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Illustration: Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of population made by the author.

Illustration: Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional population divisions created by the author.

A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS

BY

NORMAN E. GABEL

ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS

Vol. 20, No. I

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

ANTHROPOLOGICAL RECORDS

Editors: C. W. Meighan, Harry Hoijer. Eshref Shevky
Volume 20, No. 1. pp. 1-44, plates 1-15

Submitted by editors April 11, 1957
Issued March 27, 1958
Price. $1.00

University of California Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles
California

Cambridge University Press
London, England

Manufactured in the United States of America


CONTENTS

Page
Introduction                       1
The problem and procedure       1
The habitat                     2
History                         3
Population                       3
Racial background               4
Acknowledgments                 4
Measurements and indices           5
General                         5
Weight                         5
Stature                       5
Span                           5
Span-stature index             5
The trunk                       5
Sitting height                 5
Relative sitting height       5
Biacromial                     6
Relative shoulder breadth     6
Bi-iliac                       6
Shoulder-hip                   6
Chest breadth                 6
Chest depth                   6
Thoracic                       6
Arms and legs                   6
Arm length                     6
Humeral length                 6
Radial length                 7
Radial-humeral                 7
Leg length                     7
Tibial length                 7
Calf circumference             7
The head                         7
Head circumference             7
Head length                   7
Head breadth                   7
Cephalic index                 7
Head height                   8
Length-height                 8
Breadth-height                 8
Cranial module                 8
Minimum frontal               8
Fronto-parietal               8
The face                         8
Bizygomatic                   8
Cephalo-facial                 9
Zygo-frontal                   9
Total face height             9
Total facial index             9
Upper face height             9
Upper facial index             9
Bigonial                       9
Fronto-gonial                 9
Zygo-gonial                    10
Nasal height                 10
Nasal breadth                 10
Nasal index                   10
Nasal depth                   10
Nasal-depth index             10
Mouth breadth                 10
Lip thickness                  10
Ear length                    10
Ear breadth                    11
Ear index                      11
Bicanine breadth              11
Morphological observations        12
Pigmentation                    12
Skin color: exposed            12
Skin color: unexposed          12
Hair color                    13
Eye color                      13
Hair                            13
Hair form                      13
Hair texture                  14
Head hair quantity            14
Hair length                    14
Baldness                      14
Beard quantity                14
Body hair                      15
Grayness: head                15
Grayness: beard                16
The face                        16
Prognathism: total            16
Prognathism: mid-facial        16
Prognathism: alveolar          16
Malar projection: lateral      16
Malar projection: frontal      16
Gonial angles                  16
Palate shape                  16
Chin prominence                17
Chin type                      17
The head                        17
Temporal fullness              17
Occipital protrusion          17
Lambdoidal flattening          17
Occipital flattening          17
Median sagittal crest          17
Parietal bosses                17
Cranial asymmetry              17
Facial asymmetry              18
Eyes                            18
Eye folds: external            18
Eye fold: median              18
Eye folds: internal            18
Eye obliquity                  18
Eye opening                    18
Forehead                        18
Brow ridges                    18
Forehead height                19
Forehead slope                19
Nose                            19
Nasion depression              19
Root height                    19
Root breadth                  19
Nasal septum                  19
Bridge height                  19
Bridge breadth                19
Nasal profile                  19
Nasal-tip thickness            20
Nasal-tip inclination          20
Nasal wings                    20
Mouth                            20
Lip thickness: membranous      20
Lip thickness: integumental    20
Lip eversion                  20
Lip seam                      20
Teeth                            21
Bite                          21
Caries                        21
Crowding                      21
Tooth eruption                21
Wear                          21
Ears                            21
Ear helix                      21
Darwin's point                21
Ear-lobe type                  22
Ear-lobe size                  22
Ear protrusion                22
Ear slant                      22
Body build                      22
Body build: endomorph          22
Body build: mesomorph          22
Body build: ectomorph          22
Summary                          23
Conclusions                        25
Literature cited                  26
Plates                            27

MAP

Simplified map of Fiji showing four regional divisions of population made by the author ... frontispiece

Simplified map of Fiji showcasing four regional population divisions created by the author ... frontispiece

A RACIAL STUDY OF THE FIJIANS

BY

NORMAN E. GABEL

INTRODUCTION

This paper concerns itself with a physical survey of the native male population of Fiji. The main objective is a description of these people by means of anthropometric procedure.[1] The treatment includes, first, a description of the Fijians as a whole, second, a comparison with neighboring people, and third, regional differences among the Fijians themselves.

This paper focuses on a physical survey of the native male population of Fiji. The main goal is to describe these people using anthropometric methods.[1] The study includes, first, an overview of the Fijians as a group, second, a comparison with neighboring populations, and third, the regional differences among the Fijians themselves.

THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE

The data used in this survey were secured in 1954 during a stay of seven months in Fiji. My plan was to obtain anthropometric samples from several parts of the archipelago; this plan was only slightly altered as time and transportation facilities directed. Each of the three main administrative districts into which the islands are divided were visited and within each district samples were secured from most of the constituent provinces. The original sample consisted of 880 subjects. Later, 65 subjects were excluded for various reasons: some were part Samoan or Tongan, a few were Rotumans, and others were immature. The number finally used stands at 815.

The data for this survey was collected in 1954 during a seven-month stay in Fiji. My intention was to gather anthropometric samples from various parts of the archipelago; this plan was only slightly modified based on time and available transportation. I visited each of the three main administrative districts into which the islands are divided, and within each district, I collected samples from most of the constituent provinces. The original sample included 880 subjects. Later, 65 subjects were excluded for various reasons: some were part Samoan or Tongan, a few were Rotumans, and others were underage. The final number used is 815.

A limited amount of comparative material has been included in order to help locate the Fijians in the overall Pacific picture. These data were drawn from W. W. Howells, "Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands" in The American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, volume 33, part 4, 1933, and from L. R. Sullivan, "A Contribution to Tongan Somatology" based on the field studies of E. W. Gifford and W. C. McKern, in Memoires of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, volume 8, number 4, 1922. The latter report provides comparison with what may be termed western Polynesians who are also the nearest Polynesians to the Fijians. The Fijian data in Howell's paper make it possible for me to check some of my own Fijian material, and the Solomon Island data in the same report provide a Melanesian measuring stick.

A limited amount of comparative material has been included to help place the Fijians within the larger Pacific context. This data comes from W. W. Howells' "Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands" in The American Museum of Natural History, Anthropological Papers, volume 33, part 4, 1933, and from L. R. Sullivan's "A Contribution to Tongan Somatology," based on the field studies of E. W. Gifford and W. C. McKern, in Memoirs of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, volume 8, number 4, 1922. The latter report offers comparisons with what could be considered western Polynesians, who are also the closest Polynesians to the Fijians. The Fijian data in Howell's paper allow me to verify some of my own Fijian material, and the Solomon Island data in the same report provide a Melanesian reference point.

Since an over-all description of the Fijians is the initial concern of this paper, each physical trait measured or derived from measurement is tabulated according to range, average, and deviation. Traits observed but not measured are presented according to degree of development, e.g., absent, medium, and pronounced, and according to percentage of occurrence. Further statistical manipulation is not deemed necessary for the writer's purposes.

Since an overall description of the Fijians is the main focus of this paper, each physical trait measured or derived from measurement is organized into a table showing range, average, and deviation. Traits that were observed but not measured are categorized by their level of development, such as absent, medium, and pronounced, along with the percentage of occurrence. Further statistical analysis is not considered necessary for the writer's purposes.

It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people. They are regarded, and with good reason, as a hybrid of, mainly, Melanesian and Polynesian components. Their geographical location, their history, and their physical appearance bear this out.

It is well established that the Fijians are a diverse group. They are seen, and rightly so, as a blend primarily of Melanesian and Polynesian influences. Their location, history, and physical characteristics support this.

The proportions of Polynesian and Melanesian elements are, of course, not evenly distributed throughout Fiji. Even superficial observation indicates that the natives range from strongly Melanesian to markedly Polynesian. To demonstrate how this variability follows certain regional trends, the data have been broken down into four geographical areas. This subdivision rests on several considerations and merits further comment.

The proportions of Polynesian and Melanesian elements are, of course, not evenly distributed throughout Fiji. Even a quick look shows that the locals range from predominantly Melanesian to distinctly Polynesian. To show how this variation follows specific regional patterns, the data has been divided into four geographical areas. This breakdown is based on several factors and deserves further discussion.

One of the subgroups represents the people of the mountainous interior of Viti Levu, the main island of Fiji (see accompanying map). This region may be regarded as something of a refuge area. Fijians from this relatively isolated locality might reasonably be expected to exhibit more of the earlier racial elements of the total composition. It should be pointed out, however, that the degree of isolation associated with this; interior; group is not extreme. Fiji tradition and history indicate extensive interregional movement. Particularly in early historic times, when the advent of firearms and other Western culture greatly stimulated intergroup warfare and cannibalism, there was much moving about from one region to another. With all this, the interior people still remained, as indeed they are today, more apart from the rest of the population and less subject to outside influence.

One of the subgroups includes the people from the mountainous interior of Viti Levu, the main island of Fiji (see accompanying map). This area can be seen as a sort of refuge. Fijians from this relatively isolated location are likely to show more of the earlier racial elements of the overall mix. However, it's important to note that the level of isolation for this interior group isn't extreme. Fijian tradition and history suggest significant movement between regions. Especially in early historic times, when the introduction of firearms and other aspects of Western culture greatly increased intergroup conflict and cannibalism, there was a lot of movement from one area to another. Despite all this, the interior people still remained, as they are today, more separated from the rest of the population and less influenced by outside factors.

The second segment chosen for interregional comparison is in the central Lau Islands and is designated in this paper as the "eastern" group. Lying as they do, at the eastern end of Fiji, they are closest to Tonga, the nearest Polynesian neighbors. Tongan contact with Fiji in prehistoric as well as more recent times is well established. [2] It is in the Lau Islands that Polynesian cultural affinities are most marked. Hence, it seems a logical choice for a second and separate glance in the racial history.

The second area selected for interregional comparison is in the central Lau Islands, referred to in this paper as the "eastern" group. Located at the eastern end of Fiji, they are closest to Tonga, its nearest Polynesian neighbors. Contact between Tonga and Fiji in both prehistoric and more recent times is well documented. [2] It is in the Lau Islands that Polynesian cultural connections are most evident. Therefore, it seems like a sensible choice for a second, distinct look at racial history.

The third comparative sample might be termed an intermediate group. It is taken from the coastal villages of eastern Viti Levu, largely from the provinces of Rewa and Tailevu. This area is geographically between the "interior" and "eastern" groups and is referred to in this paper as the "coastal" group.

The third comparative sample can be called an intermediate group. It's taken from the coastal villages of eastern Viti Levu, mainly from the provinces of Rewa and Tailevu. This area is geographically located between the "interior" and "eastern" groups and is referred to in this paper as the "coastal" group.

The final regional division represents the northwestern parts of Viti Levu. This is the place where, according to Fiji tradition, their [Pg 2] ancestors first landed after migrating from the west. [3] Fijian legend, which gives this hint of their ancestry, does not include a physical description of these immigrants. Nor does it define the physical appearance of the earlier people whom the newcomers encountered and with whom they mingled. On the rather slim hope that anthropometry might shed a little light on this questionable phase of Fijian history, this area, along with the first three, has received separate treatment.

The final regional division represents the northwestern parts of Viti Levu. This is the place where, according to Fijian tradition, their [Pg 2] ancestors first arrived after migrating from the west. [3] Fijian legend, which hints at their ancestry, does not include a physical description of these immigrants. Nor does it define the physical appearance of the earlier people the newcomers met and interacted with. With the slim hope that anthropometry might clarify this uncertain phase of Fijian history, this area, along with the first three, has been treated separately.

THE HABITAT

The islands of Fiji are centrally located in the southwest Pacific. Over three hundred islands and islets make up the archipelago, which spreads between latitudes 15' and 22' south of the equator for 300 miles. The international date line runs through Fiji at the Koro Sea and the Moala Island group.

The islands of Fiji are located in the central part of the southwest Pacific. More than three hundred islands and islets form the archipelago, which stretches between latitudes 15° and 22° south of the equator for 300 miles. The international date line runs through Fiji at the Koro Sea and the Moala Island group.

The total land area of the islands is about the equivalent of the state of Delaware, somewhat over 7,000 square miles. Two great islands account for nearly 95 per cent of the total area: Viti Levu, the largest, is over 4,000 square miles, and Vanua Levu, about half as large. Over 90 per cent of the native population lives on these two islands although nearly a hundred other islands are inhabited.

The total land area of the islands is roughly the size of Delaware, just over 7,000 square miles. Two major islands make up almost 95 percent of the total area: Viti Levu, the largest, measures over 4,000 square miles, and Vanua Levu is about half that size. More than 90 percent of the native population lives on these two islands, although there are nearly a hundred other inhabited islands.

Most of the islands are made up of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The largest islands rest on a submerged portion of an ancient land mass, sometimes called the Melanesian continent, which goes back in time to the Paleozoic and, in its prime, intermittently connected Fiji with southeastern Asia and Australia. Subsequent submergence, followed by cycles of volcanic upbuilding, erosion, and more submergence over eons of time, gave the big islands their upper foundations. The last extensive volcanic activity and land uplift occurred in the Pleistocene and accounts for many of the present mountain masses. The final touches to the Fiji profile have been wrought by more recent weathering and erosion. Sedimentation is still going on at river mouths and along the coasts, where deltas are being built and mangrove thickets flourish.

Most of the islands are made up of volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The largest islands sit on a submerged section of an ancient landmass, sometimes referred to as the Melanesian continent, which dates back to the Paleozoic era and, at its peak, occasionally connected Fiji with southeastern Asia and Australia. Over time, the land submerged, followed by cycles of volcanic activity, erosion, and further submersion, creating the upper foundations of the larger islands. The last major volcanic activity and land uplift occurred during the Pleistocene, which is responsible for many of the current mountain ranges. The final shaping of Fiji’s landscape has been influenced by more recent weathering and erosion. Sedimentation is still happening at river mouths and along the coasts, where deltas are forming and mangrove forests thrive.

Many of the smaller islands are old limestone masses that were pushed up from the sea. Unlike the high craggy volcanic islands, these are lower and flat-topped. Typically, they contain a basin-shaped depressed area that is surrounded by a rim. These depressions are usually fertile and heavily forested.

Many of the smaller islands are ancient limestone formations that were raised from the sea. Unlike the tall, jagged volcanic islands, these are lower and have flat tops. Generally, they feature a bowl-shaped depression surrounded by a rim. These depressions are usually fertile and densely forested.

Coral islands make up the third variety of land forms. These are always small and low. Their small size, thinner soil, and lack of fresh water make them much less suitable for human habitation. But even a thin layer of soil produces a luxurious vegetation.

Coral islands are the third type of landforms. They are always small and low. Their small size, shallow soil, and absence of fresh water make them much less hospitable for human habitation. However, even a thin layer of soil supports lush vegetation.

Fringing and barrier reefs are abundant throughout the archipelago, surrounding nearly every island. The most striking of these formations is the Great Sea Reef, which forms an arc of nearly 300 miles along the western fringe of Fiji and encloses large areas of coral-infested sea.

Fringing and barrier reefs are plentiful throughout the archipelago, surrounding almost every island. The most impressive of these formations is the Great Sea Reef, which stretches nearly 300 miles in an arc along the western edge of Fiji and encloses vast areas of coral-filled waters.

Moderately high mountains give to the larger islands a generally rugged terrain. The more extensive ranges lie across the path of the prevailing south and easterly winds producing windward and leeward climatic areas. On the windward side rainfall is heavy and rather evenly distributed over the year. Here the valleys and mountain slopes support a typical dense tropical growth. The leeward side, however, receives much less moisture and has wet and dry seasons. Scattered patches of trees and grasses cover the ground, whereas heavy stands of forest are confined to valley bottoms and higher mountain slopes. The mountainous interior of Viti Levu contains a number of peaks over 3,000 feet, the highest of which is Mt. Victoria, 4,341 feet.

Moderately high mountains give the larger islands a generally rugged terrain. The more extensive ranges block the path of the prevailing south and easterly winds, creating windward and leeward climatic zones. On the windward side, rainfall is heavy and fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. Here, the valleys and mountain slopes are covered with dense tropical vegetation. In contrast, the leeward side receives much less moisture and has wet and dry seasons. Scattered patches of trees and grasses cover the ground, while dense forests are limited to the valley bottoms and higher mountain slopes. The mountainous interior of Viti Levu has several peaks over 3,000 feet, the highest being Mt. Victoria at 4,341 feet.

Surface water is abundant on the bigger islands. Several large and navigable rivers drain Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The Rewa River, on the east side of Viti Levu is the largest and is navigable for small craft for 70 miles. Smaller rivers and hundreds of streams are important sources of food and drink for the people of the interior.

Surface water is plentiful on the larger islands. Several major and navigable rivers flow through Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. The Rewa River, located on the eastern side of Viti Levu, is the largest and can be traveled by small boats for 70 miles. Smaller rivers and hundreds of streams are essential sources of food and water for the people living inland.

Great flood plains are formed at the mouths of the larger rivers. These and the fertile flats that run back along the valleys contain the greatest population densities.

Great floodplains are created at the mouths of larger rivers. These and the fertile plains that stretch back along the valleys have the highest population densities.

The climate is generally pleasant and healthful. Tropical extremes of heat and humidity are moderated by the prevailing trades, which usually supply cool and pleasant breezes from the east. Still, days of uncomfortable heat and oppressive humidity are not unknown; however, such periods are protracted only in the interior. The climate is far from uniform throughout the islands. The windward sides, where rainfall often exceeds a hundred inches, have a more even temperature and sunshine is more moderate. On the leeward sides there is less general cloudiness and more sunshine, especially during the dry season. The smaller islands generally resemble the leeward areas in climate.

The climate is mostly nice and healthy. Tropical extremes of heat and humidity are balanced by the trade winds, which usually bring cool and pleasant breezes from the east. However, there are days with uncomfortable heat and high humidity, but these periods are mainly in the interior. The climate varies widely across the islands. The windward sides, where rainfall often exceeds a hundred inches, have a more stable temperature and milder sunshine. On the leeward sides, there's less overall cloudiness and more sunshine, especially during the dry season. The smaller islands typically experience a climate similar to the leeward areas.

Native plant and animal life, like much of the southwest Pacific, is southeastern Asiatic in type and in origin. In the more profuse and varied windward sides there are several general vegetation zones. Along the coasts and in the larger river basins occur alluvial vegetation largely dominated by several kinds of mangrove, which is densest in mud flats washed by the tide. In this zone trees are scattered, and many of them bear useful nuts and fruits. On the slopes and ridges behind the coastal belts are the great tropical rain forests. They make up a dense cover of evergreen trees interwoven with wild creepers and vines. Thick stands of shrubs and smaller trees add to the tropical profusion. Above 2,000 feet the forests thin out and become more heavily coated with moss and lichens, and ferns and orchids attach themselves to the branches. Beyond 3,000 feet is the cloud belt, and above this trees become stunted and are finally replaced by hardy shrubs that cling to the rocks and crags.

Native plant and animal life, similar to much of the southwest Pacific, is southeastern Asian in type and origin. On the lush and diverse windward sides, there are several general vegetation zones. Along the coasts and in the larger river basins, alluvial vegetation is mostly made up of different types of mangrove, which is densest in mud flats affected by the tide. In this area, trees are scattered, and many of them produce useful nuts and fruits. On the slopes and ridges behind the coastal areas, you’ll find the large tropical rain forests. They form a thick cover of evergreen trees mixed with wild creepers and vines. Dense clusters of shrubs and smaller trees add to the tropical richness. Above 2,000 feet, the forests become less dense and start to be covered more by moss and lichens, while ferns and orchids cling to the branches. Beyond 3,000 feet is the cloud belt, and above this, trees become stunted and are eventually replaced by resilient shrubs that cling to the rocks and cliffs.

On the leeward sides, patches of rain forest are found only in the moister areas. More typical of this zone are thin-leaved trees interspersed in large expanses of meadow and grassland.

On the sheltered sides, spots of rain forest are only found in the wetter areas. More common in this zone are trees with thin leaves scattered throughout large stretches of meadows and grasslands.

A number of native plants are very vital to the Fijian livelihood and some have modern economic importance. Several timber trees are essential to house building, canoe construction, and wood carving. The ubiquitous palms, here as elsewhere in the Pacific, are vital sources of food, drink, building, and weaving materials and cordage. The mangrove provides firewood, house poles, fishing fences, and traps, laths for bows and black dye for their hair and tapa. Valuable starch is secured from the sago palm, which is cut just before flowering, and the leaves are a common thatching material. Various reeds, canes, and bamboos and lianas are useful to Fiji economy. In the drier areas reeds and grasses provide material for house walls, thatch, fish fences, and arrow shafts. Several kinds of trees yield edible nuts and fruits.

A variety of native plants are essential to life in Fiji and some are important for the modern economy. Several timber trees are crucial for building houses, making canoes, and wood carving. The common palms, like in other parts of the Pacific, are key sources of food, drinks, building materials, weaving supplies, and rope. Mangroves provide firewood, poles for houses, fishing barriers, traps, laths for bows, and black dye for hair and tapa. Valuable starch is obtained from the sago palm, which is harvested just before it flowers, and its leaves are widely used for thatching. Different reeds, canes, bamboos, and vines are beneficial to Fiji's economy. In drier regions, reeds and grasses are used for making house walls, thatch, fish fences, and arrow shafts. Various types of trees produce edible nuts and fruits.

Like other central-Pacific island groups, Fiji is poorly provided with indigenous mammals. A small gray rat is a considerable pest in garden and homes, and a large nocturnal bat, which is called a flying fox, lives in tree colonies and is often seen at dusk in banana groves or other feeding places. All the economically important animals of Fiji have been introduced, such as pigs, fowl, dogs, cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.

Like other central Pacific island groups, Fiji has very few native mammals. A small gray rat is a significant nuisance in gardens and homes, and a large nocturnal bat known as a flying fox lives in tree colonies and is often spotted at dusk in banana groves or other feeding areas. All the economically important animals in Fiji have been introduced, including pigs, chickens, dogs, cattle, horses, sheep, and goats.

Bird life is diverse and interesting, although in a number of places introduced forms, like mynahs and turtle doves, have forced the native varieties back into the jungle. Several game birds such as doves, pigeons, and ducks are occasionally hunted.

Bird life is diverse and fascinating, though in some areas, introduced species like mynahs and turtle doves have pushed the native varieties back into the jungle. Several game birds, including doves, pigeons, and ducks, are sometimes hunted.

Snakes and lizards are fairly common on the islands; none is poisonous. Some are eaten, but the practice is not usual. Snakes had a more important place in the former religious and totemic practices.

Snakes and lizards are quite common on the islands; none are poisonous. Some are eaten, but that's not a typical practice. Snakes used to have a more significant role in the old religious and totemic traditions.

Much more vital to the native economy is the abundant and varied marine life. This, with gardening, provides the foundation of Fijian subsistence. Turtles, crabs, prawns, eels, to say nothing of scores of fishes, are hunted, trapped, poisoned, speared, and netted. The cycle of the balolo worm has here the same importance as in other Pacific islands.

Much more important to the local economy is the diverse and plentiful marine life. This, along with gardening, forms the basis of Fijian subsistence. Turtles, crabs, prawns, eels, and countless fish are hunted, trapped, poisoned, speared, and netted. The life cycle of the balolo worm is just as significant here as it is in other Pacific islands.

HISTORY

The first western contact with Fiji was made in 1643 when Captain Abel Tasman entered Fijian waters and sighted several islands and reefs without realizing the nature of his discovery. Over a hundred years later, Captain Cook made a second contact by stopping at one of the southern Lau Islands. Real knowledge of the area began in 1792 when Captain Bligh sailed through the archipelago from the southeast to the northwest, following the famous mutiny of the Bounty. Bligh made an attempt to land, was attacked by natives, and continued through the islands with no more landings. He did, however, make a record of most of the islands he passed.

The first western contact with Fiji happened in 1643 when Captain Abel Tasman entered Fijian waters and saw several islands and reefs without realizing what he had discovered. More than a hundred years later, Captain Cook made a second visit by stopping at one of the southern Lau Islands. Real understanding of the area began in 1792 when Captain Bligh sailed through the archipelago from the southeast to the northwest, following the famous mutiny of the Bounty. Bligh tried to land, was attacked by locals, and continued through the islands without any more landings. However, he did record most of the islands he passed.

In the nineteenth century, commercial contacts began in the form of sandalwood trade. This profitable commodity brought Europeans and Americans first to the Sandalwood Coast on the west side of Vanua Levu. During this period the first systematic survey of Fijian waters was made by the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1840. After little more than a decade the sandalwood supply was depleted to the point where trade virtually ceased.

In the 1800s, trading started with sandalwood. This profitable resource attracted Europeans and Americans to the Sandalwood Coast on the west side of Vanua Levu. During this time, the first thorough survey of Fijian waters was conducted by the U.S. Exploring Expedition in 1840. Just over ten years later, the sandalwood supply ran out, bringing the trade to a near halt.

As a result of this initial commercial contact, which was mainly around western Vanua Levu and eastern Viti Levu, some marked changes were effected in Fijian culture. After the sandalwood traders abandoned Fiji for more profitable fields, a number of deserters and ship-wrecked men remained. These beachcombers, along with firearms that had been introduced by trade or salvaged from wrecks, brought about the first striking alterations. Rival chiefs competed for the acquisition of muskets, gunpowder, and beachcombers. The latter in some instances became attached to royal households as dubious advisors and instructors in the use of guns, powder, and shot. Some of these coaches enjoyed a status resembling that of household pets.

As a result of this initial commercial contact, which mainly took place around western Vanua Levu and eastern Viti Levu, there were some significant changes in Fijian culture. After the sandalwood traders left Fiji for more profitable opportunities, several deserters and shipwrecked sailors stayed. These beachcombers, along with firearms that were brought in through trade or salvaged from wrecks, led to the first major changes. Rival chiefs competed to acquire muskets, gunpowder, and beachcombers. In some cases, these beachcombers became part of royal households as questionable advisors and teachers in the use of guns, powder, and shot. Some of these instructors had a status similar to that of household pets.

The introduction of firearms changed the native political scene and increased the scope and destructiveness of warfare. For a time the rulers of Mbau in eastern Viti nearly monopolized the supply of muskets and white men. This established their political supremacy over rival [Pg 3] leaders. Larger and stronger political and military alliances, some resembling small kingdoms, developed for purposes of defense or aggression. As warfare grew more frequent, new diseases entered the islands and trade in liquor advanced.

The introduction of firearms transformed the local political landscape and heightened the scale and destructiveness of warfare. For a period, the leaders of Mbau in eastern Viti mostly controlled the supply of muskets and white settlers. This solidified their political dominance over competing leaders. Larger and stronger political and military alliances, somewhat resembling small kingdoms, formed for defense or aggression. As warfare became more common, new diseases spread through the islands and the trade in alcohol increased.

After the third decade of the nineteenth century better elements began to enter Fiji and ensuing culture contact was not so consistently deplorable. Bêche-de-mer traders and whalers began to visit the islands for trade goods and supplies. Some began to settle at the east end of Viti Levu. Missionaries came in the 1830's and the Christianization of Fiji began.

After the 1830s, better groups started arriving in Fiji, and the culture exchange became less consistently terrible. Bêche-de-mer traders and whalers began visiting the islands for trade goods and supplies. Some even started settling at the eastern end of Viti Levu. Missionaries arrived in the 1830s, marking the beginning of Fiji's Christianization.

Internal conflict between rival chiefs, attacks on French, British, and American ships, with subsequent reprisals, continued and intensified. By mid-century, rivalry between the local kingdoms of Mbau and Rewa reached a peak. At this time the powerful ruler of Mbau, Thakombau, who dominated a large segment of eastern Viti Levu, had become hard pressed by his Rewa enemies. Thakombau submitted to the missionaries who had been pressing his conversion. With his support of the missionaries, the native struggles became a religious war between Christianity and paganism as well as between nativism and westernism. Thakombau's cause was rescued in 1855 when King George of Tonga brought an army of 2,000 warriors to Fiji and combined his strength with that of the kingdom of Mbau. Thenceforth Thakombau remained the paramount chief in eastern Fiji and for some twenty ensuing years ruled under the dominance of Tongan princes. Another Tongan chief, Ma'afu, arrived in 1848 and set up a political domain that rivaled the kingdom of Thakombau.

Internal conflict between rival chiefs, attacks on French, British, and American ships, along with subsequent reprisals, continued and got worse. By the middle of the century, the rivalry between the local kingdoms of Mbau and Rewa reached its peak. At this time, the powerful ruler of Mbau, Thakombau, who controlled a large part of eastern Viti Levu, was under pressure from his Rewa enemies. Thakombau agreed to the missionaries who had been urging his conversion. With his support of the missionaries, the local struggles turned into a religious war between Christianity and paganism, as well as between nativism and western influence. Thakombau's situation was saved in 1855 when King George of Tonga brought an army of 2,000 warriors to Fiji and combined forces with the kingdom of Mbau. From then on, Thakombau remained the primary chief in eastern Fiji and ruled for about twenty years under the influence of Tongan princes. Another Tongan chief, Ma'afu, arrived in 1848 and established a political domain that competed with Thakombau's kingdom.

Throughout these struggles and particularly with the conversion of Thakombau and the leadership of the already Christianized Tongan chiefs, native religion, including cannibalism, rapidly declined. Meanwhile, English, Australian, and New Zealand settlers were augmenting earlier trade contacts. Plantations and trade centers developed, and in 1857 a British consul was appointed and set up at Levuka on the east coast of Viti Levu. A few years later Thakombau sought relief from the payment of indemnities to foreign powers and from internal harassments by an offer to cede his dominions to Great Britain. The initial offer was declined and the British consul was recalled in 1860.

Throughout these struggles, especially with Thakombau's conversion and the leadership of the already Christian Tongan chiefs, native religion, including cannibalism, quickly declined. Meanwhile, English, Australian, and New Zealand settlers were building on previous trade connections. Plantations and trade centers emerged, and in 1857, a British consul was appointed and established in Levuka on the east coast of Viti Levu. A few years later, Thakombau tried to find relief from paying indemnities to foreign powers and from internal issues by offering to cede his territories to Great Britain. The initial offer was rejected, and the British consul was recalled in 1860.

The next ten years saw a continuation of political and military turmoil stemming from rival interests of native rulers, Tongan interlopers, and European immigrants. A second appeal to the British government resulted in an unconditional deed of cession on October 10, 1874, which marks the beginning of Fiji's status as a British Crown Colony.

The next ten years were marked by ongoing political and military chaos due to the conflicting interests of local rulers, Tongan intruders, and European settlers. A second request to the British government led to an unconditional cession agreement on October 10, 1874, which marks the start of Fiji's status as a British Crown Colony.

POPULATION

Over 300,000 people live in the Fiji Islands. Of these about 140,000 are native Fijians. The others are arranged in the following divisions: [4]

Over 300,000 people live in the Fiji Islands. Of these, about 140,000 are native Fijians. The rest are divided into the following groups: [4]

Indians   154,803
Europeans   6,500
Part European  7,496
Polynesians
Melanesians
Micronesians
Your request is not a short piece of text that can be modernized. Please provide a text sample of 5 words or fewer to proceed.4,133
Rotumans  3,990
Chinese  3,857
Others  649

When Fiji became a British Crown Colony in 1874 the population was entirely native except for a handful of outsiders. At that time the population has been variously estimated at approximately 200,000. Shortly thereafter a measles epidemic reduced their number severely. This, with other epidemics and maladies for which they had little or no immunity or resistence, continued the decimation until by 1905 there were only 87,000. During the next decade they held their own, until in 1919 the influenza scourge brought them to their lowest level of 83,000. This was the last serious setback to their number; since that time the population has been on the upgrade.

When Fiji became a British Crown Colony in 1874, the population was entirely native except for a few outsiders. At that time, the population was estimated to be around 200,000. Shortly after, a measles epidemic heavily reduced their numbers. This, along with other epidemics and illnesses for which they had little or no immunity, continued to cause a decline until by 1905 there were only 87,000 left. During the next decade, they managed to maintain their numbers, until in 1919 the influenza outbreak brought their population down to its lowest point of 83,000. This was the last major setback; since then, the population has been steadily increasing.

A present threat to Fijian population, in the opinion of many, stems not from disease but from the Indian presence. This began in the latter part of the nineteenth century when Indian immigration of indentured laborers began. The influx went on until 1916 by which time some 40,000 to 50,000 Indians had come to Fiji and very few had returned to India. Since then, the Indians have increased more rapidly than the Fijians until they now outnumber them. This situation has, of course, created numerous problems beyond the scope of this paper.

A current threat to the Fijian population, according to many, comes not from diseases but from the presence of Indians. This started in the late nineteenth century when Indian laborers began immigrating as indentured workers. The influx continued until 1916, by which time around 40,000 to 50,000 Indians had arrived in Fiji, and very few returned to India. Since then, the Indian population has grown more quickly than the Fijians, and now they outnumber them. This situation has obviously created many problems that are beyond the scope of this paper.

It is significant to point out that intermarriage or interbreeding between Fijians and Indians is relatively slight. The amount of mingling of Fijians with Europeans or Orientals cannot be demonstrated statistically, but it has not been extensive. The Fijians, on the whole, retain pretty much of their prehistoric racial make-up.

It’s important to note that intermarriage or mixing between Fijians and Indians is quite limited. The level of interaction between Fijians and Europeans or Asians can't be measured statistically, but it hasn’t been widespread. Overall, the Fijians largely maintain much of their ancient racial background.

RACIAL BACKGROUND

It is well established that the Fijians are a mixed people, derived mainly from Melanesian and Polynesian sources. Both of these parental strains in turn are commonly believed to be racial blends. Hooton describes the Melanesians as Oceanic Negroes whose composition includes Negrito, Australoid, "plus convex-nosed Mediterranean plus minor fractions of Malay and Polynesian."[5] Birdsell sees the same three strains in Melanesia which he believes contribute to the Australians, namely Negrito, Murrayan, and Carpentarian, plus a small amount of Mongoloid. He believes they differ from Australians in being "basically negritic in their genetic composition as a result of the rain forest environment."[6] Polynesians, however, are usually thought to be derived from Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid strains in which the Caucasoid component is more often the strongest.

It is widely recognized that Fijians are a diverse group, primarily descended from Melanesian and Polynesian backgrounds. Both of these ancestral sources are often regarded as racial mixtures. Hooton describes Melanesians as Oceanic Blacks, consisting of Negrito, Australoid, "plus convex-nosed Mediterranean, plus small percentages of Malay and Polynesian." [5] Birdsell identifies the same three components in Melanesia that he believes also contribute to the Australian population, specifically Negrito, Murrayan, and Carpentarian, along with a small proportion of Mongoloid. He contends that they differ from Australians by being "primarily Black in their genetic makeup because of the rain forest environment." [6] Polynesians, on the other hand, are typically thought to come from Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid sources, with the Caucasoid element usually being the most prominent.

The composite character of the Fijians has been variously explained as far as order and time of the contributing elements are concerned. One theory regards a Negroid stock as aboriginal to which a Polynesian strain was later added. An early explanation of this sort is that of Fornander who held that the ancestors of the modern Polynesians coming from southeastern Asia via Indonesia in the early centuries A.D. made a prolonged stopover in Fiji as they moved eastward. This left a Polynesian imprint on the native Fijian physical appearance as well as on their language and culture.[7] Later on, Churchill added a second movement of Polynesians from the west about a thousand years later. This was used to explain a certain amount of Mongoloid elements that needed accounting for in western Polynesia.[8]

The mixed background of the Fijians has been explained in different ways regarding the order and timing of the contributing elements. One theory suggests that the original population was of Negroid descent, which later incorporated Polynesian influences. An early explanation, provided by Fornander, proposed that the ancestors of modern Polynesians traveled from southeastern Asia through Indonesia in the early centuries A.D. and made a long stop in Fiji as they headed east. This left a lasting Polynesian influence on the physical characteristics of native Fijians, as well as their language and culture.[7] Later, Churchill introduced the idea of a second wave of Polynesians arriving from the west about a thousand years later. This was used to account for some Mongoloid features found in western Polynesia.[8]

A differing interpretation brings the Polynesian influence into Fiji from the east in relatively recent times. Thomson, for example, regards it as mainly Tongan. There are many references in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to Tongan presence in Fiji; they came to trade, to fight, and merely to visit.

A different interpretation suggests that Polynesian influence came into Fiji from the east relatively recently. For instance, Thomson sees it as primarily Tongan. There are numerous references from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries about Tongan presence in Fiji; they came to trade, to fight, and just to visit.

Hocart believes the Polynesians at one time occupied most of Fiji until they were driven eastward to Tonga and Samoa by native Melanesians.[9] Howells tentatively suggests another possibility: originally all of Fiji was occupied by Polynesians except perhaps for some Melanesian tribes in the mountainous interior of Viti Levu. Around the eleventh century a wave of immigrants from the west reached Fiji. "The newcomers, taking possession of the archipelago, partly amalgamated with and partly pushed out the Polynesian tenants, just as did the hill tribes of Hocart's theory, the refugees fleeing to Somoa and Tonga."[10] Howells associates this immigration with the Fijian tradition of an arrival of ancestral families from across the western sea.

Hocart thinks that the Polynesians once occupied most of Fiji until they were pushed east to Tonga and Samoa by native Melanesians.[9] Howells suggests another possibility: that all of Fiji was originally inhabited by Polynesians, except for some Melanesian tribes in the mountainous interior of Viti Levu. Around the eleventh century, a wave of immigrants from the west arrived in Fiji. "The newcomers took over the archipelago, partly merging with and partly displacing the Polynesian residents, just like Hocart's hill tribes theory, with the refugees fleeing to Samoa and Tonga."[10] Howells links this immigration to the Fijian tradition of ancestral families arriving from across the western sea.

This Fijian tradition of their own origin includes a landing on the west coast of Viti Levu at Nandi by an ancestral chief and his sons who came across the sea from the west. Several of his sons moved eastward and eventually founded families with native wives in various parts of the archipelago. These families ultimately became consolidated into present-day tribes or federations. Most Fijian social units derive their origin from this or similar legendary immigrations. These eposodes occurred eight or ten and, in one case, fifteen generations ago.[11] Where these ancestors came from or what their racial affiliations were is not described in the stories. On the basis of supposed similarities of place-names, claims have been made for Africa as the place of origin, but the validity of them is dubious. It is likely that these traditions refer only to the more recent immigrations from the west. As to the racial make-up of the ancestors, it is commonly believed that they were Polynesians who, after settling in various parts of Fiji, took native wives, presumably Melanesian, and originated many of the existing family lines. This assumption does not rest on any actual physical reference to their appearance but on such cultural data as their patrilineal succession and their tradition of strong hereditary chieftainship.

This Fijian tradition about their origin tells of an ancestral chief and his sons who landed on the west coast of Viti Levu at Nandi after crossing the sea from the west. Several of his sons traveled east and eventually started families with local women in different areas of the archipelago. These families eventually merged into what are now known as tribes or federations. Most Fijian social groups trace their beginnings back to this or similar legendary migrations. These events happened around eight to ten, or in one instance, fifteen generations ago.[11] The stories do not specify where these ancestors came from or what their racial backgrounds were. Some claims have been made regarding Africa as the place of origin based on supposed similarities in place names, but these claims are questionable. It’s likely that these traditions refer only to more recent migrations from the west. Regarding the ancestry's racial composition, it's generally believed they were Polynesians who settled in various parts of Fiji and married local women, likely Melanesian, thus creating many of the existing family lines. This belief is based not on physical descriptions but on cultural details such as their patrilineal succession and strong traditions of hereditary chieftainship.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to a number of people of Fiji whose assistance and coöperation were helpful. Thanks are due to Sir Ronald Garvey, governor of Fiji, whose approval of my project gave administrative sanction. Mr. G. Kingsley Roth, the Secretary for Fijian Affairs, secured for me the coöperation of the Fijian Affairs Department, which in turn gave me access to the proper native officers and leaders, furnished me with necessary transportation; he also gave me some sound advice. Also of the Fijian Affairs Office, Ratu Dr. Dobi helped me make the necessary contacts as my work took me from one area to another. Mr. Robbin H. Yarrow, safety officer of the Emperor Gold Mining Company, was most helpful during my stay at Vatukoula, where I secured an excellent sample of the northern provinces.

I am grateful to several people in Fiji whose help and cooperation were invaluable. Special thanks go to Sir Ronald Garvey, the governor of Fiji, whose approval of my project provided essential administrative support. Mr. G. Kingsley Roth, the Secretary for Fijian Affairs, secured the cooperation of the Fijian Affairs Department, which then connected me with the right native officers and leaders, arranged necessary transportation, and also offered me some valuable advice. From the Fijian Affairs Office, Ratu Dr. Dobi assisted me in making the essential contacts as my work took me from one area to another. Mr. Robbin H. Yarrow, the safety officer of the Emperor Gold Mining Company, was very helpful during my stay at Vatukoula, where I obtained an excellent sample from the northern provinces.

The young Fijian who acted as my interpreter, guide, and recorder was Joji Qalelawe; my especial thanks to him for his intelligent and cheerful coöperation.

The young Fijian who served as my interpreter, guide, and note-taker was Joji Qalelawe; I especially thank him for his smart and cheerful cooperation.


MEASUREMENTS AND INDICES

GENERAL

Weight[12]

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample814105-300163.020.312.5
Interior00000
East73130-245168.119.311.5
Coast210118-300160.722.814.2
N.W.79120-212161.916.910.4

The average weight of 163 pounds, coupled with their rather tall stature, describes the Fijian as a large person, on the whole. Their generous weight does not reflect excessive obesity; the body build, as will be pointed out later, is prevailingly muscular and athletic. Variation among the regional samples is not significant; all the groups average more than 160 pounds.

The average weight of 163 pounds, along with their tall stature, paints the Fijian as a generally large person. This weight isn’t due to excessive obesity; as will be discussed later, their body type is mainly muscular and athletic. There isn’t much variation among the regional samples; all groups average over 160 pounds.

Stature

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815150.1-195.0172.56.13.5
Interior154150.1-183.7169.66.03.5
East120160.2-190.5173.36.03.5
Coast210156.1-195.0173.45.83.4
N.W.79159.8-186.0172.75.83.3
Fiji (Howells)133158-190170.86.13.6
Solomons (Howells)85146-181160.26.84.2
Tonga (Sullivan)92160-188173.05.23.0

The stature of the Fijians is moderately tall. Howells' series of Fijians, as well as mine, indicate this category. In this measurement, the Fijians are similar to the Tongans. They are 12 cm. taller than the Melanesians.

The height of the Fijians is fairly tall. Howells' series of Fijians, along with mine, support this observation. In this measurement, the Fijians are comparable to the Tongans. They are 12 cm taller than the Melanesians.

Among the Fijian themselves, the interior people of the highlands are definitely shorter than the rest of the population.

Among the Fijians, the people living in the highlands are definitely shorter than the rest of the population.

Rumors still persist of remnants of pygmoid people in the interior mountains of Viti Levu. I found no evidence of them either in my travels in the interior or by extensive inquiries among natives and Europeans who had thorough knowledge of the whole island.

Rumors still circulate about remnants of pygmy people in the inland mountains of Viti Levu. I found no evidence of them during my travels in the interior or through extensive inquiries among locals and Europeans who had a deep understanding of the entire island.

Span

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815155.0-208.0180.015.18.8
Interior154155.0-201.0179.57.54.2
East120166.4-200.5178.124.313.6
Coast210160.1-208.0181.214.68.1
N.W.79165.1-202.0180.021.611.9

Span of the arms also reflects the generous proportions of the Fijians. Regional difference is not marked. Relative to stature, the hill people have the longer arms and the eastern natives the shortest. The greater relative arm length of the hill tribes seems to be owing more to deficiency of stature than to excessive arm length or shoulder breadth.

The span of the arms also shows the generous proportions of the Fijians. There's not a significant regional difference. Compared to their height, the hill people have longer arms, while the eastern natives have the shortest. The longer arm length of the hill tribes appears to be due more to their shorter stature rather than to unusually long arms or wide shoulders.

Span-Stature Index

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81596.1-116.3104.38.58.15
Interior15499.4-115.1105.22.32.2
East12099.1-108.5102.713.513.14
Coast21097.9-116.3104.47.77.4
N.W.79100.2-109.7104.112.011.5

THE TRUNK

Sitting Height

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81575.1-10087.03.53.9
Interior15475.1-9484.49.411.0
East12081-10088.53.53.9
Coast21080-9987.73.23.6
N.W.7980-9486.02.93.3
Fiji (Howells)13278-10188.33.063.46
Solomons (Howells)8569-9583.63.84.5

A total sitting height average of 87 cm. attests the generous general body length. A regional trend follows the same curve as that for stature. The eastern body length is greatest; it exceeds the over-all average by 1-1/2 cm. and is more than 4 cm. larger than the interior people who fall at the bottom of the scale of sitting height. Howells' Fijian series is close to my eastern average. Compared with the Solomon Islands natives, the Fijians are much more elongated.

A total sitting height average of 87 cm shows a generous overall body length. A regional trend aligns with the same pattern as height. The eastern body length is the longest; it exceeds the overall average by 1.5 cm and is more than 4 cm larger than the inland people, who are at the lower end of the sitting height scale. Howells' Fijian series is similar to my eastern average. Compared to the Solomon Islands natives, the Fijians are much more elongated.

Relative Sitting Height

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81545-5850.41.53.0
Interior15446-5649.81.42.8
East12048-5451.01.32.5
Coast21046-5650.51.42.8
N.W.7947-5450.21.42.8
Fiji (Howells)13246-5751.71.362.63
Solomons (Howells)8546-5752.11.642.92

The relative sitting height ratio for all Fijians is 50.4 per cent. The eastern average of 51 per cent indicates a little more legginess, whereas the interior groups tend somewhat to longer trunks.

The relative sitting height ratio for all Fijians is 50.4 percent. The eastern average of 51 percent suggests a bit more leg length, while the interior groups tend to have longer torsos.

Biacromial

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81528-4739.78.26.2
Interior15429-4339.06.24.7
East12035-4539.96.14.0
Coast21028-4539.77.64.9
N.W.7935-4740.56.63.9

The Fijians are generally a broad-shouldered people. The inhabitants of Ra and Ba have the highest average and the interior people are least broad-shouldered.

The Fijians are typically a broad-shouldered group. The people from Ra and Ba have the widest shoulders on average, while those living in the interior tend to be less broad-shouldered.

Relative Shoulder Breadth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81518-2722.31.35.8
Interior15419-2522.91.03.9
East12020-2623.01.03.9
Coast21018-2622.91.04.4
N.W.7920-2723.43.113.2

Relative to total stature, shoulder breadth averages 22.3 per cent. No significant regional differences are indicated.

Relative to total height, shoulder width averages 22.3 percent. There are no significant regional differences noted.

Bi-Iliac

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81523-4029.25.65.3
Interior15425-3829.05.15.2
East12027-3429.54.14.8
Coast21023-3729.25.95.5
N.W.7926-3229.34.65.0

The Fijians, as a whole, are fairly broad-hipped; this condition holds with little variation in all the provinces.

The Fijians, overall, tend to have fairly broad hips; this characteristic remains consistent across all the provinces.

Shoulder-Hip

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81558-10173.74.35.8
Interior15465-10074.64.25.6
East12067-8273.83.24.3
Coast21058-9973.54.35.9
N.W.7962-8672.85.98.1

The total shoulder-hip ratio describes the shoulders as 73.7 per cent as wide as the hips. These ratios do not vary greatly in different parts of Fiji. The somewhat higher index of the hill groups is owing largely to their narrower shoulders, whereas the superior shoulder breadth of the northwest provinces contributes mostly to the lower hip-shoulder index.

The total shoulder-hip ratio shows that the shoulders are 73.7 percent as wide as the hips. These ratios don't change much in different regions of Fiji. The slightly higher index in the hill groups is mainly due to their narrower shoulders, while the broader shoulder width in the northwest provinces mostly leads to the lower hip-shoulder index.

Chest Breadth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81524-3928.66.45.7
Interior15425-3328.63.34.7
East12026-3929.47.25.8
Coast21025-3728.77.86.2
N.W.7925-3228.94.34.9

Broad chests are also characteristic in Fiji. The eastern men surpass the Viti Levu males, and the interior groups have the narrowest chests, but the regional variations are small.

Broad chests are also common in Fiji. The men from the east are larger than those from Viti Levu, and the groups from the interior have the narrowest chests, but the differences between regions are minimal.

Chest Depth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815184-30822.95.57.0
Interior154195-26322.43.25.8
East120189-29522.54.96.6
Coast210184-30021.75.77.2
N.W.79192-25021.83.36.0

The chests of the Fijians are also fairly deep. The close similarity in chest depth of the interior group and the eastern sample is rather striking inasmuch as the former are nearly 4 cm. shorter in stature. This would indicate that the interior group, for their size, are relatively deep-chested.

The chests of the Fijians are also quite deep. The close similarity in chest depth between the interior group and the eastern sample is quite striking, considering that the former are nearly 4 cm shorter in height. This suggests that the interior group, for their size, has relatively deep chests.

Thoracic

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81559-9676.44.66.0
Interior15469-8878.53.95.0
East12065-8576.34.35.6
Coast21056-8975.54.76.2
N.W.7965-8575.74.45.8

The thoracic index shows that the Fijians are deep-chested relative to thoracic breadth as well as in absolute values. Again the interior people stand out for their deeper chests.

The thoracic index indicates that the Fijians have deep chests compared to their thoracic width as well as in absolute measurements. Once again, the interior people are noted for their deeper chests.

ARMS AND LEGS

Arm Length

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81545-8775.25.06.6
Interior15445-8373.64.86.1
East12052-8475.13.95.2
Coast21057-8776.04.96.4
N.W.7955-8675.36.68.8

The over-all arm length is 75.2 cm. Shorter arms seem to be characteristic of the interior population where the average is nearly 2 cm. less than the over-all average. The eastern group has the longest arms; the other samples are intermediate.

The overall arm length is 75.2 cm. Shorter arms appear to be typical of the interior population, where the average is almost 2 cm less than the overall average. The eastern group has the longest arms, while the other samples are in between.

Humeral Length

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81526-3932.88.65.7
Interior15428-3832.87.15.2
East12028-3932.98.35.6
Coast21026-3832.99.15.8
N.W.7928-3833.07.95.4

Length of the upper arm averages 33 cm. for all Fijians; the several provinces are closely similar in this trait.

Length of the upper arm averages 33 cm for all Fijians; the different provinces are quite similar in this characteristic.

Radial Length

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81523-3527.64.15.1
Interior15424-3327.32.44.5
East12023-3427.56.96.1
Coast21024-3527.93.54.8
N.W.7925-3227.93.44.8

Lower arm length is 27.6 cm. and also varies but little among the regional samples.

Lower arm length is 27.6 cm and varies little among the regional samples.

Radial-Humeral

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81565-11384.04.25.0
Interior15477-10483.03.84.6
East12065-9583.54.75.6
Coast21075-11384.74.24.9
N.W.7977-9482.23.64.3

The radial-humeral ratio indicates that the lower arm of Fijians is 84 per cent as long as the upper arm. None of the subgroups deviates markedly from this average.

The radial-humeral ratio shows that Fijians' lower arms are 84 percent as long as their upper arms. None of the subgroups significantly differs from this average.

Leg Length[13]

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81561-9884.310.512.5
Interior15474-9681.18.612.9
East12073-9684.18.610.3
Coast21068-9785.37.28.5
N.W.7975-9585.74.45.2

Average leg length is 84.3 cm., and some regional differences are manifest. The legs of the hill people are shorter by 3 cm. than are the other groups. Their neighbors to the northwest and east have the longest legs, and the eastern are intermediate.

Average leg length is 84.3 cm, and there are some regional differences. The legs of the hill people are 3 cm shorter than those of other groups. Their neighbors to the northwest and east have the longest legs, while those from the east are intermediate.

Tibial Length

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81534-4940.98.36.9
Interior15435-4540.313.410.8
East12035-4740.76.25.2
Coast21035-4741.26.85.1
N.W.7936-4740.96.15.9

Lower leg length is around 40 cm. for all Fijians. The regional pattern is similar to that of total leg length: shortest in the highlands, intermediate in the east, and longest in the coastal and northwestern districts.

Lower leg length is about 40 cm for all Fijians. The regional pattern is similar to that of total leg length: shortest in the highlands, intermediate in the east, and longest in the coastal and northwestern districts.

Calf Circumference

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81529-5737.66.77.1
Interior15431-5137.06.47.1
East12033-5038.14.76.5
Coast21029-4837.29.47.9
N.W.7930-4337.77.66.3

The generous girth of the calf of the Fijians reflects their sturdily muscled legs. The eastern groups excel the other Fijians in this respect, whereas the interior groups have the lowest average for calf circumference.

The thick calves of the Fijians show off their strong, muscular legs. The eastern groups are bulkier than the other Fijians in this regard, while the interior groups have the smallest average calf circumference.

THE HEAD

Head Circumference

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815410-630562.47.86.7
Interior154537-613565.34.12.5
East120528-630566.34.92.9
Coast210410-630563.54.63.5
N.W.79537-597557.714.311.5

The head circumference average of 562.4 mm. Probably is a little on the large size because of the thick wiry hair of most Fijians; the eastern groups appear to have the largest heads and the northwestern groups show a rather abrupt drop.

The average head circumference is 562.4 mm. This is likely a bit on the larger side due to the thick, wiry hair of most Fijians; the eastern groups seem to have the largest heads, while the northwestern groups show a noticeable decrease.

Head Length[14]

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815162-215187.99.45.0
Interior154170-210190.17.64.0
East120172-209188.66.63.5
Coast210162-215187.413.57.2
N.W.79165-214187.27.94.2
Fiji (Howells)133164-208188.87.293.86
Solomons (Howells)85170-208188.56.53.5
Tonga (Sullivan)117173-213191.06.63.5

Total head length for all Fijians is 187.9 mm; longest heads occur in the interior. Both Howells' Fijian average and the Solomon Islands series are close to the above value. Gifford's Tongan head length of 191 mm. Somewhat exceeds the Fijian.

Total head length for all Fijians is 187.9 mm; the longest heads are found in the interior. Both Howells' Fijian average and the Solomon Islands series are similar to this value. Gifford's Tongan head length of 191 mm slightly exceeds the Fijian measurement.

Head Breadth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815122-186155.96.87.7
Interior154135-170152.16.64.3
East120144-172157.25.23.3
Coast210141-186158.39.38.5
N.W.79122-185152.98.68.2
Fiji (Howells)133135-170153.76.13.9
Solomons (Howells)85126-158144.75.23.6
Tonga (Sullivan)117145-167154.84.32.8

General head breadth is 155.9 mm., and considerable regional variation is shown. Fijians of the interior have the narrowest heads, whereas the coastal and eastern people have appreciably wider heads. Howells' series of Fijians are closest to my highland groups.

General head breadth is 155.9 mm, and there's a noticeable regional variation. Fijians from the interior have the narrowest heads, while those from the coastal and eastern areas have significantly wider heads. Howells' set of Fijians is most similar to my highland groups.

The Solomon Islanders are markedly narrower headed than the Fijians, whereas Sullivan's Tongan series is nearer the Fijian average.

The Solomon Islanders have noticeably narrower heads than the Fijians, while Sullivan's Tongan series is closer to the Fijian average.

Cephalic Index

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81568-9983.06.47.7
Interior15468-9680.06.07.3
East12072-9283.93.84.5
Coast21072-9984.27.28.6
N.W.7971-9581.610.312.6
Fiji (Howells)13368-9481.544.75.7
Solomons (Howells)8565-8876.83.95.1
Tonga (Sullivan)11773-8981.13.13.9

Most Fijians tend to brachycephaly. The eastern natives and those of the coastal series have the broadest heads. The interior people show definitely lesser values in this ratio than do the other groups. Howells' Fijian series is close to the northwestern Fijians in their mesocephaly, and so is the Tongan mean. The Solomon series borders on dolicocephaly.

Most Fijians tend to have broad, rounded heads. The people from the east and the coastal areas have the widest heads. The people from the interior generally have smaller head sizes compared to the other groups. Howells' Fijian series is similar in head shape to the northwestern Fijians, as is the average from Tonga. The Solomon group leans toward having longer heads.

Head Height

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815110-154129.56.87.9
Interior154114-140127.74.83.8
East120114-148129.65.03.9
Coast210112-154120.07.05.4
N.W.79117-142127.69.28.9

Head height averages do not differ greatly among the provinces. The interior and northwestern people have somewhat lower heads; the coastal and eastern people show slight superiority.

Head height averages don't vary much between the provinces. People in the interior and northwestern regions have somewhat lower heads, while those on the coast and in the east show slight superiority.

Length-Height

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81555-8469.03.43.6
Interior15459-7767.23.95.8
East12061-7868.73.24.7
Coast21055-8469.43.74.3
N.W.7958-8468.14.53.5

Relative to head length, the cranial vault of Fijians is high. The mountain people show the lowest relative head height, whereas the other provinces are nearer to the over-all average.

Compared to their head length, Fijians have a high cranial vault. The mountain people have the lowest relative head height, while the other provinces are closer to the overall average.

Breadth-Height

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81566-10283.03.03.3
Interior15475- 9684.03.94.6
East12075- 9182.43.44.1
Coast21066- 9782.85.38.4
N.W.7973- 9281.28.69.7

Head height relative to total breadth is 83 per cent. In this ratio the interior groups have the highest index, a condition owing more to deficiency in cranial breadth than to superior head height.

Head height compared to total width is 83 percent. In this ratio, the interior groups have the highest index, a situation more due to a lack of cranial width than to a greater head height.

Cranial Module

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815141-176157.710.56.7
Interior154147-166156.611.57.3
East120148-172158.44.42.7
Coast210143-176158.515.59.7
N.W.79141-171155.910.76.7

Head size as expressed by the cranial module averages 157.7 mm. for all Fijians. Regional fluctuation is unimportant.

Head size, measured by the cranial module, averages 157.7 mm for all Fijians. Regional variation is minimal.

Minimum Frontal

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81599-125109.94.02.7
Interior154100-121109.83.63.3
East12099-122110.83.83.4
Coast210100-125109.74.74.3
N.W.79101-120109.43.73.4

A minimum frontal diameter of 109.9 mm. indicates a fairly ample forehead breadth for the total sample. None of the subgroups depart much from this value.

A minimum frontal diameter of 109.9 mm indicates a fairly wide forehead for the entire sample. None of the subgroups vary much from this value.

Fronto-Parietal

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81558-8970.64.36.1
Interior15463-8272.23.34.6
East12064-7970.53.04.3
Coast21058-7769.94.15.9
N.W.7961-8969.78.712.5

Forehead breadth relative to total cranial width is 70.6 per cent. The greatest deviation from this average occurs in the interior where the fronto-parietal ratio is 72.2 per cent and lesser head breadth more than greater forehead width causes the higher index.

Forehead width compared to total head width is 70.6 percent. The biggest difference from this average happens in the interior, where the fronto-parietal ratio is 72.2 percent, and the smaller head width compared to the larger forehead width leads to a higher index.

THE FACE

Bizygomatic

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815110-164145.75.03.4
Interior154110-163145.86.34.3
East120137-161146.74.32.9
Coast210128-164145.24.93.4
N.W.79136-156145.14.33.0
Fiji (Howells)132130-159144.055.053.5
Solomons (Howells)84115-149138.05.54.0
Tonga (Sullivan)116131-159143.55.94.1

Broad faces are the rule among most of these people, as the total average of 145.7 mm. shows. Regional values for this criterion are closely alike in all parts of Fiji, the eastern showing a slight superiority in bizygomatic breadth.

Broad faces are common among most of these people, as the total average of 145.7 mm shows. Regional values for this trait are very similar across all parts of Fiji, with the eastern region displaying a slight advantage in bizygomatic breadth.

Howells' Fiji series is slightly lower in this diameter as is the Tongan average. The Solomon Islands natives have definitely narrower faces.

Howells' Fiji series is a bit smaller in this diameter, just like the Tongan average. The natives of the Solomon Islands definitely have narrower faces.

Cephalo-Facial

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81582-10893.55.76.1
Interior15484-10896.04.85.0
East12082-10293.33.23.4
Coast21085-10392.55.76.2
N.W.7980-10492.66.47.3
Fiji (Howells)13285-11193.73.53.7
Solomons (Howells)8485-11195.43.84.0
Tonga (Sullivan)11685-10392.83.53.7

Face breadth relative to head width averages 93.5 per cent for all Fijians; Howell's series is much the same. The narrower heads of the interior people largely account for their higher index; otherwise there is general similarity in the several provinces.

Face width compared to head width averages 93.5 percent for all Fijians; Howell's series is similar. The narrower heads of the interior people mainly explain their higher index; otherwise, there is a general similarity across the different provinces.

Zygo-Frontal

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81564-10075.53.03.9
Interior15464-9875.43.24.2
East12068-9975.52.53.3
Coast21066-10075.53.14.1
N.W.7966-9375.42.93.8
Tonga (Sullivan)11663-8473.14.25.8

The ratio of forehead width to face breadth is 75.5. All of the regional averages for the zygo-frontal index are strikingly alike among the Fijians in every instance; the forehead is about three-quarters the breadth of the face. The Tongan ratio is a little lower.

The ratio of forehead width to face breadth is 75.5. All the regional averages for the zygo-frontal index are surprisingly similar among the Fijians in every case; the forehead is about three-quarters the width of the face. The Tongan ratio is slightly lower.

Total Face Height

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample815100-147122.56.04.9
Interior154103-137121.35.64.6
East120110-147124.75.84.7
Coast210107-142122.66.15.0
N.W.79100-143121.76.85.6
Fiji (Howells)133105-159121.86.95.7
Solomons (Howells)85100-129116.46.65.7
Tonga (Sullivan)116112-147128.26.85.3

Fijian faces have the moderate average height of 122.5 mm. Slightly shorter faces occur in the interior people, whereas the greatest total face height average occurs in the east. The Fijian of Howells' series is close to mine. The Tongan value for face height describes them as definitely longer faced. The Solomon Islanders depart in the other direction with decidedly shorter faces.

Fijian faces have an average height of 122.5 mm. People from the interior tend to have slightly shorter faces, while the tallest average face height is found in the east. The Fijian data from Howells' series is similar to mine. The Tongan average for face height indicates that they generally have longer faces. In contrast, the Solomon Islanders have noticeably shorter faces.

Total Facial Index

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81568-10484.14.65.5
Interior15473-9683.24.45.3
East12075-10185.04.45.2
Coast21073-9784.54.65.4
N.W.7968-10483.95.66.7
Fiji (Howells)13274-10584.75.06.0
Solomons (Howells)8474-9784.54.45.2
Tonga (Sullivan)11678-10289.34.45.0

Relative to maximum breadth, the Fijian face tends to shortness, although this is due largely to their generous facial breadth rather than absolute deficiency of height. The interior groups have the lowest values and the eastern groups show relatively broad faces.

Compared to their maximum width, Fijian faces tend to be shorter, but this is mainly because they have a wide facial structure rather than a lack of height. The interior groups have the lowest measurements, while the eastern groups exhibit relatively broad faces.

The Tongan average is much higher than any of the Fijian values, whereas the Solomon Islanders show similarity to the Fijians in this feature.

The Tongan average is significantly higher than any of the Fijian values, while the Solomon Islanders are similar to the Fijians in this aspect.

Upper Face Height

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81556-8470.25.17.3
Interior15459-7969.13.95.6
East12064-8371.74.05.6
Coast21059-8470.46.69.4
N.W.7958-8069.44.86.9

The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial breadth shows the Fijians of the interior to be relatively shorter faced and the eastern people longest. The coastal and northwestern series are intermediate.

The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial width indicates that the Fijians from the interior have relatively shorter faces, while those from the eastern regions have the longest. The coastal and northwestern groups fall in between.

Upper Facial Index

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81537-6548.23.77.7
Interior15441-6547.43.37.0
East12042-5948.92.95.9
Coast21040-5948.54.89.9
N.W.7939-5647.83.57.3

The ratio of the upper face height to maximum facial breadth shows the Fijians of the interior to be relatively shorter faced and the eastern people longest. The coastal and northwestern series are intermediate.

The ratio of the height of the upper face to the maximum facial width indicates that the Fijians from the interior have relatively shorter faces, while those from the eastern regions have the longest. The coastal and northwestern groups fall somewhere in between.

Bigonial

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81595-146109.75.14.6
Interior15495-146109.86.03.6
East12097-125110.65.14.6
Coast21095-129109.95.34.8
N.W.7999-119109.14.54.1
Tonga (Sullivan)11692-119104.85.85.5

Lower jaw breadth as expressed by the bigonial diameter indicates a tendency to broadness shared with little variation among all the subgroups. The Tongan value is considerably smaller.

Lower jaw width, measured by the bigonial diameter, shows a tendency towards broader dimensions with little variation across all subgroups. The value for Tongans is significantly smaller.

Fronto-Gonial

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81580-12299.95.55.5
Interior15484-122100.06.06.0
East12086-11599.95.35.3
Coast21080-114100.36.06.0
N.W.7985-11399.84.84.8

Similarly the bigonial diameter in relation to forehead breadth is much the same in all groups, the general average nearly 100 per cent.

Similarly, the bigonial diameter in relation to forehead width is pretty much the same across all groups, with the overall average being nearly 100 percent.

Zygo-Gonial

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81565-8675.34.15.4
Interior15467-8675.46.08.0
East12065-8275.43.54.6
Coast21066-8375.73.44.5
N.W.7968-8375.23.44.5
Tonga (Sullivan)11663-8773.24.66.2

Relative to face breadth, jaw width is 75.3 per cent with very little geographic variation.

Relative to face width, jaw width is 75.3 percent with very little geographic variation.

Nasal Height

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81542-6553.93.46.3
Interior15445-6553.23.56.6
East12048-6254.73.15.7
Coast21046-6354.13.46.3
N.W.7945-6152.93.56.6
Fiji (Howells)13344-6352.43.97.4
Solomons (Howells)8540-5949.93.87.7
Tonga (Sullivan)11747-6557.43.96.8

The Fijian nose may be called medium long. Greatest nasal heights occur in the eastern and in the coastal series. The interior and northwestern groups have shorter noses. The Fijians of Howells' series fall near the short end of my averages. Natives of the Solomons are definitely lower in nasal height, whereas the Tongan's average is so much higher that one suspects a difference in the location of the nasion.

The Fijian nose can be described as medium long. The highest nasal heights are found in the eastern and coastal populations. The people from the interior and northwestern areas tend to have shorter noses. The Fijians in Howells' study are on the shorter side of my averages. The natives of the Solomons have noticeably lower nasal heights, while Tongans have an average that is so much higher that it raises questions about the position of the nasion.

Nasal Breadth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81531-6246.73.47.3
Interior15440-6147.63.47.1
East12038-5345.53.06.6
Coast21038-6246.43.37.1
N.W.7931-5747.43.67.6
Fiji (Howells)13337-5446.193.06.0
Solomons (Howells)8534-5144.62.86.3
Tonga (Sullivan)11738-5544.43.06.8

Broad noses are common to most Fijians. The greatest contrast is between the narrower-nosed eastern people and the interior people, among whom the widest noses occur. The nose of the Solomon Islanders is somewhat narrower, according to Howells' data, and the Tongan average is also lower.

Broad noses are common among most Fijians. The biggest difference is between the narrower-nosed eastern people and those from the interior, where the widest noses are found. According to Howells' data, Solomon Islanders generally have slightly narrower noses, and the average for Tongans is also lower.

Nasal Index

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81561-11287.18.29.4
Interior15469-10989.78.19.0
East12061-10083.27.69.1
Coast21063-11186.07.18.7
N.W.7963-11089.98.69.6
Fiji (Howells)13368-12388.88.39.3
Solomons (Howells)8568-11987.18.910.2
Tonga (Sullivan)11761-9877.67.69.8

Platyrrhini is the rule in Fiji, but individual and regional variations are great. There are some leptorrine subjects in every province, and there are some whose noses are broader than long. The interior people and the northwestern groups have the relatively broadest noses, whereas the eastern index is more moderate. The noses of Sullivan's Tongans are relatively longer than the Lauans. The Solomon Island average is identical with the Fijian.

Platyrrhini dominates in Fiji, but there are significant individual and regional differences. Every province has some leptorrhine individuals, and some have noses that are wider than they are long. The people from the interior and the northwestern groups tend to have the widest noses, while those in the east have more moderate features. Sullivan's Tongans have noses that are relatively longer compared to the Lauans. The average nose shape in the Solomon Islands is the same as that of Fiji.

Nasal Depth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81516-3222.02.93.2
Interior15417-3222.52.19.3
East12017-2821.91.88.2
Coast21017-3221.83.66.5
N.W.7916-2922.31.98.5

Nasal depth averages 22 mm.; the regional variation is very small.

Nasal depth averages 22 mm, and there is very little regional variation.

Nasal-Depth Index

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81532-6047.26.86.8
Interior15434-5947.45.16.6
East12035-6048.44.69.5
Coast21032-5847.08.17.2
N.W.7934-5847.25.56.7

Mouth Breadth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81529-7257.64.78.2
Interior15434-7259.64.47.4
East12033-6656.53.96.9
Coast21029-6757.34.07.0
N.W.7936-6557.34.47.8

Mouth breadth averages show the interior groups to have widest mouths, the eastern people least wide, and the coastal and northwestern people intermediate.

Mouth width averages indicate that the interior groups have the widest mouths, the eastern groups have the narrowest, and the coastal and northwestern groups fall somewhere in between.

Lip Thickness

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample8159-4522.43.86.9
Interior15412-3123.43.65.4
East12012-2921.73.45.7
Coast21016-4520.83.65.3
N.W.7910-2922.03.95.7

Thick lips are characteristic of most Fijians. The interior average is highest for this diameter, whereas the northwestern Fijians have least-thick lips.

Thick lips are a common trait among most Fijians. The average thickness is highest among those in the interior, while northwestern Fijians have the thinnest lips.

Ear Length

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81555-8366.64.56.8
Interior15453-8366.04.87.3
East12055-8067.25.07.4
Coast21055-7766.74.97.3
N.W.7957-7566.53.75.6
Tonga (Sullivan)11756-8166.04.66.9

Fijian ears on the whole tend to be long, as the average 66.6 mm. indicates. Regional differences are slight. Tongans closely resemble Fijians.

Fijian ears, on average, are generally long, measuring about 66.6 mm. The regional differences are minimal. Tongans are quite similar to Fijians.

Ear Breadth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81524-5534.33.29.3
Interior15427-4133.72.57.4
East12029-4034.14.011.7
Coast21029-5534.73.911.2
N.W.7925-4233.82.98.6
Tonga (Sullivan)11625-4234.52.67.6

Ear breadth is also generous, and regional differences hardly exceed 1.5 mm., including the Tongans.

Ear breadth is also quite broad, and regional differences hardly go beyond 1.5 mm, including the Tongans.

Ear Index

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81538-6251.65.09.7
Interior15440-6151.13.67.0
East12041-5950.65.811.5
Coast21042-6252.16.712.9
N.W.7938-5950.94.07.9
Tonga (Sullivan)11641-6252.43.97.5

Length-breadth ear ratios indicate that coastal groups have somewhat broader, and the northwestern people the relative longest, ears.

Length-breadth ear ratios show that coastal groups have slightly broader ears, while people from the northwest have the longest relative ear size.

Bicanine Breadth

No.RangeMeanS.D.C.V.
Total sample81524-7239.811.719.4
Interior15437-4939.910.716.8
East12036-6841.87.47.7
Coast21024-7239.013.414.3
N.W.7938-4938.614.016.3

Bicanine breadth is characteristically great among Fijians, reflecting the ample jaws and teeth. Widest diameters are seen in the east, followed by the hill people of the interior. The northwestern groups have the least bicanine diameter.

Bicanine width is typically large among Fijians, showing off their broad jaws and teeth. The widest measurements are found in the east, followed by the hill dwellers in the interior. The groups in the northwest have the smallest bicanine width.


MORPHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

PIGMENTATION

Skin Color: Exposed

BrunetSwarthyLt. BrnMed. BrnDk. BrnBlackTotal
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample1 .015 .630 4400 48377 460 0813
Interior0 00 01 155 3697 630 0153
East0 03 212 1099 836 60 0120
Coast0 01 07 385 41116 560 0209
N.W.0 00 01 142 5336 460 079
Fiji II0 00 00 0128 965 40 0133
Solomons0 00 00 04 579 932 385
Tonga(Range: Lt. Brown to Dk. Brown.)

Color of skin includes exposed and unexposed areas. The former was observed on the face, since the Fijians do not use any kind of face or head covering. This condition in the total series divides itself quite evenly between medium brown and dark brown. A few have light-brown skin; only six individuals are classified as swarthy and brunet. None was judged to be completely black. The Fijians of Howells' series are described as 96 per cent medium brown[15] and 5 per cent dark brown, a discrepancy I would attribute to personal judgment difference. The Solomon Islanders are markedly darker than the Fijians, the majority have dark-brown skin and 3 per cent are black, whereas 5 per cent have medium-brown complexions.

The color of skin includes both exposed and unexposed areas. The exposed areas were seen on the face, since Fijians don’t wear any kind of face or head covering. In the overall group, the skin tones are fairly evenly split between medium brown and dark brown. A few have light-brown skin; only six people are categorized as swarthy and brunet. None were considered completely black. In Howells' series, the Fijians are described as 96 percent medium brown[15] and 5 percent dark brown, a difference I would attribute to varying personal judgments. The Solomon Islanders are noticeably darker than the Fijians, with most having dark-brown skin and 3 percent classified as black, while 5 percent have medium-brown complexions.

Tongan data on skin color cannot be directly adjusted to my statistics. Sullivan's comment on their skin color states that it is "a medium yellowish-brown where it is unexposed to the sun. Exposed parts of the skin of a few of the persons were a very dark chocolate" (Sullivan, 1922, p. 248).

Tongan data on skin color can’t be directly adjusted to my statistics. Sullivan's observation about their skin color describes it as "a medium yellowish-brown where it is unexposed to the sun. Exposed parts of the skin of a few of the individuals were a very dark chocolate" (Sullivan, 1922, p. 248).

Among the Fijians themselves, the greatest contrasts occur between the eastern and the interior groups of Viti Levu. Where 63 per cent of the latter have dark-brown skin, only 5 per cent of eastern fall into this category. The bulk of eastern (83 per cent) have medium-brown skin as against 36 per cent of hill people. The coastal and northwestern provinces are, like the total series, more evenly divided between medium and dark brown.

Among the Fijians themselves, the biggest differences can be seen between the eastern and interior groups of Viti Levu. While 63 percent of the latter have dark-brown skin, only 5 percent of those from the east fall into this category. The majority of eastern Fijians (83 percent) have medium-brown skin compared to 36 percent of the people from the hills. The coastal and northwestern provinces are, similar to the overall population, more evenly split between medium and dark brown skin.

Skin Color: Unexposed

BrunetSwarthyLt. BrnMed. BrnDk. BrnBlackTotal
No. %No. %No.%No.%No. %No. %
Total sample6 19 1242 30545 6611 10 0813
Interior0 00 020 13133 870 00 0153
East3 34 377 6436 300 00 0120
Coast1 12 156 27148 712 10 0209
N.W.0 01 120 2557 721 10 079
Fiji II0 00 00 0127 965 40 0132
Solomons0 00 00 09 1174 872 285

Unexposed skin color was observed on the under surface of the upper arm near the armpit. The anticipated shift in color range results in a reduction of dark-skin incidence to a mere 1 per cent, and an increase in medium brown to 60 per cent and of light brown to 30 per cent.

Unexposed skin color was seen on the underside of the upper arm near the armpit. The expected change in color range leads to a decrease in dark skin incidence to just 1 percent, and an increase in medium brown to 60 percent and light brown to 30 percent.

Howells' describes 96 per cent of his Fijians as medium brown, 4 per cent dark brown, and none light brown. The Solomon Islanders seem definitely darker than the Fijians whether they are compared with Howells' or my series.

Howells describes 96 percent of his Fijians as medium brown, 4 percent as dark brown, and none as light brown. The Solomon Islanders appear definitely darker than the Fijians, whether compared to Howells' findings or my own series.

The eastern groups continues to contrast with the interior people. The former show a majority of 64 per cent in the light-brown category as compared with 13 per cent among the interior groups; the latter have a medium-brown incidence of 87 per cent against 30 per cent among Lauans.

The eastern groups still stand in contrast to the interior people. The former show a majority of 64 percent in the light-brown category compared to 13 percent among the interior groups; the latter have a medium-brown incidence of 87 percent against 30 percent among Lauans.

Hair Color

BlackDk. BrnMed. BrnLt. BrnRed-BrnTotal
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample757 9331 51 00 018 2807
Interior145 958 50 00 00 0153
East114 956 50 00 00 0120
Coast193 9211 50 00 05 2204
N.W.70 895 60 00 04 575
Fiji II118 919 70 00 03 2130
Solomons55 6526 310 03 40 084
Tonga0 940 40 00 00 00

Black hair is the usual color, although 5 per cent are described as dark brown and a few red-brown. This latter variation is a rufous color (reddish-brown) and it may be a little more frequent than the data indicate because the Fijians frequently dye their hair with a substance extracted from mangrove bark. This intensifies the usual blackness of the hair and adds a satisfying gloss. More sophisticated natives have access to modern hair dye and lacking this, some have been known to resort to black shoe polish.

Black hair is the most common color, though about 5 percent have dark brown hair, and a few have red-brown. This last variation is a reddish-brown color and may actually be more common than the data suggests, as Fijians often dye their hair with a substance from mangrove bark. This enhances the natural black of their hair and adds a nice shine. More trend-conscious locals use modern hair dye, and if they don't have that, some have been known to use black shoe polish.

Hair bleaching is no longer practiced in Fiji.

Hair bleaching is no longer done in Fiji.

The hair of the Solomons Islands is not so uniformly black, nearly a third have dark-brown hair and a few are light brown.

The hair of the Solomon Islands isn’t all black; almost a third have dark brown hair, and a few have light brown.

Eye Color

BlackDk. BrnMed. BrnLt. BrnTotal
No. %No.%No. %No. %
Fiji I2 0550 68257 314 1813
Interior0 0131 8622 140 0153
East0 071 5948 401 1120
Coast0 0127 6181 391 0209
N.W1 153 6725 320 079
Fiji II0 0130 980 02 2132
Solomons0 085 1000 00 085
Tonga0 30 940 00 30

A little more than two-thirds of Fijians' eyes are described as dark brown. The remaining third have medium-brown eyes. There were four individuals who were light brown. Howells, with his Fijian series, is more generous with the darker designation; he designated 98 per cent as dark brown and 2 per cent light brown. His Solomons sample is described as dark brown without exception. The Tongan data also is recorded as more uniformly dark brown than my Fijians.

A little more than two-thirds of Fijians are described as having dark brown eyes. The remaining one-third have medium-brown eyes. There were four individuals with light brown eyes. Howells, in his Fijian series, is more generous with the darker designation, labeling 98 percent as dark brown and 2 percent as light brown. His sample from the Solomon Islands is described as dark brown without exception. The data from Tonga is also noted to be more uniformly dark brown than that of my Fijians.

The Fijians of the interior of Viti Levu have more deeply pigmented eyes than the others; 86 per cent are classed as dark brown and only 14 per cent medium brown.

The Fijians in the interior of Viti Levu have more richly pigmented eyes than others; 86 percent are categorized as dark brown and only 14 percent as medium brown.

HAIR

Hair Form

StraightLow WaveDeep WaveCurlFrizzWoolTotal
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample0 07 0.113 0.291 11.0702 8620 0813
Interior0 00 00 04 3149 970 0153
East0 01 110 837 3172 600 0120
Coast0 00 13 018 9188 900 0209
N.W.0 02 30 07 970 890 079
Fiji II0 00 00 019 1638 3359 51116
Solomons2 3.31 1.60 016 2617 2825 4161

Frizzly hair is the condition of over 85 per cent of Fijians; 11 per cent are curly-haired, whereas over twenty individuals have wavy hair. Straight hair is absent. The Fiji II series of Howell distinguishes between frizzly and wooly hair, which I do not. Their combined incidence is 83 per cent, quite close to my frequency of frizzly. Whether one does or does not distinguish between frizzly and wooly hair, there is no doubt that most Fijians have Negroid hair form. The Solomon Islanders are surprising with somewhat less Negroid hair form than the Fijians. Their combined percentage of frizzly and wooly is 69, which is nearly 20 per cent less than that of the Fijians. Twenty per cent have curly hair against 11 per cent among Fijians. Also, the only instances of straight hair occur in the Solomons.

Frizzy hair affects over 85 percent of Fijians; 11 percent have curly hair, while more than twenty people have wavy hair. Straight hair is nonexistent. The Fiji II series by Howell distinguishes between frizzy and woolly hair, which I don't. Their combined incidence is 83 percent, which aligns closely with my findings on frizzy hair. Whether or not one makes a distinction between frizzy and woolly hair, it’s clear that most Fijians have Negroid hair types. Solomon Islanders are a bit surprising, as they have slightly less Negroid hair form than Fijians. Their combined percentage of frizzy and woolly hair is 69, nearly 20 percent less than that of the Fijians. Twenty percent have curly hair compared to 11 percent among Fijians. Additionally, straight hair only appears among the Solomons.

In the Fijian breakdown, the interior groups have the most Negroid hair; 97 per cent have frizzly hair and 3 per cent have curly hair. The eastern people are the least Negroid in this respect; frizzly hair drops to 60 per cent, whereas curly hair advances to 30 per cent and wavy hair to 9 per cent. The coastal and northwestern series are closer to the interior groups with about 90 per cent frizzly hair.

In the Fijian breakdown, the interior groups have the highest percentage of Negroid hair; 97 percent have frizzy hair and 3 percent have curly hair. The eastern people show the least Negroid traits in this regard; the percentage of frizzy hair drops to 60 percent, while curly hair increases to 30 percent and wavy hair to 9 percent. The coastal and northwestern groups are more similar to the interior groups, with about 90 percent having frizzy hair.

Hair Texture

CourseMediumFineTotal
No. %No. %No. %
Total sample804 999 10 0813
Interior153 1000 00 0153
East116 974 30 0120
Coast208 1001 00 0209
N.W.78 991 10 079

Hair texture is prevailingly coarse; only 1 per cent of the total series shows medium coarseness and none have fine hair. This preponderance of coarse hair is much the same in all the provinces, although the eastern people do depart slightly with a 3 per cent incidence of medium-coarse hair.

Hair texture is mostly coarse; only 1 percent of the total sample shows medium coarseness, and none have fine hair. This dominance of coarse hair is similar across all the provinces, although people in the east differ slightly with a 3 percent occurrence of medium-coarse hair.

It might be added that Fijian hair is quite stiff or wiry. For example, when the hair is unshorn, it stands out like a mop. A Fijian can insert a long stemmed flower in his hair and it will stay in place with no additional fastening.

It can be noted that Fijian hair is often really stiff or coarse. For instance, when it's not cut, it sticks out like a mop. A Fijian can put a long-stemmed flower in their hair, and it will stay in place without needing anything else to hold it.

Head Hair Quantity

AbsentSubm.[16]+++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample0 061 7219 27533 650 0813
Interior0 026 1727 18100 650 0153
East0 05 424 2091 760 0120
Coast0 011 563 30135 650 0209
N.W.0 07 921 2751 650 079
Fiji II0 00 00 01 1132 92133
Solomons0 00 00 05 680 9485

Head hair quantity is pronounced in the majority of Fijians (65 per cent); it is moderate in 27 per cent and submedium in 7 per cent. Howells describes nearly all the Fijians as having very pronounced head hair—99 per cent, which would appear to be a personal difference in appraisal. In any case, the two series agree that Fijians have hair of more than moderate quantity. The Melanesians of the Solomons are also characterized by much head hair.

Head hair quantity is prominent in most Fijians (65 percent); it's moderate in 27 percent and below average in 7 percent. Howells notes that nearly all Fijians have very prominent head hair—99 percent, which seems to reflect a personal judgment. In any case, both studies agree that Fijians have hair that exceeds moderate quantity. The Melanesians of the Solomons are also known for having a lot of head hair.

Regionally, the only significant variation in this trait is shown in the east, where more individuals have a submedium designation. In the absence of age data, this contrast cannot be fairly interpreted.

Regionally, the only significant difference in this trait is seen in the east, where more individuals are classified as submedium. Without age data, this difference can't be accurately interpreted.

Hair Length

It might be observed here that although hair length was not included in this survey, on the basis of personal but unrecorded observation, the Fijians conform to the Melanesian pattern. Most Fijian men now cut their hair short in the Western style, but some still do not. Women generally trim their hair but not short. The natural length of head hair is intermediate between the short-haired African Negroes and the long-haired Caucasians and Mongolians.

It can be noted that even though hair length wasn't part of this survey, based on personal but unrecorded observations, Fijians follow the Melanesian trend. Most Fijian men now have short hair in the Western style, but some do not. Women typically trim their hair but keep it longer. The natural length of their hair is between the short-haired African individuals and the long-haired Europeans and Asians.

Baldness

AbsentSubm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample731 9040 330 412 10 0813
Interior122 8012 812 87 50 0153
East112 933 34 31 10 0120
Coast194 9310 54 21 00 0209
N.W.72 911 13 43 40 079

The lack of age correlations also limits the value of data on baldness, but some meaning can nevertheless be extracted. Regardless of age, with an incidence of pronounced baldness of 1 per cent among all adult males and of 4 per cent for a moderate condition, it is a clear indication that Fijians are not prone to loss of head hair.

The absence of age correlations also reduces the usefulness of data on baldness, but some insights can still be gained. Regardless of age, with a rate of noticeable baldness at 1 percent among all adult men and 4 percent for a moderate condition, it clearly shows that Fijians are not prone to hair loss.

Beard Quantity

AbsentSubm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample0 0234 29370 44208 261 .01813
Interior0 022 1467 4464 420 0153
East0 045 3859 4916 130 0120
Coast0 060 2994 4554 261 0209
N.W.0 022 2830 3827 340 079
Fiji II
  cheeks27 212 244 3446 3512 9131
  skin9 70 052 4056 4314 10131
Solomons
  cheeks21 250 042 4922 260 085
  chin7 80 053 6225 290 085
Tonga
  chin0 00 190 3150 00 00
  lower chk.0 40 370 1840 00 00

Moderate beard quantity is shown by 44 per cent of Fijians; the remainder are fairly evenly divided between the submedium and pronounced categories. Howells' series, which records beard quantity for the cheeks and chin separately, shows a higher frequency of pronounced and very pronounced designations. However, his data includes many individuals who have no beards at all. Both series are doubtless influenced by the fact that they contain a preponderance of young adult; a greater proportion of older men would have greatly raised the incidence of the pronounced categories.

Moderate beard quantity is observed in 44 percent of Fijians, while the rest are fairly evenly split between the submedium and prominent categories. Howells' series, which tracks beard quantity for the cheeks and chin separately, shows a higher frequency of pronounced and very pronounced designations. However, his data includes many individuals without beards at all. Both series are likely influenced by the fact that they feature a majority of young adults; a higher proportion of older men would have significantly increased the rates of the pronounced categories.

Nearly all modern Fijians have adopted the Western practice of shaving. Examination of earlier pictures and written description of Fijians leaves no doubt that the majority of mature men possess luxurious beards when nature is unrestrained.

Nearly all modern Fijians have taken up the Western trend of shaving. Looking at old photos and written descriptions of Fijians makes it clear that most adult men have thick beards when left untouched by grooming.

The natives of the Solomon Islands, according to Howells, are a little less bearded than the Fijians.

The locals of the Solomon Islands, according to Howells, have slightly fewer beards than the Fijians.

The Tongans are a little more heavily bearded than the Fijians.

The Tongans have a bit more facial hair compared to the Fijians.

Some geographical variation is indicated by my data. The interior people of Fiji have the highest incidence of face hair; 42 per cent are recorded as pronounced. Least endowed are the eastern Fijians, where 13 per cent have pronounced beards and 38 per cent are submedium. The coastal and northwestern series conform more closely to the overall distribution.

Some geographical differences are shown by my data. The people living in the interior of Fiji have the highest rate of facial hair; 42 percent are noted as having prominent facial hair. The eastern Fijians have the least amount, with 13 percent having notable beards and 38 percent being average. The coastal and northwestern groups align more closely with the overall distribution.

Body Hair[17]

AbsentSubm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample0 0243 30328 40162 2080 10813
Interior0 031 2056 3741 2725 16153
East0 055 4645 3814 126 5120
Coast0 057 2782 3946 2224 11209
N.W.0 016 2036 4619 248 879
Tonga0 023 290 260 220 00

The body hair endowment is also not unimpressive. Forty per cent show a moderate condition, 20 per cent are pronounced, and 10 per cent very pronounced; none are totally devoid of body hair; 30 per cent are submedium. Chest hair among the Tongans is somewhat less in evidence; although the majority range from submedium to pronounced, 23 per cent are described as hairless.

The body hair situation is also quite notable. Forty percent have a moderate amount, 20 percent have a significant amount, and 10 percent have a very significant amount; none are completely hairless; 30 percent are below average. Chest hair among Tongans is somewhat less common; while most fall between below average and significant, 23 percent are reported to be hairless.

The provincial distribution in Fiji follows that of face hair: the interior groups are hairiest and the eastern people least so.

The distribution of hair in Fiji is similar to that of facial hair: the people in the interior are the hairiest, while those in the east have the least.

The anatomical distribution of body hair deserves some comment, even though specific observations were made on the chest. Not infrequently the hair is heavier on the upper legs than on the chest. Occasionally, too, the back of the shoulders is quite hairy as well as the belly.

The way body hair is spread out across the anatomy is worth mentioning, even though specific comments were made about the chest. It's not uncommon for there to be more hair on the upper legs than on the chest. Sometimes, the back of the shoulders is also quite hairy, along with the belly.

Grayness: Head

AbsentSubm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample621 7682 1082 1028 33 3813
Interior80 5237 2419 1217 110 0153
East91 7613 1116 130 00 0120
Coast176 8414 717 82 10 0209
N.W.60 768 109 112 30 079

Grayness: Beard

AbsentSubm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Total sample610 7561 890 1152 60 0813
Interior72 4730 2020 1331 200 0153
East89 749 818 154 30 0120
Coast178 858 421 102 10 0209
N.W.60 766 811 142 30 079

Grayness of the hair data without corresponding age incidence is not particularly significant. It is clear, nevertheless, that premature grayness is not common. I would hazard the judgment that on the whole the Fijians show less tendency to grayness than do Caucasians.

Gray hair data without related age statistics isn't particularly meaningful. However, it's clear that premature gray hair isn't common. I would guess that overall, Fijians are less likely to go gray than Caucasians.

The higher incidence of grayness of the interior sample of Fijians is likely due to a larger number of older men in that series.

The higher rate of grayness in the interior sample of Fijians is probably because there are more older men in that group.

THE FACE

Prognathism: Total

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I206 25306 38288 3513 2813
Interior40 2659 3952 342 1153
East54 4555 4611 90 0120
Coast47 2284 4073 355 2209
N.W.18 2329 3732 410 079
Tonga63 5326 2229 250 0118

Prognathism: Mid-Facial

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I517 64184 23109 133 1/2813
Interior133 8715 105 30 0153
East100 8317 143 30 0120
Coast122 5849 2337 181 1209
N.W.48 6120 2511 140 079

Prognathism: Alveolar

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I798 989 14 1/22 0813
Interior153 1000 00 00 0153
East120 1000 00 00 0120
Coast207 990 01 1/21 1/2209
N.W.76 {96}2 30 01 179

Slight and moderate total prognathism characterizes most Fijians.but it is pronounced in only 13 of the 813 subjects. A quarter of the series show no prognathism. The eastern people are least prognathic with a zero incidence of 45 per cent. The other regional sample are close to the general condition.

Slight and moderate total prognathism is typical among most Fijians, but it's prominent in only 13 out of the 813 subjects studied. A quarter of the group shows no prognathism at all. The eastern population has the least prognathism, with a zero incidence rate in 45 percent of the cases. The other regional samples are similar to the overall condition.

Mid-facial prognathism has a submedium incidence of 23 per cent and a medium of 13 per cent; the remainder lack the condition, except three individuals who are pronounced.

Mid-facial prognathism occurs in about 23 percent of cases at a submedium level and in 13 percent at a medium level; the rest do not have the condition, except for three individuals who are significantly affected.

The coastal and northwestern groups have more frequent medium designations. Alveolar prognathism is almost entirely lacking in all groups.

The coastal and northwestern groups have more common medium designations. Alveolar prognathism is almost completely absent in all groups.

Malar Projection: Lateral

AbsentSubm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I1 02 0264 32543 673 0813
Interior0 00 062 4191 590 0153
East0 00 025 2195 790 0120
Coast0 00 068 33141 670 0209
N.W.0 00 028 3550 631 179

Malar Projection: Frontal

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I4 1/20 0709 87100 12809
Interior0 00 0139 9114 9153
East0 00 0103 8617 14120
Coast1 00 0181 8727 13209
N.W.0 00 067 8512 1579

The facial contours generally include lateral malar projection; two-thirds show a pronounced condition and the balance are medium. The eastern people have high cheek bones oftener than do the others.

The facial contours usually feature lateral malar projection; two-thirds have a noticeable condition while the rest are average. People from the East tend to have high cheekbones more often than others.

Frontal malar projection is also common but more often moderately so; 87 per cent show medium projection and 12 per cent are pronounced.

Frontal malar projection is also common, but usually to a moderate degree; 87 percent show medium projection, and 12 percent are pronounced.

Gonial Angles

Sbm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I24 3459 56325 405 1813
Interior0 097 6355 361 1153
East1 165 5454 450 0120
Coast7 3110 5390 432 1209
N.W.3 449 6227 340 079

Palate Shape

ParabolicSm. ULg. USquareTotal
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I493 612 0303 3715 2813
Interior94 610 059 390 0153
East81 680 038 321 1120
Coast131 630 071 347 3209
N.W.50 631 127 341 179

A fairly strong tendency to well-developed gonial angles is indicated; 40 per cent show pronounced angles and nearly all the rest are medium. These proportions hold pretty much for all groups.

A noticeable trend toward well-defined gonial angles is present; 40 percent have prominent angles, and almost all the others are medium. These proportions are consistent across all groups.

Palate shape also attests to the well-developed jaws of Fijians; it is a large U in 37 per cent of the subjects; 2 per cent are square and the remainder parabolic.

Palate shape also shows the strong jaws of Fijians; it is a large U in 37 percent of the subjects; 2 percent are square, and the rest are parabolic.

Chin Prominence

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I2 0164 20593 7354 7813
Interior0 036 24110 727 5153
East0 025 2189 746 5120
Coast0 041 20153 7313 6207
N.W.1 111 1455 709 1176

Chin Type

MedianBilateralTotal
No. %No. %
Fiji I673 83140 17813
Interior130 8523 15153
East112 938 7120
Coast162 7845 22207
N.W.62 8214 1876

A well-developed chin further typifies most Fijian faces; nearly three-quarters have a moderate chin prominence, 7 per cent are pronounced, and the remainder are submedium. This range is much the same in the subgroups.

A well-defined chin is a common feature on most Fijian faces; about three-quarters have a moderate chin prominence, 7 percent have a prominent chin, and the rest are average. This pattern is pretty much the same across the subgroups.

The chin is commonly median although 17 per cent have the bilateral type. The bilateral chin is least frequent in Lau (7 per cent).

The chin is usually centered, although 17 percent have the bilateral type. The bilateral chin is least common in Lau (7 percent).

THE HEAD

Temporal Fullness

AbsentSubm.+Total
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I1 0563 69249 31813
Interior0 0113 7440 26153
East0 070 5850 42120
Coast1 0148 7160 29208
N.W.0 059 7520 2579

Occipital Protrusion

AbsentSubm.+Total
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I13 2775 9525 3813
Interior4 3149 970 0153
East0 0116 974 3120
Coast3 1193 9213 6209
N.W.0 079 1000 079

A narrowness in the temporal part of the head is indicated. Sixty-nine per cent of the subject show submedium temporal fullness, whereas the remainder are moderate. This condition is not marked and may best be described as a discernable tendency.

A narrowness in the temporal area of the head is indicated. Sixty-nine percent of the subjects show a slightly below average temporal fullness, while the rest are moderate. This condition is not significant and can be best described as a noticeable tendency.

The back of the head is generally rather flat as the 95 per cent incidence of occipital protrusion indicates. This is a natural condition; no intentional flattening is practiced by Fijians.

The back of the head is usually pretty flat, as shown by the 95 percent occurrence of occipital protrusion. This is a natural condition; Fijians don't intentionally flatten it.

Lambdoidal Flattening

AbsentSubm.+Total
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I754 9332 427 3813
Interior153 1000 00 0153
East113 945 42 2120
Coast188 9013 68 4209
N.W.72 913 44 579

Occipital Flattening

AbsentSubm.+Total
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I809 1002 02 0813
Interior153 1000 00 0153
East120 1000 00 0120
Coast209 1000 00 0209
N.W.79 990 01 179

Median Sagittal Crest

AbsentSubm.+Total
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I600 74177 2236 4813
Interior96 6346 3011 7153
East109 9110 81 1120
Coast160 7743 216 3209
N.W.53 5724 302 379

Parietal Bosses

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I17 2413 51381 472 0813
Interior1 1130 8522 140 0153
East4 366 5550 420 0120
Coast6 382 39120 571 0209
N.W.1 140 5138 480 079

A median sagittal crest though not striking is recorded in a number of cases. It has a submedium incidence of 22 per cent and pronounced 4 per cent. Among the interior people, the crest is more common. Because of the heavy, bushy, and wiry hair of Fijians it is probable that some instances of this feature were not detected by simple palpation, and the incidence may be higher than the data indicate.

A median sagittal crest, while not very noticeable, has been observed in several cases. It has a moderate occurrence rate of 22 percent, with a noticeable 4 percent. Among the indigenous people, the crest is more frequent. Due to the thick, bushy, and curly hair of Fijians, it's likely that some cases of this feature went undetected through simple touch, and the actual occurrence may be higher than the statistics suggest.

Submedium development of the parietal bosses is rather common occurring in 51 per cent of the series. It is very common in the interior (85 per cent).

Submedium development of the parietal bosses is quite common, occurring in 51 percent of the series. It's very common in the interior (85 percent).

Cranial Asymmetry

AbsentLeftRightTotal
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji813 1000 00 0813
Interior153 1000 00 0153
East119 1000 00 0119
Coast208 1000 00 0208
N.W.79 1000 00 079

Facial Asymmetry

AbsentLeftRightTotal
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji806 1001 00 0807
Interior153 1000 00 0153
East117 980 02 2119
Coast206 990 02 1208
N.W.78 991 00 079

Cranial and facial assymetry are generally lacking, at least in any marked degree. Normal asymmetries of the face and head were ignored in this description.

Cranial and facial asymmetry are usually minimal, at least to any significant extent. Typical asymmetries of the face and head were not considered in this description.

EYES

Eye Folds: External

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji804 985 14 10 0813
Interior152 990 01 10 0153
East119 990 01 10 0120
Coast209 991 11 10 0208
N.W.78 990 01 10 079

Eye Fold: Median

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I782 963 1/225 33 1/2813
Interior152 990 01 10 0153
East108 901 110 81 1120
Coast202 971 05 21 0209
N.W.78 990 00 01 179

Eye Folds: Internal

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I778 964 030 41 0813
Interior151 990 02 10 0153
East102 851 117 141 0120
Coast203 970 06 30 0209
N.W.78 990 01 10 079
Fiji II116 897 5-1/27 5-1/20 0130
Solomons80 942 2-1/23 3-1/20 085
Tonga63 5733 309 86 5111

Eye folds are not a feature of the Fijian facial make-up. The external fold is present in only 2 per cent of the total series. The median fold shows a 96 per cent absence. The eastern groups exceed the other provinces with a 10 per cent occurrence. The internal eye fold has a total presence of 4 per cent and is also commoner in the east (14 per cent).

Eye folds are not a characteristic of Fijian facial features. The external fold appears in only 2 percent of the total sample. The median fold shows a 96 percent absence. The eastern groups have a higher occurrence than the other provinces, at 10 percent. The internal eye fold has a total presence of 4 percent and is also more common in the east, at 14 percent.

Eye Obliquity

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I251 31358 43201 253 1813
Interior92 6046 3014 91 1153
East33 2852 3545 380 0120
Coast47 22102 4958 282 1209
N.W.27 3432 4120 250 079

Eye Opening

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I0 075 9-1/2737 911 1/2813
Interior0 024 16128 841 1153
East0 013 11107 890 0120
Coast0 09 4200 960 0209
N.W.0 07 972 910 079

Some degree of eye obliquity is present in the majority of cases; 43 per cent show a submedium condition; 25 per cent are medium and three individuals have pronouncedly oblique eyes. The remainder, or 31 per cent, have no obliquity. In the east, the natives depart from this total distribution in opposite directions. The interior groups have much less eye obliquity; the eastern people, a great deal more. The other provinces are quite close to the total frequencies.

Some level of eye obliquity is seen in most cases; 43 percent display a submedium condition; 25 percent are medium and three individuals have distinctly oblique eyes. The remaining 31 percent have no obliquity. In the east, the natives differ from this overall distribution in opposite ways. The interior groups have much less eye obliquity; the eastern groups have significantly more. The other provinces are quite similar to the overall frequencies.

Eye opening height is preponderately moderate (91 per cent). The remaining 10 per cent with one exception show submedium eye opening. Regional variation is not great. The eastern and interior groups have a little higher frequency in the submedium class.

Eye opening height is mostly moderate (91 percent). The other 10 percent, with one exception, show below-average eye opening. There isn't much regional variation. The eastern and interior groups have a slightly higher frequency in the below-average category.

FOREHEAD

Brow Ridges

AbsentSubm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I0 0148 19364 44295 366 1813
Interior0 016 1069 4564 424 3153
East0 028 2342 3550 420 0120
Coast0 042 2099 4767 321 0209
N.W.0 019 2440 5119 241 179

Brow ridges are a marked feature of Fijians in general. None of them lack some supraorbital development. Forty-four per cent have medium brow ridges, 36 per cent are pronounced, and 1 per cent are very pronounced. The other 19 per cent are small. The interior and eastern groups share a little higher incidence of pronounced brow ridges; the other regions are nearer the total distribution of variations.

Brow ridges are a prominent characteristic of Fijians overall. None of them lack some development above the eyes. Forty-four percent have medium brow ridges, 36 percent have pronounced ones, and 1 percent have very pronounced ridges. The remaining 19 percent have small ridges. The interior and eastern groups have a slightly higher occurrence of pronounced brow ridges; the other regions are closer to the overall distribution of variations.

Forehead Height

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I0 0444 55369 450 0813
Interior0 090 5963 410 0153
East0 068 5752 430 0120
Coast0 0110 5399 470 0209
N.W.0 046 5833 420 079

Forehead Slope

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I8 1280 34460 5665 8813
Interior0 053 3587 5713 8153
East0 038 3272 6010 8120
Coast4 278 37113 5414 7209
N.W.2 327 3447 594 479
Tonga1 170 6045 390 0116

Forehead height is submedium in more than half the cases (55 per cent); the others are all medium. There is no significant variation among the subgroups.

Forehead height is below average in more than half of the cases (55 percent); the rest are all average. There is no important variation among the subgroups.

A sloping forehead is quite characteristic of the Fijian head; 56 per cent are moderately sloping, 8 per cent are pronounced, and 34 per cent are submedium. Only 1 per cent have foreheads with no recession. Regional differences are very slight.

A sloping forehead is a defining feature of the Fijian head; 56 percent have a moderate slope, 8 percent have a pronounced slope, and 34 percent have a submedium slope. Only 1 percent have foreheads with no recession. Regional differences are minimal.

NOSE

Nasion Depression

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I1 0170 21579 7163 8813
Interior0 041 27103 679 6153
East1 132 2785 712 2120
Coast0 045 22144 6910 10209
N.W.0 018 2356 716 679

Root Height

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I1 063 8555 67194 24813
Interior0 016 1096 6341 27153
East1 13 377 6439 33120
Coast0 010 5157 7542 20209
N.W.0 04 557 7218 2379

Root Breadth

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I0 01 0258 32554 68813
Interior0 00 038 25115 75153
East0 01 153 4466 55120
Coast0 00 067 32142 68209
N.W.0 00 024 3055 7079

Nasal Septum

StraightConcaveConvexTotal
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I777 990 036 4813
Interior153 1000 00 0153
East118 980 02 2120
Coast196 940 013 6199
N.W.78 990 01 179

Bridge Height

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I0 054 7644 79115 14813
Interior0 013 8124 8116 10153
East0 01 198 8221 18120
Coast0 010 5173 8326 12209
N.W.0 07 960 7612 1579
Tonga0 021 2281 709 8111

Bridge Breadth

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I0 00 0265 33546 67813
Interior0 00 029 19124 81153
East0 00 072 6048 40120
Coast0 00 062 30147 70209
N.W.0 00 023 2956 7179

Nasal Profile

ConcaveStraightConvexTotal
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I14 2625 77173 21812
Interior0 0123 8030 20153
East1 188 7331 26120
Coast4 2171 8234 16209
N.W.1 159 7519 2479

Moderate nasion depression characterizes the majority of noses (71 per cent). Pronounced depression is recorded for 8 per cent, and submedium occurrence in 21 per cent. Only one individual lacks any depression. This distribution does not vary much among the provinces.

Moderate depression of the nose bridge is seen in most individuals (71 percent). A pronounced depression is noted in 8 percent, with a submedium occurrence in 21 percent. Only one person has no depression at all. This pattern doesn't change much across the provinces.

A well-elevated nasal root is also characteristic; 67 per cent show moderate elevation and 24 per cent pronounced, whereas 8 per cent are submedium; one individual is without any elevation. The interior Fijians have a little higher frequency of low nasal root (10 per cent), whereas the eastern people, with a 30 per cent incidence, excel in the pronounced category.

A well-elevated nasal root is also typical; 67 percent show moderate elevation and 24 percent show pronounced elevation, while 8 percent are submedium; one person has no elevation at all. The interior Fijians have a slightly higher frequency of low nasal roots (10 percent), whereas the eastern people, with a 30 percent occurrence, are dominant in the pronounced category.

More striking is the breadth of the Fijian nasal root. It is pronounced [Pg 20] in 68 per cent and moderate in the remainder of the series. Pronounced breadth is commoner among the interior people (75 per cent) and least preponderant in the east (55 per cent).

More noticeable is the range of the Fijian nasal root. It is pronounced [Pg 20] in 68 percent and moderate in the rest of the series. Pronounced breadth is more common among the interior people (75 percent) and less prevalent in the east (55 percent).

The nasal septum is nearly always straight; the only departure from this condition is a 4 per cent incidence of convexity. Regional differences are not significant.

The nasal septum is almost always straight; the only exception is in about 4 percent of cases where it is convex. There are no significant regional differences.

Nasal bridge height is commonly medium (79 per cent) in the totality of noses. Fourteen percent are pronouncedly high and 7 per cent are submedium. The several provinces do not depart very far from this distribution.

Nasal bridge height is generally medium (79 percent) across most noses. Fourteen percent are noticeably high, and 7 percent are below medium. The different regions don’t vary much from this distribution.

The Fijian nose shows a strong tendency to broadness of the bridge. Two-thirds show pronounced breadth of bridge and the remainder are medium. Pronounced broadness increases in the interior groups (81 per cent) and shows a marked decline in the east (40 per cent).

The Fijian nose tends to have a wide bridge. Two-thirds have a distinctly broad bridge, while the rest are medium-sized. The noticeable broadness is more common in the interior groups (81 percent) and significantly decreased in the east (40 percent).

Nasal profiles are most often straight (77 per cent), but convex noses are not uncommon (21 per cent). Convexity is slightly more frequent in the east (26 percent), whereas in the coastal people its incidence drops to 16 per cent.

Nasal profiles are usually straight (77 percent), but convex noses are not rare (21 percent). Convex noses are a bit more common in the east (26 percent), while in coastal populations, the frequency decreases to 16 percent.

Nasal-Tip Thickness

Subm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I1 0344 42461 581 0812
Interior0 055 3698 640 0153
East1 180 6739 330 0120
Coast0 094 45114 551 1209
N.W.0 027 3452 660 079

Nasal-Tip Inclination

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I731 9057 724 30 0812
Interior147 966 40 00 0153
East109 916 55 40 0120
Coast186 8916 87 30 0209
N.W.71 906 82 30 079

Nasal Wings

CompressedMediumFlaringTotal
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I0 0198 24615 76813
Interior0 025 16128 84153
East0 070 5850 42120
Coast0 042 20167 80209
N.W.0 016 2063 8079

The nasal tip is pronounced more often than not, 58 per cent showing this condition. The remaining 42 per cent have tips of medium thickness. Thicker tips occur more often in the interior (64 per cent) and in the northwest (66 per cent), least often in the east (33 per cent).

The nasal tip is prominent more often than not, with 58 percent showing this condition. The other 42 percent have tips of medium thickness. Thicker tips are more common in the interior (64 percent) and the northwest (66 percent), and least common in the east (33 percent).

Usually the nasal tip is not inclined downward. Slight and moderate inclination has a combined incidence of only 10 per cent.

Usually, the tip of the nose isn't pointed downward. A slight or moderate downward tilt occurs in only about 10 percent of cases.

Flaring nasal wings are a common condition (76 per cent). This incidence rises to 84 per cent in the interior and drops to 42 per cent in the east.

Flaring nostrils are a common condition (76 percent). This rate increases to 84 percent in the interior and decreases to 42 percent in the east.

MOUTH

Lip Thickness: Membranous

Subm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I19 2428 53364 452 0813
Interior10 743 28100 650 0153
East1 183 6936 300 0120
Coast1 1/288 42119 571 1/2209
N.W.4 539 4936 460 079
Tonga12 1097 847 60 0116

Lip Thickness: Integumental

Subm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I4 1/2608 75201 250 0813
Interior1 1/2114 7538 250 0153
East1 1100 8319 160 0120
Coast2 1164 7843 210 0209
N.W.0 055 7024 300 079
Fiji II0 01 1/226 20106 80133
Solomons0 00 012 1473 8685

Lip Eversion

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I12 1333 41444 5524 3813
Interior0 063 4188 582 1153
East8 777 6435 290 0120
Coast0 063 30138 668 4209
N.W.1 126 3351 651 179

Lip Seam

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I33 4429 53343 428 1813
Interior1 179 5273 480 0153
East14 1277 6429 240 0120
Coast6 3105 5094 454 2209
N.W.3 444 5632 410 079

Fijian lips are Negroid in thickness in many instances. Membranous lips are thick in 45 per cent of the series, medium in 53 per cent, and submedium in 25 per cent. Thickest lips occur in the interior and coastal areas where the pronounced type registers 65 per cent and 57 per cent, respectively. In the east, lips are more moderate in thickness, and the pronounced category drops to 30 per cent.

Fijian lips are often thicker, similar to those found in people of African descent. Thick lips are present in 45 percent of the sample, medium in 53 percent, and slightly thinner in 25 percent. The thickest lips are found in the interior and coastal regions, where the pronounced type is recorded at 65 percent and 57 percent, respectively. In the eastern areas, the lips are generally moderate in thickness, with the pronounced category dropping to 30 percent.

Integumental lips also tend to be heavy but not so much as the mucous parts. Twenty-five per cent of the total Fijians have thick integumental lips and the remainder are moderate. Howells' Fiji II series classes 80 per cent as very pronounced and the remainder as pronounced. The Solomon Islanders, with an 86 per cent incidence of very pronounced, have the heaviest lips of all.

Integumental lips also tend to be heavy but not as much as the mucous parts. Twenty-five percent of the total Fijians have thick integumental lips, while the rest are moderate. Howells' Fiji II series classifies 80 percent as very pronounced and the remainder as pronounced. The Solomon Islanders, with an 86 percent incidence of very pronounced, have the heaviest lips of all.

Lip eversion varies largely between moderate and submedium, 55 percent and 41 per cent, respectively. The interior and coastal Fijians show this trait a little more often than the others, whereas the eastern people have least lip eversion. The lip seam is present in nearly all cases, but not to a pronounced degree. Fifty-three per cent are submedium and 42 per cent are moderate. The eastern groups are definitely less endowed with this trait. The other provinces vary but little from the total distribution.

Lip eversion varies significantly between moderate and submedium, at 55 percent and 41 percent, respectively. The interior and coastal Fijians exhibit this trait slightly more often than others, while the eastern people show the least lip eversion. The lip seam is present in almost all cases, but not in a very noticeable way. Fifty-three percent are submedium and 42 percent are moderate. The eastern groups clearly have less of this trait. The other provinces don't differ much from the overall distribution.

TEETH

Bite

UnderE-ESubm. over+ overTotal
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I2 0518 64274 3413 2807
Interior0 094 6159 390 0153
East0 073 6145 382 2120
Coast1 0130 6276 360 0207
N.W.1 149 6223 293 476
Fiji II4 350 3877 590 0131
Solomons1 137 4545 540 083

Caries

AbsentSubm.(1-4)+ (5-8)++ (9-16)+++ (17-x)Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I645 7880 1058 722 38 1813
Interior130 8416 103 21 13 2153
East100 8310 124 32 14 3120
Coast153 7329 1416 88 43 1209
N.W.62 809 116 81 10 078

Crowding

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I685 84115 1413 20 0813
Interior134 8819 120 00 0153
East100 8317 143 30 0120
Coast180 8625 124 20 0209
N.W.64 8114 180 00 078

Tooth Eruption

CompleteIncompleteTotal
No. %No. %
Fiji I796 9815 2811
Interior153 1000 0153
East119 991 1120
Coast199 958 4207
N.W.74 942 376

Wear

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I184 23443 54144 1842 5813
Interior27 {18}58 {38}37 {24}31 {20}153
East26 {22}69 {57}24 {20}1 {1}120
Coast60 {29}120 {57}28 {13}1 {1/2}209
N.W.12 {15}47 {60}17 {22}2 {3}78

The jaws of Fijians have a rather distinctive frequency of edge-to-edge bite. I recorded this as 64 per cent, but Howells' series indicates a 38 per cent incidence.

The jaws of Fijians have a unique frequency of edge-to-edge bite. I noted this as 64 percent, but Howells' series shows a 38 percent occurrence.

The quality of Fijian teeth as reflected by frequency of caries is excellent. Nearly 80 per cent of the total show no tooth decay. The soundest teeth from this standpoint occur in the interior, the east, and the northwest. The coastal people show the highest incidence of caries, an interesting point since many of this sample come from around Suva and have more access to the Western processed foods.

The condition of Fijian teeth, as seen in the frequency of cavities, is outstanding. Almost 80 percent of the population shows no signs of tooth decay. The healthiest teeth, in this regard, are found in the interior, the east, and the northwest regions. People living on the coast have the highest rates of cavities, which is noteworthy since many in this group are from around Suva and have greater access to Western processed foods.

Tooth crowding is quite uncommon to Fijians, a condition consistent with their generous jaw conformation. Crowding is noted in only 16 per cent of the series, and most of it is slight.

Tooth crowding is pretty rare among Fijians, which aligns with their broad jaw structure. Crowding is observed in only 16 percent of the cases, and most of it is mild.

Tooth eruption is complete in nearly all the subjects. A 2 per cent incidence of incomplete eruption is entirely due to the immaturity of some of the young adults. No pathological suppression was noted.

Tooth eruption is complete in almost all subjects. The 2 percent of incomplete eruptions is solely due to the immaturity of some young adults. No pathological suppression was observed.

Some wear of the teeth is recorded for more than three-quarters of the series, but lacking age incidence, the data has limited meaning. The Fijian diet is not abrasive the way, for instance, it is for the Indians of our Southwest, where the staple food is ground in stone mills.

Some wear on the teeth is noted for over three-quarters of the series, but without age-related data, the information is somewhat limited. The Fijian diet isn't abrasive like it is for the Indigenous people of the Southwest, where the main food is ground in stone mills.

EARS

Ear Helix

Subm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I230 28511 6372 90 0813
Interior45 2999 659 60 0153
East29 2474 6217 140 0120
Coast58 28128 6123 110 0209
N.W.24 3051 654 50 079

Darwin's Point

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I761 9436 415 21 0813
Interior150 983 20 00 0153
East112 936 52 20 0120
Coast187 8913 64 41 0209
N.W.77 972 30 00 079

Ear-Lobe Type

SolderedAttachedFreeTotal
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I80 10531 65202 25813
Interior47 3174 4832 21153
East3 385 7132 27120
Coast9 4141 6759 28209
N.W.5 652 6622 2879

Ear-Lobe Size

Subm.++++++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I176 22457 56178 222 0813
Interior49 3266 4338 250 0153
East16 1376 6327 231 1120
Coast31 15123 5955 260 0209
N.W.20 2547 5912 150 079

Ear Protrusion

AbsentSubm.+++Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I2 0262 32463 5786 11813
Interior1 147 3190 5915 10153
East0 031 2677 6412 10120
Coast1 075 36114 5519 9209
N.W.0 026 3349 624 579

Ear Slant

AbsentSubm.+Total
No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I416 51332 4165 8813
Interior78 5167 448 5153
East55 4652 4313 11120
Coast118 5674 3517 8209
N.W.38 4839 492 379

The Fijian ear is a moderately distinctive appendage from a racial standpoint. The helix shows moderate development on the whole and is submedium otherwise except for a 9 per cent incidence of pronounced appearance. Regional variation is small.

The Fijian ear is a somewhat distinctive feature from a racial perspective. The helix is generally moderately developed and is otherwise medium, except for a 9 percent occurrence of a pronounced appearance. There is little regional variation.

The Darwin's point is noted in a number of cases: 4 per cent to a submedium degree and 2 per cent medium.

The Darwin's point is noted in several cases: 4 percent to a submedium degree and 2 percent medium.

The ear lobe is somewhat distinctive with a 65 per cent incidence of the attached condition and 10 per cent soldered. The remaining 25 per cent is free. This distinctiveness is more marked among the interior groups where the soldered type of lobe increases to 31 percent.

The earlobe is somewhat unique, with 65 percent having the attached condition and 10 percent having a soldered lobe. The remaining 25 percent is free. This uniqueness is more noticeable among interior groups, where the soldered type of lobe rises to 31 percent.

Ear-lobe size is moderate in more than half the series, pronounced in 22 per cent, and submedium in 22 per cent. Small lobes are commoner in the interior province.

Ear lobe size is average in more than half of the cases, noticeable in 22 percent, and below average in 22 percent. Smaller lobes are more common in the interior region.

Moderate ear protrusion is the commonest form followed by submedium. Marked projection is recorded as 11 per cent.

Moderate ear protrusion is the most common type, followed by submedium. Significant projection is noted at 11 percent.

Ear slant either is lacking or slight in most instances; the series is rather evenly divided between these two categories, the zero category having a small majority. Moderate slant is noted for 8 per cent.

Ear slant is either minimal or absent in most cases; the series is fairly evenly split between these two groups, with the zero category having a slight majority. Moderate slant is observed in 8 percent of instances.

BODY BUILD

Body Build: Endomorph

123456Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I260 32334 42126 1546 633 412 1811
Interior49 3266 4326 175 36 41 1153
East30 2554 4521 185 48 71 1119
Coast77 3782 3928 1310 58 43 1209
N.W.26 3334 439 116 82 32 379

Body Build: Mesomorph

123456Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I1 {0.1}2 {0.2}33 4131 16227 28419 52813
Interior0 01 111 727 1841 2773 48153
East1 10 02 214 1238 3265 54120
Coast0 00 09 429 1467 32104 50209
N.W.0 01 12 315 1914 1847 5979

Body Build: Ectomorph

123456Total
No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %No. %
Fiji I351 43195 24110 1488 1168 81 {0.1}813
Interior54 3556 3713 815 1015 100 0153
East49 4133 2815 1312 1011 90 0120
Coast84 4051 2436 1718 919 91 1209
N.W.39 4919 2411 146 84 50 079

Variations in body build have been expressed with the Sheldon method of somatotyping.[18] Accordingly, the Fijians are primarily and definitely mesomorphic, with endomorphy the second strongest component, and ectomorphy, third. About 80 per cent of the total series had a mesomorphic rating of 5 and 6 which leaves no doubt as to the prevailingly athletic physique. Endomorphy is seldom pronounced so that obesity may be described as no more than occasional. A pronounced linear build is likewise relatively infrequent.

Variations in body types have been categorized using the Sheldon method of somatotyping.[18] Accordingly, the Fijians are mainly classified as mesomorphic, with endomorphy as the second strongest component, and ectomorphy in third place. About 80 percent of the total population scored a mesomorphic rating of 5 and 6, clearly indicating a predominantly athletic physique. Endomorphy is rarely pronounced, so obesity can be described as infrequent. A distinctly linear build is also relatively uncommon.

The Fijian subgroups do not vary markedly from the over-all pattern.

The Fijian subgroups don't differ significantly from the overall trend.

SUMMARY

The preceding data may be summarized from three points of view. The first will emphasize the physical features that are common to most Fijians. At the outset it should be pointed out that a "typical" Fijian does not exist, except as a statistical abstraction. The racial composition of the Fijian is complex and far from being homogeneous. There is no doubt, from the physical and cultural evidence, as well as the geographical location, that Fijians are related to both Melanesians and Polynesians. The second point is to give a precise indication of these affinities with Melanesia and Polynesia. A third concern of this analysis is the geographical variability within Fiji. This consists of a regional breakdown of the Fijian data into interior, eastern, coastal, and northwestern divisions, in order to demonstrate some of the local variation of the Melanesian-Polynesian ingredients and their possible meaning.

The previous data can be summarized from three perspectives. First, it will highlight the physical traits that are common among most Fijians. It’s important to note from the start that a "typical" Fijian doesn't really exist, except as a statistical idea. The racial makeup of Fijians is complex and far from uniform. There's no question, based on physical and cultural evidence, as well as geographic location, that Fijians are connected to both Melanesians and Polynesians. The second point will clarify these connections with Melanesia and Polynesia. The third focus of this analysis is the geographic diversity within Fiji. This includes breaking down the Fijian data into regions: interior, eastern, coastal, and northwestern divisions, to show some of the local variations in the Melanesian-Polynesian elements and their potential significance.

Body (pl. 1).

—In general size and appearance, the Fijian is tall and well proportioned. His body is fairly tall and well muscled, that is, predominately athletic in build. Obesity is relatively uncommon except in moderate degrees. This rather tall stature allies the Fijians more closely with the Polynesians. Shoulder, chest, and hip diameters also indicate that Fijians are generously endowed.

—In general size and appearance, Fijians are tall and well-proportioned. Their bodies are quite tall and muscular, primarily athletic in build. Obesity is relatively rare, except in moderate cases. This taller stature links Fijians closely with Polynesians. Measurements of shoulders, chest, and hips also show that Fijians are well-built.

The Fijians who occupy the mountainous interior of the main island are less tall than the coastal and eastern people; they also have narrower shoulders, relatively deeper and narrower chests, whereas their arms and legs are somewhat shorter. The eastern Fijians are tallest of all subgroups.

The Fijians who live in the mountainous interior of the main island are shorter than the coastal and eastern people; they also have narrower shoulders, and their chests are relatively deeper and narrower, while their arms and legs are a bit shorter. The eastern Fijians are the tallest among all the subgroups.

Skin Color.

—Most Fijians have either medium- or dark-brown skin on the exposed facial surfaces. The more protected body areas show higher frequencies of medium brown and light brown. The Fijians are definitely less dark than the Melanesians but are darker, on the whole, than the Polynesians.

—Most Fijians have medium to dark brown skin on their exposed faces. The more protected areas of their bodies typically show more medium and light brown tones. Fijians are definitely lighter than Melanesians but generally darker than Polynesians.

The interior hill tribes are darker than the eastern and coastal groups. The lightest average skin shade occurs in the east.

The mountain tribes have darker skin compared to the eastern and coastal groups. The lightest average skin tone is found in the east.

Hair (pls. 6 and 7).

—In several respects the hair is the most consistent endowment of the Fijians. In nearly all instances it is black, frizzly, and coarse. The only departure from this condition is an occasional instance of dark brown and a few instances of rufous shade. Curly hair is a more common exception in the east. The coastal and northwestern people are nearer to the interior condition of frizzly hair. All in all, the hair form is definitely Melanesian. Hair length [Pg 23] conforms to the general Melanesian condition, that is, intermediate between short Negroid and long Caucasiod or Mongoloid.

—In many ways, hair is the most dependable characteristic of the Fijians. Almost all of it is black, frizzy, and coarse. The only variations are a few instances of dark brown and some shades of reddish-brown. Curly hair is more common in the eastern regions. The coastal and northwestern communities show a closer resemblance to the frizzy hair found inland. Overall, the hair type is distinctly Melanesian. Hair length [Pg 23] fits within the typical Melanesian range, which is somewhere between short Negroid and long Caucasoid or Mongoloid.

Considerable beard and body hair is common to Fijians (pls. 8 and 9). Moderate to pronounced beard is shown by nearly three-quarters of the total series, and body hair is even more prevelant. General hairiness is also exhibited by the Solomon Islanders and the Tongans in the comparative data. The interior tribes of Fiji are more hairy than the other groups. This prevelence of body and face hair seems to conform to parts of Melanesia where it may be regarded as an Australoid element. Its presence in the Tongan data does not seem to be representative of other Polynesians, who are generally described as more glabrous.

Considerable beard and body hair is common among Fijians (pls. 8 and 9). Nearly three-quarters of the total series show moderate to pronounced beards, and body hair is even more prevalent. General hairiness is also seen in Solomon Islanders and Tongans in the comparative data. The interior tribes of Fiji are hairier than other groups. This prevalence of body and facial hair seems to align with parts of Melanesia where it may be considered an Australoid feature. Its presence in the Tongan data doesn’t appear to reflect other Polynesians, who are generally described as having less body hair.

Head (pl. 2).

—Moderate brachycephaly is the commonest head form of Fijians, although the total range is great. In this respect the Fijians resemble the broad-headed Tongans, and are quite distinct from the longer-headed Melanesians. The Fijian head, despite its general brachycephaly, is rather compressed in the temporal area and submedium in parietal elevation. The back of the cranium is characteristically flattened, a natural conformation as no deformation is practiced.

—Moderate brachycephaly is the most common head shape among Fijians, although there is a wide variety. In this aspect, Fijians are similar to the broad-headed Tongans and quite different from the longer-headed Melanesians. Despite the overall brachycephaly, the Fijian head is somewhat compressed in the temporal area and has a medium height in the parietal region. The back of the skull is typically flattened, which is a natural shape since no deformation is practiced.

The interior mountain tribes of Fiji have narrower heads and lower cranial indices than do the coastal and eastern groups. The interior people also have lesser head heights and a higher breadth-height index.

The inland mountain tribes of Fiji have narrower heads and lower cranial indices compared to the coastal and eastern groups. The interior people also have shorter head heights and a higher breadth-height index.

Forehead (pl. 10).

—Moderate to strongly developed supraorbital ridges are a common Fijian endowment. Similarly are low and sloping foreheads. These features have been observed in western Melanesia, where, like hairiness, they suggest Australoid of archaic Caucasoid elements.

—Moderate to strongly developed brow ridges are a common trait among Fijians. Similarly, they tend to have low and sloping foreheads. These characteristics have been noticed in western Melanesia, where, like hairiness, they indicate a mix of Australoid and primitive Caucasoid features.

Face.

—Broadness characterizes the Fijian face. Bizygomatic breadth locates them nearer to the Polynesians than to the narrower-faced Melanesians. Strongly developed malars are common, and they tend to project laterally more than frontally. Widest faces appear among the eastern people.

—The Fijian face is characterized by its broadness. The width across the cheekbones puts them closer to Polynesians than to the narrower-faced Melanesians. Well-defined cheekbones are common, and they usually extend more to the sides than to the front. The widest faces are found among the eastern populations.

Bigonial and bicanine widths show that generous breadth includes the lower parts of the face, a condition born out by strong gonial angles.

Bigonial and bicanine widths indicate that a broad lower face is present, which is supported by pronounced gonial angles.

Face length falls between the long-faced Tongans and the definitely shorter-faced Melanesians (pls. 3 and 4).

Face length is in between the long-faced Tongans and the clearly shorter-faced Melanesians (pls. 3 and 4).

Some prognathism is common among Fijians, both total and mid-facial, but the condition is not universal nor pronounced. The eastern Fijians are the least prognathic (pl. 10).

Some prognathism is common among Fijians, both total and mid-facial, but the condition is not universal or very noticeable. The eastern Fijians are the least prognathic (pl. 10).

Eyes.

—Dark brown is the prevailing eye color, although many subjects have medium-brown eyes. Eye folds are only occasional and eye-opening height is usually moderate. Slight eye obliquity is common, more so in the eastern sample.

—Dark brown is the most common eye color, although many individuals have medium-brown eyes. Eye folds are rare, and the height of the eye opening is generally average. A slight slant to the eyes is common, especially in the eastern group.

Nose (pl. 4).

—Great variability marks the nasal area. The commonest condition is a broad and moderately long nose. Medium nasion depression is frequent; the root is wide and moderately elevated. Bridge breadth is often pronounced and the nasal profile is straight to convex. The nasal tip is characteristically thickened and nasal wings are usually flaring. On the whole, there is a great deal of Melanesian in the Fijian nose; it is Negroid, but not pronouncedly. Those aspects of the nose which may be termed Negroid are commoner in the interior hill people and the northwest and least evident in the east.

—There’s a lot of variation in the nasal area. The most common feature is a wide, moderately long nose. A medium dip at the bridge of the nose is common; the root is broad and moderately raised. The width of the bridge is often noticeable, and the nasal profile ranges from straight to slightly curved. The tip of the nose tends to be thick, and the nostrils are usually flared. Overall, the Fijian nose shows many Melanesian traits; it has some Negroid features, but they aren't very pronounced. The Negroid characteristics are more common among the hill people in the interior and in the northwest, and least noticeable in the east.

Lips (pl. 5).

—Thick and moderately everted lips occur in nearly half the series. This Negroid combination is more manifest in the interior and least in the east. Integumental lips tend to be heavy.

—Thick and moderately turned-out lips are found in almost half of the samples. This African characteristic is most noticeable in the interior and least prominent in the east. The skin on the lips tends to be heavy.

Teeth.

—The condition of the teeth is generally excellent. Most Fijians have broad, roomy jaws that permit complete and uncrowded tooth development. Dental caries are very infrequent. A rather high incidence of edge-to-edge bite is interesting.

—The condition of the teeth is generally excellent. Most Fijians have broad, spacious jaws that allow for complete and uncrowded tooth development. Cavities are very rare. A quite common occurrence of edge-to-edge bite is interesting.

Ears (pl. 5).

—The ears are usually moderate in length and tend to protrude. Ear lobes are commonly large and are more often attached or soldered than free.

—The ears are typically a medium length and often stick out. Earlobes are usually large and are more often attached or fused rather than free.


CONCLUSIONS

On the whole the Fijians are predominately Melanesian but with numerous Polynesian affinities that vary with locality. The Melanesian qualities are in part Negroid or Negritoid and in part Australoid. The Negroid resemblances are best illustrated by frizzly black hair, broad noses with depressed nasion and flaring nostrils, thick lips, and dark pigmentation (pls. 11 and 12). Australoid elements are general hairiness, strong brow ridges, low, sloping foreheads, compressed parietal and temporal areas, and some prognathism (pl. 13). The presence of Australoid suggestions need not mean that they come from Australia, but that they form a part of the Melanesian make-up. This interpretation of the Melanesians as a hybrid people conforms with similar designations by such students as Birdsell[19] and Hooton.[20] Polynesian influence in Fiji is most clearly demonstrated by lighter pigmentation, tall and muscular body build, moderate brachycephaly, broad faces and jaws, high and fairly long noses and strong chins. I found much the same resemblances between Fijians and Polynesians as did Howells;[21] however, in my comparisons the Polynesian similarities are outweighed and outnumbered by a greater array of Melanesian characters. The essential Melanesian character of the Fijian population is further demonstrated by recent blood-analysis comparisons; the conclusions of Simmons et al., identify the Fijians as Melanesian.[22]

Overall, the Fijians are mainly Melanesian, but they share various Polynesian traits that differ by region. The Melanesian features include some Negroid or Negritoid traits as well as Australoid characteristics. The Negroid features are best shown through tightly curled black hair, broad noses with a flat bridge and flared nostrils, thick lips, and dark skin (pls. 11 and 12). Australoid traits include general body hair, prominent brow ridges, low sloping foreheads, compressed areas around the sides of the head, and some degree of prognathism (pl. 13). The presence of Australoid traits doesn’t necessarily indicate an origin from Australia; rather, they are part of the Melanesian genetic makeup. This view of Melanesians as a mixed population aligns with similar assessments by researchers like Birdsell[19] and Hooton.[20] The Polynesian influence in Fiji is most evident in their lighter skin tones, tall and muscular builds, moderate round head shapes, broad faces and jaws, high and relatively long noses, and strong chins. I noticed many similarities between Fijians and Polynesians, similar to what Howells observed;[21] however, in my analysis, the Polynesian similarities are less diverse and numerous compared to a broader range of Melanesian features. The distinct Melanesian identity of the Fijian population is further supported by recent blood analysis comparisons; the findings of Simmons et al. classify the Fijians as Melanesian.[22]

The Fijians who live in the interior of Viti Levu show the most frequent Melanesian traits (pls. 11 and 14). These people are shorter, have narrower shoulders and chests; their heads are narrower and lower vaulted; they have broader noses, thicker lips, are hairier, and have darker skins. This condition, occurring as it does in the mountainous interior, which may be regarded as a refuge area, supports the theory that the Melanesian is the earlier component in Fiji.

The Fijians living in the interior of Viti Levu exhibit the most common Melanesian traits (pls. 11 and 14). These individuals tend to be shorter, with narrower shoulders and chests; their heads are also narrower and have a lower vault; they have broader noses, thicker lips, are hairier, and have darker skin. This situation, occurring in the mountainous interior—which can be seen as a refuge area—bolsters the theory that the Melanesian population is an earlier component in Fiji.

The eastern Fijians stand in considerable contrast to the interior tribes and are the most Polynesian in appearance (pl. 15). They have lighter skins, greater stature, and heavier musculature. Their heads are broader, as are their faces and jaws; their noses are larger, narrower, and higher bridged, and their chins are more pronounced.

The eastern Fijians look quite different from the tribes in the interior and are the most Polynesian in appearance (pl. 15). They have lighter skin, are taller, and have more muscle. Their heads are wider, as are their faces and jaws; their noses are larger, thinner, and have a higher bridge, and their chins are more prominent.

The coastal sample might be called intermediate or a more even blend of Melanesian and Polynesian.

The coastal sample could be considered intermediate or a more balanced mix of Melanesian and Polynesian.

The northwestern people resemble the coastal tribes. This means they show fewer departures in either a Melanesian or Polynesian direction. This also means they do not tell us whether the legendary ancestors, who are supposed to have first landed in Fiji on the northwest coast of Viti Levu,[23] were Melanesian or Polynesian. These data may mean one of three things: (1) the Fijian tradition of a landing at this place eight or ten generations ago is groundless, (2) the immigration did take place but whatever racial traits predominated, whether Melanesian or Polynesian, have been homogenized and obscured by subsequent intermixture and by movements back and forth on Viti Levu, (3) the landing did occur but the ancestors were already a Melanesian-Polynesian blend when they arrived.

The people in the northwest are similar to the coastal tribes. This means they don't diverge much in either a Melanesian or Polynesian direction. It also means they don't clarify if the legendary ancestors, who are said to have first arrived in Fiji on the northwest coast of Viti Levu,[23] were Melanesian or Polynesian. This information could suggest one of three possibilities: (1) the Fijian tradition of a landing at this location eight or ten generations ago is baseless, (2) the immigration did happen, but whatever racial traits were dominant, whether Melanesian or Polynesian, have been blended and masked by later mixing and movements back and forth on Viti Levu, or (3) the landing did take place, but the ancestors were already a mix of Melanesian and Polynesian when they arrived.


LITERATURE CITED

Birdsell. J. B.
1948. Racial Origin of the Extinct Tasmanians. Records of the Queen
Victoria Museum, Tasmania, Vol. II, No. 3.

Birdsell. J. B.
1948. Racial Origin of the Extinct Tasmanians. Records of the Queen
Victoria Museum, Tasmania, Vol. II, No. 3.

Churchill, W.
1911. The Polynesian Wanderings. Carnegie Institute of Washington,
Publ. No. 134, Washington.

Churchill, W.
1911. The Polynesian Wanderings. Carnegie Institute of Washington,
Publ. No. 134, Washington.

Derrick, R. A.
1951. History of Fiji. Printing and Stationery Dept., Suva, Fiji.
Fornander, A.
1878. The Polynesian Race. London.

Derrick, R. A.
1951. History of Fiji. Printing and Stationery Dept., Suva, Fiji.
Fornander, A.
1878. The Polynesian Race. London.

Hocart, A. M.
1929. Lau Islands, Fiji. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Bull. 62,
Honolulu.

Hocart, A. M.
1929. Lau Islands, Fiji. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Bull. 62,
Honolulu.

Hooton, E. A.
1946. Up From the Ape. Macmillan Co., New York

Hooton, E. A.
1946. Up From the Ape. Macmillan Co., New York

Howells. W. W.
1933. Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands.
American Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Papers, Vol. 33,
Pt. 4.

Howells, W. W.
1933. Anthropometry and Blood Types in Fiji and the Solomon Islands.
American Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Papers, Vol. 33,
Pt. 4.

Roth, G. K.
1953. The Fijian Way of Life. Oxford University Press, London.

Roth, G. K.
1953. The Fijian Way of Life. Oxford University Press, London.

Simmon, R. T., J. J. Graydon, and G. Barnes
1945.  The Medical Journal of Australia, May 26.

Simmon, R. T., J. J. Graydon, and G. Barnes
1945. The Medical Journal of Australia, May 26.

Sullivan, L. R.
1922.  A Contribution to Tongan Somotology. Bernice P. Bishop Museum,
Vol. VIII, No. 4.

Sullivan, L. R.
1922. A Contribution to Tongan Somotology. Bernice P. Bishop Museum,
Vol. VIII, No. 4.

Thomson, B.
1908.  The Fijians: A Study of the Decay of Custom. Wm. Heinemann,
London.

Thomson, B.
1908. The Fijians: A Study of the Decline of Tradition. Wm. Heinemann,
London.


PLATES

PLATE 1. NEAR-AVERAGE BODY FEATURES

Stature: 173.3 cm.
Weight: 172.1 lbs.
Arm length: 75.1 cm.
Leg length: 82.2 cm.
Shoulder breadth: 41 cm.
Hip breadth: 29.1 cm.
Shoulder-hip index: 71.0
Chest breadth: 28.8 cm.
Chest depth: 22.8 cm.
Thoracic index: 75.7
Sitting height: 86.3 cm.
Sitting height-stature index: 50.0
Body build: Strongly mesomorphic

PLATE 2. NEAR-AVERAGE CRANIAL FEATURES

Head length: 187.2 mm.
Head breadth: 156.9 mm.
Cephalic index: 83.9
Head height: 128.6 mm.
Length-height index: 68.7
Length-breadth index: 81.1
Minimum frontal diameter: 109.8 mm.
Fronto-parietal index: 70.0

PLATE 3. NEAR-AVERAGE FACIAL FEATURES

Bizygomatic breadth: 146.7 mm.
Cephalo-facial index: 93.2
Zygo-frontal index: 75.3
Bigonial breadth: 109.6 mm.
Fronto-gonial index: 100.1
Zygo-gonial index: 74.7
Bicanine breadth: 39.8
Total facial height: 122.3 mm.
Total facial index: 84.1
Upper facial height: 71.3
Upper facial index: 48.9
Nasal height: 53.1
Nasal breadth: 45.5
Nasal index: 85.6

PLATE 4. NEAR-AVERAGE FACE AND NOSE FEATURES

FACE
Pronounced malars
Moderately long face
Wide gonia
Moderate chin
Moderate prognathism
NOSE
Broad bridge
Wide root
Moderate length
Thick tip
Flaring nostrils
Straight profile

PLATE 5. NEAR-AVERAGE LIP AND EAR FEATURES

LIPS
Moderately thick
Pronounced lip seam
Moderate eversion
EARS
Moderate size
Small lobe
Attached lobe
Moderate protrusion

PLATE 6. NEAR-AVERAGE HAIR FEATURES

Black color
Frizzly form
Pronounced quantity
Coarse texture
Intermediate length

PLATE 7. HAIR FORM VARIANTS

CURLY HAIR    WAVY HAIR

Curly Hair    Wavy Hair

PLATE 8. PRONOUNCED BODY HAIR

20 per cent occurrence

PLATE 9. PRONOUNCED BEARD

26 per cent occurrence

PLATE 10. FACIAL VARIATIONS

No prognathism
High forehead
Moderate browridges
Moderate prognathism
Low, receding forehead
Pronounced browridges
Pronounced prognathism
Low, receding forehead
Very pronounced browridges

PLATE 11. INTERIOR SUBJECT (MORE NEGROID)

Shorter stature
Narrower shoulders
Deeper chest
Darker skin
Narrower head
Broader nose
Thicker lips

PLATE 12. "NEGROID" FIJIAN

PLATE 13. INTERIOR SUBJECT (MORE AUSTRALOID)

Heavier beard and body hair
Lower, more sloping forehead
More compressed parietals
More pronounced brow ridges
More prognathic

PLATE 14. "AUSTRALOID" FIJIANS

PLATE 15. EASTERN SUBJECT (MORE POLYNESIAN)

Lighter skin
Less beard and body hair
Wavy hair
Wider head
Higher, steeper forehead
Less prognathic
Higher, narrower nose
Moderately thick lips

Illustration: PLATE 16. "POLYNESIAN" FIJIANS

[1] Hooton, 1946, pp. 735-763.

Hooton, 1946, pp. 735-763.

[2] Derrick, 1946, pp. 5-6.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Derrick, 1946, pp. 5-6.

[3] Ibid., pp. 7-8.

Ibid., pp. 7-8.

[4] Population statistics from "Fiji Information," of 1954, issued by Public Relations Office, Suva, Fiji.

[4] Population statistics from "Fiji Information," 1954, published by the Public Relations Office, Suva, Fiji.

[5] Hooton, 1946, p. 621.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Hooton, 1946, p. 621.

[6] Birdsell, 1949, p. 120.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Birdsell, 1949, p. 120.

[7] Fornander, 1878.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Fornander, 1878.

[8] Churchill, 1911.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Churchill, 1911.

[9] Hocart, 1929, p. 236.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Hocart, 1929, p. 236.

[10] Howells, 1933, p. 335.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Howells, 1933, p. 335.

[11] Roth, 1953, pp. 54, 55.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Roth, 1953, pp. 54, 55.

[12] One pound deducted for dress (usually shorts only).

[12] One pound taken off for clothing (usually just shorts).

[13] By subtracting sitting height from total stature.

[13] By taking total height and subtracting sitting height.

[14] Cranial measurements are not distorted by cradling practice or other causes of deformation.

[14] Cranial measurements are not affected by cradling practices or other factors that cause deformation.

[15] Howells records skin color with the von Luschan scale. I have adjusted this scale to my own.

[15] Howells notes skin color using the von Luschan scale. I've modified this scale for my own use.

[16] + means medium or moderate; ++ means pronounced; +++ means very pronounced.

[16] + means medium or moderate; ++ means noticeable; +++ means very noticeable.

[17] Observation taken on the chest.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Observation noted on the chest.

[18] W. H. Sheldon, The Variation of Human Physique, Harper and Bros., 1940.

[18] W. H. Sheldon, The Variation of Human Physique, Harper and Bros., 1940.

[19] Birdsell, 1949, p. 120.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Birdsell, 1949, p. 120.

[20] Hooton, 1946, p. 621.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Hooton, 1946, p. 621.

[21] Howells, 1933, p. 332.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Howells, 1933, p. 332.

[22] Simmons et al., 1945, pp. 3-4

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Simmons et al., 1945, pp. 3-4

[23] See pp. 1 and 4 of Introduction.

[23] See pages 1 and 4 of the Introduction.

[Transcriber's Note: Figures incorrectly entered as zero have been calculated and inserted in {}.]

[Transcriber's Note: Figures mistakenly entered as zero have been calculated and placed in {}.]




        
        
    
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