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The author of this book and the writer of this preface have never met. Their respective fields of labor are a thousand miles apart. Yet such is the force of ideas that many of their thoughts and sympathies are common.

Business English! The very name is an anomaly. From a literary point of view there is no such thing. English is English whether it be used to express the creations of our imagination, our aesthetic appreciations, or our daily wants. There is no magical combination of words, phrases, and sentences that is peculiar and distinctive to business transactions. Business English as used in these pages means effective communication, both oral and written. The author's aim throughout has been to teach the art of using words in such a way as to make people think and act. To do this she has applied the principles of literary composition to the highly complex and ever increasing problems of our business life. She realizes that business is vital, and that the problems of commerce are not to be met and handled with dead forms and stereotyped expressions of legal blanks.

To use our language effectively it is necessary to have an understanding of its elements. Thus the author has very wisely devoted much space to word-study and English grammar. This is a field commonly neglected in books on the subject. The people engaged in business are, on the whole, woefully weak in the grammar of our language. It is believed that the treatment herein will be a great aid in correcting this deficiency. If we have ideas, we must express them in words, and our words should be so chosen and arranged as not to offend, but to please and interest. This result can be secured by a systematic study of Part I.[iv]

Part II deals with oral and written composition. Here the author has arranged her subjects in such a way as to give the whole a cumulative effect. The method throughout is inductive, and sufficient examples are always given to warrant the conclusions drawn. Most textbooks on Business English neglect the subject of oral English. This book regards the spoken word as important as the written word.

If there be any one feature in this textbook more to be commended than another, it is the exposition in Part III. The situations arising in many different kinds of business are here analyzed. The author believes that the way to become a good business correspondent is, first, to learn what the situation demands and, second, to practice meeting the demands. We must know before we write. Given a knowledge of the subject, we must have much practice in expressing ourselves in such a way as to make our composition effective. The author meets this need by supplying many and varied exercises for practice. These exercises are live, practical, and up-to-date. The problems to be solved are real, not imaginary. Thus the power to be gained in meeting these situations and solving these problems will prove a real asset to those who contemplate a business career. It is confidently hoped that both teachers and pupils will find in this work material which will help them to prepare themselves to meet the many problems and demands of our growing commercial needs.

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Business English is the expression of our commercial life in English. It is not synonymous with letter writing. To be sure, business letters are important, but they form only a part of one of the two large divisions into which the subject naturally falls.

First, there is oral expression, important because so many of our business transactions are conducted personally. Thousands of salesmen daily move from place to place over the entire country, earning their salaries by talking convincingly of the goods that they have to sell. A still greater number of clerks, salesmen, managers, and officials orally transact business in our shops, stores, offices, and banks. Complaints are adjusted; difficulties are disentangled; and affairs of magnitude are consummated in personal interviews, the matter under discussion often being thought too important to be entrusted to correspondence. In every business oral English is essential.

Second, there is written expression. This takes account of the writing of advertisements, circulars, booklets, and prospectuses, as well as of letters. And in the preparation of these oral English is fundamental. It precedes and practically includes the written expression. For example, we say colloquially that a good advertisement "talks." We mean that the writer has so fully realized the buyer's point of view that the words of the advertisement seem to speak directly to the reader, arousing his interest or perhaps answering[2] his objection. Oral English is fundamental, too, in the writing of letters, for most letters are dictated and not written. The correspondent dictates them to his stenographer or to a recording machine in the same tone, probably, that he would use if the customer were sitting before him.

But in taking this point of view, we should not minimize the importance of written business English. In a way, it is more difficult to write well than it is to talk well. In talking we are not troubled with the problems of correct spelling, proper punctuation, and good paragraphing. We may even repeat somewhat, if only we are persuasive. But in writing we are confronted with the necessity of putting the best thoughts into the clearest, most concise language, at the same time obeying all the rules of spelling, punctuation, and grammar. The business man must be sure of these details in order to know that his letters and advertising matter are correct. The stenographer, especially, must be thoroughly familiar with them, so that she may correctly transcribe what has been dictated.

Business English is much the same as any other English. It consists in expression by means of words, sentences, and paragraphs. Moreover, they are much the same kind of words, sentences, and paragraphs that appear in any book that is written in what is commonly called the literary style. In a business letter the words are largely those of every day use, and but few are technical. It is the manner in which the words are put together, the idea back of the sentence, that makes the only difference.

We shall begin the study of business English with a study of words, for in all expression, whether oral or written, a knowledge of words, of their meaning and suggestive power, is fundamental. On the choice of words depends not only the correctness but also the effectiveness of expression—the courtesy of a letter, the appeal of an advertisement, the persuasiveness of a salesman's talk. A mastery of words cannot[3] be gained at once. Every time one speaks, he must consider what words will best convey his idea. In this chapter only the barest beginning of such study can be made. The exercises show the value of the subject.

The study of words is interesting because words themselves are interesting. Sometimes the interest consists in the story of the derivation. As an example, consider the word italic. Many words in this book are written in italic to draw attention to them. Literally the word means "relating to Italy or its people." It is now applied to a kind of type in which the letters slope toward the right. The type was called italic because it was dedicated to the states of Italy by the inventor, Manutius, about the year 1500. An unabridged dictionary will tell all about the word.

The word salary tells a curious story. It is derived from a Latin word, salarium, meaning "salt money." It was the name of the money that was given to the Roman soldiers for salt, which was a part of their pay. Finally, instead of signifying only the salt money, it came to mean the total pay.

Practically all of this information a good dictionary gives. In other words, a dictionary is a story book containing not one, but hundreds of thousands of stories. Whenever possible it tells what language a word came from, how it got its different meanings, and how those meanings have changed in the course of time. For it is natural that words should change just as styles change, names of ancient things being lost and names for new things being made. As the objects themselves have gone out of use, their names have also gone. When a word has gone entirely out of use, it is marked obsolete in the dictionary. On the other hand, new inventions must be named. Thus new words are constantly being added to the language and the dictionary because they are needed.

There is a large class of words that we shall not have[4] time to consider. They are called technical. Every profession, business, or trade has its distinctive words. The technical words that a printer would use are entirely different from those which a dentist, a bookkeeper, or a lawyer would use. You will learn the technical terms of your business most thoroughly after you enter it and see the use for such terms.

None of the words, therefore, that you will be asked to search out in the dictionary are, strictly speaking, technical. It is evident that it will do you no good to search out the words in the dictionary, unless you learn them—unless you use them correctly in speaking and writing. There is pleasure in thus employing new material, as everybody knows. Use your eyes and ears. When you hear a new word, or read one, focus the mind upon it for a moment until you can retain a mental picture of its spelling and of its pronunciation. Then as soon as possible look it up in the dictionary to fix its spelling, pronunciation, and definition. Do this regularly, and you will have reason to be proud of your vocabulary.

An excellent way to increase the number of words that you know is to read the right kind of books. The careful study of the words used in the speeches and addresses of noted men is good practice. The conditions that called forth the speech were probably important, and the speech itself interesting, or it would not be preserved. When a man has an interesting or important message to give, he usually gives it in clear, exact, simple language. Therefore the vocabulary that he uses is worth copying. As for stories, there is a kind that furnishes a wealth of material that modern authors are constantly using or referring to, and this is found in stories of the Bible, stories of Greek and Northern gods and goddesses, stories of the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Æneid, stories of chivalry—all old stories. Every one should know them well, because they are the basis of many allusions in which a single word oftentimes[5] suggests a whole story. The meaning of the word herculean, for instance, is missed if you do not know the story of Hercules and know that he was famous for his strength.

Atlas is an interesting word. Originally it was the name of a Greek god, who carried the world on his shoulders. Then it is supposed that in the sixteenth century the famous geographer Mercator prefixed his collection of maps with the picture of Atlas supporting the world. Thus a collection of maps in a volume came to be called an atlas. Consult an unabridged dictionary for the origin of each of the following:

The days of the week and the months of the year are interesting in their derivation. Monday, for example, represents the day sacred to the Moon as a deity. Explain the origin of each of the following:

Look up the derivation of the following:

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Explain the origin of each of the following:

Name the image that each of the following suggests to you:

Bring to class a list of words which, because they are the names of modern inventions, have come into the language in modern time.

How many words can you name which might be called the technical terms of school life, words which always carry with them a suggestion of the school room? Bring in a list of twenty such words.

How many words can you name which are used only in the business world? Bring in a list of twenty such words.

How many words can you name which apply particularly to money and the payment or non-payment of money? Bring in a list of twenty or more such words.

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We are judged by our speech. If we clip syllables, run words together, or pronounce them incorrectly, we shall merit the criticism of being careless or even ignorant. Yet clear enunciation and correct pronunciation are sometimes difficult. We learn most words by hearing others say them, and, if we do not hear the true values given to the different syllables, we shall find it hard to distinguish the correct from the incorrect forms. Children whose parents speak a foreign language usually have to watch their speech with especial care; Germans, for example, find difficulty in saying th and Irish people in saying oi as in oil. The exercises in this chapter are given for the purpose of correcting such habits. The words in the exercises should be pronounced repeatedly, until the correct forms are instinctive.

Train the ear to hear the difference between sounds, as in just and in jest. Don't slide over the final consonant in such words as going and reading. Watch words containing wh. The dictionary tells us that where was originally written hwar, the h coming before the w; and we still pronounce it so, although we write the w before the h. The word whether is of the same kind. The dictionary tells us that it was first spelled hweder. Such words should be carefully noted and their pronunciation practiced.

Then there is the habit of slurring syllables. We may understand what is meant by the expression "C'm' on" or "Waja say?", but most of us would prefer not to be included in the class of people who use either. Correct speech cannot be mastered without an effort.[8]

In the following exercises watch every vowel and every consonant so that you may give each one its full value.

Although an a is always written a, it is not always given the same quality or length of sound. When we discover a new word, it is important that we know exactly the quality to give each of the vowels in it. For this purpose diacritical marks have been invented. They are illustrated in the following list from Webster's International Dictionary.

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Of the twenty-six letters in the alphabet, how many are vowels? Name them. What are the other letters called?

Compare the ă in hat and the ā in hate. Which has more nearly the sound of a in the alphabet? This is called the natural or long sound of the vowel. The other is called the short sound.

Drop the e from hate. Explain the result.

Name other monosyllables ending in e and containing the long a sound.

Explain the difference in pronunciation between Pete, pet, ripe, rip, hope, hop, cube, cub.

Find other monosyllables ending in e and containing a long vowel that becomes short if the e is dropped.

Monosyllables ending in silent e usually contain a long vowel sound, which becomes short when the final e is dropped.

Pronounce carefully the following words containing the short Italian a:

Pronounce the following carefully, noting each a that is marked:[10]

Pronounce the vowel o in the following very carefully. Don't give the sound feller or fella when you mean fellow.

The vowel u needs particular attention. When it is long, it is sounded naturally, as it is in the alphabet. Do not say redooce for reduce.

Using diacritical marks indicate the value of the vowels in the following. Try marking them without first consulting a dictionary. After you have marked them, compare your markings with those used in a dictionary.

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Pronounce carefully, noting that in each word at least one consonant is silent, and sometimes a vowel as well. Draw an oblique line through the silent letter or letters in each.

Pronounce the following, paying particular attention to the vowels. Distinguish between the meanings of the words in each group.

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Enunciate the consonant sounds carefully in the following. Distinguish between the meanings of the words in each group.

Pronounce the following, making sure that each syllable is correct. Guard against slurring the words in the last column.

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Enunciate carefully:

Be especially careful of the sounds th and wh. Add no syllable to a word and omit none. Consult a dictionary for any word below about which you are not certain:

A homonym is a word having the same sound as another but differing from it in meaning. Use each of the following in a sentence to show its meaning.

Do the same with the following:

What is a syllable?

Choose a word and notice that every vowel sound in it makes a syllable. Therefore, you never have two vowels in one syllable unless the two are pronounced as one sound.

In pronouncing notice carefully to which syllable a consonant belongs; as in dif-fer-ent, beau-ti-fy, dai-sy.

Divide the following words into syllables. If you cannot decide with which syllable a consonant belongs, consult a dictionary.

If a syllable, especially an accented syllable, ends in a vowel, what is usually the length of the vowel?[16]

If the syllable ends in a consonant, what is usually the length of the vowel of the syllable?

When a consonant is doubled, the division is usually made between the two letters; as,

As a rule, a prefix constitutes one syllable; as,

As a rule, a suffix constitutes one syllable; as,

When two or more letters together give one sound, they must not be divided; as,

Can a word of one syllable be divided?

Do not divide a syllable of one letter from the rest of the word. The division ever-y is wrong.

Divide the following words into syllables, using the suggestions given in the preceding exercise:

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What is accent?

Divide into syllables, indicate the accent, and pronounce the following:

In the following words the meaning changes with the accent. Use each word in a sentence to show its meaning.

Bring to class a list of words that you have heard mispronounced in your classes. Be sure that you can pronounce them correctly.

The following words are frequently mispronounced. Divide them into syllables, mark the accent, and pronounce carefully.

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The usual way of forming the plural of English nouns is illustrated by the words in column (b) above. What is it?

If you add s to the singular form dress, could you distinguish the pronunciation of the plural from the pronunciation of the singular? Does this suggest a reason for adding es to form the plural?

How many syllables must you use to pronounce the plural of fox? Does this suggest another reason for adding es to form the plural?

Every word that ends in a sibilant or hissing sound (ch, s, sh, ss, x, z) forms its plural like fox. Give several illustrations.

Rule 1.—Nouns regularly form the plural by adding s, but those ending in a sibilant must addes.

Name five words belonging to group (a) above. Does a vowel or a consonant precede the y in each case?

Name other words belonging to the group (b) above. Does a vowel or a consonant precede the y in each case?[19]

Rule 2.—Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant (and nouns ending in quy) form the plural by changing y to i and adding es.

The older English words ending in o form the plural by adding es, as in potatoes; those more recently taken into the language form the plural by adding s, as in quartos.

With the exception of the words given above, nouns ending in an f sound form the plural in the regular way; as,

Some nouns form their plural by a change of vowel; as,

A few words retain the old time plural en; as,

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A few words are the same in both singular and plural; as,

Some nouns have two plurals which differ in meaning; as,

Consult a dictionary for the difference in meaning between the two plurals of each word.

Rule 3.—Compound nouns usually add the sign of the plural to the fundamental part of the word.

Note.—In spoonfuls the thought is of one spoon many times full.

Rule 4.—Letters and figures form the plural by adding the apostrophe (') and s; as,

The same rule applies to the plural of words which ordinarily have no plural; as,

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Some nouns derived from foreign languages retain their original plural. The following are in common use.

Consult a dictionary for their pronunciation and definition.

Some words admit of two plurals, one the foreign plural, and one the regular English plural; as,

Consult a dictionary to see whether there is any difference of meaning between the two plurals of these words.

Rap is a monosyllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel. The final consonant in such words is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel is added.

In reap the final consonant is not doubled because it is preceded by two vowels.[22]

Make the participles of the following verbs:

Why is the final consonant in trap doubled before ing or ed is added?

The final consonant in track is not doubled because track ends with two consonants.

Pine drops the silent e because the tendency in English is to drop endings that are not needed for pronunciation before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.

Form the participles of the following verbs:

Exercise 36 applies also to words of more than one syllable accented on the last syllable, if they retain the accent on the same syllable after the suffix is added. Thus we have

Rule 5.—Monosyllables or words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel.

Form participles from the following words that are accented on the last syllable:[23]

Form participles from the following words not accented on the last syllable:

Words in which the accent changes do not double the final consonant before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel; as,

Explain why the final consonant is not doubled in each of the following words:

Rule 6.—In forming the present participle of verbs ending in y, retain the y before adding ing; as,

In forming the perfect participle, if in the present tense the y is preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i and ed added; if the y is preceded by a vowel, the y is retained; as,

Compare with Rule 2.

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Rule 7.—In words containing a long e sound spelled either ie or ei, ei follows c; ie follows one of the other consonants; as,

Exceptions.—Either, neither, weird, seize, leisure.

The following couplet may help in remembering when to write ie and when to write ei:

The letter c is pronounced sometimes like s and sometimes like k.

What sound does c have before a? Illustrate.

Before e? Illustrate.

Before i? Illustrate.

Before o? Illustrate.

Before u? Illustrate.

Before y? Illustrate.

If c is pronounced like k, it is called hard and is marked [\c].

If c is pronounced like s, it is called soft and is marked ç. The mark used to indicate the soft c is called the cedilla.

Make a statement telling when c is hard and when it is soft.

What sound does g have before each of the vowels, as in game, gone, gymnasium, Gunther, gentle?

Rule 8.—C and g usually are soft before e, i, and y.[25]

Words ending in silent e, according to Rule 5, drop the e before a suffix beginning with a vowel. Exceptions occur when the e is needed to preserve the soft sound of c and g. Tell why e is dropped in encouraging and retained in courageous.

In words containing dg, as in judge and lodge, the d gives the g the soft sound, and there is no need to retain the e before adding a suffix, as in judgment.

Rule 9.—Words ending in silent e usually drop the e before adding a suffix beginning with a vowel, unless the e is needed to preserve the pronunciation; as after soft c and g, when the suffix begins with a or o.

Tell why the e is retained before the suffix in the following:

Tell why the e is dropped before adding the suffix in the following:

The fact that c has two different sounds causes a slight peculiarity in words ending in c. Final c has the sound of k. When words end in c, the letter k is usually added before a suffix beginning with either e, i, or y, to show that c is not pronounced like s; as,

If the k is not added, the c changes its pronunciation; as,

It follows by inference from Rule 9 that words ending in silent e retain the e before a suffix beginning with a consonant; as,[26]

Exceptions.—Truly, duly, wisdom, awful, wholly.

Bring to class a list of twenty words that retain the final e before a suffix beginning with a consonant.

What spelling rule does each of the following words illustrate?

Write abbreviations for the months of the year. Are there any that should not be abbreviated?

The abbreviations for the states and territories are:

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To learn English words thoroughly we must spend some thought on the way in which they are made up, on the language from which they have been derived, and on the changes in meaning made by adding prefixes and suffixes. Three important influences in building the English have been the Anglo-Saxon, the Greek, and the Latin languages. The simplest words in the language are Anglo-Saxon. The following exercises illustrate how words have been multiplied by Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes.

Name as many words as you can that make use of each of the following prefixes. Give only such as are recognizable English words without the prefix.

Give the meaning of each of the prefixes used above.

What part of speech does each prefix make?

Using the following Teutonic suffixes, form English words. Be careful that the root taken alone is an English word.

What does each suffix mean?

What part of speech does it make?[30]

As above, form words using the following suffixes:

Define each suffix.

What part of speech does it make?

Below is given a list of common Greek roots with the English meaning of each. Form words using one or more of the roots for each word, and define the words you make. For instance, give the meaning of telephone, telegraph, and monarch.

How many names of modern inventions have you made?

What words belonging to your vocabulary end in the following suffixes? Choose only such as have an English word for the root.

The following is a list of the more commonly used Latin prefixes:

Analyze the following words, telling prefix, root, suffix, part of speech, and meaning:

When the prefixes ad, con, and in are used to form English words, the final consonant of each is often changed to the initial consonant of the root to which it is joined.

Ad assumes the forms ab, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at, assimilating the d with the first letter of the word to which it is prefixed; as,

Con assumes the forms col, cor, com, by assimilation; it takes the form com before p; and it drops the n before a vowel; as,

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In assumes the forms il, im, ir, by assimilation and takes the form of im before p.

The suffixes able and ible are sometimes troublesome because it is difficult to know which ending to write. As a rule, if the new word was made from another English word, the ending is able, as blamable. The words ending in ible are derived from the Latin, and, as a rule, the ending cannot easily be separated from the root and still leave the latter an English word. Examples are:

The suffixes ant and ent must also be carefully noted. No rule can be given for using one rather than the other. Whenever in doubt, consult a dictionary. Note the following:

The endings eous and ious, where e and i are often confused, are illustrated in the following:

The endings cious and tious are shown in the following:

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The endings gious and geous are illustrated in the following:

Nouns in ance and ence:

Nouns in sion, cion, and tion:

Verbs in ise, yze, and ize:

Verbs in ceed, sede, and cede:

What other words can you form from the following? Explain what prefixes or suffixes you use in each case and what part of speech you form.

There are many words the meanings of which are easily confused. The spelling and the definitions of such must be mastered. Analysis in this exercise and in the one following does not require separation into prefix, root, and suffix, but it necessitates a careful study of the words, first, to note the difference in spelling; second, to consult a dictionary, if necessary, for the difference in meaning.

Define each word clearly.

Use each in a sentence to illustrate its meaning.

As above, define each word carefully and use it in a sentence to illustrate its meaning.

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In the preceding chapters we have seen words as they are used singly. We studied their pronunciation and the way in which they were formed to express a definite meaning. In this chapter we shall begin a review of grammar, a study of words not according to their pronunciation or their definition, but according to their use as they are arranged with other words to express complete ideas. The simplest group into which words are thus arranged is the sentence, consisting of two important parts, the subject and the predicate. The subject is the part about which something is told, and the predicate is the part that tells about the subject; as,

There are several different kinds of sentences, named according to the meaning which they express. They are as follows:

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Sentences are classified, also, according to their structure or form. If a sentence has one subject and one predicate, it is a simple sentence. If it is made up of two independent parts, it is a compound sentence. If it has one independent part and one or more dependent parts, each of which contains a subject and a predicate of its own, the sentence is complex. The independent part of the sentence is called a principal clause, and the dependent part is called a subordinate clause. A phrase is also a dependent part of a sentence, but it differs from a subordinate clause in that it contains no subject or predicate. Both phrases and subordinate clauses are used as parts of speech, as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Thus we have the following definitions:

A simple sentence contains one principal clause.

A compound sentence contains two or more principal clauses.

A complex sentence contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

A phrase is a group of related words used as a part of speech. (See Exercises 68 and 69.)

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. A subordinate clause is used as a part of speech. It usually has an introductory word to distinguish it from a principal clause. (See Exercise 71.)

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Write two of each of the following kinds of sentences: a. Declarative, b. Interrogative, c. Imperative, d. Exclamatory.

Examine each of the sentences below and tell

a. Whether it is simple, complex, or compound.

b. Its subject and its predicate.

c. Its phrases and its subordinate clause (if there are any).

S. 1. The Baby Blunder.—In writing, one of the most elementary forms of correctness is shown in the proper division into sentences. The ability instinctively to end a sentence at the right place is called the "sentence sense." Students who do not possess it or who have not learned the difference between sentences, subordinate clauses, and phrases frequently make the mistake of setting off too much or too little for one sentence. For example, they run two sentences together as one; as,

Wrong: Motor wagons are economical, department stores of all large cities are acquiring them.

The sentence, as written above, contains one form of the sentence error—one of the worst possible mistakes in writing. It is sometimes called the comma fault or the baby blunder. For brevity we shall call it S 1 (sentence error number one). Motor wagons are economical is a principal clause. Department stores of all large cities are acquiring them is also a principal clause. Two such clauses may not stand[45] in the same sentence separated only by a comma. To correct, divide into two sentences; as,

Right: Motor wagons are economical. Department stores of all large cities are acquiring them.

Sometimes the thought in the two principal clauses is closely connected. In that case they may be put into the same sentence, provided they are properly connected or separated. Use a comma plus a coördinate conjunction (as and, or, but) to connect them, or a semicolon (;) to separate them.

Be particularly careful of the conjunctive adverbs so, then, therefore, thus, also, still, otherwise, however, hence, consequently, moreover, nevertheless. When they are used to join the principal clauses of a compound sentence, a comma is not sufficient punctuation between the clauses. A semicolon or a comma and a coördinate conjunction must be used.

Wrong: He had been a good customer, so they were sorry to lose his trade.

Right: He had been a good customer; so they were sorry to lose his trade.

Right: He had been a good customer, and so they were sorry to lose his trade.

S. 2.—The first form of the sentence error (S 1) is made by using too much for one sentence. The second form (S 2) is made by using too little. It consists in writing a subordinate clause or a phrase as a sentence; as,

1. Wrong: I told her I would attend to the matter at my earliest convenience. Probably on my way from work in the evening.

2. Wrong: His doctor advised him to go to Arizona. Which he decided to do.

Each sentence should express one complete thought. Some of the following are really two sentences (S 1), and some are only parts of sentences (S 2). Correct each, naming the mistake.[46]

Rewrite the following, dividing into sentences:

Classify the sentences that you have formed in the foregoing exercise:

There are eight different kinds of words called parts of speech, which are used to make sentences. They are as follows:[49]

Thus a noun names something. A word that stands for a noun is a pronoun. Sometimes a different part of speech is used like a noun, and for the time being it becomes a noun. The verb is a very important part of speech, since without it there can be no sentence. The verb makes an assertion, asks a question, or gives a command. Adjectives are words that belong to or describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs go with or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Prepositions and conjunctions connect. Prepositions join their objects to other words in the sentence; conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. An interjection, such as the exclamation oh, is used without having grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. A preposition always takes an object, the preposition and its object making a phrase. Grouping this information, we have:

A word is not always the same part of speech. We may say, "Did you starch the clothes?" in which case starch is[50] a verb. A grocer may say, "The starch in these packages is always clean." In this sentence starch is a noun. The part of speech depends entirely on the way the word is used.

In the following, name the part of speech of each word in italic. Judge by the way the word is used in the sentence.

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Each of the following may be used as different parts of speech. Write sentences illustrating as many uses as possible for each word.

Tell which of the words in italic are adjectives and which are adverbs. Remember that an adjective goes with a noun or pronoun; an adverb with another adverb, an adjective, or a verb, and usually answers the question how? when? where? why? how much? or how long?

Change the following adjectives to adverbs. In each case use both parts of speech in sentences.[52]

Tell which of the Words in italic are prepositions and which are adverbs. Remember that a preposition begins a phrase. It must be followed by an object.

Write sentences using above, across, down, up, underneath both as adverbs and as prepositions.

What part of speech is each of the italicized phrases below? Remember that an adjective modifies a noun; an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

The phrase introduced by a preposition is the most common. A list of prepositions follows. They should be learned.

Write three sentences containing prepositional adjective phrases.

Prepositional adverbial phrases may express the following ideas:

Write a sentence containing a prepositional phrase telling:

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Name all the prepositional phrases in Exercise 179, explaining whether they are adjective or adverbial.

A subordinate clause, like a phrase, is a group of words used as a part of speech, the chief difference being that a clause must have a subject and a predicate. Clauses are introduced

Does the clause or the simple adverb give the more definite idea?

Write three sentences illustrating adjective clauses, three illustrating adverbial clauses, and three illustrating noun clauses.

Name all the clauses in Exercises 179, 185, and 186. Explain the use of each.[55]

Write sentences using each of the following words to introduce a phrase, and to introduce a clause.

Remember that just as a preposition must be followed by an object to form a phrase, a conjunction must be followed by a subject to form a clause.

Name the complete subject in the following. Then name the simple subject, explaining by what elements—words, phrases, or clauses—it is modified.

Name the complete predicate. Then name the simple predicate, explaining by what elements the verb is modified.

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For the plural of nouns see Chapter III.

The classes to which nouns belong are distinguished as follows:

A common noun is the name given to an object to denote the class to which it belongs; as, book, man.

A proper noun is the name given to a particular object to distinguish it from others of the same class; as, Mary, Republicans, England. Proper nouns should always be capitalized.

A collective noun is a name which in the singular denotes a collection. It is usually plural in idea but singular in use; as, congregation, crowd.

An abstract noun is the name denoting a quality of an object; as, power, purity, strength.

A verbal noun is the name of an action. As its name suggests, it is made from a verb; as, Sweeping is good exercise.

In the following sentences supply necessary capital letters. Explain why the same word in one expression needs a capital and in another does not.

Explain to which class each noun in the foregoing sentences belongs. Be particularly careful to distinguish between common and proper nouns.

The different classes of pronouns are distinguished as follows:

The personal pronoun is used in place of the name of a person or thing. The pronoun of the first person indicates the speaker, the pronoun of the second person indicates the person spoken to, and the pronoun of the third person indicates the person spoken of. They are declined as follows: