7) Aldonante al la vortoj montraj la vorton Ĉi, ni
ricevas montron pli proksiman; ekzemple: Tiu (pli malproksima),
Tiu ĉi (aŭ, Ĉi tiu) (pli proksima); Tie (malproksime), Tie
ĉi (aŭ, Ĉi tie) (proksime). (8) Aldonante al la vortoj demandaj
la vorton AJN, ni ricevas vortojn sendiferencajn: Kia ajn, Kial ajn,
Kiam ajn, Kie ajn, Kiel ajn, Kies ajn, Kio ajn, Kiom ajn, Kiu ajn.
(9) Ekster tio, el la diritaj vortoj ni povas ankoraŭ fari aliajn
vortojn, per helpo de gramatikaj finiĝoj kaj aliaj vortoj
(sufiksoj); ekzemple: Tiama, Ĉiama, Kioma, Tiea, Ĉi-tiea, Tieulo,
Tiamulo, k.t.p. (kaj tiel plu).
(1) Ia, Ial, Iam, Ie, Iel, Ies, Io, Iom, Iu. (2) We recommend learning these nine words well because from them, one can already create a large series of other pronouns and adverbs. (3) If we add the letter K, we get question or related words: Kia, Kial, Kiam, Kie, Kiel, Kies, Kio, Kiom, Kiu. (4) If we add the letter T, we get demonstrative words: Tia, Tial, Tiam, Tie, Tiel, Ties, Tio, Tiom, Tiu. (5) By adding the letter Ĉ, we get common words: Ĉia, Ĉial, Ĉiam, Cie, Ĉiel, Ĉies, Ĉio, Ĉiom, Ĉiu. (6) By adding the prefix NEN-, we get negation words: Nenia, Nenial, Neniam, Nenie, Neniel, Nenies, Nenio, Neniom, Neniu. (7) If we add the word Ĉi to the demonstrative words, we get a closer reference; for example: Tiu (farther away), Tiu ĉi (or, Ĉi tiu) (closer); Tie (far away), Tie ĉi (or, Ĉi tie) (close). (8) By adding the word AJN to the question words, we get indeterminate words: Kia ajn, Kial ajn, Kiam ajn, Kie ajn, Kiel ajn, Kies ajn, Kio ajn, Kiom ajn, Kiu ajn. (9) Besides that, from the previously mentioned words, we can also form other words using grammatical endings and other words (suffixes); for example: Tiama, Ĉiama, Kioma, Tiea, Ĉi-tiea, Tieulo, Tiamulo, etc. (and so on).



TRANSLATION 10.


(1) Ia = some, any. Ial = for some reason. Iam = at some time,
once (on a time). Ie = somewhere. Iel = in some manner. Ies =
somebody’s, some one’s. Io = something. Iom = some (quantity).
Iu = someone, somebody. (2)
The nine words shown we recommend to
be well learnt, for from them everyone can straightaway make for
himself a large series of other pronouns and adverbs. (3) If we add
to them the letter K, we get interrogative or relative words: Kia =
what (kind or sort of). Kial = why, wherefore, for what reason.
Kiam = when, at what time. Kie = where, at what place. Kiel =
how, in what manner. Kies = whose, of which. Kio = what (thing).
Kiom = how much, how many, what amount. Kiu = who, which, what
one. (4) If we add the letter T, we get the demonstrative words:
Tia = such, that sort of. Tial = for that reason, therefore.
Tiam = then, at that time. Tie = there, in that place. Tiel =
thus, so, in that manner, like (that). Ties = that one’s, of that.
Tio = that (thing). Tiom = so much, that much, so many. Tiu =
that (relative or personal). (5) By adding the letter Ĉ we get
general words: Ĉia = each, every, every kind of. Ĉial = for
every reason, for all reasons. Ĉiam = always, for all time. Ĉie
= everywhere. Ĉiel = in every way. Ĉies = everyone’s, each
one’s. Ĉio = everything. Ĉiom = all, the whole (quantity).
Ĉiu = each one, all, everyone. (6) By adding the prefix NEN- we
get negative words: Nenia = no kind of, none. Nenial = for no
reason. Neniam = never. Nenie = nowhere. Neniel = nohow, in no
way. Nenies = no one’s, nobody’s. Nenio = nothing. Neniom = no
quantity, none. Neniu = nobody, no one. (7) By adding to the
demonstrative words the word Ĉi we obtain a nearer indication; for
example: Tiu = that (the one further off); Tiu ĉi (or, Ĉi
tiu) = this (the nearer one); Tie = there (further off). Tie ĉi
(or, Ĉi tie) = here (nearer). (8) By adding to the interrogative
words the word AJN we get indefinite words (expressions): Kia ajn =
whatever (kind). Kial ajn = for whatever cause. Kiam ajn =
whenever. Kie ajn = wherever. Kiel ajn = however, in whatever
manner. Kies ajn = whosesoever. Kio ajn = whatever (thing). Kiom
ajn = however much, or many. Kiu ajn = whoever, whichever. (9)
Besides (outside) that, from the said words we can still make other
words by help of the grammatical terminations and other words
(suffixes); for example: Tiama = of that time, contemporary (adj.).
Ĉiama = continual, permanent. Kioma = which, or what (number or
quantity). Tiea = yonder (adj.), of there (that place). Ĉi-tiea
= of here (this place). Tieulo = an aborigine (man of there, of
that place). Tiamulo = a contemporary (man of then, of that time),
etc. (and so on).
(1) Ia = some, any. Ial = for some reason. Iam = at some time, once. Ie = somewhere. Iel = in some manner. Ies = somebody’s, someone’s. Io = something. Iom = some (quantity). Iu = someone, somebody. (2) The nine words shown are recommended to be well learned, because from them everyone can immediately create a large series of other pronouns and adverbs. (3) If we add the letter K, we get interrogative or relative words: Kia = what (kind or sort of). Kial = why, for what reason. Kiam = when, at what time. Kie = where, at what place. Kiel = how, in what manner. Kies = whose, of which. Kio = what (thing). Kiom = how much, how many, what amount. Kiu = who, which, what one. (4) If we add the letter T, we get demonstrative words: Tia = such, that kind of. Tial = for that reason, therefore. Tiam = then, at that time. Tie = there, in that place. Tiel = thus, so, in that manner, like (that). Ties = that one’s, of that. Tio = that (thing). Tiom = so much, that much, so many. Tiu = that (relative or personal). (5) By adding the letter Ĉ we get general words: Ĉia = each, every, every kind of. Ĉial = for every reason, for all reasons. Ĉiam = always, for all time. Ĉie = everywhere. Ĉiel = in every way. Ĉies = everyone’s, each one’s. Ĉio = everything. Ĉiom = all, the whole (quantity). Ĉiu = each one, all, everyone. (6) By adding the prefix NEN- we get negative words: Nenia = no kind of, none. Nenial = for no reason. Neniam = never. Nenie = nowhere. Neniel = no way, in no manner. Nenies = no one’s, nobody’s. Nenio = nothing. Neniom = no quantity, none. Neniu = nobody, no one. (7) By adding Ĉi to the demonstrative words we achieve a closer indication; for example: Tiu = that (the one further away); Tiu ĉi (or, Ĉi tiu) = this (the one nearby); Tie = there (further away). Tie ĉi (or, Ĉi tie) = here (nearby). (8) By adding AJN to the interrogative words we get indefinite expressions: Kia ajn = whatever (kind). Kial ajn = for whatever reason. Kiam ajn = whenever. Kie ajn = wherever. Kiel ajn = however, in whatever way. Kies ajn = whosesoever. Kio ajn = whatever (thing). Kiom ajn = however much, or many. Kiu ajn = whoever, whichever. (9) Additionally, from these words we can create other words using grammatical suffixes and terms; for instance: Tiama = of that time, contemporary (adj.). Ĉiama = continual, permanent. Kioma = which, or what (number or quantity). Tiea = yonder (adj.), of there (that place). Ĉi-tiea = of here (this place). Tieulo = an aborigine (person from there). Tiamulo = a contemporary (person of then), etc. (and so on).



EXERCISE 11.


Correlative Words—continued (see pars. 139–158).
Correlative Words—continued (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–158).


(1) Ia ajn plumo sufiĉos. (2) Ĉiu helpus tian homon. (3) Tiu virino
ne estas tia virino, kian mi estimas. (4) Ial li foriris de Berlino,
kaj mi ne scias ĝuste kial; iu persono (aŭ, iu) diris, ke li lasis
la urbon pro malsano. (5) Kie estas mia naztuko (aŭ, poŝtuko)? Mi
ĝin ne vidas ie. (6) Ĝi kuŝas tie, sub tiu kanapo. (7) Kiam vi
venos min viziti? (8) Mi venos al vi iam morgaŭ. (9) Kies domo estas
tiu? (10) Mi neniam aŭdis, al kiu ĝi apartenas. (11) Ĉu vi konis
iun en la ĉambro? (12) Mi ne konis iun (aŭ, mi konis neniun). (13)
El ĉiuj miaj amikoj, li estas la plej intima. (14) Kian ĉarman
leteron vi estas skribinta! (15) Kia homo estas tiu, kiu rajdas sur
la griza ĉevalo? (16) Mi ne scias, mi neniam vidis lin antaŭe. (17)
Kiom da ĉevaloj vi havas? (18) Mi ne havas tiom, kiom mi havis
antaŭ tri monatoj. (19) Ĉia aĝo havas siajn devojn. (20) Ĉial tio
estas la plej bona. (21) Ĉiam pripensu, antaŭ ol vi parolas. (22)
Ĉies ideo estas diversa. (23) Preskaŭ ĉiu amas sin mem.
(1) A little bit of ink will be enough. (2) Everyone would help such a person. (3) That woman is not someone I respect. (4) I don't know why he left Berlin; someone said he left the city because of illness. (5) Where is my handkerchief? I can't see it anywhere. (6) It's lying there, under that couch. (7) When will you come visit me? (8) I'll come to see you sometime tomorrow. (9) Whose house is that? (10) I've never heard who it belongs to. (11) Did you know anyone in the room? (12) I didn't know anyone. (13) Among all my friends, he is the closest. (14) What a lovely letter you wrote! (15) Who is that person riding the gray horse? (16) I don't know; I've never seen him before. (17) How many horses do you have? (18) I don’t have as many as I did three months ago. (19) Every age has its responsibilities. (20) That’s why it’s the best. (21) Always think before you speak. (22) Everyone has different ideas. (23) Almost everyone loves themselves.


TRANSLATION 11.


(1) Any kind of pen will do (suffice). (2) Anyone (everyone) would
help such a man. (3) That woman is not the (that) kind of woman
(that) I esteem. (4) For some reason he left Berlin, and I don’t know
exactly why; some person (or, a certain person, or, someone) said
that he left the city on account of an illness. (5) Where is my
handkerchief? I do not see it anywhere (somewhere). (6) It lies
there, under that sofa. (7) When will you come to visit me? (8) I
will come to you some time to-morrow. (9) Whose house is that? (10) I
never heard to whom it belongs. (11) Did you know anyone (someone) in
the room? (12) I did not know anyone (or, I knew no one). (13) Of all
my friends, he is the most intimate. (14) What a charming letter you
have written! (15) What sort of man is
that who is riding on the
grey horse? (16) I do not know, I never saw him before. (17) How many
horses have you? (18) I have not so many as I had three months ago.
(19) Every age has its duties. (20) For every reason (all reasons)
that is the best. (21). Always reflect before you speak. (22)
Everyone’s idea is different. (23) Nearly everyone loves himself.
(1) Any pen will work. (2) Everyone would help a man like that. (3) That woman isn’t the type I respect. (4) For some reason, he left Berlin, and I don’t know exactly why; someone mentioned that he left the city because of an illness. (5) Where’s my handkerchief? I can’t find it anywhere. (6) It’s over there, under the sofa. (7) When are you going to visit me? (8) I’ll come over sometime tomorrow. (9) Whose house is that? (10) I’ve never heard who it belongs to. (11) Did you know anyone in the room? (12) I didn’t know anyone. (13) Out of all my friends, he’s the closest. (14) What a lovely letter you wrote! (15) What kind of man is that riding the grey horse? (16) I don’t know; I’ve never seen him before. (17) How many horses do you have? (18) I don’t have as many as I did three months ago. (19) Every generation has its responsibilities. (20) For every reason, that’s the best option. (21) Always think before you speak. (22) Everyone has different opinions. (23) Almost everyone loves themselves.



EXERCISE 12.


Prepositions and Accusative of Direction (see pars. 67, 249–261).
Prepositions and Accusative of Direction (see pars. 67, 249–261).


(1) Ĉiuj prepozicioj per si mem postulas ĉiam nur la nominativon.
(2) Se ni iam post prepozicio uzas la akuzativon, la akuzativo tie
dependas ne de la prepozicio, sed de aliaj kaŭzoj. (3) Ekzemple: Por
esprimi direkton, ni aldonas al la vorto la finon N; sekve: tie =
"en tiu loko," tien = "al tiu loko"; tiel same ni ankaŭ diras: "La
birdo flugis en la ĝardenon, sur la tablon," kaj la vortoj
"ĝardenon," "tablon" staras tie ĉi en akuzativo, ne ĉar la
prepozicioj "en" kaj "sur" tion ĉi postulas, sed nur ĉar ni
volis esprimi direkton, tio estas, montri, ke la birdo sin ne trovis
antaŭe en la ĝardeno aŭ sur la tablo kaj tie flugis, sed, ke ĝi
de alia loko flugis al la ĝardeno, al la tablo (ni volas montri, ke
la ĝardeno kaj tablo ne estis la loko de la flugado, sed nur la celo
de la flugado); en tiaj okazoj ni uzus la finiĝon N tute egale ĉu
ia prepozicio starus aŭ ne. (4) Morgaŭ mi veturos Parizon (aŭ, en
Parizon). (5) Mi restos hodiaŭ dome. (6) Jam estas tempo iri domen.
(7) Ni disiĝis kaj iris en diversajn flankojn; mi iris dekstren kaj
li iris maldekstren. (8) Flanken, sinjoro!
(1) All prepositions always require only the nominative case.  
(2) If we ever use the accusative after a preposition, the accusative there depends not on the preposition, but on other reasons. (3) For example: To express direction, we add the ending N to the word; thus: tie = "in that place," tien = "to that place"; similarly, we also say: "The bird flew into the garden, onto the table," and the words "ĝardenon," "tablon" are in accusative not because the prepositions "en" and "sur" require it, but only because we wanted to express direction, that is, to show that the bird was not previously in the garden or on the table and flew there, but that it flew from another place to the garden, to the table (we want to show that the garden and table were not the places of the flying, but only the destination of the flying); in such cases, we would use the ending N regardless of whether a preposition is present or not. (4) Tomorrow I will travel to Paris (or, into Paris). (5) I'm staying home today. (6) It's already time to go home. (7) We parted ways and went in different directions; I went to the right and he went to the left. (8) Move aside, sir!



TRANSLATION 12.


(1) All prepositions by themselves always require the nominative
only. (2) If we ever, after a preposition, use the accusative, the
accusative there (in that case) depends
not on the preposition, but
on other causes. (3) For example: In order to express direction we
add to the word the termination N as follows: tie="in that place"
(there), tien="to that place" (thither); thus in the same way we
also say: "The bird flew into the garden, upon the table," and the
words "ĝardenon," "tablon," stand here in (the) accusative, not
because the prepositions "en" and "sur" require this, but only
because we wished to express direction, that is, to show that the
bird was not (did not find itself) previously in the garden or on the
table and flew (about) there, but that it flew from some other place
to the garden, to the table: (we wish to show that the garden and
table were not the place of the flying, but only the destination
(aim, purpose) of the flying). In such cases we should use the
termination N all the same, whether any preposition were there
(should stand) or not. (4) To-morrow I shall travel to Paris (or,
into Paris). (5) I shall remain to-day at home. (6) It is already
time to go home. (7) We separated and went in different directions; I
went to the right and he went to the left. (8) To one side (stand
aside), Sir!
(1) All prepositions by themselves always require the nominative only. (2) If we ever use the accusative after a preposition, the accusative in that case doesn’t depend on the preposition, but on other reasons. (3) For example: To express direction, we add the ending N to the word like this: tie="in that place" (there), tien="to that place" (thither); similarly, we say: "The bird flew into the garden, onto the table," and the words "ĝardenon," "tablon," are in the accusative, not because the prepositions "en" and "sur" require it, but only because we wanted to show direction, meaning that the bird was not already in the garden or on the table and flew there from somewhere else: we want to emphasize that the garden and table were not where the bird was flying but just where it was heading. In such cases, we should use the ending N regardless of whether a preposition is present or not. (4) Tomorrow I will travel to Paris (or, into Paris). (5) I will stay home today. (6) It’s already time to go home. (7) We split up and went in different directions; I went to the right and he went to the left. (8) Step aside, Sir!


EXERCISE 13.


Prepositions and Accusative of Direction—continued (see pars.
249–261).
Prepositions and Accusative of Direction—continued (see pars. 249–261).


(1) Kie vi estas? (2) Mi estas en la ĉevalejo, sed mi estas enironta
en la bovinejon. (3) Kien vi iras? (4) Mi iras en la preĝejon. (5)
La birdo flugas en la ĉambro (ĝi estas en la ĉambro kaj flugadas
en ĝi). (6) La birdo flugas en la ĉambron (ĝi estis ekster la
ĉambro kaj flugas nun en ĝin). (7) El sub la kanapo la muso kuris
sub la liton, kaj dum ĝi kuradis sub la lito, la kato ĝin ekkaptis.
(8) Anstataŭ kafo la kelnero donis al mi teon kun sukero, sed sen
kremo, tial mi ordonis al li, ke li alportu kremon, kaj kiam li ĝin
alportis (aŭ, estis ĝin alportinta), mi enmetis en la tason da teo
unu sukerpecon, tiam mi enverŝis el la kremujo la
kremon. (9) Mi
metis la manon sur la tablon. (10) En la salono estis neniu krom li
kaj lia fianĉino. (11) La hirundo flugis trans la riveron, ĉar
trans la rivero sin trovis aliaj hirundoj. (12) Kiam li estis ĉe mi,
li staris tutan horon apud la fenestro. (13) Ili iris Parizon (aŭ,
al Parizo).
(1) Where are you? (2) I’m in the stable, but I’m about to go into the barn. (3) Where are you going? (4) I'm going to the church. (5) The bird is flying in the room (it’s in the room and flying around in it). (6) The bird is flying into the room (it was outside the room and is now flying in). (7) The mouse ran out from under the couch and under the bed, and while it was running under the bed, the cat caught it. (8) Instead of coffee, the waiter brought me tea with sugar, but without cream, so I told him to bring cream, and when he brought it (or, had brought it), I added one sugar cube to the cup of tea, then poured in the cream from the creamer. (9) I put my hand on the table. (10) There was no one in the living room except for him and his fiancée. (11) The swallow flew across the river because there were other swallows on the other side. (12) When he was with me, he stood by the window for a whole hour. (13) They went to Paris.



TRANSLATION 13.


(1) Where are you? (2) I am in the stable, but I am about to go into
the cowshed. (3) Where are you going? (4) I am going into the church.
(5) The bird flies in the room (it is in the room and is flying in
it). (6) The bird flies into the room (it was outside the room, and
now flies into it). (7) From under the sofa the mouse ran under the
bed, and whilst it was running about under the bed the cat seized it.
(8) Instead of coffee the waiter gave me tea with sugar, but without
cream, therefore I ordered (to) him to bring (that he bring) cream,
and when he brought it (or, had brought it), I put into the cup of
tea one lump of sugar, then I poured in the cream out of the
cream-jug. (9) I put my (the) hand on the table. (10) In the
drawing-room was nobody except him and his fiancée. (11) The swallow
flew across the river, because across the river were (found
themselves) other swallows. (12) When he was at my house (with me) he
stood (for) a whole hour near the window. (13) They went to Paris.
(1) Where are you? (2) I'm in the stable, but I'm about to go into the cowshed. (3) Where are you going? (4) I'm going to the church. (5) The bird is flying in the room. (6) The bird is flying into the room. (7) The mouse ran from under the sofa to under the bed, and while it was running around under the bed, the cat caught it. (8) Instead of coffee, the waiter brought me tea with sugar but no cream, so I asked him to bring cream, and when he brought it, I added one lump of sugar to the cup of tea and then poured in the cream from the cream jug. (9) I put my hand on the table. (10) There was no one in the drawing room except him and his fiancée. (11) The swallow flew across the river because there were other swallows across the river. (12) When he was at my house, he stood by the window for a whole hour. (13) They went to Paris.


EXERCISE 14.


Prepositions—continued (see pars. 249–261).
Prepositions—continued (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–261).


(1) Ili ĝojis je niaj malfeliĉoj. (2) Volu montri al mi la
dormoĉambron. (3) Nur tajloro povas fari al (or, por) si veston.
(4) Ni eniris kafejon antaŭ ol reveni al la hotelo. (5) La kelnero
metis antaŭ mi teleron, kuleron, kaj tranĉilon. (6) Anstataŭ ludi
kartojn, li lernis Esperanton. (7) Mi staris apud la pordo dum li
paroladis kun sia amiko. (8) La profesoro ĉe la lernejo venis kun mi
por viziti vian patron. (9) Li sekvis post mi en la interspaco
de
ĉirkaŭ tri paŝoj. (10) Ŝi donis al mi unufrankan moneron. (11) Li
restis ĉe ni de sabato ĝis mardo. (12) Sen mia scio, la birdo
deflugis de la arbo. (i3) Li paliĝis de timo, kaj mi, pro teruro, ne
sciis kion fari. (14) Dum (aŭ, en) la aŭtuno mi vojaĝadis en
Italujo. (15) La leporhundo estas ekster la domo. (16) Tiu ĉi estas
la plej granda el ĉiuj arboj en la ĝardeno. (17) Ne miru pri mia
senceremonieco kontraŭ vi. (18) Krom Esperanto, mi parolas la
lingvon anglan. (19) Ŝi estis bona, kaj krom tio, tre bela
fraŭlino.
(1) They rejoiced at our misfortunes. (2) Please show me the bedroom. (3) Only a tailor can make a suit for himself. (4) We entered a café before returning to the hotel. (5) The waiter placed a plate, spoon, and knife in front of me. (6) Instead of playing cards, he learned Esperanto. (7) I stood by the door while he chatted with his friend. (8) The professor at the school came with me to visit your father. (9) He followed me at about three steps' distance. (10) She gave me a one-franc coin. (11) He stayed with us from Saturday to Tuesday. (12) Without my knowledge, the bird flew away from the tree. (13) He turned pale with fear, and I, out of terror, didn’t know what to do. (14) In the autumn, I traveled in Italy. (15) The hound is outside the house. (16) This is the largest of all the trees in the garden. (17) Don’t be surprised at my lack of formality towards you. (18) Besides Esperanto, I speak English. (19) She was kind, and on top of that, a very beautiful young lady.



TRANSLATION 14.


(1) They rejoiced at our misfortunes. (2) Kindly (be willing) show me
the bedroom. (3) Only a tailor can make (for) himself a coat. (4) We
entered a café before returning to the hotel. (5) The waiter put
before me a plate, spoon, and knife. (6) Instead of playing cards, he
learnt Esperanto. (7) I stood near the door whilst he conversed with
his friend. (8) The professor of (at) the school came with me to
visit your father. (9) He followed me at a distance of about three
paces (steps). (10) She gave me a coin of one franc. (11) He stayed
with us from Saturday till Tuesday. (12) Unknown to me (without my
knowledge), the bird flew down from the tree. (13) He grew pale with
fear, and I, from terror, did not know what to do. (14) During (or,
in) the autumn I travelled about in Italy. (15) The greyhound
(hare-hound) is outside the house. (16) This is the largest of all
the trees in the garden. (17) Do not wonder at (concerning) my
unceremoniousness towards you. (18) Besides Esperanto, I speak the
English language. (19) She was good, and besides that, a very
beautiful young lady.
(1) They were happy about our misfortunes. (2) Please show me the bedroom. (3) Only a tailor can make himself a coat. (4) We stopped by a café before going back to the hotel. (5) The waiter brought me a plate, spoon, and knife. (6) Instead of playing cards, he learned Esperanto. (7) I stood near the door while he talked with his friend. (8) The school professor came with me to visit your father. (9) He followed me at a distance of about three steps. (10) She gave me a one-franc coin. (11) He stayed with us from Saturday to Tuesday. (12) Without me knowing, the bird flew down from the tree. (13) He turned pale with fear, and I, terrified, didn't know what to do. (14) In the autumn, I traveled around Italy. (15) The greyhound is outside the house. (16) This is the largest tree in the garden. (17) Don’t be surprised at my lack of formality toward you. (18) Besides Esperanto, I speak English. (19) She was kind, and on top of that, a very beautiful young woman.


EXERCISE 15.


Prepositions—continued (see pars. 249–261).
Prepositions—continued (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–261).


(1) Li fianĉiĝis kun Fraŭlino Berto post kiam li estis parolinta
kun ŝia patro. (2) Mi restadas tie ĉi laŭ la konsilo de mia
kuracisto. (3) Malgraŭ mia
konsilo, li eliris el la urbo per flanka
vojeto. (4) La domo konstruita de mia onklo estas kovrita per
ardezoj. (5) Por ĉio estas tempo. (6) Ni invitas ĉiujn vidi por si.
(7) Je tiu prezo mi aĉetis por la infanoj tableton. (8) Mi devos
ekiri post kvarono de horo. (9) Tagon post tago ni iris preter la
fenestroj de la domo. (10) Ili sekvis unu post la alia. (11) Li
demandis ŝin, pro kio ŝi ploras. (12) Ne sopiru je via perdita
feliĉo; ne pensu pri ĝi. (13) Sen vi, ni estas kvazaŭ sen kapo.
(14) Spite miajn protestojn, kaj spite ĉion, kion mi povis diri, li
foriris. (15) La hundo kuris sub la tablon por ekkapti la katon, sed
la kato forkuris, kaj la hundo ĝin mortigis sub la kanapo. (16) La
birdo, kiu sidis sur la arbo, surflugis sur la tegmenton de la domo.
(17) Li ĵetis ŝtonon super la muron. (18) Li iris tra la arbaro,
kaj poste pasis trans la ponton.
(1) Li got engaged to Miss Berto after he spoke with her father. (2) I'm staying here on my doctor's advice. (3) Despite my advice, he left the city by a side path. (4) The house built by my uncle is covered with slate. (5) There's a time for everything. (6) We invite everyone to see for themselves. (7) At that price, I bought a tablet for the kids. (8) I will have to leave in a quarter of an hour. (9) Day after day, we passed by the windows of the house. (10) They followed one after the other. (11) He asked her why she was crying. (12) Don’t mourn your lost happiness; don’t think about it. (13) Without you, we are like headless chickens. (14) Despite my protests and everything I could say, he left. (15) The dog ran under the table to catch the cat, but the cat escaped, and the dog killed it under the couch. (16) The bird sitting on the tree flew up onto the roof of the house. (17) He threw a stone over the wall. (18) He walked through the forest and then crossed the bridge.



TRANSLATION 15.


(1) He became engaged (was affianced) to (with) Miss Bertha after he
had spoken to (with) her father. (2) I am remaining here by
(according to) the advice of my doctor. (3) In spite of my advice, he
left the city by a by-path. (4) The house built by my uncle has been
covered with slates. (5) There is a time for everything. (6) We
invite all to see for themselves. (7) At that price I bought for the
children a tiny table. (8) I must start in (after) a quarter of an
hour. (9) Day by (after) day we went by (past) the windows of the
house. (10) They followed one after the other. (11) He asked her why
(because of what) she cried (cries). (12) Do not sigh for (about,
concerning) your lost happiness; do not think of (about) it. (13)
Without you, we are as without a head. (14) In spite of my
protestations, and in spite of everything I could say, he went away.
(15) The dog ran under the table to (in order to) seize the cat, but
the cat ran away, and the dog killed it under the sofa. (16) The bird
that sat on the tree flew on to the roof of the house. (17) He threw
a stone over the wall. (18) He went through the wood, and then passed
across the bridge.
(1) He got engaged to Miss Bertha after talking to her father. (2) I'm staying here at my doctor's recommendation. (3) Despite my advice, he left the city down a back road. (4) The house my uncle built has been covered with shingles. (5) There's a time for everything. (6) We invite everyone to see for themselves. (7) I bought a small table for the kids at that price. (8) I have to leave in a quarter of an hour. (9) Day by day, we walked past the windows of the house. (10) They followed one after another. (11) He asked her why she was crying. (12) Don’t long for your lost happiness; don’t dwell on it. (13) Without you, we feel lost. (14) Despite my protests and everything I said, he left. (15) The dog ran under the table to catch the cat, but the cat got away, and the dog ended up killing it under the sofa. (16) The bird that was sitting in the tree flew up onto the roof of the house. (17) He threw a stone over the wall. (18) He walked through the woods and then crossed the bridge.



EXERCISE 16.


Preposition "Je" and the Accusative (see pars. 65—69, 251, 256).
Preposition "I" and the Accusative (see pars. 65—69, 251, 256).


(1) Se ni bezonas uzi prepozicion kaj la senco ne montras al ni, kian
prepozicion uzi, tiam ni povas uzi la komunan prepozicion "je." (2)
Sed estas bone uzadi la vorton "je" kiel eble pli[34] malofte. (3)
Anstataŭ la vorto "je" ni povas ankaŭ uzi akuzativon sen
prepozicio. (4) Mi ridas je lia naiveco (aŭ, mi ridas pro lia
naiveco, aŭ, mi ridas lian naivecon). (5) Je la lasta fojo (aŭ, la
lastan fojon) mi vidis lin ĉe vi. (6) Mi veturis du tagojn kaj unu
nokton. (7) Mi sopiras je mia perdita feliĉo (aŭ, mian perditan
feliĉon). (8) El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke se ni pri ia verbo ne
scias, ĉu ĝi postulas post si la akuzativon (t.e., ĉu ĝi estas
aktiva) aŭ ne, ni povas ĉiam uzi la akuzativon. (9) Ekzemple, ni
povas diri, "obei al la patro," kaj "obei la patron" (anstataŭ "obei
je la patro"). (10) Sed ni ne uzas la akuzativon tiam, kiam la
klareco de la senco tion ĉi malpermesas; ekzemple, ni povas diri,
"pardoni al la malamiko," kaj, "pardoni la malamikon," sed ni devas
diri ĉiam, "pardoni al la malamiko lian kulpon."
(1) If we need to use a preposition and the meaning doesn't tell us which one to use, then we can use the common preposition "je." (2) However, it's good to use the word "je" as rarely as possible. (3) Instead of the word "je," we can also use the accusative without a preposition. (4) I laugh at his naivete (or, I laugh because of his naivete, or, I laugh at his naivete). (5) The last time (or, the last time) I saw him was at your place. (6) I traveled for two days and one night. (7) I long for my lost happiness (or, my lost happiness). (8) From the mentioned rule, it follows that if we don't know whether a verb requires the accusative (i.e., whether it is active) or not, we can always use the accusative. (9) For example, we can say, "obey the father," and "obey the father" (instead of "obey to the father"). (10) But we don't use the accusative when the clarity of meaning prohibits it; for example, we can say, "forgive the enemy," and, "forgive the enemy," but we must always say, "forgive the enemy his fault."




Footnote:
Footnote:



[34] It is more usual to use plej.
   
It's more common to use "plej."




TRANSLATION 16.


(1) If we need to use a preposition, and the sense does not show (to)
us what preposition to use, then we can use the general (common)
preposition "je." (2) But it is well to use the word "je" as
seldom as possible. (3) Instead of the word "je," we can also use
an accusative without a preposition. (4) I laugh at his simplicity
(or, I laugh because of his simplicity, or, I deride his
simplicity). (5) On the last occasion (or, last time) I saw him with
you. (6) I travelled two days and one night. (7) I sigh for (I
bemoan) my lost happiness. (8) From the said rule (it)
follows that
if we, concerning any verb, do not know whether it requires after it
the accusative (i.e., whether it is active) or not, we can always use
the accusative. (9) For example, we can say, "to obey to the
father," and "to obey the father" (instead of "to obey je the
father"). (10) But we do not use the accusative (then) when the
clearness of the sense forbids this; for example, we can say "to
pardon to the enemy," and, "to pardon the enemy," but we must
always say, "to pardon to the enemy his offence."
(1) If we need to use a preposition and it's not clear what preposition to use, we can use the general preposition "je." (2) However, it's best to use the word "je" as infrequently as possible. (3) Instead of the word "je," we can also use an accusative without a preposition. (4) I laugh at his simplicity (or, I laugh because of his simplicity, or, I mock his simplicity). (5) The last time I saw him was with you. (6) I traveled for two days and one night. (7) I long for (I mourn) my lost happiness. (8) According to this rule, if we’re unsure whether a verb should be followed by an accusative (i.e., if it's active), we can always use the accusative. (9) For example, we can say, "to obey to the father," and "to obey the father" (instead of "to obey je the father"). (10) But we don’t use the accusative when the meaning makes it unclear; for example, we can say "to pardon to the enemy," and "to pardon the enemy," but we must always say, "to pardon to the enemy his offense."



EXERCISE 17.


Participles, Substantival, Adjectival, Adverbial (see pars.
203–213).
Participles, Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs (see pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–213).


(1) Se la lernanto scius bone sian lecionon, la instruanto[35] lin ne
punus. (2) Fluanta akvo estas pli pura, ol akvo staranta senmove. (3)
Kiam Nikodemo batas Jozefon, tiam Nikodemo estas la batanto kaj
Jozefo la batato. (4) Al homo, pekinta senintence, Dio facile
pardonas. (5) Trovinte pomon, mi ĝin manĝis. (6) La falinta homo ne
povis sin levi. (7) Ne riproĉu vian amikon, ĉar vi mem pli multe
meritas riproĉon; li estas nur unufoja mensoginto, dum vi estas
ankoraŭ nun ĉiam mensoganto. (8) La tempo pasinta jam neniam
revenos; la tempon venontan neniu ankoraŭ konas. (9) Venu, ni
atendas vin, Savonto de la mondo! (10) En la lingvo Esperanto ni
vidas la estontan lingvon de la tuta mondo. (11) Aŭgusto estas mia
plej amata filo. (12) Mono havata estas pli grava ol havita. (13)
Pasero kaptita estas pli bona, ol aglo kaptota. (14) La soldatoj
kondukis la arestitojn tra la stratoj. (15) Li venis al mi tute ne
atendite.
(1) If the student knew their lesson well, the teacher wouldn’t punish them. (2) Flowing water is cleaner than still water. (3) When Nicodemus beats Joseph, Nicodemus is the one hitting and Joseph is the one getting hit. (4) God easily forgives someone who sins unintentionally. (5) After finding an apple, I ate it. (6) The fallen person couldn’t get up. (7) Don’t blame your friend, because you deserve blame even more; he is just a one-time liar, while you are still always a liar. (8) The past will never come back; no one knows the future yet. (9) Come, we await you, Savior of the world! (10) In the Esperanto language, we see the future language of the whole world. (11) August is my most beloved son. (12) Money possessed is more important than money earned. (13) A captured sparrow is better than a future eagle to be caught. (14) The soldiers led the arrested people through the streets. (15) He came to me completely unexpectedly.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[35] Instruanto = The one who is
      teaching, possibly only an occasional teacher. Instruisto =
      A teacher habitually, or by profession.
   
[35] Instruanto = Someone who teaches, possibly just an occasional teacher. Instruisto = A person who teaches regularly or as a profession.





TRANSLATION 17.


(1) If the pupil knew (should know) his lesson well, the teacher
would not punish him. (2) Flowing water is purer than stagnant
(standing without movement) water. (3) When Nicodemus beats Joseph,
then Nicodemus is the beater (beating one) and Joseph the beaten. (4)
God easily pardons (to) a person sinning (having sinned)
unintentionally. (5) Having found an apple, I ate it. (6) The fallen
man could not raise himself. (7) Do not reproach your friend, for you
much more merit reproach; he is only a one-time liar (has been once a
liar), while you are yet now always a liar (while you are a liar
always now). (8) Time passed will never more return; time about to
come no one yet knows. (9) Come, we await You, Saviour of the world!
(10) In the language Esperanto we see the future language of the
whole world. (11) Augustus is my best loved son. (12) Money in hand
(being had) is more important than that once had (than having been
had). (13) A sparrow caught is better than an eagle about to be
caught. (14) The soldiers led the prisoners through the streets. (15)
He came to me quite unexpectedly.
(1) If the student knew his lesson well, the teacher wouldn't punish him. (2) Flowing water is cleaner than stagnant water. (3) When Nicodemus hits Joseph, Nicodemus is the attacker and Joseph is the one being hit. (4) God easily forgives someone who sins unintentionally. (5) After finding an apple, I ate it. (6) The fallen man couldn't lift himself up. (7) Don't blame your friend, because you deserve blame much more; he’s just lied once, while you always lie now. (8) Time that has passed will never come back; no one knows what the future holds. (9) Come, we await You, Savior of the world! (10) In the language Esperanto, we see the future language for everyone. (11) Augustus is my favorite son. (12) Money in hand is more valuable than what was once possessed. (13) A captured sparrow is better than an eagle that is about to be caught. (14) The soldiers marched the prisoners through the streets. (15) He showed up to me completely unexpectedly.


EXERCISE 18.


Numerals and Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP- (see pars. 115–124, 284).
Numerals and Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP- (see pars. 115–124, 284).


(1) Mi havas cent pomojn. (2) Mi havas centon da pomoj. (3) Tiu ĉi
urbo havas milionon da loĝantoj. (4) Mi aĉetis dek du oranĝojn.
(5) Mi aĉetis dek-duon da kuleroj kaj du dek-duojn da forkoj. (6)
Mil jaroj (aŭ, milo da jaroj) faras miljaron.[36] (7) Unue, mi
redonas al vi la monon, kiun vi pruntis al mi; due, mi dankas vin por
la prunto; trie, mi petas vin ankaŭ poste prunti al mi, kiam mi
bezonos monon. (8) Por ĉiu tago mi ricevas kvin frankojn, sed por la
hodiaŭa tago mi ricevis duoblan pagon, t.e. (tio estas), dek
frankojn. (9) Kvinoble sep estas (or, faras) tridek kvin. (10) Tri
estas duono de ses. (11) Ok estas kvar kvinonoj de dek. (12) Kvar
metroj da[37] tiu ĉi ŝtofo kostas naŭ
frankojn; tial du metroj
kostas kvar kaj duonon frankojn (aŭ, da frankoj). (13) Unu tago
estas tricent-sesdek-kvinono, aŭ tricent-sesdek-sesono, de jaro.
(14) Tiuj ĉi du amikoj promenas ĉiam duope. (15) Kvinope ili sin
ĵetis sur min, sed mi venkis ĉiujn kvin atakantojn. (16) Por miaj
kvar infanoj mi aĉetis dek du pomojn, kaj al ĉiu el la infanoj mi
donis po tri pomoj. (17) Tiu ĉi libro havas sesdek paĝojn; tial, se
mi legos en ĉiu tago po dek kvin paĝoj, mi finos la tutan libron en
kvar tagoj. (18) Kioma horo estas? La tria. (19) Je kioma horo ekiras
la vagonaro por Berlino? (20) Je tri kvaronoj de la tria (horo) (aŭ,
je la dua kaj tri kvaronoj) (aŭ, je kvarono antaŭ la tria) (aŭ, je
la dua kvardek kvin). (21) Kiun daton ni havas hodiaŭ? (22) Hodiaŭ
estas la dudek-sepa de Marto. (23) Kiom kostas tio ĉi? Naŭ
frankojn[38] (aŭ, ĝi kostas naŭ frankojn). (24) Kiom estas la pezo
de tiu kesto? Kvardek funtoj.[39]
(1) I have a hundred apples. (2) I have a hundred apples. (3) This city has a million residents. (4) I bought twelve oranges. (5) I bought twelve spoons and twenty-four forks. (6) A thousand years makes a millennium.[36] (7) First, I will pay you back the money you lent me; second, I thank you for the loan; third, I ask you to lend me money again when I need it. (8) I receive five francs each day, but for today I received double pay, which is ten francs. (9) Five times seven is thirty-five. (10) Three is half of six. (11) Eight is four-fifths of ten. (12) Four meters of this fabric costs nine francs; therefore, two meters cost four and a half francs. (13) One day is three hundred sixty-fifths of a year. (14) These two friends always walk in pairs. (15) They pounced on me as a group of five, but I defeated all five attackers. (16) For my four children, I bought twelve apples, and I gave each child three apples. (17) This book has sixty pages; therefore, if I read fifteen pages each day, I will finish the entire book in four days. (18) What time is it? Three o'clock. (19) At what time does the train to Berlin leave? (20) At a quarter to three (or, at two and three-quarters) (or, at a quarter before three) (or, at two forty-five). (21) What date do we have today? (22) Today is the twenty-seventh of March. (23) How much does this cost? Nine francs[38] (or, it costs nine francs). (24) What is the weight of this box? Forty pounds.[39]





Footnotes:
Footnotes:



[36] Jarmilo is often used in
      preference to miljaro.
   
[36] Jarmilo is often used instead of miljaro.



[37] Better, de (par. 259 (7)).
   
Better, de (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).



[38] Accusative, governed by the verb
      kostas in the question.
   
[38] Accusative, controlled by the verb
      kostas in the question.



[39] Nominative, because estas
      does not govern accusative (see par. 64 (a)).
   
[39] Nominative, because estas does not take the accusative (see par. 64 (a)).




TRANSLATION 18.


(1) I have a hundred apples. (2) I have a hundred of apples. (3) This
town has a million (of) inhabitants. (4) I bought twelve oranges. (5)
I bought a dozen (of) spoons and two dozen (of) forks. (6) A thousand
years (or, a thousand of years) makes a millennium. (7) Firstly, I
give back to you the money which you lent (to) me; secondly, I thank
you for the loan ; thirdly, I beg you also afterwards to lend to me
when I (shall) need money. (8) For each day I receive five francs,
but for this (to-day’s) day I received double payment, i.e. (that is)
ten francs. (9) Five times (five-fold) seven is thirty-five. (10)
Three is (the) half of six. (11) Eight is four-fifths of ten. (12)
Four metres of this stuff cost nine francs; therefore two metres cost
four and a half francs (or, of francs). (13) One day is a 365th or a
366th of a year. (14) These two friends always walk out two together
(by twos). (15) Five together (by fives)
they threw themselves upon
me, but I vanquished all five assailants. (16) For my four children I
bought twelve apples, and to each of the children I gave at the rate
of three apples. (17) This book has sixty pages; therefore if I
(shall) read (in) each day at the rate of fifteen pages, I shall
finish the whole book in four days. (18) What time (hour) is it?
Three o’clock (the third). (19) At what time does the train start for
Berlin? (20) At three-quarters of the third (hour) (or, at the second
and three-quarters) (or, one-quarter before the third) (or, two
forty-five). (21) What is the date (what date have we to-day)? (22)
To-day is the 27th of March. (23) How much does this cost? Nine
francs (or, it costs nine francs). (24) How much is the weight of
that box? Forty pounds.
(1) I have a hundred apples. (2) I have a hundred apples. (3) This town has a million inhabitants. (4) I bought twelve oranges. (5) I bought a dozen spoons and two dozen forks. (6) A thousand years makes a millennium. (7) First, I’ll give you back the money you lent me; second, I thank you for the loan; third, I ask you to lend me money again when I need it. (8) Each day I receive five francs, but today I got double, which is ten francs. (9) Five times seven is thirty-five. (10) Three is half of six. (11) Eight is four-fifths of ten. (12) Four meters of this material cost nine francs; so two meters cost four and a half francs. (13) One day is a 365th or 366th of a year. (14) These two friends always go out together. (15) Five of them attacked me, but I defeated all five. (16) For my four kids, I bought twelve apples, giving each child three apples. (17) This book has sixty pages; if I read fifteen pages each day, I’ll finish it in four days. (18) What time is it? It’s three o’clock. (19) When does the train leave for Berlin? (20) At two forty-five. (21) What’s the date? (22) Today is March 27th. (23) How much does this cost? It costs nine francs. (24) How much does that box weigh? Forty pounds.



EXERCISE 19.


Suffixes -AĈ-, -AD- and Prefixes EK- and FI- (see pars. 270, 288).
Suffixes -AĈ-, -AD- and Prefixes EK- and FI- (see pars. 270, 288).


(1) En la daŭro de kelke da minutoj mi aŭdis du pafojn. (2) La
pafado daŭris tre longe. (3) Mi eksaltis de surprizo. (4) Mi saltas
tre lerte. (5) Mi saltadis la tutan tagon de loko al loko. (6) Lia
hieraŭa parolo estis tre bela, sed la tro multa parolado lacigas
lin. (7) Kiam vi ekparolis, ni atendis aŭdi ion novan, sed baldaŭ
ni vidis, ke ni trompiĝis. (8) Li kantas tre belan kanton. (9) La
kantado estas agrabla okupo. (10) La diamanto havas belan brilon.
(11) Du ekbriloj de fulmo trakuris tra la malluma ĉielo. (12) La
vortoj "aŭdado, flarado, gustumado, pensado," k.t.p., esprimas niajn
kapablojn; sed kiam ni uzas tiajn vortojn sen la sufikso -ADO, tiam
ili esprimas apartajn agojn de tiaj kapabloj. (13) Mi timas, ke vi ne
povos legi tian skribaĉon. (14) Ne legu tiajn fiverkojn.
(1) For a few minutes, I heard two shots. (2) The shooting went on for a long time. (3) I jumped in surprise. (4) I jump very skillfully. (5) I was jumping all day from place to place. (6) His speech yesterday was very nice, but too much talking tires him out. (7) When you started speaking, we expected to hear something new, but soon we realized we were mistaken. (8) He sings a very beautiful song. (9) Singing is an enjoyable activity. (10) The diamond has a beautiful shine. (11) Two flashes of lightning streaked across the dark sky. (12) The words "hearing, smelling, tasting, thinking," etc., express our abilities; but when we use such words without the suffix -ADO, they represent individual actions of those abilities. (13) I'm afraid you won't be able to read such scribbles. (14) Don't read such nonsense.


TRANSLATION 19.


(1) In the course (duration) of some minutes I heard two shots. (2)
The fusillade (shooting) continued very long. (3) I started (jumped
suddenly) with surprise. (4) I jump
very cleverly. (5) I was jumping
all day from place to place. (6) His yesterday’s speech was very fine
but (the) too much speaking fatigues him. (7) When you began to
speak, we expected to hear something new, but soon we saw that we
were mistaken. (8) He sings a very fine song. (9) Singing is an
agreeable occupation. (10) The diamond has a beautiful brilliancy
(lustre). (11) Two flashes of lightning ran through the dark sky.
(12) The words "hearing, smelling, tasting, thinking," etc., express
our faculties; but when we use such words without the suffix -ADO,
then they express isolated acts of such faculties. (13) I fear you
will not be able to read such bad writing. (14) Don’t read such
shameful writings.
(1) After a few minutes, I heard two shots. (2) The shooting went on for a long time. (3) I jumped in surprise. (4) I jump very impressively. (5) I was jumping around all day. (6) His speech yesterday was great, but talking too much tires him out. (7) When you started speaking, we expected to hear something new, but soon we realized we were wrong. (8) He sings a really nice song. (9) Singing is a pleasant activity. (10) The diamond has a beautiful sparkle. (11) Two flashes of lightning lit up the dark sky. (12) The words "hearing, smelling, tasting, thinking," etc., represent our senses; but when we use those words without the suffix -ADO, they represent individual actions of those senses. (13) I'm afraid you won't be able to read such poor writing. (14) Don't read such disgraceful writings.



EXERCISE 20.


Suffixes -AĴ-, -EC- (see par. 271).
Suffixes -AĴ-, -EC- (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) Vi parolas sensencaĵon, mia amiko. (2) Mi trinkis teon kun kuko
kaj konfitaĵo. (3) Akvo estas fluidaĵo. (4) Mi ne volis trinki la
vinon, ĉar ĝi enhavis en si ian suspektan malklaraĵon. (5) Sur la
tablo staris diversaj sukeraĵoj. (6) En tiuj ĉi boteletoj sin
trovas diversaj acidoj, vinagro, sulfuracido, azotacido, kaj aliaj.
(7) Via vino estas nur ia abomena acidaĵo. (8) La acideco de tiu ĉi
vinagro estas tre malforta. (9) Mi manĝis bongustan ovaĵon. (10)
Tiu ĉi granda altaĵo ne estas natura monto. (11) La alteco de tiu
monto ne estas tre granda. (12) Kiam mi ien veturas, mi neniam prenas
kun mi multon da pakaĵo. (13) Ĉemizojn, kolumojn, manumojn, kaj
ceterajn similajn objektojn ni nomas tolaĵo, kvankam ili ne ĉiam
estas faritaj el tolo. (14) Glaciaĵo estas dolĉa glaciigita
frandaĵo. (15) La riĉeco de tiu ĉi homo estas granda, sed lia
malsaĝeco estas ankoraŭ pli granda. (16) Li amas tiun ĉi knabinon
pro ŝia beleco kaj boneco. (17) Lia heroeco plaĉas al mi. (18) La
tuta supraĵo de la lago estis kovrita per naĝantaj folioj kaj
diversaj aliaj kreskaĵoj. (19) Mi vivas kun li en granda amikeco.
(1) We're talking nonsense, my friend. (2) I had tea with cake and jam. (3) Water is a liquid. (4) I didn't want to drink the wine because it had some suspicious cloudiness in it. (5) There were various sweets on the table. (6) In these bottles are different acids, vinegar, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and others. (7) Your wine is just some disgusting acidity. (8) The acidity of this vinegar is very weak. (9) I ate a delicious egg dish. (10) This tall height is not a natural mountain. (11) The height of this mountain isn't very large. (12) Whenever I travel somewhere, I never take a lot of luggage with me. (13) We call shirts, collars, cuffs, and other similar items fabric, even though they aren't always made of cloth. (14) Ice cream is a sweet frozen treat. (15) The wealth of this man is great, but his foolishness is even greater. (16) He loves this girl for her beauty and kindness. (17) I admire his heroism. (18) The entire surface of the lake was covered with floating leaves and various other plants. (19) I live with him in great friendship.



TRANSLATION 20.


(1) You speak (a piece of) nonsense, my friend. (2) I drank tea, with
cake and preserve (jam). (3) Water is a fluid (thing). (4) I would
not drink the wine because it contained in it some suspicious
muddiness. (5) Upon the table stood various sweetmeats. (6) In these
phials are various acids, vinegar, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and
others. (7) Your wine is only some abominable sour stuff. (8) The
acidity of this vinegar is very weak. (9) I ate a savoury
(good-tasted) omelette. (10) This great height (eminence) is not a
natural mountain. (11) The height of that mountain is not very great.
(12) When I travel anywhere, I never take with me much luggage. (13)
Shirts, collars, cuffs, and other similar objects we call linen,
although they are not always made out of lint-cloth. (14) An ice is a
sweet frozen dainty. (15) The wealth of this person is great, but his
foolishness is still greater. (16) He loves this girl for her beauty
and goodness. (17) His heroism pleases me. (18) The entire surface of
the lake was covered with floating leaves and various other growths.
(19) I live with him in great amity.
(1) You're talking nonsense, my friend. (2) I had tea with cake and jam. (3) Water is a liquid. (4) I wouldn't drink the wine because it looked a bit murky. (5) There were various desserts on the table. (6) These bottles contain different acids, vinegar, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and others. (7) Your wine is just some terrible sour stuff. (8) This vinegar is only slightly acidic. (9) I had a tasty omelette. (10) This tall structure isn't a natural mountain. (11) That mountain isn't very tall. (12) When I travel, I never take much luggage with me. (13) We call shirts, collars, cuffs, and similar items linens, even though they aren't always made from linen. (14) An ice is a sweet frozen treat. (15) This person's wealth is significant, but his foolishness is even greater. (16) He loves this girl for her beauty and kindness. (17) I admire his bravery. (18) The whole surface of the lake was covered with floating leaves and other plants. (19) I live with him in great harmony.


EXERCISE 21.


Suffixes -AN-, -ESTR-, -IST-, -UL- (see par. 272).
Suffixes -AN-, -ESTR-, -IST-, -UL- (see par. 272).


(1) Kiu okupas sin je meĥaniko, estas meĥanikisto, kaj kiu okupas
sin je ĥemio, estas ĥemiisto. (2) Diplomatiiston oni povas ankaŭ
nomi diplomato, sed fizikiston oni ne povas nomi fiziko, ĉar fiziko
estas la nomo de la scienco mem. (3) La fotografisto fotografis min,
kaj mi sendis mian fotografaĵon al mia patro. (4) La dentisto
eltiris du el la dentoj de mia fratino. (5) La ŝipanoj devas obei la
ŝipestron. (6) Ĉiuj loĝantoj de regno estas regnanoj. (7) Urbanoj
estas ordinare pli ruzaj, ol vilaĝanoj. (8) La regnestro de nia
lando estas bona kaj saĝa reĝo. (9) La Parizanoj estas gajaj homoj.
(10) Nia provincestro estas severa, sed justa. (11) Nia urbo havas
bonajn policanojn, sed ne sufiĉe energian policestron. (12)
Luteranoj kaj Kalvinanoj
estas kristanoj. (13) Germanoj kaj francoj,
kiuj loĝas en Rusujo, estas Rusujanoj, kvankam ili ne estas rusoj.
(14) Li estas nelerta kaj naiva provincano. (15) La loĝantoj de unu
regno estas samregnanoj; la loĝantoj de unu urbo estas samurbanoj;
la konfesantoj de unu religio estas samreligianoj. (16) Nia
regimentestro estas por siaj soldatoj kiel bona patro. (17) La
botisto faras botojn kaj ŝuojn, sed tian homon en Anglujo oni nomas
ordinare ŝuisto. (18) La lignisto vendas lignon, kaj la lignaĵisto
faras tablojn, seĝojn, kaj aliajn lignajn objektojn. (19) Ŝteliston
neniu lasas en sian domon. (20) La kuraĝa maristo dronis en la maro.
(21) Verkisto verkas librojn, kaj skribisto simple transskribas
paperojn. (22) Ni havas diversajn servantojn: kuiriston,
ĉambristinon, infanistinon, kaj veturigiston. (23) La riĉulo havas
multe da mono. (24) Ni ne scias, ĉu li estas malsaĝulo aŭ ruzulo.
(25) Timulo timas eĉ sian propran ombron. (26) Li estas mensogisto
kaj malnoblulo.
(1) Whoever works as a mechanic is a mechanic, and whoever works in chemistry is a chemist. (2) A diplomat can also be called a diplomat, but a physicist cannot be called physics, because physics is the name of the science itself. (3) The photographer took a picture of me, and I sent my photo to my father. (4) The dentist pulled two of my sister's teeth. (5) The crew members must obey the captain. (6) All residents of a kingdom are subjects of that kingdom. (7) City dwellers are usually trickier than villagers. (8) The leader of our country is a good and wise king. (9) The Parisians are cheerful people. (10) Our provincial leader is strict but fair. (11) Our city has good police officers, but not an energetic police chief. (12) Lutherans and Calvinists are Christians. (13) Germans and French people living in Russia are Russians, even though they are not ethnic Russians. (14) He is an inept and naive provincial. (15) The residents of one kingdom are fellow subjects; the residents of one city are fellow city dwellers; the followers of one religion are fellow believers. (16) Our regiment leader is like a good father to his soldiers. (17) The bootmaker makes boots and shoes, but that kind of person is usually called a shoemaker in England. (18) The lumberjack sells wood, and the carpenter makes tables, chairs, and other wooden items. (19) No one allows a thief into their house. (20) The brave sailor drowned in the sea. (21) An author writes books, while a clerk simply copies papers. (22) We have various servants: a cook, a housekeeper, a nanny, and a driver. (23) The wealthy person has a lot of money. (24) We don’t know if he is foolish or cunning. (25) A coward fears even his own shadow. (26) He is a liar and a scoundrel.



TRANSLATION 21.


(1) (He) who occupies himself with mechanics is a mechanic, and (he)
who occupies himself with chemistry is a chemist. (2) A diplomatist
one can also call a "diplomate," but a physicist cannot be called
"physics," because physics is the name of the science itself. (3) The
photographer photographed me, and I sent my photograph to my father.
(4) The dentist drew two of my sister’s teeth. (5) The crew must obey
the captain. (6) All inhabitants of a state are members of a state.
(7) Townspeople are usually more crafty than villagers. (8) The ruler
of our land is a good and wise king. (9) The Parisians are a gay
people (men). (10) Our provincial governor is strict, but just. (11)
Our town has good policemen, but an insufficiently energetic chief
constable. (12) Lutherans and Calvinists are Christians. (13) Germans
and French, who live in Russia, are residents in Russia (Russian
residents), although they are not Russians. (14)
He is a dull and
simple provincial. (15) The inhabitants of the same (one) state are
fellow-countrymen; the inhabitants of one city are fellow-citizens;
the professors (confessors) of one religion are co-religionists. (16)
Our regimental chief is for his soldiers like a good father (is like
a good father to his soldiers). (17) The bootmaker makes boots and
shoes, but such a man in England they usually call a shoemaker. (18)
The timber merchant sells wood, and the joiner makes tables, chairs,
and other wooden articles. (19) A thief no one lets into his house.
(20) The courageous seaman was drowned in the sea. (21) An author
writes books, and a scribe simply transcribes papers. (22) We have
various servants: a cook (male), a chambermaid, nursemaid, and
coachman. (23) The rich man has much money. (24) We do not know
whether he is a fool or a cunning man. (25) A coward fears even his
own shadow. (26) He is an habitual liar and base fellow (ignoble
man).
(1) Someone who works with mechanics is a mechanic, and someone who works with chemistry is a chemist. (2) A diplomat can also be called a "diplomate," but a physicist cannot be called "physics," because physics refers to the science itself. (3) The photographer took my picture, and I sent my photo to my dad. (4) The dentist pulled two of my sister’s teeth. (5) The crew must follow the captain. (6) All residents of a state are members of that state. (7) Townspeople are usually cleverer than villagers. (8) The ruler of our land is a good and wise king. (9) The Parisians are cheerful people. (10) Our provincial governor is strict but fair. (11) Our town has good police officers, but an insufficiently energetic chief constable. (12) Lutherans and Calvinists are Christians. (13) Germans and French people who live in Russia are residents of Russia, though they are not Russians. (14) He is a dull and simple provincial. (15) The people of the same state are fellow countrymen; the people of the same city are fellow citizens; the followers of one religion are co-religionists. (16) Our regimental chief is like a good father to his soldiers. (17) The bootmaker makes boots and shoes, but in England, such a person is usually called a shoemaker. (18) The timber merchant sells wood, and the carpenter makes tables, chairs, and other wooden items. (19) No one lets a thief into their house. (20) The brave sailor drowned in the sea. (21) An author writes books, while a scribe merely copies documents. (22) We have various servants: a cook, a chambermaid, a nanny, and a coachman. (23) The wealthy man has a lot of money. (24) We don't know if he is a fool or clever. (25) A coward fears even his own shadow. (26) He is a habitual liar and a despicable person.



EXERCISE 22.


Suffixes -AR-, -ER- (see par. 273).
Suffixes -AR-, -ER- (see para. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) Mia skribilaro konsistas el inkujo, sablujo, kelke da plumoj,
krajono, kaj inksorbilo. (2) Oni metis antaŭ mi manĝilaron, kiu
konsistis el telero, kulero, tranĉilo, forko, glaseto por brando,
glaso por vino, kaj buŝtuko. (3) En varmega tago mi amas promeni en
arbaro. (4) Nia lando venkos, ĉar nia militistaro estas granda kaj
brava. (5) Sur kruta ŝtuparo li levis sin al la tegmento de la domo.
(6) Mi ne scias la lingvon hispanan, sed per helpo de vortaro
hispana-germana mi tamen komprenis iom vian leteron. (7) Sur tiuj ĉi
vastaj kaj herboriĉaj kampoj paŝtas sin grandaj brutaroj, precipe
aroj da bellanaj ŝafoj. (8) Centimo, pfenigo, kaj kopeko estas
moneroj. (9) Sablero enfalis en mian okulon. (10) Unu fajrero estas
sufiĉa, por eksplodigi pulvon. (11) Vi ne trovos eĉ unu polveron
sur lia vesto, aŭ unu koteron sur lia pantalono.
(1) My writing tools include an inkwell, a sand tray, some pens, a pencil, and an ink blotter. (2) A set of cutlery was placed before me, consisting of a plate, a spoon, a knife, a fork, a shot glass for brandy, a wine glass, and a napkin. (3) On a hot day, I love taking walks in the forest. (4) Our country will prevail because our army is strong and brave. (5) He climbed up the steep staircase to the roof of the house. (6) I don't know Spanish, but with the help of a Spanish-German dictionary, I was able to understand some of your letter. (7) In these vast and grassy fields, there graze large herds of livestock, especially flocks of beautiful sheep. (8) Centimes, pfennigs, and kopecks are coins. (9) Sand fell into my eye. (10) One spark is enough to ignite gunpowder. (11) You won't find even a speck of powder on his clothes or a bit of dirt on his pants.



TRANSLATION 22.


(1) My writing materials consist of an inkstand, a sand box, some
pens, a pencil, and blotting paper. (2) They put before me a table
service (eating implements), which consisted of a plate, spoon,
knife, fork, liqueur glass (small glass) for brandy, a glass for
wine, and a serviette. (3) On (in) a hot day I love to walk in a
wood. (4) Our country will conquer, for our army is large and brave.
(5) On a steep ladder he raised himself to the roof of the house. (6)
I do not know the Spanish language, but by help of a Spanish-German
dictionary I nevertheless understood to some extent your letter. (7)
On these vast and richly herbaged fields feed (themselves) large
herds of cattle, especially flocks (collections) of fine-fleeced
sheep. (8) A centime, a pfennig, and a copeck are coins. (g) A grain
of sand fell into my eye. (10) One spark is sufficient (for) to
explode gunpowder. (11) You will not find even one grain of dust on
his coat, or one speck of mud on his trousers.
(1) My writing supplies include an inkstand, a sand box, some pens, a pencil, and blotting paper. (2) They set before me a table setting, which included a plate, spoon, knife, fork, a small glass for brandy, a glass for wine, and a napkin. (3) On a hot day, I love to walk in the woods. (4) Our country will prevail because our army is large and courageous. (5) He climbed a steep ladder to reach the roof of the house. (6) I don't speak Spanish, but with the help of a Spanish-German dictionary, I was able to understand your letter to some extent. (7) On these vast, lush fields, large herds of cattle graze, especially flocks of fine-fleeced sheep. (8) A centime, a pfennig, and a copeck are all types of coins. (9) A grain of sand got in my eye. (10) One spark is enough to ignite gunpowder. (11) You won't find a single speck of dust on his coat or a bit of mud on his trousers.


EXERCISE 23.


Suffixes -ĈJ-, -NJ-, and Moŝto (see pars. 274, 283).
Suffixes -CJ-, -NJ-, and Moŝto (see pars. 274, 283).


(1) La gepatroj ĉiam nomas Johanon, Johanĉjo (aŭ Joĉjo), kaj
Erneston ili nomas Erneĉjo (aŭ Erĉjo). (2) Vilhelmo nomas sian
fratinon Marinjo (aŭ Manjo), kvankam ŝi estas baptita Mario; kaj
Mario nomas sian fraton Vilhelĉjo (aŭ Vilheĉjo, aŭ Vilĉjo, aŭ
Viĉjo). (3) Sofinjo estis baptita Sofio, sed kelkafoje ŝia frato,
Nikolao, nomis ŝin Sonjo, kaj ŝi nomis lin Nikĉjo (aŭ Niĉjo).
(4) Mi diris al la reĝo: via reĝa moŝto, pardonu min! (5) El la
kvar leteroj unu estis adresita: Al Lia Episkopa Moŝto, La Episkopo
de N.; la dua: Al Lia Grafa Moŝto de P.; la tria: Al Lia Moŝto
Sinjoro D.; la kvara: Al Sinjoro G. C.
(1) The parents always call John, Johnny (or Jojo), and they call Ernest, Ern, (or Ernie). (2) William calls his sister Mary (or Marnie), even though she was baptized Maria; and Maria calls her brother Will (or Willy, or Willi, or Vicky). (3) Sophie was baptized Sophia, but sometimes her brother, Nicholas, called her Sonya, and she called him Nick (or Nicky). (4) I said to the king: your royal highness, forgive me! (5) Of the four letters, one was addressed: To His Excellency, The Bishop of N.; the second: To His Lordship Count P.; the third: To His Lordship Mr. D.; the fourth: To Mr. G. C.


TRANSLATION 23.


(1) The parents always call John, Johnnie (or Jack), and Ernest they
call Ernstie (or Ernie). (2) William calls his sister Polly (or
Poll), although she has been christened
Mary; and Mary calls her
brother Willie (or Will, or Billy, or Bill). (3) Sophy was christened
Sophia, but sometimes her brother Nicholas called her Soph, and she
called him Nickie (or Nick). (4) I said to the King: pardon me, your
Majesty! (5) Of the four letters one was addressed to the Right
Reverend the Bishop of N.; the second to the Right Honourable the
Earl of P.; the third to the Honourable D. (or, His Honour, or,
His Worship, etc., D.); the fourth to Mr. G. C. (or, G. C., Esq.).
(1) John's parents always call him Johnnie (or Jack), while Ernest's parents call him Ernstie (or Ernie). (2) William refers to his sister as Polly (or Poll), even though her real name is Mary; and Mary calls her brother Willie (or Will, or Billy, or Bill). (3) Sophy’s full name is Sophia, but sometimes her brother Nicholas calls her Soph, and she calls him Nickie (or Nick). (4) I said to the King: excuse me, your Majesty! (5) One of the four letters was addressed to the Right Reverend the Bishop of N.; the second to the Right Honourable the Earl of P.; the third to the Honourable D. (or, His Honour, or, His Worship, etc., D.); the fourth to Mr. G. C. (or, G. C., Esq.).



EXERCISE 24.


Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND- (see par. 275).
Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND- (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) Ŝtalo estas fleksebla, sed fero ne estas fleksebla. (2) Vitro
estas rompebla kaj travidebla. (3) Ne ĉiu kreskaĵo estas manĝebla.
(4) Via parolo estas tute nekomprenebla, kaj viaj leteroj estas ĉiam
skribitaj tute nelegeble. (5) Rakontu al mi vian malfeliĉon, ĉar
eble mi povos helpi al vi. (6) Li rakontis al mi historion tute ne
kredeblan. (7) Ĉu vi amas vian patron? Kia demando! kompreneble, ke
mi lin amas! (8) Mi kredeble ne povos veni al vi hodiaŭ, ĉar mi
pensas, ke mi mem havos hodiaŭ gastojn. (9) Li estas homo ne
kredinda. (10) Via ago estas tre laŭdinda. (11) Tiu ĉi grava tago
restos por mi ĉiam memorinda. (12) Lia edzino estas tre laborema kaj
ŝparema, sed ŝi estas ankaŭ tre babilema kaj kriema. Li estas tre
ekkolerema kaj ekscitiĝas ofte ĉe la plej malgranda bagatelo; tamen
li estas tre pardonema, li ne portas longe la koleron, kaj li tute ne
estas venĝema. (13) Li estas tre kredema; eĉ la plej nekredeblajn
aferojn, kiujn rakontas al li la plej nekredindaj homoj, li tuj
kredas. (14) Li estas tre purema, kaj eĉ unu polveron vi ne trovos
sur lia vesto.
(1) Steel is flexible, but iron is not. (2) Glass is breakable and transparent. (3) Not every plant is edible. (4) Your speech is completely incomprehensible, and your letters are always written totally illegibly. (5) Tell me about your misfortunes, because maybe I can help you. (6) He told me a story that was totally unbelievable. (7) Do you love your father? What a question! Of course I love him! (8) I probably won't be able to come to you today because I think I’ll have guests myself. (9) He is an untrustworthy man. (10) Your actions are very commendable. (11) This important day will always be memorable for me. (12) His wife is very hardworking and frugal, but she is also very talkative and loud. He gets very angry and often gets upset over the slightest thing; however, he is very forgiving, doesn't hold onto anger for long, and is not at all vindictive. (13) He is very gullible; he believes even the most unbelievable things that the most incredible people tell him right away. (14) He is very neat, and you won't find a speck of dust on his clothes.



TRANSLATION 24.


(1) Steel is flexible, but iron is not flexible. (2) Glass is
breakable, and can be seen through (transparent = diafana). (3) Not
every plant is eatable. (4) Your talk is quite incomprehensible, and
your letters are always written quite illegibly. (5) Relate to me
your misfortune, for possibly I can help you. (6) He told me a story
quite incredible. (7) Do you love your father? What a question! Of
course (it is understandable that) I love him! (8) I probably shall
not be able to come to you to-day, because I think that I myself
shall have guests to-day. (9) He is a person unworthy of belief. (10)
Your action is very praiseworthy. (11) This important day will remain
ever memorable for me. (12) His wife is very industrious and thrifty;
but she is also very loquacious and noisy. He is very choleric, and
often is excited at the least trifle; however, he is very forgiving,
he does not nurse anger long, and he is not at all revengeful. (13)
He is very credulous; even the most incredible things, that the most
unbelievable people tell him, he believes at once. (14) He is very
cleanly, and even a grain of dust you will not find on his coat.
(1) Steel is flexible, but iron isn't. (2) Glass is breakable and can be seen through (transparent = diafana). (3) Not every plant is edible. (4) Your speech is quite confusing, and your letters are always written very messily. (5) Tell me about your misfortune, as I might be able to help you. (6) He told me an unbelievable story. (7) Do you love your father? What a question! Of course I love him! (8) I probably won’t be able to come to you today because I think I will have guests. (9) He is a person unworthy of trust. (10) Your action is very commendable. (11) This important day will always be memorable for me. (12) His wife is hardworking and frugal; however, she is also really talkative and loud. He has a quick temper and often gets upset over little things; however, he is very forgiving, doesn’t hold grudges, and is not at all vengeful. (13) He is very gullible; he believes even the most unbelievable things that the most unlikely people tell him right away. (14) He is very neat, and you won’t find a speck of dust on his coat.


EXERCISE 25.


Suffixes -EDZ-, -ID-, -IN- (see pars. 276, 279, 282). Prefixes
BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA- (see par. 286).
Suffixes -EDZ-, -ID-, -IN- (see pars. 276, 279, 282). Prefixes
BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA- (see par. 286).


(1) Patro kaj patrino kune estas nomataj gepatroj. (2) Petro, Anno,
kaj Elizabeto estas miaj gefratoj. (3) Gesinjoroj Smith hodiaŭ
vespere venos al ni. (4) Mi gratulis telegrafe la junajn geedzojn.
(5) La gefianĉoj staris apud la altaro. (6) La patro de mia edzino
estas mia bopatro, mi estas lia bofilo, kaj mia patro estas la
bopatro de mia edzino. (7) Ĉiuj parencoj de mia edzino estas miaj
boparencoj, sekve ŝia frato estas mia bofrato, ŝia fratino estas
mia bofratino; mia frato kaj fratino (gefratoj) estas la bogefratoj
de mia edzino. (8) La edzino de mia nevo kaj la nevino de mia edzino
estas miaj bonevinoj. (9) Virino, kiu kuracas, estas kuracistino;
edzino de kuracisto
estas kuracistedzino. (10) La doktoredzino Jones
vizitis hodiaŭ la gedoktorojn Robinson. (11) Li ne estas lavisto, li
estas lavistinedzo. (12) La filoj, nepoj, kaj pranepoj de reĝo estas
reĝidoj. (13) La hebreoj estas Izraelidoj, ĉar ili devenas de
Izraelo. (14) Ĉevalido estas nematura ĉevalo; kokido, nematura
koko; bovido, nematura bovo; birdido, nematura birdo. (15) Miaj filoj
kaj filinoj, miaj nepoj kaj nepinoj, miaj pranepoj kaj pranepinoj
estas miaj idoj (aŭ, miaj posteuloj); sed miaj avoj kaj avinoj, miaj
praavoj kaj praavinoj estas miaj prapatroj. (16) La edzino de mia
patro estas mia patrino, kaj la avino de miaj infanoj. (17) Sur la
korto staras koko kun tri kokinoj. (18) Mia fratino estas tre bela
knabino. (19) Mia onklino estas bona virino. (20) Mi vidis vian
onklinon kun ŝiaj kvar nepinoj kaj kun mia nevino. (21) Lia
duonpatrino estas mia bofratino. (22) Mi havas bovon kaj bovinon.
(23) La juna vidvino fariĝis denove fianĉino. (24) La dua edzo de
mia patrino estas mia duonpatro, kaj la infanineto, kiu estis naskita
la lastan semajnon, estas mia duonfratino.
(1) A father and mother together are called parents. (2) Peter, Anna, and Elizabeth are my siblings. (3) Mr. and Mrs. Smith will come over to our place tonight. (4) I congratulated the newlyweds via telegram. (5) The couple stood by the altar. (6) My wife's father is my father-in-law, I am his son-in-law, and my father is my wife's father-in-law. (7) All of my wife's relatives are my in-laws, so her brother is my brother-in-law, her sister is my sister-in-law; my brother and sister (siblings) are my wife's siblings. (8) My nephew's wife and my wife's niece are my sisters-in-law. (9) A woman who heals is a healer; the wife of a healer is a healer's wife. (10) Dr. Jones visited Dr. Robinson and his wife today. (11) He is not a washer; he is a washer's husband. (12) The sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons of a king are royals. (13) The Hebrews are Israelites because they descend from Israel. (14) A colt is an immature horse; a chick is an immature chicken; a calf is an immature cow; a birdling is an immature bird. (15) My sons and daughters, my grandsons and granddaughters, my great-grandsons and great-granddaughters are my children (or, my descendants); but my grandparents, my great-grandparents are my ancestors. (16) My father's wife is my mother, and the grandmother of my children. (17) In the yard stands a rooster with three hens. (18) My sister is a very beautiful girl. (19) My aunt is a good woman. (20) I saw your aunt with her four nieces and my niece. (21) His stepmother is my sister-in-law. (22) I have a bull and a cow. (23) The young widow has become engaged again. (24) My mother's second husband is my stepfather, and the baby that was born last week is my half-sister.



TRANSLATION 25.


(1) A father and mother together are called parents. (2) Peter, Anne,
and Elizabeth are my brother and sisters. (3) Mr. and Mrs. Smith will
come to us this (to-day) evening. (4) I congratulated by telegraph
the young married couple. (5) The affianced pair stood at the altar.
(6) My wife’s father is my father-in-law, I am his son-in-law, and my
father is my wife’s father-in-law. (7) All my wife’s relations are my
relatives by marriage (relations-in-law), consequently her brother is
my brother-in-law, her sister is my sister-in-law; my brother and
sister (gefratoj) are brother-and-sister-in-law of my wife. (8) My
nephew’s wife and my wife’s niece are my nieces-in-law. (9) A woman
who treats patients is a female doctor; the wife of a doctor is a
kuracistedzino = a doctor’s wife. (10) Mrs. Doctor Jones visited
to-day Dr. and Mrs. Robinson. (11) He is not a washerman, he is a
washerwoman’s husband. (12)
The sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons
of a king are princes (a king’s descendants). (13) The Jews are
Israelites, for they descend (originate) from Israel. (14) A foal is
an immature horse; a chicken, an immature fowl; a calf, an immature
ox; a fledgeling, an immature bird. (15) My sons and daughters, my
grandsons and granddaughters, my great-grandsons and
great-granddaughters, are my descendants; but my grandfathers and
grandmothers, my great-grandfathers and great-grandmothers, are my
ancestors. (16) My father’s wife is my mother, and the grandmother of
my children. (17) In (on) the yard are a cock and three hens. (18) My
sister is a very beautiful girl. (19) My aunt is a good woman. (20) I
saw your aunt with her four granddaughters and (with) my niece. (21)
His stepmother is my sister-in-law. (22) I have an ox and a cow. (23)
The young widow became again engaged (a fiancée). (24) The second
husband of my mother is my stepfather, and the baby (female) which
was born last week is my half-sister.
(1) A father and mother together are called parents. (2) Peter, Anne, and Elizabeth are my siblings. (3) Mr. and Mrs. Smith will come to our place this evening. (4) I congratulated the newlyweds by telegram. (5) The engaged couple stood at the altar. (6) My wife's father is my father-in-law, I am his son-in-law, and my father is my wife's father-in-law. (7) All my wife's relatives are my in-laws, so her brother is my brother-in-law, her sister is my sister-in-law; my brother and sister are my wife’s brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law. (8) My nephew's wife and my wife's niece are my nieces-in-law. (9) A woman who treats patients is a female doctor; the wife of a doctor is a doctor's wife. (10) Mrs. Doctor Jones visited Dr. and Mrs. Robinson today. (11) He is not a washerman; he is the husband of a washerwoman. (12) The sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons of a king are princes. (13) The Jews are Israelites, as they descend from Israel. (14) A foal is a young horse; a chicken is a young bird; a calf is a young ox; a fledgling is a young bird. (15) My sons and daughters, my grandsons and granddaughters, my great-grandsons and great-granddaughters are my descendants; but my grandfathers and grandmothers, my great-grandfathers and great-grandmothers, are my ancestors. (16) My father's wife is my mother and the grandmother of my children. (17) In the yard are a rooster and three hens. (18) My sister is a very beautiful girl. (19) My aunt is a good woman. (20) I saw your aunt with her four granddaughters and my niece. (21) His stepmother is my sister-in-law. (22) I have an ox and a cow. (23) The young widow became engaged again. (24) My mother's second husband is my stepfather, and the baby girl that was born last week is my half-sister.



EXERCISE 26.


Suffixes -EG-, -ET- (see par. 277).
Suffixes -EG-, -ET- (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) Mi aĉetis por la infanoj tableton kaj kelke da seĝetoj. (2) En
nia lando sin ne trovas montoj, sed nur montetoj. (3) Tuj post la
hejto, la forno estis varmega, post unu horo ĝi estis jam nur varma,
post du horoj ĝi estis nur iom varmeta, kaj post tri horoj ĝi estis
jam tute malvarma. (4) En la somero ni trovas malvarmeton en densaj
arbaregoj. (5) Li sidas apud la tablo kaj dormetas. (6) Mallarĝa
vojeto kondukas tra tiu ĉi kampo al nia domo. (7) Sur lia vizaĝo mi
vidis ĝojan rideton. (8) Kun bruo oni malfermis la pordegon, kaj la
kaleŝo enveturis en la korton. (9) Ĉi tio estis jam ne simpla
pluvo, sed pluvego. (10) Grandega hundo metis sur min sian antaŭan
piedegon, kaj mi pro teruro ne sciis, kion fari. (11) Antaŭ nia
militistaro staris granda serio da pafilegoj.
(1) I bought a table and some small chairs for the kids. (2) In our country, there aren’t mountains, only hills. (3) Right after lighting it up, the oven was really hot; after an hour it was just warm, after two hours it was only a bit warm, and after three hours it was completely cold. (4) In the summer, we find coolness in dense woodlands. (5) He sits by the table and dozes off. (6) A narrow path leads through this field to our house. (7) I saw a joyful smile on his face. (8) With a bang, they opened the gate, and the carriage drove into the yard. (9) This was no ordinary rain, but a downpour. (10) A huge dog put its front paw on me, and I was so scared that I didn’t know what to do. (11) In front of our military were a long line of rifles.



TRANSLATION 26.


(1) I bought for the children a tiny table and some tiny chairs. (2)
In our country there are no mountains (lit., mountains do not find
themselves), but only hills. (3) Immediately after the heating, the
stove was hot, after an hour it was no more than (already only) warm,
after two hours it was only just warm, and after three hours it was
already quite cold. (4) In the summer we find coolness in thick
forests. (5) He sits by the table and dozes. (6) A narrow path leads
through this field to our house. (7) Upon his countenance I saw a
joyful smile. (8) With noise they opened the gate, and the carriage
drove into the courtyard. (9) This was no longer (already not) a
simple shower, but a downpour (deluge). (10) An enormous dog put his
huge forepaw upon me, and from terror I did not know what to do. (11)
Before our army stood a great line of cannon.
(1) I got a little table and some little chairs for the kids. (2) In our country, there are no mountains, only hills. (3) Right after heating, the stove was hot; after an hour, it was just warm; after two hours, it was barely warm; and after three hours, it was already quite cold. (4) In the summer, we find coolness in thick forests. (5) He sits at the table and dozes off. (6) A narrow path goes through this field to our house. (7) I saw a joyful smile on his face. (8) They opened the gate with a lot of noise, and the carriage drove into the courtyard. (9) This was no longer just a simple shower; it was a downpour. (10) A huge dog put his massive paw on me, and out of fear, I didn't know what to do. (11) In front of our army, there was a long line of cannons.


EXERCISE 27.


Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ- (see par. 278).
Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ- (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) La domo, en kiu oni lernas, estas lernejo, kaj la domo, en kiu
oni preĝas, estas preĝejo. (2) La kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo. (3)
La kuracisto konsilis al mi iri en ŝvitbanejon. (4) Magazeno, en kiu
oni vendas cigarojn, aŭ ĉambro, en kiu oni tenas cigarojn, estas
cigarejo; skatoleto aŭ alia objekto, en kiu oni tenas cigarojn,
estas cigarujo; tubeto, en kiun oni metas cigaron, kiam oni ĝin
fumas, estas cigaringo. (5) Skatolo, en kiu oni tenas plumojn, estas
plumujo, kaj bastoneto, sur kiu oni tenas plumon por skribado, estas
plumingo. (6) En la kandelingo sidis brulanta kandelo. (7) En la
poŝo de mia pantalono mi portas monujon, kaj en la poŝo de mia
surtuto mi portas paperujon; pli grandan paperujon mi portas sub la
brako. (8) La rusoj loĝas en Rusujo, kaj la germanoj en Germanujo.
(1) The house where one learns is a school, and the house where one prays is a church. (2) The cook sits in the kitchen. (3) The doctor advised me to go to the sauna. (4) A shop that sells cigars, or a room that holds cigars, is a cigar shop; a box or another object used to hold cigars is a cigar case; a small tube where you put a cigar when smoking it is a cigar holder. (5) A box that holds pens is a pen case, and a small stick that holds a pen for writing is a pen support. (6) There was a burning candle in the candle holder. (7) In the pocket of my pants, I carry a wallet, and in the pocket of my coat, I carry a pouch; I carry a larger pouch under my arm. (8) Russians live in Russia, and Germans live in Germany.



TRANSLATION 27.


(1) The house in which one learns is a school, and the house in which
one prays is a church. (2) The cook is (sits) in the kitchen. (3) The
doctor advised me to go into a Turkish (sweat, vapour) bath. (4) A
shop (warehouse, store) in which cigars are sold (they sell cigars),
or a room in which cigars are kept, is a cigar shop (store); a small
box or other thing into which cigars are put is a cigar-case; a
little tube into which one puts a cigar when one smokes it is a
cigarholder (mouthpiece). (5) A box in which one keeps pens is a
pen-box, and a little stick on which one has (keeps) a pen for
writing is a penholder. (6) In the candlestick was (sat) a burning
candle. (7) In my trousers’ pocket I carry a purse, and in my
overcoat pocket I carry a writing-case (pocket-book); a larger
portfolio I carry under my arm. (8) (The) Russians live in Russia,
and (the) Germans in Germany.
(1) The place where you learn is a school, and the place where you pray is a church. (2) The cook is in the kitchen. (3) The doctor recommended that I go to a Turkish bath. (4) A store where they sell cigars is a cigar shop; a small box where cigars are kept is a cigar case; a little tube for holding a cigar while smoking is a cigar holder. (5) A box for keeping pens is a pen box, and a small stick for holding a pen while writing is a pen holder. (6) There was a burning candle in the candlestick. (7) I carry a wallet in my pants pocket and a writing pad in my overcoat pocket; I hold a larger portfolio under my arm. (8) Russians live in Russia, and Germans live in Germany.


EXERCISE 28.


Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ- (see par. 280).
Suffixes -IG- and -IĜ- (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) En la kota vetero mia vesto forte malpuriĝis; tial mi prenis
broson kaj purigis la veston. (2) Li paliĝis de timo kaj poste li
ruĝiĝis de honto. (3) Li fianĉiĝis kun fraŭlino Berto; post tri
monatoj estos la edziĝo; la edziĝa soleno estos en la nova
preĝejo, kaj la edziĝa festo estos en la domo de liaj estontaj
bogepatroj. (4) Tiu ĉi maljunulo tute malsaĝiĝis kaj infaniĝis.
(5) Post infekta malsano oni ofte bruligas la vestojn de la
malsanulo. (6) Forigu vian fraton, ĉar li malhelpas al ni. (7) Ŝi
edziniĝis kun sia kuzo, kvankam ŝiaj gepatroj volis ŝin edzinigi
kun alia persono. (8) En la printempo la glacio kaj la neĝo
fluidiĝas. (9) Venigu la kuraciston, ĉar mi estas malsana. (10) Li
venigis al si el Berlino multajn librojn. (11) Mia onklo ne mortis
per natura morto, sed li tamen ne mortigis sin mem, kaj ankaŭ estis
mortigita de neniu; unu tagon, promenante apud la reloj de fervojo,
li falis sub la radojn de veturanta vagonaro kaj mortiĝis.
(12) Mi
ne pendigis mian ĉapon sur tiu ĉi arbeto; sed la vento forblovis de
mia kapo la ĉapon, kaj ĝi, flugante, pendiĝis sur la branĉoj de
la arbeto. (13) Sidigu vin (aŭ, sidiĝu), sinjoro! (14) La junulo
aliĝis al nia militistaro, kaj kuraĝe batalis kune kun ni kontraŭ
niaj malamikoj.
(1) In the old town, my clothes got really dirty, so I took a brush and cleaned them. (2) He turned pale with fear and then blushed with embarrassment. (3) He got engaged to Miss Berta; the wedding will be in three months; the ceremony will be in the new church, and the reception will be at his future in-laws' house. (4) This old man has completely lost his senses and become childish. (5) After an infectious illness, people often burn the patient’s clothes. (6) Get rid of your brother because he's getting in our way. (7) She married her cousin, even though her parents wanted her to marry someone else. (8) In spring, the ice and snow melt. (9) Bring the doctor because I'm sick. (10) He had many books delivered to him from Berlin. (11) My uncle didn't die a natural death, but he also didn't commit suicide, nor was he killed by anyone; one day, while walking by the train tracks, he fell under the wheels of a passing train and died. (12) I didn't hang my hat on this tree; the wind blew my hat off my head, and it ended up stuck in the tree branches. (13) Sit down, sir! (14) The young man joined our military and bravely fought alongside us against our enemies.



TRANSLATION 28.


(1) In the muddy weather my coat became very dirty; therefore I took
a brush and cleaned the coat. (2) He became (or grew) pale with
(from) fear and afterwards he blushed (reddened) with shame. (3) He
became engaged to (with) Miss Bertha; in (after) three months will be
the marriage; the wedding ceremony will be in the new church, and the
marriage festival will be in the house of his future parents-in-law.
(4) This old man became quite foolish and childish. (5) After an
infectious disease they often burn the clothes of the patient. (6)
Send away your brother, because he hinders us. (7) She was married to
her cousin, although her parents wished to marry her to (with)
another person. (8) In the spring (the) ice and (the) snow melt. (9)
Send for (fetch, lit., cause to come) the doctor, for I am ill. (10)
He obtained (caused to come to him) many books from (out of) Berlin.
(11) My uncle did not die (by) a natural death, but he nevertheless
did not kill himself, and also was killed by no one; one day, walking
by the rails of a railway, he fell under the wheels of a travelling
train and came to his death. (12) I did not hang my cap on this
shrub; but the wind blew away the cap from my head, and it, in
flying, got hung up on the branches of the shrub. (13) Seat yourself
(or, be seated), sir! (14) The young man joined (lit., became to) our
army, and courageously fought together with us against our enemies.
(1) In the muddy weather, my coat got really dirty, so I grabbed a brush and cleaned it. (2) He turned pale with fear and then blushed with shame afterward. (3) He got engaged to Miss Bertha; the wedding will take place in three months; the ceremony will be at the new church, and the reception will be at his future in-laws' house. (4) This old man acted quite foolish and childish. (5) After someone gets a contagious disease, they often burn the patient's clothes. (6) Send your brother away because he’s getting in our way. (7) She married her cousin, even though her parents wanted her to marry someone else. (8) In the spring, the ice and snow melt. (9) Call the doctor because I’m feeling sick. (10) He got a lot of books from Berlin. (11) My uncle didn’t die a natural death, but he also didn’t kill himself, nor was he killed by anyone; one day, while walking by the train tracks, he fell under the wheels of a passing train and died. (12) I didn’t hang my cap on this bush; the wind blew it off my head, and it got caught in the branches of the bush. (13) Please take a seat, sir! (14) The young man joined our army and bravely fought alongside us against our enemies.


EXERCISE 29.


Suffix -IL- (see par. 281).
Suffix -IL- (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) La tranĉilo estis tiel malakra, ke mi ne povis tranĉi per ĝi
la viandon, kaj mi devis uzi mian poŝan tranĉilon. (2) Ĉu vi havas
korktirilon, por malŝtopi la botelon? (3) Mi volis ŝlosi la
pordon,
sed mi perdis la ŝlosilon. (4) Ŝi kombas al si la (or,
siajn) harojn per arĝenta kombilo. (5) En somero ni veturas per
diversaj veturiloj, kaj en vintro ni veturas per glitveturilo. (6)
Hodiaŭ estas bela frosta vetero, tial mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj
iros gliti. (7) Per hakilo ni hakas, per segilo ni segas, per fosilo
ni fosas, per kudrilo ni kudras, per tondilo ni tondas, per sonorilo
ni sonoras, per fajfilo ni fajfas. (8) Plumo estas skribilo, kaj
inksorbilo estas mola papero, kiun oni uzas por sorbi aŭ sekigi la
inkon.
(1) The knife was so dull that I couldn't cut the meat with it, so I had to use my pocket knife. (2) Do you have a corkscrew to open the bottle? (3) I wanted to lock the door, but I lost the key. (4) She combs her hair with a silver comb. (5) In the summer, we travel by various vehicles, and in the winter, we travel by sled. (6) Today is a beautiful frosty day, so I will grab my skates and go skating. (7) We chop with an axe, saw with a saw, dig with a shovel, sew with a needle, mow with a mower, ring with a bell, and whistle with a whistle. (8) A feather is a pen, and blotting paper is soft paper used to absorb or dry ink.



TRANSLATION 29.


(1) The knife was so blunt that I could not cut the meat with it, and
I had to use my pocket knife. (2) Have you a corkscrew to open
(unstop) the bottle? (3) I wanted to lock the door, but I had lost
the key. (4) She combs (to herself) her (the) hair with a silver
comb. (5) In summer we travel by various vehicles, and in winter we
travel by a sledge. (6) To-day is fine, frosty weather, therefore I
shall take my skates and go skating (to skate). (7) With a hatchet we
chop, with a saw we saw, with a spade we dig, with a needle we sew,
with scissors we clip, with a bell we ring, with a fife (whistle) we
fife (whistle). (8) A pen is a writing implement, and blotting paper
is soft paper which we use to absorb or dry the ink.
(1) The knife was so dull that I couldn't cut the meat with it, so I had to use my pocket knife. (2) Do you have a corkscrew to open the bottle? (3) I wanted to lock the door, but I lost the key. (4) She combs her hair with a silver comb. (5) In summer, we travel by different vehicles, and in winter, we travel by sled. (6) Today is nice, frosty weather, so I'm going to grab my skates and go skating. (7) With a hatchet, we chop; with a saw, we saw; with a spade, we dig; with a needle, we sew; with scissors, we cut; with a bell, we ring; with a fife, we play. (8) A pen is a writing tool, and blotting paper is soft paper we use to soak up or dry the ink.


EXERCISE 30.


Suffix -UM- (see par. 285).
Suffix -UM- (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) Malfermu la fenestron por aerumi la ĉambron. (2) Ĉiuj hundoj en
nia urbo devas porti buŝumojn. (3) Ĉu vi havas butonumilon por
butonumi miajn
 botojn ? (4) La lavistino lavis miajn kolumojn kaj manumojn. (5) Li
aĉetis nazumon. (6) Ŝi portadas ventumilon, per kiu ŝi ventumadas
sin. (7) Vi ne buŝumis (estas buŝuminta) vian hundon. (8) Gustumu
tiun ĉi viandon, kaj diru al mi, ĉu ĝi estas bona aŭ ne. (9) La
kalkanumoj de viaj botoj estas
tro altaj. (10) Oni lotumis al mi dek
du akciojn en la nova kompanio. (11) Mi ne povis plenumi miajn
promesojn, ĉar mi havis tiom da aliaj aferoj por decidi. (12) La
laktumo de haringo estas bongustaĵo.
(1) Open the window to let some fresh air into the room. (2) All dogs in our city must wear muzzles. (3) Do you have a buttonhole maker to button my shoes? (4) The laundress washed my collars and cuffs. (5) He bought a tissue. (6) She carries a fan that she uses to cool herself. (7) You didn’t muzzle your dog. (8) Taste this meat and tell me if it’s good or not. (9) The heels of your boots are too high. (10) I was awarded twelve shares in the new company. (11) I couldn’t keep my promises because I had so many other things to decide. (12) The milk from the herring is a delicacy.



TRANSLATION 30.


(1) Open the window to air the room. (2) All dogs in our town have to
wear muzzles. (3) Have you a button-hook to button my boots? (4) The
washerwoman washed my collars and cuffs. (5) He bought a pince-nez.
(6) She carries (about) a fan, with which she keeps fanning herself.
(7) You have not muzzled your dog. (8) Taste this meat, and tell me
whether it be good or not. (9) The heels of your boots are too high.
(10) They allotted me twelve shares in the new company. (11) I could
not fulfil my engagements, for I had so many other matters to settle.
(12) The soft roe of a herring is a tasty morsel (thing).
(1) Open the window to let some fresh air into the room. (2) All dogs in our town must wear muzzles. (3) Do you have a button hook to fasten my boots? (4) The laundress cleaned my collars and cuffs. (5) He bought a pair of pince-nez glasses. (6) She carries a fan that she uses to keep herself cool. (7) You haven't put a muzzle on your dog. (8) Try this meat and let me know if it's good or not. (9) The heels on your boots are too high. (10) They gave me twelve shares in the new company. (11) I couldn't meet my commitments because I had so many other things to take care of. (12) The soft roe of a herring is a delicious treat.


EXERCISE 31.


Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR- (see par. 287).
Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR- (see para. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


(1) Malfeliĉo ofte kunigas la homojn, kaj feliĉo ofte disigas ilin.
(2) Mi disŝiris la leteron kaj disĵetis ĝiajn pecetojn en ĉiujn
angulojn de la ĉambro. (3) La prefiksoj DE-, DIS-, kaj FOR- ĉiuj
montras ian forigon aŭ disigon, ekzemple:—Kiam ni disbatis la muron
kaj disĵetis la fortikaĵeton, tiam la malamikoj deĵetis la
armilojn kaj forkuris. (4) La infano renversis la inkujon kaj
disverŝis la inkon sur mian naztukon. (5) Li estas forkurinto, tial
ke li ne revenis al sia regimento je la templimo de sia forpermeso.
(6) Li demetis la ĉapelon, kiam li eniris (en) la ĉambron. (7)
Kelkaj patrinoj debrustigas siajn infanetojn pli frue, ol aliaj. (8)
Li disŝutis la sablon sur la plankon. (9) La servistino senordigis
(dismetis) miajn librojn tiamaniere, ke mi ne povis trovi tiun, kiun
mi bezonis.
(1) Misfortune often brings people together, and happiness often drives them apart.  
(2) I tore up the letter and scattered its pieces in every corner of the room.  
(3) The prefixes DE-, DIS-, and FOR- all indicate some sort of removal or separation, for example:—When we smashed the wall and scattered the debris, the enemies dropped their weapons and ran away.  
(4) The child knocked over the inkpot and spilled ink on my handkerchief.  
(5) He is a deserter because he didn't return to his regiment at the end of his leave.  
(6) He took off his hat when he entered the room.  
(7) Some mothers wean their babies earlier than others.  
(8) He poured the sand on the floor.  
(9) The maid messed up my books in such a way that I couldn't find the one I needed.



TRANSLATION 31.


(1) Misfortune often unites men, and happiness often separates them.
(2) I tore up the letter and threw away its fragments into all
corners of the room. (3) The prefixes DE-, DIS-, and FOR- all denote
some sort of abstraction or separation, for example:—When we beat
down the wall and demolished the fort, then the enemy threw down
their (the) weapons and fled (ran away). (4) The child upset the
inkstand and spilled the ink over my handkerchief. (5) He is a
deserter (a runaway), for he did not return to his regiment at the
expiration of his leave of absence (permission to be away). (6) He
took off his (the) hat when he entered the room. (7) Some mothers
wean (take from the breast) their infants earlier than others. (8) He
scattered the sand on the floor. (9) The maidservant disarranged my
books, so that I could not find the one (that which) I wanted.
(1) Misfortune often brings people together, while happiness often drives them apart.  
(2) I ripped up the letter and tossed its pieces into every corner of the room.  
(3) The prefixes DE-, DIS-, and FOR- all imply some kind of abstraction or separation, for instance:—When we broke down the wall and took down the fort, the enemy dropped their weapons and ran away.  
(4) The child knocked over the inkstand and spilled ink all over my handkerchief.  
(5) He is a deserter because he didn’t return to his regiment when his leave was up.  
(6) He took off his hat when he walked into the room.  
(7) Some mothers wean their infants earlier than others do.  
(8) He spread the sand across the floor.  
(9) The maid messed up my books so I couldn’t find the one I wanted.


EXERCISE 32.


Prefixes EK- and RE- (see pars. 288, 290).
Prefixes EK- and RE- (see paragraphs __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__).


(1) Li donis al mi monon, sed mi ĝin tuj redonis al li. (2) Mi
foriras, sed atendu min, ĉar mi baldaŭ revenos. (3) La suno
rebrilas en la klara akvo de la rivero. (4) Li venos al mi morgaŭ,
por ke mi redonu al li la librojn. (5) Ŝi ekridis, kaj poste
reekbruligis la kandelon. (6) Tuj kiam mi ekkantis, la infaneto
ekdormis, kaj redoninte ĝin al ĝia patrino, mi revenis domen. (7)
Mi ne povas akcepti vian afablan inviton, ĉar ia malsaneto min
retenas en mia ĉambro. (8) Spegulo reĵetas la radiojn de lumo, tuj
kiam ili ekfalas sur ĝin. (9) Mi eksaltis de surprizo, kiam la pilko
subite resaltis de la muro. (10) Kiam Johano reprenis la libron, kiun
mi redonis al li, li diris, ke ĝi estas malpura, sed mi respondis,
ke ĝi ne estis bonstata (tiam), kiam mi ĝin ricevis.
(1) He gave me money, but I immediately returned it to him. (2) I'm leaving, but wait for me because I'll be back soon. (3) The sun is shining brightly on the clear water of the river. (4) He will come to me tomorrow so I can give him back the books. (5) She laughed, and then lit the candle again. (6) As soon as I started to sing, the little one fell asleep, and after handing it back to its mother, I returned home. (7) I can’t accept your kind invitation because some illness is keeping me in my room. (8) A mirror reflects rays of light as soon as they hit it. (9) I jumped in surprise when the ball suddenly bounced off the wall. (10) When John took back the book I returned to him, he said it was dirty, but I replied that it wasn’t in good condition when I got it.


TRANSLATION 32.


(1) He gave money to me, but I immediately gave it back to him. (2) I
am going away, but await me, for I shall soon return (come back). (3)
The sun is reflected in the clear
water of the river. (4) He will
come to me to-morrow, in order that I may return him the books. (5)
She began to laugh, and then re-lighted the candle. (6) Directly
(immediately when) I began to sing the baby fell asleep, and having
returned it to its mother, I returned home. (7) I cannot accept your
kind invitation, because (an, some kind of) indisposition is keeping
me (is retaining me) to (in) my room. (8) A mirror throws back the
rays of light directly they begin to fall upon it. (9) I started with
surprise when the ball suddenly bounded back from the wall. (10) When
John took back the book which I returned to him, he said that it was
(is) dirty, but I replied that it was not in a good state (then) when
I received it.
(1) He gave me money, but I immediately gave it back to him. (2) I'm going away, but wait for me, because I'll be back soon. (3) The sun reflects in the clear water of the river. (4) He will come to me tomorrow so I can return the books to him. (5) She started laughing, and then she lit the candle again. (6) As soon as I started singing, the baby fell asleep, and after giving it back to its mother, I went home. (7) I can't accept your kind invitation because some kind of illness is keeping me in my room. (8) A mirror reflects light rays as soon as they start to hit it. (9) I was surprised when the ball suddenly bounced back from the wall. (10) When John took back the book I returned to him, he said it was dirty, but I replied that it wasn't in good condition when I got it.



EXERCISE 33.


Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN- (see par. 289.)
Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN- (see par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__.)


(1) Mia frato ne estas granda, sed li ne estas ankaŭ malgranda; li
estas de meza kresko. (2) Li estas tiel dika, ke li ne povas trairi
tra nia mallarĝa pordo. (3) Haro estas tre maldika. (4) La nokto
estis tiel malluma, ke ni nenion povis vidi eĉ antaŭ nia nazo. (5)
Tiu ĉi malfreŝa pano estas malmola, kiel ŝtono. (6) Malbonaj
infanoj amas turmenti bestojn. (7) Li sentis sin tiel malfeliĉa, ke
li malbenis la tagon en kiu li estis naskita. (8) Mi forte malestimas
tiun ĉi malnoblan homon. (9) La fenestro longe estis nefermita; mi
ĝin fermis, sed mia frato tuj ĝin denove malfermis. (10) Rekta vojo
estas pli mallonga, ol kurba. (11) La tablo staras malrekte kaj
kredeble baldaŭ renversiĝos. (12) Li staras supre sur la monto kaj
rigardas malsupren sur la kampon. (13) Malamiko venis en nian landon.
(14) Oni tiel malhelpis al mi, ke mi malbonigis mian tutan laboron.
(15) Lia filo mortis kaj estas nun malviva. (16) La korpo estas
morta, la animo estas senmorta. (17) La fremdulo
sidiĝis
neinvitite, kaj tuj ekparolis tute senceremonie. (18) Mi povis nur
neregule sendi mian filon en lernejon, tial la lernejestro ĉiam
plendadis pri lia neakurateco, neatento, kaj neordinara nekapableco.
(19) La vitro estas rompiĝema, kaj estas neeble ĝin fervoje sendi
senriske (aŭ, sen risko). (20) Tiu ĉi objekto estas senutila, sed
ĝi ne estas malutila. (21) Neniu estas senmakula. (22) Li estas tre
nemodesta, kaj lia tromemfido estas senlima, sed li ne estas
malmodesta.
(1) My brother isn’t tall, but he’s not short either; he’s of average height. (2) He’s so big that he can’t fit through our narrow door. (3) His hair is very thin. (4) The night was so dark that we couldn’t see anything, not even in front of our noses. (5) This stale bread is hard as a rock. (6) Bad kids love to bully animals. (7) He felt so unhappy that he cursed the day he was born. (8) I really dislike that unpleasant man. (9) The window had been open for a long time; I closed it, but my brother immediately opened it again. (10) A straight path is shorter than a curved one. (11) The table is standing askew and will probably tip over soon. (12) He stands on top of the hill and looks down at the field. (13) An enemy came into our land. (14) I was held back so much that I ruined all of my work. (15) His son died and is now dead. (16) The body is dead, the soul is immortal. (17) The stranger sat down uninvited and immediately started speaking without any ceremony. (18) I could only send my son to school irregularly, so the headmaster always complained about his carelessness, inattention, and unusual ineptness. (19) The glass is fragile, and it’s impossible to send it by train without risk. (20) This object is useless, but it’s not harmful. (21) No one is perfect. (22) He is very immodest, and his self-confidence is boundless, but he’s not arrogant.



TRANSLATION 33.


(1) My brother is not tall (large), but he is not either (also) short
(small); he is of medium growth. (2) He is so stout (thick) that he
cannot go through our narrow door. (3) A hair is very thin. (4) The
night was so dark that we could see nothing even before our nose. (5)
This stale bread is hard as a stone. (6) Bad children love to torment
animals. (7) He felt himself so unhappy that he cursed the day in
which he was born. (8) I strongly despise this vile (ignoble) person.
(9) The window had long been unclosed; I closed it, but my brother
immediately opened it again. (10) A direct way is shorter than a
curved one. (11) The table stands aslant, and probably (credibly)
will soon upset. (12) He stands above upon the mountain and looks
down below upon the field. (13) An enemy came into our country. (14)
They so hindered me that I spoiled my whole work. (15) His son died,
and is now dead. (16) The body is mortal (of death); the soul is
immortal (without death). (17) The stranger sat down uninvited, and
at once began to speak without ceremony. (18) I could only
irregularly send my son to (in) school, therefore the headmaster
(schoolmaster) was always complaining of (concerning) his
unpunctuality, inattention, and unusual incapacity. (19) Glass is
fragile, and it is impossible to send it by rail without risk. (20)
This article is useless, but it is not harmful. (21) No one is
immaculate. (22) He is very consequential, and his self-conceit is
unbounded, but he is not presumptuous.
(1) My brother isn’t tall, but he’s not short either; he’s medium height. (2) He’s so heavy that he can’t fit through our narrow door. (3) A hair is very thin. (4) The night was so dark that we couldn’t see anything, even right in front of us. (5) This stale bread is as hard as a rock. (6) Bad kids love to mess with animals. (7) He felt so miserable that he cursed the day he was born. (8) I really despise this awful person. (9) The window had been open for a long time; I closed it, but my brother immediately opened it again. (10) A straight path is shorter than a winding one. (11) The table is tilted and will probably tip over soon. (12) He stands up on the mountain and looks down at the field. (13) An enemy came into our country. (14) They distracted me so much that I ruined all my work. (15) His son died and is now gone. (16) The body is mortal; the soul is immortal. (17) The stranger sat down uninvited and immediately started talking without any introduction. (18) I could only send my son to school irregularly, so the principal was always complaining about his lack of punctuality, inattention, and unusual incompetence. (19) Glass is fragile, and it’s impossible to send it by train without taking a risk. (20) This item is useless, but it’s not harmful. (21) No one is perfect. (22) He is very self-important, and his arrogance knows no bounds, but he’s not presumptuous.



EXERCISES ON SIMILAR WORDS


The learner will find the following exercises useful in helping him
to avoid errors in the meaning of words which are nearly alike in
spelling.
The learner will find the following exercises helpful in avoiding mistakes with words that are nearly similar in spelling.


EXERCISE 34.


(1) Laŭ la aĝo de la knabo, oni ne pensis, ke li estas kapabla je
tia ago. (2) Anĝelo vidis angilon naĝantan en sitelo apud la
angulo de la ĉambro. (3) La bariloj sur la stratoj estas faritaj
el bareloj plenigitaj per sablo. (4) La broĉo estas trovita en
breĉo de la muro. (5) Oni devas demeti la ĉapelon, kiam oni
eniras kapelon. (6) La ĉielo heliĝas, kaj la celo de la
abeloj, kiam ili flirtadas de floro al floro, estas kolekti mielon
por enmeti en la ĉelojn de la mieltavoloj. (7) Ni vespermanĝis
proksime de dezerto, sed ne staris deserto sur la tablo. (8) Ĉu
vi divenis de kie la malbonodoro devenis? (9) La funto da teo
kuŝis sur la fundo de la kesto, kiun oni trovis apud la fonto.
(10) La faktoro diris, ke la fakturo estas ĝusta laŭ ĉiu ero,
kaj tial ĝi povas esti nomata ne sole "fakturo," sed ankaŭ
"faktaro." (11) Ĉe la festeno estis pendigita super la tablo
festono el rozoj. (12) La gaso ekbruligis pecon da gazo. (13)
La generala rango estas pli ĝenerala en Anglujo, ol en Rusujo.
(14) Justa homo estas ĝusta pri siaj aferoj, sed li ne estas,
necese, homo kun gusto. (15) Hirundo glutas insektojn, sed
hirudo suĉas sangon. (16) Je la naŭa horo, la ĥoro ekkantis.
(17) La kanabo, kiun havas la knabo, apartenas al lia patro. (18)
Laŭ mia juĝo, tiu jugo estas tro larĝa. (19) La
Templo de
Jupitro en Romo estas nomata "la Kapitolo." Kiam mia amiko ĝin
vidis, li decidis konstrui domegon laŭ simila desegno, kun
kapitelo sur ĉiu kolono; sed li trovis, ke li ne havas sufiĉe
da kapitalo por tia celo. Baldaŭ poste, li iris al la kolonio
Natalo, kie li sin mortigis per pafo tra la tempio. (20)
"Lekanto" estas la nomo de floro, sed la sama vorto, Esperante,
ankaŭ signifas personon, kiu lekas ion, t.e., "lekanto." (21) La
vango de la gvidisto estis difektita per la falo de la lavango.
(22) "La kaso estas plena." En ĉi tiu frazo "kaso" estas la
subjekto de la verbo, tial ĝi estas en la kazo nominativa. (23) Li
donis al sia amiko sian loĝion en la teatro, kaj tiel lin logis,
ke li aĉetu la domon, en kiu ili ambaŭ loĝis.
(1) According to the boy's age, no one thought he was capable of such an action. (2) An angel saw an angelfish swimming in a bucket by the corner of the room. (3) The barriers on the streets are made from barrels filled with sand. (4) The brooch is found in a gap in the wall. (5) You must take off your hat when entering a chapel. (6) The sky brightens, and the goal of the bees, as they flit from flower to flower, is to gather honey to put in the cells of the honeycombs. (7) We had dinner near a desert, but there wasn’t any dessert on the table. (8) Did you guess where the bad smell came from? (9) The pound of tea lay at the bottom of the box, which was found near the fountain. (10) The factor said that the invoice is correct for every item, and therefore it can be called not only "invoice," but also "factor." (11) At the feast, a garland of roses was hanging over the table. (12) The gas ignited a piece of gasoline. (13) The general rank is more general in England than in Russia. (14) A just person is right about their matters, but they aren't necessarily a person with taste. (15) A swallow eats insects, but a leech sucks blood. (16) At nine o'clock, the choir began to sing. (17) The hemp the boy has belongs to his father. (18) In my judgment, that yoke is too wide. (19) The Temple of Jupiter in Rome is called "the Capitol." When my friend saw it, he decided to build a house with a similar design, with capitals on each column; but he found that he didn’t have enough capital for that purpose. Soon after, he went to the colony Natal, where he killed himself with a shot to the temple. (20) "Leek" is the name of a flower, but the same word, in Esperanto, also means a person who leaks something, i.e., "leaker." (21) The chin of the guide was damaged by the fall of the avalanche. (22) "The case is full." In this sentence, "case" is the subject of the verb, so it is in the nominative case. (23) He gave his friend his lodging in the theater, and thus he lured him to buy the house in which they both lived.



TRANSLATION 34.


(1) From the boy’s age, they did not think him capable of such an
act. (2) An angel saw an eel swimming in a bucket near the
corner of the room. (3) The barriers in the streets are made of
barrels filled with sand. (4) The brooch has been found in a
breach of the wall. (5) One must take off one’s hat when one
enters a chapel. (6) The sky is getting clear, and the purpose
of the bees, as they flit from flower to flower, is to collect honey
to deposit in the cells of the honeycombs. (7) We dined near a
desert, but there was no dessert on the table. (8) Did you
guess from whence the bad smell emanated? (9) The pound of tea
lay at the bottom of the box, which they found near the spring.
(10) The factor said the invoice was correct in every item, and,
therefore, it might be called not only an invoice, but also a
collection of facts. (11) At the banquet a festoon of roses was
suspended over the table. (12) The gas ignited a piece of gauze.
(13) The rank of general is more prevalent in England than in
Russia. (14) An upright (just) man is exact in his business, but
he is not necessarily a man of taste. (15) A swallow swallows
insects, but a leech sucks blood. (16) At 9 o’clock the choir
began to sing. (17) The hemp which the boy has, belongs to his
father. (18) In my judgment, that yoke is too wide. (19) The
Temple of Jupiter at Rome is called the "Capitol." When my
friend
saw it, he decided to build a mansion of a similar design,
with a capital on each column; but he found he had not sufficient
capital for such a purpose. Soon afterwards he went to the Colony
of Natal, where he committed suicide by a shot through his temple.
(20) "Marguerite" is the name of a flower, but the same word, in
Esperanto, also means a person who is licking something, i.e., a
"licker." (21) The guide’s cheek had been injured by the fall of
the avalanche. (22) "The money-box is full." In this sentence
"moneybox" is the subject of the verb, therefore, it is in the
nominative case. (23) He gave his friend his box at the theatre,
and thus induced him to buy the house in which they both lived.
(1) Because of the boy’s age, they didn’t believe he was capable of such an act. (2) An angel saw an eel swimming in a bucket near the corner of the room. (3) The barriers in the streets are made of barrels filled with sand. (4) The brooch has been found in a breach in the wall. (5) You must take off your hat when you enter a chapel. (6) The sky is clearing up, and the purpose of the bees, as they flit from flower to flower, is to gather honey to store in the cells of the honeycombs. (7) We dined near a desert, but there was no dessert on the table. (8) Did you figure out where the bad smell came from? (9) The pound of tea was at the bottom of the box, which they found near the spring. (10) The factor said the invoice was accurate in every item, and, therefore, it could be called not only an invoice, but also a collection of facts. (11) At the banquet, a festoon of roses was hanging over the table. (12) The gas ignited a piece of gauze. (13) The rank of general is more common in England than in Russia. (14) An upright (just) man is precise in his business, but he’s not necessarily a man of taste. (15) A swallow eats insects, but a leech sucks blood. (16) At 9 o’clock, the choir started to sing. (17) The hemp that the boy has belongs to his father. (18) In my opinion, that yoke is too wide. (19) The Temple of Jupiter in Rome is called the "Capitol." When my friend saw it, he decided to build a mansion with a similar design and a capital on each column; but he realized he didn’t have enough capital for that. Shortly after, he went to the Colony of Natal, where he took his own life with a gunshot to his temple. (20) "Marguerite" is the name of a flower, but in Esperanto, it also means someone who is licking something, i.e., a "licker." (21) The guide's cheek was injured by the falling avalanche. (22) "The money-box is full." In this sentence, "money-box" is the subject of the verb, so it is in the nominative case. (23) He gave his friend his box at the theater, which led him to buy the house they both lived in.



EXERCISE 35.


(1) La maĉo estas sama, ĉu la nutraĵo estas pano ordinara aŭ
maco. (2) La marŝado de la soldatoj estis tra danĝera marĉo.
(3) Dum La Meso estis solenata, la virino staris en la mezo de
amaso da adorantoj; ŝia maso da haroj estis subtenata per reto,
kies maŝo estis rompita en diversaj lokoj. (4) La mastro de la
domo estas magistro de artoj, kaj ankaŭ majstro en sia profesio.
(5) Lia morto okazis pro mordo de hundo. (6) La monarĥo
paroladis kun monaĥo, kiam mi lin vidis. (7) Venena serpenteto lin
mordis, kaj preskaŭ tuj li mortis. (8) Muso kaj muŝo estis
en la ĉambro de la poeto, kaj tuj kiam li ilin vidis, poeta
inspiro, aŭ muzo, lin ekkaptis; li spiris rapide, kaj, post
profunda enspiro, la muso kaj muŝo rememorigis al li la naŭ
filinojn de Zeŭso, kaj, tie kaj tiam, li ekverkis sian gloran
poemon, "La Batalo de la Muzoj." (9) "Mosto" estas vino
nefermentita, kiun tre ŝatis lia grafa moŝto. (10) La homo
ludanta la orgenon ne sciis, ke ĝi estas malagorda, pro tio, ke li
jam antaŭe perdis la organon de aŭdado. (11) La generalo, kiu
eldonis la ordonon, portis la dekoracion de la ordeno "la Stelo
de Hindujo." (12) Pastelo estas bombono en
formo de disko, sed
paŝtelo estas krajono el kolora kreto. (13) Estis paco en la
domo, tuj kiam la peco da ligno estis kovrita per peĉo. (14) La
dekstra pedalo de la fortepiano, kiu apartenis al la pedelo,
estas rompita. (15) La kesto pezis pli, ol la negocisto supozis,
ĉar kiam ĝi estis metita sur la pesilo, kaj lia servisto ĝin
pesis, oni trovis, ke pezilo kvindek-ses-funta ne estas sufiĉe
peza por ĝin pesi. (16) Li paŝis antaŭen, kaj pasis tra la
pordo. (17) Tuj kiam la piŝto moviĝis, la lokomotivo ekiris, kaj
ĝiaj radoj pistis ŝtonon kuŝantan sur la relo; birdo nomata
"ralo" ektremis je la bruo, kaj flugis trans la fervojon. (18) Li
desegnis ŝipon sur la posto de poŝtkarto, kiun li sendis al
Parizo per la poŝto. (19) Li penis disrompi la ŝnuron per la
mano, sed malsukcesis; poste li provis ĝin, kaj pruvis, ke ĝi
povas subteni pezilon kvarcent-funtan. (20) La pulvo estas
pulvoro uzata por pafiloj, sed ĝiaj grajnoj ne estas tiel
delikataj, kiel tiuj de polvo; alivorte, pulvero estas pli
maldelikata (or, malpli delikata) ol polvero. (21) La pruno
ĝermiĝas el la florburĝono de la prunarbo, sed la burĝonoj estas
kelkfoje detruitaj de la prujno. (22) Lia vesto estis subŝtofita
per pelto, kaj estis tiel varma, ke palto ne estis necesa.
(1) The male is the same, whether the food is ordinary bread or food. (2) The march of the soldiers was through a dangerous marsh. (3) While the Mass was being celebrated, the woman stood in the middle of a crowd of worshipers; her mass of hair was supported by a net, whose mesh was broken in various places. (4) The master of the house is a magister of arts, and also a master in his profession. (5) His death occurred due to a bite from a dog. (6) The monarch was talking with a monk when I saw him. (7) A venomous snake bited him, and almost immediately he died. (8) A mouse and a fly were in the poet's room, and as soon as he saw them, poetic inspiration, or muse, seized him; he breathed quickly, and after a deep breath, the mouse and fly reminded him of the nine daughters of Zeus, and right then and there, he started writing his glorious poem, "The Battle of the Muses." (9) "Must" is unfermented wine, which his noble lord greatly enjoyed. (10) The man playing the organ didn’t know it was out of tune, because he had previously lost the sense of hearing. (11) The general who issued the order wore the decoration of the order "the Star of India." (12) Paste is a candy in the shape of a disk, but pastel is a crayon made of colored chalk. (13) There was peace in the house as soon as the piece of wood was covered with pitch. (14) The right pedal of the piano, which was part of the pedal system, is broken. (15) The box weighed more than the merchant expected, because when it was placed on the scale, and his servant weighed it, they found that a scale with a capacity of fifty-six pounds was not sufficient weight for it to weigh. (16) He stepped forward and passed through the door. (17) As soon as the piston moved, the locomotive started, and its wheels crushed a stone lying on the track; a bird called a "rail" trembled at the noise and flew across the railway. (18) He drew a ship on the post of a postcard he sent to Paris by mail. (19) He struggled to break the cord with his hand but failed; then he tried it and proved that it could support a weight of four hundred pounds. (20) The powder is gunpowder used for firearms, but its grains are not as fine as those of dust; in other words, powder is coarser (or, less fine) than dust. (21) The plum sprouts from the flower bud of the plum tree, but sometimes the buds are destroyed by the plum weevil. (22) His coat was lined with fur, and it was so warm that a coat was unnecessary.



TRANSLATION 35.


(1) The act of mastication is the same, whether the food is
ordinary bread or unleavened bread. (2) The march of the soldiers
was through a dangerous swamp. (3) Whilst Mass was being
celebrated, the woman stood in the midst of a crowd of
worshippers; her mass of hair was supported by a net, the mesh of
which had been broken in various places. (4) The master of the
house is a master of arts, and also a master in his profession.
(5) His death occurred through a bite from a dog. (6) The
monarch was conversing with a monk when I saw him. (7) A venomous
snake bit him, and he died almost immediately. (8) A mouse and
a fly were in
the poet’s room, and as soon as he saw them, a
poetic inspiration, or muse, seized him; he breathed quickly,
and, after a deep inspiration, the mouse and the fly reminded
him of the nine daughters of Zeus; and, there and then, he began to
write his glorious poem, "The Battle of the Muses." (9) "Must" is
unfermented wine, which His Excellency the Count much appreciated.
(10) The man playing the organ did not know it was out of tune, for
he had lost the organ of hearing. (11) The general, who issued the
order, wore the order of the Star of India. (12) A pastille
(lozenge) is a disc-shaped sweetmeat, but a pastel (crayon) is a
pencil made of coloured chalk. (13) There was peace in the house as
soon as the piece of wood had been covered with pitch. (14) The
right pedal of the piano, which belonged to the beadle, is
broken. (15) The box weighed more than the merchant supposed, for
when it was placed on the scales, and his servant weighed it, it
was found that a 56 lb. weight was not sufficiently weighty to
weigh it. (16) He stepped forward and passed through the door.
(17) As soon as the piston began to move, the locomotive started,
and its wheels crushed a stone lying on the rail; a bird called a
"rail" was startled at the noise, and flew over the railway. (18)
He drew a ship on the back of a postcard, which he sent by post
to Paris. (19) He tried to break the cord with his hand, but
failed; then he tested it, and proved that it could sustain a
weight of 400 lbs. (20) Gunpowder is a powder used for guns, but
its grains are not so fine as those of dust; in other words, a
grain of gunpowder is coarser than a grain of dust. (21) The
plum is formed from the blossom of the plum-tree, but the buds are
sometimes destroyed by hoar frost. (22) His coat was lined with
fur, and was so warm that a greatcoat was not necessary.
(1) The act of chewing is the same, whether the food is regular bread or unleavened bread. (2) The march of the soldiers went through a dangerous swamp. (3) While Mass was being held, the woman stood in the midst of a crowd of worshippers; her mass of hair was held up by a net, which had broken in various places. (4) The head of the house is a master of arts, and also a master in his profession. (5) He died from a bite by a dog. (6) The monarch was talking to a monk when I saw him. (7) A venomous snake bit him, and he died almost instantly. (8) A mouse and a fly were in the poet’s room, and as soon as he saw them, a poetic inspiration, or muse, struck him; he breathed quickly, and after a deep inhalation, the mouse and the fly reminded him of the nine daughters of Zeus; right then and there, he began to write his famous poem, "The Battle of the Muses." (9) "Must" is unfermented wine, which His Excellency the Count really enjoyed. (10) The man playing the organ didn’t realize it was out of tune, as he had lost his hearing. (11) The general who gave the order wore the order of the Star of India. (12) A pastille (lozenge) is a disc-shaped candy, but a pastel (crayon) is a pencil made of colored chalk. (13) There was calm in the house as soon as the piece of wood was covered with pitch. (14) The right pedal of the piano, which belonged to the beadle, is broken. (15) The box weighed more than the merchant thought, because when it was placed on the scales and his servant weighed it, it turned out that a 56 lb. weight was not heavy enough to balance it. (16) He stepped forward and went through the door. (17) As soon as the piston started moving, the locomotive began, and its wheels crushed a stone lying on the tracks; a bird called a "rail" was startled by the noise and flew over the railway. (18) He drew a ship on the back of a postcard, which he sent by mail to Paris. (19) He tried to break the cord with his hand but couldn't; then he tested it and proved that it could hold a weight of 400 lbs. (20) Gunpowder is a powder used for guns, but its grains aren't as fine as those of dust; in other words, a grain of gunpowder is coarser than a grain of dust. (21) The plum comes from the blossom of the plum tree, but the buds can sometimes be killed by frost. (22) His coat was lined with fur, and it was so warm that a greatcoat wasn’t needed.




EXERCISE 36.


(1) Ŝi staris sur la ponto, kaj la punto de ŝia robo flirtis en
la vento. (2) La puso elfluis el la karbunkolo kiam la kuracisto
ĝin tranĉis, sed la malsanulo je la puŝo de la momento, ne povis
ne ekkrii. (3) Li prenis la remilon el la boato, kaj remetis trans
la riveron; atinginte la kontraŭan bordon, li
remetis la remilon
(or, metis la remilon reen) en la boaton kaj iris hejmen. (4) La
matena roso estis ankoraŭ sur la rozo, kiam la ruso, per lerta
ruzo, venkis la malamikon. (5) Laŭ mia opinio (or, miaopinie) la
reno de ŝafo estas pli bongusta, ol la rano, kiun oni manĝas en
Francujo. (6) La rato estis kaptita per reto. (7) Homo, kiu
reĝas, estas reĝo, kaj la popolo, kiun li regas, estas liaj
regatoj (or, personoj regataj). La reganto de kolonio regas
la kolonion, sed li ne reĝas. (8) Kiam mi vidis la Romanon, li
legis romanon, kaj lia edzino kantis romancon. (9) La rabo
de la rubeno, kiu estis tiel granda kiel nigra ribo,
okazis apud la loko, kie estis metita la rubo. (10) Li ekdormis kaj
sonĝis, sed vekiĝinte, li revis pri sia sonĝo; tiam subite
li ekkriis: "Ĉu mi vere dormis, aŭ ĉu ĝi estis nur revo?" (11)
Se ni aĉetus sagon sen pafarko, ni ne montrus nian saĝon, ĉar
la unua sen la dua estus senutila. (12) La homo ŝarĝis la
ŝarĝveturilon per sakoj da greno, poste li ŝargis sian
pafilon, saltis sur la sakojn, kaj ludis ŝakon kun sia amiko.
(13) Kiam ni finis la sarkadon de la ĝardeno, ni promenadis apud
(or, sur) la marbordo kaj vidis ŝarkon. (14) Li malŝatis tian
nutraĵon kaj ne povis ĝin manĝi, kvankam li tre malsatis; tial
li mendis kokidon rostitan, kiun li tre ŝatis, kaj li baldaŭ
satiĝis. (15) Peco da ŝelo en la subŝtofo de la selo
brulumigis la dorson de la ĉevalo. (16) Kompreneble vi ŝercas
dirante, ke vi serĉas kudrilon en garbo da fojno! (17) Baro el
ŝtalo estas trovita en la stalo de la ĉevalejo. (18) La
Ŝtato ne estis bone regata, kaj la popolo estis (or, troviĝis)
en ribela stato. (19) La stipo estas arbeto, sed mallonga dika
peco da ligno estas nomata ŝtipo. (20) "Stofo" estas la nomo de
rusa mezurilo, sed, se ni volas skribi pri la ŝtofo el kiu oni
faras veston aŭ robon, ni metas signon super la unuan literon, kaj
tiu signo aliigas la
prononcon. (21) Peco da stupo kuŝis sur la
malsupra ŝtupo de la ŝtuparo. (22) Estis tablo en la mezo de la
ĉambro, kaj sur ĝi estis telero, sur kiu kuŝis talero kune kun
aliaj moneroj; tabulo pendis sur la muro, sur kiu estis gluita
tabelo de luveturilkostoj. (23) La turdo estas pli malgranda
birdo, ol la turto. (24) Li tusis, kiam oni tuŝis lian
traĥeon. (25) Li surmetis la veŝton kaj poste la veston.
(1) She stood on the bridge, and the tip of her dress fluttered in the wind. (2) The blood flowed from the carbuncle when the doctor cut it, but the patient, at the impulse of the moment, couldn't help but scream. (3) He took the oar from the boat and rowed across the river; upon reaching the opposite shore, he put the oar back in the boat and went home. (4) The morning dew was still on the rose when the Russian, with a clever strategy, defeated the enemy. (5) In my opinion (or, in my view), the kidney of a sheep is tastier than the frog eaten in France. (6) The rat was caught in a net. (7) A person who reigns is a king, and the people he rules are his subjects (or, those ruled). The ruler of a colony governs the colony, but he does not reign. (8) When I saw the Roman, he was reading a novel, and his wife was singing a ballad. (9) The robbery of the ruby, which was as large as a black rib, happened near the spot where the rubbish was placed. (10) He fell asleep and dreamed, but upon waking, he recalled his dream; then suddenly he shouted: "Did I really sleep, or was it just a dream?" (11) If we bought a sword without a bow, we wouldn't show our wisdom, because the first without the second would be useless. (12) The man loaded the truck with sacks of grain, then he loaded his gun, jumped onto the sacks, and played chess with his friend. (13) When we finished the planting of the garden, we strolled along the shore and saw a shark. (14) He disliked such food and couldn't eat it, even though he was very hungry; therefore, he ordered roasted chicken, which he liked a lot, and he soon was satisfied. (15) A piece of shell in the underlayer of the saddle burned the horse's back. (16) Of course, you're joking when you say you're looking for a needle in a haystack! (17) A bar of steel was found in the stable of the horse barn. (18) The State was not well governed, and the people were (or, found themselves) in a rebellious state. (19) The stipe is a tree, but a short thick piece of wood is called a stick. (20) "Stuff" is the name of a Russian measure, but if we want to write about the fabric used to make clothing, we put a mark over the first letter, which changes the pronunciation. (21) A piece of straw lay on the bottom step of the staircase. (22) There was a table in the middle of the room, and on it was a plate, on which lay a coin along with other coins; a board hung on the wall, on which was glued a list of vehicle costs. (23) The thrush is a smaller bird than the dove. (24) He coughed when someone touched his trachoma. (25) He put on the vest and then the clothes.



TRANSLATION 36.


(1) She stood on the bridge, and the lace of her gown fluttered
in the wind. (2) The matter flowed from the carbuncle when the
doctor cut it, but the patient, on the impulse of the moment, could
not help crying out. (3) He took the oar out of the boat and
paddled (rowed leisurely) across the river; after reaching the
opposite bank, he put back the oar into the boat and went home. (4)
The morning dew was still on the rose, when the Russian, by a
clever stratagem, overpowered the enemy. (5) In my opinion, the
kidney of a sheep is more tasty than the frog, which is eaten in
France. (6) The rat was caught with a net. (7) The man who
reigns is a King, and the people he governs are his subjects (or
persons being governed). The Governor of a Colony governs the
Colony, but does not reign. (8) When I saw the Roman, he was
reading a romance, and his wife was singing a romance (song). (9)
The robbery of the ruby, which was as big as a black currant,
occurred near the spot where the rubbish had been put. (10) He fell
asleep and dreamed, but, after awakening, he mused over his
dream; then suddenly he cried out, "Was I really asleep, or was it
only a waking dream?" (11) If we bought an arrow without a bow,
we should not show our wisdom, for the one without the other would
be useless. (12) The man loaded the wagon with sacks of corn,
then he loaded his gun, jumped on to the sacks, and played
chess with his friend. (13) When we finished the weeding of the
garden, we walked near the seashore and saw a shark. (14) He
disliked the (that kind of) food and could not eat it, although he
was very hungry; so he ordered a roast chicken, which he much
appreciated, and he was soon satiated. (15) A piece of bark
in the lining of the saddle caused an inflammation on the horse’s
back. (16) Of course you are joking when you say
you are looking
for a needle in a truss of hay. (17) A steel bar has been found in
the stall of the stable. (18) The State (one of a confederation,
regno = the State) was not well governed, and the people were in a
rebellious state. (19) Broom is a shrub, but a short thick piece
of wood is called a block of wood. (20) "Stofo" is the name of a
Russian measure, but if we wish to write about the material (or,
stuff) of which a coat or gown is made, we put an accent over the
first letter, which alters the pronunciation. (21) A piece of tow
was lying on the bottom step of the staircase. (22) There was a
table in the middle of the room, and on it was a plate in which
was a thaler, together with other coins; a board hung on the
wall, on which was pasted a table of fares for hired carriages
(hackney coach fares). (23) The thrush is a smaller bird than the
dove. (24) He coughed when they touched his windpipe. (25) He
put on his waistcoat and afterwards his coat.
(1) She stood on the bridge, and the lace of her dress fluttered in the wind. (2) The pus flowed from the carbuncle when the doctor cut it, but the patient, in the heat of the moment, couldn’t help crying out. (3) He took the oar out of the boat and paddled across the river; after reaching the other side, he put the oar back in the boat and went home. (4) The morning dew was still on the rose when the Russian, by a clever stratagem, defeated the enemy. (5) I think a sheep’s kidney is tastier than the frog, which is eaten in France. (6) The rat was caught with a net. (7) The person who reigns is a King, and the people he governs are his subjects. The Governor of a Colony governs the Colony, but does not reign. (8) When I saw the Roman, he was reading a romance, and his wife was singing a romance (song). (9) The robbery of the ruby, which was as big as a black currant, occurred near where the rubbish had been piled. (10) He fell asleep and dreamed, but after waking up, he mused over his dream; then suddenly he cried out, "Was I really asleep, or was it just a waking dream?" (11) If we bought an arrow without a bow, we wouldn’t be showing our wisdom, since one without the other would be useless. (12) The man loaded the wagon with sacks of corn, then he loaded his gun, jumped onto the sacks, and played chess with his friend. (13) When we finished weeding the garden, we walked along the shore and saw a shark. (14) He disliked that kind of food and couldn’t eat it, even though he was very hungry; so he ordered a roast chicken, which he really enjoyed, and he was soon satiated. (15) A piece of bark in the lining of the saddle caused an irritation on the horse’s back. (16) Of course, you must be joking when you say you are looking for a needle in a haystack. (17) A steel bar was found in the stall of the stable. (18) The State was poorly governed, and the people were in a rebellious state. (19) Broom is a shrub, but a short thick piece of wood is called a block of wood. (20) "Stofo" is the name of a Russian measure, but if we want to write about the material a coat or dress is made from, we put an accent over the first letter, which changes the pronunciation. (21) A piece of tow was lying on the bottom step of the staircase. (22) There was a table in the middle of the room, and on it was a plate containing a thaler, along with other coins; a board hung on the wall, on which a table of fares for hired carriages was posted. (23) The thrush is a smaller bird than the dove. (24) He coughed when they touched his windpipe. (25) He put on his waistcoat and then his coat.



EXERCISE 37.


The following are Exercises in similar words in English. The words to
be noted are in italics:—
The following are exercises with similar words in English. The words to pay attention to are in italics:—


Leave.
Go away.


(1) Ĉesinte vetludi, li vizitis sian advokaton kaj lasis siajn
aferojn en liajn manojn, sed, antaŭ ol eliri la ĉambron, li faris
sian testamenton kaj testamentis sian tutan havon al sia frato. (2)
Li petis permeson doni al sia hundo la restaĵon de la
vespermanĝo. (3) La generalo donis al li dumonatan forpermeson
(aŭ, forpermesis al li du monatojn). (4) Li lasis sian edzinon
plorantan, kiam li eliris el la domo, sed elirinte ĝin, li
renkontis sian fraton, kiu akompanis lin al la ŝipo, kaj tie lin
lasis. La sekvantan tagon li forlasis la landon por ĉiam. (5)
Eliru la ĉambron, vi malĝentilulo! (6) Lasu la ĉambron, kiel
ĝi estas, ĉar mi ne intencas ĝin aliigi.
(1) After finishing his gambling, he visited his lawyer and left his affairs in his hands, but before leaving the room, he made his will and bequeathed all his belongings to his brother. (2) He asked for permission to give the leftovers of the dinner to his dog. (3) The general granted him a two-month leave. (4) He left his wife in tears when he walked out of the house, but after exiting, he met his brother, who accompanied him to the ship and then left him there. The next day, he left the country forever. (5) Get out of the room, you rude person! (6) Leave the room as it is, because I don't intend to change it.



To turn.
To rotate.


(7) Kiam mi eniris en la lornejon, la tornisto tornis la kruron
de tablo el peco da ligno, kiu turniĝis rapide ĉirkaŭ sia akso.
Aŭdante miajn piedpaŝojn, li turnis sin, sed daŭrigis la
tornadon. Kiam la kruro torniĝis, montriĝis, ke ĝi estas tro
mallonga.
(7) When I walked into the tool shed, the turner spun the leg of a table made from a piece of wood that rotated quickly around its axis. Hearing my footsteps, he turned around but continued the spinning. When the leg spun, it became clear that it was too short.


TRANSLATION 37


Leave.
Go away.


(1) After leaving off gambling, he went to his solicitor’s, and
left his affairs in his hands, but, before leaving the room, he
made his will, and left all his property to his brother. (2) He
asked leave to give the leavings of the dinner to his dog. (3)
The general gave him two months’ leave of absence. (4) He left
his wife in tears when he left the house, but after leaving it he
met his brother, who accompanied him to the ship, and there left
him. The following day he left the country for ever. (5) Leave
the room, you impertinent fellow. (6) Leave the room as it is, for
I do not intend to alter it.
(1) After quitting gambling, he went to his lawyer and handed over his affairs to him, but before leaving the room, he made his will and left all his property to his brother. (2) He asked for permission to give the leftovers of the dinner to his dog. (3) The general granted him two months’ leave of absence. (4) He left his wife in tears when he left the house, but after departing he met his brother, who accompanied him to the ship, and there left him. The following day he left the country for good. (5) Get out of the room, you rude guy. (6) Leave the room as it is, because I don’t plan to change it.


To turn.
To change.


(7) When I entered the turnery, the turner was turning the leg
of a table out of a piece of wood, which was turning rapidly on its
axis. On hearing my footsteps, he turned round, but continued his
turning. When the leg was turned, it turned out to be too
short.
(7) When I walked into the turnery, the turner was shaping the leg of a table from a piece of wood that was spinning quickly on its axis. Upon hearing my footsteps, he looked back, but kept working. Once the leg was finished, it turned out to be too short.


EXERCISE 38.


Do, Did (par. 237 (j)).
Do, Did (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ (j)).


(1) Kiel vi fartas? Tre bone, mi dankas vin. (2) Ĉu vi faris,
kion mi diris al vi? Jes, mi faris. Ne, mi ne (faris). (3) Ĉu vi
mortigis tiun teruran hundon? Jes, certe, ĉar mi diris al mia
edzino: "Kion ni povas fari pri tia malbelega besto?" kaj ŝi
respondis: "Forigu ĝin." (4) Kunligu tiujn dek paketojn, kaj
ankaŭ ordigu la ĉambrojn, kaj
poste, se vi ne estos tro laca,
ni esploros la vidindaĵojn de la urbo. (5) Ja venu (aŭ, mi
petegas, ke vi venu), ĉar mi vere tre deziras vin vidi. (6)
Estas malagrable havi interrilatojn kun personoj, kiuj penas nin
trompi. (7) Tio sufiĉos por mi, sed por vi ĝi ne decos. (8)
Hamleto estas Esperantigita (aŭ, tradukiĝis Esperanten, aŭ,
en Esperanton) de Doktoro Zamenhof. (9) Mi parolis kun mia patro,
sed li tute ne volis enmiksiĝi en la afero. (10) Li progresadis
en la lernejo, sed li ne sukcesis negoce. (11) Riparu por mi ĉi
tiun poŝhorloĝon, se ĝi valoras la koston tion fari.
(1) How are you doing? Very well, thank you. (2) Did you do what I asked you? Yes, I did. No, I didn’t. (3) Did you kill that terrible dog? Yes, of course, because I told my wife: "What can we do about such an ugly creature?" and she replied: "Get rid of it." (4) Put those ten packages together, and also tidy up the rooms, and later, if you’re not too tired, we’ll explore the sights of the city. (5) Please come (or, I beg you to come), because I really want to see you. (6) It’s unpleasant to have relationships with people who try to deceive us. (7) That will be enough for me, but it won’t be proper for you. (8) Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto by Dr. Zamenhof. (9) I spoke with my father, but he didn’t want to get involved in the matter at all. (10) He was doing well in school, but he didn’t succeed in business. (11) Please fix this pocket watch for me, if it’s worth the cost to do so.



TRANSLATION 38


Do, Did.
Do, Did.


(1) How do you do? Very well, thank you. (2) Did you do what
I told you? Yes, I did. No, I did not. (3) Did you do away with
that awful dog? Yes, I did, for I said to my wife: "What can we do
with such a hideous brute?" and she replied: "Do away with it."
(4) Do up those ten parcels, and also do up the rooms, and
afterwards, if you are not too done up, we will do the city. (5)
Do come! for I do want to see you! (6) It is unpleasant to have
to do with persons who try to do us. (7) That will do well
enough for me, but it will not do for you. (8) Hamlet has been
done into Esperanto by Doctor Zamenhof. (9) I spoke to my father,
but he would have nothing at all to do with the matter. (10) He
did well at school, but he did not do well in business. (11) Do
up this watch for me, if it be worth the expense of doing so.
(1) How are you? Very well, thank you. (2) Did you do what I told you? Yes, I did. No, I didn’t. (3) Did you get rid of that awful dog? Yes, I did, because I asked my wife: "What can we do with such a hideous creature?" and she replied: "Get rid of it." (4) Pack those ten parcels, and also tidy up the rooms, and afterwards, if you’re not too exhausted, we can explore the city. (5) Do come! I really want to see you! (6) It’s unpleasant to deal with people who try to take advantage of us. (7) That will be fine for me, but it won’t work for you. (8) Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto by Doctor Zamenhof. (9) I talked to my father, but he wanted nothing to do with the matter. (10) He did well in school, but he didn’t do well in business. (11) Fix this watch for me if it’s worth the cost.


EXERCISE 39.


To get (par. 237 (k)).
To obtain (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ (k)).


(1) Mi leviĝis je la sesa, kaj tuj kiam mi vestis min, mi
ordonis mian serviston, ke li alkonduku al mi mian ĉevalon. Kiam
alvenis la ĉevalo, mi suriris ĝin, kaj rajdis al la domo de mia
kuzo, kiu pretiĝis por la vulpoĉasado. Ni matenmanĝis,
pretigis la
ĉevalojn kaj forrajdis. Sur la vojo, mia ĉevalo
ricevis al si ŝtonon en la hufon, tial mi deiris, kaj ĝin
elprenis. Ĉar la vojetoj estis tre kotaj, la ĉevaloj
ŝpruciĝis per koto, ni ankaŭ tre malpuriĝis, sed la ĉasistoj
kutimiĝas je tio. Ni baldaŭ alvenis al la kunvenejo, kaj ĝuis
bonan kuradon kun la ĉashundoj. (2) La knabino portis grizan
robon, kaj, kiam mi demandis ŝin de kiu ŝi ĝin ricevis, ŝi
diris al mi, ke ŝi penis ĝin akiri ĉe sia kudristino, sed la
kudristino diris, ke ŝi ne havas robon kun tiu koloro en la
tenejo, sed, ke ŝi farigos al ŝi tian (robon). La knabino ankaŭ
diris, ke ŝi ne mendis la robon, kaj tre bone faris sen ĝi, ĝis
fine ŝi decidigis sian patrinon havigi al ŝi tiun, kiun ŝi nun
portadas. (3) Kiam vi venkos la malfacilaĵon parkere lerni
tiun ĉi lecionon, ne penu liberigi vin de viaj aliaj lecionoj,
ĉar vi ne povos min trompi, pretekstante, ke vi jam elfaris vian
tutan taskon.
(1) I woke up at six, and as soon as I got dressed, I ordered my servant to bring me my horse. When the horse arrived, I got on it and rode to my cousin's house, who was getting ready for the fox hunt. We had breakfast, got the horses ready, and rode off. On the way, my horse stepped on a stone, so I got off and took it out. Since the paths were very muddy, the horses got splashed with mud, and we got pretty dirty too, but the hunters are used to that. We soon arrived at the meeting place and enjoyed a good run with the hunting dogs. (2) The girl was wearing a gray dress, and when I asked her where she got it, she told me that she tried to get it from her dressmaker, but the dressmaker said she didn’t have a dress in that color in her shop, but she would make one for her. The girl also said that she didn’t order the dress, and she did just fine without it, until she finally convinced her mother to get her the one she’s wearing now. (3) When you master the difficulty of learning this lesson, don’t try to skip out on your other lessons, because you won’t be able to fool me by claiming that you’ve completed all your work.



TRANSLATION 39


To get.
Get.


(1) I got up at six, and as soon as I got dressed, I ordered my
servant to get me my horse. When the horse came, I got on to it,
and rode to my cousin’s, who was getting ready for the fox hunt. We
got breakfast, got the horses ready, and rode off. On the way
my horse got a stone in its foot, so I got off and got it out.
As the lanes were very muddy, the horses got splashed with mud, we
also got very dirty, but huntsmen get accustomed to that. We soon
got to the rendezvous and enjoyed a good run with the hounds. (2)
The girl had got on a grey dress, and when I asked her from whom
she got it, she told me that she had tried to get it at her
dressmaker’s, but the dressmaker said she had not got a dress of
that colour in stock, but would get such (a dress) made for her.
The girl also said that she did not give an order for the dress, and
got on very well without it, till at last she got her mother to
get for her the one she had now got on. (3) When you have got
over the difficulty of getting this lesson by heart, do not try to
get off your other lessons, for you cannot get round me by
pretending that you have got through all your work.
(1) I woke up at six, and as soon as I got dressed, I told my servant to fetch my horse. When the horse arrived, I got on it and rode to my cousin’s, who was preparing for the fox hunt. We had breakfast, got the horses ready, and rode off. On the way, my horse stepped on a stone, so I got off and pulled it out. Since the paths were very muddy, the horses got splattered with mud, and we also got pretty dirty, but huntsmen are used to that. We soon arrived at the meeting point and enjoyed a good run with the hounds. (2) The girl was wearing a grey dress, and when I asked her where she got it, she told me she had tried to get one from her dressmaker, but the dressmaker said she didn’t have that color in stock, but would make one for her. The girl also mentioned that she didn’t place an order for the dress and managed just fine without it until eventually she got her mother to get her the one she was wearing now. (3) Once you’ve overcome the challenge of memorizing this lesson, don’t try to skip out on your other lessons, because you can’t fool me by pretending that you’ve finished all your work.



EXERCISE 40.


To appear, know, have.
To seem, understand, possess.


(1) Kiam li unue aperis en la ĉambro, ŝajnis al mi, ke li estas
malprudentulo, sed poste li ŝajne montris tiom da spriteco, ke mi
ekvidis, ke mi trompiĝas. (2) Se la lernanto scius bone sian
lecionon, la instruanto lin ne punus. (3) "Kristano," li diris al mi,
"vi ne konas la historion de naskiĝo de tiu ĉi folio?"
"Mahometano, mi ne konas," mi respondis. (Krestomatio, paĝo 31a).
(4) Mi sciis, ke vi havas hundon, sed mi ne konis la hundon, kiam
mi ĝin vidis. (5) Kiam mia amiko petis, ke mi vizitu lin, li ne
sciis, ke mi ne konas lian domon; tamen mi konis la straton kie
li loĝas, kaj mi ankaŭ konis lian hundon, tial, tuj kiam mi
rekonis ĝin kuŝantan apud la pordo de domo, mi eksciis, ke tiu
domo apartenas al mia amiko. (6) Mi havas libron, kiun mi devas
redoni al la biblioteko tuj kiam mi estos traleginta ĝin.
(1) When he first walked into the room, it seemed to me that he was a fool, but later he showed so much cleverness that I realized I was mistaken. (2) If the student knew his lesson well, the teacher wouldn't punish him. (3) "Christian," he said to me, "don't you know the story of the birth of this page?" "Muslim, I don't know," I replied. (Krestomatio, page 31a). (4) I knew you had a dog, but I didn't recognize the dog when I saw it. (5) When my friend asked me to visit him, he didn't realize that I didn't know his house; however, I knew the street where he lived, and I also recognized his dog, so as soon as I saw it lying by the front door, I knew that house belonged to my friend. (6) I have a book that I must return to the library as soon as I've finished reading it.


TRANSLATION 40


To appear, know, have.
To show, understand, possess.


(1) When he first appeared in the room, it appeared to me that he
was (is) a fool, but afterwards he appeared to show so much wit
that I perceived I was (am) mistaken. (2) If the pupil knew his
lesson well, the teacher would not punish him. (3) "Christian," he
said to me, "you do not know the story of the birth of this leaf?"
"Mahometan, I do not know," I answered. (4) I knew that you had a
dog, but I did not know the dog when I saw it. (5) When my friend
asked me to call upon him, he did not know that I did (do) not
know his house; however, I knew the street where he lived
(lives), and I also knew his dog, therefore, as soon as I
recognized it lying close to the door of a house, I knew that
that house belonged to my friend. (6) I have a book which I have
(must) to return to the library as soon as I (shall) have read it
through (lit., as soon as I shall be having read it through).
(1) When he first showed up in the room, I thought he was a fool, but later he proved to be so witty that I realized I was wrong. (2) If the student understood his lesson well, the teacher wouldn’t punish him. (3) "Christian," he said to me, "don't you know the story of how this leaf was born?" "Mahometan, I don't know," I replied. (4) I knew you had a dog, but I didn't recognize the dog when I saw it. (5) When my friend invited me over, he didn’t realize that I didn’t know his house; however, I knew the street where he lived, and I also knew his dog, so as soon as I spotted it lying close to the door of a house, I knew that house belonged to my friend. (6) I have a book that I need to return to the library as soon as I finish reading it.



EXERCISE 41.


To bring, let, give, effect, affect.
To bring, let, give, effect, affect.


(1) Alportu al mi mian ĉapelon kaj poste diru al Johano ke li
alkonduku mian ĉevalon. (2) La troproduktado malaltigas la
prezon de la komercaĵoj. (3) Kiam oni sciigis la edzon, ke lia
edzino naskis filon, li elprenis el sia kelo sian plej bonan
vinon, por trinki al la bonfarto (aŭ, tosti la sanon) de sia
unuenaskito. La patrino edukis sian filon dum lia infaneco, kaj
poste la patro instruigis lin en unu el la plej bonaj lernejoj en
la lando. (4) Kiam la policano liberigis la viron, ties frato
lasis lin en sian domon, kaj mallevis la rulkurtenojn. (5) Li
perdis la sanon, tial li devis ĉesigi multajn el siaj
bonfaraĵoj, sed li ankoraŭ disdonas multe da mono al la
malriĉuloj. (6) Oni sciigis lin, ke li devos atesti, ĉu la
virino naskis filon aŭ filinon. (7) La efiko de ĉi tiu
elpensaĵo, laŭ mia opinio (or, miaopinie), faros efekton ne
ĝenerale supozitan, ĉar ĝi faros radikalan ŝanĝon en multaj el
niaj industrioj, kvankam kiam ili estos tuŝataj (or, influataj)
de ĝi, mi ne povas diri; kaj efektive estus afekteco miaparte
provi certigi, kiam ĉi tiu efekto efektiviĝos.
(1) Alport my hat and then tell John to bring my horse. (2) Overproduction lowers the price of goods. (3) When they informed the husband that his wife gave birth to a son, he took out his best wine from his cellar to toast to the well-being (or, to toast the health) of his firstborn. The mother raised her son during his childhood, and later the father educated him in one of the best schools in the country. (4) When the officer released the man, his brother took him into his home and drew up the curtains. (5) He lost his health, so he had to stop many of his charities, but he still gives away a lot of money to the poor. (6) He was informed that he would have to witness whether the woman gave birth to a son or a daughter. (7) The effect of this idea, in my opinion (or, in my view), will create an impact that is not generally expected, as it will bring about a radical change in many of our industries, although when they will be affected (or, influenced) by it, I cannot say; and indeed it would be futile on my part to try to ensure when this impact will materialize.


TRANSLATION 41.


To bring, let, give, effect, affect.
To bring, let, give, effect, affect.


(1) Bring me my hat, and then tell John to bring my horse. (2)
Overproduction brings down the price of goods. (3) When they
brought news to the husband that his wife had brought forth a
son, he brought forth the best wine in his cellar to drink to the
well-being (or, toast the health) of his first-born. The mother
brought up her son during his childhood, and afterwards the father
had him brought up in one of the best schools in the country. (4)
When the policeman let the man go, the brother of the latter
let him into his house, and let down the blinds. (5) His health
gave way, so that he had to give up many of his good works, but
he still
gives away much money to the poor. (6) They gave him
notice that he would have to give evidence whether the woman had
given birth to a son or a daughter. (7) The effect of this
invention, in my opinion, will produce an effect not generally
supposed, for it will effect a radical change in many of our
industries, although when they will be affected by it I cannot say,
and it would in fact be affectation on my part to attempt to
assert when this effect will be effected (realized).
(1) Get me my hat, and then tell John to bring my horse. (2) Overproduction lowers the price of goods. (3) When they brought news to the husband that his wife had given birth to a son, he brought out the best wine in his cellar to drink to the well-being (or, toast the health) of his first-born. The mother raised her son during his childhood, and afterwards the father had him raised in one of the best schools in the country. (4) When the policeman let the man go, the brother of the latter let him into his house, and pulled down the blinds. (5) His health broke down, so that he had to give up many of his good works, but he still donates a lot of money to the poor. (6) They notified him that he would have to testify whether the woman had given birth to a son or a daughter. (7) The impact of this invention, in my opinion, will produce an impact not generally expected, for it will bring about a radical change in many of our industries, although when they will be affected by it I cannot say, and it would actually be pretentious of me to try to say when this impact will be realized.



EXERCISE 42.


Can, could, may, might, must, ought, should, would (par. 237 (l—p)).
Can, could, may, might, must, ought, should, would (par. 237 (l—p)).


(1) Eble li venos, kaj eble ne. (2) Ĉu vi permesos, ke mi venu
morgaŭ? Jes, mi permesos (aŭ, jes, certe). (3) Ĉu vi povos veni
morgaŭ? Jes, mi povos. (4) Ĉu mi devos veni morgaŭ? Ne, vi ne
devos. (5) Ĉu mi devus vidi (aŭ, estas necese, ke mi vidu) la
kuraciston? Jes, vi devus (aŭ, jes, tre necese); vi devus vidi
lin jam hieraŭ. Mi ne povas lin vidi hodiaŭ, ĉar mi ne havas la
tempon; mi devas iri al la banko, mia oficejo, kaj aliaj lokoj. (6)
Vi devus vidi la kastelon. Mi amus ĝin vidi, sed estus necese
ke, mi iru sola, kaj oni povus ŝteli al mi sur la vojo. (7) Li
devis atenti sian laboron, ĉar alie li estus malboniginta ĝin.
(8) Li devus atenti sian laboron pli, ol li faris, kaj tiuokaze li
ne estus difektinta ĝin. (9) Ĉu vi volus, ke mi forlasu miajn
amikojn? Kompreneble ne. (10) Li insistas veni; mi ne povas
malhelpi lin (al li). Li venos, se vi ne malhelpos lin. (11) Li
insistis veni, kvankam mi faris ĉion, kion mi povis, por
malhelpi lin. Li venus, se vi invitus lin. (12) Li ne volis (li
rifuzis) konfesi, ke li nenion vidas. Li ne konfesus, ke li
nenion vidis, se li efektive estus vidinta ion. (13) Mi skribas al
li, ke li venu. Mi skribis al li, ke li venu. (14) Mi skribas
(skribis) al li, por ke li venu.
(1) Maybe he’ll come, and maybe he won’t. (2) Will you let me come tomorrow? Yes, I’ll let you (or, yes, of course). (3) Will you be able to come tomorrow? Yes, I will be able to. (4) Do I have to come tomorrow? No, you don’t have to. (5) Should I see the doctor? Yes, you should (or, yes, it’s very important); you should have seen him yesterday. I can’t see him today because I don’t have the time; I have to go to the bank, my office, and other places. (6) You should see the castle. I would love to see it, but it would be necessary for me to go alone, and someone could rob me on the way. (7) He had to pay attention to his work, or else he would have messed it up. (8) He should have paid more attention to his work than he did, and in that case, he wouldn’t have damaged it. (9) Would you want me to leave my friends? Of course not. (10) He insists on coming; I can’t stop him. He will come unless you stop him. (11) He insisted on coming, even though I did everything I could to stop him. He would come if you invited him. (12) He didn’t want to (he refused to) admit that he sees nothing. He wouldn’t admit that he saw nothing if he had actually seen something. (13) I’m writing to him to come. I wrote to him to come. (14) I’m writing (wrote) to him, so that he comes.



TRANSLATION 42


Can, could, etc.
Can, could, etc.


(1) He may come, and he may not. (2) May I (will you allow me
to) come to-morrow? Yes, you may (or, yes, certainly). (3) Can
you come to-morrow? Yes, I can. (4) Must I (shall I have to)
come to-morrow? No, you need not. (5) Ought I to see (or, is it
necessary for me to see) the doctor? Yes, you ought (or, yes, very
necessary); you ought to have seen him yesterday. I cannot see
him to-day, for I have no time; I have to go to the bank, my
office, and other places. (6) You ought to see the castle. I
should love to see it, but I should have (it would be necessary)
to go alone, and I might be robbed on the way. (7) He had to pay
attention to his work, for, otherwise, he would have spoilt it. (8)
He ought to have paid more attention to his work than he did, and
then he would not have spoilt it. (9) Would you have me
desert my friends? Of course (I would) not. (10) He will come; I
cannot stop him. He will come if you do (will) not stop him.
(11) He would come, notwithstanding I did all I could to stop
him. He would come if you invited (would invite) him. (12) He
would not confess that he saw (sees) nothing. He would not have
confessed that he saw nothing, if he really had seen something.
(13) I am writing to him to come. I wrote to him to come. (14) I am
writing (I wrote) to him in order that he may (might) come.
(1) He might come, and he might not. (2) Can I come tomorrow? Yes, you can (or, yes, of course). (3) Will you come tomorrow? Yes, I will. (4) Do I need to come tomorrow? No, you don’t have to. (5) Should I see the doctor? Yes, you should (or, yes, very much); you should have seen him yesterday. I can’t see him today because I have no time; I have to go to the bank, my office, and other places. (6) You should see the castle. I would love to see it, but I would have to go alone, and I might get robbed on the way. (7) He had to pay attention to his work, otherwise, he would have messed it up. (8) He should have paid more attention to his work than he did, and then he would not have messed it up. (9) Would you want me to abandon my friends? Of course not. (10) He will come; I can’t stop him. He will come if you don’t stop him. (11) He would come, even if I did everything I could to stop him. He would come if you invited him. (12) He would not admit that he saw nothing. He would not have admitted that he saw nothing if he really had seen something. (13) I’m writing to him to come. I wrote to him to come. (14) I’m writing (I wrote) to him so that he can (could) come.


EXERCISE 43.


Adverbial and Conjunctional Phrases.
Adverbial and Conjunction Phrases.


(1) Ne faru tion miakaŭze (or, pro mi). (2) Ĉiu knabo siavice
legu verson. (3) Nenial li ĉesis kanti. (4) Ial li forlasis sian
celon. (5) Unufoje por ĉiam mi diras al vi denove, ke mi ne
permesos ĝin. (6) Mi tute ne scias (tion), kion vi volas diri, se
ne (estas), ke vi bezonas monon. (7) Li turnis la librojn supre
malsupren, kaj siajn poŝojn el interne, sed li ne povis trovi la
leteron. (8) Malgraŭ ĉio (or, ĉiuokaze) estas al mi tute
egale, ĉu vi ĝin faros aŭ ne. (9) Ĉiuspecaj personoj ĉeestos
la kunvenon, kiel ekzemple nobeloj, negocistoj, komercistoj,
butikistoj, kaj tiel plu (k.t.p.), sed, kio ajn okazos (aŭ,
ĉiuokaze), mi tien iros, pro tio, ke (aŭ, ĉar) ĝi
fariĝas nur unu fojon ĉiujare. (10) Li penis fari sian eblon,
sed estis tute senefike. (11) Miasurprize, li diris al mi, ke li
ne faris ĝin intence. (12) Nu, oni trovis, ke tiel (Hamleto V,
1). (13) Mi vizitis lin antaŭ ne longe. (14) Mi ŝin ne vidis en
la lasta tempo, sed mi esperas, ke ŝi vizitos min pli poste
(post kelka tempo).
(1) Don't worry about me (or, for me). (2) Every boy in turn will read a verse. (3) Nothing could make him stop singing. (4) For some reason he abandoned his goal. (5) Once and for all, I’m telling you again that I won’t allow it. (6) I absolutely don’t know what you mean, unless it’s that you need money. (7) He turned the books upside down, and his pockets inside out, but he couldn’t find the letter. (8) Regardless of everything (or, anyway), I really don’t care if you do it or not. (9) All kinds of people will attend the meeting, such as nobles, merchants, shopkeepers, and so on (etc.), but whatever happens (or, anyway), I will go there because (or, since) it only happens once a year. (10) He tried to do his best, but it was totally ineffective. (11) Surprisingly, he told me he didn’t do it on purpose. (12) Well, they found out that (Hamlet V, 1). (13) I visited him not long ago. (14) I haven’t seen her lately, but I hope she’ll visit me later (after a while).



TRANSLATION 43.


Adverbial and Conjunctional Phrases.
Adverb and Conjunction Phrases.


(1) Do not do that on my account. (2) Let each boy in his turn
read a verse. (3) For no reason he left off singing. (4) For some
reason he abandoned his purpose. (5) Once for all, I tell you
again that I will not permit it. (6) I do not know in the least
(or, at all) what you mean, unless it be that you want money. (7)
He turned the books upside down and his pockets inside out, but
he could not find the letter. (8) After all, it is all the same
to me whether you do it or not. (9) All sorts of people will be at
the meeting, as, for example, noblemen, merchants, traders,
shopkeepers, and so forth (etc.), but at all events I shall go
there, for it takes place only once a year. (10) He tried to do
his best, but it was all to no purpose. (11) To my surprise, he
told me that he did not do it on purpose. (12) Well, it was so
found. (13) I called upon him lately (not long ago). (14) I have
not seen her of late, but I hope she will call upon me later on.
(1) Don’t do that because of me. (2) Let each boy take a turn
reading a verse. (3) For no reason he stopped singing. (4) For some reason he gave up his goal. (5) Once and for all, I’m telling you again that I will not allow it. (6) I do not understand at all what you mean, unless you want money. (7) He turned the books upside down and his pockets inside out, but he couldn’t find the letter. (8) After all, it doesn’t really matter to me whether you do it or not. (9) All kinds of people will be at the meeting, like for example nobles, merchants, traders, shopkeepers, and so on (etc.), but either way I’m going because it only happens once a year. (10) He tried to do his best, but it was all for nothing. (11) To my surprise, he told me that he didn’t do it on purpose. (12) Well, that’s how it was. (13) I visited him recently (not long ago). (14) I haven’t seen her recently, but I hope she will visit me later on.


EXERCISE 44.


La edzeco (par. 276).
The edzeco (par. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__).


Georgo fianĉiĝis kun ĉarma knabino, kaj estas edziĝonta kun ŝi
ĵaŭde, kaj lia fratino estas edziniĝonta samtage. La fianĉino de
Georgo parolis hieraŭ kun la paroĥestro pri sia edziniĝo, kaj li
diris, ke li edzigis ŝiajn gepatrojn antaŭ dudek jaroj, kaj ke
nenio faros al li pli grandan plezuron, ol edzinigi ŝin. Li
proponis, ke la edziĝo okazu en la paroĥa preĝejo, kaj ŝi
respondis, ke ŝi estas certa, ke ŝia fianĉo raviĝos edziĝi kun
ŝi en la sama preĝejo, kie ŝiaj gepatroj edziĝis, kaj ke ankaŭ
la fratino de Georgo konsentos edziniĝi tie.
Georgo got engaged to a charming girl, and they’re getting married on Thursday, while his sister is also getting married on the same day. Yesterday, Georgo’s fiancée spoke with the parish priest about her wedding, and he mentioned that he married her parents twenty years ago, and nothing would please him more than to marry her. He suggested that the wedding take place in the parish church, and she replied that she was sure her fiancé would be thrilled to marry her in the same church where her parents got married, and that Georgo's sister would also agree to get married there.



La edziĝa tago alvenis, kaj la preĝejo pleniĝis de ĉiuj
edzigeblaj personoj el la vilaĝo, fraŭlinoj kaj fraŭloj; ankaŭ
ĉeestis la pastredzino, kiu estas forta subtenantino de la edzeco.
La edziĝa tago alvenis, kaj la preĝejo pleniĝis de ĉiuj edzigeblaj personoj el la vilaĝo, fraŭlinoj kaj fraŭloj; ankaŭ ĉeestis la pastredzino, kiu estas forta subtenantino de la edzeco.


Kiam la du edziniĝontoj alvenis, la du edziĝontoj atendis ilin en
la preĝejo, kaj baldaŭ la soleno komenciĝis. La du geedziĝontoj
staris flankon ĉe flanko en la ĥorejo kontraŭ la altaro. Dum la
soleno la pastro metis al ĉiu edziĝonto la jenan demandon: "Ĉu vi
volas preni ĉi tiun virinon kiel vian edzinigiton?" kaj poste, al
ĉiu edziniĝonto: "Ĉu vi volas preni ĉi tiun viron kiel vian
edzigiton?" Poste, ĉiu edziĝanto metis ringon sur la kvaran fingron
de sia edziniĝanto, samtempe dirante: "Per tiu ĉi ringo mi vin
edzinigas."
When the two people getting married arrived, the two getting engaged were waiting for them in the church, and soon the ceremony began. The couple stood side by side in the choir facing the altar. During the ceremony, the priest asked each person getting married the following question: "Do you take this woman as your wife?" and then, to each bride: "Do you take this man as your husband?" Afterward, each person getting married placed a ring on the fourth finger of their partner while saying, "With this ring, I marry you."


Tuj kiam la edziĝa soleno finiĝis, la novedzoj kaj novedzinoj iris
al la domo de la patro de Georgo, kie fariĝis la edziĝa festo.
Tuj kiam la nuptofarado finiĝis, la novaj edzo kaj edzino iris al la domo de la patro de Georgo, kie okazis la LGBTQ+ festo.


Je kelke da jaroj (kelkajn jarojn) poste, Georgo eksedziĝis; kaj
jaron pli poste, mi vidis en la ĵurnaloj, ke lia fratino eksedzigis
sian edzon.
Je kelke da jaroj (kelkajn jarojn) poste, Georgo eksedziĝis; kaj jaron pli poste, mi vidis en la ĵurnaloj, ke lia fratino eksedzigis sian edzon.


TRANSLATION 44.


Matrimony.
Marriage.


George became engaged to a charming girl, and is to be married to her
on Thursday, and his sister is to be married on the same day.
George’s fiancée spoke about her marriage to the vicar of the parish
yesterday, and he said he had married her parents twenty years ago,
and that nothing would give him greater pleasure than to marry her.
He proposed that the marriage should take place in the parish church,
and she replied that she was certain her fiancé would be delighted to
be married to her in the same church where her parents had been
married, and that George’s sister also would consent to be married
there.
George got engaged to a lovely girl and is set to marry her on Thursday, the same day his sister is also getting married. Yesterday, George's fiancée talked about their wedding with the parish vicar, who mentioned that he had married her parents twenty years ago and that nothing would make him happier than to marry her. He suggested that the wedding take place in the parish church, and she replied that she was sure her fiancé would be thrilled to marry her in the same church where her parents had tied the knot, and that George's sister would also agree to get married there.



The wedding day arrived, and the church was filled with all the
marriageable persons of the village, maids and bachelors; there was
also present the clergyman’s wife, who is a strong advocate of
matrimony.
The wedding day arrived, and the church was packed with all the eligible people from the village, both young women and men; the clergyman’s wife was also there, a firm supporter of marriage.


When the two brides[40] arrived, the two bridegrooms[40] were
awaiting them in the church, and soon the ceremony commenced. The two
bridal couples stood side by side in the chancel opposite the altar.
During the ceremony the clergyman put the following question to each
bridegroom: "Wilt thou have this woman to thy wedded wife?" and then
to each bride: "Wilt thou have this man to thy wedded husband?"
Afterwards each bridegroom put a ring on the fourth finger of his
bride, at the same time saying: "With this ring I thee wed."
When the two brides arrived, the two bridegrooms were waiting for them in the church, and soon the ceremony began. The two couples stood side by side in the chancel facing the altar. During the ceremony, the clergyman asked each bridegroom, "Will you take this woman as your wedded wife?" and then asked each bride, "Will you take this man as your wedded husband?" Afterwards, each bridegroom placed a ring on the fourth finger of his bride, saying, "With this ring, I wed you."


As soon as the marriage ceremony was over the bridegrooms and brides
went to George’s father’s house, where the wedding banquet took
place.
As soon as the wedding ceremony was over, the grooms and brides went to George’s father’s house, where the wedding reception took place.


Some years afterwards George was divorced, and a year later I saw in
the papers that his sister had divorced her husband.
Some years later, George got divorced, and a year after that, I saw in the news that his sister had divorced her husband.




Footnote:
Footnote:



[40] "Bride" and "bridegroom" are synonymous
      terms in English for persons who are about to be and have
      been married, but they are distinguished in Esperanto:
   
[40] "Bride" and "bridegroom" are interchangeable terms in English for people who are about to be and have been married, but in Esperanto, they are different:


    

  • Edziniĝonto = A bride before marriage.
    • 

  • Edziniĝanto = A bride who is being married.
    • 

  • Edziniĝinto, or, novedzino = A bride after marriage.
    • 




      (See pars. 208, 209.)
   
(See pars. __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__.)





PART IV


PHRASES.




Jesaj Frazoj.Affirmative Phrases.


Estas vere. Tio estas vera.It is true. That is true.


Vi estas prava.You are right.


Estas certe, ke ...It is certain that ...


Mi estas certa pri tio.I am sure of that.


Mi povas vin certigi.I can assure you.


Mi vin certigas, ke jes.I assure you it is so.


Mi kredas, ke jes.I believe so.


Tion mi kredas.So (that) I believe.


Mi diras, ke jes.I say yes.


Vi povas kredi min (al mi).You may (can) believe me.


Mi diras al vi, ke ĝi estas la vero (or, ke estas vere).I tell you it is true.


Mi donas al vi mian parolon de honoro.I give you my word (of honour).


Tio sufiĉas.That is sufficient.


Estas li (ŝi) (ili) mem.It is he himself (she herself) (they themselves).


Estas frue (malfrue).It is early (late).


Estas ankoraŭ tre frue.It is still very early.


Estas la dua (horo).It is two o’clock.


Tiom pli bone.So much the better.






Neaj Frazoj.Negative Phrases.


Ne estas vere, ke ...It is not true that ...


Estas malvere, ke ...It is false that ...


Vi ne estas prava.You are not right.


Vi estas malprava.You are wrong.


Neniu tion diras.No one says so (that).


Li ne estas tie.He is not there.


Mi ne diris tion.I did not say that (or, so).


Mi iras nenien.I am going nowhere.


Ne aŭskultu lin.Do not listen to him.


La tagmanĝo ne estas preta.Lunch is not ready.


Mi ne kredas tion.I don’t believe that.


Ne estas eble. Neeble!It is not possible.


Tio ne koncernas min.That does not concern me.


Vi trompas vin.You deceive yourself.


Mi ne farus tion, se mi estus vi.I would not do that if I were you.


Mi ne scias bone, kion vi volas diri.I don’t quite (well) know what you
mean (what you wish to say).


Mi ne povas trovi la libron, kiun vi deziras.I cannot find the book you want.







Demandaj Frazoj.Interrogative Phrases.


Kio estas? Kio okazis?What is it? What is the matter? What has happened?


Kiu estas? Kiu estas tie?Who is it? Who is there?


Kien vi iras?Where (whither) are you going?


Kion vi faros, kiam ...?What will you do when ...?


Kion vi diris?What did you say?


Kion vi volas (deziras) (postulas) (bezonas)?What do you wish (desire) (require) (need)?


Kie vi estas?Where are you?


Kioma horo estas?What o’clock is it?


Je kioma horo vi leviĝas?At what time do you get up (rise)?


Kion vi volas diri?What do you mean?


Kiun daton ni havas hodiaŭ?What is the day of the month? (lit., what date have we to-day?)


Ĉu vi aŭdis? Ĉu vi ne aŭdis?Did you hear? Did you not hear?


Ĉu vi konas Sinjoron B.?Do you know Mr. B.?


Ĉu vi komprenas min?Do you understand me?


Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton?Do you speak Esperanto?


Ĉu vi parolas serioze?Do you speak seriously?


Certe vi ŝercas?Surely you are joking?


Ĉu la vespermanĝo estas preta?Is dinner ready?


Ĉu la veturilo jam alvenis?Has the carriage come (arrived)?


Ĉu estas la horo por foriri?Is it time to go away?


Kio estas la nomo de ĉi tiu urbo?What is the name of this town?


Ĉu vi venos kun mi?Will you come with me?


Ĉu estas leteroj por mi?Are there any letters for me?


Ĉu vi estus tiel bona?Would you be so good?


Ĉu vi havas la bonecon?Would you have the goodness?


Kian aĝon (kiom da jaroj) vi havas? Kiomjara vi estas?How old are you?


Kie vi renkontis lin?Where did you meet him?


Kial vi ne respondas?Why don’t you answer?


Kion vi bezonas?What do you want?


Kiom kostas ĉi tiu objekto?What does this article cost?
 

Kiam ni haltos por tagmanĝi?When shall we stop for (to take) lunch?


Kia estas via opinio?What is your opinion?


Kion vi diris al li?What did you say to him?


Kie (kiam) vi renkontis ŝin?Where (when) did you meet her?


Ĉu vi vidis ŝin sur la strato aŭ ĉe ŝia domo?Did you see her in the street or at her house?


Ĉu vi ne diris al ŝi tion, kion mi petis, ke vi diru?Did you not tell her what I begged you to say?






Ordonaj Frazoj.Imperative Phrases.

Venu ĉi tien. Foriru.Come here. Go away.


Rapidu. Haltu, veturigisto!Make haste. Stop, coachman!


Diru al li, ke li venu.Tell him to come.


Restu ĉi tie momenton.Stay here a moment.


Aŭskultu min.Listen to me.


Komencu. Daŭrigu.Begin. Continue.


Atentu, ke vi ne falu.Take care you don’t fall.


Ne tiel rapide.Not so quick.


Iru pli malrapide.Go slower.


Parolu al li.Speak to him.


Ne diru tion.Don’t say that.


Faru al mi la plezuron.Do me the pleasure.


Mi petas, (ke vi) ne ĝenu vin.Pray do not trouble yourself.


Ne kredu lin (al li).Do not believe him.


Faru, kion mi diras.Do what I say.


Trankviliĝu! Silentu!Be quiet! Be silent!


Venigu la veturilon.Bring the carriage.


Alportu miajn botojn.Bring my boots.


Venigu al mi fiakron.Get me a cab.


Donu al mi tiun libron.Give me that book.


Pruntu al mi vian ombrelon, mi petas.Please lend me your umbrella.


Brosu ĉi tiun vestaĵon.Brush these clothes.


Ne diru unu vorton.Don’t say a word.


Sidiĝu (sidigu vin), mi petas.Pray be seated. Please sit down.


Ne faru tion.Don’t do that.


Pardonu al mi, Sinjoro, vi okupas mian sidejon.Excuse me, sir, you are occupying my place.


Pasigu al mi la salon (pipron) (mustardon), mi petas!Pass me the salt (pepper) (mustard), if you please!


Kelnero, donu al mi la panon!Waiter, give me the bread!


Fermu (malfermu) la pordon (la fenestron), mi petas.Shut (open) the door (window), please.


Rigardu tiun beletan (gracian) knabinon.Look at that pretty girl.


Ho! rigardu kia bela domo estas tiu!Oh! look what a beautiful house that is!


Foriru! For de ĉi tie!Go away from here!


Savu lin! li dronas!Save him! he is drowning!






Esprimoj de Danko.Expressions of Thanks.


Mi dankas. Mi dankas vin (al vi).Thank you.


Mi tre dankas vin. Dankon.Thank you very much.
Thanks.


Multe da dankoj. Multan dankon.Many thanks.


Mil dankojn.A thousand thanks.


Vi estas tre bona (kompleza).You are very good (kind).


Mi ne scias, kiel vin danki.I don’t know how to thank you.


Vi estas ja (efektive) tro bona.You are really too good.


Vi faris al mi favoron (servon), kiun mi neniam forgesos.You have done me a favour (service), which I shall never
forget.


Mi volus pli multe fari.I wish I could do more.


Mi estos ĉiam via ŝuldanto.I shall always be your debtor.


Mi neniam forgesos vian bonecon.I shall never forget your
goodness.


Mi petas, akceptu la esprimon de mia profunda dankeco.I beg you to accept the expression of my profound thankfulness.


Estis por mi plezuro, ke mi povis esti utila al vi.It was a pleasure to me, to be able to be of service to you.


Mi bedaŭras, ke mi ne povis pli multe fari.I regret that I could not do more.






La Vetero.The Weather.


Kia estas la vetero?What sort of weather is it?


Estas belega tago.It is a lovely day.


La suno brilas, sed la vento estas malvarmega.The sun is shining, but the wind is bitterly cold.


Estas tre varmege.It is excessively hot.


Estas tre malvarmege.It is intensely cold.


Ĉu vi opinias, ke pluvos?Do you think it will rain?


La nuboj amasiĝas.The clouds are gathering.


Pluvis la tutan nokton.It rained all night.


Neĝos morgaŭ, mi opinias.It will snow to-morrow, I think.


Ni havos baldaŭ pluvegon.We shall soon have a deluge of rain (a downpour).


Pluvegis la pasintan nokton (hieraŭ nokte).It rained in torrents (it poured) last night.


La vento leviĝas.The wind is rising.


La pluvo falas.The rain is falling.


La vetero estas tre ŝanĝiĝema.The weather is very changeable.


Ventego venas, kaj ŝajnas, ke estos uragano.A storm is coming, and it appears that there will be a hurricane.


La hajlo nun ekĉesas.The hail is now ceasing.





CONVERSATION (Interparolado).


Pardonu al mi, sinjoro, sed ĉu vi parolas Esperanton?
Excuse me, sir, but do you speak Esperanto?


Excuse me, sir, but do you speak Esperanto?
Excuse me, sir, but do you speak Esperanto?


Mi parolas ĝin iom, sed tre malĝuste, ĉar mi ne havis multe da ekzerciĝado.
I speak it a little, but very poorly, because I haven't practiced much.


I speak it a little, but very incorrectly, for I have not had much practice.
I speak it a bit, but not very well, because I haven't had much practice.


Ŝajnas al mi, ke vi parolas tre bone.
It seems to me that you speak very well.


It appears to me that you speak very well.
You seem to speak really well.


Vi faras al mi komplimenton, mi timas; sed mi ĝojas, ke mi ĝin parolas sufiĉe bone por kompreniĝi. Se vi parolas france, ĉu vi bonvolos havigi al mi bileton por Ĝenevo?
You're giving me a compliment, I'm afraid; but I'm glad that I speak it well enough to get by. If you speak French, would you please get me a ticket to Geneva?


You are paying me a compliment, I fear; but I am glad I speak it sufficiently well to be understood. If you speak French, will you kindly get me a ticket for Geneva?
You’re giving me a compliment, I think; but I’m happy that I speak it well enough to be understood. If you speak French, could you please get me a ticket to Geneva?


Kun multe da plezuro. Mi ankaŭ iras tien. En kiu klaso vi veturos?
When's the fun happening? I'm going there too. What class will you be traveling in?


With much pleasure. I also am going there. By what class do you travel?
With great pleasure. I'm going there too. What class are you traveling in?


En la unua ĉe tia longa veturo.
On the first journey like this.


By the first for such a long journey.
By the first for such a long trip.


Mi ankaŭ, do ni povos kunveturi (veturi kune). Sed, se vi havas pezan pakaĵon, vi devos ĝin enskribi.
Me too, so we can travel together. But if you have a heavy bag, you’ll need to check it in.


I too, so we can travel together. But if you have heavy luggage, you will have to register it.
I can also go, so we can travel together. However, if you've got heavy luggage, you’ll need to check it in.


Mi havas du vojaĝkestojn kaj valizon; vi farus al mi grandan komplezon, se vi rekomendigus ilin por mi.
I've got two suitcases and a bag; you'd do me a big favor if you could recommend them for me.


I have two trunks and a portmanteau; you would do me a great kindness if you would get them registered for me.
I have two suitcases and a travel bag; it would be really helpful if you could get them registered for me.


Mi faros tion, tuj kiam mi ricevos la biletojn.
I’ll do that as soon as I get the tickets.


I will do so, as soon as I have got the tickets.
I will do that as soon as I have the tickets.


Mil dankojn! Jen estas tri centfrankaj bankbiletoj.
Thank you so much! Here are three hundred dollar bills.


A thousand thanks! Here are three 100-franc notes.
A thousand thanks! Here are three 100-franc bills.


Mi rekomendis vian pakaĵon, kaj jen estas via vojaĝbileto, la pakaĵbileto, kaj la monrestaĵo. Mi pagis ducent dudek du frankojn por la bileto de iro kaj reveno (revenbileto), kaj dudek unu por la rekomendo.
I recommend your package, and here are your travel ticket, the package ticket, and the remaining balance. I paid two hundred twenty-two francs for the round-trip ticket, and twenty-one for the recommendation.


I registered your luggage, and here is your travelling ticket, the luggage ticket and change (money balance). I paid 222 francs for the return ticket, and 21 for the registering.
I checked in your luggage, and here’s your travel ticket, the luggage tag, and your change. I paid 222 francs for the return ticket and 21 for the check-in.


Tre multan dankon; kaj nun, ni okupu niajn sidejojn en la vagonaro.
Three more thanks; and now, let's take our seats in the train car.


Very many thanks; and now let us take our seats in the train.
Thank you so much; now let's take our seats on the train.


Ĉi tiu fako estas plena. Jen alia, kiu havas du sidejojn neokupitajn. Ni eniru tiun.
This section is full. Here’s another one that has two available seats. Let's go in there.


This compartment is full. Here is another that has two vacant seats. Let us enter that.
This compartment is full. Here’s another one that has two empty seats. Let’s get in there.


Tre bone. Kiun sidejon vi plivolas? Tiun, kiu kontraŭas la lokomotivon, aŭ la alian?
Very good. Which side do you prefer? The one that opposes the locomotive, or the other one?


Very well. Which seat do you prefer? That which faces the engine, or the other?
Very well. Which seat do you prefer? The one that faces the engine, or the other one?


Al mi estas tute egale. Elektu vi mem.
It's all the same to me. You choose.


It is all the same to me. Choose yourself.
It's all the same to me. You decide.


Nu, mi prenos ĉi tiun, ĉar mi ne amas veturi kun la dorso kontraŭ la lokomotivo.
Well, I'm moving this because I don't like riding with my back to the train engine.


Well, I will take this, for I do not like to travel with my back to the engine.
Well, I'll take this, because I don't like sitting with my back to the engine.


Kiam la vagonaro ekiros?
When does the train leave?


When does the train start?
When does the train leave?


Post du aŭ tri minutoj.
After two or three minutes.


In two or three minutes.
In 2 or 3 minutes.


Nun, ni iras.
Well, you won't go.


Now we are off.
We're off now.


Ĉu vi konas bonan hotelon en Ĝenevo kontraŭ la lago?
Do you know a good hotel in Geneva by the lake?


Do you know a good hotel in Geneva facing the lake?
Do you know a nice hotel in Geneva that overlooks the lake?


Mi konas diversajn, en unu el kiuj mi mem iros. Ĝi estas tre komforta, kaj la prezoj moderaj.
I know various places, and I will go to one of them myself. It's very comfortable, and the prices are reasonable.


I know several, to one of which I am going myself. It is very comfortable and the charges moderate.
I know a few, and I’m actually going to one of them myself. It’s really nice, and the prices are reasonable.


Bonvolu diri al mi ĝian nomon. Tia hotelo tre bone konvenus al (por) mi, ĉar mi neniel estas riĉulo.
Please tell me its name. Such a hotel would suit me well, as I am by no means wealthy.


Kindly tell me its name. Such an hotel would suit me very well, as I am not in any way a rich man.
Kindly tell me the name of the hotel. It would be just right for me since I'm not rich at all.


Mi forgesas la nomon, sed se vi kuniros tien kun mi, mi ĝin montros al vi.
I’ll create the name, but if you share it with me, I’ll show it to you.


I forget the name, but if you will go there with me, I will show it to you.
I can't remember the name, but if you come with me, I'll show it to you.


Vi estas tre kompleza; plezure mi akompanos vin. Ĉu ni devos vagonŝanĝi antaŭ ol alveni (en) Ĝenevon?
You are very complicated; I will gladly accompany you. Do we need to change trains before arriving in Geneva?


You are very kind; I will accompany you with pleasure. Shall we have to change carriages before arriving at Geneva?
You’re very kind; I’d be happy to join you. Do we need to change carriages before we get to Geneva?


Ne. Tiu ĉi vagonaro estas ekspresa, kaj ni haltos nur kvarfoje inter tie ĉi kaj Ĝenevo, kien ni devus alveni je la sesa (kaj) dudek sep morgaŭ matene.
No. This train is express, and we will only stop four times between here and Geneva, where we should arrive at six twenty-seven tomorrow morning.


No. This train is express, and we stop only four times between here and Geneva, where we ought to arrive at 6.27 to-morrow morning.
No. This train is an express, and we only stop four times between here and Geneva, where we should arrive at 6:27 tomorrow morning.


Ni do havos ankoraŭ pli ol sep horojn en la vagonaro. Mi kaptos la okazon por bona dormo; do mi diros "Bonan nokton, sinjoro."
You still have more than seven hours in the train. I'll take the opportunity for some good sleep; so I'll say "Good night, sir."


Then we have still more than seven hours of the train. I shall take the opportunity for a good sleep, so I will say "Good night, sir."
Then we still have more than seven hours on the train. I'll take the chance to get some sleep, so I'll say "Good night, sir."


Vekiĝu, sinjoro! Jen ni estas en Ĝenevo. Donu al mi vian pakaĵbileton, kaj mi kolektos viajn aĵojn kune kun miaj.
Wake up, sir! Here we are in Geneva. Give me your baggage claim ticket, and I’ll collect your things along with mine.


Wake up, sir! Here we are at Geneva. Give me your luggage ticket and I will collect your things with mine.
Wake up, sir! We're at Geneva. Hand me your luggage ticket, and I'll grab your stuff along with mine.


Ĉu mi luu fiakron?
Should I rent a taxi?


Shall I hire a cab?
Should I book a cab?


Ne (estas) necese. Ni povas iri per la omnibuso; la hotelo ne estas tre malproksima de la stacidomo.
It's not necessary. We can take the bus; the hotel isn't very far from the train station.


It is not necessary. We can go in the omnibus; the hotel is not very far from the station.
It’s not needed. We can take the bus; the hotel isn’t far from the station.


Jen la hotelo. Ĉu ĝi kontentigas vin?
Here is the hotel. Does it satisfy you?


There is the hotel. Does it satisfy you?
There’s the hotel. Does it meet your expectations?


Perfekte, se la ĉambroj kaj litoj estas puraj, kaj la manĝaĵo bona.
Perfect, if the rooms and beds are clean, and the food is good.


Perfectly, if the rooms and beds are clean and the food good.
Perfectly, as long as the rooms and beds are clean and the food is good.


Ĉio estis kontentiga la lastan fojon kiam mi estis tie, kaj mi opinias, ke la sama hotelmastro ankoraŭ tenas la hotelon. Jes, mi estas prava. Jen li! Tial vi povas nun diri al li tion, kion vi bezonas.
Everything was satisfying the last time I was there, and I think the same hotel manager still runs the hotel. Yes, I'm right. There he is! So you can now tell him what you need.


Everything was satisfactory the last time I was there, and I fancy the same landlord still keeps the hotel. Yes, I am right. Here he is! So you can now tell him what you want.
Everything was good the last time I was there, and I believe the same landlord still runs the hotel. Yes, I’m correct. Here he is! So you can now tell him what you need.


Bonan vesperon. Kion vi deziras, sinjoro?
Good evening. What do you want, sir?


Good evening. What do you desire, sir?
Good evening. What would you like, sir?


Bonan, aeroplenan litĉambron sur la tria etaĝo, kontraŭ la lago. Kiom vi postulas?
Bonan, the airplane room on the third floor, across from the lake. How much do you charge?


A good, airy bedroom on the third floor, facing the lake. What is your charge (do you ask)?
A nice, bright bedroom on the third floor, overlooking the lake. What’s your price (you might ask)?


Mi havas ĝuste la ĉambron, kiun vi deziras, sinjoro. La prezo dependas de la daŭro de via loĝado en la hotelo, kaj ĉu vi luos la ĉambron kun aŭ sen nutraĵo.
I have exactly the room you want, sir. The price depends on how long you'll stay at the hotel and whether you'll be renting the room with or without meals.


I have exactly the room you desire, sir. The charge depends on the length of time you stay in the hotel, and whether you take the room with or without board.
I have just the room you're looking for, sir. The price depends on how long you stay at the hotel and whether you choose a room with or without meals.


Mi restos almenaŭ kvin tagojn por la Kongreso, kaj mi prenos ĉiun manĝon en la hotelo.
I'll stay at least five days for the Congress, and I'll have every meal at the hotel.


I shall remain at least five days for the Congress, and I shall take all meals in the hotel.
I will stay for at least five days for the Congress, and I will have all my meals at the hotel.


Tiuokaze la prezo estos po ok frankoj por ĉiu tago; aŭ, se vi restus tutan semajnon, la tuta kosto estus kvindek frankoj, kiu enhavas la servadon kaj la lumigon.
The price will be eight francs per day; or, if you stay for a whole week, the total cost will be fifty francs, which includes service and lighting.


In that case the charge will be (at the rate of) eight francs a day (for each day); or if you should remain a whole week, the entire cost would be fifty francs, which includes attendance and light.
In that case, the charge will be eight francs a day for each day. If you stay for a whole week, the total cost would be fifty francs, which includes service and lighting.


Nu, do, mi pensas, ke mi restos unu semajnon, se mi trovos la nutraĵon bona kaj la litĉambron pura kaj komforta. Je kiomaj horoj okazas la manĝoj?
Well, I think I'll stay for a week if I find the food good and the bedroom clean and comfortable. What time are the meals served?


Well, then, I think I shall stay a week, if I (shall) find the food good and the bedroom clean and comfortable. At what hours are the meals?
Well, I guess I'll stay for a week if the food is good and the bedroom is clean and comfortable. What time are the meals?


Matenmanĝo kiam ajn vi deziras; tagmanĝo je la unua, kaj vespermanĝo je la sesa kaj duono.
Eat whenever you want; lunch at one, and dinner at six thirty.


Breakfast whenever you wish; lunch at one o’clock, and dinner at half-past six.
Breakfast whenever you want; lunch at 1 PM, and dinner at 6:30 PM.


Bone. Bonvolu suprensendi mian pakaĵon al mia ĉambro.
Bone. Please bring my luggage up to my room.


Good. Kindly send my luggage up to my room.
Good. Please send my luggage up to my room.



CORRESPONDENCE (Korespondado).


The following are some of the more usual forms of dates,
commencements, and conclusions of letters:—
The following are some of the more common ways to start and end letters:—


DATES.
DATES.


    

  • Londono, Anglujo.
    • 

  • je la 24a de Januaro 1906a.
    • 

  • je la 24a de Jano 1906a.
    • 

  • la 10an de Febo 1906a.
    • 

  • 25 Junio 1906a.
    • 



N.B.—The preposition je is generally omitted and the accusative
used in its place, as:—La 12an de Marto.
N.B.—The preposition je is usually left out, and the accusative is used instead, as in:—La 12an de Marto.


Reference to Dates.—In referring to date, the preposition de is
generally used, e.g.:—Responde al via letero de ... = In reply to
your letter of....
Reference to Dates.—When mentioning a date, the preposition de is typically used, e.g.:—Responde al via letero de ... = In response to your letter of....


    

  • De la 4a de la lasta monato = Of the 4th of last month.
    • 

  • De la 4a de la lasta = Of the 4th ultimo.
    • 

  • De la 4a de la nuna (kuranta) monato = Of the 4th of the present month.
    • 

  • De la 4a de la nuna (or, kuranta) = Of the 4th instant.
    • 



In speaking of future dates, venonta or proksima is used, with or
without monato, as:—Je la 4a de la venonta (or, proksima)
monato = On the 4th of next month, or on the 4th proximo. Je can
be omitted and the accusative used, as:—La 4an de la venonta.
In talking about future dates, venonta or proksima is used, with or without monato, as:—On the 4a of next (or, proximo) month = On the 4th of next month, or on the 4th proximo. On can be omitted and the accusative used, as:—The 4an of the next.


COMMENCEMENT AND CONCLUSION OF LETTERS.


The style of address varies considerably among nations, but the
following are some in more or less general use:—
The way people address each other varies widely between countries, but here are some that are commonly used:—


FRIENDS.
Friends.


Commencement.—Estimata = Esteemed. Kara = Dear. Mia kara
Karlo = My dear Charles. Kara (or, mia kara) Sinjoro B. = Dear
(or, my dear) Mr. B. Sinjorino B. = Mrs. B. Fraŭlino B. = Miss
B. (Mia) kara Samideano (or, Samideanino) = Fellow thinker (if an
Esperantist), lit., partisan of the same idea.
Commencement.—Estimata = Esteemed. Kara = Dear. Mia kara Karlo = My dear Charles. Kara (or, mia kara) Sinjoro B. = Dear (or, my dear) Mr. B. Sinjorino B. = Mrs. B. Fraŭlino B. = Miss B. (Mia) kara Samideano (or, Samideanino) = Fellow thinker (if an Esperantist), lit., supporter of the same idea.


Conclusion.—In the undermentioned examples kun
may be omitted and the accusative used, as:—Amikajn
salutojn. This shows that some verb (such as mi deziras)
is omitted (see par. 105 on ellipsis, and par. 65 (c) on
accusative).
Conclusion.—In the following examples, kun can be left out and the accusative can be used, as in:—Amikajn salutojn. This indicates that some verb (like mi deziras) is left out (see par. 105 on ellipsis, and par. 65 (c) on accusative).




    

  • Kun amika saluto = With friendly salutation.
    • 

  • Kun estimo kaj... = With esteem and...
    • 

  • Kun kora saluto = With hearty salutation.
    • 

  • Kun saluto = With salutation.
    • 

  • Kun ĉiu bondeziro = With good wishes.
    • 

  • Kun miaj bondeziroj = With kind regards.
    • 

  • Kun la plej granda estimo = With the greatest esteem.
    • 







    

  • Via (tre) sincere = Yours (very) sincerely.
    • 

  • (Tre) kore via = (Very) heartily yours.
    • 

  • Tute via = Entirely yours.
    • 

  • Ĉiam via = Always yours.
    • 

  • Via fidela amiko = Your faithful friend.
    • 

  • Via = Yours.
    • 

  • Sindone via. Amike via.
    • 

  • Mi restas via.
    • 

  • Kredu min (esti) ĉiam, k.c.
    • 

  • Vin salutas, k.t.p.
    • 





STRANGERS.
People I don't know.


Commencement.—Sinjoro = Sir. Sinjorino = Madam. Fraŭlino =
Mademoiselle. Estimata = Esteemed, may precede the above, or, in
some cases, kara, or, tre estimata.
Commencement.—Sinjoro = Sir. Sinjorino = Madam. Fraŭlino = Mademoiselle. Estimata = Esteemed, can come before the terms above, or in some cases, kara, or tre estimata.


Conclusion.—(Tre) fidele via = (Very) faithfully yours. Via
(tre) vere = Yours (very) truly. (Tre) sincere via = (Very)
sincerely yours.
Conclusion.—(Tre) fidele via = (Very) faithfully yours. Via
(tre) vere = Yours (very) truly. (Tre) sincere via = (Very)
sincerely yours.


Titles.—For the use of Moŝto in addressing persons with titles,
or in official positions, see par. 283.
Titles.—For the use of Moŝto when addressing people with titles or in official roles, see par. 283.


NEAR RELATIVES.
CLOSE RELATIVES.


In correspondence with near relatives, the following are some of the
terms which might be written:—
In communication with close relatives, here are some of the terms that could be used:—


Commencement.—Mia kara ... = My dear ... Plej kara ... =
Dearest ... Mia karegulo, or, karegulino ... = My darling ...
Amata ... = Beloved ... Kare amata ... = Dearly beloved ...
Commencement.—Mia kara ... = My dear ... Plej kara ... = Dearest ... Mia karegulo, or, karegulino ... = My darling ... Amata ... = Beloved ... Kare amata ... = Dearly beloved ...


Conclusion.—Kun multe da amo (por ĉiuj) = With much love (to
all). Via (tre) amanta = Your (very) affectionate. Via ameganta
patrino = Your loving mother.
Conclusion.—Kun multe da amo (por ĉiuj) = With lots of love (to everyone). Via (tre) amanta = Your (very) loving. Via ameganta patrino = Your caring mother.


OFFICIAL OR COMMERCIAL.
Official or commercial.


Commencement.—Sinjoro = Sir. Sinjoroj = Gentlemen, or, Sirs.
Estimata, estimataj, kara, karaj, may precede the above.
Commencement.—Sinjoro = Sir. Sinjoroj = Gentlemen, or, Sirs. Estimata, estimataj, kara, karaj, can come before the above.


Conclusion.—The modes of conclusion are numerous; the following
are a few:—
Conclusion.—There are many ways to conclude; here are a few:—


    

  • (Tre) fidele via = (Very) faithfully yours.
    • 

  • Kun ulta estimo, or, Altestime = With high esteem.
    • 

  • Via obea, or obeema (humila) servanto = Your obedient
  (humble) servant.
    • 

  • Ricevu la certigon de la plej alta estimo de via obea servanto =
Accept the assurance of the highest esteem from your obedient servant.
    • 

  • Mi restas, kun tuta respekto, via plej humila servanto = I remain
with all respect your most humble servant.
    • 



SPECIMENS OF LETTERS (Modeloj de leteroj).


Gesinjoroj M. havas la honoron inviti Gesinjorojn N. kaj ilian
filinon al vespermanĝo ĵaŭdon venontan je la oka horo.
Mr. and Mrs. M. have the honor of inviting Mr. and Mrs. N. and their daughter to dinner next Thursday at eight o'clock.


Mr. and Mrs. M. have the honour of inviting Mr. and Mrs. N. and their
daughter to dinner on Thursday next at eight o’clock.
Mr. and Mrs. M. are pleased to invite Mr. and Mrs. N. and their daughter to dinner next Thursday at eight o’clock.


Gesinjoroj N. kaj ilia filino akceptas kun multa plezuro la afablan
inviton de Gesinjoroj M. por vespermanĝo je la venonta ĵaŭdo. Or,
... tre bedaŭras, ke antaŭa promeso malhelpas ilin akcepti la ...
k.t.p.
Mr. and Mrs. N. and their daughter gladly accept the charming invitation from Mr. and Mrs. M. for dinner next Thursday. Or, ... they regret that a prior commitment prevents them from accepting the ... etc.


Mr. and Mrs. N. and their daughter accept with much pleasure the kind
invitation of Mr. and Mrs. M. to dinner on Thursday next. Or, ...
very much regret that a previous engagement prevents them from
accepting the ...
Mr. and Mrs. N. and their daughter happily accept the kind invitation from Mr. and Mrs. M. to dinner next Thursday. Or, ... they deeply regret that a prior commitment stops them from accepting the ...


Kara Sro B.,—Mi proponas viziti vin morgaŭ posttagmeze, je la
5a, se tiu horo estos oportuna por vi; se ne, bonvolu sciigi min,
per la alportanto (de ĉi tio), je kioma horo vi ester libera.
Kara Sro B.,—I would like to visit you tomorrow afternoon at 5a, if that time works for you; if not, please let me know through the messenger (of this) what time you are free.


Dear Mr. B.—I propose calling upon you to-morrow afternoon at 5
o’clock, if that hour will be convenient to you; if not, kindly
inform me by bearer (of this) at what hour you will be disengaged.
Dear Mr. B.—I plan to visit you tomorrow afternoon at 5 o’clock, if that time works for you; if not, please let me know through this messenger what time you will be free.


Vian leteron de la 30a lasta mi ne ricevis ĝis la 2a de la nuna.
I didn't receive the letter from the 30th until the 2nd of this month.


I did not receive your letter of the 30th ultimo till the 2nd inst.
I didn't get your letter from the 30th of last month until the 2nd of this month.


Mi bedaŭras, ke mi tiel longe prokrastis respondi vian leteron, sed
efektive mi ne povis trovi la tempon ...
I'm sorry that I took so long to reply to your letter, but I really couldn't find the time ...


I regret that I delayed so long in replying to your letter, but
really I could not find time ...
I’m sorry it took me so long to respond to your letter, but honestly, I just couldn't find the time...


Mi tre ĝojas aŭdi, ke vi ...
I'm really glad to hear that you ...


I am delighted to hear that you ...
I am delighted to hear that you ...


Mi kore gratulas vin pro (pri) via fianĉiĝo kun Fraŭlino B.
I want to congratulate you on your engagement to Miss B.


I heartily congratulate you on your engagement to Miss B.
I sincerely congratulate you on your engagement to Miss B.


Mi ricevis vian leteron tro malfrue por ĝin respondi per la
hodiaŭa poŝto (or, respondi hodiaŭ poŝte).
I received your letter too late to respond with today's mail (or, to respond today by mail).


I received your letter too late to answer it by to-day’s post.
I got your letter too late to respond by today’s mail.




Esperanto Club,

April 18, 1906.

London.



Kara Karlĉjo,
Kara Karlĉjo,


Kiam vi ricevos ĉi tiun leteron, eble vi diros: "Kio estas ĉi tio?
Kia lingvo ĝi estas?" Sed, kiam vi malfermos la ŝlosileton (ĉi tie
enfermitan), kaj jam tralegos la unuajn ok paĝojn, vi diros: "Estas
mirinde! Kiu ĝin kredus? Mi povas tute facile kompreni ĉi tiun
strangan lingvon! Kio oni ĝin nomas? Ho! mi vidas, ‘Esperanto!’ Kion
signifas ‘ŝlosileto’? Mi serĉu en la libreto mem. Jen estas!
‘Ŝlos’ = lock; ‘il’ = instrument; ‘et’ = diminutive; ‘o’ =
ending of nouns; tial ‘ŝlosileto’ signifas a diminutive
instrument for locking, = a tiny key. Nu, se mi povas tiel facile,
unuavide, kompreni la lingvon, ĝia aŭtoro havas ĉian kaŭzon por
esperi, ke li efektivigos sian deziron; kaj mi kore deziras, ke li
sukcesu. Mi certe lernos Esperanton kaj penos disvastigi ĝin kiel
eble plej multe."
Kiam vi ricevos ĉi tiun leteron, eble vi diros: "Kio estas ĉi tio? Kia lingvo ĝi estas?" Sed, kiam vi malfermos la ŝlosileton (ĉi tie enfermitan), kaj jam tralegos la unuajn ok paĝojn, vi diros: "Estas mirinde! Kiu ĝin kredus? Mi povas tute facile kompreni ĉi tiun strangan lingvon! Kio oni ĝin nomas? Ho! mi vidas, ‘Esperanto!’ Kion signifas ‘ŝlosileto’? Mi serĉu en la libreto mem. Jen estas! ‘Ŝlos’ = lock; ‘il’ = instrument; ‘et’ = diminutive; ‘o’ = ending of nouns; tial ‘ŝlosileto’ signifas a diminutive instrument for locking, = a tiny key. Nu, se mi povas tiel facile, unuavide, kompreni la lingvon, ĝia aŭtoro havas ĉian kaŭzon por esperi, ke li efektivigos sian deziron; kaj mi kore deziras, ke li sukcesu. Mi certe lernos Esperanton kaj penos disvastigi ĝin kiel eble plej multe.


Kaj nun, mia kara Karlo, skribu al mi leteron Esperante, kaj diru al
mi, ĉu mi ne estas tute prava, imagante, ke la suprediritaj vortoj
estas ĝuste tiuj, kiujn vi pensis, ricevinte tiun ĉi leteron.
Kaj nun, mia kara Karlo, skribu al mi leteron en Esperanto, kaj diru al mi, ĉu mi ne estas tute prava, imagante, ke tiuj supre menciitaj vortoj estas ĝuste tiuj, kiujn vi pensis, kiam vi ricevis tiun ĉi leteron.


Ĉiam la via,

G.C.


Postskribaĵo. P.S.—Ĉi tiu klubo estas tute esperantista. Ĉiuj
anoj aŭ parolas Esperanton, aŭ lernadas ĝin; por ĉi tiuj, ni
havas ĉambron aparte dediĉitan al la lernantoj, kaj unu el la anoj
donas lecionojn ĉiutage. La kelneroj kaj ĉiuj servistoj parolas la
lingvon. La manĝokartoj kaj vinkartoj 
estas en Esperanto, kaj ni
ĉiam parolas Esperante unu kun la aliaj. Mi esperas, ke vi aniĝos,
kiam vi revenos Anglujon.
Postskribaĵo. P.S.—This club is entirely for Esperanto speakers. All members either speak Esperanto or are learning it; for those who are learning, we have a room specifically dedicated to students, and one of the members gives lessons every day. The waiters and all staff speak the language. The menus and wine lists  are in Esperanto, and we always speak to each other in Esperanto. I hope you'll join when you return to England.


Translation.
Translation.



Esperanto Club,

April 18, 1906.



Dear Charlie,
Dear Charlie,


When you receive this letter possibly you will say: "What is this?
What language is it?" But when you open the ŝlosileto (herewith
enclosed), and have read through the first eight pages, you will say:
"It is wonderful! Who would believe it? I can quite easily understand
this queer language! What do they call it? Oh! I see, ‘Esperanto!’
What does ‘ŝlosileto’ mean? Let me look in the book itself. Here
it is! ‘ŝlos’ = lock; ‘il’ = instrument; ‘et’ = diminutive;
‘o’ = ending of nouns; therefore ‘ŝlosileto’ means a diminutive
instrument for locking, = a tiny key. Well, if I can so easily, at
first sight, understand the language, its author has every reason to
hope that he will realize his desire, and I heartily hope that he
will succeed. I shall certainly learn Esperanto, and try to spread it
as much as possible."
When you get this letter, you might say, "What is this? What language is this?" But once you open the ŝlosileto (included here) and read the first eight pages, you'll think, "This is amazing! Who would have thought? I can easily understand this weird language! What do they call it? Oh! I see, ‘Esperanto!’ What does ‘ŝlosileto’ mean? Let me check the book. Here it is! ‘ŝlos’ = lock; ‘il’ = instrument; ‘et’ = diminutive; ‘o’ = noun ending; so ‘ŝlosileto’ means a small instrument for locking, = a tiny key. Well, if I can so easily understand this language at first glance, the author has every reason to hope he’ll achieve his goal, and I truly hope he does. I will definitely learn Esperanto and try to spread it as much as I can."


And now, my dear Charles, write me a letter in Esperanto, and tell me
if I am not quite right in imagining that the above-mentioned words
are exactly what you thought, after receiving this letter.
And now, my dear Charles, write me a letter in Esperanto and let me know if I'm right to think that the words I mentioned above are exactly what you were thinking after getting this letter.



Always yours,

G.C.


Postscript. P.S.—This Club is entirely Esperantist. All members
either speak Esperanto or are learning it; for the latter we have a
room specially set apart for learners, and one of the members gives
lessons daily. The waiters and all the servants speak the language.
The menus and wine cards are in Esperanto, and we always speak
Esperanto to each other. I hope you will become a member when you
return to England.
Postscript. P.S.—This Club is completely dedicated to Esperanto. All members either speak Esperanto or are learning it; for those who are learning, we have a room specifically for students, and one of the members provides daily lessons. The waiters and all the staff speak the language. The menus and wine lists are in Esperanto, and we always communicate in Esperanto with each other. I hope you'll join as a member when you come back to England.



PART V


LIST OF PRIMARY WORDS.


A


    

  • Adiaŭ = adieu, farewell, good-bye (adv. and int.).
    • 

  • Ajn = ever (adv.).
    • 

  • Al = to, towards (prep.).
    • 

  • Almenaŭ = at least (conj. and adv.).
    • 

  • Ambaŭ = both (pron.).
    • 

  • Ankaŭ = also, too (conj. and adv.).
    • 

  • Ankoraŭ = yet, still (adv.).
    • 

  • Anstataŭ = instead of (prep.).
    • 

  • Antaŭ = before, in front of, ago (prep.).
    • 

  • Apenaŭ = hardly, scarcely (adv.).
    • 

  • Apud = near to, close by, beside, at the side of (prep.).
    • 

  • Aŭ = or, either (conj.).
    • 



B


    

  • Baldaŭ = soon (adv.).
    • 

  • Bis = once more, encore, again (adv. and int.).
    • 



C


    

  • Ĉar = because, for, since (conj.).
    • 

  • Ĉe = at (prep.).
    • 

  • Cent = hundred (num.).
    • 

  • Ci = thou (per. pron.).
    • 

  • Ĉi = (here) near (adv.).
    • 

  • Ĉia = each, every kind of (pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Ĉial = for every cause, for every reason (adv.).
    • 

  • Ĉiam = always, ever (adv.).
    • 

  • Ĉie = everywhere (adv.).
    • 

  • Ĉiel = in every way (adv.).
    • 

  • Ĉies = everyone’s (indef. pron.).
    • 

  • Ĉio = everything (indef. pron.).
    • 

  • Ĉiom = all, every quantity (adv.).
    • 

  • Ĉirkaŭ = round, about (prep.).
    • 

  • Ĉiu = each, each one (pron. and pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Ĉu = whether (conj. and adv.).
    • 



D


    

  • Da = of (for quantity) (prep.).
    • 

  • De = of, from, since (time), by (agent) (prep.).
    • 

  • Dek = ten (num.).
    • 

  • Des pli = so much the ... (conj. and adv.). As:—Des pli bone = so
much the better (see ju pli).
    • 

  • Do = then, indeed, therefore (conj.).
    • 

  • Du = two (num.).
    • 

  • Dum = while, whilst (conj.), during (prep.).
    • 



E


    

  • Eĉ = even (adv.).
    • 

  • Ekster = outside (prep.).
    • 

  • El = out of (prep.).
    • 

  • En = in, into (prep.).
    • 



F


    

  • Fi! = fie! (int.).
    • 

  • For = away, forth (adv. and int.).
    • 



Ĝ


    

  • Ĝi = it (per. pron.).
    • 

  • Ĝis = till, until, up to, down to, as far as (prep. and
conj.).
    • 



H


    

  • Ha! = ah! ha! (int.).
    • 

  • He! = hey! halloa! (int.).
    • 

  • Hieraŭ = yesterday (adv.).
    • 

  • Ho! = ho! oh! (int.).
    • 

  • Hodiaŭ = to-day (adv.).
    • 

  • Hura! = hurrah! huzza! (int.).
    • 



I


    

  • Ia = some, some kind of (any) (pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Ial = for some (any) cause (adv.).
    • 

  • Iam = ever, at some (any) time (adv.).
    • 

  • Ie = somewhere (anywhere) (adv.).
    • 

  • Iel = somehow, in some (any) way (adv.).
    • 

  • Ies = someone’s (anyone’s) (indef. pron.).
    • 

  • Ili = they (per. pron.).
    • 

  • Inter = among, between (prep.).
    • 

  • Io = something (anything) (indef. pron.).
    • 

  • Iom = some quantity, somewhat, some (any) (adv.).
    • 

  • Iu = some one (indef. pron. and pron. adj.).
    • 



J


    

  • Ja = in fact, indeed (adv.), indeed! (int.).
    • 

  • Jam = already, now, yet (adv.).
    • 

  • Je = an indefinite preposition (see par. 251).
    • 

  • Jen = here, there (adv. and conj.), lo! behold! (int.).
  Jen ... jen = now ... now.
    • 

  • Jes = yes (adv.).
    • 

  • Ju pli ... des pli = the more (conj. and adv.).
    • 

  • Ĵus = just (adv.).
    • 



K


    

  • Kaj = and, both (conj.).
    • 

  • Ke = that (conj.).
    • 

  • Kia = what kind of (interrogative and pron. adj.), what! (int.).
    • 

  • Kial = wherefore, why (conj., adv., and interrogative).
    • 

  • Kiam = when (conj., adv., and interrogative).
    • 

  • Kie = where (conj., adv., and interrogative).
    • 

  • Kiel = how, as, in what way (conj., adv., and interrogative).
    • 

  • Kies = whose (interrogative and relative pron.).
    • 

  • Kio = what (thing) (interrogative and relative pron.).
    • 

  • Kiom = how many, how much (adv. and interrogative).
    • 

  • Kiu = who, which (interrogative, pron., and pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Kontraŭ = against, facing, opposite to (prep.).
    • 

  • Krom = not including, apart from; hence it can be used for
"except, besides, save, without, but," etc. (prep.).
    • 

  • Kun = with (prep.), (not used in an instrumental sense).
    • 

  • Kvankam = although, though (conj.).
    • 

  • Kvar = four (num.).
    • 

  • Kvazaŭ = as if, as it were (conj. and adv.).
    • 

  • Kvin = five (num.).
    • 



L


    

  • La = the (art.).
    • 

  • Laŭ = according to (prep.).
    • 

  • Li = he (per. pron.).
    • 



M


    

  • Malgraŭ = notwithstanding (prep.).
    • 

  • Mem = self, selves, very (pron.).
    • 

  • Mi = I (per. pron.).
    • 

  • Mil = thousand (num.).
    • 

  • Morgaŭ = to-morrow (adv.).
    • 



N


    

  • Naŭ = nine (num.).
    • 

  • Ne = no, not, nay (adv.).
    • 

  • Nek = neither, nor (conj. and adv.).
    • 

  • Nenia = none, no kind of (pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Nenial = for no cause (or, reason) (adv.).
    • 

  • Neniam = never, at no time (adv.).
    • 

  • Nenie = nowhere (adv.).
    • 

  • Neniel = nohow, in no way, not at all (adv.).
    • 

  • Nenies = no one’s (pron.).
    • 

  • Nenio = nothing (noun).
    • 

  • Neniom = none, no quantity (adv.).
    • 

  • Neniu = nobody, no one (noun and pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Ni = we (per. pron.).
    • 

  • Nu = well! (int.).
    • 

  • Nun = now (adv.).
    • 

  • Nur = only (adv.).
    • 



O


    

  • Ok = eight (num.).
    • 

  • Ol = than (comparison) (conj.).
    • 

  • Oni = they, one, people (per. pron.).
    • 



P


    

  • Per = by, by means of, through, with (prep.).
    • 

  • Plej = most (adv.).
    • 

  • Pli = more (comparison) (conj. and adv.).
    • 

  • Plu = further, farther, more (adv.).
    • 

  • Po = at the rate of, apiece (prep.).
    • 

  • Por = for, in order to (prep.).
    • 

  • Post = after (prep.).
    • 

  • Preskaŭ = almost (adv.).
    • 

  • Preter = beyond, by, past (prep.).
    • 

  • Pri = concerning, of, about (prep.).
    • 

  • Pro = for, because of, by reason of, for the sake of, owing
to (prep.).
    • 



S


    

  • Se = if (conj.).
    • 

  • Sed = but (conj.).
    • 

  • Sen = without (prep.).
    • 

  • Sep = seven (num.).
    • 

  • Ses = six (num.).
    • 

  • Si = self (reflexive pron.).
    • 

  • Ŝi = she (per. pron.).
    • 

  • Sub = under (prep.).
    • 

  • Super = above, over (prep.).
    • 

  • Sur = on, upon (prep.).
    • 



T


    

  • Tamen = however, yet, nevertheless, still (conj.).
    • 

  • Tia = that kind of, such a (dem. pron. and pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Tial = therefore, for that (or, such) cause (or, reason)
   (adv. and conj.).
    • 

  • Tiam = then, at that time (adv.).
    • 

  • Tie = there, in that place (adv.).
    • 

  • Tie ĉi = here, in this place (adv.).
    • 

  • Tiel = thus, so, as, in that (or, such) way (or, manner)
   (adv.).
    • 

  • Ties = that one’s, of that, of those (dem. pron.).
    • 

  • Tio = that (thing) (dem. pron.).
    • 

  • Tio ĉi = this (thing) (dem. pron.).
    • 

  • Tiom = so much, so many, as much (adv.).
    • 

  • Tiu = that one, the former (dem. pron. and pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Tiu ĉi = this one, the latter (dem. pron. and pron. adj.).
    • 

  • Tra = through (prep.).
    • 

  • Trans = across, beyond, on the other side of (prep.).
    • 

  • Tre = very (adv.).
    • 

  • Tri = three (num.).
    • 

  • Tro = too, too much (adv.).
    • 

  • Tuj = at once, immediately (adv.).
    • 



U


    

  • Unu = one (num.).
    • 



V


    

  • Ve! = woe! alas! (int.).
    • 

  • Vi = you, ye (per. pron.).
    • 




LIST OF USEFUL WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS.


In making use of the following list of Adverbs, Adjectives,
Conjunctions, Prepositions, and adverbial and prepositional
expressions, if the student has any doubt as to the correct Esperanto
words he should select when more than one is given, he will generally
find them explained (with examples) in the Alphabetical Lists of
Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions at pages 166, 180, and 219.
In using the following list of adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions, prepositions, and adverbial and prepositional expressions, if the student is unsure which Esperanto words to choose when presented with multiple options, they will usually find explanations (with examples) in the alphabetical lists of adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions on pages 166, 180, and 219.


A


    

  • A, per = en; por, as:—Kvar fojojn en tago = Four times a
   day. Tri funtojn en monato = Three pounds per month.
   Drapo po ses frankoj por metro = Cloth at six francs a
   (per) metre.
    • 

  • About = ĉirkaŭ; pri; pli-malpli; proksimume.
    • 

  • Above = super; supre; pli ol.
    • 

  • Above all = precipe; antaŭ ĉio.
    • 

  • Absolutely = absolute.
    • 

  • Accidentally = okaze; akcidente.
    • 

  • According ... as = laŭ tio ... ke.
    • 

  • According to = laŭ; konforme al (je); depende de.
    • 

  • According to circumstances = laŭokaze; laŭcirkonstance.
    • 

  • Accordingly = laŭe; tial; sekve.
    • 

  • Across = trans; laŭlarĝe.
    • 

  • Actually = efektive; fakte; ja; reale.
    • 

  • Adieu = adiaŭ.
    • 

  • Afar = malproksime; malproksime de.
    • 

  • After = post; post kiam; poste.
    • 

  • After a time = post kelka tempo.
    • 

  • After all = malgraŭ ĉio.
    • 

  • After consideration = konsiderinte; post pripenso.
    • 

  • After some time = post kelke da tempo, iom poste.
    • 

  • Afterwards = poste.
    • 

  • Again = ree; denove; ankoraŭ unu fojon; bis.
    • 

  • Again and again = foje kaj ree; refoje; multfoje, ripete.
    • 

  • Against = kontraŭ.
    • 

  • Agreed that = konsente ke.
    • 

  • All, all of it = ĉiom.
    • 

  • All at once = subite.
    • 

  • All right = tute prave; ĉio bona; konsentite; bone.
    • 

  • All sorts of = ĉiuspecaj (adj.).
    • 

  • All that = ĉio tio.
    • 

  • All the better = tiom pli bone.
    • 

  • All the same = tute egale.
    • 

  • All this = ĉio ĉi tio; ĉio ĉi.
    • 

  • All together = ĉiuj kune; ĉiuj samtempe.
    • 

  • All ways (in every way) = ĉiel.
    • 

  • Almost = preskaŭ.
    • 

  • Almost always = preskaŭ ĉiam.
    • 

  • Along = laŭlonge de; laŭ; apud; flanke de.
    • 

  • Along the river, road, etc. = laŭ la rivero, vojo, k.c.
    • 

  • Along with = kune kun.
    • 

  • Alongside = flanke de; laŭlonge de.
    • 

  • Already = jam; antaŭe.
    • 

  • Also = ankaŭ.
    • 

  • Although = kvankam.
    • 

  • Altogether = tute; kune; samtempe.
    • 

  • Always = ĉiam; ĉiufoje; senĉese; konstante.
    • 

  • Amid, amidst = meze de.
    • 

  • Among, amongst = inter; el.
    • 

  • Amongst other things = interalie; inter aliaj aferoj.
    • 

  • And = kaj.
    • 

  • And so forth (so on) = k.t.p. (kaj tiel plu); k.c. (kaj ceteraj).
    • 

  • Anew = denove.
    • 

  • Annually = ĉiujare.
    • 

  • Any = ia, iu (some); (k)ia ajn, (k)iu ajn; ĉia; iom; iom da.
    • 

  • Any more = ankoraŭ pli; pli multe; ankoraŭ iom da.
    • 

  • Any time, at = (k)iam ajn; iam (at some time).
    • 

  • Anybody, anyone = (k)iu ajn; iu (someone); ĉiu.
    • 

  • Anybody’s, anyone’s = (k)ies ajn; ies (somebody’s), ĉies.
    • 

  • Anyhow = (k)iel ajn; iel (somehow); ĉiel (in every way).
    • 

  • Anyone (someone) else = (k)iu ajn alia; iu alia; ĉiu alia.
    • 

  • Anything (something) else = io (ajn) alia; ĉio alia; ankoraŭ
   io; alio ajn.
    • 

  • Anywhere = (k)ie ajn; ie (somewhere); ĉie (everywhere).
    • 

  • Apart from = krom; ekster.
    • 

  • Approximately = ĉirkaŭe; proksimume; pli-malpli.
    • 

  • Around = ĉirkaŭ.
    • 

  • As = kiel; same kiel; ĉar; pro tio, ke. As (time) = kiam; dum.
    • 

  • As ... as = tiel ... kiel.
    • 

  • As a whole = entute; sume.
    • 

  • As also = kiel ankaŭ.
    • 

  • As early as possible = kiel eble plej frue.
    • 

  • As far as = ĝis; kiom. As far as possible = laŭeble.
    • 

  • As far as I know (remember) = kiom mi scias (memoras).
    • 

  • As far back (as long) as two years ago = jam antaŭ du jaroj.
    • 

  • As for = pri; rilate al; koncerne.
    • 

  • As for example = kiel ekzemple.
    • 

  • As follows = jene.
    • 

  • As if = kvazaŭ; kiel se.
    • 

  • As it was (happened) = kiel okazis.
    • 

  • As long as = tiel longe, kiel; se nur.
    • 

  • As many (much) = tiom.
    • 

  • As regards = pri; koncerne; rilate al.
    • 

  • As ... so = same ... kiel; kiel ... tiel.
    • 

  • As soon as = tuj kiam.
    • 

  • As soon as possible = kiel eble plej baldaŭ.
    • 

  • As though = kvazaŭ.
    • 

  • As to = pri; rilate al.
    • 

  • As well as = kiel ankaŭ; same kiel; kune kun; tiel bone, kiel.
    • 

  • As yet = ĝis nun; ankoraŭ.
    • 

  • Aside = aparte; flanke.
    • 

  • At = ĉe; je; apud; laŭ; sur; po, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • At a distance = malproksime; en malproksimo.
    • 

  • At a gallop = galope.
    • 

  • At a run = kure; kurante.
    • 

  • At all = tute, iomete.
    • 

  • At all events = kio ajn okazos; en ĉia okazo.
    • 

  • At all times = ĉiam; ĉiufoje.
    • 

  • At any rate = ĉiaokaze; almenaŭ.
    • 

  • At any time = iam ajn; iatempe (sometime); en ĉiu horo.
    • 

  • At first = unue; komence; en la komenco; en la unua tempo; unuafoje;
unuan fojon.
    • 

  • At first sight = unuavide.
    • 

  • At hand = apud; apude; sub la mano; proksime.
    • 

  • At home = hejme; dome, as:—Mi estas hejme = I am at home; or,
mi estas dome, or, en la domo.
    • 

  • At last, at length = fine; en la fino.
    • 

  • At least = almenaŭ; malpleje; plej malmulte.
    • 

  • At most = plej multe; pleje.
    • 

  • At once = tuj; samtempe.
    • 

  • At option = laŭvole; laŭ elekto; laŭ (via) bontrovo; laŭ
deziro.
    • 

  • At our house = ĉe ni; en nia domo; hejme.
    • 

  • At present = nun; nune; nuntempe.
    • 

  • At some distance = en kelka malproksim-o-eco.
    • 

  • At that = ĉe tio.
    • 

  • At that time = tiam; en tiu tempo.
    • 

  • At the distance of = en la interspaco de.
    • 

  • At the earliest = plej frue.
    • 

  • At the latest = plej malfrue.
    • 

  • At the least = plej malmulte.
    • 

  • At the moment = ĵus; en la momento.
    • 

  • At the most = plej multe.
    • 

  • At the outset = en la unua tempo; komence.
    • 

  • At the rate of = po.
    • 

  • At the same time = samtempe.
    • 

  • At the side of = apud; flanke de.
    • 

  • At this = ĉe tio (ĉi).
    • 

  • At times = iafoje; kelkafoje.
    • 

  • At what time = kiam; je kioma horo.
    • 

  • At will = laŭvole; laŭplaĉe; laŭdezire; laŭ bontrovo.
    • 

  • Athwart = laŭlarĝe.
    • 

  • Away = malproksime; for.
    • 

  • Away from = for de; malproksime de.
    • 



B


    

  • Backwards = malantaŭ-e-en.
    • 

  • Backwards and forwards = tien kaj reen; tien-reen.
    • 

  • Because = ĉar; tial, ke; pro tio, ke; tial, ĉar.
    • 

  • Because of = pro; kaŭze de.
    • 

  • Before = antaŭ; antaŭ ol; antaŭe; pli frue, ol.
    • 

  • Before everything = antaŭ ĉio.
    • 

  • Before long = baldaŭ; post ne longatempe; post ne longe.
    • 

  • Behind = post; malantaŭ; malantaŭe.
    • 

  • Behold! = jen!
    • 

  • Below = sub; sube; malsupre de.
    • 

  • Beneath = sub; sube.
    • 

  • Beside = apud; flanke de; laŭlonge de.
    • 

  • Besides = ekster; krom; krom tio; krome; cetere.
    • 

  • Betimes = frue; frutempe.
    • 

  • Between, betwixt = inter.
    • 

  • Beyond = trans (across); preter (past).
    • 

  • Beyond measure = supermezure.
    • 

  • Both = ambaŭ; la du.
    • 

  • Both ... and = kaj ... kaj; tiel ... kiel.
    • 

  • Broadways = laŭlarĝe.
    • 

  • But = sed; krom; nur (only); tamen.
    • 

  • But then = sed ... do; sed tiuokaze; sed tiam.
    • 

  • By = per; de; laŭ; po; apud; preter; apude, etc., according to
sense.
    • 

  • By and by = baldaŭ; tre baldaŭ; iom poste.
    • 

  • By all means = per ĉiu rimedo; ĉiel; certege; kompreneble.
    • 

  • By chance = okaze.
    • 

  • By consent = konsente.
    • 

  • By day = tage; en la tago.
    • 

  • By degrees = grade; laŭgrade; iom post iom.
    • 

  • By express = rapidire; per ekspreso; eksprese.
    • 

  • By half = poduone.
    • 

  • By heart = parkere.
    • 

  • By means of = per; per helpo de.
    • 

  • By night = nokte; en la nokto.
    • 

  • By no means = neniel; tute ne; per nenia rimedo.
    • 

  • By no other means = neniel alie ol; per neniu alia rimedo.
    • 

  • By reason of = pro; kaŭze de.
    • 

  • By some means, somehow = iel; per ia rimedo, iarimede.
    • 

  • By the day = laŭtage.
    • 

  • By the hour = laŭhore.
    • 

  • By the month = laŭmonate.
    • 

  • By the side of = apud; flanke de; laŭ; laŭlonge de.
    • 

  • By the way = okaze; parenteze; rilate al tio; pasante (mi volus
diri).
    • 

  • By the week = laŭsemajne.
    • 

  • By the year = laŭjare.
    • 

  • By this means = per ĉi tio; per ĉi tiu rimedo; ĉi tiel.
    • 

  • By this time = jam; nun; jam nun.
    • 

  • By twos and threes = du-triope.
    • 

  • By way of = en la celo de.
    • 



C


    

  • Careful of = zorga pri.
    • 

  • Close by = apud; apude; proksime.
    • 

  • Close to = apud; proksime de.
    • 

  • Compared with = kompare kun.
    • 

  • Concerning = pri; koncerne; rilate al.
    • 

  • Consequently = do; sekve; tial.
    • 

  • Consistently = konsekvence.
    • 



D


    

  • Daily = ĉiutage.
    • 

  • Day after (by) day = tagon post tago.
    • 

  • Day after to-morrow = postmorgaŭ.
    • 

  • Day before yesterday = antaŭhieraŭ.
    • 

  • Direct = rekte; senpere.
    • 

  • Directly = tuj; baldaŭ; tuj kiam.
    • 

  • Down = malsupren.
    • 

  • Down to = ĝis (if down is implied by the context).
    • 

  • Downwards = malsupren.
    • 

  • During = en; en la daŭro de; dum; or, the accusative.
    • 



E


    

  • Each one’s = ĉies.
    • 

  • Early = frue; frua.
    • 

  • Either = aŭ; ambaŭ; nek mi ankaŭ (nor I either).
    • 

  • Either ... or = aŭ ... aŭ.
    • 

  • Else = alie; alia; se ne.
    • 

  • Elsewhere = aliloke; aliloken.
    • 

  • Encore = bis.
    • 

  • Enough = sufiĉe.
    • 

  • Entirely = tute; plene.
    • 

  • Ere = antaŭ; antaŭ ol.
    • 

  • Especially = precipe; aparte.
    • 

  • Especially as = precipe ĉar.
    • 

  • Even = eĉ.
    • 

  • Even if = eĉ se; eĉ en la okazo, ke.
    • 

  • Ever = iam; ajn; ĉiam.
    • 

  • Ever since = de tiu tempo; de tiam.
    • 

  • Every = ĉia; ĉiu.
    • 

  • Every day = ĉiutage.
    • 

  • Every kind of (sort of) = ĉia; ĉiuspeca.
    • 

  • Every other = ĉiu alia.
    • 

  • Every other day = ĉiudutage; je alternaj tagoj.
    • 

  • Every other line, on = sur ĉiu dua linio.
    • 

  • Every quantity = ĉiom.
    • 

  • Every time when = ĉiufoje, kiam; ĉiun fojon, kiam.
    • 

  • Every two days = ĉiudutage.
    • 

  • Everyone’s = ĉies.
    • 

  • Everything = ĉio.
    • 

  • Everything else but = ĉio alia, ol.
    • 

  • Everything else is = ĉio alia (cetera) estas.
    • 

  • Everywhere = ĉie; ĉien; tutmonde.
    • 

  • Evidently = videble; evidente.
    • 

  • Exactly = ĝuste; precize; akurate.
    • 

  • Exactly the same as = tute egale, kiel.
    • 

  • Exceedingly = treege.
    • 

  • Except = kun escepto de; krom; esceptinte; se ne.
    • 

  • Excepting = esceptinte.
    • 

  • Excepting that = se ne, ke; esceptinte, ke; krom ke.
    • 

  • Excessively = troe.
    • 

  • Expressly = speciale; ĝuste; precize.
    • 

  • Extremely = treege; ekstreme.
    • 



F


    

  • Facing = kontraŭ; antaŭ.
    • 

  • Far from = malproksime de.
    • 

  • Far off = malproksime, fore.
    • 

  • Farther = pli malproksime; plu; pli fore.
    • 

  • Favourable to = favora al.
    • 

  • Few = ne multe da; malmulte da; malmultaj (el).
    • 

  • Few, a = kelke da; iom da; kelkaj (el).
    • 

  • Few days ago, a = antaŭ kelkaj tagoj; antaŭ nemulte da tagoj.
    • 

  • Finally = fine; laste; en la fino.
    • 

  • First-ly = unue; komence.
    • 

  • First ... then = unue ... due.
    • 

  • First of all = antaŭ ĉio.
    • 

  • First time, the = unuafoje; unuan fojon; en la unua fojo.
    • 

  • For = ĉar; por; pro, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • For a long time = de longe; jam de longe; longan tempon.
    • 

  • For all reasons = ĉial.
    • 

  • For all that = malgraŭ ĉio; spite ĉio.
    • 

  • For better or worse = por pli aŭ malpli bone.
    • 

  • For ever = por ĉiam.
    • 

  • For evermore = eterne.
    • 

  • For every reason = ĉial.
    • 

  • For example = ekzemple.
    • 

  • For fear that = timante, ke; pro timo, ke.
    • 

  • For many reasons = pro multe da kaŭzoj.
    • 

  • For no cause = nenial.
    • 

  • For no other cause than (but) = nenial alie, ol.
    • 

  • For some cause (or, reason) = ial.
    • 

  • For such a purpose = tiacele; en tia celo.
    • 

  • For that reason = tial; pro tio; kaŭze de tio.
    • 

  • For the benefit of = por; por la profito de.
    • 

  • For the last time = je la lasta fojo; lastfoje.
    • 

  • For the most part = plejparte; pleje.
    • 

  • For the purpose of = por; en la celo de; celante.
    • 

  • For the reason that = pro tio, ke; tial, ke.
    • 

  • For the rest, for the matter of that = cetere.
    • 

  • For the sake of (owing to) = pro; (with a view to) por.
    • 

  • For the same purpose = samcele.
    • 

  • For the same reason = samkaŭze.
    • 

  • For this reason = (ĉi) tial; pro tio; kaŭze de tio (ĉi).
    • 

  • For want of = pro manko de.
    • 

  • For what reason = kial; pro kio.
    • 

  • Formerly = antaŭe.
    • 

  • Fortnightly = (ĉiu)dusemajne; (ĉiu)duonmonate.
    • 

  • Forwards = antaŭen!
    • 

  • Frequently = ofte; multfoje.
    • 

  • From = de; (in sense of "out of" = el); (cause = pro).
    • 

  • From above = de supre; el supre.
    • 

  • From among, amongst = de inter, el inter.
    • 

  • From another cause = alikaŭze.
    • 

  • From another quarter = de aliloke; de aliparte.
    • 

  • From day to day = tagon post tago; de tago al tago.
    • 

  • From inside = el interne.
    • 

  • From now = de nun.
    • 

  • From outside = el ekstere; de ekster (la domo).
    • 

  • From the time when = de la tempo, kiam.
    • 

  • From time to time = de tempo al tempo.
    • 

  • From top to bottom = de supra ĝis fundo; de supre malsupren.
    • 

  • From under = de sub; el sub.
    • 

  • From within the = de en la; el interne de la.
    • 

  • From without the = de ekster la.
    • 

  • Full of = plena de.
    • 

  • Further = plie; plu.
    • 

  • Furthermore = plie; krom tio.
    • 



G


    

  • Generally = plejofte; ĝenerale; ordinare; kutime.
    • 

  • Good-bye = adiaŭ.
    • 

  • Good enough = sufiĉe bona.
    • 



H


    

  • Half ... half = duone ... duone.
    • 

  • Hardly = apenaŭ; preskaŭ ne.
    • 

  • Hence = (cause) tial; pro tio; kaŭze de tio; (time) de nun;
post; (place) de ĉi tie.
    • 

  • Henceforth = de nun.
    • 

  • Here = jen; ĉi tie.
    • 

  • Here is (or, are) = jen estas.
    • 

  • Here and there = (ĉi) tie kaj tie; tie aŭ aliloke; diversloke;
dise.
    • 

  • Hereafter = de nun; estontece.
    • 

  • Herewith = per ĉi tio; ĉi tie aldonita (enfermita); ĉi kune.
    • 

  • High up = alte supre.
    • 

  • Hither = ĉi tien; tien ĉi; pli proksima.
    • 

  • Hither and thither = ĉi tien kaj tien, tien-reen.
    • 

  • Hitherto = ĝis nun.
    • 

  • Hour by hour = horon post horo.
    • 

  • Hourly = ĉiuhore.
    • 

  • How = kiel; kiamaniere.
    • 

  • How long = ĝis kiam.
    • 

  • How many (much) = kiom; kiom da.
    • 

  • However = kiel ajn; tamen.
    • 

  • However little = kiel ajn malmulte.
    • 

  • However many (much) = kiom ajn.
    • 



I


    

  • Identically = idente; precize same; tute same; ĝuste.
    • 

  • If = se.
    • 

  • If ever (at any time) = se iam.
    • 

  • If however = se tamen.
    • 

  • If not = se ne.
    • 

  • If only = se nur.
    • 

  • If perchance = se okaze.
    • 

  • If so = se tiel; se tio estas; se jes; se vere.
    • 

  • If still = se ankoraŭ.
    • 

  • If then (therefore) = se do; (time) se tiam.
    • 

  • If though = se tamen.
    • 

  • Immediately = tuj.
    • 

  • Immediately after = tuj post; tuj kiam; tuj poste.
    • 

  • Immediately when = tuj kiam.
    • 

  • In = en; laŭ; post, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • In a few days = post kelkaj (or, nemultaj) tagoj.
    • 

  • In a few weeks = post kelkaj (or, nemultaj) semajnoj.
    • 

  • In a few words = per kelkaj (or, nemultaj) vortoj; kelkvorte.
    • 

  • In a great measure = grandamezure.
    • 

  • In a little while = post iom da tempo; post kelka (kelke da) tempo;
post nelonge.
    • 

  • In a short time = post mallonga (nelonga) tempo; baldaŭ.
    • 

  • In a word = per unu vorto; unuvorte.
    • 

  • In accordance with = laŭ; konforme al (je); en konsento kun.
    • 

  • In addition to = aldone al; plie; krom.
    • 

  • In all cases = ĉiuokaze.
    • 

  • In all particulars = ĉiudetale.
    • 

  • In all respects = ĉiel; ĉiumaniere; en ĉiu rilato; ĉiurilate.
    • 

  • In all sorts of ways = ĉiel; ĉiumaniere.
    • 

  • In another manner, way = alimaniere.
    • 

  • In answer to = responde je; responde al.
    • 

  • In any case = ĉiaokaze; ĉiusupoze; en ĉiu okazo.
    • 

  • In any other way = alie ajn; alimaniere ajn.
    • 

  • In any place = (k)ie ajn; ĉie.
    • 

  • In any way = (k)iel ajn; ĉiel.
    • 

  • In bad condition = malbonstate.
    • 

  • In breadth = laŭlarĝe.
    • 

  • In case = en la okazo, ke; or, se.
    • 

  • In case of = en okazo de.
    • 

  • In comparison with = kompare kun; en komparo kun.
    • 

  • In conclusion = fine; laste; finante.
    • 

  • In conformity with = konforme kun (or, je); laŭ.
    • 

  • In consequence = sekve; rezulte; sekve (de tio) (of that).
    • 

  • In consequence of which = sekve de kio.
    • 

  • In countenance (likeness) = vizaĝe.
    • 

  • In countenance (unabashed) = senhonte.
    • 

  • In course of = en la daŭro (irado) de; dum.
    • 

  • In course of time = en la daŭro de tempo.
    • 

  • In defiance (of) = spite (de).
    • 

  • In due course = siatempe; ĝiatempe; ĝustatempe; devtempe.
    • 

  • In effect = en la efektiveco; efektive; (laŭ)esence.
    • 

  • In every case = ĉiuokaze.
    • 

  • In every manner (or, way) = ĉiel; ĉiumaniere.
    • 

  • In excess = troe.
    • 

  • In fact = efektive; fakte; ja.
    • 

  • In favour of = por.
    • 

  • In form = forme.
    • 

  • In front = antaŭe.
    • 

  • In front of = antaŭ.
    • 

  • In good condition = bonstate.
    • 

  • In good time = ĝustatempe; akurate.
    • 

  • In harmony with = harmonie kun; akorde kun; (inter)konsente kun;
konforme al.
    • 

  • In large quantities = grandanombre; grandakvante; pogrande.
    • 

  • In length = laŭlonge.
    • 

  • In lieu of = anstataŭ.
    • 

  • In my opinion = miaopinie; laŭ mia opinio.
    • 

  • In no other way = ne alie; per neniu alia rimedo.
    • 

  • In no way, not in any way = neniel.
    • 

  • In no way whatever = tute neniel; ne niel ajn.
    • 

  • In number = nombre.
    • 

  • In order = laŭ ordo; laŭvice.
    • 

  • In order that = por ke (with imperative).
    • 

  • In order to = por (with infinitive).
    • 

  • In other respects = en aliaj rilatoj; alirilate.
    • 

  • In other words = alivorte; alidire.
    • 

  • In particular = precipe; aparte.
    • 

  • In point of fact = fakte; efektive.
    • 

  • In reality = efektive; en realeco.
    • 

  • In regard to = rilate al; or, rilate (with accusative).
    • 

  • In relation to = rilate al; to be in relation to = rilati al.
    • 

  • In reply to = responde je (al); respondante.
    • 

  • In rotation = vice; laŭvice; laŭ vico.
    • 

  • In shape of = forme de.
    • 

  • In short = mallonge; malmultavorte.
    • 

  • In so many words = per tiom da vortoj.
    • 

  • In so much = tial, ke; or, tiom, ke.
    • 

  • In some cases = en kelkaj okazoj; or, iaokaze.
    • 

  • In some degree = ĝis ia grado; iagrade; iom.
    • 

  • In some manner = iamaniere; iel.
    • 

  • In some other way = laŭ iu alia maniero; alimaniere.
    • 

  • In some respects = en kelkaj rilatoj; kelkrilate.
    • 

  • In some way = iel.
    • 

  • In spite of = (notwithstanding) malgraŭ; (in defiance of) spite de.
    • 

  • In spite of everything = malgraŭ ĉio.
    • 

  • In succession = vice; intersekve.
    • 

  • In such a case = tiaokaze; en tia okazo.
    • 

  • In such a degree = en tia grado; tiagrade.
    • 

  • In such a manner = tiamaniere; tiel.
    • 

  • In such a manner that = tiamaniere, ke; tiel, ke.
    • 

  • In that case = tiuokaze; tiusupoze.
    • 

  • In that way = tiel; tiumaniere; tiel.
    • 

  • In the afternoon = posttagmeze.
    • 

  • In the best way = per la plej bona metodo.
    • 

  • In the evening = vespere; en la vespero.
    • 

  • In the event of = se okaze; en la okazo, ke.
    • 

  • In the former case = en tiu okazo; en la unua okazo.
    • 

  • In the latter case = en ĉi tiu okazo; en la dua okazo.
    • 

  • In the least = plej malmulte; iomete.
    • 

  • In the main = plej; plejmulte; principe.
    • 

  • In the meantime = intertempe; dume.
    • 

  • In the midst = meze (de).
    • 

  • In the morning = matene; matenon; en la mateno.
    • 

  • In the proportion of = proporcie je.
    • 

  • In the same proportion = samproporcie.
    • 

  • In the same way = sammaniere; per la sama metodo; same.
    • 

  • In the same way as = same, kiel.
    • 

  • In the space of = en la daŭro de; dum (time); en la interspaco de
(distance).
    • 

  • In this respect = pri ĉi tio; rilate al ĉi tio; rilate ĉi tion.
    • 

  • In time = ĝustatempe; akurate.
    • 

  • In turn = vice; laŭvice; laŭ vico.
    • 

  • In vain = vane; senfrukte.
    • 

  • In what manner (or, way) = kiel.
    • 

  • In whatever manner = kiel ajn.
    • 

  • In width = laŭlarĝe.
    • 

  • Inasmuch as = ĉar; tial, ke.
    • 

  • Incidentally = okaze; flanke.
    • 

  • Indeed = ja; efektive.
    • 

  • Inevitably, infallibly = nepre.
    • 

  • Inside = en; interne de.
    • 

  • Inside out = el interne; kun la interno ekstere.
    • 

  • Insomuch as = tial, ke; tiom, ke.
    • 

  • Instead of = anstataŭ.
    • 

  • Internally = interne.
    • 

  • Into = en (with accusative).
    • 

  • Inwardly = interne.
    • 

  • Is it not so? = ĉu ne vere? or, ne vere? or, ĉu ne?
    • 

  • It is a pity = estas domaĝe.
    • 

  • It is so = jes; ja jes; tiel estas.
    • 

  • It may be = eble; verŝajne; povas esti; estas kredeble.
    • 



J


    

  • Jointly = kune.
    • 

  • Just = ĵus; ĝuste; tuj; nur; tute, same, etc.
    • 

  • Just as = ĝuste kiam (time); same kiel; ĝuste kiel (comparison).
    • 

  • Just as ... so = same kiel ... tiel.
    • 

  • Just as if = ĝuste kvazaŭ; tute kvazaŭ.
    • 

  • Just as well as = egale bone, kiel.
    • 

  • Just in time = ĝustatempe.
    • 

  • Just in the same way as = tute same, kiel.
    • 

  • Just now = ĵus; tuj; nuntempe; en la nuna tempo.
    • 



L


    

  • Last but one = antaŭlasta.
    • 

  • Last night = hieraŭ vespere; en la estinta (pasinta, hieraŭa)
nokto.
    • 

  • Last Tuesday = la lastan (pasintan) mardon.
    • 

  • Last Tuesday week = la antaŭlastan mardon.
    • 

  • Last week = la lastan semajnon.
    • 

  • Lastly = fine; laste.
    • 

  • Lately = antaŭ ne longe; en la lasta tempo.
    • 

  • Later on = pli poste.
    • 

  • Least = malplej.
    • 

  • Lengthways = laŭlonge.
    • 

  • Less = malpli.
    • 

  • Less and less = malpli kaj malpli.
    • 

  • Less ... than = malpli ... ol.
    • 

  • Lest = timante ke; ke ... ne; por ke ... ne.
    • 

  • Like = kiel; simil-e-a al; kvazaŭ.
    • 

  • Like that = tiel; tiele; tiamaniere; simil-e-a al tio (tiu).
    • 

  • Likewise = ankaŭ; simile.
    • 

  • Little, a = iom (da); ne multe (da); malmulte (da).
    • 

  • Little by little = iom post iom.
    • 

  • Long = longe.
    • 

  • Long ago (since) = de longe; or, jam de longe.
    • 

  • Long time, for a = longe.
    • 

  • Long time afterwards = longatempe poste.
    • 



M


    

  • Many, many a = multe da.
    • 

  • Many more of them = multe pli multe da ili.
    • 

  • Many times = multfoje.
    • 

  • Meantime, meanwhile = dume; en la intertempo; atendante.
    • 

  • Merely = nure; pure; nur; sole.
    • 

  • Moment ago, a = antaŭ momento; ĵus.
    • 

  • Monthly = ĉiumonate.
    • 

  • More = pli; pli multe; ankoraŭ; plu (further). More (of something)
= pli da.
    • 

  • More and more = pli kaj pli.
    • 

  • More or less = pli aŭ malpli; or, pli-malpli.
    • 

  • More ... than = pli ... ol.
    • 

  • Moreover = plie; krom tio.
    • 

  • Most = plej; la pleje; plej granda nombro (da); la plejmulto (da).
    • 

  • Most often = plejofte; pleje.
    • 

  • Mostly = plej; pleje; plej multe.
    • 

  • Much = multo; multe da.
    • 

  • Much more = multe pli multe; multe pli.
    • 



N


    

  • Namely = nome; tio estas, or, t.e.
    • 

  • Nay = ne.
    • 

  • Near (to) = apud; proksime (de); proksime.
    • 

  • Nearest, the = la plej proksima.
    • 

  • Nearly = preskaŭ.
    • 

  • Neither = nek.
    • 

  • Neither ... nor = nek ... nek.
    • 

  • Never = neniam.
    • 

  • Nevermore = neniam plu.
    • 

  • Never mind = ne ĝenu vin; ne (estas) grave; nenio grava.
    • 

  • Nevertheless = tamen.
    • 

  • Next = apuda; proksima; sekvanta; baldaŭa.
    • 

  • Next day = la morgaŭan (postan) tagon; en la sekvanta tago.
    • 

  • Next Sunday = la proksiman (venontan) dimanĉon.
    • 

  • Next time = la proksiman fojon, kiam; kiam denove.
    • 

  • Next week = la proksiman semajnon; en la proksima semajno.
    • 

  • Night after night = nokton post nokto.
    • 

  • Nightly = ĉiunokte; nokta (adj.).
    • 

  • No = ne.
    • 

  • No doubt = sendube.
    • 

  • No farther (further) = ne plu.
    • 

  • No longer = jam ne; ne plu.
    • 

  • No matter = ne malhelpas; negrave; ne gravas.
    • 

  • No matter (whether) = tute egale (ĉu).
    • 

  • No more than = ne pli, ol; ne pli multe, ol.
    • 

  • No one’s = nenies.
    • 

  • No one else = neniu alia.
    • 

  • No quantity = neniom.
    • 

  • No sooner than = tuj kiam.
    • 

  • No use = senutile; senutila.
    • 

  • Nobody’s = nenies.
    • 

  • Nohow = neniel.
    • 

  • None = neniom; nenia; nenio; neniu.
    • 

  • Nor = nek.
    • 

  • Nor ... also (either) (too) = nek ... ankaŭ.
    • 

  • Not = ne.
    • 

  • Not altogether (entire) = ne tute.
    • 

  • Not any = neniom; ne ... iom; neniu.
    • 

  • Not at all = tute ne; neniel.
    • 

  • Not in the least = neniel; tute ne.
    • 

  • Not long ago (since) = antaŭ nelonge; antaŭ nelonga tempo;
freŝ(dat)e.
    • 

  • Not long afterwards = ne longe poste; post nelonge; baldaŭ poste.
    • 

  • Not many (much) = nemulte (da).
    • 

  • Not more than = ne pli, ol.
    • 

  • Not only = ne nur; ne sole.
    • 

  • Not till after that = ne pli frue, ol post tio; nur poste; ne ĝis
poste.
    • 

  • Not yet = ankoraŭ ne; ne ĝis nun.
    • 

  • Nothing = nenio.
    • 

  • Nothing at all = neniom (ajn).
    • 

  • Nothing more = nenio pli (plu).
    • 

  • Notwithstanding = tamen; malgraŭ.
    • 

  • Notwithstanding all that = malgraŭ ĉio.
    • 

  • Notwithstanding that = malgraŭ (tio), ke.
    • 

  • Now = nun; nune.
    • 

  • Now ... now = jen ... jen.
    • 

  • Now and then = iafoje; okaze; de tempo al tempo.
    • 

  • Nowadays = nuntempe.
    • 

  • Nowhere, not anywhere = nenie.
    • 



O


    

  • Of = da; de; el; en; inter; pri, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • Of course = kompreneble.
    • 

  • Of late = en la lasta tempo; de mallonga tempo.
    • 

  • Off = for de; de.
    • 

  • Often = ofte; multfoje.
    • 

  • On = de; en; por; sur, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • On account of = kaŭze de; pro.
    • 

  • On arrival = alvenante; alveninte; ĉe alveno.
    • 

  • On behalf of = por; por la profito de.
    • 

  • On condition that = kondiĉe, ke; or, kun la kondiĉo, ke.
    • 

  • On consideration = konsiderinte; pripensinte.
    • 

  • On every occasion = en ĉiu okazo; ĉiuokaze.
    • 

  • On first thoughts = ekpensinte; unuapense.
    • 

  • On (for) hire = luebla; luata.
    • 

  • On loan = prunte.
    • 

  • On my account = por mi (for my sake); pro mi (because of
  me).
    • 

  • On my part = miaflanke; de mia flanko; miaparte.
    • 

  • On no account = nenial.
    • 

  • On one’s own account = pro (por) si mem.
    • 

  • On purpose = intence; cele.
    • 

  • On sale = vendata; vendebla.
    • 

  • On second thoughts = post plua konsiderado; duapense.
    • 

  • On that = ĉe tio.
    • 

  • On that account = pro tio; tial.
    • 

  • On the contrary = kontraŭe; male; inverse.
    • 

  • On the day = en la tago; la tagon.
    • 

  • On the other hand = aliflanke; aliparte.
    • 

  • On the other side of = trans; aliflanke de.
    • 

  • On the supposition that = supoze, ke.
    • 

  • On the part of = flanke de.
    • 

  • On the way = en (sur) la vojo; survoje.
    • 

  • On the whole = entute.
    • 

  • On this = ĉe tio (ĉi).
    • 

  • On this account = pro ĉi tio; (ĉi) tial.
    • 

  • On view = elmontrata.
    • 

  • Once = foje; iam (sometime), unufoje (once); unu fojon (one
  time, on one occasion).
    • 

  • Once a week = unu fojon semajne (en semajno).
    • 

  • Once again = denove; ankoraŭ unu fojon.
    • 

  • Once for all = unufoje por ĉiam; unu fojon por ĉiam.
    • 

  • Once in a way = por unu fojo; okaze.
    • 

  • Once more = bis; denove; ree; ankoraŭ unufoje (unu fojon).
    • 

  • Once upon a time = iam; foje.
    • 

  • Once when = foje, kiam.
    • 

  • One = unu.
    • 

  • One after another = unu post (la) ilia.
    • 

  • One and the other = ambaŭ.
    • 

  • One another = unu la alian; sin reciproke.
    • 

  • One at a time = unuope.
    • 

  • One by one = unu post unu; unuope.
    • 

  • One day = iam; en unu tago; foje; unu tagon.
    • 

  • One day when = foje kiam; iam, kiam; en unu tago, kiam.
    • 

  • One or other of them = unu aŭ alia el ili.
    • 

  • One to another = unu al alia.
    • 

  • Only = nur; sed (but); sole; sola.
    • 

  • Only just = apenaŭ, preskaŭ ne.
    • 

  • Opposite to = kontraŭ.
    • 

  • Or = aŭ; alie.
    • 

  • Other = alia.
    • 

  • Other kinds = alispecoj; or, aliaj specoj.
    • 

  • Other than = krom; alia ol.
    • 

  • Others, the = la aliaj; (the rest remaining = la ceteraj).
    • 

  • Otherwise = alie; se ne; alimaniere; en alia okazo.
    • 

  • Out of = el.
    • 

  • Out of date = malnovmoda; ne laŭ modo; ne laŭmoda.
    • 

  • Out of order = malorda; malordigita; ekstervise.
    • 

  • Out of place = ne ĝustaloke.
    • 

  • Out of print = elvendita (sold out); elĉerpita (exhausted).
    • 

  • Outside = ekster; ekstere de.
    • 

  • Over = super; pli ol.
    • 

  • Over against = kontraŭ.
    • 

  • Over and above = pli ol; troe.
    • 

  • Overlooking = kontraŭ; rigardante sur.
    • 

  • Owing to = kaŭze de; pro; dank’al; ŝuldata al; pere de.
    • 



P


    

  • Particular = aparta; speciala.
    • 

  • Particularly = precipe; aparte.
    • 

  • Per, see "A."
    • 

  • Possibly = eble.
    • 

  • Post free = afrankite.
    • 

  • Precisely = ĝuste; precize.
    • 

  • Precisely the same as = tute same, kiel.
    • 

  • Presently = baldaŭ; tuj; post iom da tempo.
    • 

  • Probably = kredeble; verŝajne; probable.
    • 

  • Promptly = rapide; tuj; akurate; baldaŭ.
    • 

  • Provided that = se nur; kondiĉe, ke.
    • 

  • Putting aside the question = lasante flanke la demandon.
    • 



Q


    

  • Quite = tute.
    • 

  • Quite at home = tute hejme; komforta.
    • 

  • Quite right = tute prava; tute ĝusta.
    • 



R


    

  • Rarely = malofte.
    • 

  • Rather = plivole; prefere; iom.
    • 

  • Readily = volonte; preteme; facile.
    • 

  • Recently = antaŭ nelonge; freŝe.
    • 

  • Regarding, respecting, re = pri; rilate al.
    • 

  • Relative to = rilate al; pri.
    • 

  • Rest, the (those remaining) = la ceteraj.
    • 

  • Right through = trae; tute tra; tra la tuta.
    • 

  • Round = ĉirkaŭ; ronde.
    • 

  • Round about = ĉirkaŭe; ĉirkaŭen.
    • 



S


    

  • Save, saving = krom.
    • 

  • Save one = krom unu.
    • 

  • Scarcely = apenaŭ.
    • 

  • Secondly = due.
    • 

  • Seeing that = tial, ke; vidante, ke; konsiderinte, ke.
    • 

  • Seldom = malofte.
    • 

  • Self, selves = mem; si; sin.
    • 

  • Several = diversaj; kelkaj.
    • 

  • Several times = kelkajn fojojn; diversfoje.
    • 

  • Short time, a = mallongatempe.
    • 

  • Short time afterwards, a = baldaŭ poste.
    • 

  • Short time ago, a = antaŭ nelonge.
    • 

  • Shortly = mallonge; baldaŭ; lakone; abrupte.
    • 

  • Shortly afterwards = iom poste; baldaŭ poste.
    • 

  • Since = ĉar; tial, ke; pro tio, ke; de; de la tempo, kiam; de kiam;
de tiam; de tiu tempo.
    • 

  • Since then = de tiu tempo; de tiam; de post.
    • 

  • Spite of = malgraŭ.
    • 

  • So = tial; do; tiel; tiamaniere.
    • 

  • So and so = tia kaj tia; Mr. So-and-so = S-ro Ajnulo.
    • 

  • So as to = por ke; tiel, ke; tiamaniere, ke.
    • 

  • So far as = ĝis. So far, so good = ĝis tie, bone.
    • 

  • So many (much) = tiom.
    • 

  • So many (much) that = tiom, ke.
    • 

  • So much so = tiel; tiom.
    • 

  • So much so that = tiel, ke; tiom, ke.
    • 

  • So much the better = des pli bone; tiom pli bone.
    • 

  • So much the more = tiom pli.
    • 

  • So much the worse = des pli malbone; tiom pli malbone.
    • 

  • So that = por ke; tiamaniere, ke; tiel, ke.
    • 

  • So to say = tiel diri.
    • 

  • Some = iom; kelke; kelke da; kelkaj; unuj; iuj; iaj.
    • 

  • Some days ago = antaŭ kelkaj tagoj.
    • 

  • Some manner, in = iel.
    • 

  • Some of = iom da; kelke da.
    • 

  • Some one’s = ies.
    • 

  • Some ... or other = ia.
    • 

  • Some other = ia alia; iu alia.
    • 

  • Some quantity = iom.
    • 

  • Some time, at = iatempe; iam.
    • 

  • Some time ago = antaŭ kelka tempo.
    • 

  • Some way, in = iel.
    • 

  • Somebody, some one = iu.
    • 

  • Somebody else = iu alia.
    • 

  • Somebody’s = ies.
    • 

  • Somehow = iel; iamaniere.
    • 

  • Something = io.
    • 

  • Something else = io alia; alio.
    • 

  • Something of that kind = io tiuspeca; io tia.
    • 

  • Some time, at = iam.
    • 

  • Sometimes = kelkafoje.
    • 

  • Sometimes ... at other times = jen ... jen.
    • 

  • Somewhat = iom.
    • 

  • Somewhat later = iom poste.
    • 

  • Somewhere = ie.
    • 

  • Soon = baldaŭ.
    • 

  • Soon afterwards = baldaŭ poste.
    • 

  • Sooner or later = pli-malpli baldaŭ; nepre.
    • 

  • Sooner than = pli frue, ol (time); plivole ol (rather than).
    • 

  • Specially = aparte; precipe; speciale.
    • 

  • Still = ankoraŭ; ankoraŭ nun.
    • 

  • Still, if = tamen, se.
    • 

  • Subsequently = plue; poste.
    • 

  • Such = tia; tiaj.
    • 

  • Such (a one), the like = tiela; tielaj.
    • 

  • Such a one’s = ties.
    • 

  • Such and such = tia kaj tia; tiu kaj tiu.
    • 

  • Such as = tia, kia.
    • 

  • Such being the case = en tiu okazo.
    • 

  • Such that = tia, ke.
    • 

  • Suddenly = subite.
    • 

  • Suffice it to say = sufiĉas diri.
    • 

  • Suppose, supposing that = supoze, ke; ni supozu, ke.
    • 

  • Surely = certe; nepre.
    • 



T


    

  • Taking into consideration that = konsiderante, ke; ne forgesante, ke.
    • 

  • Than = ol.
    • 

  • Thanks to (your advice) = dank’ al (via konsilo).
    • 

  • That (conj.) = ke.
    • 

  • That is = (t.e.) tio estas; or, nome.
    • 

  • That is the reason = jen kial; jen (estas) la kaŭzo; tio estas la kaŭzo.
    • 

  • That is why = tio estas, kial; jen kial.
    • 

  • That one’s = ties.
    • 

  • The day after (following), the next day = la morgaŭan (proksiman,
sekvantan, postan) tagon.
    • 

  • The day after to-morrow = postmorgaŭ.
    • 

  • The day before yesterday = antaŭhieraŭ.
    • 

  • The day but one after = la duan tagon poste.
    • 

  • The less ... the less = ju malpli ... des malpli.
    • 

  • The less ... the more = ju malpli ... des pli.
    • 

  • The more ... the less = ju pli ... des malpli.
    • 

  • The more ... the more = ju pli ... des pli.
    • 

  • The more so, as (that) = des pli, ke.
    • 

  • The sooner the better = ju pli baldaŭ (frue), des pli bone.
    • 

  • The time will come when = venos la tempo, kiam.
    • 

  • Then = do; tiam; or, tiam, kiam; poste; tiuokaze.
    • 

  • Then, when = tiam, kiam.
    • 

  • Thence = de tie; el tie.
    • 

  • There = tie; tien.
    • 

  • There and back again = tien kaj reen.
    • 

  • Thereabouts = pli aŭ malpli; pli-malpli.
    • 

  • Therefore = tial; sekve; do.
    • 

  • Thereupon = post tio; sekve de tio; ĉe tio.
    • 

  • Thither = tien.
    • 

  • This afternoon = hodiaŭ posttagmeze.
    • 

  • This day week = post sep tagoj; semajnon post hodiaŭ.
    • 

  • This evening = hodiaŭ vespere.
    • 

  • This moment = ĵus; tuj.
    • 

  • This morning = hodiaŭ matene.
    • 

  • Though = kvankam.
    • 

  • Through = per; pro; tra, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • Throughout = tute tra.
    • 

  • Thus = tiel.
    • 

  • Thus for example = tiel ekzemple.
    • 

  • Till = ĝis.
    • 

  • Time after time = fojon post fojo; foje kaj ree.
    • 

  • To = al; ĉe; ĝis; kun; por, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • To a great extent = grandamezure.
    • 

  • To and fro = tien kaj reen.
    • 

  • To my surprise = miasurprize.
    • 

  • To no purpose = senefike; vane.
    • 

  • To no place = nenien.
    • 

  • To some extent = iom; en ia amplekso; iagrade.
    • 

  • To that effect = en (laŭ) tiu senco.
    • 

  • To the effect that = tiel, ke; por ke.
    • 

  • To the end that = por ke.
    • 

  • To the full extent = en tuta amplekso.
    • 

  • To the left = maldekstren.
    • 

  • To the right = dekstren.
    • 

  • To the same extent = samamplekse; laŭ sama grado; samgrade.
    • 

  • To what extent = laŭ kia mezuro; kiom.
    • 

  • To wit = nome; tio estas.
    • 

  • To-day = hodiaŭ.
    • 

  • Together = kune.
    • 

  • Together with = kune kun; kun.
    • 

  • To-morrow = morgaŭ.
    • 

  • To-morrow afternoon = morgaŭ posttagmeze.
    • 

  • To-morrow evening = morgaŭ vespere; or, morgaŭ nokte.
    • 

  • To-morrow morning = morgaŭ matene.
    • 

  • To-night = hodiaŭ nokte.
    • 

  • Too = ankaŭ; tro.
    • 

  • Too much = tro.
    • 

  • Too many, much (of) = tro da.
    • 

  • Touching = pri; tuŝante; rilate al.
    • 

  • Towards = al; kontraŭ.
    • 

  • Truly = vere.
    • 

  • Twice = dufoje.
    • 

  • Twice a day = du fojojn en unu tago; dufoje ĉiutage.
    • 

  • Twice as large (much) = duoble pli granda (multa).
    • 



U


    

  • Ultimately = laste; fine; en la fino.
    • 

  • Under = sub; sube.
    • 

  • Under any (all) circumstances = ĉiuokaze.
    • 

  • Under consideration = konsiderata.
    • 

  • Under no circumstances = neniel; neniaokaze.
    • 

  • Under some circumstances = iel; iaokaze.
    • 

  • Under such circumstances = tiaokaze.
    • 

  • Under these circumstances = tiuokaze.
    • 

  • Unless = krom se; esceptinte, ke; se ... ne.
    • 

  • Until = ĝis; ĝis kiam; ĝis la tempo, kiam.
    • 

  • Until late at night = ĝis profunda nokto.
    • 

  • Until now = ĝisnune; ĝis nun.
    • 

  • Until then = ĝis tiam; ĝis tiu tempo.
    • 

  • Up = supre; supren.
    • 

  • Up and down = tien kaj reen; supren-malsupren.
    • 

  • Up to = ĝis (if up is implied by the context).
    • 

  • Up to date = ĝishodiaŭ-e-a; progresema; ĝisdat-e-a.
    • 

  • Up to now = ĝisnune.
    • 

  • Up to then (that time) = ĝis tiam; ĝistiama (adj.).
    • 

  • Up to this = ĝisnune.
    • 

  • Upon = sur. (To depend) upon = (dependi) de.
    • 

  • Upon that = ĉe tio.
    • 

  • Upon the whole = entute.
    • 

  • Upon this = ĉe tio (ĉi).
    • 

  • Upon which = ĉe kio.
    • 

  • Upside down = kun la supro malsupre; renversite; kun la fundo
supre.
    • 

  • Upstairs = supre; supren.
    • 

  • Upwards = supren.
    • 

  • Upwards of = pli, ol.
    • 

  • Utterly = tute; tutege; absolute.
    • 



V


    

  • Verily = vere.
    • 

  • Very = tre.
    • 

  • Very seldom = tre malofte.
    • 

  • Very soon = tre baldaŭ.
    • 

  • Vice versa = kontraŭe; inverse.
    • 

  • Virtually = praktike; laŭintence.
    • 



W


    

  • Weekly = ĉiusemajne.
    • 

  • Well = bone; nu!
    • 

  • Well-nigh = preskaŭ.
    • 

  • What = kio; kia.
    • 

  • What else = kia alia; kio alia.
    • 

  • What is to be done? = kion fari?
    • 

  • What matters it? = Kiom gravas?
    • 

  • Whatever = kia ajn.
    • 

  • Whatever quantity = kiom ajn.
    • 

  • When = kiam; or, tiam, kiam.
    • 

  • Whence = de kie; or, el kie.
    • 

  • Whencesoever = de kie ajn; or, el kie ajn.
    • 

  • Whenever, whensoever = kiam ajn; ĉiufoje kiam; ĉiun fojon kiam.
    • 

  • Where = kie; kien.
    • 

  • Whereas = kiam efektive; ĉar; tial ke; pro tio, ke.
    • 

  • Whereby = per kio.
    • 

  • Wherefore = kial.
    • 

  • Wherever, wheresoever = kie ajn; kien ajn.
    • 

  • Wherein = en kio.
    • 

  • Whereof = pri kio; pri kiu; el kio.
    • 

  • Whereupon = pro kio; sekve de kio; tuj post kio; ĉe kio.
    • 

  • Whether = ĉu.
    • 

  • Whether ... or = ĉu ... aŭ.
    • 

  • Whether ... whether = ĉu ... ĉu.
    • 

  • Which = kio; kiu.
    • 

  • Which of the two = kiu el la du.
    • 

  • Whichever, whoever = kiu ajn.
    • 

  • While, whilst = dum; kiam efektive.
    • 

  • Whither = kien.
    • 

  • Whithersoever = kien ajn.
    • 

  • Whose = kies.
    • 

  • Why = kial; pro kio; por kio.
    • 

  • Willingly = volonte.
    • 

  • With = kiu; per; ĉe; el, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • With a view to = por ke; en la celo de.
    • 

  • With advantage = profite; utile.
    • 

  • With difficulty = malfacile.
    • 

  • With reference (regard, respect) to = rilate al; or, pri.
    • 

  • With that object = tiucele.
    • 

  • With the exception of = kun escepto de; esceptinte; krom.
    • 

  • With the intention = intencante; por.
    • 

  • Within = en; interne.
    • 

  • Without = ekster; krom; sen; ekstere, etc., according to sense.
    • 

  • Without any cause, reason = sen ia kaŭzo; senkaŭze; nenial.
    • 

  • Without any exception = sen ia escepto; tute senescepte.
    • 

  • Without cause, reason = senkaŭze; nenial.
    • 

  • Without comparison = senkompare.
    • 

  • Without contradiction = senkontraŭdire.
    • 

  • Without doubt = sendube.
    • 

  • Without exception = senescepte.
    • 

  • Word for word = laŭvorte.
    • 



Y


    

  • Year by year = jaron post jaro.
    • 

  • Yearly = ĉiujare.
    • 

  • Yes = jes.
    • 

  • Yesterday = hieraŭ.
    • 

  • Yesterday afternoon = hieraŭ posttagmeze.
    • 

  • Yesterday evening = hieraŭ vespere.
    • 

  • Yesterday morning = hieraŭ matene.
    • 

  • Yet = ankoraŭ; tamen.
    • 

  • Yonder = tie; tien.
    • 



HINTS TO LEARNERS.


These hints are principally for learners teaching themselves. Follow
the advice of your instructor, if you have a good one.
These tips are mainly for self-taught learners. Follow your teacher's advice if you have a good one.


(1). First study carefully the pronunciation (pars. 5–19).
(1). First, take the time to carefully study the pronunciation (pars. 5–19).


(2). Learn, in the following order, Grammatical Terminations (par.
53); Suffixes and Prefixes (pars. 54, 55);
Pronouns (pars. 126, 131);
List of Prepositions (page 180); Correlative Words (par. 147); List
of Primary Words (page 334); Use of the Accusative (pars. 65–68).
(2). Learn, in this order, Grammatical Endings (par. 53); Suffixes and Prefixes (pars. 54, 55); Pronouns (pars. 126, 131); List of Prepositions (page 180); Correlative Words (par. 147); List of Basic Words (page 334); Use of the Accusative (pars. 65–68).


(3). Read aloud daily some portion of the "Krestomatio," and
Exercises on pages 259–315.
(3). Read out loud daily some section of the "Krestomatio," and Exercises on pages 259–315.


(4). Translate daily some portion of the "Krestomatio," or Kabe’s
"Unua Legolibro," into English, and then back into Esperanto, and
compare. At first, translate the Esperanto fairly literally, so as to
get a good idea of the usual order of words in Esperanto, and where
it differs from English in construction. Afterwards translate into
fluent English, and then back into Esperanto.
(4). Each day, translate a part of the "Krestomatio," or Kabe’s "Unua Legolibro," into English, and then back into Esperanto, and compare the results. Start by translating the Esperanto fairly literally to understand the typical word order in Esperanto and how it differs from English construction. After that, translate into natural-sounding English, and then back into Esperanto.


(5). Get readiness of expression by constantly asking yourself aloud
questions, and then replying to them; by saying in Esperanto what you
see when walking out, what you are doing, etc., as, "Now I must go to
bed," "It is time to get up," "I must cross the street," "I wonder
who lives there," etc., etc.
(5). Prepare to express yourself by regularly asking yourself questions out loud and then answering them; by saying in Esperanto what you see while walking outside, what you are doing, etc., like, "Now I need to go to bed," "It's time to get up," "I have to cross the street," "I wonder who lives there," and so on.


(6). Read anecdotes in the "Krestomatio," or in Kabe’s "Unua
Legolibro," and then try to repeat them, as if you were telling them
to someone. Keep on repeating an anecdote until you can tell it as
fluently in Esperanto as in English, but not necessarily in the exact
words of the book.
(6). Read stories in the "Krestomatio," or in Kabe’s "Unua Legolibro," and then try to retell them as if you were sharing them with someone. Keep repeating a story until you can tell it as smoothly in Esperanto as you can in English, but not necessarily using the exact words from the book.


(7). In writing, say aloud the sentences as you write them. Your ear
will then often prevent errors.
(7). When you write, read the sentences out loud as you go. This way, your ear will often catch any mistakes.


(8). Write your diary in Esperanto.
(8). Write your journal in Esperanto.


(9). Read the best authors, and mark in pencil any words or phrases
which strike you as useful to remember. Write these in a notebook for
future reference.
(9). Read the best authors, and highlight any words or phrases that you find helpful to remember with a pencil. Jot these down in a notebook for future reference.


(10). Don’t slavishly copy in your style any particular author. Note
the good points in each, and remember that what is not easily
understood is not good style, however correct it may be
grammatically.
(10). Don’t blindly imitate the style of any specific author. Pay attention to the strengths in each one, and remember that if something isn’t easily understood, it’s not good style, no matter how grammatically correct it is.


(11). After about a week’s study, look out for recruits and teach
them what you have learnt. In teaching others you teach yourself.
(11). After studying for about a week, keep an eye out for recruits and share what you’ve learned with them. By teaching others, you also teach yourself.


(12). When you read your daily newspaper, translate aloud a few
sentences; that will give you facility of expression in many
subjects.
(12). When you read your daily newspaper, read a few sentences out loud; that will help you express yourself better on a variety of topics.


(13). Always bear in mind the following:—
(13). Always keep the following in mind:—


(a). Every letter and syllable is pronounced (par. 16).
(a). Every letter and syllable is pronounced (par. 16).


(b). Do not clip or drag the vowels (pars. 8–10).
(b). Don’t clip or drag the vowels (pars. 8–10).


(c). The tonic accent is always on the last syllable but one (par.
17).
(c). The tonic accent is always on the second to last syllable (par. 17).


(d). Do not use the compound forms of verbs unless necessary for
the sense (pars. 167–170, 222–226).
(d). Avoid using the compound forms of verbs unless it's necessary for clarity (pars. 167–170, 222–226).


(e). Remember that each preposition in Esperanto, except je, has
a fixed meaning (pars. 250, 251).
(e). Keep in mind that every preposition in Esperanto, except for je, has a specific meaning (pars. 250, 251).


(f). Note carefully the use of the accusative case (pars. 66–68).
(f). Pay close attention to how the accusative case is used (pars. 66–68).


(g). Avoid conundrums in the shape of long compound words of three
or more different roots. A sentence in Esperanto is not a riddle!
(g). Avoid tricky long compound words with three or more different roots. A sentence in Esperanto isn’t a puzzle!


INDEX


(Numbers relate to paragraphs, unless otherwise stated.)
(Numbers refer to paragraphs, unless stated otherwise.)


Ablative Absolute, Not in Esperanto, 211b.


Accent, 17, 19.



   ACCUSATIVE, 65–69.
   
(1) Direct Object, 66.


(2) O. Direction (Motion towards), 67, Ex. 12, 13.


(3) Omitted Preposition, 68, Ex. 16; Duration of time, 68b; Price, weight, measure, 68c.


(4) General remarks, 69.


With adjectives, 36, 69a, 108, 110.


With adverbs, 67b.


With nouns, 109.


With verb omitted, 64a, 105.





   ACTION, commencement of, 216b.
   
Continuation of, 216a.


Just happened, 225.


Soon to happen, 225, 229.




Aĉ, 270, Ex. 19.


Ad, 270 (1), Ex. 19.



   ADJECTIVES, 107–114.
   
Adverbs used for, 245, 269a.


Case of, 108, 110.


Classes of, 108.


Comparison, 112.


Degree of intensity, 114.


Numeral, 116.


Participial, 111, 209b, 213.


Place of, 84.


Possessive sense, 106c.


Predicative, 36, 69a, 77, 108b.


Qualifying, 36, 69a, 108a.


Superlative, 113.


Use in compound words, 106c.





   ADVERBS, 238–248, Ex. 3, 43.
   
Accusative case, 67b.


Classes of, 242.


Comparison, 248.


Followed by word in accusative, 247.


From prepositions, 244.


Instead of prepositional phrase, 252.


List of, 248b.


No influence on case, 243.


Numeral, 117.


Of quantity followed by da, 246.


Participial, 209c, 245a.


Place of, 87–88, 241.


Used for adjectives, 245, 269a.




Advice to the Learner, page 363.


Affect, Ex. 41.


Affirmation, 63–64, page 317.


Affixes, See Prefixes, Suffixes.


Ajn, 158 (c-e).


Aĵ, 271, Ex. 20, Agreement of adjective and noun, 69a, 108, 110.


Al, 259 (1).


Alphabet, Esperanto, 1–4.



An, 272, 278c (1), Ex. 21.


Ankoraŭ, pages 167, 170–171.


Anstataŭ, 259 (2).


Antaŭ, 259 (3).


Antaŭ ol, pages 188, 220.


Any (= any whatever), 158d, (= some), 158c.


Appear, Ex. 40.


Apposition, 69 (c–d).


Apud, 259 (4).


Ar, 273, Ex. 22.



   ARTICLES, 96–102.
   
A, an, 96.


The, 97–101. See "La."




At, 261a.


Aŭ ... aŭ, page 220.


 


Bo, 286, Ex. 25.


Bring, Ex. 41.


By, 261b.


 


Can, could, 237 (f, l), Ex. 42.


Capitals, Use of, 70.


Cardinal numerals, 115.


Case, See "accusative," "nominative."


Collective numerals, 121.


Combinations of consonants 11–15; of vowels, 10.


Comparison of adjectives, 112; of adverbs, 248: Ex. 4.



   COMPLEMENT:
   
Circumstantial, 32, 80.


Direct, 29, 30, 66, 78.


Indirect, 31, 79; Accusative for, 251, 253; Adverb for, 239, 252.




Compound tenses, 169, 195, 222–226.


Compound words, 39c, 46, 49, 106c.


Conditional Mood, See "Moods."


Congresses, International, page viii.


Conjugation: esti, 167; active verb 168–169; Reflexive verb, 170.



   CONJUNCTIONS and Conjunctive Adverbs, 262–268, Ex. 43.
   
Case after, 105, 266.


Co-ordinating, 264.


List of, 268a.


No influence on mood, 171, 263.


Omission of, 267.


Subordinating, 265.




Consonants, 7.


Contents, List of, page xxv.


Conversation, pages 324–328.



   CORRELATIVES, 139–158. Ex. 10, 11.
   
Initial and terminal letters, 141.


Parts of speech, 140.


Series beginning with i, 158 (c–d).


Series ending with a, 149; al, 150, 158a; am, 151; e, 152; el, 153, 158a; es, 154; o, 155, 158b; om, 156; u, 157, 158b.





   Correspondence, pages 329–333.
   
Titles and addresses, 283.




Countries, names of, 278c.


 


Ĉe, 259 (5).


Ĉef, 272 (g).


Ĉi, 143.


Ĉirkaŭ, 259 (6).


Ĉj, 274, Ex. 23.


Ĉu, 58, 63–64, 91, 170.


 


Da, 259 (7).


De, 259 (8), 287, Ex. 31


Definitions, 20–39.


Dev, 237a, Ex. 42.


Direct complement, 29–30, 66, 78.



Dis, 287, Ex. 31.


Distributive numerals, 123.


Do, did, 217, 237j, Ex. 38.


Dum, 259 (9).


Duon, 120, 286, Ex. 25.


 


Ebl, 275, Ex. 24.


Ec, 271, Ex. 20.


Edz, 276, Ex. 25, 44.


Effect, Ex. 41.


Eg, 114, 277, Ex. 26.


Ej, 278, Ex. 27.


Ek, 288, Ex. 19, 32.


El, 259 (12).


Elision, 56–57.


Ellipsis, 58a, 64a, 105, 237m.


Em, 275, Ex. 24.


Emphasis: (order of words) 76, 84a, 87–88; (ja), 217.


En, 259 (12).


Er, 273, Ex. 22.


"Espero, La," pages xxii, xxiii.


Est, 163, 167, 234.


Estr, 272, Ex. 21.


Et, 52b, 114, 277, Ex. 26.


Exercises and Translations, pages 259–316.


Expressions, Useful, pages 340–362.


 


Fi, 270, Ex. 19.


Foj, 122.


For, 287, Ex. 31.


For, 261c.


Foreign words, 39d, 52.


Formation of words, 39c, 40–50, 106c.


Fractional numerals, 120.


From, 261d.


Fuŝ, 270.


 


Ge, 286, Ex. 25.


Get, 237k, Ex. 39.


Give, Ex. 41.



   GRAMMAR, 94.
   
Adjectives, 107–114.


Adverbs, 238–248.


Article, 96–102.


Commentary, 95–290.


Conjunctions, 262–268.


Interjections, 269.


Nouns, 103–106.


Parts of speech, 95.


Prepositions, 249–261.


Pronouns, 125–157.


Rules, 94.


Verbs, 159–237.





   GRAMMATICAL TERMINATIONS:
   
Explanations, 40–42.


List of, 53.


Of verbs, 160.




 


Ĝis, 259 (13).


 


Have, Ex. 40.


Hints to learners, page 363.


 


Id, 279, Ex. 25.


Ig, 280, Ex. 28.


Iĝ, 280, Ex. 28.


Il, 281, Ex. 29.


Imperative mood, See "Moods."


Imperative phrases, pages 320–321.


Impersonal verbs, 129, 164.


In, 282, Ex. 25.


In, 261e.


Ind, 275, Ex. 24.


Indicative mood, See "Moods."


Indirect complement, 31, 79.


Infinitive mood, See "Moods."


Ing, 278, Ex. 27.


Inter, 259 (14).


Interjections and Exclamations, 269.



Interrogation, 58–64, 91, 170, pages 318–320.


Ism, 52b, 293.


Ist, 272, Ex. 21.


 


Ja, 217, page 170.


Jam, page 170, par. 226a.


Je, 251, 259 (15), Ex. 16.


Jes, 63, 64.


Ju ... des, 112d, page 171.


 


Ĵus, 225, page 171.


 


Kaj ... kaj, Page 222.


Ke, page 223; Ke ne, 63; Ke ... u, 200, por ke ... u, 201.


Know, 237c, Ex. 40.


Kon, sci, 237c, Ex. 40.


Kontraŭ, 259 (16).


Krom, 177, 179, 259 (17).


Kun, 259 (18).


Kuŝ, 237 (b).


 



LA, 97–102.
   
LA, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__–102.
Before numeral adjectives, 101.


Before proper names, 99b.


English and Esperanto uses compared, 99.


Instead of possessive pronoun, 100.


Invariable, 97.


Optional use, 101a.




Land-names, 278c.


Las, 237d, Ex. 36, 41.


Laŭ, 259 (19).


League of Nations, page vii.


Leave, Ex. 37.


Let, Ex. 41.


Letters, Names of, 4.


Logical Tense, 220, 232.


 


Mal, 289, Ex. 33.


Malgraŭ, 259 (20).


Matrimony, Ex. 44.


May, might, 237m, Ex. 42.


Mem, 291.



   MOODS OF VERBS, 171–202.
   
Conditional, 190–194; after se, 193; to soften an expression, 194.


English and Esperanto compared, 171.


How to determine, 172.


Imperative, 195–202; after por ke, 201.


Indicative, 171a, 186–189; when obligatory, 189.


Infinitive, 173–185; as a noun, 181; place of, 82; prepositions used with, 177; ebla instead of, 275c; used for gerund, 182; used for participle or other mood, 184, 185; used generally without a preposition, 176; when another mood is used for, 183.


Subjunctive, None in Esperanto, 171b.




Moŝt, 283, Ex. 23.


Multiple numerals, 119.


Must, 237 (8), Ex. 42.


 


Ne, 59a, 289, Ex. 33.



   NEGATION, 59–62, page 318.
   
Double, repeated, 60, 62.


Place of negative, 59a, 92.


Questions and answers, 64, 170.




Nek ... nek, 59c, page 225.


Nj, 274, Ex. 23.


Nominative case, 104, 110.



   NOUNS, 103–106.
   
Case, 105, 109, 110.


Declension, 104.



Elision of final O, 56, 57.


Infinitive as noun, 180.


Numeral, 118.


Participial, 209a, 210.


Place of, 83.


Possessive case, 106.


Predicative, 35, 109.





   NUMERALS, 115–124, Ex. 18.
   
Cardinal, 115.


Collective, 121.


Distributive, 123.


Fractional, 120.


Multiple, 119.


Ordinal adjectives, 116.


Ordinal adverbs, 117.


Reiterative, 122.


Substantive (numeral nouns), 116.




 


Object of proposition, 28, 75.


Obl, 284.


Of, 261f.


On, 284.


On, 261g.


Oni, onia, onin, 126.


Op, 284.


Order of words, 73–93.


Ordinal numerals, 116–117.


Ought, 237p, Ex. 42.


 



   PARTICIPLES, 203–213, Ex. 17.
   
Active, 160, 203, 222, 224, 226, 230, 231; Followed by accusative, 66b, 208.


Adjectival, 111, 207, 209b; distinguished from simple adjectives, 213.


Adverbial, 209c, 245a.


Anta, distinguished from a, 213.


Infinitive used for: In English, 185; In Esperanto, 184.


Predicative, 209b.


Passive, 160, 204, 233–236; not used with iĝi, 280g.


Place of, 87.


Terminations of, 203–204.




Parts of speech, 95.


Per, 259 (21).


Pes, pez, 237e.


Phrases, pages 317–323.


Plej ... el, 113, 248, page 176.


Pli aŭ malpli, and similar phrases, 246a.


Pli ... ol, 112, 248, page 176.


Plu, page 176.


Plural, 103, 107, 115f, 142.


Po, 259 (22).


Por, 259 (23); por ke, 201.


Possession, 106, 130–138.


Possessive pronouns, See "Pronouns."


Possessive sense of adjective, 106b.


Post, 259.


Pov, 237f, Ex. 42.


Pra, 286, Ex. 25.


Predicate, 24, 33.


Predicative adjectives, 36, 69a, 77, 108b.


Predicative nouns, 35, 109.



   PREFIXES, 286–290.
   
Definition, 44.


List of, 55.


Order in combination, 45.





   PREPOSITIONS, 249–261, Ex. 14, 15.
   
Adverb with, 258.


As prefixes, 254, 259 (1–34).


Case after, 255, 256.


Classes of, 259.


Definition, 249.


Denoting movement, 257.


List of, 259.


Omission of, 68, 106d, 253, 258.


Place of, 89.


Prepositional expressions, 258.


Relation to complement, 259.


Replaced by adverb, 252.


Replaced by participle, 212.





Preter, 259 (25).


Pri, 259 (26).



   PRIMARY WORDS, 51.
   
Conversion into other parts of speech, 51.


Definition, 39a.


List of, pages 334–339.




Pro, 259 (27).



   PRONOUNS, 125–157.
   
Classes of, 125.


Correlative, 140.


Demonstrative, 143.


Interrogative, 145.


Personal, 126; with al, for possessive, 134a.


Place of, 85.


Possessive, 130–138, Ex. 5; la instead of, 100; sia, lia, etc., 135; omission of, 134; with or without la, 132.


Reflexive, 128–138, Ex. 6;
 after participle or infinitive, 138c.


Relative, 145.




Pronunciation, 5–19.


Proper names, accus. with, 69d.


Proposition, 22.


Punctuation, 71–2.


 


Qualifying adjectives, 36, 69a, 108a.


Questions (affirmation, negation), 58–64, 91, 170.


 


Re, 290, Ex. 32.


Reflexive pronouns, 128–138, Ex. 6, 138c.


Reflexive verbs, 165, 170.


Reiterative numerals, 122.


Roots: definition of, 28; idea conveyed by, 50; modification of English spelling, 52; transitive, intransitive, 237i.


Rules of Grammar, 94.


 


Sci, kon, 237c, Ex. 40.


Se, pages 226–227, 168 (ĉu).


Sen, 259 (28), 289, Ex. 33.


Shall, will, 237n.


Should, would, 237o, Ex. 42.


Si, See "Reflexive Pronouns"; Possible non-use of, 138d.


Sid, 237g.


Similar words, Distinction of: Ex. 34–36.


Sin, 291; sin trovi, 237h.


Some, 158 (c–e).


Spelling, modification of English, 52.


Spite, 259 (29).


Sub, 259 (30).


Subject of proposition, 23, 25–26, 75; omitted, 27.


Subjunctive Mood, None in Esperanto, 171b.


Substantives, See "Nouns."


Substantive Numerals, 118.



   SUFFIXES, 43, 270–285.
   
List of, 54.


Order in combination, 46.




Super, 259 (31).


Sur, 259 (32).


Syntax, 20–36.


 


Telegrams, Alphabet for, 2.



   TENSES, 214–236.
   
Future; Simple, 227–229; compound, 230i; used for present or subjunctive, 232.


Names of, 215.


Past: simple, 223; compound, 224; used for pluperfect, 226.


Present: simple, 216; compound, 222; used for past or future, 219–221.





Terminations, List of, 53.


Thanks, Expressions of, Pages 321–322.


Time of day, 124.


Titles and addresses, 283.


To, 261b.


Tra, 259 (33).


Trans, 259 (34).


Transitive and intransitive roots, 237i.


Turn, Ex. 37.


Tuj, 225, page 179.


Typewriting Esperanto, 3.


 


U.E.A., page vii.


Uj, 278, Ex. 27.


Ul, 272, Ex. 21.


Um, 285, Ex. 30.


Unu, Use of, 115f.


 



   VERBS, 159–237.
   
Auxiliary (esti), 163, 167, 234.


Compound tenses, 169; Active Voice, Ex. 8; Passive Voice, Ex. 9; Less frequent than in English, 167, 195, 222–226.


Conjugation: esti, 167; Active verb, 168–9; Reflexive verb, 170.


Duration of action, 216, 225, 229.


Ellipsis of, 58a, 64a, 66c, 237m.


Impersonal, 164.


Intransitive, 162, 237i.


Moods, 171–202.


Participles, 203–213.


Place of, 86.


Reflexive, 165, 170.


Tenses, 214–236.


Transitive, 66a, 161, 237i.




Vic, 292.



   VOCABULARIES:
   
Adverbs, 248b.


Conjunctions and Conjunctive adverbs, 268a.


Interjections and Exclamations, 269.


Prepositions, 259.


Primary words, pages 334–339.


Useful words and expressions, pages 340–362.




"Vojo, La," page xxiv.


Vol, 237n, Ex. 42.


Vowels, 8.


 


Weather, The, pages 322–323.


Will, shall, 237n.


With, 261i.


Word-building, 40–50, 106c.


Would, should, 237o, Ex. 42.


Printed in Great Britain
 by
 Billing and Sons Ltd., Guildford and Esher
Printed in Great Britain
 by
 Billing and Sons Ltd., Guildford and Esher


Transcriber's notes:


Minor typographical errors and inconsistencies in the original
have been silently corrected. In many places, ditto marks have
been replaced with their intended text. Page boundaries have been
recorded in comments in the html markup.
Minor typing mistakes and inconsistencies in the original have been corrected without notice. In many places, ditto marks have been replaced with their intended text. Page boundaries have been noted in comments in the html markup.


The following changes to the text have been made:
The following updates to the text have been made:




LocationOriginalEmendation


Par. 29
accusative form— -N in the singular, or— -JN in the plural.
accusative form -N in the singular, or -JN in the plural.


Par. 69
aŭ, rozojn belajn
or, rozojn belajn


Footnote 19
seen from the following examples
seen from the examples


Par. 261(i)
Represented as under:—
Represented by:—


Exercise 36
(aŭ, personoj regataj)
(or, personoj regataj)


Par. 147
at for all time
for all time




The original book had a list of errata which have been applied to
the text. In many cases these were simple corrections. But in places
that would have required more extensive rewriting, the errata have
been included as footnotes. This has resulted in some footnotes
that contradict the main body of the text. For reference, the
original errata list is included below.
The original book had a list of corrections that have been applied to the text. In many cases, these were just simple fixes. However, in areas that needed more extensive rewriting, the corrections have been included as footnotes. This has led to some footnotes that contradict the main text. For reference, the original list of corrections is included below.






Notes on the Current Edition of Cox’s
Notes on the Current Edition of Cox’s


"ESPERANTO GRAMMAR AND COMMENTARY"
Esperanto Grammar and Commentary


As this edition is a photographic reprint of the last it has not been
possible to introduce emendations or additions, and it is thought
that the following notes will be helpful to students using the book.
As this edition is a photographic reprint of the last, it hasn't been possible to make changes or add anything, and it's believed that the following notes will be useful for students using the book.


(Figures refer to pages and lines, thus: "46/8" means "page 46, line
8". The letter "m" after a line number means "from bottom of page").
(Figures refer to pages and lines, so: "46/8" means "page 46, line 8". The letter "m" after a line number means "from the bottom of the page").


xxiii/4. Read "passing through the world".
xxiii/4. Read "passing through the world".


xxiv/11. For "pri tempoj" read "pri l’ tempoj".
xxiv/11. For "pri tempoj" read "pri l’ tempoj".


33. Add prefix MIS-, denoting mis-, amiss, wrongly, erroneously.
33. Add the prefix MIS-, meaning mis-, wrong, or incorrectly.


37/18-20. The words "Kiuj ... week" should be transferred to par.
(c).
37/18-20. The words "Kiuj ... week" should be moved to par. (c).


37/8m. After "how much" insert "how many’th".
37/8m. After "how much" insert "how many'th".


38/6 and 58/8. After "word" add "or words".
38/6 and 58/8. After "word" add "or words".


46/8. In the Fundamento, Zamenhof used capital letters to begin the
names of months. In his mature style he also used capitals for nouns
and adjectives of nationality, e.g. Angla, Anglo, Dana,
Franco.
46/8. In the Fundamento, Zamenhof capitalized the names of months. In his later style, he also capitalized nouns and adjectives related to nationality, e.g. Angla, Anglo, Dana, Franco.


49/1m. For "Tiu" read "Tio".
49/1m. For "Tiu" read "Tio."


53/19. The use here of the preposition je is not recommended.
53/19. The use of the preposition je here is not recommended.


66. The second paragraph requires qualification. For "adjectives and
adverbs" read "derived adjectives and adverbs": the principle dealt
with in the paragraph applies to words consisting of roots plus one
or more grammatical endings. There are several words in Esperanto
(e.g. tra, tre, tro, la, je, po) which are thus outside the
principle as stated.
66. The second paragraph needs clarification. For "adjectives and adverbs," read "derived adjectives and adverbs": the principle discussed in the paragraph applies to words made up of roots plus one or more grammatical endings. There are several words in Esperanto (e.g. tra, tre, tro, la, je, po) that are therefore outside the principle as stated.


67/6. For "Tiu estas floro" read "Tio estas floro"
67/6. For "Tiu estas floro" read "Tio estas floro"


68. Section (b) is too strict. In practice the definite article is
often used before proper names, and one can say (e.g.) la Alpoj,
la Mediteraneo, etc.
68. Section (b) is too strict. In practice, the definite article is often used before proper names, and one can say (e.g.) la Alpoj, la Mediteraneo, etc.


69. In section (b) read "It is not generally used".
69. In section (b) read "It is not typically used".


72/7m. For "Tiu estas ... " read "Tio estas ... "
72/7m. For "Tiu estas ... " read "Tio estas ... "


73/4. Replace "Ĉu tiu ĉi ... " by "Ĉu ĉi tio ... "
73/4. Replace "Ĉu tiu ĉi ... " by "Ĉu ĉi tio ... "


80. Section (g). This use of unu is not recommended.
80. Section (g). This use of unu is not advised.


81/3m. For "kvaro da pikoj" read "kvaro pika", and for "seso da
keroj" read "seso kera".
81/3m. For "kvaro da pikoj" read "kvaro pika", and for "seso da keroj" read "seso kera".


87/4. For "Tiu estas bela ... " read "Tio estas bela ... "
87/4. For "Tiu estas bela ... " read "Tio estas bela ... "


87/6. This use of ĝi for a person is not recommended, and li (or
tiu) would be better in a case where there is doubt as to the sex.
87/6. Using ĝi to refer to a person is not advised, and li (or tiu) would be preferable in situations where there is uncertainty about the person's gender.


96/11. For "Occasionally" read "Often". Zamenhof advised the placing
of ĉi normally before the demonstrative,—as in the example (Ĉi
tiu) here given, and ĉi tie, ĉi tien in the next paragraph.
96/11. For "Occasionally" read "Often". Zamenhof recommended putting ĉi typically before the demonstrative,—as in the example (Ĉi tiu) shown here, and ĉi tie, ĉi tien in the following paragraph.


101/2. "Mi ĵus ... " is preferable to "ĵus mi ... "
101/2. "I just ... " is preferable to "just I ... "


102/12m. For "Tagon" read "Iun tagon".
102/12m. For "Tagon" read "Iun tagon".


128/15. For "de du horoj" read "du horojn", and delete "from" in the
next line.
128/15. For "de du horoj" read "du horojn", and delete "from" in the next line.


140/8. For "plenaj je vivo" read "plenaj de vivo".
140/8. For "plenaj je vivo" read "plenaj de vivo".


140/22. For "of speaking" read "spoken of".
140/22. For "of speaking" read "spoken of".


165/6-8. For "more and more" read "in addition, besides". Delete
"Malplie = Less and less" and "Malpleje = at (the) least, least", as
these usages are seldom employed.
165/6-8. For "more and more" read "in addition, besides". Delete "Malplie = Less and less" and "Malpleje = at (the) least, least", as these usages are rarely used.


165/11. For "signifas" read "gravas".
165/11. For "signifas" read "graves".


170/5m. For "Mi jam ĝin ankoraŭ ... " read "Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ... "
170/5m. For "Mi jam ĝin ankoraŭ ... " read "Mi ĝin ankoraŭ ... "


175/7. For "He has nothing at all" read "He has none at all".
175/7. For "He has nothing at all" read "He has none at all".


180. Delete the item "(Spite) ... " The expression "in spite of" is
usually best translated by malgraŭ.
180. Delete the item "(Spite) ... " The expression "in spite of" is usually best translated by malgraŭ.


184/17. For "kaj tiam ... " read "kaj tuj poste ... "
184/17. For "kaj tiam ... " read "kaj tuj poste ... "


184/20. For "kaj tiam kuris ... " read "kaj poste kuris ... "
184/20. For "kaj tiam kuris ... " read "kaj poste kuris ... "


187/16m. For "the preceding" read "this".
187/16m. For "the preceding" read "this".


191/10. For "leĝoj" read "juro".
191/10. For "leĝoj" read "laws".


191/3m. For "da vortoj" read "de vortoj".
191/3m. For "da vortoj" read "de vortoj".


192/3m. For "de la breto" read "de sur la breto".
192/3m. For "de la breto" read "de sur la breto".


193/3 and 19. It is a question whether dum can ever be correctly
described as adverb: and the reference to Zamenhof’s use of it as
such is mistaken.
193/3 and 19. It’s debatable whether dum can truly be classified as an adverb; referring to Zamenhof’s usage of it in that way is incorrect.


195/12m. For "en (or, el)" read "el". En cannot be correctly used
here.
195/12m. For "en (or, el)" read "el". En cannot be used correctly here.


197/20. For "vidas" read "vidis".
197/20. For "vidas" use "vidis".


199/20. For "diversaj flankoj" read "diversajn flankojn".
(Alternatively, replace "en" by "al" and retain the nominative case).
199/20. For "diversaj flankoj" read "diversajn flankojn".  
(Alternatively, replace "en" with "al" and keep the nominative case).


201/22. For "havas la tempon" read "havas tempon".
201/22. For "havas la tempon" read "havas tempon".


203/16. For "Tiu estas verko ... " read "Tio estas verko ... "
203/16. For "Tiu estas verko ... " read "Tio estas verko ... "


204. Spite is not a preposition, but an adverb, and to translate
the prepositional form "in spite of" it is usually better to use
malgraŭ, as indicated above under the reference to p. 180. The
expression in defiance of can be suitably rendered by spite
followed by the accusative case (as shown in the footnote). In the
Examples "ĉio" should be replaced by "ĉion" and "mia malamiko" by
"mian malamikon".
204. Spite isn’t a preposition, but an adverb, and to translate the prepositional form "in spite of", it’s usually better to use malgraŭ, as mentioned above under the reference to p. 180. The expression in defiance of can appropriately be translated as spite followed by the accusative case (as indicated in the footnote). In the examples, "ĉio" should be changed to "ĉion" and "mia malamiko" should be changed to "mian malamikon".


206/4m. For "tiam" read "poste".
206/4m. For "tiam" read "post".


214/2. For "da vortoj" read "de vortoj".
214/2. For "da vortoj" read "de vortoj".


216. Add Kontraŭ, as:—Li batalis kontraŭ la malamiko = He
fought with the enemy.
216. Add Kontraŭ, as:—Li batalis kontraŭ la malamiko = He fought against the enemy.


219/6m. and 8m. Better use aliflanke for on the other hand.
219/6m. and 8m. It's better to use aliflanke for on the other hand.


233/8. For "armajo" read "armaĵo", and for "bovajo" read "bovaĵo".
233/8. For "armajo" read "armaĵo", and for "bovajo" read "bovaĵo".


233/15m. For "a good (action)" read "a good (action or thing)".
233/15m. For "a good (action)" read "a good (action or thing)".


237/1m. For "lump" read "grain".
237/1m. For "lump" read "grain".


239/14m. Delete "serviceable": and replace "serviceableness" by
"inclination to serve".
239/14m. Delete "serviceable" and replace "serviceableness" with "willingness to serve".


249/21. Delete this line. Magistrato does not mean a magistrate:
it means the local civic authority (e.g. a Borough or District
Council).
249/21. Delete this line. Magistrato does not mean a magistrate: it means the local civic authority (e.g. a Borough or District Council).


251/7. Asterisk amindumi.
251/7. Asterisk amindumi.


273/4m. For "sukereron" read "sukerpecon", and delete the footnote.
273/4m. For "sukereron" read "sukerpecon", and delete the footnote.


276/12. For "miaj protestoj" read "miajn protestojn" and for "ĉio"
read "ĉion".
276/12. For "miaj protestoj" read "miajn protestojn" and for "ĉio" read "ĉion".


276/18. For "tiam" read "poste".
276/18. For "tiam" read "poste".


279/2m. For "miljoro" read "miljaro".
279/2m. For "miljoro" read "miljaro".


288/5m. "mia" is here preferable to "miaj". (See Zamenhof’s
Ekzercaro, par. 36).
288/5m. "mia" is better here than "miaj". (See Zamenhof’s Ekzercaro, par. 36).


290/5m. For "Tiu ĉi estis ..." read "Ĉi tio estis ..."
290/5m. For "Tiu ĉi estis ..." read "Ĉi tio estis ..."


301/20. For "estas subtenita" read "estis subtenata".
301/20. For "estas subtenita" read "estis subtenata".


304/1m. For "leteron" read "literon", and for "kiu" read "kaj tiu
signo".
304/1m. For "leteron" read "literon", and for "kiu" read "kaj tiu signo".


307/3m. For "el" read "pri".
307/3m. For "el" read "pri".


311/10. For "unuenaskita" read "unuenaskito".
311/10. For "unuenaskita" read "unuenaskito".


311/21. For "radika" read "radikala".
311/21. For "radika" read "radical".


331/23. For "de ĉi tiu" read "de ĉi tio".
331/23. For "de ĉi tiu" read "de ĉi tio".


332/7. For "Kia lingvo estas?" read "Kia lingvo ĝi estas?"
332/7. For "What language is it?" read "What language is that?"






        
        
    

    
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