ALDEN'S

MOBILE ATLAS

OF THE

WORLD.

INCLUDING
ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-EIGHT
COLOR MAPS, DIAGRAMS,
TABLES, ETC.

NEW YORK:
JOHN B. ALDEN, PUBLISHER.
1888.

The following are SOME TITLES and prices from my catalog of standard books:

Alden's Cyclopedia of Universal Literature, published in 15 volumes, each with about 500 pages; per volume, paper $0.30; cloth $0.50; half Morocco $0.60.

American Patriotism: Famous Speeches and Patriotic Writings; cloth $0.50, half Morocco $0.70.

Ancient Classics for English Readers; 27 volumes; each, paperback, $0.10; cloth, $0.20. Also available bound in 9 volumes, half Russia, each $0.50.

Argyll's Reign of Law, hardcover, 60 cents; Unity of Nature, 60 cents; Primeval Man, 35 cents; all three in one volume, hardcover, $1.00.

Bacon's Essays, complete; paperback $0.12, hardcover $0.25.

Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; paperback $0.08, hardcover $0.20 and $0.30.

Chambers's Cyclopedia of English Literature; 8 volumes in cloth, $2.00.

Chinese Classics: The Works of Confucius and Mencius, translated; cloth $0.75.

Classic Comedies, by Goldsmith, Sheridan, and Jonson; cloth $0.40, half Morocco $0.60.

Classic Prose Wonder-Book; 900 large octavo pages, beautifully bound. $1.50.

Confessions of St. Augustine; translated, hardcover, $0.50.

Creasy's Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World; cloth, 40¢.

De Quincey's Confessions of an English Opium Eater; hardcover, 20 cents.

Doré's Bible Gallery of Illustrations and Stories; now only $1.25, down from $5.00.

Doré's Milton's Paradise Lost; complete text, with 52 illustrations, $1.25.

Durfee's Poetical Concordance to the major Poets of the World; cloth, gold edges, $1.00.

Emerson's Essays, 2 volumes; each, cloth, $0.40; half Morocco, $0.60.

Emerson's Nature, Etc.; cloth $0.35, half Morocco $0.50.

Famous Warriors: Lives of Hannibal, Caesar, and Cromwell, by well-known authors; each, paper, 8¢; all in one volume, cloth, 40¢.

Farrar's Seekers after God; hardback, 35 cents.

—— Lectures, Addresses, and Essays; cloth $0.35, half Morocco $0.50

Geikie's Hours with the Bible; 6 volumes, illustrated; now priced at $1.50 per volume for just 45¢ in cloth, or 60¢ in half Morocco.

—— Life and Words of Christ; now priced at $0.45 for cloth, or $0.60 for half Morocco.

John B. Alden, Publisher, 393 Pearl St., New York.

Copyright, 1885 and 1886, by Rand, McNally & Co.

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EUROPE.

Northwestern part of the Old World and the smallest of its major regions. It stretches 3,500 miles in extreme length from northeast to southwest, with a width of over 2,400 miles; the coastline is at least 20,000 miles long.

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UK

The largest island in Europe, along with Ireland and the nearby islands, makes up the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The union of England and Ireland was established on January 1, 1800.

Area of the kingdom: 120,832 square miles. Population: 35,241,482. The divisions are England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Capital: London; population: 4,766,661. Thirty-five cities have populations over 75,000. The climate is variable but healthy. Average temperature: 50°F. Rainfall: London 25 inches; Glasgow 21 inches; Dublin 29 inches.

Middle-class education is completely disorganized; there are no comprehensive, reliable statistics available. In 1884, there were 69 universities and colleges, with 23,823 students enrolled. In 1881, there were 1,855 science schools, serving 66,000 students. The number of public libraries is 202. The British Museum's library has 32 miles of shelves filled with books. The number of daily newspapers is 169.

Productive land in England is 80%; in Ireland, it's 74%; in Scotland, it's 28.8%; and in Wales, it's 60%. The main crops in Great Britain are wheat, barley, and oats. In 1884, the acreage was as follows: wheat, 2,676,477 acres; barley, 2,159,485 acres; oats, 2,892,576 acres. In Ireland, oats and potatoes are the most significant; the acreage for oats is 1,347,395 acres; for potatoes, it's 798,942 acres. The number of acres planted with flax is 89,197. Orchards in Great Britain cover 180,000 acres and produce 85,000 tons of apples.

The key minerals are coal and iron. In 1883, coal production was 163,737,327 tons, worth $230,270,715. Iron ore was 17,383,046 tons, valued at $25,611,905. That same year, 1,724,251 tons of pig iron were used to make Bessemer steel, with 1,097,174 tons being turned into steel rails. Over 800 tons of steel are used each year to produce pens, with Birmingham consuming 500 tons of that; the average annual production is 800,000,000.

The annual value of the fisheries is $50,000,000. The herring fishery alone is worth $10,000,000; salmon contribute $4,000,000; oysters and shellfish are valued at $10,000,000. The value of the Scottish fisheries in 1884 was $16,431,210, with the herring fishery alone accounting for $10,267,755. The total value of imports in 1884 was $1,948,872,745; exports of domestic products were $1,164,537,875; and foreign and colonial products totaled $312,218,575. The value of corn and flour imported in 1882 was $338,111,835. The value of exported cotton goods was $382,228,785.

There are 2,674 cotton factories that employ 482,903 people. In total, there are 7,105 factories, with 975,546 individuals employed, including 110,585 children under 13 years old. Men make up 38 percent of the workforce, while women account for 62 percent. The amount of cotton imported in 1883 was 1,734,333,552 pounds, and wool was 495,946,779 pounds.

Standing army during peacetime is illegal without Parliament's approval; there should be an annual allocation from the Commons to support the troops, based on "estimates" made by the Cabinet. For 1884 and 1885, the total number of active and reserve forces both at home and in the colonies was 644,753.

Before 1815, there was very little emigration from the United Kingdom; in that year, the number was 2,081; in 1830-34, it was 381,956; in 1875, it was 173,809; in 1882, it was 413,288; and in 1884, it was 304,074, of whom 203,539 moved to the United States.

First railway opened in 1825. By 1883, there were 18,681 miles of railway; 13,215 in England and Wales, 2,964 in Scotland, and 2,502 in Ireland. The number of post offices in 1884 was 15,951, plus 15,749 road and pillar boxes. There are 27,604 miles of telegraph lines and 140,498 miles of wire.

The colonies and territories of Great Britain cover about 8,000,000 square miles. Out of this massive area, more than 3,500,000 square miles are in America, over 250,000 in Africa, more than 1,000,000 in Asia, and 3,000,000 in Australasia.

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BELGIUM.

A kingdom in West Central Europe. Previously joined with Holland to create the Netherlands. Gained independence in 1830. The King holds the executive power; legislative power is shared between the King, the Senate, and the House of Representatives.

The most densely populated country in Europe, Belgium ranks eighteenth in size but ninth in population. Its area is 11,373 square miles, with one-sixtieth of the land gained through dykes. The country's canal and river system spans 995 miles. The capital city is Brussels, and the population is 389,782.

Agriculture is the main industry. Only about one-eighth of the area is uncultivated. In 1882, the population was 5,655,197; the average density was 497 people per square mile; 1,160,149 landowners held 88 percent of the land.

This country has a lot of minerals. It produces over 17,500,000 tons of coal every year. Belgium is known for its flax. The main products are wheat, rye, oats, barley, flax, hemp, and tobacco. In 1880, there were 46,210 horses, 411,551 oxen, and 90,100 sheep.

Imports in 1882 totaled $570,320,000; exports were $512,780,000. Manufacturing plays a significant role, with around 190,000 people employed in the production of flax, hemp, wool, and cotton. Brussels lace and firearms from Liege are considered some of the finest globally. The value of pig and wrought iron alone in 1882 was $34,473,260. The annual production from iron foundries was about $3,000,000, while quarries contributed $8,459,400.

Roman Catholicism is practiced by almost the entire population. The government strongly supports education, with a total expenditure in 1881 of $6,503,670. There are four universities in the kingdom.

Total peace strength of the army, 1885, 47,872 men, with 9,000 horses and 204 guns; war footing, 227,900 men, 13,800 horses, and 240 guns.

Of the 2,682 miles of railroad in operation in 1883, 1,902 miles were owned and managed by the government. In 1884, there were 3,713 miles of telegraph lines and 869 post offices.

NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND).

A European kingdom established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Area, 12,648 square miles. Population, 4,225,065. The country is protected by dikes from river overflow and sea inundations.

Constitution dated 1848. Law-making power resides in the States-General, a parliament with two houses. Commercial center, Amsterdam; pop., 350,201. Capital, The Hague; pop., 127,931.

The soil is very fertile, and a lot of fruit is grown. In 1882, there were 5,046,210 acres of farmed garden and pasture land. The number of acres used for grain was 1,267,399, producing 130,470,000 bushels of grain. There were 270,900 horses, 1,427,000 cattle, and 745,100 sheep.

Total exports in 1882 were $313,330,000, and imports were $414,330,000. The value of butter exported to Great Britain alone was $21,020,605. In 1884, Holland's merchant marine consisted of 701 sailing vessels totaling 251,500 tons and 96 steamers totaling 123,400 tons.

In 1884, there were miles of railway, 1,320. Miles of state telegraph, 2,660; miles of wire, 9,760. Number of post offices, 1,281.

In 1884, the regular army stationed in Holland had 65,007 officers and soldiers; the navy was made up of 157 ships, with 9,462 officers and sailors.

The Constitution guarantees religious freedom. Number of Protestants: 2,469,814; Roman Catholics: 1,439,137; Jews: 81,693.

Returns for 1882 showed 2,822 public elementary schools; 11,250 teachers; 1,143 private schools; and a total student population of 557,932. There are 4 universities, 1 polytechnic school, 5 Roman Catholic seminaries, and 3 Protestant seminaries. The total expense for schools was $5,921,515. {18}

GERMANY.

The third largest country in Europe. A confederate empire made up of 25 states and the Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine. Capital: Berlin.

Climate uniform. Average temperature of the whole country is 48°F; in the Rhine valley, it's 52°F. Rainfall in Berlin is 24 inches.

About 63 percent of the population is Protestant, and 36 percent is Roman Catholic. The number of churches is 37,720. Education is widespread and mandatory. There are 57,000 elementary schools, 332 normal schools, 1,100 high schools, 9 technical high schools, and 994 industrial and trade schools. There are 21 universities with 25,964 students, of whom 89 percent are German and 1 percent are American. There are 594 public libraries and 560 daily newspapers. The book fair in Leipzig sells about 8,000 tons of books each year, valued at $8,000,000.

Every German has to serve in the military, and no one can be replaced. All Germans who are able to serve must spend seven years in the standing army—three years in active duty and four years in the reserves; after that, they are part of the Landwehr for another five years. The peacetime army consists of 427,274 soldiers and 18,118 officers. The total number of trained soldiers that can be deployed in wartime is 2,650,000, and the overall available force across all categories is 5,670,000.

Of the area, 94 percent is considered productive. The main products in 1882 were corn (16,435,620 tons), potatoes (17,769,300 tons), beets (874,654 tons), hay (17,486,000 tons), 11,500 tons of hops, and over 35,000,000 gallons of wine. The value of farm animals was $1,486,000,000. The mineral products of 1883 were valued at over $116,000,000. The value of imports in 1883 was $822,724,000, while exports were $833,750. There are 23,940 breweries producing a total of 880,000,000 gallons of beer each year. The annual butter production is 160,000 tons.

Number of miles of railway in 1884: 22,617, with 19,230 miles owned by the government. Length of telegraph lines: 47,637 miles; total wires: 170,960 miles. Number of telegraph stations: 11,216. Number of post offices: 13,637.

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SPAIN.

A kingdom in Southwestern Europe, sharing the Iberian peninsula with Portugal. Its capital is Madrid, with a population of 397,816. There are thirty-one towns that each have over 50,000 residents.

Continental Spain covers 191,100 square miles. Its population is 16,061,859. There are 49 provinces. The coastline stretches for 1,370 miles. The most notable attraction is the ruins of the Alhambra in Granada. This is the only country in Europe that still permits slavery in its colonies.

Climate varies widely. The average temperature in Madrid is 58°. Rainfall in the Sierras averages between 25 and 35 inches; on the plateau of Castile, it's 10 inches.

About 80 percent of the soil is considered productive, but only 34 percent is actually cultivated. The vine is the most important crop, and large amounts of oranges, raisins, nuts, and olives are grown and exported. The main cereals are wheat, rye, barley, and corn. The annual wine production averages 320 million gallons, worth $95 million. The average number of oranges exported is 960 million.

The mineral productions are extremely important. The Cordova lead mines are the richest in the world, and the mercury mines of Almaden are only surpassed by those in California. The average yearly lead output is 92,300 tons, valued at $8,000,000. Mercury production is 1,090 tons, valued at $1,199,000. Copper output is 21,300 tons. Tin, iron, and salt are also plentiful.

The national religion is Roman Catholicism. The school system is ineffective, but efforts are being made to improve it. In the last census (1877), 60 percent of the adult population couldn’t read. As of 1880, there were 29,828 public schools with 1,769,456 students. There were 10 universities with 15,732 students.

Number of miles of railway, 1884, 5,157, with 1,747 miles under construction. Length of telegraph lines, 10,733 miles; number of miles of wire, 26,160. Number of post offices, 2,699.

The territories owned by Spain cover an area of 163,876 square miles and have a population of 7,991,894. The key territories are Cuba and the Philippines. Cuba spans 43,220 square miles and has a population of 1,521,684. Its capital is Havana, with a population of 25,000. The main products are sugar, tobacco, and cigars, with an average yearly sugar production of 520,000 tons.

Available home and colonial troops: 400,000.

PORTUGAL.

Name derived from Portus Cale, the ancient name of Oporto. A kingdom of Europe, occupying the western part of the Iberian Peninsula.

Area: 36,510 square miles. Population: 4,306,554. Number of Provinces: 6. Length of coastline: 500 miles. Capital: Lisbon; population: 246,343. Oporto, center of the port wine trade; population: 105,838.

Climate is healthy. The average temperature in Lisbon is 61°F. Rainfall averages 27 inches in Lisbon and 118 inches in Coimbra.

About 51 percent of the soil is productive, and less than 23 percent is being cultivated. There's not enough grain produced for home consumption. The wine production for 1882 was 125,000,000 gallons, valued at $28,500,000.

State religion: Roman Catholic. The average expenditure on public education from 1875 to 1879 was $10,000; by 1884, this amount had increased to $966,000. There is one university, founded in Coimbra in 1290.

Number of miles of railway in 1884 was 950, with 300 miles still being built. There were 2,920 miles of telegraph lines, 7,084 miles of wire, and 226 telegraph offices. There were 931 post offices. {21}

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FRANCE.

A country in Europe, the fourth largest in size. Named after a Germanic tribe, the Franks, who invaded Gaul in A.D. 486. Its area, including Corsica and nearby islands, is 204,177 square miles. It has one of the best climates in Europe. Average temperatures range from 50°F in Dunkirk to 62°F in Toulon, with Paris averaging 51°F. Rainfall is 22 inches in Paris and 30 inches in Bordeaux.

France has a coastline of 320 miles; the continental boundary line is 962 miles. The longest river is the Loire. The Alps to the east and the Pyrenees to the south link France with some of the most impressive mountain ranges in Europe. The French part of the Alps is 280 miles long.

The republic is divided into 87 departments. The President's salary is $120,000, and their term lasts for 7 years. Paris is the capital and the second-largest city in Europe, with a population of 2,239,928. Lyons is the next largest city and the center of the silk industry, with a population of 376,613. There are twenty-nine towns with populations over 50,000 and 91 towns with populations over 20,000.

Agricultural population, census 1881, 18,249,209. Number of acres cultivated, 67,000,000. In 1883, 37,039,040 acres were planted in cereals, with five-sevenths being wheat and oats; total production was 742,176,807 bushels. Number of acres in orchards, 560,000; yearly production of cider, 220,000,000 gallons. Vineyards covered 5,240,340 acres; the annual average of wine produced was 720,000,000 gallons; value estimated at $225,000,000. The average champagne vintage is 20,000,000 bottles, with 17,000,000 exported; 1,204,145 acres were dedicated to beet-root cultivation in 1883, yielding 32,230,312,000 pounds of sugar.

Commercially, the country is on par with Great Britain. Each year, over 60,000 vessels enter and leave its ports, with a total capacity of 12,000,000 tons. The annual value of imports, excluding coins and bullion, is $870,000,000, while exports total $960,000,000. Food imports account for $308,000,000 each year. In 1883, the value of exports was $912,340,000 and imports were $1,277,340,000. The value of silk exports reached $93,402,000, with 151,404 people engaged in silk production. The country produced 19,149,587 pounds of raw silk. France produces 26,000,000 pairs of gloves each year, exporting 18,000,000 of them. There are 890 umbrella manufacturers, generating $5,900,000 in sales annually. The value of fishery products is $21,445,450, with an average production of 980,000,000 sardines and 380,000,000 oysters. Additionally, there are 83,572 men involved in the fishing industry, operating 22,345 vessels with a total tonnage of 155,670.

About 79 percent of the population is Roman Catholic; less than 2 percent are Protestant. In 1884, there were 85,388 elementary schools with 6,111,236 students. There were 163 normal schools and 505 public libraries. The Imperial Library in Paris has 18 miles of shelves filled with books. A total of 128 daily newspapers were published.

The reorganization of the French army has been underway since 1872 and is almost finished. Every Frenchman who hasn't been declared unfit for military service can be called to join the active army or reserves from the age of twenty to forty. Hiring a substitute or paying to enlist is not allowed. In 1884, the army had 524,797 officers and soldiers, along with 130,771 horses.

Railway system dates from 1840; number of miles, 1884, 17,000. Number of miles telegraph lines, 46,932; offices, 7,523. Number of post offices, 1884, 6,486.

The French colonial territories span 429,260 square miles and have a total population of 9,300,000. Algeria is the largest and most significant colony, covering 161,476 square miles and housing 3,310,412 people. Algiers is the capital, with a population of 70,747. The next most important colonies commercially are Tunisia and Cochinchina. {23}

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SWITZERLAND.

The most mountainous country in Europe. It used to be a group of semi-independent states, but since 1848, it has been a federal republic. There are 22 cantons. The president is elected for a term of one year and cannot serve two consecutive terms; salary is $3,000.

Area: 15,992 square miles. Population: 2,846,102. The Alps stretch almost the entire length of the country; from many peaks, you can see 300 snow-capped summits. Rigi offers the best view; Monte Rosa, the Matterhorn (the steepest in the world), Finsteraarhorn, and Jungfrau range from 13,700 to 15,200 feet high. The Mer de Glace is the largest glacier in the world.

The overall climate is milder than in other mountain countries at the same latitude. The average temperature in Geneva is 52°F. The average rainfall in Geneva is 32 inches; in Zurich, it's 34 inches.

Bern is the capital; population, 44,087. Geneva, the hub of the watch and jewelry industry; population, 68,320. Basel, the center of the silk industry; population, 61,399.

About 59% of the population is Protestant and 41% is Roman Catholic. Education is mandatory. As of 1882, there are 5,314 public schools with 516,425 students and a school population of 573,713. There are four universities: the one in Basel, established in 1460, and those in Bern, Zurich, and Geneva, founded since 1832. The government runs a polytechnic school in Zurich and a military academy in Thun. There are 1,654 public libraries.

The laws of the republic prohibit having a standing army within its borders; however, every Swiss citizen is required to serve in the defense of their country.

Of the total area, 17 percent is forest, 30 percent consists of mountains, lakes, glaciers, and rivers, and 51 percent is used for crops and grass. Of the land that can be farmed, only 16.5 percent is dedicated to agriculture. Less than 1 percent is designated for vineyards. Rye, oats, and potatoes are the most important crops, while dairy products are the most commercially significant.

Number engaged in agriculture and dairy farming, census 1880, 1,138,678. The average yearly production of cheese is 40,000 tons.

The manufacturing industry is significant. Recent reports show that the annual value of watch manufacturing is $16 million; St. Gallen embroideries are valued at $15 million; silk ribbon produced in Basel is worth $7.2 million; and the silk industry in Zurich is valued at $15.2 million. There are 399 cotton factories employing 38,500 people, 224 silk factories with 23,500 workers, 838 embroidery factories with 17,200 employees, and 45 woolen factories with 2,500 workers.

Number of miles of railway, January 1883, 1,810. The telegraph system is very comprehensive; aside from the wires used for railway service, it's completely under government control. By January 1884, there were 4,270 miles of lines and 10,346 miles of wire; the number of offices was 1,271. There were 807 post offices and 2,081 boxes.

ANDORRA.

One of the smallest republics in the world, located between France and Spain. Its independence goes back to Charlemagne in 790. France and the Spanish Bishop of Urgel have a joint nominal interest in its government. A permanent delegate is responsible for looking after France's interests in the republic.

Area: 175 square miles. Population: 5,800. The climate is healthy but too cold to grow grain. It has rich iron mines and one lead mine. The residents are mainly shepherds. {25}

Bulgaria.

A principality under the control of Turkey. Run by a Prince elected by the National Assembly, with a popular legislature and constitution. Area: 24,360 square miles. Population in 1881: 2,007,919. The capital of the principality is Sofia; population: 20,501. There are three towns with over 20,000 residents and 20 towns with over 2,000 residents.

Most of the land is part of the Danube basin and is crossed by many streams. The soil is generally very fertile, and farming is the main occupation of the people. The main exports are grain, wool, hides, and timber. About 1.5 million tons of corn are exported each year. Total imports in 1882 were valued at $8,312,700, while exports were valued at $6,844,395.

One railway line, 140 miles long, runs from Rustchuk to Varna. In 1883, Bulgaria had 1,325 miles of state telegraph lines. Military service is mandatory. The peacetime strength of the army is 17,670 personnel, while its wartime strength is 52,000.

SERVIA.

The country's independence from Turkey was established in 1878. The constitution adopted in 1869 gives executive power to the King and a Council of 8 ministers, while legislative power is held by the King and a National Assembly. Area: 18,800 square miles. Population: 1,865,683. Capital: Belgrade; population: 37,500.

The country's landscape is mainly mountainous. Vegetation thrives in all areas. The climate is mild in the lower and flatter regions, but very harsh in the mountainous areas. One-third of the total land is farmed, with corn and wheat as the main crops. Approximately 1,750,000 people work in agriculture. The latest livestock reports show: pigs, 1,067,940; horses, 122,500; cattle, 826,550; sheep, 3,620,750; goats, 725,700.

The imports are estimated at around $10,000,000, and the exports are slightly lower. In 1884, there were 200 miles of railway. The number of telegraph miles was 1,410. The state religion is Orthodox Greek. There is a university with 158 students. Other schools total about 650, with around 45,000 pupils.

ROMANIA.Roo-mā´ne-a.

A European kingdom that used to be part of Turkey. Although it was under Russia's protection since 1830, it was officially still part of Turkey until 1878. In 1881, it became a kingdom. The constitution was adopted in 1866 and modified in 1879 and 1884. The government is headed by the King and includes an Executive Council, a Senate, and a Chamber of Deputies. The area is 48,307 square miles, and the estimated population is 5,376,000. The capital is Bucharest, with a population of 221,805.

The soil is rich, and 70 percent of the total population is involved in agriculture. There are 654,000 freehold proprietors. Of the land, 68 percent is productive, with 29 percent currently being cultivated. The main products are grain, oilseeds, and wine. The average production of cereals is 150,000 tons. Cattle and sheep are raised extensively. In 1883, the total value of exports was $44,130,055, and imports were $71,981,435. The value of leading exports includes cereals at $34,511,400 and animals at $2,328,490. Imports consist of textiles at $23,530,315, metals at $14,632,880, and skins and leather at $8,748,370.

Education is free and required for everyone. There are 2,743 primary schools, 54 high schools, 8 teacher training colleges, and 2 universities. Most people belong to the Orthodox Greek Church. In 1884, Romania had 850 miles of state railways and about 150 miles of private railways. There were around 3,000 miles of telegraph lines. {26}

TURKEY (OTTOMAN EMPIRE).

The Ottoman Empire includes all the countries under Turkey's control. The area and population are only known through estimates, with the latest figures showing an area of 2,406,492 square miles and a population of 42,209,359. The most significant part, which is in Europe, saw a considerable decline in area and population in 1878. The latest estimates indicate that the European possessions now encompass an area of 63,850 square miles and a population of 4,490,000. The laws of the empire are based on the principles of the Koran, and the government is led by the Sultan, whose authority is absolute unless it conflicts with the teachings of the Islamic religion. The capital is Constantinople, with a population of 600,000.

While military service is mandatory for all Muslims over eighteen years old, there are some exemptions, and substitution is permitted. Non-Muslims are not required to serve but must pay an exemption fee. The number of soldiers is 150,000; the actual military strength is around 430,000.

The total value of exports in 1882 was $50,828,895; imports were $87,687,400. Main exports included fresh and dried fruit at $7,886,375, and wool and mohair at $4,330,020. In 1883, the merchant navy had 10 steamers totaling 8,866 tons and 391 sailing vessels totaling 63,896 tons.

As the Quran promotes public education, public schools have been around in most Turkish towns for a long time. The Muslims are estimated to number 16,000,000.

The first railroad was built in 1865, with 45 miles opening for traffic that year. By 1882, the total length of railroads had reached 1,076 miles, with 904 miles in Europe and 172 miles in Asia. In 1884, there were 14,617 miles of telegraph lines and 26,060 miles of wire.

GREECE.Greece.

A kingdom in Southeastern Europe. The area, including Thessaly but excluding the Albanian territory that was separated from Thessaly and Epirus, which was added to Greece in 1881, covers 25,111 square miles. The total population is 1,979,453. It is almost entirely mountainous, which is a significant factor in the political history of Greece.

Executive power is held by the King and the responsible leaders of 7 departments; legislative power is in the Chamber of Representatives.

Athens, the capital and largest city; population, 84,903. More than 82 percent of the residents are members of the Greek Orthodox Church. Greece has one university and 2,698 other schools, with 140,776 students.

The main focus of the residents is farming. They produce very few manufactured goods. Out of the total area, 41 percent is productive, and 6 percent is cultivated. Most of the land is owned by a small number of landowners. The New Provinces of Thessaly are especially fertile, with an annual yield of 21,700,000 bushels of wheat and 11,528,000 bushels of oats. The Old Provinces yield 34,000,000 bushels of wheat and 21,700,000 bushels of corn each year. The current crop of currants covers large areas. Recent reports indicate there are 97,176 horses, 279,445 cattle, 45,440 mules, and 97,395 donkeys. The total number of sheep across all Provinces is 4,421,977; there are 2,836,663 goats and 200,000 oxen. For 1883, total imports were $27,267,400, while exports, mainly raisins, currants, and olive oil, were $18,571,400. The main resource is maritime trade.

Number of miles of railway currently open for traffic: 107; projected railways: 435 miles. Land and underwater telegraphs: 3,720 miles. Post offices: 213. Army: peace time strength, 30,292 soldiers; wartime strength, 250,500. By the end of 1884, the commercial marine included 74 steamers, totaling 33,318 tons, and 3,164 sailing vessels, totaling 239,361 tons. {27}

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ITALY.It’s Italy.

A kingdom in Southern Europe. It includes a peninsula, the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Elba, and about 66 smaller islands. Area: 114,410 square miles. Population: 28,459,628. Average annual temperature: 55°F in Milan, 59°F in Rome, and 61°F in Naples. The climate is the most unhealthy in Europe, mainly due to the miasma produced in lagoons and marshes. It has many well-known and scenic lakes.

Government is a constitutional monarchy. Executive power is held by the King and responsible ministers; legislative power is shared between the King and a Parliament, which includes a Senate that is appointed for life, and a Chamber of 508 Deputies, elected by the people for five years. Voting is universal, and the press is free and unrestricted. Notable rivers include the Po, Arno, and Tiber.

Italy is full of historic and crowded cities. Rome, the capital, has a population of 273,268; Naples, the largest, has 463,172; Milan has 295,543; Palermo has 205,712; Genoa has 138,081; Florence has 134,992; Venice has 129,445; there are 31 cities with over 30,000 residents.

Agriculture is the main industry, though it's still quite basic; 87 percent of the total area is productive, with 12 percent covered by forest and 36 percent cultivated. There are 28 million acres used for crops. The wheat acreage is 12 million, with an annual yield of 140 million bushels. Vineyards cover about 5 million acres, and olive groves take up 2.2 million. Around 1.225 million acres are used for chestnut farming. Italy ranks second to France in wine production, with an average annual yield of 605 million gallons. The average annual value of all agricultural products over the last five years is $640 million.

Number of cattle in 1881 was 4,783,232; sheep, 8,596,108; goats, 2,016,307. In 1883, we exported 127,003 cattle; 273,939 sheep; and 38,668 swine. Wool production wasn't enough for local needs; we imported 20,987,500 lbs in 1883.

Mining is a significant industry in Italy. The annual value of iron and steel mined is $4,250,000. Sulfur is the main mineral product, with a value of $9,328,505 in 1882. Quarries provide jobs for 20,000 men. In 1883, the total weight of cocoon harvest was 92,886,200 lbs, valued at $26,491,665.

Leading imports in 1883: raw cotton, $18,173,400; coal, $13,166,200; tobacco, $2,321,800; sugar, $10,633,200. Exports for the same year: raw silk, $49,712,400; olive oil, $20,156,600; wine in casks, $15,668,200; fruit, $8,685,800. Total imports in 1883 were $257,241,023; exports were $236,321,513. In the same year, 111,296 vessels, totaling 18,465,381 tons, entered Italian ports; 110,554 vessels, totaling 18,367,948 tons, cleared them.

Length of railway, in 1883, 5,651 miles; about 1,410 miles owned by the state. In 1879, the Italian Parliament passed bills for the construction of 3,739 miles to complete the railway system; cost, $200,000,000. Number of post offices in 1883, 3,497. Miles of telegraph, 17,258; about two-thirds owned by the government; telegraph offices, not including railway and private, 1,747; number of telegrams, 6,454,942.

There is a universal requirement for military service. Total military strength is 2,119,250: permanent army, 750,765; mobile militia, 341,250; territorial militia, 1,021,954; reserves, 5,281. The Navy in 1884 consisted of 89 steamers, staffed by 15,055 officers and crew members.

Roman Catholicism is the main religion, with no more than 124,000 Protestants and Jews in the kingdom. The current Roman Pontiff, Pope Leo XIII, is considered to be about the 263rd Pope from St. Peter.

Recent improvements in education have been made. There are 17 state universities, 4 free universities, 11 higher education colleges, and 219 special schools. The number of primary public schools is 41,423, with a total budget for expenses of $6,485,505. {29}

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AUSTRO-HUNGARY.

A monarchy in Europe. It ranks just below Russia in size. A large part of the territory is mountainous, with the Carpathians stretching about 800 miles. Four-fifths of Austria's area is 600 feet above sea level.

Mean annual temperature ranges from about 48°F in the north to 59°F in the south. Average temperature in Vienna is 50°F; the highest is 94°F; the lowest is 2°F. Rainfall: on the Hungarian plains, 22 inches; in the Alpine regions, 60 inches.

Austria, a German monarchy, and Hungary, a Magyar kingdom, together form a two-part state. Each has its own parliament, ministers, and government; they are united by a common ruler, Congress, army, and navy. Congress's legislative power is restricted to war and foreign affairs.

Area of Austro-Hungary: 240,942 square miles; area of Turkish provinces controlled by the monarchy: 24,247 square miles. Total population, including military: 37,883,226; in Austria: 10,819,737 males and 11,324,507 females; in Hungary: 7,702,810 males and 7,939,192 females. In Austria, 6,000,000 people are engaged in agriculture, 2,117,098 in manufacturing, and 177,870 in mining. Farm population of Hungary: 2,848,868; miners: 25,905; manufacturers: 766,416; traders: 177,295.

Vienna, the capital, has a population of 1,103,857. Budapest has 360,551. Ninety-four percent of the entire area is productive. The number of acres used for crops, fallow, and grass is 67,608,070. The total production includes cereals at 586,029,352 bushels, potatoes at 365,574,706 bushels, and wines at 178,425,280 gallons. The total number of horses is 3,282,790, cattle is 13,181,620, and sheep is 13,093,463.

Value of exports, 1883, $374,960,255. Main exports: grain and flour, $60,389,350; textiles, $55,516,850; livestock, $48,519,015; fuel, $38,979,570; sugar, $35,086,975.

Railway mileage in 1884 was 12,820 miles. In 1883, there were 32,684 miles of telegraph lines in operation. The commercial marine in 1884 included 9,174 vessels, with a total capacity of 321,402 tons.

Army, in war, 1,072,300 strong; during peace, 291,078. Military service is mandatory for all males over 20 years old.

The Roman Catholic Church is the state religion; 67.6 percent of the population are Catholics, and other beliefs are accepted.

MONTENEGRO.

A small country in Europe; recently recognized as independent by Turkey. Area: 3,550 square miles. Population in 1879: 250,000. The land features a series of elevated ridges and high mountain peaks. Agriculture is the main occupation. Main products include corn, potatoes, sumac, sardines, smoked lamb, hides, skins, and furs. Total yearly imports are $100,000; exports are $1,000,000.

The constitution dates back to 1852; the government is a limited monarchy; executive power is held by the reigning prince; legislative power lies with a State Council. Voting rights are granted to male citizens who are currently serving or have previously served in the military. There is no standing army, but all male residents are trained for service. The state can mobilize an armed force of 21,850 men.

Public schools are funded by the government, and education is mandatory. Capital, Cetinje; pop., 2,000. Podgorica has 4,000 residents; and Ulcinj, 3,000.

Miles of telegraph: 280; number of offices: 15. {31}

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Sweden.Swe´den.

This kingdom, joined with Norway, makes up the Scandinavian peninsula. The government is headed by a King, a Council of State, and a Parliament. Area, 170,979 square miles. Population, 4,603,595. Capital, Stockholm; population, 194,469. The armed forces include 172,260 officers and personnel. The Royal Navy has 66 vessels, staffed by 4,068 personnel.

The country has many lakes and rivers. The north is cold and barren; however, the overall climate is milder than that of other countries at the same latitude, and south of latitude 59°, the land is generally fertile. About 7 percent of the land is farmed, and 5 percent consists of natural meadows. The agricultural population is 2,309,790. In 1883, there were 29,490 emigrants, with four-fifths of them moving to the United States.

Value of imports in 1882 was $63,840,000, while exports were $70,524,000. The main exports included timber at $32,482,290 and metals at $11,861,580. Mining is one of the key industries. In 1883, the exports included 34,319 tons of iron ore, 52,126 tons of bar iron, 3,602 pounds of silver, 945 tons of copper, and 54,423 tons of zinc ore. The mining population was 410,371.

The official religion is Lutheran Protestantism. The 1880 census recorded 4,544,434 people who practiced that faith, along with 2,408 churches. There are 2 universities with a total of 2,540 students. Education is free and mandatory. There are around 9,800 schools, with 660,000 students, and the total expenditure is $2,718,390.

The commercial navy consists of 3,356 sailing ships, totaling 439,932 tons, and 785 steamers, weighing 87,524 tons. In 1883, there were 4,000 miles of railway, of which 1,437 miles are owned by the state; the telegraph covered 5,347 miles.

NORWAY.Norway.

In 1814, it united with Sweden to form a joint kingdom. Area: 122,869 square miles. Population: 1,806,900. Government: a hereditary constitutional monarchy; executive power is held by the King and the Council of State; legislative authority is with the Storthing, or Great Court. Capital: Christiania; population in 1884: 124,155.

Norway is a farming and grazing country; however, due to the poor quality of the soil, the food produced isn't enough for local consumption, and a quarter of the total imports is grain.

The main imports include metals, minerals, textile products, and corn, with a total value of $44,810,000 in 1883. The primary exports are timber and fish, with the total value of all exports in 1883 at $32,261,000. The fishing industry employs 120,000 people and 25,000 boats, with three-quarters of the workforce in the cod fisheries, totaling a product value of $6,757,500 in 1883. The merchant marine consists of 7,913 vessels with a tonnage of 1,530,004, making it the largest in the world when considering the population.

Army formed through conscription and enlistment; war readiness, 68,800 personnel. Armed forces surpassing 18,000 would be unlawful without the approval of Storthing. Navy consists of 31 sailing ships and 40 steamships, equipped with 152 guns, operated by a crew of 915.

Miles of railway, 1884, 971; 929 miles managed by the state. Miles of telegraph, 5,629; length of wire, 10,075. Number of post offices, 1,032.

Protestants make up the majority; everyone has unlimited religious freedom, except for Jesuits; only Lutherans can hold high office.

Compulsory education is in place; there are 6,617 primary schools, 17 public high schools, and 1 university; the total number of students is 284,035. {33}

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DENMARK.Denmark.

A constitutional kingdom in Europe. Area, 13,784 square miles. Population, 1,969,039. Almost entirely an island. Temperature in Copenhagen, 47°F. The country is low and flat.

Constitution, established in 1849 and updated in 1855, '63, '66, assigns executive power to the King and his accountable ministers; legislative power goes to the Senate and House of Commons. The King must be a member of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. The right to vote is granted to all males over 30 who do not receive charity.

Population of Copenhagen, the capital, in 1880 was 273,323; Aarhus, 24,831; and Odense, 20,804. In 1882, 11,614 emigrants left Denmark, with the vast majority heading to the United States. Comparatively, Denmark ranks among the top countries in Europe for agriculture. In 1880, 75 percent of the land was productive; the area for cereals in 1882 was 2,681,691 acres, yielding 86,706,937 bushels. Cattle farming is becoming increasingly important. In 1881, the value of cattle was $7,350,395; there were 347,561 horses, 1,548,613 sheep, and 527,417 pigs.

There were 84,586 cattle, 72,487 sheep, 2,230,000 pounds of wool, and 253,294 hogs exported. The total value of exports in 1882 was $52,225,300. Total imports were $70,297,280. The army is recruited through conscription and includes 36,469 men, with a reserve of 14,000. In 1884, the navy had 40 steamers. There were 1,106 miles of railway, with 932 miles operated by the state. The government telegraph spanned 2,283 miles.

Education is mandatory; there are 2,940 schools funded by the state.

RUSSIA.Russia.

The Russian Empire makes up one-seventh of the world's total land area. The size and population are only known through estimates, with the latest figures indicating a total area of 8,520,637 square miles and a population of 102,682,124. The area of European Russia is 2,041,402 square miles, with a population of 86,486,959. In Asiatic Russia, the area is 6,479,235 square miles, and the population is 16,195,165. Russia is governed by an absolute hereditary monarchy, with all legislative, executive, and judicial power held by the Emperor. The capital is St. Petersburg, which has a population of 929,100.

The main religion of the empire is Greco-Russian, with 63,835,000 followers, 636 cathedrals, and 41,807 churches. Most of the population is uneducated. In European Russia, there are around 375 high schools, 61 teacher training colleges, and 22,770 elementary schools, serving over 1,220,000 students. The empire also has 8 universities, with 10,700 enrolled students.

In European Russia, 63% of the land is productive, and 21% is farmed. The main products are cereals; in 1883, the crop yield (excluding Finland) was 1,671,012 tons; potatoes amounted to 447,875 tons; and tobacco was 119,200,000 lbs. Large areas are covered with forests, and the value of timber exported in 1881 was $49,200,000. The total value of exports from the Russian Empire was $308,898,000, while imports were $283,396,000. Minerals are plentiful, with a mining population of 392,304.

The total strength of the Russian army in peacetime is 729,770 soldiers and 27,468 officers; during wartime, it’s 1,876,358 soldiers and 41,551 officers. The navy consists of 358 ships, weighing 349,730 tons.

In 1883, European Russia had 15,274 miles of railway, with 13,670 miles owned by the state. The total miles of telegraph lines were 65,726. There were 4,586 post offices. The commercial navy in 1883 included 187 steamers, totaling 138,291 tons, and 2,155 sailing vessels, totaling 477,072 tons. {35}

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ASIA.

Largest continental division of the globe, and the oldest known in history. Area, 17,241,538 square miles. Extends from the Arctic Ocean to the equator, and through 165 degrees longitude; coastline nearly 40,000 miles.

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An empire made up of islands located east of Asia. It is believed to have been founded in 660 B.C. The area is 148,456 square miles, with a population of 36,700,118. The population is divided into classes as follows: Imperial family, 39; nobility (kwazokii), 3,204; knights (shizoku), 1,931,824; common people, 34,765,051. Tokyo, which was formerly called Jeddo or Yedo, is the capital, with a population of 823,557.

The government is an absolute monarchy. The title of the ruler is Supreme Lord, or Emperor (Mikado).

Agriculture is highly valued. The main annual agricultural products are: rice, 155,629,409 bushels; wheat, 62,049,940 bushels; and beans, 10,795,717 bushels. The annual value of silk production is $20,500,000. The primary manufactured goods include silk and cotton items, japanned ware, porcelain, and bronze. The value of exports in 1883 was $35,609,000, while imports totaled $28,548,000.

A law was enacted in 1874, which states that the government provides nine bushels of rice each year to every person over seventy or under fifteen years old who cannot work, as well as to foundlings until they turn thirteen. Recent reports estimate the number of needy individuals at 10,050, with expenses totaling $88,975.

School attendance is mandatory. There are 30,275 schools in the empire, including 71 normal schools, 98 technical schools, and 2 universities; plus, a military college and military school with 1,200 students. The latest reports show there are 82,213 teachers and 2,703,343 students. Children are required to attend school from ages 6 to 14. The total number of school-aged children is 5,750,946. There are 21 public libraries. Shintoism is the ancient religious faith, but Buddhism is the religion of almost all the common people.

The first railroad in the empire opened in June 1875, running from Hiogo to Osaka for twenty-five miles. By the end of June 1884, there were 236 miles of railway in the empire. There are 4,880 miles of telegraph lines with 13,144 miles of wire. Post offices were first set up in 1871, and now there are about 5,200 of them.

CHINESE EMPIRE.

An enormous empire in Eastern Asia; it's the second largest in the world by area and has the largest population. Size: 4,419,150 square miles. Population: 371,180,000.

Longest rivers: Yangtze River, 3,320 miles; with basin, 950,000 sq. miles. Yellow River, 2,800 miles; with basin, 715,000 sq. miles.

Capital Beijing; pop., 500,000. Twenty-three cities have over 100,000 people; and 66 have more than 50,000.

The state religion doesn’t have any formal ceremonies, except for a few symbolic rituals celebrated at New Year. It focuses on the teachings of Confucius and Lao-tse. Most people follow Buddhism. Education is nearly universal, with very few adults unable to read and write. The Chinese have had newspapers for at least a thousand years.

Value of imports in 1883 was $103,071,415, while exports were $98,349,895. The main imports included opium, which was valued at $35,510,260, and cotton goods, valued at $30,888,465. The primary exports were tea, valued at $45,077,135, and mostly raw silk, worth $33,537,990. China’s coal fields are among the largest in the world, producing around 3,000,000 tons annually. In 1883, the mines at Kai-p'ing produced 600 tons per day.

In June 1876, a twenty-mile railway connecting Shanghai and Woosung was opened for business; however, the next year it was bought by the Chinese government and shut down. There are 20,000 Imperial roads in the country. By 1884, there were 3,089 miles of telegraph lines and 5,482 miles of wire. {39}

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ANAM.

An Indo-China empire under French protection. Area: 198,043 square miles. Population: 12,000,000. Home to many rivers. In January, the temperature is 41° in the north; in the southern part of Cochin China, the average annual temperature is 83°. Elephants, panthers, and tigers can be found in the forests of Anam.

Inhabitants are primarily農業者. The country is rich in metals. The government is an absolute monarchy. Social equality exists among citizens. Buddhism and Confucian teachings are dominant. Hue is the capital, with a population of 100,000.

MYANMAR.Burma.

As a result of the recent war with Great Britain, Burma was declared a part of the British Empire on January 1, 1886. The government is now managed by the Governor General of India, although the country is not yet fully integrated into the Indian Empire. The previous government was authoritarian, relying on the King's decisions. The area covers 190,500 square miles, with a population estimated at about 3,000,000. The capital is Mandalay, which has a population of 70,000. Bhamo, located on the Chinese border, is an important town. Education is primarily provided by the priests, but it is quite widespread. Buddhism is the dominant religion.

The country isn’t as fertile as British Burma, but wheat, corn, rice, pulses, indigo, cotton, tobacco, and a wide variety of fruits are grown. The forests have a rich variety of valuable timber. There are plenty of minerals, but they aren’t typically extracted. However, petroleum is produced in significant amounts. Since Burma doesn’t have a seacoast, foreign trade is relatively small.

SIAM. Sī-am.

A kingdom in Southeast Asia, divided into 41 provinces. The government is an absolute monarchy. The area and population are not clearly known; foreign estimates suggest the area is around 280,564 square miles, and the population is about 5,750,000. The dominant religion is Buddhism. Siam has no public debt. The capital is Bangkok, with a population of 600,000. There is a small standing army and a general militia formed by the people.

Though much of the land is fertile, it's poorly cultivated. The main products are rice, gums, teak, sandalwood, rosewood, spices, and fruits. Foreign trade is centered in Bangkok. The total value of exports from there in 1883 was $8,525,655, and imports were $4,783,570. The commercial fleet has 44 sailing vessels and 1 steam vessel. In 1883, 884 vessels, totaling 185,612 tons, left the port of Bangkok.

MALAY. Ma-lā´.

A peninsula in Asia; the southernmost point of the continent.

Area about 70,000 square miles. Estimated population, 650,000. Less known about the interior than any other part of Asia. The surface is very uneven. The climate is humid and hot: temperatures on the Makran coast and in the Persian Gulf reach 110°F; and sometimes, 125°F. Out of 365 days, 190 are rainy; rainfall ranges from 100 to 130 inches.

Politically, Malay is made up of the Straits Settlements of Great Britain, 6 Provinces of Siam, and several small Malay states that either owe tribute to or have treaties with these powers. The Straits Settlements include the islands of Singapore and Penang, as well as the territories of Malacca and Province of Wellesley. The area is 1,445 square miles, with a population of 423,384. {41}

Korea.Ko-ree´a.

A kingdom in Eastern Asia. Area estimated at 82,000 square miles. Population, 16,227,885. The climate varies due to the uneven terrain; the temperature can sometimes drop to 15° below zero.

The history of Korea goes back to 1120, when the Chinese took control of it. It seems to have first been conquered by the Tartars. The Japanese ruled it from 1692 to 1698, after which it returned to Chinese rule. The country pays an annual tribute of 800 ounces of silver to the Chinese Emperor. The King of Korea is an absolute ruler. The capital is Seoul; population: 199,127.

Minerals are said to be plentiful in the peninsula, but the low level of civilization in the country prevents their development. The country is mountainous, and the area suitable for farming is small; the main crops are rice, millet, beans, and jute.

Value of imports, 1881, $1,944,735; exports, $1,882,650. Main exports include ginseng, hides, rice, and silk. Wheeled vehicles are not present, and there are no bridges over the numerous streams. The teachings of Confucius are the accepted belief system.

HONG KONG.

A colony of Great Britain, previously part of China. It includes the Island of Hong Kong, which was ceded to Great Britain in 1841, and the adjoining Kowloon Peninsula, ceded in 1861. The government is run by a Governor, supported by an Executive Council. There is also a Legislative Council. The main city is Victoria. In 1883, the government operated 87 schools with 5,597 students. The total population of Hong Kong is 160,420, with only 7,990 being white people.

Hong Kong is at the heart of trade for many different types of goods. Its commerce is practically integrated with that of China and mainly involves trade with Great Britain, the United States, and Germany. The only figures available for exports and imports are estimates, which put exports at around $10,000,000 and imports at $20,000,000. The tea and silk trade from China is mostly controlled by firms based in Hong Kong. In 1882, 28,668 vessels, totaling 4,976,233 tons, arrived at the ports of Hong Kong.

ARABIA.Arabia.

A peninsula in Asia. Area: 1,000,000 square miles; length: 1,200 miles; width: 900 miles. Most of the country is made up of sandy desert; the fertile areas are along the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The coastline is 1,200 miles long. The heat is intense, and rainfall is minimal.

Population estimated between 8,500,000 and 15,000,000. Claims descent from Ishmael; nomadic lifestyle; believers in Islam.

The pearl fisheries, which are very important for trade, start at the Bahrain Islands and stretch southeast along the Persian Gulf for almost 200 miles. The annual output is estimated to be worth over $1,250,000.

Coffee, likely native, is the main product for export. Wheat, barley, beans, millet, dates, and lentils make up the local diet. Rivers are not significant.

Arabia was never ruled by a single leader. The people lived in small tribes, each led by its own chief. {42}

INDIA.India.

An Asian empire, split into British territory and allied states, recognizing the sovereignty of Great Britain. The wealthiest and most populated dependency of the English Crown. Area: 1,383,504 square miles. Population: 253,906,449.

Government is managed by the Secretary of State for India, who is supported by a Council of 15 members. The executive authority is held by the Governor General, who is appointed by the British Crown, along with a Council of 7 members. The salary of the Governor General is $125,000 per year.

Population dense. The density ranges from 441 people per square mile to 43, with the average for all of India being 184. Agriculture is underdeveloped. Transportation options are limited but are getting better. India has experienced eight famines that have significantly reduced the population in various provinces. The soil is fertile, supporting the growth of rice, corn, millet, barley, and wheat; cotton, indigo, opium, and sugar cane are major exports.

Large amounts of precious metals are brought in to make jewelry. In 1884, gold imports were $27,347,280, and silver imports were $37,042,530. The main imports for 1883-84 included cotton products at $125,584,245; metals at $25,909,250; and machinery at $8,955,740. The top exports were raw cotton at $71,806,605; opium at $56,472,300; seeds at $50,450,990; wheat at $44,399,155; and rice at $41,816,400. The total imports for 1884 amounted to $318,007,480, while exports reached $445,006,975.

Capital: Calcutta; population: 871,504; 60 towns with more than 50,000 residents. More than 19 dialects and languages are spoken in the empire.

Number of vessels that entered Indian ports in 1884: 5,812; cleared: 5,850; number of steamships that entered via the Suez Canal: 1,091; number of vessels involved in interportal trade: 103,503. Miles of railway in 1854: 21; by 1885 there were 10,832; unfinished: 1,823. Miles of telegraph: 21,740; messages sent: 1,799,179.

Education is advancing. There are 109,212 schools and 2,790,783 students; 3 universities; 15,845 government schools; a commission of investigation was appointed in 1883.

European and native army, 190,476 troops. Native states have an army of 349,835 troops; 4,237 cannons.

Ceylon.

An island located in the Indian Ocean, southeast of India. Area, 25,364 square miles; length, 260 miles; average width, 100 miles. The climate is much more pleasant than that of Southern India. Ceylon was first settled in 1505, became a separate colony in 1798, and came under British rule in 1815.

By the constitutions of 1831 and 1833, the government is run by a Governor, along with an Executive Council and a Legislative Council. There are plenty of minerals; precious stones are frequently discovered; the pearl fisheries on the western coast are well-known. Breadfruit, cinnamon, pepper, rice, cotton, and tobacco are some of the main agricultural products.

Principal exports in 1883: coffee (the lowest since 1853), valued at $6,338,155; tea, $430,000; cinchona bark, $2,105,000; coconut oil, $2,030,000. Total exports in 1883 were $16,654,500; imports were $22,643,335.

There were 164 miles of railway open for traffic in 1884, with 16 miles under construction. The telegraph lines stretched for 989 miles.

Estimated population, 1884, 2,822,009; 1,698,070 Buddhists, 493,630 Hindus, 197,775 Muslims, and 147,977 Christians. The European population was around 5,000, with 4,000 being English. There were 1,703 schools, with a reported attendance of 102,109 students.

Colombo is the capital, with a population of 111,942. {43}

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PERSIA. Per'she-a.

A kingdom in Western Asia. Area: 610,000 square miles. Population: 7,653,600. Temperature ranges from 10°F to 110°F; winters are harsh in the central region; summers are hot and dry.

The government is an unchecked dictatorship. The Quran is the law, with the Shah seen as the representative of the prophet. Persia has no national debt. The Persian army consists of 105,500 men on a wartime basis and 30,000 on a peacetime basis.

Soil in several large valleys is very fertile. Wheat and other grains, cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, and opium grow abundantly; silk is a key product of the country. Fruit trees and vegetables thrive. Mineral resources are undeveloped. Diamonds have been mined in Khorasan for centuries. The pearl fisheries of the Persian Gulf are the largest in the world.

Commerce is centered in Tabriz, with Bushire and Lingah as the main ports. Imports through Lingah and Bushire in 1883 totaled $5,724,665. Exports from those same ports amounted to $3,071,705, including opium at $1,403,415 and grain and pulse at $342,250. The telegraph system is operated by Europeans, spanning 3,647 miles of line and 5,947 miles of wire, with 78 offices. A mail service connecting Julfa to Tabriz and Tehran, and then to Resht, was established in 1877.

Capital, Tehran; pop., 100,000. Of the total population, 1,963,800 live in cities, 1,909,800 are nomadic tribes, and 3,780,000 inhabit rural areas and villages. Education among the upper classes has improved; many colleges are supported by the government.

AFGHANISTAN.Afghanistan.

Name given to the plateau on the northwest frontier of India. Estimated area, 278,000 square miles. Temperature at Ghazni ranges from 10° to 15° below zero; at Kandahar, summer heat can reach 120°. No other country of the same size has such diverse climates. It's known for the mountain passes, which have often been the routes for invasions into India.

Government is a dictatorship. Capital: Kabul. Population: 2,500,000, made up of many warlike clans. The Amir is a military dictator, with an annual revenue of $2,000,000 and a subsidy of $600,000 from India. Two-thirds of the population are Muslims.

Agriculture and farming are the primary industries for the people; wheat is the most important crop, while rice, barley, and millet are also cultivated. On terraces at elevations of 6,000 to 7,000 feet, all the vegetables and fruits of Europe thrive; in the south, sugar cane and date palms are grown.

Balochistan.Bel-oo`chis-tan´.

A country in Asia located east of Persia. Area: 140,000 square miles. Population: 1,000,000. The climate varies; it's extremely cold in the higher areas, while the valleys experience oppressive heat. There's a lack of water throughout the entire country. The landscape is rugged and barren.

The soil isn't very fertile, but it has been farmed enough to provide the locals with what they need. Fruits and vegetables grow well around the towns.

The only exports are horses, grain, and dates. Imports include Indian silk, cotton goods, rice, sugar, spices, and dye stuff in small quantities.

The government is a dictatorship. Khan has complete control over life, individuals, and property; he lives in Kelat, the capital, which has a population of 10,000. The residents are divided into several tribes, each led by chiefs. {45}

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AFRICA.

A large island continent located south of Europe, separated by the Mediterranean Sea. Area: 11,512,480 square miles; maximum length: 4,330 miles; maximum width: 4,000 miles; coastline: only about 16,000 miles, with few bays and a shortage of good ports.

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MOROCCO.Ma-rok´ko.

An empire in Africa, previously the largest of the Barbary States. Area: 219,000 square miles. Population: 5,000,000. The Atlas Mountains run through the country; there are few and small rivers. The Atlantic coastline is 750 miles long; the Mediterranean coastline is 250 miles.

The Sultan has total power over both spiritual and worldly issues. The Sultan's estimated annual income is $2,500,000. Morocco has three capitals: Fez (population 80,000), which is the main one; Marrakech, the ancient capital (population 50,000); and Meknes (population 56,000).

Both the climate and soil are ideal for growing wheat, barley, corn, and other grains; however, agriculture is overlooked in favor of raising livestock. Morocco is believed to be rich in minerals.

Foreigners control maritime trade; Tangier is the main port, with seven other ports open to foreign commerce. In 1882, cotton imports were valued at $3,401,130; sugar at $1,390,240; and rice, flour, etc., at $1,462,090. Exports in 1882 included wool valued at $1,116,850; shoes at $527,420; almonds at $394,000; and cattle at $393,880. That year, 1,050 vessels, totaling 314,794 tons, entered the ports of Morocco, and 1,047 vessels, totaling 315,559 tons, cleared them.

ALGERIA.Algeria.

Located in North Africa, this was the most significant French colonial territory. It covers an area of about 161,476 square miles and has a coastline of 550 miles. The climate varies, with an average annual temperature in Algiers of 66.5°.

Government of established areas run by a Governor General; others are under military control. Civil government split into three departments, each of which sends 2 Deputies and 1 Senator to the French Chambers. Algiers is the capital; population in 1881 was 70,747. Total population of Algeria in 1881 was 3,310,412, with 233,937 French residents.

Agriculture is the main industry; in 1881, 2,328,636 people were involved in it. In 1882, there were 40,000,000 acres of farmland; 5,460,000 acres were used for growing cereals. The wheat production was 559,500 tons, and barley production was 790,000 tons. The area dedicated to grape growing was 99,000 acres. In 1880, 574,000 gallons of olive oil were produced. The tobacco yield from 20,000 acres was 9,490,000 pounds. In 1882, there were 1,027,913 cattle, 5,142,321 sheep, and 3,056,660 goats.

Imports in 1883 totaled $47,639,790 and exports were at $33,788,880. That year, 4,803 vessels, totaling 1,954,423 tons, entered Algerian ports. The total railway mileage was 993 miles. There were 3,645 miles of telegraph lines in 1882. In 1881, there were 619 students in higher education; 16 secondary schools with 3,561 pupils; and 916 infant and primary schools with 79,201 pupils.

TUNIS.Tu´niss.

A kingdom or territory in Africa, once one of the Barbary States; since 1881, it has been under French protection. The government is mainly run by a Minister Resident and two Secretaries. The country's area is about 42,000 square miles, with an estimated population of 2,100,000. The capital is Tunis, with a population estimated between 100,000 and 120,000.

There are twelve ports open for foreign trade. The average annual imports are $5,500,000, while exports are $6,500,000. The main export items are wheat, barley, esparto grass (used in paper production), olive oil, dates, wool, and hides. The main imports include manufactured goods, alcoholic beverages, sugar, and flour.

In 1883, 3,768 ships, totaling 1,524,429 tons, arrived at Tunisian ports; among them, 1,222 ships weighed 1,018,538 tons and were French. Tunis has around 200 miles of railway and 2,500 miles of telegraph lines. {49}

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EGYPT.

A territory of Turkey located in North Africa. Its estimated area is 394,240 square miles, with a population of 6,806,381. The land is mostly sandy deserts, except in areas where the annual flooding of the Nile makes it fertile. Rain only falls once every three to four years. The agricultural population makes up 61 percent of the total.

Egypt is a province of the Ottoman Empire, but it’s also independent to some extent, with its sovereignty relying on the pressure from more powerful nations, primarily England. The Khedive holds absolute executive power, but it’s under English oversight. Provincial councils and a legislative council provide advice to the Khedive on local issues. Cairo is the capital, with a population of 368,106.

Under the Pharaohs, Egypt was an agricultural nation. It is known for the significant role it played in ancient history, its ruins, and its location in relation to the Suez Canal.

Commerce is extensive and mainly involves goods in transit; it has a significant trade relationship with Central Africa. In 1883, imports totaled $42,984,880 and exports reached $61,549,425. The primary export is cotton, valued at $37,328,905 in 1883.

The railway system in 1884 had just one line that was 1,276 miles long. The government telegraph in 1884 covered 2,767 miles. The Eastern Telegraph Company had a line to Cairo that was 455 miles long.

Population of major towns, 1882: Alexandria, 208,755; Damietta, 34,046; Tantah, 33,735; Mansourah, 26,784; Zagazig, 19,046; Rosetta, 16,671; Port Said, 16,560; Suez, 10,913.

The Nile is the only river in Egypt. The Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea; it opened for navigation in November 1869; its length is 100 miles. In 1883, 3,307 vessels passed through, totaling 8,106,001 tons; gross receipts were $13,227,530, and net profits amounted to $7,172,700. In 1883, the post office delivered 9,587,000 letters.

NUBIA.

A country in Eastern Africa. From 1821 to 1884, Nubia was under the control of Egypt. Since the southern border of Egypt isn't clearly defined, it's difficult to provide reliable statistics on the area and population of Nubia. The fertile region of the country is mainly found in the Nile valley. The climate is hot and dry, but generally healthy. The main products are barley, cotton, indigo, durrah, dates, tobacco, senna, and coffee. There’s a significant transit trade with Egypt and interior Africa, dealing in gold dust, ostrich feathers, and senna. The entire valley is home to the remains of ancient buildings, with the most found below Dongola.

An isolated country in Eastern Africa, made up of three regions: Amhara, Tigre, and Shoa. Tigre and Amhara make up one kingdom, while Shoa is another; all of them are broken down into many smaller provinces. Gondar, located in Amhara, is the capital of all of Ethiopia. The capital of Shoa is Ankobar, and for Tigre, it's Adowa. The area is approximately 200,000 square miles, with a population of around 3,000,000. The country is drained by numerous rivers that flow into the Nile.

Lowland soil produces wheat, cotton, corn, rice, sugarcane, and flax. There’s no foreign trade except for the export of small amounts of ivory, musk, coffee, and gold dust; manufacturing is limited. The population is made up of various races, and they are known to be warlike and uncivilized. {51}

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MADAGASCAR.Madagascar.

The largest island in Africa and the third largest in the world. It covers an area of 228,500 square miles and has a population of 3,500,000. In the center of the island, within a 90-mile radius, there are 100 extinct volcanoes. The average yearly temperature is around 77°F.

The government is an absolute monarchy, limited by strong traditions. The island has been influenced by the Hova dynasty since 1810. Since the Treaty of Tamatave on March 17, 1886, the country has been under French protection. Commercial and diplomatic relations with the United States, Great Britain, and France were set up in this century, before 1868. The capital is Tananarivo, and the population is estimated at 100,000.

The soil is generally fertile, and there are plenty of valuable timber forests. The main products are rice, sugar, silk, cotton, bananas, potatoes, and rubber. Livestock farming and agriculture are the primary industries. The main exports include cattle, hides, coffee, lard, sugar, vanilla, wax, gum, rice, and seeds, while the main imports are metal goods, rum, and cotton products. The only legal coin is a silver five-franc piece; smaller coins are made by cutting the franc into pieces. Tamatave is the main port, with a population of 6,000. During the last six months of 1882, 116 ships entered its harbor. In that same period, the value of imports at Tamatave from the United States was $207,410, and the value of exports to the United States was $257,485.

Standing army, 20,000. Three-fourths of the population are Pagans. Christianity is the state religion. Education is mandatory; there are 1,167 schools serving 150,906 students in Imerina, the main province.

MOZAMBIQUE.Mozambique.

A colonial territory of Portugal on the east coast of Africa. Area, 38,000 square miles. A few settlements and military posts have limited control over the local people. The climate is mild, and the soil is capable of producing wheat, maize, tobacco, cotton, and sugar cane. The main towns are: St. Sebastian (pop., 1,510), Ibo (pop. about 2,000), Sofala (pop. 2,000), and St. Thiajo Major. The forests have a lot of valuable timber trees; pearl fisheries are significant, and the mineral deposits are exceptionally valuable. The gold mines of Mauica are believed to be the richest in East Africa. Ivory is sourced in large amounts for the Indian market, with an annual value of about $350,000. Other exports include India rubber, gums, oil, beeswax, and corn. The shipping trade is conducted by about 400 vessels. The capital is Mozambique.

ZANZIBAR.Zanzibar.

An empire in Eastern Africa, made up of the Island of Zanzibar and settlements along the coast from Cape Delgado up to 3° north latitude. The boundaries of the Sultan's territory inland are unclear, but beyond a few travel routes, his authority barely reaches far from the coast. The island covers an area of 625 square miles and has a population estimated between 150,000 and 300,000. The population of the town of Zanzibar is 90,000, while Bagamoyo, on the mainland across from it, has 10,000 residents.

The main religion in the country is Islam. Christian missions are set up on the island and extend into the mainland. The value of imports in 1882 was $4,000,000, while exports were $5,000,000. The exports included ivory, cloves, rubber, and gum. In 1882, 85 ships, totaling 89,773 tons, came into the ports. The imports mainly consisted of cotton fabrics, rice, grains, kerosene, and firearms. {53}

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CAPE COLONY.

A colony in South Africa, originally started by the Dutch in 1652. Since 1806, it has been controlled by Great Britain. The climate is mostly dry and healthy. At the Cape of Good Hope, the average annual temperature is about 62°F. The average yearly rainfall is 24 inches. The total area of Cape Colony is 229,815 square miles. The estimated population is 1,027,168. The capital is Cape Town, with a population of 33,239.

The government is run by a Governor, an Executive, and a Legislative Council and House of Assembly. Colonists work in agriculture and livestock farming. Ostrich farming is thriving. Sheep farms often range from 8,000 to 15,000 acres and larger. The total cultivated area in 1875 was 580,000 acres. Vineyards covered 18,000 acres, producing 4,484,665 gallons of wine. In 1875, the colony had 1,111,713 cattle, 10,976,663 sheep, and 3,065,202 goats. The main exports from the colony in 1883 were: wool, valued at $8,015,700; ostrich feathers, $4,656,900; grease wool, $1,948,025; hides and skins, $2,180,250; copper ore, $2,270,565; Angora hair, $1,359,020; diamonds, $13,712,350. The total exports in 1883 were valued at $22,044,490; total imports were $32,351,955.

The majority of the population belongs to the Dutch Reformed Church, with Episcopalians following in numbers. Cape Colony has 1 university and 5 colleges; education isn't mandatory, and 71% of children who are of school age are enrolled in school.

Army in 1883 had 1,614 officers and soldiers. According to a law from 1878, every able-bodied colonist aged 18 to 50 is required to serve in the military both inside and outside colonial borders. By 1884, the total length of government railways was 1,213 miles, and the telegraph network spanned 4,031 miles.

Orange River Free State.

An independent republic of South Africa. Established by Boers from Cape Colony in 1836; the constitution was proclaimed in 1854. Area: 70,000 square miles. Population: 133,518; colored or native: 72,496; whites: 61,022. Annual budget for education: $1,000,000. Capital: Bloemfontein; population: 2,567.

Law-making authority is held by a popular Assembly of 55 members; the executive power lies with the President, who is elected for a term of 5 years. The climate is pleasant. Agriculture and livestock raising are the main industries. In 1881, there were 6,000 farms totaling 23,592,400 acres; of those, 114,916 acres were cultivated. There were 131,594 horses; 5,056,301 merino sheep; 673,924 goats; and 2,253 ostriches. There are many valuable coal mines, and diamonds along with other precious stones can be found. There are 559 miles of telegraph in operation.

NATAL.Na-tal.

Before 1856, Natal was part of Cape Colony; that year it became a separate colony under Great Britain. The government is run by a Governor, an Executive Council, and a Legislative Council. Estimated area: 21,150 square miles. Population in 1881 was 416,210; white: 28,463; native: 329,253; coolies: 20,196. The main town is Durban, with a population of 16,630. The capital is Pietermaritzburg, with a population of 14,231.

Value of imports in 1883 was $8,755,535 and exports totaled $4,158,735. The main exports included hides at $255,040, ostrich feathers at $72,530, unrefined sugar at $610,420, and wool at $2,595,805. The key imports were manufactured goods and flour. In 1883, 328 vessels measuring 232,097 tons entered the ports, while 326 vessels weighing 231,892 tons left. There are 105 miles of railway completed and 120 miles under construction. {55}

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TRANSVAAL.Transval.

A South African republic founded by Boers who left the Cape Colony in 1835 for Natal, then left Natal after it was annexed by Great Britain, and settled in the territory north of the Vaal River. It was recognized as an independent state in 1852. The executive power is held by a President, supported by a Council of 4 members; the legislative authority is in a Volksraad of 44 members. The area of the republic is 114,360 square miles. The estimated population in 1884 was 50,000 whites, of whom 40,000 are Dutch, and about 700,000 natives. The chief city is Pretoria, with a population of 4,440.

The country is great for farming and livestock. The main crop is wheat, and they also grow sugar, coffee, and cotton. They raise cattle, sheep, and ostriches. There's a lot of mineral resources that haven't been fully tapped into. The annual exports are worth $3,000,000, mainly consisting of grain, cattle, hides, wool, ostrich feathers, butter, ivory, gold, and other minerals.

LIBERIA.Li-bee-ree-a.

A republic in South Africa, founded in 1820 as a colony by the American Colonization Society for liberated slaves from the United States. Liberia was declared independent in 1847. Its government is modeled after that of the United States. The republic has 600 miles of coastline and extends about 100 miles inland, covering an area of 14,300 square miles. The population is entirely African, consisting of 18,000 Americo-Liberians and 1,050,000 indigenous people. The capital is Monrovia, with a population of 3,000. Liberians have established churches and schools and have several printing presses. While the climate, which can be deadly for Europeans, has much improved due to systematic drainage efforts.

The country has plenty of water, and its natural resources are substantial. Cotton and coffee both grow naturally here, with cotton producing two harvests each year. The oil palm is plentiful, and the main exports include palm oil, ivory, rubber from India, and nuts.

CONGO FREE STATE.

The Act creating the Congo Free State was signed by the International Congo Conference in Berlin on February 26, 1885. The area of the State is about 1,056,200 square miles, with a population of 27 million. Although the Congo State is under the sovereignty of the King of Belgium, the Belgian government has no authority or responsibility regarding it. The State is divided into four Provinces: the Lower Congo, the Upper Congo, Livingstone Falls, and the area between the Pool and the Equator. The government is managed by an Administrator General, who oversees several white subordinates, provincial chiefs, and other officials.

Free trade, in its broadest sense, has been established in the Congo basin and extends 360 miles along the Atlantic. In this area, no import taxes can be charged for twenty years, and the nations involved keep the right to decide if the freedom of entry will continue after that time. The main export products are reported to be palm oil, ivory, rubber, gum copal, groundnuts, orchilla weed, and camwood; the primary imports include textiles, alcohol, tobacco, firearms, and gunpowder. {57}

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OCEANIA.

A fifth region of the world includes island groups and the large islands of the Pacific. The regions are Australasia, Malaysia, and Polynesia.

Australasia stretches from the equator down to 47° south latitude, and from 112° to roughly 170° east longitude. It encompasses Australia, Papua, New Zealand, and Tasmania.

Malaysia consists of the islands and groups located just off the coast of Southeast Asia, and includes the large islands of Luzon, Mindanao, Celebes, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo.

Polynesia includes islands and island groups located between the Philippines and 100° west longitude. Some of the most significant groups are the Caroline Islands, Fiji, the Friendly Islands, the Gilbert Islands, the Hawaiian Islands, the Marshall Islands, and the Society Islands.

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INDONESIA.

The Netherlands Indies are by far the most significant colonial possessions of the Netherlands. They encompass all the Dutch territories in the East Indies, including Java, Madura, Banca, Sumatra, Bingtang, Billiton, Celebes, the Moluccas, Lombok, Bali, and many smaller islands, as well as parts of New Guinea, Borneo, and Timor. The total area of the colonies is estimated at 636,329 square miles, with a population of 27,784,959. The highest level of administration is managed by a Governor-General, who is supported by a Council of 5 members.

The most important colony is Java, which politically includes the neighboring island of Madura. Total area: 50,848 square miles; population: 20,259,450. Java is governed under what's known as the culture system, which was set up in 1832.

The total strength of the army in 1883 was 30,421 personnel, including 15,032 Europeans and 15,389 locals. There’s a military academy near Batavia, and each battalion has a school for soldiers. The royal and colonial navy comprised 79 ships and 5,029 personnel.

Most of the trade in Dutch India is with the Netherlands. The average value of total imports over three years was $62,500,000, while exports were $75,000,000. About two-thirds of the imports came from the Netherlands, and three-fourths of the exports went to that country. The main exports are sugar, coffee, rice, indigo, and tobacco. Recent reports show the value of exported coffee at $13,086,790; sugar at $19,625,470; indigo at $1,245,170; spices at $1,021,720; and tobacco at $6,457,680.

The Netherlands Indies had, in 1882, 3,682 miles of telegraph lines, with 84 offices. The number of post offices was 221. Java now has about 750 miles of railway.

HAWAII (SANDWICH ISLANDS). Ha-wi´ee.

A kingdom in Oceania made up of 15 islands, 8 of which are inhabited. The government is a limited monarchy. Hawaii is the largest island, but the capital, Honolulu, is located on the island of Oahu. The population of Honolulu is 7,000. The area of the islands is 6,667 square miles. In the last census, the population was 57,985: 34,103 males and 23,882 females; 44,088 natives; 5,916 Chinese; 4,561 whites, including 1,276 Americans, 883 English, 436 Portuguese, 272 Germans, and 81 French; and 3,420 mixed-race individuals.

To a large extent, the islands are mountainous, and there are many volcanoes, several of which are active. The Mauna Loa volcano on the Island of Hawaii is one of the highest active volcanoes in the world. The soil is extremely fertile and productive. The main products are sugar and rice, but coffee, hides, bone, whale oil, and wool are also exported in significant quantities. The value of exports in 1883 was $8,121,200, while imports totaled $5,624,240.

In 1883, 267 ships with a total of 183,316 tons arrived, and 263 ships totaling 189,494 tons departed from the ports. Out of the ships that arrived, 195 were American. The islands own 64 vessels, weighing in at 15,588 tons. The islands of Hawaii and Maui have telegraphs and about 32 miles of railway. Nearly every house in Honolulu has a telephone.

There are many schools in the islands, and the yearly budget for public education is $95,850. The King belongs to the Church of England, but all religions are allowed and protected. {62}

AUSTRALASIA.Australasia.

Under this bead are grouped all the Australian colonies that belong to Great Britain. There are seven in total, and they are located on the continent of Australia, as well as the islands of Tasmania and New Zealand, and part of New Guinea. The total area is 3,075,135 square miles. The population in 1883 was 3,091,897.

Each colony has a Governor, appointed by the Crown, who holds the executive power. The legislative power in each colony is held by a Parliament made up of two houses.

Minerals are plentiful in all the colonies. The largest coal mines are in New South Wales, which produced 2,521,457 tons in 1884, valued at $6,009,705. The gold production for the colony in 1883 was 122,256 ounces, worth $1,705,620. New Zealand's coal production in 1883 was 421,764 tons. Gold was discovered there in 1857. The total export value up to March 1884 was $203,535,370. In Queensland, they mine tin, copper, lead, and coal. The value of tin produced in 1883 was $2,940,060. Gold was discovered in 1858, with a production of 230,090 ounces in 1882, valued at $4,148,275. Copper is the main mineral in South Australia, but there are also valuable iron ores. The value of copper and copper ore in 1883 was $1,876,625. Tasmania is rich in iron, tin, and coal, with tin exports valued at $1,882,230 in 1883. The amount of gold produced was 46,577 ounces, worth $882,210. Gold was discovered in Victoria in 1851, and the total production up to 1883 was 52,214,150 ounces, valued at $1,044,283,000. The main minerals in Western Australia are copper, lead, and coal.

Principal agricultural products of the colonies: Wheat from New South Wales, 1884, 4,345,437 bushels; corn, 4,538,604 bushels; sugar, 35,220,640 lbs.; wine, 589,604 gallons. New Zealand—Wheat, 9,827,136 bushels; oats, 9,231,339 bushels. The main grain crop of Queensland is corn. Sugar yield in 1883 was 73,534,000 lbs.; cotton, 70,020 lbs. South Australia—Wheat, 14,649,230 bushels; wine, 430,520 gallons. The main products of Tasmania are grain, hops, and fruit; the value of green and preserved fruits exported in 1883 was $881,120. Wheat from Victoria in 1884 was 15,570,245 bushels; oats, 4,717,624 bushels; barley, 1,069,803 bushels; potatoes, 161,088 tons; hay, 433,143 tons.

The following table displays the number of farm animals in the colonies in 1884:

Value of total exports and imports of the colonies, 1883: New South Wales—Exports, $99,430,090; imports, $104,800,785. New Zealand—Exports, $35,479,995; imports, $39,870,190. Queensland—Exports, $26,383,040; imports, $31,166,755. South Australia—Exports, $24,417,305; imports, $31,550,275. Tasmania—Exports, $8,657,995; imports, $9,163,185. Victoria—Exports, $81,994,315; imports, $88,719,230. Western Australia—Exports, $2,235,050; imports, $2,584,230.

In 1883, New South Wales had 1,320 miles of railway, with 597 miles under construction; New Zealand had 1,486 miles; Queensland had 1,038 miles, with 454 miles under construction; South Australia had 990.75 miles, with 225 miles under construction; Tasmania had 167 miles, with 207 miles under construction; Victoria had 1,562 miles, with 130 miles under construction; and Western Australia had 55 miles, with 68 miles under construction. {63}

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NORTH AMERICA.

Northern and largest part of the Western Continent, separated from South America by the Gulf of Mexico, and linked to it by the Isthmus of Panama.

Area: 8,918,346 square miles; stretches from the Arctic Ocean to about 8° north latitude; its widest point is over 3,000 miles. The eastern coastline to the southern tip of Mexico is about 13,000 miles; the western coastline is about 11,000 miles. It has impressive lake and river systems, including the Mississippi and its tributaries, which have a combined navigable length of around 40,000 miles, and it's estimated that the Great Lakes hold a third of the world's fresh water. The political divisions include Greenland, Iceland, the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, the United States, Central America, and Mexico.

Variation in latitude leads to a wide range of climates, while the Gulf of Mexico and nearby oceans provide most areas with plenty of moisture.

Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion of Canada and a major lumber hub; population, 27,412; St. John's, the capital of Newfoundland and the easternmost seaport in North America; population, 22,583. Total number of lighthouses in the United States, Canada, and Spanish America, 1,127.

Record of major fires: New York, 1835; loss $29,199,000. San Francisco, 1851; loss, 2,500 blocks. Chicago, 1871; loss, $160,594,500. Boston, 1872; loss, $72,997,500.

Rich soil and good farming practices combine to create a plentiful food supply for both local use and international trade. Tobacco, cotton, lumber, dyes, grains, flour, meat, eggs, and butter are some of the products that are exported. The value of grain crops in the United States and Canada is $1,114,428,500. Since 1871, the annual fruit import per person in the United States has been 6 pounds.

Canada has 900 million acres of forest, with an income of $58,398,000. The United States has 560 million acres, generating an income of $374,720,500. Mexico and Central America are abundant in mahogany and dyes. The number of acres of forest cut down daily by U.S. lumberjacks is 10,000; the annual consumption of firewood in the United States and Canada is 1,550,000,000 cubic feet; and in 1882, there were 15,740 sawmills.

Almost every type of mineral is abundant; iron is widely spread. Copper is particularly plentiful in the Great Lakes area; gold and silver are found in the mountainous regions on both sides of the continent; lead is abundant in the central United States; mercury is in California and Mexico; coal fields are numerous and the supply is nearly endless; salt is also widely distributed. The annual consumption of coal in the United States and Canada is 72 million tons; gold production from 1830 to 1880 in the United States and Spanish America totaled 4,262 tons.

Lakes and rivers are rich in fish, and coastal fisheries are productive and lucrative, especially along the shores of Newfoundland and the coasts of Washington and Oregon. Newfoundland is famous worldwide for its cod fisheries, and seal fisheries are also very important. The average annual catch of cod is about 1,500,000 quintals; approximately 600,000 seals are caught each year, and around 175,000 barrels of herring are harvested. The value of the fisheries in the United States and Canada is $16,546,100,000.

Population: over 60,000,000; Mexico: 10,046,872; Canada: 4,324,810.

Greenland and Iceland are territories of Denmark. Canada and Newfoundland are part of Great Britain. The executive power in Canada is held by the Governor General, who represents the Queen; legislative power is carried out by a Senate and House of Commons, with each Province having its own Lieutenant Governor and legislature. The public affairs of Newfoundland are managed by the governor, executive council, and legislative assembly. {65}

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ONTARIO.On-tar-ee-o.

The most populated province in the Dominion of Canada, established in 1867. Before 1791, it was part of the Province of Quebec; from 1791 to 1840, it was known as Upper Canada; in 1840, it reunited with Quebec, taking on the name Canada.

Area, census of 1881, 101,733 square miles. Total land occupied, 19,259,909 acres; improved, 11,294,109 acres, of which 8,370,266 acres were used for crops; 2,619,038 acres were in pasture, and 304,805 acres were in gardens and orchards.

Temperature in Toronto: winter, 4.8°F to 62.5°F; summer, 38.7°F to 92.7°F; mean temperature, 44.16°F. Rainfall in Toronto, 28.43 inches.

The country's landscape features many lakes and rivers. Its agricultural resources are extensive, and it has a diverse and abundant mineral wealth.

Public affairs are managed by a Lieutenant Governor, supported by an Executive Council of 6 and a House of Assembly with 89 members. The capital is Toronto, which has a population of 86,415. Ottawa is the capital of the Dominion, with a population of 27,412. Ontario contributes 24 members to the Dominion Senate.

Agricultural products, 1881: wheat, 27,406,091 bushels; barley, 14,279,841 bushels; oats, 40,209,929 bushels; rye, 1,598,871 bushels; peas and beans, 9,434,872 bushels; buckwheat, 841,649 bushels; corn, 8,096,782 bushels; potatoes, 18,994,559 bushels; turnips, 33,856,721 bushels; other root crops, 6,479,222 bushels; hay, 2,038,659 tons; grass and clover seed, 173,219 bushels; flaxseed, 38,208 bushels; tobacco, 160,251 pounds; hops, 615,967 pounds.

Latest reported orchard products: apples, 11,400,517 bushels; grapes, 3,697,555 pounds; other fruits, 644,707 bushels.

Amount of butter produced on farms: 54,862,365 pounds; cheese: 1,701,721 pounds; wool: 6,013,216 pounds; cloth, including flannel and linen: 1,440,199 yards. In 1881, maple sugar production was 4,169,706 pounds; honey: 1,197,628 pounds; flax and hemp: 1,073,197 pounds. The value of fur products was $129,578.

Number of farm animals in the Province, 1881: horses, 590,298; oxen, 23,263; dairy cows and other cattle, 1,678,904; sheep, 1,359,178; pigs, 700,922.

Latest reported timber product: white pine, 12,262,570 cu. ft.; red pine, 1,848,927 cu. ft.; oak, 5,448,263 cu. ft.; tamarack, 1,515,360 cu. ft.; walnut, 741,431 cu. ft.; birch and maple, 612,760 cu. ft.; elm, 2,925,382 cu. ft.; all other timber, 26,577,869 cu. ft.; number of pine logs, 14,945,670; other logs, 7,621,610.

The Province has 259 steamships with a total weight of 44,550 tons, and 289 sailing ships with a total weight of 55,058 tons. There are 5 vessels with 14 crew members, along with 1,129 boats manned by 2,101 people, utilizing 928,008 fathoms of nets across 681 fisheries. Products for 1881: herring, 15,605 barrels; whitefish, 38,301 barrels; trout, 55,497 barrels; other fish, 18,817 barrels; fish oil, 1,629 gallons.

Population of the Province, 1881: 1,923,228; male: 976,461; female: 946,767

Number of churches: 5,075, which includes 2,375 Methodist, 852 Presbyterian, 680 Church of England, 389 Baptist, and 367 Roman Catholic. There are 21 hospitals and 22 orphanages. The number of colleges and universities is 17, and there are 44 boarding schools.

There is a great system of free schools managed by a Minister of Education and a Chief Superintendent. School population: 405,857. There are 410 high schools, both public and private; 5,313 public elementary schools. The total miles of railway in the province is 5,223. {67}

{68}

QUEBEC.Kah-bek.

One of the most important Canadian provinces. The first European settlement was established in 1541; the first permanent settlement was made by the French at the current site of Quebec City in 1608. The area was populated by the French until 1759, when it came under English control following Gen. Wolfe's victory.

Area, census of 1881, 188,688 square miles. Total amount of land occupied, 12,625,877 acres; improved, 6,410,264 acres, of which 4,147,984 were used for crops, 2,207,422 for pasture, and 54,858 for gardens and orchards. Population, 1,359,027: male, 678,175; female, 680,852.

While the climate is similar to Ontario's, it's colder in winter and warmer in summer. In Montreal, winters are quite harsh, with temperatures often ranging from 0°F to -10°F and even dropping to -30°F. In summer, it frequently hits 90°F in the shade.

Public affairs are managed by a Lieutenant Governor, supported by an Executive Council, a Legislative Council made up of 24 members, and a Legislative Assembly of 65 members. The Province sends 24 representatives to the Dominion Senate. Quebec is the capital, with a population of 62,446. Montreal is the main commercial hub of the Province, as well as the Dominion, with a population of 140,747.

The landscape of the country is diverse, featuring vast forests, large rivers, lakes, prairies, and striking rocky heights. The Province is rich in various minerals.

Agricultural products for 1881: wheat, 2,019,004 bushels; barley, 1,751,539 bushels; oats, 19,990,205 bushels; rye, 430,242 bushels; peas and beans, 4,170,456 bushels; buckwheat, 2,041,670 bushels; corn, 888,169 bushels; potatoes, 14,873,287 bushels; turnips, 1,572,476 bushels; hay, 1,612,104 tons; grass and clover seed, 119,306 bushels; tobacco, 2,356,581 pounds; hops, 218,542 pounds.

This province produces three times more maple sugar than all the others combined; total production in 1881 was 15,687,835 pounds; honey production was 559,024 pounds; apples totaled 777,557 bushels; and grapes amounted to 158,031 pounds. The value of the fur product was $163,310. Butter produced on farms in 1881 reached 30,630,397 pounds; cheese was 559,278 pounds; wool totaled 2,730,544 pounds; cloth and flannel came to 2,958,180 yards; flax and hemp production was 865,310 pounds; and linen reached 1,120,301 yards.

Farm animals in the Province, 1881: horses, 273,852; oxen, 49,237; milking cows and other cattle, 900,096; sheep, 889,833; pigs, 329,199.

Public education is managed by a Superintendent of Education. The school population is 209,623. There are 4,404 elementary public schools with 170,858 students; 44 colleges; 246 academies; 18 special schools; 3 normal schools; and 333 model schools.

The forests are vast, and the logging and shipbuilding industries are significant. Timber production in 1881: pine, 5,495,183 cubic feet; oak, 59,587 cubic feet; tamarack, 2,707,745 cubic feet; birch and maple, 2,784,395 cubic feet; all other timber, 14,612,669 cubic feet. Total number of logs produced, 13,582,407; masts and spars, 104,248.

There are 293 steam vessels in the province, with a total tonnage of 132,097, and 757 sailing vessels, with a tonnage of 110,356. The fisheries employ 14,744 people, with 146 vessels and 6,761 boats working in this industry. The fishery products for 1881 include: 462,388 quintals of cod, 130,354 barrels of herring, 10,725 barrels of mackerel, 4,360 barrels of sardines, 517,734 pounds of canned lobsters, 101,861 barrels of other fish, and 263,374 barrels of fish oil.

The dominant religion is Roman Catholicism. About 1,170,718 people follow this faith, which is roughly seven-eighths of the total population. There are 1,280 churches in the province, with 712 being Roman Catholic. The province has 29 hospitals and 11 orphanages. There are 1,911 miles of railway. {69}

{70}

NOVA SCOTIA. No´va Sko´she-a.

A province of Canada, established in 1784; joined the Dominion in 1867. Area: 20,907 square miles. Population in 1881: 440,572. Executive power is held by the Lieutenant Governor and the Executive Council; legislative power is held by the Legislative Council and the House of Assembly.

Capital, Halifax; population, 36,100. Capital of Cape Breton Island, Sydney. The soil is generally fertile. The main products are wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, and corn. Grain production in 1880 was 5,570,444 bushels; potatoes, 6,961,016 bushels; hay, 414,046 tons. Timber production in 1881 reached 3,144,323 cubic feet. The fisheries employ 755 vessels, 13,214 boats, and 26,900 men; the latest reports indicate 715,781 quintals of cod, haddock, and hake; other fish, 301,756 barrels; lobsters, 3,841,467 pounds; fish oil, 275,352 gallons.

There is a solid system of public schools established in 1864. The annual spending on education is around $700,000. There are 500 miles of railways and several short canals.

New Brunswick.

Settled by the French in 1639, and became part of Arcadia along with Nova Scotia. The first British settlers arrived from Scotland in 1764. The province was created in 1784 and became part of the Dominion in 1867.

Government is organized with a Lieutenant Governor, an Executive, a Legislative Council, and a House of Assembly. The area is 27,174 square miles, and the population is 321,233. The capital is Fredericton, with a population of 6,218.

The climate experiences extremes; winter temperatures are 30°F, while summer temps reach 95°F. The soil is extremely fertile. In 1881, there were 849,678 acres planted with crops and 392,169 acres used for pasture. Crop yields included 5,490,896 bushels of grain, 6,961,016 potatoes, and 414,046 tons of hay. The wool production in 1881 was 760,531 pounds. The livestock count in 1881 included 52,975 horses, 8,812 oxen, 203,748 cattle, 221,163 sheep, and 53,087 pigs.

There is a solid network of non-religious free schools in the Province. Telegraphic and railroad communication across the Province. Total miles of railroad, 1,148.

Prince Edward Island.

A province of Canada located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It was first settled by the French, who gave it up to Great Britain in 1758. The province was established in 1768 and joined the Dominion in 1873. Its area is 27,174 square miles. The total land occupied is 1,126,653 acres, with 596,731 acres improved and 467,211 acres under cultivation.

Climate is milder than that of the nearby continent. All common grains can be grown here. Grain production in 1881: 4,301,110 bushels; potatoes, 6,042,191 bushels; turnips, 1,198,407 bushels; butter, 1,688,690 pounds; cheese, 196,273 pounds. Farm animals, 328,734.

Population: 108,891; males: 54,729; females: 54,162. Capital: Charlottetown; population: 11,485.

The government is run by a Lieutenant Governor, an Executive, a Legislative Council, and a House of Assembly.

The fisheries are highly valuable. Products, 1881: cod, 18,736 quintals; herring, 21,501 barrels; mackerel, 91,792 barrels; canned lobsters, 3,275,316 lbs; oysters, 175,408 barrels; fish oil, 8,139 gallons.

The Province owns 11 steamships and 224 sailboats, with a total tonnage of 45,237. Timber product, 1881, 910,200 cubic feet.

Number of churches: 231. The free school system was introduced in 1853. School population: 22,711. Number of district schools: 355; grammar schools: 15; high schools: 46; colleges: 3. Number of miles of railway: 200. {71}

{72}

MANITOBA.Manitoba.

A province of the Dominion of Canada, previously called the Red River Settlement and Assiniboia; joined the Confederation in 1870. Area: 123,200 square miles. Population: 65,954. The climate is healthy and cold; average summer temperature is 65°F; winter, 3°F below zero.

Government is led by a Lieutenant Governor, who is appointed by the Governor General of the Dominion, along with an Executive Council of 6 members and a Legislative Assembly. Manitoba sends 3 Senators to the Dominion Senate. The capital is Winnipeg, with a population of 7,985.

Surface area. Land occupied, 2,384,337 acres; improved, 250,416 acres; under crops, 230,264 acres. Main crop, wheat; latest reported yield, 1,033,673 bushels; oats, 1,270,268 bushels; barley, 253,604 bushels. Farm animals, 1881: horses, 16,739; oxen, 12,269; dairy cows and other cattle, 48,012. Butter produced on farms, 957,152 pounds; cheese, 19,613 pounds. Timber harvested, 895,445 cubic feet.

The Canadian Pacific Railway spans 670 miles in the province. There are 4 colleges and 5 boarding schools. The number of churches is 88.

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES.

This large area was bought by the Dominion from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1870. In 1882, a part of it was divided into four districts: Assiniboia, 95,000 square miles; Saskatchewan, 114,000 square miles; Alberta, 100,000 square miles; and Athabasca, 122,000 square miles.

Area of the Territories: 2,665,252 square miles. Total land occupied: 314,107 acres, of which 28,833 acres are developed. Furs from this region are available in every market around the world; the value of the product in 1881 was $428,177. Timber production: 109,873 cubic feet.

The country has plenty of water from many large lakes and rivers. There are at least 600,000 square miles suitable for farming. One of the most fertile regions is Saskatchewan, which the Canadian Pacific Railway travels through.

Public affairs managed by a Lieutenant Governor and Council. Capital, Regina. Number of churches: 44. School population: 578.

Population, census of 1881, 56,446: male, 28,113; female, 28,333.

BRITISH COLUMBIA.Columbia.

Colony established in 1858; joined the Dominion in 1871. Area, including Vancouver Island, is 341,305 square miles. Population is 49,459. The climate is milder than that of the same latitude on the Atlantic coast. The country is crossed by the Rocky and Cascade Mountains. The highest peak, Mount Browne, is 16,000 feet tall. The government consists of a Lieutenant Governor, an Executive Council, and a Legislative Assembly elected by the people. The capital is Victoria, with a population of 5,925.

Amount of land used: 441,255 acres; developed land: 184,885 acres. Grain production in 1881: 559,220 bushels; potatoes: 556,193 bushels; hops: 24,899 pounds. Farm animals: 151,202. Butter produced on farms: 343,387 pounds; cheese: 33,252 pounds. Value of fur products: $153,442. Timber produced: 2,427,882 cubic feet. There are 406 fisheries. Salmon catch: 50,105 barrels; other fish: 12,767 barrels. Fish oil: 237,492 gallons.

The mineral resources in the Province are significant, with coal being the main source. There are large deposits of bituminous coal on the mainland and Vancouver Island, and a high-quality grade of anthracite on Queen Charlotte Island. Gold is located in various areas, and in ten years, the Province produced over $22,000,000 in gold. {73}

{74}

ALASKA.Alaska.

At the time the Russians discovered it, the natives called it Alayeska, which evolved into Alaksa and then Alashka before becoming its current name. It's the largest possession of the United States; discovered by Vitus Bering in 1741; purchased from Russia in 1867.

Area: 531,409 square miles; Arctic division: 125,245; Yukon: 176,515; Kuskokwim: 114,975; Aleutian: 14,610; Kodiak: 70,884; Southeastern: 28,980. Maximum length from north to south: 1,100 miles; maximum width: 800 miles. The Yukon, the main route across the region, is navigable in the summer for about 700 miles; the coastline, not including smaller inlets, is over 4,000 miles.

The climate of the Pacific coast is greatly influenced by the Pacific Gulf Stream and the long summer days. The average annual temperature in the Yukon territory is around 25°F, while in Sitka, it’s about 44°F. The winter temperature in Sitka is similar to that of Washington, D.C. Rainfall is abundant, and foggy weather is frequent along the coasts and islands. Sitka is one of the rainiest places in the world outside the tropics, with annual precipitation ranging from 65 to 90 inches and the number of rainy days between 200 and 285.

Sitka is the seat of the Bishop of the Greek Church and the headquarters of the Governor, who took official control in December 1884. Population: 995; white, 163; creole, 219; Thlinket, 613. Other significant settlements include Fort St. Nicholas, Cook's Inlet, and Fort St. Michael, Norton's Sound. Harbors are located at Port Clarence, Michaelooski, and Captain's Harbor.

Number of people employed in fisheries: 6,130; capital invested: $447,000; value of products: $2,661,640; value of seal fisheries: $2,096,500; value of general fisheries: $564,640.

Total population: 33,426; white: 430; creole: 1,756; Inuit: 17,617; Aleut: 2,145; Tinneh: 3,927; Tlingit: 6,763; Haida: 788.

The Aleutian and Sitka districts are the farming areas. The most fertile land is near Cook's Inlet, where good oats, barley, and root vegetables are grown easily. There's rich grassland in the Yukon valley, but excessive moisture and lack of summer heat hinder grain ripening. Timber is plentiful on the mainland; yellow cedar is the best and highly valued for boat-building. Edible berries are abundant.

A high-quality white marble is found in Lynn Channel; coal, amber, and lignite are present in the Aleutian Islands, with the best coal located in Cook's Inlet. Gold, silver, copper, cinnabar, and iron are available; sulfur is plentiful in volcanic areas.

Known for its fur-bearing animals, the most prominent of which are beaver, ermine, fox, marten, otter, squirrel, and wolf. The primary source of income comes from the fur seal, the capture of which is regulated by law. The United States earns revenue from the company that holds the trade monopoly. The walrus is valuable for its ivory and oil. Whales, cod, herring, and halibut are plentiful, and various species of salmon can be found. {75}

{76}

MEXICO.

A large republic that makes up the southwestern boundary of the United States. Area: 743,948 square miles; northern border: 1,400 miles; southern border: 345 miles; coastline: 6,086 miles. Number of states: 27; federal district: 1; territories: 2.

Number of cattle ranches: 20,574; value: $501,249,500. Number of cattle in Northern Mexico—area: 300,000 square miles—1,500,000; goats: 2,500,000; horses: 1,000,000; sheep: 1,000,000.

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{78}

UNITED STATES.

A republic located in the central part of North America, along with Alaska in the far northwest.

Area land surface, 3,547,000 square miles; greatest length, east to west, about 2,800 miles; average width, about 1,200 miles; British American border, 3,540 miles; Mexican border, 1,550 miles; coastline, not including land indentations, 5,715 miles; lake shoreline, 3,450 miles. Number of states, 38; territories, 10.

New York has the highest population, followed by Pennsylvania in second place, Ohio in third, and Illinois in fourth. New York City is the largest city in the country; Philadelphia is second, Brooklyn is third, and Chicago is fourth. Washington, the capital, has a population of 147,293.

Railway mileage in 1830 was 23 miles, which grew to 126,718 miles by January 1886. The increase from 1885 was 3,214 miles.

Pacific Coast Trade.

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{80}

Settled by the English in Bristol, 1624; officially recognized in 1820.

Area: 33,040 square miles; maximum length: 300 miles; maximum width: 210 miles; coastline over 2,400 miles, including islands; the Penobscot, Androscoggin, Saco, St. Croix, Aroostook, and St. John are the main rivers. Number of counties: 16.

Temperature of Portland: winter, 23°F to 38°F; summer, 63°F to 69°F. Rainfall at Brunswick, 45 inches.

Portland, the major city and main seaport; pop. 31,413. Augusta, the capital; pop. 8,665. Bangor, a port of entry and lumber center; pop. 16,856. Biddeford, an important manufacturing town; pop. 12,651. Lewiston, the main hub for cotton manufacturing; pop. 19,083.

Number of farms, 64,309; average value per acre for cleared land, $12.87; for woodland, $12.66. Hay was the most valuable crop, producing 1,214,033 tons in 1883; corn crop in 1884 was 1,062,000 bushels; wheat was 629,400 bushels; oats totaled 2,428,000 bushels; the latest reported dairy products were 3,720,783 gallons of milk, 14,109,966 pounds of butter, and 1,945,095 pounds of cheese.

Lumber is one of the main industries, with forests covering over 10,000,000 acres; there are 848 sawmills; total products worth $7,933,868.

Fisheries employ 11,071 people and generate an income of $3,614,178, which includes oyster fisheries valued at $37,500.

Valuable slate quarries stretch from the Kennebec to the Penobscot; granite is extracted in massive blocks; the most recent product total is 2,203,670 cubic feet, valued at $1,175,286. It ranks fifth in buckwheat and copper, and eighth in hops and potatoes.

The state has 379 shipbuilding companies; new vessels built, 88; boats, 970; total value, $2,909,846.

Pop., 648,936: male, 324,058; female, 324,878; native, 590,053; foreign, 58,883; white, 646,852; colored, 1,451; Chinese, 8; Indians, 625.

State elections are held on the second Monday in September; congressional and presidential elections take place on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. There are 31 Senators and 151 Representatives. Sessions occur every two years in odd-numbered years, starting on the first Wednesday in January, with no limit on the length of the session. Both Senators and Representatives serve 2-year terms.

Number of electoral votes: 6; number of voters: 187,323; paupers and untaxed Indians excluded from voting.

Number of colleges: 3; system of common, high, and normal schools is excellent; out of 519,669 people aged 10 and older, 3.5 percent cannot read; school age: 4-21.

Legal interest rate, 6%; by agreement, any rate. {81}

{82}

One of the thirteen original states; established by English Puritans in Dover and Portsmouth in 1623.

Area: 9,335 square miles; length: 180 miles; average width: 45 miles; coastline: 18 miles; best harbor is at Portsmouth. Number of counties: 10.

Average temperature in Concord, 46°F; Hanover, 43°F; Manchester, 49°F; Portsmouth, 46°F. Rainfall in Hanover, 40 inches.

Manchester, the main city and manufacturing hub, has a population of 32,630. Population: Nashua, 13,397; Concord, 13,843; Dover, 11,687; Portsmouth, 9,690

Number of farms: 32,181; average value per acre: cleared land, $15; woodland, $32. Hay is the most valuable crop, yielding almost 600,000 tons according to the latest report; corn crop in 1884 was 1,286,000 bushels, averaging 33 bushels per acre; wheat was 170,700 bushels, averaging 14.6 bushels per acre; oats totaled 993,000 bushels, averaging 32.4 bushels per acre.

Ranks third in the production of cotton goods, valued at $18,228,573; value of woolen goods, $8,113,839; worsted goods, $2,694,232; sawed lumber, $3,842,012; leather, $4,477,350; paper, $1,731,170; boots and shoes, $7,230,804; flour and grain mill products, $2,542,784; hosiery and knit goods, $2,362,779.

Mica is mined at Grafton and is very valuable; soapstone can be found at Haverhill, Keene, and Francestown; high-quality granite is quarried at Plymouth, Troy, Roxbury, Concord, and other locations.

Population: 346,991; male: 170,526; female: 176,465; native: 300,697; foreign: 46,294; white: 346,229; colored: 685; Chinese: 14; Indian: 63.

State, congressional, and presidential elections happen on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November; there are 24 Senators and 321 Representatives; the legislature meets every two years in odd-numbered years, starting on the first Wednesday in June; there is no limit on the length of the session; both Senators and Representatives serve 2-year terms.

Number of electoral votes: 4; number of voters: 105,138. Poor people are excluded from voting.

Dartmouth College, in Hanover, was founded in 1769; there are laws for mandatory education; public schools are excellent; school age is 5-15.

Mount Washington, the highest point east of the Mississippi River except for a couple of peaks in North Carolina; a three-mile railway goes all the way to the top.

No refuge for the deaf, mute, or blind.

Legal interest, 6; usury forfeits three times the excess. {83}

{84}

First settled by Massachusetts emigrants near Brattleboro in 1724; admitted in 1791—the first state to join the original thirteen.

Area: 9,565 square miles, slightly larger than New Hampshire; length: 150 miles; width: 35 to 50 miles. Lake Champlain shoreline: over 100 miles; Burlington is the main harbor. Number of counties: 14.

Temperature in Burlington: winter, 18° to 33°; summer, 66° to 71°; rainfall, 34 inches. Death rate, just 1.07 percent per year.

Burlington, the center of Vermont's lumber trade; population, 11,365. Montpelier, the capital. Rutland, known for its marble works; population, 12,149. Population of Bennington, 6,333; of Saint Albans, 7,193.

First railroad, 1849, from Bellows Falls to Burlington via Rutland; current mileage, 937.

Number of farms: 35,522. Average value per acre: cleared land, $15.28; woodland, $17.73. Corn crop in 1884: 1,998,700 bushels; wheat: 364,500 bushels; oats: 3,625,000 bushels. Latest report for hay: 1,148,100 tons; potatoes: 4,708,550 bushels; cheese: 6,121,130 lbs.; butter: 25,245,826 lbs.

Mineral wealth of significant value; manganese, copper pyrites, iron ore, and gold deposits have been discovered. There is an abundance of black, white, red, and mixed variegated marbles; the annual value of marble is over $3,000,000, and slate is about $1,000,000.

Number of different industries: 2,874, employing 17,540 people. Number of butter and cheese businesses: 85; flour and grist mills: 227; furniture manufacturing: 56; leather tanning: 53; lumber processing: 688; marble and stone work: 69; products made from tin, sheet iron, and copper: 95.

Ranks fourth in copper, and seventh in hops and buckwheat.

Population: 332,286; male: 166,887; female: 165,399; native: 291,327; foreign: 40,959; white: 331,218; colored: 1,057; Indians: 11.

State elections happen every two years, on the first Tuesday in September; congressional and presidential elections take place on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. There are 30 Senators and 240 Representatives. The legislature meets every two years in even-numbered years, starting on the first Wednesday in October. There is no limit on the length of sessions, and the terms for both Senators and Representatives are 2 years each.

Number of electoral votes: 4; number of voters: 95,621. Those who bribed are excluded from voting.

Number of colleges: 2; school population: 99,463; school age: 5-20.

Legal interest rate, 6; usury forfeits any excess interest. {85}

{86}

One of the thirteen original states; the first permanent settlement established by English Puritans at Plymouth in 1620.

Area: 8,315 square miles; length, northeast to southwest: 160 miles; width: 47 to 100 miles. Number of counties: 14.

Temperature in Boston: winter, 27° to 38°; summer, 66° to 71°; rainfall, 45 inches.

Boston, the capital and major city; population, 390,406. Lowell, Lawrence, and Fall River are known for their cotton manufacturing; populations are 64,051, 38,845, and 56,863, respectively. Worcester is a major railroad and manufacturing hub; population is 68,383. Cambridge is home to Harvard College, the oldest in America; population is 59,660. Lynn is known for its boot and shoe manufacturing; population is 45,861. New Bedford is the largest whaling port in the world; population is 33,393. Springfield houses the largest arsenal in the United States; population is 37,577.

Number of farms: 38,406; average value per acre: cleared land, $85; woodland, $43.25. Hay is the most valuable crop; in 1884, wheat production was 19,000 bushels; oats totaled 717,000; corn reached 1,941,300 bushels. Ranks first in cotton, woolen and worsted goods, and in cod and mackerel fisheries, owning over half of the fishing vessels in the United States; second in wealth and commerce; third in manufacturing, printing, and publishing; fourth in silk goods; fifth in soap; sixth in iron and steel; ninth in agricultural implements.

Population 1,941,465; male, 932,429; female, 1,009,036; native, 1,459,982; foreign, 481,483; white, 1,920,498; mixed race, 20,361; Chinese, 229; Japanese, 8; Indian, 369.

State, congressional, and presidential elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. There are 40 Senators and 240 Representatives; sessions are annual, starting on the first Wednesday in January, with no limit on the length of sessions. Senators and Representatives serve one-year terms. The number of electoral votes is 14, and there are 544,192 voters: 353,347 native white, 184,439 foreign white, and 6,406 people of color. Paupers, individuals under guardianship, non-taxpayers, and men who can't read or write are excluded from voting.

Number of quarries: 113; ports of entry: 9; customs districts: 11. First American newspaper: Boston, 1690; first freight railroad in the United States: Quincy; first American library: Harvard College.

Number of colleges: 7; education is mandatory; schools are excellent; school ages: 5-15.

Legal interest rate, 6; by contract, any rate. {87}

{88}

One of the thirteen original states and the smallest in the Union; believed to have had a temporary settlement by Icelanders as early as 1000; founded by Roger Williams in Providence, 1636; the last of the thirteen colonies to ratify the Constitution, which it did in 1790.

Area: 1,250 square miles; maximum length from north to south: 47 miles; maximum width: 40 miles. There are good harbors in Providence, Bristol, Warren, and Newport, with the latter being one of the finest in the world. Number of counties: 5.

Temperature at Newport: Winter, 29°F to 43°F; summer, 64°F to 71°F; rainfall, 43 inches.

United States customs districts at Newport, Providence, Bristol, and Warren; two capitals, Providence and Newport; populations, 117,628 and 19,552. Population of Lincoln, 17,269; of Pawtucket, 22,894; of Warwick, 13,284; of Woonsocket, 16,145.

Number of farms: 6,216. Hay is the most valuable crop; yield in 1883 was 81,708 tons; potato crop was 845,185 bushels; corn crop in 1884 was 890,000 bushels; oats totaled 161,000 bushels. Latest reported dairy products: milk, 3,831,706 gallons; butter, 1,007,103 lbs.; cheese, 67,171 lbs.

Outranks, in proportion to its size, all other states in the value of its manufacturing. Number of looms: 30,274; spindles: 1,649,295, using 161,694 bales of cotton and providing jobs for 22,228 people. Ranks second in cotton, flax, and linen products.

Value of manufactured cotton goods: $24,609,461; woolen goods: $15,410,450; worsted goods: $6,177,754; rubber boots and shoes: $1,455,420; dyeing and finishing textiles: $6,874,254; foundry and machine-shop products: $6,281,707; jewelry: $5,650,133.

Population: 303,816; male: 146,135; female: 157,681; native: 222,697; foreign: 81,119; white: 296,585; colored: 7,127; Chinese: 27; Indians: 77.

State elections are held on the first Wednesday in April; congressional and presidential elections take place on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. There are 36 Senators and 72 Representatives. Sessions are annual, starting on the last Tuesday in May at Newport, with an additional session each year in Providence. There is no limit on the session duration, and the terms for both Senators and Representatives last for 1 year each.

Number of electoral votes: 4; number of voters: 84,460; individuals without property valued at $134 are excluded from voting.

Number of colleges: 1; Brown University in Providence, founded in 1764; the public school system is excellent; school ages range from 5 to 15.

Legal interest rate, 6; by contract, any rate. {89}

{90}

Name of Indian origin, meaning Long River.

One of the thirteen original states; the first permanent settlement made by the English was at Hartford in 1635.

Area: 4,990 square miles; average length: 86 miles; average width: 55 miles; coastline: over 100 miles. Major river valleys: Thames, Connecticut, and Housatonic. Key harbors: Bridgeport, New Haven, New London, Saybrook, and Stonington. Number of counties: 8.

Temperature in New Haven: winter, 27° to 40°; summer, 68° to 74°; rainfall, 44 inches.

Hartford is the capital, known for banking and insurance; population, 42,015. New Haven, the "City of Elms," is the largest city and is recognized for its educational institutions; population, 62,882. Bridgeport is known for manufacturing firearms and sewing machines; population, 27,343. Waterbury is an important manufacturing city; population, 17,806. Fairfield, Middletown, New Haven, New London, and Stonington are ports of entry.

Number of farms: 30,598. Average value per acre: cleared land, $29; woodland, $24.50. Corn crop of 1884: 1,767,790 bushels; wheat: 86,200 bushels; oats: 1,112,000 bushels. Latest reported dairy products: milk, 12,289,893 gallons; butter, 8,292,360 pounds; cheese, 1,028,015 pounds.

Number of different industries: 4,488. Capital invested in manufacturing: rubber goods: $1,681,600; carpets (not including rag): $3,085,000; clocks: $1,816,400; cotton goods: $21,104,200; woolen goods: $7,907,452; sewing machines and attachments: $6,490,650.

Ranks first in clocks, third in silk products, fourth in cotton products, eighth in tobacco.

Population: 622,700; male: 305,782; female: 316,918; native: 492,708; foreign: 129,992; white: 610,769; colored: 11,547; Chinese: 123; Japanese: 6; Indians: 255.

State elections are held annually, on the same date as congressional and presidential elections; the number of Senators is 21; the number of Representatives is 249; the legislature meets on the Wednesday after the first Monday in January; there is no term limit; Senators serve for 2 years; Representatives serve for 1 year.

Number of electoral votes: 6; number of voters: 177,291. Convicts and those who cannot read are barred from voting.

Number of colleges: 3, with around 160,000 volumes in libraries; Yale College in New Haven, founded in 1701. School age: 4-16.

Legal interest rate is 6%; there's no penalty for usury, but anything over 6 percent can’t be collected by law. {91}

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NEW YORK."Empire State or Excelsior."

One of the thirteen original states, named in honor of the Duke of York to whom the patent was granted. It was first settled by the Dutch on Manhattan Island in 1614.

Area: 49,170 square miles; maximum length from east to west: 412 miles; maximum width: 311 miles; two-thirds of the borders are made up of navigable rivers; total water frontage: 880 miles. Number of counties: 60. Temperature in Albany: winter, 22° to 36°; summer, 67° to 73°. Rainfall in Buffalo: 34 inches; in Penn Yan: 28 inches.

New York City is the main commercial hub of the United States, ranking first in exports and imports, with a population of 1,206,299—almost 60% larger than that of the Territories. Brooklyn is the second-largest city, with a population of 566,663. Buffalo, known as the "Queen City of the Lakes," is the most significant shipping point for grain on the lakes after Chicago, with a population of 155,134. Rochester is famous for its manufacturing and large nurseries, boasting a population of 89,366. Syracuse is known for its extensive salt production, with a population of 51,792. Albany, the capital, has a population of 90,758 and includes 10 customs districts.

First railroad, from Albany to Schenectady, 1831; current railroad mileage, 7,349; man-made waterways, 907 miles.

Number of farms: 241,058; average value per acre, cleared land: $58.48; woodland: $40.88.

Corn crop, 1884, 22,674,300 bushels; wheat, 12,729,000 bushels. Latest reported dairy products: milk, 231,965,533 gallons; butter, 116,119,847 pounds; cheese, 117,085,442 pounds. Ranks first in the value of manufactured goods like soap, printing and publishing, hops, hay, potatoes, buckwheat, and dairy cows; second in salt, silk products, malt, and distilled spirits, miles of railway, and barley; third in agricultural equipment, iron ore, iron and steel, oats, and rye.

Population: 5,082,871; male: 2,505,322; female: 2,577,549; native: 3,871,492; foreign: 1,211,379; white: 5,016,022; colored: 65,104; Chinese: 909; Indians: 819. The governor and state officers are elected every four years, while the legislature is elected every two years. State, congressional, and presidential elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. There are 32 Senators and 128 Representatives. The legislature meets annually, starting on the first Tuesday in January, with no limit on sessions. Senators serve for 2 years, and Representatives serve for 1 year.

Number of electoral votes: 36; number of voters: 1,408,751; native white: 852,094; foreign white: 536,598. Election betters or bribers, and convicts, excluded from voting.

Number of colleges: 28; student population: 1,681,101; school age: 5-21.

Legal interest rate, 6; usury forfeits principal and interest. {93}

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Named after a grantee, Sir George Carteret, who was once the Governor of the Island of Jersey. It is one of the thirteen original states, settled by the Dutch in Bergen in 1620. Area: 7,815 square miles; maximum length: 157 miles; width: 37 to 70 miles; coastline along the Atlantic and Delaware Bay is about 120 miles each. Number of counties: 21.

Temperature in Atlantic City: winter, 32°F to 42°F; summer, 66°F to 73°F. Rainfall in Newark, 45 inches.

Newark, Perth Amboy, Great Egg Harbor, Tuckerton, Bridgeton, and Lumberton are ports of entry. Newark is a major city with a population of 152,988. Jersey City, a suburb of New York, has a population of 153,513. Trenton is the capital, with a population of 34,386. Paterson is a manufacturing city with a population of 63,273. There are large zinc manufacturing facilities in Newark and Jersey City. Elizabeth has a population of 32,119; Hoboken has 37,721; and Camden has 52,884.

Number of farms, 34,307. Average value per acre: cleared land, $82.52; woodland, $56.82. Number of people engaged in agriculture, 59,214.

Hay is the most valuable crop; potato yield in 1883 was 4,275,857 bushels; wheat in 1884 was 2,022,000 bushels; corn yielded 10,992,032 bushels; cranberry farming is a specialty, with Burlington, Ocean, and Atlantic counties particularly suited for this industry. The central region serves as a huge market garden.

Latest reports show that cotton used amounts to 20,569 bales; there are 108 factories producing silk and silk goods, employing a total of 12,549 people; 2,234 people work in jewelry factories; there are 481 flour and grist mills; and 107 brick and tile factories.

Latest figures received for iron ore: 757,372; value of sea fisheries: $1,115,154; oysters sold: $2,080,625; marl dug in 1882: 1,080,000 tons.

Ranks first in fertilizing marl, zinc, and silk products; fourth in iron ore; fifth in iron and steel; sixth in buckwheat and soap; seventh in rye.

Population: 1,131,116; male: 559,922; female: 571,194; native: 909,416; foreign: 221,700; white: 1,092,017; people of color: 38,853; Chinese: 172; Indians: 74.

State elections occur every year on the same date as congressional and presidential elections; there are 21 Senators and 60 Representatives. The legislature meets on the second Tuesday in January; there is no limit on the session length. Senators serve for 3 years, while Representatives serve for 1 year. There are 9 electoral votes and 300,635 voters. Paupers, individuals with intellectual disabilities, the insane, and convicts are excluded from voting.

Number of colleges: 4; number of students enrolled in public schools: 209,526; school age: 5-18.

Legal interest rate, 6%; usury results in losing all interest. {95}

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Named after William Penn, the person who received the grant. One of the thirteen original states. The first permanent settlement was established by Swedes at Chester in 1638.

Area: 45,215 square miles; maximum length: 303 miles; widest point: 176 miles. Major rivers include the Delaware, Susquehanna, Allegheny, Monongahela, and Ohio. There are 67 counties. Temperature in Philadelphia: winter averages between 31° and 42°; summer averages between 70° and 75°; annual rainfall is 44 inches.

Philadelphia was founded in 1682; it's the main city of the state and the second largest in the U.S. It hosts the U.S. mint and a navy yard, with a population of 846,984. Pittsburgh is a large manufacturing city with a population of 156,389. Harrisburg is the capital, with a population of 30,762. Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Erie are all ports of entry.

Number of farms: 156,357, averaging about 100 acres each. Average value per acre for cleared land is $45.75; for woodland, it's $29.75. Corn crop in 1884 was 43,466,000 bushels; wheat was 20,820,000 bushels. The annual value of butter, milk, and cheese is over $35,000,000.

Manufacturing pig iron is a major industry; total production in the U.S. in 1880 was 4,295,414 tons, with Pennsylvania producing 2,083,121 tons. The number of manufacturing establishments included 10,381 in total; 2,873 for flour and grain, 321 for iron and steel, 2,826 for sawed lumber, 78 for paper, and 324 for woolen goods.

Anthracite coal field central division; bituminous in the west and southwest. It produces all the anthracite and over half the bituminous coal in the United States.