This is a modern-English version of The Sea: Its Stirring Story of Adventure, Peril, & Heroism. Volume 1, originally written by Whymper, Frederick.
It has been thoroughly updated, including changes to sentence structure, words, spelling,
and grammar—to ensure clarity for contemporary readers, while preserving the original spirit and nuance. If
you click on a paragraph, you will see the original text that we modified, and you can toggle between the two versions.
Scroll to the bottom of this page and you will find a free ePUB download link for this book.
![[larger version]](images/illo_002.jpg){kind=link}
BRITISH CROSSES AND MEDALS.—(Coloured Frontispiece.)
BRITISH CROSSES AND MEDALS.—(Colored Frontispiece.)
| 1. Medal of Elizabeth. (Defeat of the Armada, 1588.) | ||||||
| 2. Crimea Medal and Naval Clasp for Azoff (1854-6). | 5. Naval Medal of the Commonwealth (1650). | 3. China Medal with Two Naval Clasps (1857-58). | ||||
| 4. Naval War Medal Ribbon (1793, 1840). | 6. Conspicuous Gallantry Ribbon (1854, 1874). | |||||
| 7. Commonwealth Naval Medal (Blake's Wins Against the Dutch) (1653). | 8. Naval Medal of Charles II. | 9. Commonwealth Naval Medal (Blake's Wins Against the Dutch) (1653). | ||||
| 10. Collar of the Order of the Bath. | ||||||
| 11. Good Conduct and Long-Service Medal. | 12. Baltic Medal (1854). | |||||
| 13. Victoria Cross with Navy Ribbon. | 15. Albert Medal (Sea). | |||||
| 14. Badge of the Knights of the Bath (Military and Navy Division). | ||||||
A Captivating Tale of Adventure, Danger, & Bravery.
ILLUSTRATED.
Cassell Petter & Galpin:
LONDON, PARIS & NEW YORK.
[ALL RIGHTS RESERVED]
Table of Contents.
| CHAPTER 1 | |
| MEN-OF-WAR. | PAGE |
| Our Wooden Walls—The Win—Siege of Toulon—Battle of St. Vincent—Nelson’s Bridge—Trafalgar’s Glorious Day—The Day for such Battles gone—Iron v. Wood—Lessons of the Crimean War—Moral Effect of the Presence of our Fleets—Bombardment of Sebastopol—Red-hot Shot and Gibraltar—The Ironclad Movement—The Fighter—Experiences with Ironclads—The Merrimac in Hampton Roads—A Speedily-decided Action—The Cumberland sunk and Congress burned—The First Monitor—Engagement with the Merrimac—Notes on Recent Actions—The Shah and Huascar—An Ironclad tackled by a Merchantman | 4 |
| CHAPTER 2 | |
| MEN OF PEACE. | |
| Naval Life in Peace Times—A Grand Exploring Voyage—The Cruise of the Challenger—Its Work—Deep-sea Soundings—Five Miles down—Apparatus employed—Ocean Treasures—A Gigantic Sea-monster—Tristan d’Acunha—A Discovery Interesting to the Discovered—The Two Crusoes—The Inaccessible Island—Solitary Life—The Sea-cart—Swimming Pigs—Rescued at Last—The Real Crusoe Island to Let—Down South—The Land of Desolation—Kerguelen—The Sealers’ Dreary Life—In the Antarctic—Among the Icebergs | 28 |
| CHAPTER 3 | |
| THE MEN OF THE SEA. | |
| The Great Lexicographer on Sailors—The Dangers of the Sea—How Boys become Sailors—Young Amyas Leigh—The Genuine Jack Tar—Training-Ships vs the old Guard-Ships—"Seafarers and Landlubbers"—The Training Undergone—Routine on Board—Never-ending Work—Ship like a Lady’s Watch—Watches and “Notifications”—Old Grogram and Grog—The Sailor’s Sheet Anchor—Shadows in the Seaman’s Life—The Naval Cat—Testimony and Opinion of a Medical Officer—An Example—Boy Flogging in the Navy—Shakespeare and Herbert on Sailors and the Sea | 42 |
| CHAPTER IV. | |
| PERILS OF THE SAILOR’S LIFE. | |
| The Loss of the Captain—Six Hundred Souls swept into Eternity without a Warning—The Mansion and the Cottage alike Sufferers—Causes of the Disaster—Horrors of the Scene—Noble Captain Burgoyne—Narratives of Survivors—An almost Incredible Feat—Loss of the Royal George—A Great Disaster caused by a Trifle—Nine Hundred Lost—A Child saved by a Sheep—The Portholes Upright—An Involuntary Bath of Tar—Rafts of Corpses—The Vessel Blown up in 1839-40—The Loss of the Vanguard—Half a Million sunk in Fifty Minutes—Admirable Discipline on Board—All Saved—The Court Martial | 54 |
| CHAPTER V | |
| PERILS OF THE SAILOR’S LIFE (continued). | |
| The Value of Discipline—The Loss of the Kent—Fire on Board—The Ship Waterlogged—Death in Two Forms—A Sail in Sight—Transference of Six Hundred Passengers to a Small Brig—Splendid Discipline of the Soldiers—Imperturbable Coolness of the Captain—Loss of the Birkenhead—Literally broken in Two—Noble Conduct of the Military—A Contrary Example—Wreck of the Medusa—Run on a Sand-bank—Panic on Board—Raft constructed—Insubordination and Selfishness—One Hundred and Fifty Souls abandoned—Drunkenness and Mutiny on the [pg iv]Raft—Riots and Murders—Reduced to Thirty Persons—The Stronger Part massacre the Others—Fifteen Left—Rescued at Last—Another Contrast—Wreck of the Alceste—Admirable Conduct of the Crew—The Ironclad Movement—The Battle of the Guns | 67 |
| CHAPTER 6 | |
| ROUND THE WORLD ON A MAN-OF-WAR. | |
| The Mediterranean—White, Blue, Green, and Purple Waters—Gibraltar—Its History—Its First Inhabitants the Monkeys—The Moors—The Great Siege preceded by Thirteen Others—The Voyage of Sigurd to the Holy Land—The Third Siege—Starvation—The Fourth Siege—Red-hot Balls used before ordinary Cannon-balls—The Great Plague—Gibraltar finally in Christian Hands—A Naval Action between the Dutch and Spaniards—How England won the Rock—An Unrewarded Hero—Spain’s Attempts to regain it—The Great Siege—The Rock itself and its Surroundings—The Straits—Ceuta, Gibraltar’s Rival—The Saltness of the Mediterranean—“Going up”—On to Malta | 87 |
| CHAPTER 7. | |
| ROUND
THE WORLD ON A MAN-OF-WAR (continued). MALTA AND THE SUEZ CANAL. |
|
| Calypso’s Isle—A Convict Paradise—Malta, the "Flower of the World"—The Knights of St. John—Rise of the Order—The Crescent and the Cross—The Siege of Rhodes—L’Isle Adam in London—The Great Siege of Malta—Horrible Episodes—Malta in French and English Hands—St. Paul’s Cave—The Catacombs—Modern Incidents—The Shipwreck of St. Paul—Gales in the Mediterranean—Experiences of Nelson and Collingwood—Squalls in the Bay of San Francisco—A Man Overboard—Special Winds of the Mediterranean—The Suez Canal and M. de Lesseps—His Diplomatic Career—Saïd Pacha as a Boy—As a Viceroy—The Plan settled—Financial Troubles—Construction of the Canal—The Inauguration Fête—Suez—Passage of the Children of Israel through the Red Sea | 98 |
| CHAPTER 8 | |
| ROUND
THE WORLD ON A MAN-OF-WAR (kept going). THE INDIA AND CHINA STATIONS. |
|
| The Red Sea and its Name—Its Ports—On to the India Station—Bombay: Island, City, Presidency—Calcutta—Ceylon, a Paradise—The China Station—Hong Kong—Macao—Canton—Capture of Commissioner Yeh—The Sea of Soup—Shanghai—“Jack” Ashore there—Luxuries in Market—Drawbacks: Earthquakes and Sand Showers—Chinese Explanations of Earthquakes—The Roving Life of the Sailor—Compensating Advantages—Japan and its People—The Englishmen of the Pacific—Yokohama—Peculiarities of the Japanese—Off to the North | 117 |
| CHAPTER 9 | |
| ROUND
THE WORLD ON A MAN-OF-WAR (continued). NORTHWARD AND SOUTHWARD—THE AUSTRALIAN STATION. |
|
| The Port of Peter and Paul—Wonderful Colouring of Kamchatka Hills—Grand Volcanoes—The Fight at Petropaulovski—A Contrast—An International Pic-nic—A Double Wedding—Bering’s Voyages—Kamchatka worthy of Further Exploration—Plover Bay—Tchuktchi Natives—Whaling—A Terrible Gale—A Novel “Smoke stack”—Southward again—The Liverpool of the East—Singapore, a Paradise—New Harbour—Wharves and Shipping—Cruelties of the Coolie Trade—Junks and Prahus—The Kling-gharry Drivers—The Durian and its Devotees—Australia—Its Discovery—Botany Bay and the Convicts—The First Gold—Port Jackson—Beauty of Sydney—Port Philip and Melbourne | 131 |
| CHAPTER 10 | |
| ROUND
THE WORLD ON A MAN-OF-WAR (continued). THE PACIFIC STATION. |
|
| Across the Pacific—Approach to the Golden Gate—The Bay of San Francisco—The City—First Dinner Ashore—Cheap Luxury—San Francisco by Night—The Land of Gold, Grain, and Grapes—Incidents of the Early Days—Expensive Papers—A Lucky Sailor—Chances for English Girls—The Baby at the Play—A capital Port for Seamen—Hospitality of Californians—Victoria, Vancouver Island—The Naval Station at Esquimalt—A Delightful Place—Advice to Intending Emigrants—British Columbian Indians—Their Fine Canoes—Experiences of the Writer—The Island on [pg v]Fire—The Chinook Jargon—Indian Pidgin English—North to Alaska—The Purchase of Russian America by the United States—Results—Life at Sitka—Grand Volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands—The Great Yukon River—American Trading Posts round Bering Sea | 156 |
| CHAPTER 11 | |
| ROUND
THE WORLD ON A MAN-OF-WAR (continued). FROM THE HORN TO HALIFAX. |
|
| The Dreaded Horn—The Land of Fire—Basil Hall’s Phenomenon—A Missing Volcano—The South American Station—Falkland Islands—A Free Port and Naval Station—Penguins, Peat, and Kelp—Sea Trees—The West India Station—Trinidad—Columbus’s First View of it—Fatal Gold—Charles Kingsley’s Enthusiasm—The Port of Spain—A Happy-go-lucky People—Negro Life—Letters from a Cottage Ornée—Tropical Vegetation—Animal Life—Jamaica—Kingston Harbour—Sugar Cultivation—The Queen of the Antilles—Its Paseo—Beauty of the Archipelago—A Dutch Settlement in the Heart of a Volcano—Among the Islands—The Souffrière—Historical Reminiscences—Bermuda: Colony, Fortress, and Prison—Home of Ariel and Caliban—The Whitest Place in the World—Bermuda Convicts—New York Harbour—The City—First Impressions—Its Fine Position—Splendid Harbour—Forest of Masts—The Ferry-boats, Hotels, and Bars—Offenbach’s Impressions—Broadway, Fulton Market, and Central Park—New York in Winter—Frozen Ships—The Great Brooklyn Bridge—Halifax and its Beauties—Importance of the Station—Bedford Basin—The Early Settlers—The Blue Noses—Adieu to America | 175 |
| CHAPTER 12. | |
| ROUND
THE WORLD ON A MAN-OF-WAR (continued). THE AFRICAN STATION. |
|
| Its Extent—Ascension—Turtle at a Discount—Sierra Leone—An Unhealthy Station—The Cape of Good Hope—Cape Town—Visit of the Sailor Prince—Grand Festivities—Enthusiasm of the Natives—Loyal Demonstrations—An African "Derby"—Grand Dock Inaugurated—Elephant Hunting—The Parting Ball—The Life of a Boer—Circular Farms—The Diamond Discoveries—A £12,000 Gem—A Sailor First President of the Fields—Precarious Nature of the Search—Natal—Inducements held out to Settlers—St. Helena and Napoleon—Discourteous Treatment of a Fallen Foe—The Home of the Caged Lion | 202 |
| CHAPTER 13 | |
| THE SERVICE.—OFFICERS’ LIFE ON BOARD. | |
| Conditions of Life on Ship-board—A Model Ward-room—An Admiral’s Cabin—Captains and Captains—The Sailor and his Superior Officers—A Contrast—A Commander of the Old School—Jack Larmour—Lord Cochrane’s Experiences—His Chest curtailed—The Stinking Ship—The First Command—Shaving under Difficulties—The Fast and her Prizes—The Doctor—On Board a Gun-boat—Cabin and Dispensary—Cockroaches and Centipedes—Other Horrors—The Naval Chaplain—His Duties—Stories of an Amateur—The Engineer—His Increasing Importance—Popularity of the Navy—Nelson always a Model Commander—The Idol of his Colleagues, Officers, and Men—Taking the Men into his Confidence—The Action between the Bellona and Bold—Captain Falknor’s Speech to the Crew—An Obsolete Custom—Crossing the Line—Neptune’s Visit to the Quarter-deck—The Navy of To-day—Its Backbone—Progressive Increase in the Size of Vessels—Naval Volunteers—A Noble Movement—Excellent Results—The Naval Reserve | 214 |
| CHAPTER 14 | |
| THE REVERSE OF THE PICTURE—MUTINY. | |
| Bligh’s Bread-fruit Expedition—Voyage of the Bounty—Otaheite—The Happy Islanders—First Appearance of a Mutinous Spirit—The Cutter stolen and recovered—The Reward sails with 1,000 Trees—The Mutiny—Bligh overpowered and bound—Abandoned with Eighteen Others—Their Resources—Attacked by Natives—A Boat Voyage of 3,618 Miles—Violent Gales—Miserable Condition of the Boat’s Crew—Bread by the Ounce—Rum by the Tea-spoonful—Noddies and Boobies—“Who will have this?”—Off the Barrier Reef—A Haven of Rest—Oyster and Palm-top Stews—Another Thousand Miles of Ocean—Arrival at Coupang—Hospitality of the Residents—Ghastly Looks of the Party—Death of Five of the Number—The Pandora dispatched to catch the Mutineers—Fourteen in Irons—Pandora Box—The Wreck—Great Loss of Life—Sentences of the Court Martial—The Last of the Mutineers—Pitcairn Island—A Model Settlement—Another Example: The Greatest Mutiny of History—40,000 Disaffected Men at One Point—Causes—Legitimate Action of the Men at First—Apathy of Government—Serious Organisation—The Spithead Fleet ordered to Sea—Refusal of the Crews—[pg vi]Concessions made, and the First Mutiny quelled—Second Outbreak—Lord Howe’s Tact—The Great Mutiny of the Nore—Richard Parker—A Vile Character but Man of Talent—Wins the Men to his Side—Officers flogged and ducked—Gallant Duncan’s Address—Accessions to the Mutineers—Parker practically Lord High Admiral—His Extravagant Behaviour—Alarm in London—The Movement dies out by Degrees—Parker’s Cause lost—His Execution—Mutinies at Other Stations—Prompt Action of Lords St. Vincent and Macartney | 235 |
| CHAPTER 15 | |
| THE HISTORY OF SHIPS AND SHIPPING INTERESTS. | |
| The First Attempts to Float—Hollowed Logs and Rafts—The Ark and its Dimensions—Skin Floats and Basket-boats—Maritime Commerce of Antiquity—Phœnician Enterprise—Did they round the Cape?—The Ships of Tyre—Carthage—Hanno’s Voyage to the West Coast of Africa—Egyptian Galleys—The Great Ships of the Ptolemies—Hiero’s Floating Palace—The Romans—Their Repugnance to Seafaring Pursuits—Sea Battles with the Carthaginians—Cicero’s Opinions on Commerce—Constantinople and its Commerce—Venice—Britain—The First Invasion under Julius Cæsar—Benefits accruing—The Danish Pirates—The London of the Period—The Father of the British Navy—Alfred and his Victories—Canute’s Fleet—The Norman Invasion—The Crusades—Richard Cœur de Lion’s Fleet—The Cinque Ports and their Privileges—Foundation of a Maritime Code—Letters of Marque—Opening of the Coal Trade—Chaucer’s Description of the Sailors of his Time—A Glorious Period—The Victories at Harfleur—Henry V.’s Fleet of 1,500 Vessels—The Channel Marauders—The King-Maker Pirate—Sir Andrew Wood’s Victory—Action with Scotch Pirates—The Great Michael and the Awesome Harry—Queen Elizabeth’s Astuteness—The Nation never so well provided—“The Most Fortunate and Invincible Armada”—Its Size and Strength—Elizabeth’s Appeal to the Country—A Noble Response—Effingham’s Appointment—The Armada’s First Disaster—Refitted, and resails from Corunna—Chased in the Rear—A Series of Setback—English Volunteer Ships in Numbers—The Fire-ships at Calais—The Final Action—Flight of the Armada—Fate of Shipwrecked Spanish in Ireland—Total Loss to Spain—Rejoicings and Thanksgivings in England | 258 |
| CHAPTER 16 | |
| THE HISTORY OF SHIPS AND SHIPPING INTERESTS (continued). | |
| Noble Adventurers—The Earl of Cumberland as a Pirate—Rich Prizes—Action with the Mother of God—Capture of the Great Carrack—A Cargo worth £150,000—Burning of the Five Chagas—But Fifteen saved out of Eleven Hundred Souls—The Curse of Malice—Establishment of the Slave Trade—Sir John Hawkins’ Ventures—High-handed Proceedings—The Spaniards forced to purchase—A Fleet of Slavers—Hawkins sanctioned by “Good Queen Elizabeth”—Joins in a Negro War—A Disastrous Voyage—Sir Francis Drake—His First Loss—The Treasure at Nombre de Dios—Drake’s First Sight of the Pacific—Tons of Silver captured—John Oxenham’s Voyage—The First Englishman on the Pacific—His Disasters and Death—Drake’s Voyage Round the World—Blood-letting at the Equator—Arrival at Port Julian—Trouble with the Natives—Execution of a Mutineer—Passage of the Straits of Magellan—Vessels separated in a Gale—Loss of the Marigold—Tragic Fate of Eight Men—Drake driven to Cape Horn—Proceedings at Valparaiso—Prizes taken—Capture of the Great Treasure Ship—Drake’s Resolve to change his Course Home—Vessel refitted at Nicaragua—Stay in the Bay of San Francisco—The Natives worship the English—Grand Reception at Ternate—Drake’s Ship nearly wrecked—Return to England—Honours accorded Drake—His Character and Influence—Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s Disasters and Death—Raleigh’s Virginia Settlements | 291 |
ILLUSTRATION LIST.
THE OCEAN.
One can hardly gaze upon the great ocean without feelings akin to awe and reverence. Whether viewed from some promontory where the eye seeks in vain another resting-place, or when sailing over the deep, one looks around on the unbounded expanse of waters, the sea must always give rise to ideas of infinite space and indefinable mystery hardly paralleled by anything of the earth itself. Beneficent in its calmer aspect, when the silvery moon lights up the ripples and the good ship scuds along before a favouring breeze; terrible in its might, when its merciless breakers dash upon some rock-girt coast, carrying the gallant bark to destruction, or when, rising mountains high, the spars quiver and snap before the tempest’s power, it is always grand, sublime, irresistible. The great highway of commerce and source of boundless supplies, it is, notwithstanding its terrors, infinitely more man’s friend than his enemy. In how great a variety of aspects may it not be viewed!
One can hardly look at the vast ocean without feeling a sense of awe and respect. Whether you’re standing on a cliff trying to find another place to look or sailing over the deep waters, the endless expanse of the sea always brings thoughts of infinite space and an indescribable mystery that few things on land can match. Peaceful in its calmer moments, when the silvery moon reflects on the waves and the ship glides along with a gentle breeze; powerful in its fury, when vicious waves crash against a rocky shore, sending brave ships into peril, or when towering waves rise high, bending and breaking masts before the storm's might, it remains grand, majestic, and unstoppable. As a major route for trade and a source of limitless resources, it is, despite its dangers, far more a friend to humanity than an enemy. Just think of the many different ways you can view it!
The poets have seen in it a “type of the Infinite,” [pg 2]and one of the greatest1 has taken us back to those early days of earth’s history when God said—
The poets have viewed it as a “symbol of infinity,” [pg 2]and one of the greatest1 has brought us back to those early days in Earth’s history when God said—
“Water,” said the great Greek lyric poet,2 “is the chief of all.” The ocean covers nearly three-fourths of the surface of our globe. Earth is its mere offspring. The continents and islands have been and still are being elaborated from its depths. All in all, it has not, however, been treated fairly at the hands of the poets, too many of whom could only see it in its sterner lights. Young speaks of it as merely a
“Water,” said the great Greek lyric poet,2 “is the leader of all.” The ocean covers almost three-quarters of the Earth's surface. The land is just its offspring. Continents and islands have been and still are being formed from its depths. Overall, it hasn’t been treated fairly by poets, many of whom only see its harsher aspects. Young talks about it as just a
ignoring the blessings and benefits it has bestowed so freely, forgetting that man is daily becoming more and more its master, and that his own country in particular has most successfully conquered the seemingly unconquerable. Byron, again, says:—
ignoring the blessings and benefits it has given so freely, forgetting that humanity is becoming increasingly its master, and that his own country, in particular, has successfully overcome what once seemed unconquerable. Byron, again, says:—
And though this is but the exaggerated and not strictly accurate language of poetry, we may, with Pollok, fairly address the great sea as “strongest of creation’s sons.” The first impressions produced on most animals—not excluding altogether man—by the aspect of the ocean, are of terror in greater or lesser degree. Livingstone tells us that he had intended to bring to England from Africa a friendly native, a man courageous as the lion he had often braved. He had never voyaged upon nor even beheld the sea, and on board the ship which would have safely borne him to a friendly shore he became delirious and insane. Though assured of safety and carefully watched, he escaped one day, and blindly threw himself headlong into the waves. The sea terrified him, and yet held and drew him, fascinated as under a spell. “Even at ebb-tide,” says Michelet,3 “when, placid and weary, the wave crawls softly on the sand, the horse does not recover his courage. He trembles, and frequently refuses to pass the languishing ripple. The dog barks and recoils, and, according to his manner, insults the billows which he fears.... We are told by a traveller that the dogs of Kamtschatka, though accustomed to the spectacle, are not the less terrified and irritated by it. In numerous troops, they howl through the protracted night against the howling waves, and endeavour to outvie in fury the Ocean of the North.”
And although this is just the exaggerated and not completely accurate language of poetry, we can, like Pollok, fairly call the vast ocean the "strongest of creation's offspring." Most animals—including humans—feel a sense of fear, to varying degrees, when they first see the ocean. Livingstone shares that he planned to bring a friendly native from Africa back to England, a man as brave as the lion he often faced. He had never traveled on or even seen the sea, and while on the ship that would safely take him to a welcoming shore, he became delirious and lost his mind. Even with reassurances of safety and careful supervision, he escaped one day and blindly jumped into the waves. The sea frightened him, yet it also captivated him, almost like a spell. “Even at low tide,” says Michelet, 3 "When the calm and tired wave gently washes onto the sand, the horse fails to regain his courage. He shakes and often refuses to step over the soft ripple. The dog barks and backs away, and, true to his instincts, mocks the waves he fears... A traveler notes that the dogs of Kamchatka, despite being accustomed to the sight, still feel scared and bothered by it. In large groups, they howl through the long night against the crashing waves, trying to compete with the fury of the North Ocean."
The civilised man’s fear is founded, it must be admitted, on a reasonable knowledge of the ocean, so much his friend and yet so often his foe. Man is not independent of his fellow-man in distant countries, nor is it desirable that he should be. No land produces all the necessaries, and the luxuries which have begun to be considered necessaries, sufficient for itself. Transportation by land is often impracticable, or too costly, and the ocean thus becomes the great highway of nations. Vessel after vessel, fleet after fleet, arrive safely and speedily. But as there is danger for man lurking everywhere on land, so also is there on the sea. The world’s wreck-chart for one year must, as we shall see hereafter, be something appalling. That for the British Empire alone in one year has often exceeded 1,000 vessels, great and small! Averaging three years, we find that there was an annual loss during that period of 1,095 vessels and 1,952 lives.4 Nor are the ravages of ocean confined to the engulfment of vessels, from rotten “coffin-ships” to splendid ironclads. The coasts often bear witness of her fury.
The civilized person’s fear is, to be fair, based on a reasonable understanding of the ocean, which can be both a friend and an enemy. People are not independent from others in distant countries, nor should they be. No country can produce all the necessities, as well as the luxuries that have now come to be seen as necessities, for itself. Land transportation is often impractical or too expensive, making the ocean the main route for trade between nations. Ship after ship, fleet after fleet, arrives safely and quickly. But just as there are dangers for people everywhere on land, there are also risks at sea. The world's shipwreck records for one year are, as we will see later, truly shocking. For the British Empire alone, the losses in a single year have often exceeded 1,000 vessels, both large and small! When we average over three years, we discover an annual loss of 1,095 vessels and 1,952 lives.4 The destruction caused by the ocean is not limited to sinking ships, from old “coffin-ships” to impressive ironclads. The coasts often show the evidence of its rage.
The history of the sea virtually comprises the history of adventure, conquest, and commerce, in all times, and might almost be said to be that of the world itself. We cannot think of it without remembering the great voyagers and sea-captains, the brave naval commanders, the pirates, rovers, and buccaneers of bygone days. Great sea-fights and notable shipwrecks recur to our memory—the progress of naval supremacy, and the means by which millions of people and countless millions of wealth have been transferred from one part of the earth to another. We cannot help thinking, too, of “Poor Jack” and life before the mast, whether on the finest vessel of the Royal Navy, or in the worst form of trading ship. We recall the famous ships themselves, and their careers. We remember, too, the “toilers of the sea”—the fishermen, whalers, pearl-divers, and coral-gatherers; the noble men of the lighthouse, lifeboat, and coastguard services. The horrors of the sea—its storms, hurricanes, whirlpools, waterspouts, impetuous and treacherous currents—rise vividly before our mental vision. Then there are the inhabitants of the sea to be considered—from the tiniest germ of life to the great leviathan, or even the doubtful sea-serpent. And even the lowest depths of ocean, with their mountains, valleys, plains, and luxurious marine vegetation, are full of interest; while at the same time we irresistibly think of the submerged treasure-ships of days gone by, and the submarine cables of to-day. Such are among the subjects we propose to lay before our readers. The Sea, as one great topic, must comprise descriptions of life on, around, and in the ocean—the perils, mysteries, phenomena, and poetry of the great deep. The subject is too vast for superfluous detail: it would require as many volumes as a grand encyclopædia to do it justice; whilst a formal and chronological history would weary the reader. At all events, the present writer purposes to occasionally gossip and digress, and to arrange facts in groups, not always following the strict sequence of events. The voyage of to-day may recall that of long ago: the discovery made long ago may be traced, by successive leaps, as it were, to its results in the present epoch. We can hardly be wrong in believing that this grand subject has an especial interest for the English reader everywhere; for the spirit of enterprise, enthusiasm, and daring which has carried our flag to the uttermost parts of the earth, and has made the proud words “Britannia rules the waves” no idle vaunt, is shared by a very large [pg 4]proportion of her sons and daughters, at home and abroad. Britain’s part in the exploration and settlement of the whole world has been so pre-eminent that there can be no wonder if, among the English-speaking races everywhere, a peculiar fascination attaches to the sea and all concerning it. Countless thousands of books have been devoted to the land, not a tithe of the number to the ocean. Yet the subject is one of almost boundless interest, and has a special importance at the present time, when so much intelligent attention and humane effort is being put forth to ameliorate the condition of our seafarers.
The history of the sea is basically the history of adventure, conquest, and trade throughout time, and it could almost be considered the history of the world itself. It’s hard to think of it without recalling the great explorers and sea captains, the courageous naval leaders, the pirates, rovers, and buccaneers of the past. Memorable naval battles and significant shipwrecks come to mind—the rise of naval power, and the ways millions of people and vast amounts of wealth have been moved from one part of the world to another. We also think of "Poor Jack" and life aboard ships, whether on the finest Royal Navy vessel or in the worst kind of trading ship. We remember the famous ships and their stories. We also acknowledge the “workers of the sea”—the fishermen, whalers, pearl divers, and coral gatherers; the brave men working in lighthouses, lifeboats, and coastguard services. The dangers of the sea—its storms, hurricanes, whirlpools, waterspouts, and fierce, deceptive currents—vividly come to mind. Then there are the creatures of the sea to consider—from the tiniest life forms to the enormous leviathan, or even the mythical sea serpent. Even the ocean's deepest depths, with their mountains, valleys, plains, and rich marine life, are captivating; and we can’t help but think of the sunken treasure ships of the past and today’s underwater cables. These are some of the topics we aim to share with our readers. The Ocean, as a major theme, will include descriptions of life on, around, and in the ocean—the dangers, mysteries, phenomena, and beauty of the deep sea. This subject is too vast for excessive detail: it would take as many volumes as a grand encyclopedia to cover it appropriately; while a formal chronological history would bore the reader. In any case, the writer intends to occasionally chat and wander off-topic while organizing facts into groups, not always adhering to the strict order of events. Today’s voyage may remind us of those from long ago: discoveries made in the past can be traced to their impacts in the present day. We can safely assume that this fascinating topic holds a special interest for English readers everywhere; the spirit of adventure, enthusiasm, and boldness that has flown our flag to the farthest corners of the earth, making the proud words “Britannia rules the seas” a true statement, is shared by a significant [pg 4]number of her sons and daughters, both at home and abroad. Britain’s essential role in exploring and settling the entire world is so remarkable that it’s no surprise there’s a unique allure to the sea and everything related to it among English-speaking peoples everywhere. Countless thousands of books have focused on land, but only a fraction have been dedicated to the ocean. Yet this subject is nearly limitless and is especially significant right now, when so much thoughtful attention and compassionate effort is being applied to improve the lives of our seafarers.
CHAPTER 1.
Warships.
Our Wooden Walls—The Victory—Siege of Toulon—Battle of St. Vincent—Nelson’s Bridge—Trafalgar’s glorious Day—The Day for such Battles gone—Iron v. Wood—Lessons of the Crimean War—Moral Effect of the Presence of our Fleets—Bombardment of Sebastopol—Red-hot Shot and Gibraltar—The Ironclad Movement—The Warrior—Experiences with Ironclads—The Merrimac in Hampton Roads—A speedily decided Action—The Cumberland sunk and Congress burned—The first Monitor—Engagement with the Merrimac—Notes on recent Actions—The Shah and Huascar—An Ironclad tackled by a Merchantman.
Our Wooden Walls—The Win—Siege of Toulon—Battle of St. Vincent—Nelson’s Bridge—Trafalgar’s glorious day—The time for such battles is over—Iron v. Wood—Lessons from the Crimean War—Moral Impact of Our Fleets’ Presence—Bombardment of Sebastopol—Red-hot Shot and Gibraltar—The Ironclad Movement—The Fighter—Experiences with Ironclads—The Merrimac in Hampton Roads—A swiftly made decision Action—The Cumberland sunk and Congress burned—The first Monitor—Involvement with the Merrimac—Notes on Recent Actions—The Shah and Huascar—An Ironclad challenged by a Merchant Ship.
If the reader should at any time find himself a visitor to the first naval port of Great Britain—which he need not be told is Portsmouth—he will find, lying placidly in the noble harbour, which is large enough to accommodate a whole fleet, a vessel of modern-antique appearance, and evidently very carefully preserved. Should he happen to be there on October 21st, he would find the ship gaily decorated with wreaths of evergreen and flags, her appearance attracting to her side an unusual number of visitors in small boats from the shore. Nor will he be surprised at this when he learns that it is none other than the famous Victory, that carried Nelson’s flag on the sad but glorious day of Trafalgar, and went bravely through so many a storm of war and weather. Very little of the oft-shattered hulk of the original vessel remains, it is true—she has been so often renewed and patched and painted; yet the lines and form of the old three-decker remain to show us what the flag-ship of Hood, and Jervis, and Nelson was in general appearance. She towers grandly out of the water, making the few sailors and loiterers on deck look like marionettes—mere miniature men; and as our wherry approaches the entrance-port, we admire the really graceful lines of the planks, diminishing in perspective. The triple battery of formidable guns, peeping from under the stout old ports which overshadowed them, the enormous cables and spare anchors, and the immensely thick masts, heavy shrouds and rigging, which she had in old times, must have given an impression of solidity in this good old “heart of oak” which is wanting even in [pg 5]the strongest-built iron vessel. Many a brave tar has lost his life on her, but yet she is no coffin-ship. On board, one notes the scrupulous order, the absolute perfection of cleanliness and trimness; the large guns and carriages alternating with the mess-tables of the crew. And we should not think much of the man who could stand emotionless and unmoved over the spots—still pointed out on the upper deck and cockpit below—where Nelson fell and Nelson died, on that memorable 21st, off Trafalgar Bay. He had embarked, only five weeks before, from the present resting-place of his brave old ship, when enthusiastic crowds had pressed forward to bless and take one last look at England’s preserver. “I had their hurrahs before,” said the poor shattered hero; “now I have their hearts!” And when, three months later, his body was brought home, the sailors divided the leaden coffin into fragments, as relics of “Saint Nelson,” as his gunner had termed him.
If you ever find yourself visiting the first naval port of Great Britain—Portsmouth—you’ll see a ship with a unique mix of modern and antique looks, carefully maintained, resting peacefully in the vast harbor that can accommodate an entire fleet. If you happen to be there on October 21st, the ship will be adorned with evergreen wreaths and flags, drawing an unusual number of visitors from shore in small boats. This won't surprise you once you realize that it’s the famous Winning, the vessel that carried Nelson’s flag on the sad yet glorious day of Trafalgar, enduring countless storms of war and weather. While it’s true that very little of the original ship remains—she’s been renewed, patched, and painted many times—the design and shape of the old three-decker are still evident, showing us what the flagship of Hood, Jervis, and Nelson looked like. She rises majestically out of the water, making the few sailors and onlookers on deck appear like tiny puppets, and as our small boat nears the entrance, we admire the elegant lines of the deck, tapering away in perspective. The triple battery of powerful guns peeks out from beneath the sturdy old ports that cover them, alongside enormous cables and spare anchors, and the incredibly thick masts, heavy rigging, and stays she had in her time—all of which must have conveyed a sense of strength in this classic "heart of oak" that’s lacking even in the sturdiest iron vessels today. Many brave sailors have lost their lives on her, but she isn’t a coffin ship. On board, you can see the meticulous order, perfect cleanliness, and tidiness; large guns and carriages are interspersed with the crew's mess tables. One would not remain indifferent while standing over the spots still marked on the upper deck and the cockpit below where Nelson fell and died, on that unforgettable 21st, off Trafalgar Bay. Just five weeks earlier, he had left from where his beloved ship now rests, amid enthusiastic crowds eager to bless and take a final look at England’s hero. "I had their cheers before," said the poor, broken hero; “Now I have their hearts!” When, three months later, his body was brought home, sailors shattered the lead coffin into pieces as relics of "Saint Nelson," as his gunner had called him.
The Victory was one of the largest ships of war of her day and generation. She was rated for 100 guns, but really carried 102, and was classed first-rate with such ships as the Royal Sovereign and Britannia, both of 100, carrying only two in excess of the “brave old Téméraire”—made still more famous by Turner’s great picture—and the Dreadnought, which [pg 6]but a few years back was such a familiar feature of the reach of the Thames in front of Greenwich. She was of 2,164 tons burden, and, having been launched in 1765, is now a good 112 years of age. Her complement was 841 men. From the first she deserved her name, and seemed destined to be associated with little else than success and triumph. Nelson frequently complains in his journals of the unseaworthiness of many of his vessels; but this, his last flag-ship, was a veritable “heart of oak,” and endured all the tests that the warfare of the elements or of man could bring against her.
The Win was one of the biggest warships of her time. She was rated for 100 guns but actually carried 102 and was classified as a first-rate ship alongside others like the Royal Sovereign and Britannia, both rated for 100 guns and only carrying two fewer than the “brave old Téméraire”—made even more famous by Turner's famous painting—and the Dreadnought, which [pg 6]was only recently a common sight along the Thames in front of Greenwich. She weighed 2,164 tons and, having been launched in 1765, is now a sturdy 112 years old. Her crew consisted of 841 men. From the beginning, she lived up to her name and seemed meant to be linked with little else but success and triumph. Nelson often complained in his journals about the unseaworthiness of many of his ships; however, this last flagship of his was truly a "heart of oak," enduring all the challenges that nature or warfare could throw at her.
The good ship of which we have spoken more particularly is now enjoying a well-earned repose, after passing nearly unscathed through the very thick of battles inscribed on the most brilliant page of our national history. Her part was in reality a very prominent one; and a glance at a few of the engagements at which she was present may serve to show us what she and other ships like her were made of, and what they were able to effect in naval warfare. The Victory had been built nearly thirty years when, in 1793, she first came prominently to the front, at the occupation and subsequent siege of Toulon, as the flag-ship of Lord Hood, then in command of a large fleet destined for the Mediterranean.
The good ship we've been discussing is now enjoying a well-deserved break after coming through some intense battles that are celebrated in our national history. Her role was quite significant, and taking a look at a few of the fights she participated in will help us understand what she and other ships like her were capable of and what they accomplished in naval warfare. The Win had been around for nearly thirty years when, in 1793, she first gained notable attention during the occupation and later siege of Toulon, serving as the flagship for Lord Hood, who was then in charge of a large fleet headed for the Mediterranean.
France was at that moment in a very revolutionary condition, but in Toulon there was a strong feeling of loyalty for the Bourbons and monarchical institutions. In the harbour a large French fleet was assembled—some seventeen vessels of the line, besides many other smaller craft—while several large ships of war were refitting and building; the whole under the command of the Comte de Trogoff, an ardent Royalist. On the appearance of the British fleet in the offing, two commissioners came out to the flag-ship, the Victory, to treat for the conditional surrender of the port and shipping. The Government had not miscalculated the disaffection existing, and the negotiations being completely successful, 1,700 of our soldiers, sailors, and marines were landed, and shortly afterwards, when a Spanish fleet appeared, an English governor and a Spanish commandant were appointed, while Louis XVII. was proclaimed king. But it is needless to say that the French Republic strongly objected to all this, and soon assembled a force numbering 45,000 men for the recapture of Toulon. The English and their Royalist allies numbered under 13,000, and it became evident that the city must be evacuated, although not until it should be half destroyed. The important service of destroying the ships and magazines had been mainly entrusted to Captain Sir Sidney Smith, who performed his difficult task with wonderful precision and order, and without the loss of one man. Shots and shells were plunged into the very arsenal, and trains were laid up to the magazines and storehouses; a fire-ship was towed into the basin, and in a few hours gave out flames and shot, accompanied by terrible explosions. The Spanish admiral had undertaken the destruction of the shipping in the basin, and to scuttle two powder-vessels, but his men, in their flurry, managed to ignite one of them in place of sinking it, and the explosion which occurred can be better imagined than described. The explosion shook the Union gunboat to pieces, killing the commander and three of the crew; and a second boat was blown into the air, but her crew were miraculously saved. Having completed the destruction of the arsenal, Sir Sidney proceeded towards the basin in front of the town, across which a boom had been laid, where he and his men were received with such volleys of musketry that they turned their attention in another direction. In the inner road were lying two large 74-gun [pg 7]ships—the Héros and Thémistocle—filled with French prisoners. Although the latter were greatly superior to the attacking force, they were so terrified that they agreed to be removed and landed in a place of safety, after which the ships were destroyed by fire. Having done all that man could do, they were preparing to return, when the second powder-vessel, which should only have been scuttled by the Spaniards, exploded. Wonderful to relate, although the little Swallow, Sir Sidney’s tender, and three boats were in the midst of the falling timbers, and nearly swamped by the waves produced, they escaped in safety. Nowadays torpedoes would settle the business of blowing up vessels of the kind in a much safer and surer manner. The evacuation was effected without loss, nearly 15,000 Toulonese refugees—men, women, and children—being taken on board for removal to England. Fifteen French ships of war were taken off as prizes, while the magazines, storehouses, and shipping were destroyed by fire. The total number of vessels taken or burned by the British was eighteen of the line, nine frigates, and eleven corvettes, and would have been much greater but for the blundering or treachery of the Spaniards, and the pusillanimous flight of the Neapolitans. Thus the Victory was the silent witness of an almost bloodless success, so far as our forces were concerned, in spite of the noise and smoke and flame by which it was accompanied. A little later, she was engaged in the siege of Bastia, Corsica, which was taken by a naval force numbering about one-fourth of their opponents; and again at Calvi, where Nelson lost an eye and helped to gain the day. In the spring of 1795 she was again in the Mediterranean, and for once was engaged in what has been described as a “miserable action,” although the action, or want thereof, was all on the part of a vice-admiral who, as Nelson said, “took things too coolly.” Twenty-three British line-of-battle ships, whilst engaging, off the Hyères Isles, only seventeen French, with the certainty of triumphant results, if not, indeed, of the complete annihilation of the enemy, were signalled by Admiral Hotham to discontinue the fight. The disgust of the commanders in general and Nelson in particular can well be understood. The only prize taken, the Alcide, blew up, with the loss of half her crew, as if in very disgust at having surrendered, and we can well believe that even the inanimate timbers of the Victory and her consorts groaned as they were drawn off from the scene of action. The fight off the Hyères must be inscribed in black, but happily the next to be recorded might well be written with letters of gold in the annals of our country, although its glory was soon afterwards partially eclipsed by others still greater.
France was in a very revolutionary state at that time, but in Toulon, there was strong loyalty to the Bourbons and monarchical institutions. A large French fleet was gathered in the harbor—about seventeen warships, along with many smaller vessels—under the command of the Comte de Trogoff, a passionate Royalist. When the British fleet appeared on the horizon, two commissioners came out to the flagship, the Win, to negotiate the conditional surrender of the port and its shipping. The Government had correctly assessed the discontent in the area, and the negotiations were entirely successful, leading to the landing of 1,700 soldiers, sailors, and marines. Shortly after, when a Spanish fleet showed up, an English governor and a Spanish commander were appointed, and Louis XVII was proclaimed king. However, it goes without saying that the French Republic strongly opposed all this and quickly gathered a force of 45,000 men to retake Toulon. The English and their Royalist allies numbered less than 13,000, and it became clear that the city would need to be evacuated, though not before much of it was destroyed. The crucial job of destroying the ships and supplies was mainly given to Captain Sir Sidney Smith, who carried out his difficult mission with impressive precision and order, without losing a single man. Shots and shells were fired directly into the arsenal, and explosives were set up at the magazines and storage facilities; a fire ship was towed into the harbor, igniting flames and gunfire, accompanied by massive explosions within hours. The Spanish admiral was responsible for destroying the ships in the harbor and sinking two powder vessels, but in their panic, his crew accidentally ignited one instead of sinking it, resulting in an explosion that is better imagined than described. The blast tore the Union gunboat apart, killing the commander and three crew members; another boat was blown into the air, but its crew miraculously survived. After finishing the destruction of the arsenal, Sir Sidney moved toward the harbor in front of the town, where a boom had been set up, and met heavy gunfire that redirected their focus. In the inner harbor lay two large 74-gun ships—the Heroes and Thucydides—filled with French prisoners. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the French were so terrified that they agreed to be removed and taken to safety, after which the ships were set on fire. Having done all they could, they prepared to return when the second powder vessel, which was only supposed to be scuttled by the Spaniards, exploded. Remarkably, although Sir Sidney's small vessel, the Swallow, and three boats were in the midst of the debris and nearly swamped by the waves, they escaped safely. These days, torpedoes would handle the task of blowing up ships like this in a much safer and more reliable way. The evacuation was carried out without loss, with nearly 15,000 Toulon refugees—men, women, and children—boarded for transport to England. Fifteen French warships were captured as prizes, while the magazines, storage facilities, and vessels were destroyed by fire. The total number of ships taken or burned by the British amounted to eighteen line-of-battle ships, nine frigates, and eleven corvettes, and it could have been even greater if not for the blunders or betrayals of the Spaniards and the cowardly flight of the Neapolitans. Thus, the Win stood witness to an almost bloodless success for our forces, despite the noise, smoke, and flames surrounding it. Soon after, she was engaged in the siege of Bastia, Corsica, which was captured by a naval force that was about a quarter the size of their opponents; and again at Calvi, where Nelson lost an eye but helped secure victory. In the spring of 1795, she was back in the Mediterranean, participating in what has been called a “bad move,” although the lack of action came from a vice-admiral who, as Nelson put it, “took things too lightly.” Twenty-three British line-of-battle ships were engaged against only seventeen French off the Hyères Isles, certain of triumphant results, if not the total destruction of the enemy, but Admiral Hotham signaled to stop the fight. The disappointment of the commanders, especially Nelson, is easy to understand. The only prize taken, the Alcide, exploded, killing half her crew, seeming to express her frustration for having surrendered. It is easy to believe that even the inanimate timbers of the Win and her accompanying ships seemed to groan as they were pulled away from the battle. The fight off the Hyères must be marked in black in our records, but thankfully, the next event could be recorded in gold in our country's history, although its glory would soon be overshadowed by even greater achievements.
When Sir John Jervis hoisted his flag on board the Victory it marked an epoch not merely in our career of conquest, but also in the history of the navy as a navy. Jervis, though then over sixty years of age, was hale and hearty, and if sometimes stern and severe as a disciplinarian, should long be remembered as one who honestly and constantly strove to raise the character of the service to its highest condition of efficiency, and he was brave as a lion. As the Spanish fleet loomed through the morning fog, off Cape St. Vincent, it was found that Cordova’s force consisted of twenty-nine large men-of-war, exclusive of a dozen 34-gun frigates, seventy transports, and other vessels. Jervis was walking the quarter-deck as the successive reports were brought to him. “There are eighteen sail of the line, Sir John.” “Very well, sir.” “There are twenty sail, Sir John.” “Very well, sir.” “There are twenty-seven sail of the line, Sir John; nearly double our own.” “Enough, sir, no more of [pg 8]that, sir; if there are fifty I’ll go through them.” “That’s right, Sir John,” said Halliwell, his flag-captain, “and a jolly good licking we’ll give them.”
When Sir John Jervis raised his flag on the Win, it marked a significant moment not just in our history of conquest but also in the navy's history as a whole. Jervis, though over sixty years old at the time, was fit and healthy. While he could be stern and strict as a disciplinarian, he should be remembered for his genuine and ongoing efforts to elevate the service to its highest level of efficiency, and he was as brave as a lion. As the Spanish fleet appeared through the morning fog off Cape St. Vincent, it was noted that Cordova’s force included twenty-nine large ships of the line, not counting a dozen 34-gun frigates, seventy transports, and other vessels. Jervis was on the quarter-deck as the reports came in. "There are eighteen ships of the line, Sir John." “Sure thing, sir.” "There are twenty ships, Sir John." "Sure thing, sir." "There are twenty-seven line ships, Sir John; almost twice as many as our own." "That's enough, sir, no more of that; if there are fifty, I’ll handle them." “Exactly, Sir John,” said Halliwell, his flag captain, “and we’ll give them a really good beating.”
The grand fleet of Spain included six ships of 112 guns each, and the flag-ship Santissima Trinidada, a four-decker, carrying 130. There were, besides, twenty-two vessels of eighty and seventy-four guns. To this large force Jervis could only oppose fifteen vessels of the line, only two of which carried 100 guns, three of ninety-eight guns, one of ninety, and the remainder, with one exception, seventy-four each. Owing to gross mismanagement on the part of the Spaniards, their vessels were scattered about in all directions, and six5 of them were separated wholly from the main body, neither could they rejoin it. The English vessels advanced in two lines, compactly and steadily, and as they neared the Spaniards, were signalled from the Victory to tack in succession. Nelson, on the Captain, was in the rear of the line, and he perceived that the Spaniards were bearing up before the wind, either with the intention of trying to join their separated ships, or perhaps to avoid an engagement altogether. By disobeying the admiral’s signal, he managed to run clear athwart the bows of the Spanish ships, and was soon engaged with the great Santissima Trinidada, four other of the larger vessels, and two smaller ones. Trowbridge, in the Culloden, immediately came to the support, and for nearly an hour the unequal contest continued, till the Blenheim passed between them and the enemy, and gave them a little respite, pouring in her fire upon the Spaniards. One of the Spanish seventy-fours struck, and Nelson thought that the Salvador, of 112 guns, struck also. “Collingwood,” wrote Nelson, “disdaining the parade of taking possession of beaten enemies, most gallantly pushed up, with every sail set, to save his old friend and messmate, who was, to appearance, in a critical situation,” for the Captain was being peppered by five vessels of the enemy’s fleet, and shortly afterwards was rendered absolutely incapable—not a sail, shroud, or rope left, with a topmast and the steering-wheel shot away. As Dr. Bennett sings6—
The massive fleet of Spain included six ships, each with 112 guns, and the flagship Santissima Trinidad, which was a four-decker armed with 130 guns. There were also twenty-two vessels with either eighty or seventy-four guns. Against this large force, Jervis could only field fifteen ships of the line, with just two carrying 100 guns, three with ninety-eight guns, one with ninety, and the rest, except for one, each having seventy-four guns. Due to serious mismanagement by the Spaniards, their vessels were scattered in all directions, and six5 of them were completely cut off from the main group and couldn’t rejoin. The English ships advanced in two lines, moving steadily and closely together, and as they approached the Spaniards, they received a signal from the Win to turn in succession. Nelson, on the Captain, was at the back of the line and noticed that the Spaniards were turning away from the wind, possibly trying to regroup with their separated ships or to avoid a battle completely. By ignoring the admiral’s signal, he maneuvered into a position directly in front of the Spanish ships and soon engaged with the formidable Holy Trinity, along with four other larger vessels and two smaller ones. Trowbridge, in the Culloden, quickly came to assist, and for nearly an hour, the uneven battle raged on until the Blenheim positioned itself between them and the enemy, providing some relief by firing on the Spaniards. One of the Spanish seventy-fours surrendered, and Nelson believed that the Salvador, also with 112 guns, had surrendered too. "Collingwood," wrote Nelson, “ignoring the formalities of claiming victory over his defeated foes, he boldly moved ahead, with all sails unfurled, to save his old friend and shipmate, who was apparently in a dangerous predicament.” as the Captain was under fire from five vessels of the enemy’s fleet and soon became completely disabled—not a sail, shroud, or rope left, with a topmast and the steering wheel shot away. As Dr. Bennett sings6—
Two of Nelson’s antagonists were now nearly hors de combat, one of them, the San Nicolas, in trying to escape from Collingwood’s fire, having got foul of the San Josef. Nelson resolved in an instant to board and capture both—an unparalleled feat, which, however, was accomplished, although
Two of Nelson’s enemies were now almost unable to function, one of them, the San Nicolas, while trying to escape from Collingwood’s fire, had collided with the San Jose. Nelson decided immediately to board and capture both—an unprecedented achievement, which, however, was accomplished, although
The “bridge” was soon taken; but a steady fire of musketry was poured upon them from the San Josef. Nelson directed his people to fire into the stern, and sending for more boarders, led the way up the main-chains, exclaiming, “Westminster Abbey or victory!” In a few moments the officers and crew surrendered; and on the quarter-deck of a Spanish first-rate he received the swords of the vanquished, which he handed to William Fearney, [pg 9]one of his bargemen, who tucked them, with the greatest sang-froid, in a perfect sheaf under his arm. The Victory came up at the moment, and saluted the conquerors with hearty cheers.
The “bridge” was quickly captured, but a constant barrage of gunfire was aimed at them from the San Josef. Nelson ordered his men to fire into the rear, and calling for more men to come aboard, he led the charge up the main chains, shouting, "Westminster Abbey or victory!" Within moments, the officers and crew surrendered; and on the quarter-deck of a Spanish first-rate, he accepted the swords of the defeated, handing them to William Fearney, [pg 9]one of his bargemen, who calmly tucked them in a neat bundle under his arm. The Win arrived just then and greeted the victors with loud cheers.
It will be hardly necessary here to point out the altered circumstances of naval warfare at the present day. A wooden vessel of the old type, with large and numerous portholes, and affording other opportunities for entering or climbing the sides, is a very different affair to the modern smooth-walled iron vessel, on which a fly would hardly get a foothold, with few openings or weak points, and where the grappling-iron would be useless. Apart from this, with heavy guns carrying with great accuracy, and the facilities afforded by steam, we shall seldom hear, in the future, of a fight at close quarters; skilful manœuvring, impossible with a sailing vessel, will doubtless be more in vogue.
It’s hardly necessary to point out how naval warfare has changed today. A wooden ship of the old type, with large and many portholes, which offers chances for boarding or climbing, is very different from the modern smooth-walled iron ship, where a fly could barely find a grip, with few openings or weak spots, making grappling hooks useless. Besides this, with powerful guns that shoot accurately and the advances of steam technology, we’ll rarely see close-quarter battles in the future; skilled maneuvering, which isn’t possible with a sailing ship, will definitely become more common.
Meantime, the Victory had not been idle. In conjunction with two of the fleet, she had succeeded in silencing the Salvador del Mundi, a first-rate of 112 guns. When, after the fight, Nelson went on board the Victory, Sir John Jervis took him to his arms, and insisted that he should keep the sword taken from the Spanish rear-admiral. When it was hinted, during some private conversation, that Nelson’s move was unauthorised, [pg 10]Jervis had to admit the fact, but promised to forgive any such breach of orders, accompanied with the same measure of success.
In the meantime, the Win had been busy. Along with two ships from the fleet, she managed to silence the Salvador Mundi, a first-rate ship with 112 guns. After the battle, when Nelson boarded the Win, Sir John Jervis embraced him and insisted that he keep the sword taken from the Spanish rear-admiral. When it was suggested in a private conversation that Nelson’s action was unauthorized, [pg 10]Jervis admitted it was true but promised to overlook any such breach of orders if it came with the same level of success.
The battle had now lasted from noon, and at five p.m. four Spanish line-of-battle vessels had lowered their colours. Even the great Santissima Trinidada might then have become a prize but for the return of the vessels which had been cut off from the fleet in the morning, and which alone saved her. Her colours had been shot away, and she had hoisted English colours in token of submission, when the other ships came up, and Cordova reconsidered his step. Jervis did not think that his fleet was quite equal to a fresh conflict; and the Spaniards showed no desire to renew the fight. They had lost on the four prizes, alone, 261 killed, and 342 wounded, and in all, probably, nearly double the above. The British loss was seventy-three killed, and 227 wounded.
The battle had now been going on since noon, and by five p.m., four Spanish warships had surrendered. Even the great Holy Trinity might have been captured, but for the return of the ships that had been cut off from the fleet in the morning, which saved her. Her flag had been shot down, and she had raised the English flag as a sign of surrender when the other ships arrived, prompting Cordova to rethink his decision. Jervis didn’t believe his fleet was ready for another fight, and the Spaniards showed no interest in continuing the battle. They had suffered 261 deaths and 342 injuries just among the four surrendered ships, and likely their total losses were nearly double that. The British casualties were seventy-three killed and 227 wounded.
Of Trafalgar and of Nelson, both day and man so intimately associated with our good ship, what can yet be said or sung that has gone unsaid, unsung?—how when he left Portsmouth the crowds pressed forward to obtain one last look at their hero—England’s greatest hero—and “knelt down before him, and blessed him as he passed;”7 that beautiful prayer, indited in his cabin, “May the great God whom I worship grant to my country, and for the benefit of Europe in general, a great and glorious victory, and may no misconduct in any one tarnish it, and may humanity after victory be the predominant feature of the British fleet,” or the now historical signal which flew from the mizen top-gallant mast of that noble old ship, and which has become one of the grand mottoes of our tongue, are facts as familiar to every reader as household words.
Of Trafalgar and Nelson, both the day and the man so closely linked to our good ship, what more can be said or sung that hasn’t already been said or sung?—how when he left Portsmouth, the crowds surged forward to catch one last glimpse of their hero—England’s greatest hero—and “knelt down in front of him and gave him a blessing as he walked by;”7 that beautiful prayer, written in his cabin, "May the great God I worship bless my country, and all of Europe, with a significant and glorious victory. May no improper behavior by anyone taint it, and may humanity be the defining quality of the British fleet after the victory." or the now-famous signal that flew from the mizen top-gallant mast of that noble old ship, which has become one of the grand mottos of our language, are facts as familiar to every reader as household words.
The part directly played by the Victory herself in the battle of Trafalgar was second to none. From the very first she received a raking fire from all sides, which must have been indeed severe, when we find the words extorted from Nelson, “This is too warm work to last long,” addressed to Captain Hardy. At that moment fifty of his men were lying dead or wounded, while the Victory’s mizen-mast and wheel were shot away, and her sails hanging in ribbons. To the terrible cannonading of the enemy, Nelson had not yet returned a shot. He had determined to be in the very thick of the fight, and was reserving his fire. Now it was that Captain Hardy represented to Nelson the impracticability of passing through the enemy’s line without running on board one of their ships; he was coolly told to take his choice. The Victory was accordingly turned on board the Redoubtable, the commander of which, Captain Lucas, in a resolute endeavour to block the passage, himself ran his bowsprit into the figurehead of the Bucentaure, and the two vessels became locked together. Not many minutes later, Captain Harvey, of the Téméraire, seeing the position of the Victory with her two assailants, fell on board the Redoubtable, on the other side, so that these four ships formed as compact a tier as though moored together. The Victory fired her middle and lower deck guns into the Redoubtable, which returned the fire from her main-deck, employing also musketry and brass pieces of larger size with most destructive effects from the tops.
The role played by the Win herself in the battle of Trafalgar was unmatched. From the very beginning, she came under intense fire from all directions, which must have been quite severe, as evidenced by Nelson's words, "This is too hot of a job to last long," directed at Captain Hardy. At that time, fifty of his men were dead or wounded, while the Victory mizen-mast and wheel were destroyed, and her sails were in tatters. Nelson had not yet returned fire despite the enemy's heavy bombardment. He was determined to be in the heat of battle and was saving his shots. It was then that Captain Hardy informed Nelson about the difficulties of breaking through the enemy’s line without colliding with one of their ships; he was calmly told to make his choice. The Win was then steered towards the Formidable, the captain of which, Captain Lucas, in a bold attempt to block the way, ran his bowsprit into the figurehead of the Bucentaure, causing the two ships to become locked together. Shortly after, Captain Harvey of the Reckless, noticing the situation of the Win with her two attackers, moved alongside the Impressive, so that these four ships formed a tight formation as if they were anchored together. The Win fired her middle and lower deck guns at the Formidable, which returned the fire from her main deck, also using muskets and larger brass pieces from the tops to devastating effect.
Within a few minutes of Lord Nelson’s fall, several officers and about forty men were either killed or wounded from this source. But a few minutes afterwards the Redoubtable fell on board the Téméraire, the French ship’s bowsprit passing over the British ship. Now came one of the warmest episodes of the fight. The crew of the Téméraire lashed their vessel to their assailants’ ship, and poured in a raking fire. But the French captain, having discovered that—owing, perhaps, to the sympathy exhibited for the dying hero on board the Victory, and her excessive losses in men—her quarter-deck was quite deserted, now ordered an attempt at boarding the latter. This cost our flag-ship the lives of Captain Adair and eighteen men, but at the same moment the Téméraire opened fire on the Redoubtable with such effect that Captain Lucas and 200 men were themselves placed hors de combat.
Within a few minutes of Lord Nelson’s fall, several officers and about forty men were either killed or injured from this. But shortly afterwards, the Formidable collided with the Daring, with the French ship’s bowsprit passing over the British ship. This sparked one of the most intense moments of the battle. The crew of the Reckless tied their ship to their enemies’ and unleashed a heavy barrage. However, the French captain, realizing that—likely due to the sympathy shown for the dying hero on board the Win and her significant losses in men—her quarter-deck was nearly empty, ordered an attempt to board her. This cost our flagship the lives of Captain Adair and eighteen men, but at the same time, the Reckless opened fire on the Formidable with such impact that Captain Lucas and 200 men were put out of action.
In the contest we have been relating, the coolness of the Victory’s men was signally evinced. “When the guns on the lower deck were run out, their muzzles came in contact with the sides of the Redoubtable, and now was seen an astounding spectacle. Knowing that there was danger of the French ship taking fire, the fireman of each gun on board the British ship stood ready with a bucketful of water to dash into the hole made by the shot of his gun—thus beautifully illustrating Nelson’s prayer, ‘that the British might be distinguished by humanity in victory.’ Less considerate than her antagonist, the Redoubtable threw hand-grenades from her tops, which, falling on board herself, set fire to her, ... and the flame communicated with the foresail of the Téméraire, and caught some ropes and canvas on the booms of the Victory, risking the destruction of all; but by immense exertions the fire was subdued in the British ships, whose crews lent their assistance to extinguish the flames on board the Redoubtable, by throwing buckets of water upon her chains and forecastle.”8
In the battle we've been discussing, the coolness of the Victory's crew was clearly evident. “When the cannons on the lower deck were rolled out, their barrels brushed against the sides of the Redoubtable, leading to an incredible scene. Understanding the danger of the French ship catching fire, each gunner on the British ship was ready with a bucket of water to throw into the gap created by his own cannon—truly embodying Nelson’s prayer, ‘that the British might be distinguished by humanity in victory.’ Less careful than her rival, the Redoubtable fired hand grenades from her upper decks, which ended up falling back onto her, igniting her own ship,... and the flames spread to the foresail of the Téméraire, as well as some ropes and canvas on the booms of the Victory, putting everything in jeopardy. However, with great effort, the fire was brought under control on the British ships, whose crews helped extinguish the flames on the Redoubtable by throwing buckets of water onto her decks and forecastle.”8
Setting aside, for the purpose of clearness, the episode of the taking of the Fougueux, which got foul of the Téméraire and speedily surrendered, we find, five minutes later, the main and mizen masts of the Redoubtable falling—the former in such a way across the Téméraire that it formed a bridge, over which the boarding-party passed and took quiet possession. Captain Lucas had so stoutly defended his flag, that, out of a crew of 643, only 123 were in a condition to continue the fight; 522 were lying killed or wounded. The Bucentaure soon met her fate, after being defended with nearly equal bravery. The French admiral, Villeneuve, who was on board, said bitterly, just before surrendering, “Le Bucentaure a rempli sa tâche; la mienne n’est pas encore achevée.”
Setting aside, for the sake of clarity, the incident involving the capture of the Fierce, which got entangled with the Reckless and quickly surrendered, we find, five minutes later, the main and mizzen masts of the Impressive falling—so much so that the former landed across the Reckless, creating a bridge over which the boarding party crossed and took control. Captain Lucas defended his ship so valiantly that, out of a crew of 643, only 123 were fit to keep fighting; 522 were dead or injured. The Bucentaure soon met a similar fate after being defended with similar courage. The French admiral, Villeneuve, who was on board, bitterly stated just before surrendering, “The Bucentaure has completed its task; mine is not finished yet.”
Let the reader remember that the above are but a few episodes of the most complete and glorious victory ever obtained in naval warfare. Without the loss of one single vessel to the conqueror, more than half the ships of the enemy were captured or destroyed, while the remainder escaped into harbour to rot in utter uselessness. Twenty-one vessels were lost for ever to France and Spain. It is to be hoped and believed that no such contest will ever again be needed; but should it be needed, it will have to be fought by very different means. The instance of four great ships locked together, dealing death and destruction to each other, has never been paralleled. Imagine that [pg 13]seething, fighting, dying mass of humanity, with all the horrible concomitants of deafening noise and blinding smoke and flashing fire! It is not likely ever to occur in modern warfare. The commanders of steam-vessels of all classes will be more likely to fight at out-manœuvring and shelling each other than to come to close quarters, which would generally mean blowing up together. It would be interesting to consider how Nelson would have acted with, and opposed to, steam-frigates and ironclads. He would, no doubt, have been as courageous and far-seeing and rapid in action as ever, but hardly as reckless, or even daring.
Let the reader remember that the above are just a few examples of the most complete and remarkable victory ever achieved in naval warfare. Without losing a single ship, the conqueror captured or destroyed more than half of the enemy's fleet, while the rest retreated into harbor to rot in total uselessness. Twenty-one vessels were lost forever to France and Spain. It is hoped and believed that we will never need to fight such a battle again; but if we do, it will have to be fought using very different methods. The sight of four massive ships locked together, inflicting death and destruction on one another, has never been seen again. Picture that seething, fighting, dying mass of humanity, with all the horrifying noise, blinding smoke, and flashing fire! It’s unlikely that such a scenario will ever occur in modern warfare. The commanders of steamships of all kinds will probably focus more on out-maneuvering and bombarding each other rather than engaging in close combat, which would usually mean they would blow up together. It would be interesting to think about how Nelson would have acted with and against steam frigates and ironclads. He would certainly have been as brave, insightful, and quick to act as ever, but probably not as reckless or even daring.
May we always have a Nelson in the hour of national need!
May we always have a Nelson in our time of national need!
The day for such battles as this is over; there may be others as gloriously fought, but never again by the same means. Ships, armaments, and modes of attack and defence are, and will be, increasingly different. Those who have read Nelson’s private letters and journals will remember how he gloried in the appreciation of his subordinate officers just before Trafalgar’s happy and yet fatal day, when he had explained to them his intention to attack the enemy with what was practically a wedge-formed fleet. He was determined to break their line, and, Nelson-like, he did. But that which he facetiously christened the “Nelson touch” would itself nowadays be broken up in a few minutes and thrown into utter confusion by any powerfully-armed vessel hovering about under steam. Or if the wedge of wooden vessels were allowed to form, as they approached the apex, a couple of ironclads would take them in hand coolly, one by one, and send them to the bottom, while their guns might as well shoot peas at the ironclads as the shot of former days.
The era for battles like this is over; there may be others fought with equal glory, but they won’t use the same methods. Ships, weapons, and tactics for attack and defense are, and will increasingly be, very different. Those who have read Nelson’s private letters and journals will recall how he took pride in the praise from his subordinate officers just before Trafalgar’s fortunate yet tragic day, when he explained his plan to attack the enemy with what was essentially a wedge-shaped fleet. He was determined to break their line, and, true to form, he accomplished it. But what he humorously called the “Nelson touch” would nowadays be dismantled within minutes and thrown into complete chaos by any heavily armed ship operating under steam. Or, if the wedge of wooden ships were allowed to form, as they neared the point, a couple of ironclads would casually take them on one by one and sink them, while their cannons might as well be firing peas at the ironclads compared to the firepower of earlier times.
Taking the Victory as a fair type of the best war-ships of her day (a day when there was not that painful uncertainty with regard to naval construction and armament existing now, in spite of our vaunted progress), we still know that in the presence of a powerful steam-frigate with heavy guns, or an 11,000-ton ironclad, she would be literally nowhere. She was one of the last specimens, and a very perfect specimen, too, of the wooden age. This is the age of iron and steam. One of the largest vessels of her day, she is now excelled by hundreds employed in ordinary commerce. The Royal Navy to-day possesses frigates nearly three times her tonnage, while we have ironclads of five times the same. The monster Great Eastern, which has proved a monstrous mistake, is 22,500 tons.
Taking the Winning as a prime example of the best warships of her time (a time when there wasn’t the painful uncertainty about naval construction and armament that we have today, despite our so-called progress), we still know that in the presence of a powerful steam frigate with heavy guns, or an 11,000-ton ironclad, she would be practically useless. She was one of the last examples, and a very complete example, too, of the wood age. This is the age of iron and steam. One of the largest ships of her day, she is now outclassed by hundreds used in regular commerce. The Royal Navy today has frigates nearly three times her tonnage, while we have ironclads that are five times the same. The giant Great Eastern, which turned out to be a huge mistake, weighs 22,500 tons.
But size is by no means the only consideration in constructing vessels of war, and, indeed, there are good reasons to believe that, in the end, vessels of moderate dimensions will be preferred for most purposes of actual warfare. Of the advantages of steam-power there can, of course, be only one opinion; but as regards iron versus oak, there are many points which may be urged in favour of either, with a preponderance in favour of the former. A strong iron ship, strange as it may appear, is not more than half the weight of a wooden vessel of the same size and class. It will, to the unthinking, seem absurd to say that an iron ship is more buoyant than one of oak, but the fact is that the proportion of actual weight in iron and wooden vessels of ordinary construction is about six to twenty. The iron [pg 14]ship, therefore, stands high out of the water, and to sink it to the same line will require a greater weight on board. From this fact, and the actual thinness of its walls, its carrying capacity and stowage are so much the greater. This, which is a great point in vessels destined for commerce, would be equally important in war. But these remarks do not apply to the modern armoured vessel. We have ironclads with plates eighteen inches and upwards in thickness. What is the consequence? Their actual weight, with that of the necessary engines and monster guns employed, is so great that a vast deal of room on board has to be unemployed. Day by day we hear of fresh experiments in gunnery, which keep pace with the increased strength of the vessels. The invulnerable of to-day is the vulnerable of to-morrow, and there are many leading authorities who believe in a return to a smaller and weaker class of vessel—provided, however, with all the appliances for great speed and offensive warfare at a distance. Nelson’s preference for small, easily-worked frigates over the great ships of the line is well known, and were he alive to-day we can well believe that he would prefer a medium-sized vessel of strong construction, to steam with great speed, and carrying heavy, but, perhaps, not the heaviest guns, to one of those modern unwieldy masses of iron, which have had, so far, a most disastrous history. The former might, so to speak, act while the latter was making up her mind. Even a Nelson might hesitate to risk a vessel representing six or seven hundred thousand pounds of the nation’s money, in anything short of an assured success. We have, however, yet to learn the full value and power of our ironclad fleet. Of its cost there is not a doubt. Some time ago our leading newspaper estimated the expense of construction and maintenance of our existing ironclads at £18,000,000. Mr. Reed states that they have cost the country a million sterling per annum since the first organisation of the fleet. Warfare will soon become a luxury only for the richest nations, and, regarding it in this light, perhaps the very men who are racking their powers of invention to discover terrible engines of war are the greatest peacemakers, after all. They may succeed in making it an impossibility.
But size isn’t the only thing to consider when building warships, and there are solid reasons to think that, in the end, ships of moderate size will be preferred for most actual military needs. Everyone agrees on the benefits of steam power; however, when it comes to iron vs. oak, there are many arguments for either material, though the advantages of iron generally outweigh those of wood. Surprisingly, a strong iron ship weighs less than half of a wooden vessel of the same size and type. It may seem ridiculous to suggest that an iron ship is more buoyant than one made of oak, but the reality is that the weight ratio in iron and wooden ships of standard construction is about six to twenty. An iron [pg 14]ship sits much higher in the water, and to lower it to the same level will require a lot more weight onboard. Because of this, along with its relatively slimness of its walls, its capacity for carrying cargo and storage is significantly larger. This is a huge advantage for ships involved in commerce, and it's also crucial in military applications. However, these observations don’t apply to modern armored vessels. We have ironclads with armor plates that are eighteen inches thick or more. What’s the outcome? Their actual weight, combined with the necessary engines and massive guns, is so substantial that a lot of space on board ends up being wasted. Every day, we hear about new experiments in artillery that keep up with the increased strength of the ships. What is invulnerable today may be vulnerable tomorrow, and many experts believe there should be a move back to smaller and less heavily armed vessels—equipped, of course, with all the tools needed for high speed and long-range offensive operations from afar. Nelson’s preference for small, easily maneuvered frigates over massive ships of the line is well known, and if he were alive today, we can easily imagine he would go for a medium-sized, well-built vessel that could steam at high speed and carry heavy, but not necessarily the heaviest, guns, rather than one of those modern clunky iron behemoths that have had such a disastrous track record. The former could act quickly while the latter was still deciding what to do. Even someone like Nelson might hesitate to risk a ship costing six or seven hundred thousand pounds of the nation's money on anything less than a sure success. However, we are still coming to understand the full value and capabilities of our ironclad fleet. There is no denying its cost. Not long ago, our leading newspaper estimated the construction and maintenance costs of our current ironclads at £18,000,000. Mr. Reed claims they have cost the nation a million pounds a year since the fleet was first organized. Warfare is rapidly becoming a luxury only for the wealthiest nations, and if we think about it this way, perhaps the very people who are pushing their inventive abilities to create powerful weapons of war are, in fact, the greatest peacemakers of all. They might just make war impossible.
“Hereafter, naval powers prepared with the necessary fleet will be able to transport the base of operations to any point on the enemy’s coast, turn the strongest positions, and baffle the best-arranged combinations. Thanks to steam, the sea has become a means of communication more certain and more simple than the land; and fleets will be able to act the part of movable bases of operations, rendering them very formidable to powers which, possessing coasts, will not have any navy sufficiently powerful to cause their being respected.”9 So far as navy to navy is concerned, this is undoubtedly true; yet there is another side to the question. A fort is sometimes able to inflict far greater damage upon its naval assailants than the latter can inflict upon it. A single shot may send a ship to the bottom, whilst the fire from the ship during action is more or less inaccurate. At Sebastopol, a whole French fleet, firing at ranges of 1,600 to 1,800 yards, failed to make any great impression on a fort close to the water’s edge; while a wretched earthen battery, mounting only five guns, inflicted terrible losses and injury on four powerful English men-of-war, actually disabling two of them, without itself losing one man or having a gun dismounted; while, as has been often calculated, the cost of a single sloop of war with its equipment will construct a fine fort which will last almost for [pg 15]ever, while that of two or three line-of-battle ships would raise a considerable fortress. Whilst the monster ironclad with heavy guns would deal out death and destruction when surrounded by an enemy’s fleet of lighter iron vessels or wooden ones as strong as was the Victory, she would herself run great risk in approaching closely-fortified harbours and coasts, where a single shot from a gun heavy enough to pierce her armour might sink her. Her safety would consist in firing at long ranges and in steaming backwards and forwards.
"From now on, naval powers with the right fleet will be able to relocate their base of operations to any point along the enemy's coast, outmaneuver the strongest positions, and disrupt the best-laid plans. With the arrival of steam, the sea has become a more dependable and straightforward means of communication than land; fleets can operate as mobile bases, posing a significant threat to coastal powers that lack a strong enough navy to be taken seriously."9 As far as navy versus navy is concerned, this is certainly true; however, there’s another aspect to consider. A fort can sometimes inflict much greater damage on naval attackers than they can on it. A single shot can sink a ship, while the fire from the ship during a battle is often inaccurate. At Sebastopol, an entire French fleet, firing from distances of 1,600 to 1,800 yards, struggled to make any significant impact on a fort at the water’s edge; meanwhile, a small earthen battery with only five guns caused severe damage to four powerful English warships, even disabling two of them, without losing a single man or having any guns knocked out. As has often been calculated, the cost of a single war sloop with its gear could build a solid fort that could last almost forever, while the cost of two or three battleships would be enough to construct a substantial fortress. Although the huge ironclad with heavy guns would deliver destruction when surrounded by an enemy fleet of lighter iron vessels or wooden ships as strong as the Win, it would still be at significant risk when approaching well-fortified harbors and coasts, where a single shot from a weapon heavy enough to pierce its armor could sink it. Its safety would rely on firing from long distances and moving back and forth.
The lessons of the Crimean war, as regards the navy, were few, but of the gravest importance, and they have led to results of which we cannot yet determine the end. The war opened by a Russian attack on a Turkish squadron at Sinope, November 20th, 1853.10 That determined the fact that a whole fleet might be annihilated in an hour or so by the use of large shells. No more necessity for grappling and close quarters; the iron age was full in view, and wooden walls had outlived their usefulness, and must perish.
The lessons from the Crimean War regarding the navy were few but extremely important, and they have led to results whose final outcome we still cannot determine. The conflict started with a Russian attack on a Turkish fleet at Sinope on November 20th, 1853.10 This demonstrated that an entire fleet could be wiped out in just an hour using large shells. There was no longer a need for grappling and close combat; the iron age was clearly on the horizon, and wooden ships had outlived their purpose and must be replaced.
But the lesson had to be again impressed, and that upon a large English and French fleet. Yet, in fairness to our navy, it must be remembered that the Russians had spent every attention to rendering Sebastopol nearly impregnable on the sea-side, while a distinguished writer,11 who was present throughout the siege, assures us that until the preceding spring they had been quite indifferent in regard to the strength of the fortifications on the land-side. And the presence of the allied fleets was the undeniable cause of one Russian fleet being sunk in the harbour of Sebastopol, while another dared not venture out, season after season, from behind stone fortresses in the shallow waters of Cronstadt.12 A great naval authority thinks that, while England was, at the time, almost totally deficient in the class of vessels essential to attacking the fleets and fortifications of Russia, the fact that the former never dared “to accept the challenge of any British squadron, however small, is one the record of which we certainly may read without shame.” But of that period it would be more pleasant to write exultingly than apologetically.
But the lesson had to be reinforced, especially for a large English and French fleet. However, to be fair to our navy, it's important to remember that the Russians had focused all their efforts on making Sebastopol nearly impossible to attack from the sea, while a notable writer, 11 who was there throughout the siege, claims that until the spring of last year, they were quite unconcerned about the strength of the fortifications on the land side. The presence of the allied fleets was undoubtedly the reason one Russian fleet was sunk in the harbor of Sebastopol, while another didn't even try to venture out from behind stone fortresses in the shallow waters of Cronstadt, season after season.12 A major naval expert believes that, at that time, England was almost completely lacking in the types of ships needed to attack the fleets and fortifications of Russia, yet the fact that the Russians never dared "Accepting the challenge from any British squadron, no matter how small, is a record we can definitely reflect on with pride." But it would be more enjoyable to write about that time with pride rather than defensively.
When the Allies had decided to commence the bombardment of Sebastopol, on October 17th, 1854, it was understood that the fleet should co-operate, and that the attack should be made by the line-of-battle ships in a semicircle. They were ready at one p.m. to commence [pg 16]the bombardment. Lyons brought the Agamemnon, followed by half a dozen other vessels, to within 700 yards of Fort Constantine, the others staying at the safer distances of 1,800 to 2,200 yards. The whole fleet opened with a tremendous roar of artillery, to which the Russians replied almost as heavily. Fort Constantine was several times silenced, and greatly damaged; but, on the other hand, the Russians managed to kill forty-seven and wound 234 men in the English fleet, and a slightly smaller number in the French. They had an unpleasant knack of firing red-hot shot in profusion, and of hitting the vessels even at the distance at which they lay. Several were set on fire, and two for a time had to retire from the action. These were practical shots at our wooden walls. This naval attack has been characterised as “even a greater failure than that by land”—meaning, of course, the first attack.
When the Allies decided to start the bombardment of Sebastopol on October 17th, 1854, they agreed that the fleet would work together, launching the attack with the battleships arranged in a semicircle. They were ready to begin [pg 16]the bombardment at one p.m. Lyons brought the Agamemnon, followed by about six other ships, to within 700 yards of Fort Constantine, while the others stayed back at safer distances of 1,800 to 2,200 yards. The entire fleet opened fire with a thunderous blast of artillery, to which the Russians responded almost as forcefully. Fort Constantine was silenced several times and suffered significant damage; however, the Russians managed to kill forty-seven and injure 234 men in the British fleet, with a slightly smaller number in the French fleet. They had an unfortunate ability to fire red-hot shot in abundance and were able to hit the ships even at the distances they were at. Several caught fire, and two had to briefly withdraw from the fight. These were effective shots against our wooden ships. This naval attack has been described as "an even bigger failure than that on land"—referring to the initial attack, of course.
Here we may for a moment be allowed to digress and remind the reader of the important part played by red-hot shot at that greatest of all great sieges—Gibraltar. As each accession to the enemy’s force arrived, General Elliott calmly built more furnaces and more grates for heating his most effective means of defence. Just as one of their wooden batteries was on the point of completion, he gave it what was termed at the time a dose of “cayenne pepper;” in other words, with red-hot shot and shells he set it on fire. When the ordnance portable furnaces for heating shot proved insufficient to supply the demands of the artillery, he ordered large bonfires to be kindled, on which the cannon-balls were thrown; and these supplies were termed by the soldiers “hot potatoes” for the enemy. But the great triumph of red-hot shot was on that memorable 13th of September, 1782, when forty-six sail of the line, and a countless fleet of gun and mortar boats attacked the fortress. With all these appliances of warfare, the great confidence of the enemy—or rather, combined enemies—was in their floating batteries, planned by D’Arcon, an eminent French engineer, and which had cost a good half million sterling. They were supposed to be impervious to shells or red-hot shot. After persistently firing at the fleet, Elliott started the admiral’s ship and one of the batteries commanded by the Prince of Nassau. This was but the commencement of the end. The unwieldy leviathans could not be shifted from their moorings, and they lay helpless and immovable, and yet dangerous to their neighbours; for they were filled with the instruments of destruction. Early the next morning eight of these vaunted batteries “indicated the efficacy of the red-hot defence. The light produced by the flames was nearly equal to noonday, and greatly exposed the enemy to observation, enabling the artillery to be pointed upon them with the utmost precision. The rock and neighbouring objects are stated to have been highly illuminated by the constant flashes of cannon and the flames of the burning ships, forming a mingled scene of sublimity and terror.”13 “An indistinct clamour, with lamentable cries and groans, arose from all quarters.”14
Here we can take a moment to diverge and remind the reader of the significant role that red-hot shot played in the greatest of all sieges—Gibraltar. As each new addition to the enemy's forces arrived, General Elliott calmly constructed more furnaces and grates to heat his most effective means of defense. Just as one of their wooden batteries was nearly finished, he gave it what was called at the time a dose of “cayenne pepper” in other words, he set it on fire with red-hot shot and shells. When the portable furnaces for heating shot were not enough to meet the artillery's needs, he had large bonfires lit and tossed the cannonballs onto them; the soldiers referred to these supplies as “hot topics” for the enemy. However, the greatest success of red-hot shot came on that memorable September 13, 1782, when forty-six warships and a countless fleet of gun and mortar boats attacked the fortress. Despite all these weapons, the enemy—or rather, the enemy forces—had great confidence in their floating batteries, designed by D’Arcon, a renowned French engineer, which had cost them over half a million pounds. They were believed to be immune to shells or red-hot shot. After continually firing at the fleet, Elliott targeted the admiral’s ship and one of the batteries commanded by the Prince of Nassau. This was just the beginning of the end. The clumsy behemoths couldn't be moved from their moorings, leaving them vulnerable and motionless, yet still a threat to those nearby; they were packed with instruments of destruction. Early the next morning, eight of these celebrated batteries "demonstrated the effectiveness of the intense defense. The light from the flames was nearly as bright as noon, which significantly revealed the enemy, enabling the artillery to target them with maximum accuracy. The rock and nearby objects were reported to be brilliantly illuminated by the constant cannon flashes and the flames of the burning ships, creating a scene of wonder and fear."13 A vague noise, filled with sorrowful cries and groans, came from all directions.14
When 400 pieces of artillery were playing on the rock at the same moment, Elliott returned the compliment with a shower of red-hot balls, bombs, and carcases, that filled the air, with little or no intermission. The Count d’Artois had hastened from Paris to [pg 18]witness a capitulation. He arrived in time to see the total destruction of the floating batteries and a large part of the combined fleet. Attempting a somewhat feeble joke, he wrote to France:—“La batterie la plus effective était ma batterie de cuisine.” Elliott’s cooking-apparatus and “roasted balls” beat it all to nothing. Red-hot shot has been entirely superseded in “civilised” warfare by shells. It was usually handled much in the same way that ordinary shot and shell is to-day. Each ball was carried by two men, having between them a strong iron frame, with a ring in the middle to hold it. There were two heavy wads, one dry and the other slightly damped, between the powder and ball. At the siege of Gibraltar, however, matters were managed in a much more rough-and-ready style. The shot was heated at furnaces and wheeled off to the guns in wheelbarrows lined with sand.
When 400 pieces of artillery were firing at the rock simultaneously, Elliott responded with a barrage of red-hot balls, bombs, and carcasses that filled the air with little or no pause. The Count d’Artois rushed from Paris to [pg 18]witness a surrender. He arrived just in time to see the complete destruction of the floating batteries and a large part of the combined fleet. Trying to make a lighthearted comment, he wrote to France:—“The best battery was the one in my kitchen.” Elliott’s cooking setup and “roasted meatballs” surpassed it all. Red-hot shot has completely been replaced in “civilized” warfare by shells. It was typically handled much like regular shot and shell are today. Each ball was carried by two men, who had a strong iron frame between them with a ring in the middle to hold it. There were two heavy wads, one dry and the other slightly damp, placed between the powder and the ball. However, at the siege of Gibraltar, things were done in a much more makeshift manner. The shot was heated at furnaces and wheeled to the guns in wheelbarrows lined with sand.
The partial failure of the navy to co-operate successfully with the land-forces, so far as bombardment was concerned, during the Crimean war, has had much to do with the adoption of the costly ironclad floating fortresses, armed with enormously powerful guns, of the present day. The earliest form, indeed, was adopted during the above war, but not used to any great extent or advantage. The late Emperor of the French15 saw that the coming necessity or necessary evil would be some form of strongly-armoured and protected floating battery that could cope with fortresses ashore, and this was the germ of the ironclad movement. The first batteries of this kind, used successfully at Kinburn, were otherwise unseaworthy and unmanageable, and were little more than heavily-plated and more or less covered barges.
The partial failure of the navy to effectively work with the land forces during the Crimean War, especially in terms of bombardment, greatly influenced the development of the expensive ironclad floating fortresses we have today, equipped with incredibly powerful guns. The earliest version was actually introduced during that war, but it wasn't utilized much or to any real benefit. The late Emperor of the French15 recognized that there would be a growing need for some type of heavily armored and protected floating battery capable of taking on shore fortifications, which sparked the ironclad movement. The first successful batteries of this kind used at Kinburn were otherwise not seaworthy and difficult to control; they were basically just heavily plated, somewhat covered barges.
The two earliest European ironclads were La Gloire in France and the Warrior in England—the latter launched in 1860. Neither of these vessels presented any great departure from the established types of build in large ships of war. The Warrior is an undeniably fine, handsome-looking frigate, masted and rigged as usual, but she and her sister-ship, the Black Prince, are about the only ironclads to which these remarks apply—every form and variety of construction having been adopted since. As regarded size, she was considerably larger than the largest frigate or ship of the line of our navy, although greatly exceeded by many ironclads subsequently built. She is 380 feet in length, and her displacement of more than 9,100 tons was 3,000 tons greater than that of the largest of the wooden men-of-war she was superseding. The Warrior is still among the fastest of the iron-armoured fleet. Considered as an ironclad, however, she is a weak example. Her armour, which protects only three-fifths of her sides, is but four and a half inches thick, with eighteen inches of (wood) backing, and five-eighths of an inch of what is technically called “skin-plating,” for protection inside. The remote possibility of a red-hot shot or shell falling inside has to be considered. Her bow and stern, rudder-head and steering-gear, would, of course, be the vulnerable points.
The two earliest European ironclads were La Gloire in France and the Fighter in England—the latter launched in 1860. Neither of these ships represented a significant change from the established designs of large warships. The Fighter is undeniably a fine-looking frigate, masted and rigged in the traditional way, but she and her sister ship, the Black Prince, are about the only ironclads to which these observations apply—every kind of construction has been used since then. In terms of size, she was significantly larger than the largest frigate or ship of the line in our navy, although many ironclads built later surpassed her size. She measures 380 feet in length, and her displacement of over 9,100 tons was 3,000 tons more than that of the largest wooden men-of-war she replaced. The Fighter is still one of the fastest in the iron-armoured fleet. However, as an ironclad, she is a weak example. Her armor, which protects only three-fifths of her sides, is only four and a half inches thick, with eighteen inches of wood backing, and five-eighths of an inch of what is technically referred to as "skin plating," for interior protection. The unlikely chance of a red-hot shot or shell breaching her defenses needs to be taken into account. Her bow and stern, rudder-head, and steering gear are, of course, the vulnerable points.
From this small beginning—one armoured vessel—our ironclad fleet has grown with [pg 19]the greatest rapidity, till it now numbers over sixty of all denominations of vessels. The late Emperor of the French gave a great impetus to the movement; and other foreign nations speedily following in his wake, it clearly behoved England to be able to cope with them on their own ground, should occasion demand. Then there was the “scare” of invasion which took some hold of the public mind, and was exaggerated by certain portions of the press, at one period, till it assumed serious proportions. Leading journals complained that by the time the Admiralty would have one or two ironclads in commission, the French would have ten or twelve. Thus urged, the Government of the day must be excused if they made some doubtful experiments and costly failures.
From this small beginning—one armored ship—our ironclad fleet has rapidly expanded, and now it includes over sixty different types of vessels. The late Emperor of France greatly spurred this movement, and other foreign countries quickly followed his lead, which clearly made it necessary for England to be ready to match them if needed. There was also the “scare” of invasion that caught the public's attention and was exaggerated by certain parts of the media at one point, making it appear more serious. Leading newspapers complained that by the time the Admiralty had one or two ironclads ready for service, the French would already have ten or twelve. Given this pressure, the government at the time can be forgiven for trying some questionable experiments and dealing with costly failures.
But apart from the lessons of the Crimea, and the activity and rivalry of foreign powers, attention was seriously drawn to the ironclad question by the events of the day. It was easy to guess and theorise concerning this new feature in warfare, but early in 1862 practical proof was afforded of its power. The naval engagement which took place in Hampton Roads, near the outset of the great American civil war, was the first time in which an ironclad ship was brought into collision with wooden vessels, and also the first time in which two distinct varieties of the species were brought into collision with each other.
But aside from the lessons learned from the Crimea and the actions and rivalries of foreign powers, the situation of ironclads became a significant focus due to recent events. It was easy to speculate and theorize about this new aspect of warfare, but early in 1862, practical evidence of its power was demonstrated. The naval battle that occurred in Hampton Roads, at the beginning of the American Civil War, was the first instance where an ironclad ship engaged with wooden vessels, and it was also the first time that two different types of ironclads came into conflict with one another.
The Southerners had, when the strife commenced, seized and partially burned the Merrimac, a steam-frigate belonging to the United States navy, then lying at the Norfolk Navy-yard. The hulk was regarded as nearly worthless,16 until, looking about for ways and means to annoy their opponents, they hit on the idea of armouring her, in the best manner attainable at the moment; and for awhile at least, this condemned wreck, resuscitated, patched up, and covered with iron plates,17 became the terror of the enemy. She was provided with an iron prow or ram capable of inflicting a severe blow under water. Her hull, cut down to within three feet of the water-line, was covered by a bomb-proof, sloping-roofed house, which extended over the screw and rudder. This was built of oak and pine, covered with iron; the latter being four and a half inches thick, and the former aggregating twenty inches in thickness. While the hull was generally iron-plated, the bow and stern were covered with steel. There were no masts—nothing seen above but the “smoke-stack” (funnel), pilot-house, and flagstaff. She carried eight powerful guns, most of them eleven-inch. “As she came ploughing through the water,” wrote one eyewitness of her movements, “she looked like a huge half-submerged crocodile.” The Southerners re-christened her the Virginia, but her older name has clung to her. The smaller vessels with her contributed little to the issue of the fight, but those opposed to her were of no inconsiderable size. The Congress, Cumberland, [pg 20]Minnesota, and Roanoake were frigates carrying an aggregate of over 150 guns and nearly 2,000 men. They, however, were wooden vessels; and although, in two cases in particular, defended with persistent heroism, had no chance against the ironclad, hastily as she had been prepared. There is little doubt that the officers of the two former vessels, in particular, knew something of the nature of the “forlorn hope” in which they were about to engage, when she hove in sight on that memorable 8th of March, 1862. It is said that the sailors, however, derided her till she was close upon them—so close that their laughter and remarks were heard on board. “That Southern Bugaboo,” “that old Secesh curiosity,” were among the milder titles applied to her.
The Southerners, when the conflict started, seized and partially burned the Merrimac, a steam frigate belonging to the United States Navy, which was docked at the Norfolk Navy Yard. The hulk was considered nearly worthless, 16 until they looked for ways to annoy their opponents and decided to armor her in the best way possible at that time. For a while, at least, this condemned wreck, revived, patched up, and covered with iron plates, 17 became a threat to the enemy. She was equipped with an iron prow or ram capable of delivering a serious blow underwater. Her hull was cut down to within three feet of the waterline and was protected by a bomb-proof, sloping-roofed structure that extended over the screw and rudder. This was made of oak and pine, covered with iron; the iron was four and a half inches thick, while the wood totaled twenty inches in thickness. Although the hull was mainly iron-plated, the bow and stern were covered with steel. There were no masts—only the smokestack (funnel), pilot house, and flagstaff were visible above. She carried eight powerful guns, most of them eleven-inch. "As she swam through the water," wrote one eyewitness, "She looked like a giant crocodile that was half-submerged." The Southerners renamed her the Virginia, but her old name stuck with her. The smaller vessels with her contributed little to the fight, but those opposing her were not insignificant. The Congress, Cumberland, [pg 20]Minnesota, and Roanoke were frigates armed with over 150 guns and nearly 2,000 men combined. However, they were wooden vessels, and although in particular two of them defended with relentless bravery, they had no chance against the ironclad, however hastily she had been outfitted. There is little doubt that the officers of the two former ships, in particular, were aware of the nature of the "lost cause" they were about to face when she appeared on that memorable March 8, 1862. It is said that the sailors mocked her until she was nearly upon them—so close that their laughter and comments could be heard on board. “That Southern Bugaboo,” "that old Confederate curiosity," were among the milder names they called her.
The engagement was fought in the Hampton Roads, which is virtually an outlet of the James River, Virginia. The latter, like the Thames, has considerable breadth and many shallows near its mouth. The Merrimac left Norfolk Navy-yard (which holds to the James River somewhat the position that Sheerness does to the Thames) hurriedly on the morning of the 8th, and steamed steadily towards the enemy’s fleet, accompanied by some smaller vessels of war and a few tug-boats.
The battle took place in Hampton Roads, which is almost an outlet of the James River in Virginia. The James River, like the Thames, is quite wide and has many shallow areas near its mouth. The Merrimac left the Norfolk Navy Yard (which is somewhat like Sheerness to the Thames) in a hurry on the morning of the 8th, and moved steadily toward the enemy's fleet, accompanied by some smaller warships and a few tugboats.
The morning was still and calm as that of a Sabbath-day. That the Merrimac was not expected was evidenced by the boats at the booms, and the sailors’ clothes still hanging in the rigging of the enemy’s vessels. “Did they see the long, dark hull? Had they made it out? Was it ignorance, apathy, or composure that made them so indifferent? or were they provided with torpedoes, which could sink even the Merrimac in a minute?” were questions mooted on the Southern side by those watching on board the boats and from the shore.
The morning was still and calm, just like a Sunday. The absence of the Merrimac was clear from the boats at the booms and the sailors’ clothes still hanging in the rigging of the enemy's ships. "Did they notice the long, dark hull? Could they recognize it? Were they indifferent because they didn't know, didn't care, or were they just calm? Or did they have torpedoes powerful enough to sink even the Merrimac in a minute?" These were the questions raised on the Southern side by those watching from the boats and the shore.
As soon, however, as she was plainly discerned, the crews of the Cumberland, Congress, and other vessels were beat to quarters, and preparations made for the fight. “The engagement,” wrote the Confederate Secretary of the Navy, “commenced at half-past three p.m., and at four p.m. Captain Buchanan had sunk the Cumberland, captured and burned the Congress, disabled and driven the Minnesota ashore, and defeated the St. Lawrence and Roanoake, which sought shelter under the guns of Fortress Monroe. Two of the enemy’s small steamers were blown up, and the two transport steamers were captured.” This, as will be seen, must, as regards time, be taken cum grano salis, but in its main points is correct.
As soon as she was clearly visible, the crews of the Cumberland, Congress, and other ships were called to battle stations, and preparations were made for the fight. "The proposal," wrote the Confederate Secretary of the Navy, “Started at 3:30 p.m., and by 4 p.m., Captain Buchanan had sunk the Cumberland, captured and burned the Congress, damaged and forced the Minnesota aground, and defeated the St. Lawrence and Roanoake, which were seeking shelter under the guns of Fortress Monroe. Two of the enemy’s small steamers were blown up, and two transport steamers were captured.” This, as will be shown, should, in terms of timing, be taken with a grain of salt, but is mostly accurate in its main points.
The Merrimac commenced the action by discharging a broadside at the Congress, one shell from which killed or disabled a number of men at the guns, and then kept on towards the Cumberland, which she approached with full steam on, striking her on the port side near the bow, her stem knocking two of the ports into one, and her ram striking the vessel under the water-line. Almost instantaneously a large shell was discharged from her forward gun, which raked the gun-deck of the doomed ship, and killed ten men. Five minutes later the ship began to sink by the head, a large hole having been made [pg 21]by the point of the ram, through which the water rushed in. As the Merrimac rounded and rapidly came up again, she once more raked the Cumberland, killing or wounding sixteen more men. Meantime the latter was endeavouring to defend herself, and poured broadside after broadside into the Merrimac; but the balls, as one of the survivors tells us, bounced “upon her mailed sides like india-rubber, apparently making not the least impression except to cut off her flagstaff, and thus bring down the Confederate colours. None of her crew ventured at that time on her outside to replace them, and she fought thenceforward with only her pennant flying.”18 Shortly after this, the Merrimac again attacked the unfortunate ship, advancing with her greatest speed, her ram making another hole below the water-line. The Cumberland began to fill rapidly. The scene on board is hardly to be described in words. It was one of horrible desperation and fruitless heroism. The decks were slippery with human gore; shreds of human flesh, and portions of the body, arms, legs, and headless trunks were scattered everywhere. Below, the cockpit was filled with wounded, whom it would be impossible to succour, for the ship was sinking fast. Meantime the men stuck to their posts, powder was still served out, and the firing kept up steadily, several of the crew lingering so long in the after shell-room, [pg 22]in their eagerness to pass up shell, that they were drowned there. The water had now reached the main gun-deck, and it became evident that the contest was nearly over. Still the men lingered, anxious for one last shot, when their guns were nearly under water.
The Merrimac started the attack by firing a broadside at the Congress, with one shell killing or injuring several men at the guns. It then continued toward the Cumberland, approaching at full speed and hitting her on the port side near the bow, with its stem smashing two of the gun ports together and the ram striking the ship below the waterline. Almost immediately, a large shell was fired from its forward gun, blasting the gun deck of the doomed ship and killing ten men. Five minutes later, the ship started to sink from the bow due to a large hole created by the ram, through which the water poured in. As the Merrimac circled back and came up again, it raked the Cumberland once more, injuring or killing another sixteen men. Meanwhile, the latter was trying to defend itself and fired broadside after broadside into the Merrimac; however, the rounds, as one of the survivors recounted, bounced off her armored sides "like rubber, making almost no impact except to cut down her flagstaff, bringing down the Confederate colors. None of her crew dared to go outside to replace them at that point, so she continued to fight only with her pennant flying.”18 Shortly after, the Merrimac attacked the unfortunate ship again, charging forward at full speed, and its ram made another hole below the waterline. The Cumberland began to fill up quickly. The scene on board was almost indescribable, filled with horrifying desperation and pointless bravery. The decks were slick with blood; bits of flesh and body parts—arms, legs, and headless torsos—were strewn everywhere. Below, the hold was filled with wounded men whom no one could help, as the ship was sinking rapidly. Meanwhile, the crew remained at their stations, powder was still being distributed, and firing continued steadily, with several of the crew staying so long in the after shell-room, [pg 22]eager to pass up shells, that they ended up drowning there. The water had now reached the main gun deck, and it was clear that the battle was almost over. Yet the men held on, eager for one last shot, even as their guns were nearly submerged.
The word was passed for each man to save himself. Even then, one man, an active little fellow, named Matthew Tenney, whose courage had been conspicuous during the action, determined to fire once more, the next gun to his own being then under water, the vessel going down by the head. He succeeded, but at the cost of his life, for immediately afterwards, attempting to scramble out of the port-hole, the water suddenly rushed in with such force that he was washed back and drowned. Scores of poor fellows were unable to reach the upper deck, and were carried down with the vessel. The Cumberland sank in water up to the cross-trees, and went down with her flag still flying from the peak.19 The whole number lost was not less than 120 souls. Her top-masts, with the pennant flying far above the water, long marked the locality of one of the bravest and most desperate defences ever made
The word went out for everyone to save themselves. Even then, one man, an active little guy named Matthew Tenney, whose bravery had stood out during the battle, decided to fire one more time, even though the gun he was at was under water because the ship was sinking in the front. He managed to do it, but at the cost of his life, because right after that, while trying to climb out of the port-hole, water suddenly rushed in so forcefully that it pushed him back and he drowned. Many poor souls couldn’t make it to the upper deck and went down with the ship. The Cumberland sank with water up to the cross-trees and went down with her flag still waving from the top.19 The total number lost was at least 120 lives. Her top-masts, with the pennant flying high above the water, continued to mark the spot of one of the bravest and most desperate defenses ever made.
The Cumberland being utterly demolished, the Merrimac turned her attention to the Congress. The Southerners showed their chivalric instincts at this juncture by not firing on the boats, or on a small steamer, which were engaged in picking up the survivors of the Cumberland’s crew. The officers of the Congress, seeing the fate of the Cumberland, determined that the Merrimac should not, at least, sink their vessel. They therefore got all sail on the ship, and attempted to run ashore. The Merrimac was soon close on them, and delivered a broadside, which was terribly destructive, a shell killing, at one of the guns, every man engaged except one. Backing, and then returning several times, she delivered broadside after broadside at less than 100 yards’ distance. The Congress replied manfully and obstinately, but with little effect. One shot is supposed to have entered one of the ironclad’s port-holes, and dismounted a gun, as there was no further firing from that port, and a few splinters of iron were struck off her sloping mailed roof, but this was all. The guns of the Merrimac appeared to have been specially trained on the after-magazine of the Congress, and shot after shot entered that part of the ship. Thus, slowly drifting down with the current, and again steaming up, the Merrimac continued for an hour to fire into her opponent. Several times the Congress was on fire, but the flames were kept under. At length the ship was on fire in so many places, and the flames gathering with such force, that it was hopeless and suicidal to keep up the defence any longer. [pg 23]The national flag was sadly and sorrowfully hauled down, and a white flag hoisted at the peak. The Merrimac did not for a few minutes see this token of surrender, and continued to fire. At last, however, it was discerned through the clouds of smoke, and the broadsides ceased. A tug that had followed the Merrimac out of Norfolk then came alongside the Congress, and ordered the officers on board. This they refused, hoping that, from the nearness of the shore, they would be able to escape. Some of the men, to the number, it is believed, of about forty, thought the tug was one of the Northern (Federal) vessels, and rushed on board, and were, of course, soon carried off as prisoners. By the time that all the able men were off ashore and elsewhere, it was seven o’clock in the evening, and the Congress was a bright sheet of flame fore and aft, her guns, which were loaded and trained, going off as the fire reached them. A shell from one struck a sloop at some distance, and blew her up. At midnight the fire reached her magazines, containing five tons of gunpowder, and, with a terrific explosion, her charred remains blew up. Thus had the Merrimac sunk one and burned a second of the largest of the vessels of the enemy.
The Cumberland was completely destroyed, and the Merrimac focused her attention on the Congress. The Southern forces displayed their chivalry at this moment by refraining from firing on the boats or a small steamboat that were picking up the survivors of the Cumberland's crew. The officers of the Congress, witnessing the fate of the Cumberland, resolved that the Merrimac should not be allowed to sink their ship. They quickly raised all sail and attempted to reach the shore. The Merrimac quickly closed in on them and unleashed a broadside that was devastating, with a shell killing nearly every crew member at one of the guns except for one. Backing off and returning several times, she continued to fire broadside after broadside at a range of less than 100 yards. The Congress fought back fiercely and stubbornly, but with little impact. One shot is believed to have gone through an ironclad port-hole and disabled a gun, as no further fire came from that port, and a few splinters of iron were knocked off her armored roof, but that was all. The guns of the Merrimac seemed to be specifically aimed at the aft magazine of the Congress, and shot after shot hit that section of the ship. Slowly drifting down with the current, and then steaming back up, the Merrimac kept firing at her opponent for an hour. Several times, the Congress caught fire, but the flames were contained. Eventually, the ship was ablaze in so many spots and the flames were growing so fierce that continuing the defense became futile and suicidal. [pg 23]The national flag was distressingly lowered, and a white flag was raised at the peak. The Merrimac did not see this sign of surrender for a few minutes and continued firing. Finally, however, it was spotted through the clouds of smoke, and the broadsides stopped. A tug that had followed the Merrimac out of Norfolk came alongside the Congress and ordered the officers to come aboard. They refused, hoping that being near the shore would allow them to escape. Some of the men, around forty, mistook the tug for a Northern (Federal) vessel and rushed aboard, only to be captured. By the time all the capable men had gotten to shore and elsewhere, it was seven o’clock in the evening, and the Congress was engulfed in flames front and back, her guns, which were loaded and trained, firing off as the fire reached them. A shell from one hit a sloop nearby and blew it up. By midnight, the fire reached her magazines containing five tons of gunpowder, resulting in a massive explosion that scattered her charred remains. Thus, the Merrimac had sunk one and burned a second of the largest vessels of the enemy.
Having settled the fate of these two ships, the Merrimac had, about 5 o’clock in the afternoon, started to tackle the Minnesota. Here, as was afterwards proved, the commander of the former had the intention of capturing the latter as a prize, and had no wish to destroy her. He, therefore, stood off about a mile distant, and with the Yorktown and Jamestown, threw shot and shell at the frigate, doing it considerable damage, and killing six men. One shell entered near her waist, passed through the chief engineer’s room, knocking two rooms into one, and wounded several men; a shot passed through the main-mast. At nightfall the Merrimac, satisfied with her afternoon’s work of death and destruction, steamed in under Sewall’s Point. “The day,” said the Baltimore American, “thus closed most dismally for our side, and with the most gloomy apprehensions of what would occur the next day. The Minnesota was at the mercy of the Merrimac, and there appeared no reason why the iron monster might not clear the Roads of our fleet, destroy all the stores and warehouses on the beach, drive our troops into the fortress, and command Hampton Roads against any number of wooden vessels the Government might send there. Saturday was a terribly dismal night at Fortress Monroe.”
Having decided the fate of these two ships, the Merrimac began to engage the Minnesota around 5 o’clock in the afternoon. As later revealed, the commander of the former intended to capture the latter as a prize and did not want to destroy her. Therefore, he stayed about a mile away and, along with the Yorktown and Jamestown, fired shots at the frigate, causing significant damage and killing six men. One shell hit near her waist, passed through the chief engineer’s room, combining two rooms into one, and injured several men; a shot went through the main mast. By nightfall, the Merrimac, pleased with her afternoon of destruction, moved in under Sewall’s Point. "Today," reported the Baltimore American, The situation ended poorly for us, leaving us with bleak worries about what would unfold the next day. The Minnesota was at the mercy of the Merrimac, and it didn't seem like there was any reason the ironclad couldn't drive our fleet out of the Roads, destroy all the supplies and warehouses on the shore, force our troops into the fort, and take control of Hampton Roads against any wooden ships the government might send there. Saturday night at Fortress Monroe was incredibly bleak.
But about nine o’clock that evening Ericsson’s battery, the Monitor,20 arrived in Hampton Roads, and hope revived in the breasts of the despondent Northerners. She was not a very formidable-looking craft, for, lying low on the water, with a plain structure amidships, a small pilot-house forward, and a diminutive funnel aft, she might have been taken for a raft. It was only on board that her real strength might be discovered. She carried armour about five inches thick over a large part of her, and had practically two hulls, the lower of which had sides inclining at an angle of 51° from the vertical line. It was considered that no shot could hurt this lower hull, on account of the angle at which it must strike it. The revolving turret, an iron cylinder, nine feet high, and twenty feet in diameter, eight or nine inches thick everywhere, and about the portholes eleven inches, was moved round by steam-power. When the two heavy Dahlgren guns were [pg 24]run in for loading, a kind of pendulum port fell over the holes in the turret. The propeller, rudder, and even anchor, were all hidden.
But around nine o’clock that evening, Ericsson’s battery, the Track,20 arrived in Hampton Roads, bringing new hope to the discouraged Northerners. She didn’t look very intimidating; lying low on the water with a simple structure in the middle, a small pilot-house at the front, and a tiny funnel at the back, she could easily be mistaken for a raft. It was only once on board that her true strength could be seen. She had armor about five inches thick over a large part of her and essentially featured two hulls, the lower of which had sides slanting at a 51° angle from vertical. It was thought that no shot could damage this lower hull because of the angle at which it would hit. The rotating turret, a nine-foot-tall iron cylinder, twenty feet in diameter, and eight or nine inches thick all around, and about eleven inches thick near the portholes, was powered by steam. When the two heavy Dahlgren guns were [pg 24] pulled in for loading, a kind of pendulum port covered the openings in the turret. The propeller, rudder, and even the anchor were all concealed.
This was a war of surprises and sudden changes. It is doubtful if the Southerners knew what to make of the strange-looking battery which steamed towards them next morning, or whether they despised it. The Merrimac and the Monitor kept on approaching each other, the former waiting until she would choose her distance, and the latter apparently not knowing what to make of her queer-looking antagonist. The first shot from the Monitor was fired when about one hundred yards distant from the Merrimac, and this distance was subsequently reduced to fifty yards; and at no time during the furious cannonading that ensued were the vessels more than two hundred yards apart. The scene was in plain view from Fortress Monroe, and in the main facts all the spectators agree. At first the fight was very furious, and the guns of the Monitor were fired rapidly. The latter carried only two guns, to its opponent’s eight, and received two or three shots for every one she gave. Finding that she was much more formidable than she looked, the Merrimac attempted to run her down; but her superior speed and quicker handling enabled her to dodge and turn rapidly. “Once the Merrimac struck her near midships, but only to prove that the battery could not be run down nor shot down. She spun round like a top; and as she got her bearing again, sent one of her formidable missiles into her huge opponent.
This was a war full of surprises and sudden changes. It's uncertain whether the Southerners knew how to react to the strange-looking battery that steamed toward them the next morning or if they looked down on it. The Merrimac and the Watch continued to approach each other, with the former waiting to choose her distance while the latter seemed unsure of how to deal with her odd-looking opponent. The first shot from the Monitor was fired when they were about one hundred yards apart, and this distance was later reduced to fifty yards; at no point during the intense cannonade that followed were the ships more than two hundred yards apart. The scene was clearly visible from Fortress Monroe, and all the spectators agree on the main facts. Initially, the fight was fierce, and the Monitor fired rapidly. The Watch had only two guns compared to her opponent's eight and took two or three hits for every shot she fired. Realizing that she was far more dangerous than she appeared, the Merrimac tried to ram her, but the Track's superior speed and agility allowed her to dodge and maneuver swiftly. "Once the Merrimac struck her near the center, but it only showed that the battery couldn't be rammed or taken down by gunfire. She whirled around like a top; and as she got back into position, she launched one of her powerful missiles at her huge opponent."
“The officers of the Monitor at this time had gained such confidence in the impregnability of their battery that they no longer fired at random nor hastily. The fight then assumed its most interesting aspect. The Monitor went round the Merrimac repeatedly, probing her sides, seeking for weak points, and reserving her fire with coolness, until she had the right spot and the right range, and made her experiments accordingly. In this way the Merrimac received three shots.... Neither of these three shots rebounded at all, but appeared to cut their way clear through iron and wood into the ship.”21 Soon after receiving the third shot, the Merrimac made off at full speed, and the contest was not renewed. Thus ended this particular episode of the American war.
The officers of the Monitor had become so confident in their battery's strength that they stopped firing randomly or in haste. The battle took on a more intriguing form. The Monitor circled the Merrimac repeatedly, searching its sides for weak points, all while carefully conserving their fire until they found the right target and distance, adjusting their tests accordingly. As a result, the Merrimac took three hits... None of these shots bounced off; instead, they seemed to slice right through the iron and wood of the ship.21 Shortly after taking the third shot, the Merrimac sped away, and the battle was not resumed. This brought this particular episode of the American war to a close.
Lieutenant Worden was in the pilot-house of the Monitor when the Merrimac directed a whole broadside at her, and was, besides being thrown down and stunned by the concussion, temporarily blinded by the minute fragments of shells and powder driven through the eye-holes—only an inch each in diameter—made through the iron to enable them to keep a look-out. He was carried away, but, on recovering consciousness, his first thoughts reverted to the action. “Have I saved the Minnesota?” said he, eagerly. “Yes; and whipped the Merrimac!” was the answer. “Then,” replied he, “I don’t care what becomes of me.” The concussion in the turret is described as something terrible; and several of the men, though not otherwise hurt, were rendered insensible for the time. Each side claimed that they had seriously damaged the other, but there seems to have been no foundation for these assertions in facts.
Lieutenant Worden was in the pilot house of the Watch when the Merrimac fired a full broadside at her. He was knocked down and stunned by the blast, and temporarily blinded by tiny fragments of shells and powder that shot through the one-inch eye holes made in the iron to allow for lookout. He was taken away, but when he regained consciousness, his first thoughts were about the battle. “Did I save the Minnesota?” he asked eagerly. “Yes; and we beat the Merrimac!” came the reply. "Next," he said, "I don't care what happens to me." The blast in the turret was described as extremely intense, and several of the men, although not otherwise injured, were knocked out for a while. Each side claimed they had seriously damaged the other, but there seems to be no evidence to support these claims.
But although this, the original Monitor, was efficient, if not omnipotent, in the calm [pg 026]waters at the mouth of the James River, she was, as might be expected with her flat, barge-like bottom, a bad sea-boat, and was afterwards lost. Her ports had to be closed and caulked, being only five feet above the water, and she was therefore unable to work her guns at sea. Her constructor had neglected Sir Walter Raleigh’s advice to Prince Henry touching the model of a ship, “that her ports be so laid, as that she may carry out her guns all weathers.” She plunged heavily—completely submerging her pilot-house at times, the sea washing over and into her turret. The heavy shocks and jars of the armour, as it came down upon the waves, made her leaky, and she went to the bottom in spite of pumps capable of throwing 2,000 gallons a minute, which were in good order and working incessantly.
But despite this, the original Watch was effective, if not all-powerful, in the calm [pg 026]waters at the mouth of the James River. However, as you might expect given her flat, barge-like shape, she was a poor seafaring vessel and was eventually lost. Her gun ports had to be closed and sealed, sitting only five feet above the water, which meant she couldn’t fire her guns at sea. Her designer overlooked Sir Walter Raleigh’s advice to Prince Henry about ship design, "that her ports are designed so she can operate her guns in any weather." She took on heavy water—sometimes completely submerging her pilot house, with the sea washing over and into her turret. The intense stress and impacts of the armor hitting the waves caused her to leak, and she sank despite having pumps that could remove 2,000 gallons a minute, which were functioning properly and running nonstop.
Since the conclusion of the American war, the ironclad question has assumed serious aspects, and many facts could be cited to show that they have not by any means always confirmed the first impressions of their strength and invulnerability. Two recent cases will be fresh in the memories of our readers. The first is the recent engagement off Peru between the Peruvian ironclad turret-ship Huascar and the British unarmoured men-of-war Shah and Amethyst. With the political aspect of the affair we have nothing, of course, to do, in our present work. It was really a question between the guns quite as much as between the vessels. The Huascar is only a moderately-strong armoured vessel, her plates being the same thickness as those of the earliest English ironclad, the Warrior, and her armament is two 300-pounders in her turret, and three shell-guns. On the other hand, the Shah, the principal one of the two British vessels, is only a large iron vessel sheathed in wood, and not armoured at all; but she carries, besides smaller guns, a formidable armament in the shape of two 12-ton and sixteen 6½-ton guns. An eyewitness of the engagement states22 that, after three hours’ firing, at a distance of from 400 to 3,000 yards, the only damage inflicted by the opposing vessels was a hole in the Huascar’s side, made by a shell, the bursting of which killed one man. “One 9-in. shot (from a 12-ton gun) also penetrated three inches into the turret without effecting any material damage. There were nearly 100 dents of various depths in the plates, but none of sufficient depth to materially injure them. The upper works—boats, and everything destructible by shell—were, of course, destroyed. Her colours were also shot down.” According to theory, the Shah’s two larger guns should have penetrated the Huascar’s sides when fired at upwards of 3,000 yards’ distance. The facts are very different, doubtless because the shots struck the armour obliquely, at any angles but right ones. The Huascar was admirably handled and manœuvred, but her gunnery was so indifferent that none of the shots even struck the Shah, except to cut away a couple of ropes, and the latter kept up so hot a fire of shells that the crew of the former were completely demoralised, and the officers had to train and fire the guns. She eventually escaped to Iquique, under cover of a pitchy-dark night. The same correspondent admits, however, that the Shah, although a magnificent vessel, is not fitted for the South American station, since Peru has three ironclads, Chili two, and Brazil and the River Plate Republics several, against which no ordinary English man-of-war could cope, were the former properly handled.
Since the end of the American war, the question of ironclads has taken on serious significance, and there are many examples showing that they haven't always lived up to the initial ideas of their strength and invincibility. Two recent cases will be fresh in our readers' minds. The first is the recent battle off Peru between the Peruvian ironclad turret ship Huascar and the British unarmored warships Shah and Amethyst. We won’t discuss the political side of the situation in this work. It was really a question of the guns as much as of the ships. The Huascar is only moderately strong in armor, with plates the same thickness as those of the earliest English ironclad, the Fighter, and her armament consists of two 300-pounder guns in her turret, and three shell guns. In contrast, the Shah, the larger of the two British vessels, is just a big iron ship covered in wood, and isn't armored at all; but she carries, in addition to smaller guns, a powerful armament of two 12-ton and sixteen 6½-ton guns. An eyewitness of the battle reports that, after three hours of firing from a distance of between 400 and 3,000 yards, the only damage dealt by the opposing vessels was a hole in the Huascar’s side caused by a shell explosion that killed one person. "One 9-inch shot (from a 12-ton gun) penetrated three inches into the turret without causing any major damage. There were almost 100 dents of different depths in the plates, but none were deep enough to seriously harm them. The upper structures—boats and everything else that could be damaged by shells—were, of course, destroyed. Her flags were also shot down." According to theory, the Shah's two larger guns should have penetrated the Huascar’s sides at distances greater than 3,000 yards. The facts are quite different, likely because the shots struck the armor at angles other than perpendicular. The Huascar was expertly maneuvered, but her gunnery was so poor that none of her shots struck the Shah, except for cutting a couple of ropes, while the Shah launched such a heavy fire of shells that the crew of the former was completely demoralized, forcing the officers to aim and fire the guns. The Huascar eventually escaped to Iquique under the cover of a pitch-black night. However, the same correspondent acknowledges that the Shah, although a magnificent ship, isn't suited for the South American station, since Peru has three ironclads, Chili has two, and Brazil and the River Plate republics have several, against which no ordinary English warship could stand a chance if the former were properly handled.
The recent story of the saucy Russian merchantman,23 which not merely dared the Turkish ironclad, but fought her for five hours, and inflicted quite as much damage as she received, will also be remembered, although it may be taken just for what it is worth. One Captain Baranoff, of the Imperial Russian Navy, had, in an article published in the Golos, of St. Petersburg, recommended his Government to abandon ironclads, avoid naval battles, and confine operations at sea to the letting loose of a number of cruisers against the enemy’s merchantmen. Where a naval engagement was inevitable, he “preferred fighting with small craft, making up by agility and speed what they lacked in cuirass, and if the worst came to the worst, easily replaced by other specimens of the same type.” The article created much notice; and at the beginning of the present war, the author was given to understand by the Russian Admiralty that he should have an opportunity of proving his theories by deeds. The Vesta, an ordinary iron steamer of light build, was selected; she had been employed previously in no more warlike functions than the conveyance of corn and tallow from Russia to foreign ports. She was equipped immediately with a few 6-in. mortars, her decks being strengthened to receive them, but no other changes were made. On the morning of the 23rd of July, cruising in the Black Sea, Captain Baranoff encountered the Turkish ironclad Assari Tefvik, a formidable vessel armoured with twelve inches of iron, and carrying 12-ton guns, and nothing daunted by the disproportion in size and strength, immediately engaged her. Both vessels were skilfully manœuvred, the ironclad moving about with extraordinary alertness and speed. She was only hit three times with large balls; the second went through her deck, “kindling a fire which was quickly extinguished;” the third was believed to have injured the turret. Meantime, the Vesta was herself badly injured, a grenade hitting her close to the powder-magazine, which would have soon blown up but for the rapid measures taken by her commander. Her rudder was struck and partially disabled, but still she was not sunk, as she should have been, according to all theoretical considerations. She eventually steamed back again to Sebastopol—after two other vessels had come to the ironclad’s assistance—covered with glory, having for five hours worried, and somewhat injured, a giant vessel to which, in proportion, she was but a weak and miserable dwarf.
The recent story of the bold Russian merchant ship, 23, which not only challenged the Turkish ironclad but also fought it for five hours, inflicting as much damage as it sustained, will be remembered, although it may be taken just for what it's worth. One Captain Baranoff, of the Imperial Russian Navy, had, in an article published in the Voice of St. Petersburg, suggested that his government abandon ironclads, steer clear of naval battles, and focus on sending out a number of cruisers against the enemy's merchant ships. Where a naval battle was unavoidable, he "preferred to engage in battles with smaller ships, compensating for their lack of armor with agility and speed, and if things went really bad, they could easily be swapped out for others of the same kind." The article drew a lot of attention; and at the start of the current war, the author was informed by the Russian Admiralty that he would have a chance to prove his theories in action. The
It will be obvious that from neither of the above cases can any positive inferences be safely drawn. In the former case, the weaker vessel had the stronger guns, and so matters were partially balanced; in the second example, the ironclad ought to have easily sunk the merchantman by means of her heavy guns, even from a great distance—but she didn’t. The ironclad question will engage our attention again, as it will, we fear, that of the nation, for a very long time to come.
It will be clear that we can't make any solid conclusions from either of these cases. In the first case, the weaker ship had the stronger weapons, which made things somewhat even; in the second example, the ironclad should have easily sunk the merchant ship with its powerful guns, even from far away—but that didn't happen. The issue of the ironclad will be something we'll need to discuss again, and unfortunately, it seems like it will concern the nation for a long time.
CHAPTER 2.
Peacekeepers.
Naval Life in Peace Times—A Grand Exploring Voyage—The Cruise of the Challenger—Its Work—Deep-sea Soundings—Five Miles Down—Apparatus Employed—Ocean Treasures—A Gigantic Sea-monster—Tristan d’Acunha—A Discovery Interesting to the Discovered—The Two Crusoes—The Inaccessible Island—Solitary Life—The Sea-cart—Swimming Pigs—Rescued at Last—The Real Crusoe Island to Let—Down South—The Land of Desolation—Kerguelen—The Sealers’ Dreary Life—In the Antarctic—Among the Icebergs.
Naval Life in Peace Times—An Exciting Exploration Voyage—The Cruise of the __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Challenger—Its Mission—Deep-sea Measurements—Five Miles Deep—Tools Used—Ocean Treasures—A Giant Sea Creature—Tristan d’Acunha—A Discovery Fascinating to the Discovered—The Two Castaways—The Inaccessible Island—Life in Isolation—The Sea Cart—Swimming Pigs—Finally Rescued—The Actual Crusoe Island for Rent—Down South—The Land of Desolation—Kerguelen—The Sealers’ Gloomy Existence—In the Antarctic—Among the Icebergs.
No form of life presents greater contrasts than that of the sailor. Storm and calm alternate; to-day in the thick of the fight—battling man or the elements—to-morrow we find him tranquilly pursuing some peaceful scheme of discovery or exploration, or calmly cruising from one station to another, protecting by moral influence alone the interests of his country. His deeds may be none the less heroic because his conquests are peaceful, and because Neptune rather than Mars is challenged to cede his treasures. Anson, Cook, and Vancouver, Parry, Franklin, M’Clintock, and M’Clure, among a host of others, stand worthily by the side of our fighting sailors, because made of the same stuff. Let us also, then, for a time, leave behind the smoke and din, the glories and horrors of war, and cool our fevered imaginations by descending, in spirit at least, to the depths of the great sea. The records of the famous voyage of the Challenger24 will afford a capital opportunity of contrasting the deeds of the men of peace with those of men of war.
No form of life presents greater contrasts than that of a sailor. Storm and calm alternate; today he’s in the thick of the fight—battling against man or the elements—tomorrow we find him peacefully pursuing some discovery or exploration, or calmly sailing from one spot to another, protecting the interests of his country through moral influence alone. His actions may be just as heroic, even if his victories are peaceful, and even if it's Neptune rather than Mars that's asked to yield his treasures. Anson, Cook, Vancouver, Parry, Franklin, M’Clintock, and M’Clure, among many others, are worthy companions to our fighting sailors because they’re made of the same stuff. So, let’s leave behind the smoke and noise, the glories and horrors of war for a while, and soothe our restless minds by diving, at least in spirit, into the depths of the great sea. The records of the famous voyage of the Challenger24 will give us a great opportunity to compare the actions of peaceful men with those of warriors.
We may commence by saying that no such voyage has in truth ever been undertaken before.25 Nearly 70,000 miles of the earth’s watery surface were traversed, and the Atlantic and Pacific crossed and recrossed several times. It was a veritable voyage en zigzag. Apart from ordinary soundings innumerable, 374 deep-sea soundings, when the progress of the vessel had to be stopped, and which occupied an hour or two apiece, were made, and at least two-thirds as many successful dredgings and trawlings. The greatest depth of ocean reached was 4,575 fathoms (27,450 feet), or over five miles. This was in the Pacific, about 1,400 miles S.E. of Japan. We all know that this ocean derives its name from its generally calmer weather and less tempestuous seas; and the researches of the officers of the Challenger, and of the United States vessel Tuscarora, show that the bottom slopes to its greatest depths very evenly and gradually, little broken by submarine mountain ranges, except off volcanic islands and coasts like those of the Hawaiian (Sandwich) Islands. Off the latter there are mountains in the sea ranging to as high as 12,000 feet. The general evenness of the bottom helps to account for the long, sweeping waves of the Pacific, so distinguishable from the short, [pg 29]cut-up, and “choppy” waves of the Atlantic. In the Atlantic, on the voyage of the Challenger from Teneriffe to St. Thomas, a pretty level bottom off the African coast gradually deepened till it reached 3,125 fathoms (over three and a half miles), at about one-third of the way across to the West Indies. If the Alps, Mont Blanc and all, were submerged at this spot, there would still be more than half a mile of water above them! Five hundred miles further west there is a comparatively shallow part—two miles or so deep—which afterwards deepens to three miles, and continues at the same depth nearly as far as the West Indies.
We can start by saying that no such journey has ever really been taken before.25 Almost 70,000 miles of the earth’s oceans were traveled, crossing the Atlantic and Pacific multiple times. It was truly a zigzag route. In addition to countless regular soundings, 374 deep-sea soundings were made, which required stopping the vessel and took an hour or two each, along with at least two-thirds as many successful dredgings and trawlings. The deepest point reached in the ocean was 4,575 fathoms (27,450 feet), or over 5 miles. This occurred in the Pacific, about 1,400 miles southeast of Japan. We all know this ocean is named for its generally calmer weather and less stormy waters; the research conducted by the crew of the Challenger and the U.S. ship Tuscarora indicates that the ocean floor slopes down to its greatest depths very smoothly and gradually, with few interruptions from undersea mountain ranges, except near volcanic islands and coasts like those of the Hawaiian (Sandwich) Islands. Near these islands, there are underwater mountains rising as high as 12,000 feet. The general smoothness of the ocean floor helps explain the long, rolling waves of the Pacific, which are clearly different from the short, [pg 29]choppy waves of the Atlantic. In the Atlantic, during the voyage of the Challenger from Teneriffe to St. Thomas, a fairly level ocean floor off the African coast gradually deepened to 3,125 fathoms (over three and a half miles) about a third of the way to the West Indies. If the Alps, including Mont Blanc, were submerged at this point, there would still be over half a mile of water above them! Five hundred miles further west, there is a relatively shallow area, about two miles deep, which later deepens to three miles and continues at that depth nearly all the way to the West Indies.
A few words as to the work laid out for the Challenger, and how she did it. She is a 2,000-ton corvette, of moderate steam-power, and was put into commission, with a reduced complement of officers and men, Captain (now Sir) George S. Nares, later the commander of the Arctic expedition, having complete charge and control. Her work was to include soundings, thermometric and magnetic observations, dredgings and chemical examinations of sea-water, the surveying of unsurveyed harbours and coasts, and the resurveying, where practicable, of partially surveyed coasts. The (civil) scientific corps, under the charge of Professor Wyville Thomson, comprised three naturalists, a chemist and physicist, and a photographer. The naturalists had their special rooms, the chemist his laboratory, the photographer his “dark-room,” and the surveyors their chart-room, to make room for which all the guns were removed except two. On the upper deck was another analysing-room, “devoted to mud, fish, birds, and vertebrates generally;” a donkey-engine for hauling in the sounding, dredging, and other lines, and a broad bridge amidships, from which the officer for the day gave the necessary orders for the performance of the many duties connected with their scientific labours. Thousands of fathoms of rope of all sizes, for dredging and sounding; tons of sounding-weights, from half to a whole hundredweight apiece; dozens of thermometers for deep-sea temperatures, and gallons of methylated spirits for preserving the specimens obtained, were carried on board.
A few words about the work assigned to the Challenger and how she accomplished it. She is a 2,000-ton corvette with moderate steam power and was commissioned with a reduced crew of officers and men, commanded by Captain (now Sir) George S. Nares, who later led the Arctic expedition. Her tasks included taking soundings, measuring temperatures and magnetic fields, dredging, and performing chemical analyses of sea water, as well as surveying uncharted harbors and coastlines and re-surveying partially charted areas when possible. The civil scientific team, led by Professor Wyville Thomson, consisted of three naturalists, a chemist and physicist, and a photographer. The naturalists had their own dedicated rooms, the chemist had his laboratory, the photographer had his "dark room," and the surveyors had their chart room, for which all guns were removed except for two. On the upper deck was another analysis room, "dedicated to mud, fish, birds, and vertebrates in general;" a donkey engine for hauling in sounding, dredging, and other lines, and a wide bridge amidships where the officer on duty issued the necessary orders for carrying out the various tasks related to their scientific work. The ship carried thousands of fathoms of rope in various sizes for dredging and soundings, tons of sounding weights ranging from half to a whole hundredweight each, dozens of thermometers for deep-sea temperature readings, and gallons of methylated spirits for preserving the specimens collected.
Steam-power is always very essential to deep-sea sounding. No trustworthy results can be obtained from a ship under sail; a perpendicular sounding is the one thing required, and, of course, with steam the vessel can be kept head to the wind, regulating her speed so that she remains nearly stationary. The sounding apparatus used needs some little description. A block was fixed to the main-yard, from which depended the “accumulator,” consisting of strong india-rubber bands, each three-fourths of an inch in diameter and three feet long, which ran through circular discs of wood at either end. These are capable of stretching seventeen feet, and their object is to prevent sudden strain on the lead-line from the inevitable jerks and motion of the vessel. The sounding-rod used for great depths is, with its weights,27 so arranged that on touching bottom a spring releases a wire sling, and the weights slip off and are left there. These rods were only employed when the depths were considered to be over 1,500 fathoms; for less depths a long, conical lead weight was used, with a “butterfly valve,” or trap, at its basis for securing specimens from the ocean bed. There are several kinds of “slip” water-bottles for securing samples of sea-water (and marine objects of small size floating in it) at great depths. One of the most ingenious is a brass tube, two and a half feet in length, fitted with easily-working stop-cocks at each end, connected by means of a rod, on [pg 30]which is a movable float. As the bottle descends the stop-cocks must remain open, but as it is hauled up again the flat float receives the opposing pressure of the water above it, and, acting by means of the connecting-rod, shuts both cocks simultaneously, thus inclosing a specimen of the water at that particular depth. Self-registering thermometers were employed, sometimes attached at intervals of 100 fathoms to the sounding-line, so as to test the temperatures at various depths. For dredging, bags or nets from three to five feet in depth, and nine to fifteen inches in width, attached to iron frames, were employed, whilst at the bottom of the bags a number of “swabs,” similar to those used in cleaning decks, were attached, so as to sweep along the bottom, and bring up small specimens of animal life—coral, sponges, &c. These swabs were, however, always termed “hempen tangles”—so much does science dignify every object it touches! The dredges were afterwards set aside for the ordinary beam-trawls used in shallow water around our own coasts. Their open meshes allowed the mud and sand to filter through easily, and their adoption was a source of satisfaction to some of the officers who looked with horror on the state of their usually immaculate decks, when the dredges were emptied of their contents.
Steam power is always crucial for deep-sea sounding. Reliable results can't be obtained from a ship sailing; a vertical sounding is the primary need, and with steam, the vessel can be kept facing into the wind, adjusting its speed to stay almost stationary. The sounding device used requires some explanation. A block was fixed to the main yard, from which a device called the “battery,” was hung. This consisted of strong rubber bands, three-quarters of an inch in diameter and three feet long, running through circular wooden discs at both ends. These bands can stretch up to seventeen feet and are designed to prevent sudden tension on the lead line due to the inevitable jerks and movements of the vessel. The sounding rod used for deep waters is arranged in such a way that when it touches the bottom, a spring releases a wire sling, allowing the weights to slip off and stay there. These rods were only used for depths considered to be over 1,500 fathoms; for shallower depths, a long, conical lead weight was used with a “butterfly valve,” or trap, at its base to capture specimens from the ocean floor. There are several types of "slide" water bottles to collect samples of seawater (and small marine objects floating in it) at great depths. One of the most clever designs is a brass tube, two and a half feet long, fitted with easy-to-use stopcocks at both ends, connected by a rod to a movable float. As the bottle descends, the stopcocks remain open, but when it is pulled back up, the flat float experiences the pressure of the water above, which, through the connecting rod, shuts both cocks at the same time, trapping a sample of the water at that specific depth. Self-registering thermometers were used, sometimes attached at intervals of 100 fathoms along the sounding line, to check the temperatures at varying depths. For dredging, bags or nets ranging from three to five feet deep and nine to fifteen inches wide were used, attached to iron frames. At the bottom of the bags, several “swabs” similar to those used for cleaning decks, were fixed to sweep the bottom and collect small samples of marine life—coral, sponges, etc. These swabs were referred to as hemp knots—such is the way science elevates everything it encounters! The dredges were later replaced by standard beam trawls used in shallower waters around our coasts. Their open mesh allowed mud and sand to filter through easily, and their use brought relief to some officers who were horrified at the state of their usually spotless decks when the dredges were emptied.
Not so very long ago, our knowledge of anything beneath the ocean’s surface was extremely indefinite; for even of the coasts and shallows we knew little, marine zoology and botany being the last, and not the earliest, branches of natural history investigated by men of science. It was asserted that the specific gravity of water at great depths would cause the heaviest weights to remain suspended in mid-sea, and that animal existence was impossible at the bottom. When, some sixteen years ago, a few star-fish were brought up by a line from a depth of 1,200 fathoms, it was seriously considered that they had attached themselves at some midway point, and not at the bottom. In 1868-9-70, the Royal Society borrowed from the Admiralty two of Her Majesty’s vessels, the Lightning and Porcupine; and in one of the latter’s trips, considerably to the south and west of Ireland, she sounded to a depth of 2,400 fathoms,28 and was very successful in many dredging operations. As a result, it was then suggested that a vessel should be specially fitted out for a more important ocean voyage round the world, to occupy three or more years, and the cruise of the Challenger was then determined upon.
Not too long ago, our understanding of anything beneath the ocean’s surface was pretty vague; we knew very little even about the coasts and shallow areas, as marine zoology and botany were the last, not the first, fields of natural history explored by scientists. It was claimed that the specific gravity of water at great depths would keep the heaviest objects suspended in mid-sea and that life was impossible at the bottom. When, about sixteen years ago, some starfish were pulled up from a depth of 1,200 fathoms, it was seriously thought that they had attached themselves at some halfway point rather than at the bottom. In 1868-9-70, the Royal Society borrowed two of Her Majesty’s ships from the Admiralty, the Lightning and Porcupine; during one of the latter’s journeys, well south and west of Ireland, it sounded to a depth of 2,400 fathoms, 28 and was quite successful in many dredging operations. As a result, it was then proposed that a ship be specially equipped for a more extensive ocean voyage around the world, lasting three years or more, which led to the planning of the cruise of the Challenger.
The story of that cruise is utterly unsensational; it is one simply of calm and unremitting scientific work, almost unaccompanied by peril. To some the treasures acquired will seem valueless. Among the earliest gains, obtained near Cape St. Vincent, with a common trawl, was a beautiful specimen of the Euplectella, “glass-rope sponge,” or “Venus’s flower-basket,” alive. This object of beauty and interest, sometimes seen in working naturalists’ and conchologists’ windows in London, had always previously been obtained from the seas [pg 31]of the Philippine Islands and Japan, to which it was thought to be confined, and its discovery so much nearer home was hailed with delight. It has a most graceful form, consisting of a slightly curved conical tube, eight or ten inches in height, contracted beneath to a blunt point. The walls are of light tracery, resembling opaque spun glass, covered with a lace-work of delicate pattern. The lower end is surrounded by an upturned fringe of lustrous fibres, and the wider end is closed by a lid of open network. These beautiful objects of nature make most charming ornaments for a drawing-room, but have to be kept under a glass case, as they are somewhat frail. In their native element they lie buried in the mud. They were afterwards found to be “the most characteristic inhabitants of the great depths all over the world.” Early in the voyage, no lack of living things were brought up—strange-looking fish, with their eyes blown nearly out of their heads by the expansion of the air in their air-bladders, whilst entangled among the meshes were many star-fish and delicate zoophytes, shining with a vivid phosphorescent light. A rare specimen of the clustered sea-polyp, twelve gigantic polyps, each with eight long fringed arms, terminating in a close cluster on a stalk or stem three feet high, was obtained. “Two specimens of this fine species were brought from the coast of Greenland early in the last century; somehow these were lost, and for a century the animal was never seen.” Two were brought home by one of the Swedish Arctic expeditions, and these are the only specimens ever obtained. One of the lions of the expedition was not “a rare sea-fowl,” but a transparent lobster, while a new crustacean, perfectly blind, which feels its way with most beautifully delicate claws, was one of the greatest curiosities obtained. Of these wonders, and of some geological points determined, more anon. But they did not even sight the sea-serpent, much less attempt to catch it. Jules Verne’s twenty miles of inexhaustible pearl-meadows were evidently missed, nor did they even catch a glimpse of his gigantic oyster, with the pearl as big as a cocoa-nut, and worth 10,000,000 francs. They could not, with Captain Nemo, dive to the bottom and land amid submarine forests, where tigers and cobras have their counterparts in enormous sharks and vicious cephalopods. Victor Hugo’s “devil-fish” did not attack a single sailor, nor did, indeed, any formidable cuttle-fish take even a passing peep at the Challenger, much less attempt to stop its progress. Does the reader remember the story recited both by Figuier and Moquin Tandon,29 concerning one of these gigantic sea-monsters, which should have a strong basis of truth in it, as it was laid before the French Académie des Sciences by a lieutenant of their navy and a French consul?
The story of that cruise is completely uneventful; it's just a tale of steady and relentless scientific work, almost entirely free of danger. To some, the treasures collected may seem worthless. Among the first discoveries, made near Cape St. Vincent using a regular trawl, was a stunning specimen of the Euplectella, “glass rope sponge,” or “Venus flytrap,” still alive. This beautiful and fascinating creature, occasionally seen in the displays of naturalists and conchologists in London, had always been sourced from the waters [pg 31]of the Philippine Islands and Japan, where it was believed to be exclusive to, so its discovery much closer to home was met with joy. It has a graceful shape, featuring a slightly curved conical tube, eight to ten inches tall, narrowing down to a blunt tip. The walls are made of light tracery that resembles opaque spun glass, adorned with a delicate lace-like pattern. The bottom is framed with a fringe of shiny fibers, and the top is capped with a lid made of open meshwork. These lovely natural objects make charming decorations for a living room, but need to be kept in a glass case since they are somewhat fragile. In their natural habitat, they are buried in mud. They were later found to be "the most typical inhabitants of the deep ocean worldwide." Earlier in the voyage, a variety of living creatures were brought up—strange fish whose eyes were nearly popped out from air expansion in their swim bladders, while tangled in the netting were many starfish and delicate zoophytes glowing with a bright phosphorescent light. A rare find was a clustered sea-polyp with twelve massive polyps, each sporting eight long fringed arms, clustered tightly together on a three-foot tall stalk. "Two examples of this impressive species were collected from the coast of Greenland in the early 1900s; somehow they were lost, and for a hundred years, the animal was never spotted." Two were eventually brought home by one of the Swedish Arctic expeditions, and these remain the only specimens ever collected. One of the highlights of the expedition was not “a rare seabird,” but a transparent lobster, while a new species of blind crustacean that relies on its exquisitely delicate claws to navigate was one of the most fascinating discoveries. More on these wonders, along with some geological details, later. However, they didn't even spot the sea serpent, let alone try to catch it. Jules Verne’s endless fields of pearl beds were clearly overlooked, and they didn't glimpse his enormous oyster, which supposedly has a pearl as large as a coconut worth 10,000,000 francs. They couldn't, like Captain Nemo, dive down to the seabed and explore underwater forests, where tigers and cobras have their equivalents in massive sharks and aggressive cephalopods. Victor Hugo’s “manta ray” didn’t attack a single sailor, nor did any formidable cuttle-fish even take a passing look at the Challenger, much less try to hinder its journey. Does the reader remember the story recounted by both Figuier and Moquin Tandon, 29 concerning one of these gigantic sea monsters, which should have a strong basis of truth, as it was presented to the French Académie des Sciences by a navy lieutenant and a French consul?
Fig. 1.—Shell of Globigerina (highly magnified). Fig. 2.—Ophioglypha bullata (six times the size in nature). Fig. 3.—Euplectella Suberea (popularly “Venus’s Flower Basket”). Fig. 4.—Deidamia leptodactyla (a Blind Lobster).
(From “The Voyage of the Challenger,” by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co.)
The steam-corvette Alecton, when between Teneriffe and Madeira, fell in with a gigantic cuttle-fish, fifty feet long in the body, without counting its eight formidable arms covered with suckers. The head was of enormous size, out of all proportion to the body, and had eyes as large as plates. The other extremity terminated in two fleshy lobes or fins of great size. The estimated weight of the whole creature was 4,000 lbs., and the flesh was soft, glutinous, and of a reddish-brick colour. “The commandant, wishing, in the interests of science, to secure the monster, actually engaged it in battle. Numerous shots were aimed at it, but the balls traversed its flaccid and glutinous mass without causing it any vital injury. But after one of these attacks, the waves were [pg 32]observed to be covered with foam and blood, and—singular thing—a strong odour of musk was inhaled by the spectators.... The musket-shots not having produced the desired results, harpoons were employed, but they took no hold on the soft, impalpable flesh of the marine monster. When it escaped from the harpoon, it dived under the ship and came up again at the other side. They succeeded, at last, in getting the harpoon to bite, and in passing a bowling-hitch round the posterior part of the animal. But when they attempted to hoist it out of the water, the rope penetrated deeply into the flesh, and separated it into two parts, the head, with the arms and tentacles, dropping into the sea and making off, while the fins and posterior parts were brought on board; they weighed about forty pounds. The crew were eager to pursue, and would have launched a boat, but the commander refused, fearing that the animal might capsize it. The object was not, in his opinion, one in which he could risk the lives of his crew.” M. Moquin Tandon, commenting on M. Berthelot’s recital, considers “that this colossal mollusc was sick and exhausted at the time by some recent struggle with some other monster of the deep, which would account for its having quitted its native rocks in the depths of the ocean. Otherwise it would have been more active in its movements, or it would have [pg 33]obscured the waves with the inky liquid which all the cephalopods have at command. Judging from its size, it would carry at least a barrel of this black liquid.”
The steam-corvette Alecton, while traveling between Teneriffe and Madeira, encountered a massive cuttlefish, fifty feet long in the body, not including its eight powerful arms covered in suckers. The head was enormous, out of proportion to the body, and had eyes the size of plates. The other end had two large fleshy lobes or fins. The whole creature was estimated to weigh about 4,000 lbs., with flesh that was soft, slimy, and a reddish-brick color. The commander, eager to study the creature, decided to engage it directly. Many shots were fired, but the bullets simply passed through its soft, gooey body without causing real damage. However, after one of these attacks, the waves were seen to be covered with foam and blood, and—strangely—onlookers noticed a strong musk scent in the air. When the gunfire didn’t produce the desired effect, they switched to harpoons, but they couldn't catch hold of the creature's soft, awkward flesh. When it broke free from the harpoon, it dove under the ship and resurfaced on the other side. Eventually, they managed to get a harpoon to catch and loop a rope around the back part of the creature. But when they tried to pull it out of the water, the rope sank deep into its flesh, tearing it in two; the head, along with the arms and tentacles, fell into the sea and swam away, while the fins and rear part were pulled on board; they weighed about forty pounds. The crew was eager to pursue it and almost launched a boat, but the commander refused, worried the creature might capsize it. He didn’t think it was worth risking his crew's lives for. M. Moquin Tandon, reflecting on M. Berthelot’s account, believes "that this enormous mollusk was sick and exhausted from a recent encounter with another deep-sea creature, which would explain its departure from its typical environment in the dark ocean depths. Otherwise, it would have been more active or would have [pg 33]clouded the water with the black ink that all cephalopods can produce. Given its size, it likely held at least a barrel of that black liquid."
The Challenger afterwards visited Juan Fernandez, the real Robinson Crusoe island where Alexander Selkirk passed his enforced residence of four years. Thanks to Defoe, he lived to find himself so famous, that he could hardly have grudged the time spent in his solitary sojourn with his dumb companions and man Friday. Alas! the romance which enveloped Juan Fernandez has somewhat dimmed. For a brief time it was a Chilian penal colony, and after sundry vicissitudes, was a few years ago leased to a merchant, who kept cattle to sell to whalers and passing ships, and also went seal-hunting on a neighbouring islet. He was “monarch of all he surveyed”—lord of an island over a dozen miles long and five or six broad, with cattle, and herds of wild goats, and capital fishing all round—all for two hundred a year! Fancy this, ye sportsmen, who pay as much or more for the privileges of a barren moor! Yet the merchant was not satisfied with his venture, and, at the time of the Challenger’s visit, was on the point of abandoning it: by this time it is probably to let. Excepting the cattle dotted about the foot of the hills and a civilised house or two, the appearance of the island must be precisely the same now as when the piratical buccaneers of olden time made it their rendezvous and haunt wherefrom to dash out and harry the Spaniards; the same to-day as when Alexander Selkirk lived in it as its involuntary monarch; the same to-day as when Commodore Anson arrived with his scurvy-stricken “crazy ship, a great scarcity of water, and a crew so universally diseased that there were not above ten foremast-men in a watch capable of doing duty,” and recruited them with fresh meat, vegetables, and wild fruits.
The Challenger later visited Juan Fernandez, the actual Robinson Crusoe island where Alexander Selkirk spent four enforced years. Thanks to Defoe, he became so famous that he probably didn’t mind the time spent in his lonely stay with his mute companions and Man Friday. Unfortunately, the charm surrounding Juan Fernandez has faded a bit. For a while, it was a Chilean penal colony, and after various changes, a few years ago it was leased to a merchant who raised cattle to sell to whalers and passing ships, and also went seal-hunting on a nearby island. He was “ruler of all he saw”—ruler of an island over a dozen miles long and five or six wide, with cattle, wild goats, and great fishing all around—all for two hundred a year! Imagine that, sportsmen, who pay as much or more for the rights to a barren moor! Yet the merchant was unhappy with his venture and was about to give it up by the time the Challenger’s visit occurred; by now it’s probably up for rent. Aside from the cattle scattered at the base of the hills and a couple of civilized houses, the island must look exactly the same now as when the old pirate buccaneers made it their meeting place to launch attacks on the Spaniards; the same as when Alexander Selkirk lived there as its unwilling king; the same as when Commodore Anson arrived with his scurvy-ridden "crazy ship, a severe shortage of water, and a crew so widely infected that there were barely ten foremast-men in a watch fit for duty,” and replenished them with fresh meat, vegetables, and wild fruits.
“The scenery,” writes Lord George Campbell, “is grand: gloomy and wild enough on the dull, stormy day on which we arrived, clouds driving past and enveloping the highest ridge of the mountain, a dark-coloured sea pelting against the steep cliffs and shores, and [pg 34]clouds of sea-birds swaying in great flocks to and fro over the water; but cheerful and beautiful on the bright sunny morning which followed—so beautiful that I thought, ‘This beats Tahiti!’ ” The anchorage of the Challenger was in Cumberland Bay, a deep-water inlet from which rises a semi-circle of high land, with two bold headlands, “sweeping brokenly up thence to the highest ridge—a square-shaped, craggy, precipitous mass of rock, with trees clinging to its sides to near the summit. The spurs of these hills are covered with coarse grass or moss.... Down the beds of the small ravines run burns, overgrown by dock-leaves of enormous size, and the banks are clothed with a rich vegetation of dark-leaved myrtle, bignonia, and winter-bark, tree-shrubs, with tall grass, ferns, and flowering plants. And as you lie there, humming-birds come darting and thrumming within reach of your stick, flitting from flower to flower, which dot blue and white the foliage of bignonias and myrtles. And on the steep grassy slopes above the sea-cliffs herds of wild goats are seen quietly browsing—quietly, that is, till they scent you, when they are off—as wild as chamois.” This is indeed a description of a rugged paradise!
"The view," writes Lord George Campbell, “is breathtaking: gloomy and wild on the dreary, stormy day we arrived, with clouds racing by and covering the highest mountain ridge, a dark sea crashing against the steep cliffs and shores, and [pg 34]flocks of seabirds swooping over the water; but cheerful and beautiful on the bright sunny morning that followed—so stunning that I thought, ‘This beats Tahiti!’ ” The anchorage of the Challenger was in Cumberland Bay, a deep-water inlet surrounded by a semi-circle of high land, with two prominent headlands, Sweeping brokenly up to the highest ridge is a square, rugged, steep mass of rock, with trees clinging to its sides almost to the top. The hillsides are covered with coarse grass or moss. Streams flow down the small ravines, filled with huge dock leaves, and the banks are lush with dark-leaved myrtle, bignonia, and winter-bark, along with tall grass, ferns, and blooming plants. As you lie there, hummingbirds zip and hover within reach of your stick, flitting from flower to flower, which splash blue and white against the green bignonias and myrtles. On the steep grassy slopes above the sea cliffs, you can spot herds of wild goats quietly grazing—quietly, that is, until they catch your scent, then they're off— as wild as chamois. This is truly a description of a rugged paradise!
Near the ship they found splendid, but laborious, cod-fishing; laborious on account of sharks playing with the bait, and treating the stoutest lines as though made of single gut; also on account of the forty-fathom depth these cod-fish lived in. Cray-fish and conger-eels were hauled up in lobster-pots by dozens, while round the ship’s sides flashed shoals of cavalli, fish that are caught by a hook with a piece of worsted tied roughly on, swished over the surface, giving splendid play with a rod. “And on shore, too, there was something to be seen and done. There was Selkirk’s ‘look-out’ to clamber up the hill-side to—the spot where tradition says he watched day after day for a passing sail, and from whence he could look down on both sides of his island home, over the wooded slopes, down to the cliff-fringed shore, on to the deserted ocean’s expanse.”
Near the ship, they found fantastic but tiring cod fishing; tiring because of the sharks playing with the bait and treating even the strongest lines like they were made of thread; also due to the forty-fathom depth where the cod lived. Crayfish and conger eels were pulled up in lobster pots by the dozens, while schools of cavalli swirled around the ship, fish that are caught with a hook that has a piece of rough worsted tied on, skimming the surface and providing a great challenge with a rod. "And on land, there was also a lot to see and do. You could climb up to Selkirk's ‘look-out’ on the hillside—the place where legend says he waited day after day for a passing ship. From there, he could look down on both sides of his island home, over the wooded slopes, down to the cliff-lined shore, and out to the endless ocean."
The Challenger, in its cruise of over three years, naturally visited many oft-described ports and settlements with which we shall have nought to do. After a visit to Kerguelen’s Land—“the Land of Desolation,” as Captain Cook called it—in the Southern Indian Ocean, for the purpose of selecting a spot for the erection of an observatory, from whence the transit of Venus should be later observed, they proceeded to Heard Island, the position of which required determining with more accuracy. They anchored, in the evening, in a bay of this most gloomy and utterly desolate place, where they found half-a-dozen wretched sealers living in two miserable huts near the beach, which were sunk into the ground for warmth and protection against the fierce winds. Their work is to kill and boil down sea-elephants. One of the men had been there for two years, and was going to stay another. They are left on the island every year by the schooners, which go sealing or whaling elsewhere. Some forty men were on the island, unable to communicate with each other by land, as the interior is entirely covered with glacier, like Greenland. They have barrels of salt pork, beef, and a small store of coals, and little else, and are wretchedly paid. “Books,” says Lord Campbell, “tell us that these sea-elephants grow to the length of twenty-four feet; but the sealers did not confirm this at all. One of us tried hard to make the Scotch mate say he had seen one eighteen feet long; but ‘waull, he couldn’t say.’ Sixteen feet? ‘Waull, he couldn’t say.’ Fourteen feet? ‘Waull, yes, yes—something more like that;’ but thirteen feet would seem a fair average size.... One of our fellows bought a [pg 35]clever little clay model of two men killing a sea-elephant, giving for it—he being an extravagant man—one pound and a bottle of rum. This pound was instantly offered to the servants outside in exchange for another bottle.”
The Challenger, during its journey of over three years, naturally visited many well-known ports and settlements that we won’t focus on. After stopping by Kerguelen’s Land—"the Land of Despair," as Captain Cook called it—in the Southern Indian Ocean to find a spot for building an observatory to later observe the transit of Venus, they headed to Heard Island, which needed more precise location mapping. They anchored in the evening in a bay of this bleak and completely desolate place, where they found about six miserable sealers living in two shabby huts near the beach, which had been dug into the ground for warmth and protection against the harsh winds. Their job is to hunt and process sea elephants. One of the men had been there for two years and planned to stay for another. They are left on the island every year by the schooners that go sealing or whaling elsewhere. About forty men were on the island, unable to communicate with each other over land, since the interior is completely covered with glaciers, much like Greenland. They have barrels of salt pork, beef, and a small supply of coal, but little else, and they are paid very poorly. “Books,” says Lord Campbell, “They say that these sea elephants can grow up to twenty-four feet long, but the sealers didn't back that up. One of us tried hard to get the Scottish mate to admit he had seen one that was eighteen feet long, but ‘well, he couldn’t say.’ Sixteen feet? ‘Well, he couldn’t say.’ Fourteen feet? ‘Well, yes, yes—something more like that;’ but it seemed like thirteen feet was a reasonable average size.... One of our guys bought a [pg 35]cool little clay model of two men hunting a sea elephant, paying—being a bit extravagant—one pound and a bottle of rum. He immediately offered that pound to the servants outside in exchange for another bottle.”
Crossing the Antarctic Circle, they were soon among the icebergs, keeping a sharp look-out for Termination Land, which has been marked on charts as a good stretch of coast seen by Wilkes, of the American expedition, thirty years before. To make a long story short, Captain Nares, after a careful search, un-discovered this discovery, finding no traces of the land. It was probably a long stretch of ice, or possibly a mirage, which phenomenon has deceived many a sailor before. John Ross once thought that he had discovered some grand mountains in the Arctic regions, which he named after the then First Lord of the Admiralty, Croker. Next year Parry sailed over the site of the supposed range; and the “Croker” Mountains became a standing joke against Ross.
Crossing the Antarctic Circle, they soon found themselves among the icebergs, keeping a close lookout for Termination Land, which had been marked on maps as a stretch of coastline spotted by Wilkes from the American expedition thirty years prior. To cut a long story short, Captain Nares, after a thorough search, undiscovered this location, finding no signs of the land. It was likely a long stretch of ice or perhaps a mirage, a phenomenon that has fooled many sailors before. John Ross once thought he had discovered some grand mountains in the Arctic regions, which he named after the then First Lord of the Admiralty, Croker. The next year, Parry sailed over the area where the supposed range was, and the "Croker" Mountains became a running joke against Ross.
Icebergs of enormous size were encountered; several of three miles in length and two hundred feet or more in height were seen one day, all close together. But bergs of this calibre were exceptional; they were, however, very often over half a mile in length. “There are few people now alive,” says the author we have recently quoted, “who have seen such superb Antarctic iceberg scenery as we have. We are steaming towards the supposed position of land, only some thirty miles distant, over a glass-like sea, unruffled by a breath of wind; past great masses of ice, grouped so close together in some cases as to form an unbroken wall of cliff several miles in length. Then, as we pass within a few hundred yards, the chain breaks up into two or three separate bergs, and one sees—and beautifully from the mast-head—the blue sea and distant horizon between perpendicular walls of glistening alabaster white, against which the long swell dashes, rearing up in great blue-green heaps, falling back in a torrent of rainbow-flashing spray, or goes roaring into the azure caverns, followed immediately by a thundering thud, as the compressed air within buffets it back again in a torrent of seething white foam.” Neither words adequately describe the beauty of many of the icebergs seen. One had three high arched caverns penetrating far to its interior; another had a large tunnel through which they could see the horizon. The delicate colouring of these bergs is most lovely—sweeps of azure blue and pale sea-green with dazzling white; glittering, sparkling crystal merging into depths of indigo blue; stalactite icicles hanging from the walls and roofs of cavernous openings. The reader will imagine the beauty of the scene at sunrise and sunset, when as many as eighty or ninety bergs were sometimes in sight. The sea was intensely green from the presence of minute algæ, through belts of which the vessel passed, while the sun, sinking in a golden blaze, tipped and lighted up the ice and snow, making them sparkle as with [pg 37]brightest gems. A large number of tabular icebergs, with quantities of snow on their level tops, were met. They amused themselves by firing a 9-pounder Armstrong at one, which brought the ice down with a rattling crash, the face of the berg cracking, splitting, and splashing down with a roar, making the water below white with foam and powdered ice. These icebergs were all stratified, at more or less regular distances, with blue lines, which before they capsized or canted from displacement of their centres of gravity, were always horizontal. During a gale, the Challenger came into collision with a berg, and lost her jibboom, “dolphin-striker,” and other head-gear. An iceberg in a fog or gale of wind is not a desirable obstruction to meet at sea.
Icebergs of huge size were encountered; several measuring three miles in length and more than two hundred feet tall were seen one day, all close together. However, icebergs of this size were rare; they were often more than half a mile long. "There are very few people alive today," says the author we just quoted, “who has seen such breathtaking Antarctic iceberg views as we have. We are sailing toward the likely spot of land, about thirty miles away, over a smooth sea, completely calm without even the slightest breeze; past enormous ice formations, so tightly packed in certain areas that they create an unbroken wall of cliffs several miles long. Then, as we get within a few hundred yards, the wall splits into two or three separate icebergs, and you can see—and beautifully from the masthead—the blue sea and distant horizon between vertical walls of shining white alabaster, against which the long swells crash, rising into massive blue-green mounds, falling back in a cascade of sparkling spray, or rushing into the blue caverns, immediately followed by a thunderous thud, as the compressed air inside forces it back again in a surge of churning white foam.” Words cannot adequately convey the beauty of many of the icebergs seen. One had three high arched caves extending deep into its structure; another featured a large tunnel through which you could see the horizon. The delicate colors of these icebergs are stunning—shades of azure blue and pale sea-green with dazzling white; sparkling crystal blending into depths of indigo blue; stalactite icicles hanging from the walls and ceilings of cavernous openings. The reader can imagine the beauty of the scene at sunrise and sunset, when as many as eighty or ninety icebergs were sometimes visible. The sea was vividly green from the presence of tiny algae, through which the vessel passed, while the sun, setting in a golden blaze, illuminated the ice and snow, causing them to sparkle like [pg 37]the brightest gems. Many flat-topped icebergs, topped with lots of snow, were encountered. They entertained themselves by firing a 9-pounder Armstrong at one, bringing the ice down with a crashing noise, the face of the iceberg cracking, splitting, and splashing down with a roar, turning the water below white with foam and powdered ice. These icebergs all had layers at more or less regular intervals, with blue lines that, before they tipped or shifted due to changes in their centers of gravity, were always horizontal. During a storm, the Challenger collided with an iceberg, losing her jibboom, “dolphin striker,” and other gear at the bow. An iceberg in fog or strong winds is not a welcome obstacle to encounter at sea.
The observations made for deep-sea temperatures gave some remarkable results. Here, among the icebergs, a band or stratum of water was found, at a depth of eighty to 200 fathoms, colder than the water either above or below it. Take one day as an example: on the 19th of February the surface temperature of the sea-water was 32°; at 100 fathoms it was 29·2°; while at 300 fathoms it had risen to 33°. In the Atlantic, on the eastern side about the tropics, the bottom temperature was found to be very uniform at 35·2°, while it might be broiling hot on the surface. Further south, on the west side of the Atlantic below the equator, the bottom was found to be very nearly three degrees cooler. It is believed that the cold current enters the Atlantic from the Antarctic, and does not rise to within 1,700 fathoms of the surface. These, and many kindred points, belong more properly to another section of this work, to be hereafter discussed.
The observations made for deep-sea temperatures yielded some remarkable results. Here, among the icebergs, a layer of water was discovered, at a depth of eighty to 200 fathoms, chillier than the water above or below it. For example, on February 19th, the surface temperature of the sea-water was 32°; at 100 fathoms it was 29.2°; while at 300 fathoms it rose to 33°. In the Atlantic, on the eastern side near the tropics, the bottom temperature was very consistent at 35.2°, even when it might be scorching hot on the surface. Further south, on the western side of the Atlantic below the equator, the bottom temperature was nearly three degrees cooler. It is thought that the cold current flows into the Atlantic from the Antarctic and does not rise to within 1,700 fathoms of the surface. These, and many related points, will be more appropriately discussed in another section of this work.
The Challenger had crossed, and sounded, and dredged the broad Atlantic from Madeira to the West Indies—finding their deepest water off the Virgin Islands; thence to Halifax, Nova Scotia; recrossed it to the Azores, Canary, and Cape de Verde Islands; recrossed it once more in a great zig-zag from the African coast, through the equatorial regions to Bahia, Brazil; and thence, if the expression may be used, by a great angular [pg 38]sweep through the Southern Ocean to Tristan d’Acunha en route to the Cape, where they made an interesting discovery, one that, unlike their other findings, was most interesting to the discovered also. It was that of two modern Robinson Crusoes, who had been living by themselves a couple of years on a desolate rocky island, the name of which, “Inaccessible,” rightly describes its character and position in mid ocean. Juan Fernandez, the locale of Defoe’s immortal story, is nothing to it now-a-days, and is constantly visited. On arrival at the island of Tristan d’Acunha, itself a miserable settlement of about a dozen cottages, the people, mostly from the Cape and St. Helena, some of them mulattoes, informed the officers of the Challenger that two Germans, brothers, had some time before settled, for the purpose of catching seals, on a small island about thirty miles off, and that, not having been over there or seen any signs of them for a long time, they feared that they had perished. It turned out afterwards that the Tristan d’Acunha people had not taken any trouble in the matter, looking on them as interlopers on their fishing-grounds. They had promised to send them some animals—a bull, cow, and heifer—but, although they had stock and fowls of all kinds, had left them to their fate. But first as to this [pg 39]little-known Tristan d’Acunha, of which Lord George Campbell30 furnishes the following account:—“It is a circular-shaped island, some nine miles in diameter, a peak rising in the centre 8,300 feet high—a fine sight, snow-covered as it is two-thirds of the way down. In the time of Napoleon a guard of our marines was sent there from the Cape; but the connection between Nap’s being caged at St. Helena and a guard of marines occupying this island is not very obvious, is it? Any way, that was the commencement of a settlement which has continued with varying numbers to this day, the marines having long ago been withdrawn, and now eighty-six people—men, women, and children—live here.... A precipitous wall of cliff, rising abruptly from the sea, encircles the island, excepting where the settlement is, and there the cliff recedes and leaves a long grass slope of considerable extent, covered with grey boulders. The cottages, in number about a dozen, look very Scotch from the ship, with their white walls, straw roofs, and stone dykes around them. Sheep, cattle, pigs, geese, ducks, and fowls they have in plenty, also potatoes and other vegetables, all of which they sell to whalers, who give them flour or money in exchange. The appearance of the place makes one shudder; it looks so thoroughly as though it were always blowing there—which, indeed, it is, heavy storms continually sweeping over, killing their cattle right and left before they have time to drive them under shelter. They say that they have lost 100 head of cattle lately by these storms, which kill the animals, particularly the calves, from sheer fatigue.” The men of the place often go whaling or sealing cruises with the ships that touch there.
The Challenger had crossed, sounded, and dredged the vast Atlantic from Madeira to the West Indies—finding its deepest waters off the Virgin Islands; then to Halifax, Nova Scotia; it crossed to the Azores, Canary, and Cape Verde Islands; and crossed again in a great zig-zag from the African coast through the equatorial regions to Bahia, Brazil; and then, if the term can be used, it made a large angular [pg 38]sweep through the Southern Ocean to Tristan d’Acunha on the way to the Cape, where they made an interesting discovery that, unlike their other findings, was particularly interesting to the discovered as well. They found two modern Robinson Crusoes who had been living alone for a couple of years on a desolate rocky island, whose name, “Inaccessible,” accurately describes its nature and location in mid-ocean. Juan Fernandez, the location of Defoe’s immortal tale, pales in comparison now and is frequently visited. Upon arriving at Tristan d’Acunha, a miserable settlement of about a dozen cottages, the people, mostly from the Cape and St. Helena, some of whom were mulattoes, informed the officers of the Challenger that two German brothers had settled some time ago on a small island about thirty miles away for the purpose of hunting seals, and that, since they hadn't been to check on them or seen any signs of them for a long time, they feared they might have died. It turned out later that the Tristan d’Acunha people had not bothered to look into it, viewing them as intruders in their fishing areas. They had promised to send them some livestock—a bull, cow, and heifer—but, despite having various animals and birds, they left them to fend for themselves. But first, regarding this [pg 39]little-known Tristan d’Acunha, Lord George Campbell30 provides the following description:—"It's a circular island, about nine miles across, with a peak in the center that rises 8,300 feet high—a breathtaking sight, covered in snow up to two-thirds of the way down. During Napoleon's time, a group of our marines was sent there from the Cape; however, the connection between Napoleon being confined at St. Helena and the deployment of marines on this island isn't very clear, right? Regardless, that was the start of a settlement that has continued, with fluctuating numbers, to this day. The marines were withdrawn long ago, and now eighty-six people—men, women, and children—live here.... A steep cliff rises sharply from the sea, surrounding the island except for where the settlement is, where the cliff pulls back to create a long grassy slope of considerable size, scattered with grey boulders. The cottages, about a dozen in total, look very Scottish from the ship, with their white walls, straw roofs, and stone walls around them. They have plenty of sheep, cattle, pigs, geese, ducks, and chickens, as well as potatoes and other vegetables, which they sell to whalers in exchange for flour or money. The place looks unsettling; it always seems to be windy there—which it is, with heavy storms regularly sweeping through, killing their livestock before they can reach safety. They've reportedly lost 100 cattle recently due to these storms, which exhaust the animals, particularly the calves, to the point of death." The local men often go whaling or sealing on cruises with the ships that stop there.
Fig. 1, Sounding machines. Fig. 2, Slip water-bottles. Fig. 3, Deep-sea thermometer. Fig. 4, The dredge. Fig. 5, Cup sounding lead.
The Challenger steamed slowly over to Inaccessible Island during the night, and anchored next morning off its northern side, where rose a magnificent wall of black cliff, splashed green with moss and ferns, rising sheer 1,300 feet above the sea. Between two headlands a strip of stony beach, with a small hut on it, could be seen. This was the residence of our two Crusoes.
The Challenger slowly made its way to Inaccessible Island overnight and anchored the next morning off its northern side, where a stunning wall of black cliffs rose, dotted with green moss and ferns, towering straight up 1,300 feet above the ocean. Between two headlands, a narrow strip of rocky beach appeared, featuring a small hut. This was the home of our two Crusoes.
Their story, told when the first exuberance of joy at the prospect of being taken off the island had passed away, was as follows:—One of the brothers had been cast away on Tristan d’Acunha some years before, in consequence of the burning of his ship. There he and his companions of the crew had been kindly treated by the settlers, and told that at one of the neighbouring islands 1,700 seals had been captured in one season. Telling this to a brother when he at last reached home in the Fatherland, the two of them, fired with the ambition of acquiring money quickly, determined to exile themselves for a while to the islands. By taking passage on an outward-bound steamer from Southampton, and later transferring themselves to a whaler, they reached their destination in safety on the 27th of November, 1871. They had purchased an old whale-boat—mast, sails, and oars complete—and landed with a fair supply of flour, biscuit, coffee, tea, sugar, salt, and tobacco, sufficient for present needs. They had blankets and some covers, which were easily filled with bird’s feathers—a German could hardly forget his national luxury, his feather-bed. They had provided themselves with a wheelbarrow, sundry tools, pot and kettles; a short Enfield rifle, and an old fowling-piece, and a very limited supply [pg 40]of powder, bullets, and shot. They had also sensibly provided themselves with some seeds, so that, all in all, they started life on the island under favourable circumstances.
Their story, told after the initial excitement of escaping the island had faded, went like this: One of the brothers had been stranded on Tristan d’Acunha years earlier because his ship caught fire. He and his crew were treated kindly by the locals, who mentioned that 1,700 seals had been caught on one of the nearby islands in a single season. When he finally got back home to Germany, he shared this with his brother, and they both, eager to make money quickly, decided to temporarily move to the islands. They booked a passage on a ship leaving Southampton and later switched to a whaling ship, arriving safely on November 27, 1871. They bought an old whaleboat—with a mast, sails, and oars—and landed with a good supply of flour, biscuits, coffee, tea, sugar, salt, and tobacco, enough for their immediate needs. They also had blankets and some coverings, which they easily stuffed with bird feathers—after all, a German could hardly forget his favorite luxury, a feather bed. They equipped themselves with a wheelbarrow, various tools, pots, and kettles; a short Enfield rifle, an old fowling piece, and a very limited supply [pg 40]of powder, bullets, and shot. They also wisely brought some seeds, so overall, they started their life on the island under good conditions.
The west side of the island, on which they landed, consisted of a beach some three miles in length, with a bank of earth, covered with the strong long tussock grass, rising to the cliff, which it was just possible to scale. The walls of rock by which the island is bounded afforded few opportunities for reaching the comparatively level plateau at the top. Without the aid of the grass it was impossible, and in one place, which had to be climbed constantly, it took them an hour and a half of hard labour, holding on with hands and feet, and even teeth, to reach the summit. Meantime, they had found on the north side a suitable place for building their hut, near a waterfall that fell from the side of the mountain, and close to a wood, from which they could obtain all the firewood they required. Their humble dwelling was partly constructed of spars from the vessel that had brought them to the island, and was thatched with grass. About this time (December) the seals were landing in the coast, it being the pupping season, and they killed nineteen. In hunting them their whale-boat, which was too heavy for two men to handle, was seriously damaged in landing through the surf; but yet, with constant bailing, could be kept afloat. A little later they cut it in halves, and constructed from the best parts a smaller boat, which was christened the Sea Cart. During the summer rains their house became so leaky that they pulled it down, and shifted their quarters to another spot. At the beginning of April the tussock grass, by which they had ascended the cliff, caught fire, and their means of reaching game, in the shape of wild pigs and goats, was cut off. Winter (about our summer-time, as in Australia, &c.) was approaching, and it became imperative to think of laying in provisions. By means of the Sea Cart they went round to the west side, and succeeded in killing two goats and a pig, the latter of which furnished a bucket of fat for frying potatoes. The wild boars there were found to be almost uneatable; but the sows were good eating. The goats’ flesh was said to be very delicate. An English ship passed them far out at sea, and they lighted a fire to attract attention, but in vain; while the surf was running too high, and their Cart too shaky to attempt to reach it.
The west side of the island where they landed had a beach about three miles long, with a bank of earth covered in tough, long tussock grass rising up to a cliff that was barely climbable. The rocky walls surrounding the island offered few chances to reach the relatively flat plateau at the top. Without the grass, it was impossible to scale, and in one spot that required constant climbing, it took them an hour and a half of hard work, using their hands, feet, and straight teeth, to reach the top. In the meantime, they found a good spot for building their hut on the north side, near a waterfall coming down from the mountain and close to a forest where they could gather all the firewood they needed. Their simple home was partly made from spars from the ship that brought them to the island and was thatched with grass. Around this time (December), the seals were coming ashore along the coast for the pupping season, and they hunted and killed nineteen. In the process, their whale boat, which was too heavy for two men to handle, got seriously damaged while landing through the surf; however, with constant bailing, they managed to keep it afloat. A little later, they cut it in half and built a smaller boat from the best parts, naming it the Marine Cart. During the summer rains, their house became so leaky that they took it down and moved to a different location. At the beginning of April, the tussock grass they had used to climb the cliff caught fire, cutting off their access to wild pigs and goats. Winter (which is equivalent to our summer, as in Australia, etc.) was approaching, and it was crucial to think about stocking up on food. Using the Ocean Cart, they went around to the west side and managed to kill two goats and a pig, which provided them with a bucket of fat for frying potatoes. They found the wild boars there to be almost inedible, but the sows were good to eat. The goat meat was said to be very tender. An English ship passed them far out at sea, and they lit a fire to attract attention, but it was in vain; the surf was too high, and their Cart was too unstable to try to reach it.
Hitherto they had experienced no greater hardships than they had expected, and were prepared for. But in June [mid-winter] their boat was, during a storm, washed off the beach, and broken up. This was to them a terrible disaster; their old supplies were exhausted, and they were practically cut off from not merely the world in general, but even the rest of the island. They got weaker and weaker, and by August were little better than two skeletons.
Hitherto they had experienced no greater hardships than they had expected, and were prepared for. But in June [mid-winter], during a storm, their boat was washed off the beach and destroyed. This was a terrible disaster for them; their old supplies were gone, and they were practically cut off not just from the world at large, but even from the rest of the island. They grew weaker and weaker, and by August were hardly more than two skeletons.
The sea was too tempestuous, and the distance too great for them to attempt to swim round (as they afterwards did) to another part of the island. But succour was at hand; they were saved by the penguins, a very clumsy form of relief. The female birds came ashore in August to lay their eggs in the nests already prepared by their lords and masters, the male birds, who had landed some two or three weeks previously. Our good Germans had divided their last potato, and were in a very weak and despondent condition when the pleasant fact stared them in the face that they might now fatten on eggs ad libitum. Their new diet soon put fresh heart and courage in them, and when, [pg 41]early in September, a French bark sent a boat ashore, they determined still to remain on the island. They arranged with the captain for the sale of their seal-skins, and bartered a quantity of eggs for some biscuit and a couple of pounds of tobacco. Late in October a schooner from the Cape of Good Hope called at the island, and on leaving, promised to return for them, as they had decided to quit the island, not having had any success in obtaining peltries or anything else that is valuable; but she did not re-appear, and in November their supplies were again at starvation-point. Selecting a calm day, the two Crusoes determined to swim round the headland to the eastward, taking with them their rifles and blankets, and towing after them an empty oil-barrel containing their clothes, powder, matches, and kettle. This they repeated later on several occasions, and, climbing the cliffs by the tussock grass, were able to kill or secure on the plateau a few of the wild pigs. Sometimes one of them only would mount, and after killing a pig would cut it up and lower the hams to his brother below. They caught three little sucking-pigs, and towed them alive through the waves, round the point of their landing-place, where they arrived half drowned. They were put in an enclosure, and fed on green stuff and penguin’s eggs—good feeding for a delicate little porker. Attempting on another occasion to tow a couple in the same way, the unfortunate pigs met a watery grave in the endeavour to weather the point, and one of the brothers barely escaped, with some few injuries, through a terrible surf which was beating on their part of the coast. Part of their time was passed in a cave during the cold weather. When the Challenger arrived their only rifle had burst in two places, and was of little use, while their musket was completely burst in all directions, and was being used as a blow-pipe to freshen the fire when it got low. Their only knives had been made by themselves from an old saw. Their library consisted of eight books and an atlas, and these, affording their only literary recreation for two years, they knew almost literally by heart. When they first landed they had a dog and two pups, which they, doubtless, hoped would prove something like companions. The dogs almost immediately left, and made for the penguin rookeries, where they killed and worried the birds by hundreds. One of them became mad, and the brothers thought it best to shoot the three of them. Captain Nares gave the two Crusoes a passage to the Cape, where one of them obtained a good situation; the other returned to Germany, doubtless thinking that about a couple of dozen seal-skins—all they obtained—was hardly enough to reward them for their two years’ dreary sojourn on Inaccessible Island.
The sea was too rough, and the distance too far for them to try swimming around (as they did later) to another part of the island. But help was nearby; they were rescued by the penguins, a rather awkward form of aid. The female birds came ashore in August to lay their eggs in the nests already prepared by their lords and masters, the male birds, who had landed a couple of weeks earlier. Our good Germans had split their last potato and were in a very weak and gloomy state when they realized they could now feast on eggs as desired. Their new diet quickly revived their spirits, and when, [pg 41]early in September, a French ship sent a boat to shore, they decided to stay on the island. They made a deal with the captain to sell their seal skins and traded some eggs for biscuits and a couple of pounds of tobacco. Late in October, a schooner from the Cape of Good Hope stopped at the island and promised to come back for them since they had chosen to leave the island, having failed to obtain pelts or anything else of value; but it never returned, and by November their supplies were once again dwindling. Picking a calm day, the two Crusoes decided to swim around the headland to the east, taking their rifles and blankets with them, while towing an empty oil barrel containing their clothes, powder, matches, and kettle. They repeated this several times afterward and, climbing the cliffs using the tussock grass, managed to hunt down a few wild pigs on the plateau. Sometimes only one of them would go up, kill a pig, and lower the hams to his brother below. They caught three little piglets and towed them alive through the waves around the point of their landing place, where they arrived half-drowned. They were placed in a pen and fed with green stuff and penguin eggs—perfect food for a delicate little pig. On another attempt to tow a couple the same way, the poor pigs drowned trying to get around the point, and one of the brothers barely survived, suffering a few injuries, as they fought through the turbulent surf crashing on their part of the coast. They spent part of their time in a cave during the cold weather. When the Challenger arrived, their only rifle had broken in two places and was practically useless, while their musket had completely shattered and was being used as a blowpipe to stoke the fire when it got low. Their only knives were made by themselves from an old saw. Their library consisted of eight books and an atlas, and these, providing their only literary entertainment for two years, they knew almost by heart. When they first landed, they had a dog and two puppies, which they no doubt hoped would be good companions. The dogs left almost immediately and headed for the penguin rookeries, where they killed and worried the birds by the hundreds. One of them went mad, and the brothers decided it was best to shoot all three. Captain Nares gave the two Crusoes a ride to the Cape, where one of them found a good job; the other returned to Germany, likely thinking that a couple of dozen seal skins—all they managed to acquire—was hardly enough to make up for their two miserable years on Inaccessible Island.
Chapter 3.
The Sailors.
The great Lexicographer on Sailors—The Dangers of the Sea—How Boys become Sailors—Young Amyas Leigh—The Genuine Jack Tar—Training-Ships versus the old Guard-Ships—“Sea-goers and Waisters”—The Training Undergone—Routine on Board—Never-ending Work—Ship like a Lady’s Watch—Watches and “Bells”—Old Grogram and Grog—The Sailor’s Sheet Anchor—Shadows in the Seaman’s Life—The Naval Cat—Testimony and Opinion of a Medical Officer—An Example—Boy Flogging in the Navy—Shakespeare and Herbert on Sailors and the Sea.
The great lexicographer on sailors—The dangers of the sea—How boys become sailors—Young Amyas Leigh—The real Jack Tar—Training ships vs. the classic Guard-Ships—“Sea travelers and land dwellers”—The Training Completed—Daily Routine Onboard—Constant Work—Ship Like a Lady’s Watch—Watches and “Bells”—Modern Grogram and Grog—The Sailor’s Safety Net—Shadows in a Seaman’s Life—The Navy Cat—Testimony and Opinion of a Medical Officer—An Example—Boy Flogging in the Navy—Shakespeare and Herbert on Sailors and the Sea.
Dr. Johnson, whose personal weight seems to have had something to do with that carried by his opinion, considered going to sea a species of insanity.31 “No man,” said he, “will be a sailor who has contrivance enough to get himself into a jail: for being in a ship is being in a jail, with the chance of being drowned.” The great lexicographer knew Fleet Street better than he did the fleet, and his opinion, as expressed above, was hardly even decently patriotic or sensible. Had all men thought as he professed to do—probably for the pleasure of saying something ponderously brilliant for the moment—we should have had no naval or commercial superiority to-day—in short, no England.
Dr. Johnson, who seems to have had some influence on how seriously his opinions were taken, thought that going to sea was a kind of madness.31 “No one,” he said, "will be a sailor smart enough to get himself locked up: being on a ship is like being in jail, with the extra danger of drowning." The great dictionary maker knew Fleet Street better than he knew the naval fleet, and his opinion, as stated above, was hardly patriotic or sensible. If everyone had thought like he claimed to—probably just to sound impressively smart for a moment—we wouldn’t have any naval or commercial power today—in short, no England.
The dangers of the sea are serious enough, but need not be exaggerated. One writer32 indeed, in serio-comic vein, makes his sailors sing in a gale—
The dangers of the sea are real enough, but they don't need to be exaggerated. One writer32 even, in a serio-comic way, has his sailors singing in a storm—
leading us to infer that the dangers of town-life are greater than those of the sea in a moderate gale. We might remind the reader that Mark Twain has conclusively shown, from statistics, that more people die in bed comfortably at home than are killed by all the railroad, steamship, or other accidents in the world, the inference being that going to bed is a dangerous habit! But the fact is, that wherever there is danger there will be brave men found to face it—even when it takes the desperate form just indicated! So that there is nothing surprising in the fact that in all times there have been men ready to go to sea.
leading us to conclude that the risks of living in a town are greater than those of being at sea in a mild storm. We might remind the reader that Mark Twain has clearly demonstrated, using statistics, that more people die peacefully in bed at home than are killed by all the train, cruise, or other accidents in the world, which suggests that going to bed is a dangerous habit! But the truth is, wherever there is danger, there will always be brave individuals willing to confront it—even when it takes the extreme form just mentioned! So, it’s not surprising that throughout history there have been people ready to venture out to sea.
Of those who have succeeded, the larger proportion have been carried thither by the spirit of adventure. It would be difficult to say whether it has been more strongly developed through actual “surroundings,” as believed by one of England’s most intelligent and friendly critics,33 who says, “The ocean draws them just as a pond attracts young ducks,” or through the influence of literature bringing the knowledge of wonderful voyages and discoveries within the reach of all. The former are immensely strong influences. The boy who lives by, and loves the sea, and notes daily the ships of all [pg 43]nations passing to and fro, or who, maybe, dwells in some naval or commercial port, and sees constantly great vessels arriving and departing, and hears the tales of sailors bold, concerning new lands and curious things, is very apt to become imbued with the spirit of adventure. How charmingly has Charles Kingsley written on the latter point!34 How young Amyas Leigh, gentle born, and a mere stripling schoolboy, edged his way under the elbows of the sailor men on Bideford Quay to listen to Captain John Oxenham tell his stories of heaps—“seventy foot long, ten foot broad, and twelve foot high”—of silver bars, and Spanish treasure, and far-off lands and peoples, and easy victories over the coward Dons! How Oxenham, on a recruiting bent, sang out, with good broad Devon accent, “Who ’lists? who ’lists? who’ll make his fortune?
Of those who have succeeded, most have been driven there by a spirit of adventure. It's hard to say whether this urge comes more from their actual surroundings, as one of England’s smartest and friendliest critics suggests, who says, “The ocean draws them just like a pond attracts young ducks,” or from the influence of literature that makes tales of amazing voyages and discoveries accessible to everyone. The former is a powerful influence. The boy who lives near the sea, loves it, and watches ships from all nations coming and going each day, or perhaps lives in a naval or commercial port where he constantly sees large vessels arriving and departing and hears brave sailors' stories about new lands and interesting things, is likely to be filled with a sense of adventure. How beautifully Charles Kingsley wrote about this! How young Amyas Leigh, born into a respectable family and just a schoolboy, made his way through the crowd of sailors on Bideford Quay to listen to Captain John Oxenham as he shared tales of mountains—“seventy feet long, ten feet wide, and twelve feet high”—of silver bars, Spanish treasure, distant lands and people, and easy victories over the cowardly Dons! How Oxenham, while looking to recruit, called out in a strong Devon accent, “Who wants to join? Who wants to join? Who’ll make his fortune?
And how young Leigh, fired with enthusiasm, made answer, boldly, “I want to go to sea; I want to see the Indies. I want to fight the Spaniards. Though I’m a gentleman’s son, I’d a deal liever be a cabin-boy on board your ship.” And how, although he did not go with swaggering John, he lived to first round the world with great Sir Francis Drake, and after fight against the “Invincible” Armada. The story had long before, and has many a time since, been enacted in various forms among all conditions of men. To some, however, the sea has been a last refuge, and many such have been converted into brave and hardy men, perforce themselves; while many others, in the good old days of press-gangs, appeared, as Marryat tells us, “to fight as hard not to be forced into the service as they did for the honour of the country after they were fairly embarked in it.” It may not generally be known that the law which concerns impressing has never been abolished, although there is no fear that it will ever again be resorted to in these days of naval reserves, training-ships, and naval volunteers.
And how young Leigh, filled with excitement, responded boldly, "I want to go to sea; I want to explore the Indies. I want to fight the Spaniards. Even though I'm the son of a gentleman, I'd rather be a cabin boy on your ship." And while he didn’t go with the cocky John, he lived to first sail around the world with the great Sir Francis Drake, and later fight against the “Unstoppable” Armada. This story has played out many times before and continues to do so in various forms among all types of people. For some, the sea has been a final refuge, and many have become brave and resilient people by necessity; while many others, in the good old days of press gangs, appeared, as Marryat tells us, "to fight just as hard to avoid being drafted into service as they did for the honor of the country once they were genuinely involved." It may not be widely known that the law regarding impressment has never been abolished, although it’s unlikely it will ever be used again in these days of naval reserves, training ships, and naval volunteers.
The altered circumstances of the age, arising from the introduction of steam, and the greatly increased inter-commercial relations of the whole world, have made the Jack Tar pure and simple comparatively rare in these days; not, we believe, so much from his disappearance off the scene as by the numbers of differently employed men on board by whom he is surrounded, and in a sense hidden. A few A.B.’s and ordinary seamen are required on any steamship; but the whole tribe of mechanicians, from the important rank of chief engineer downwards, from assistants to stokers and coal-passers, need not know one rope from another. On the other hand, the rapid increase of commerce has apparently outrun the natural increase of qualified seamen, and many a good ship nowadays, we are sorry to say, goes to sea with a very motley crew of “green” hands, landlubbers, and foreigners of all nationalities, including Lascars, Malays, and Kanakas, from the Sandwich Islands. A “confusion of tongues,” not very desirable on board a vessel, reigns supreme, and renders the position of the officers by no means enviable. To obviate these difficulties, and furnish a supply of good material both to [pg 44]the Royal Navy and Mercantile Marine, training-ships have been organised, which have been, so far, highly successful. Let these embryo defenders of their country’s interests have the first place.
The changed circumstances of the time, due to the introduction of steam power and the significant increase in international trade, have made the classic Jack Tar sailor pretty rare these days; we believe this is less about his actual disappearance and more about the many different types of workers on board who somewhat overshadow him. A few able seamen and regular sailors are needed on any steamship, but the majority of crew members, from the chief engineer down to assistants, stokers, and coal-passers, might not even know one rope from another. Meanwhile, the rapid growth of commerce seems to have outpaced the natural increase of qualified sailors, and many decent ships these days regrettably set sail with a very mixed crew of novice hands, landlubbers, and foreigners from all over, including Lascars, Malays, and Kanakas from the Sandwich Islands. A "confusion of tongues," which is not ideal on a ship, is quite common, making the officers' jobs far from enviable. To address these challenges and provide a supply of skilled personnel for both the Royal Navy and Mercantile Marine, training ships have been established, which have so far been quite successful. Let these future defenders of their country’s interests take the forefront.
Of course, at all periods the boys, and others who entered to serve before the mast, received some training, and picked up the rest if they were reasonably clever. The brochure of “an old salt,”35 which has recently appeared, gives a fair account of his own treatment and reception. Running away from London, as many another boy has done, with a few coppers in his pocket, he tramped to Sheerness, taking by the way a hearty supper of turnips with a family of sheep in a field. Arrived at his destination, he found a handsome flag-ship, surrounded by a number of large and small vessels. Selecting the very smallest—as best adapted to his own size—he went on board, and asked the first officer he met—one who wore but a single epaulet—whether his ship was “manned with boys?” He was answered, “No, I want men; and pray what may you want?” “I want to go to sea, sir, please.” “You had better go home to your mother,” was the answer. With the next officer—“a real captain, wearing grey hair, and as straight as a line”—he fared better, and was eventually entered as a third-class boy, and sent on board a guard-ship. Here he was rather fortunate in being taken in charge by a petty officer, who had, as was often the case then, his wife living on board. The lady ruled supreme in the mess. She served out the grog, too, and, to prevent intoxication among the men, used to keep one finger inside the measure! This enabled her to the better take care of her husband. She is described as the best “man” in the mess, and irresistibly reminds us of Mrs. Trotter in “Peter Simple,” who had such a horror of rum that she could not be induced to take it except when the water was bad. The water, however, always was bad! But the former lady took good care of the new-comer, while, as we know, Mrs. Trotter fleeced poor Peter out of three pounds sterling and twelve pairs of stockings before he had been an hour on board. Mr. Mindry tells the usual stories of the practical jokes he had to endure—about being sent to the doctor’s mate for mustard, for which he received a peppering; of the constant thrashings he received—in one case, with a number of others, receiving two dozen for losing his dinner. He was cook of the mess for the time, and having mixed his dough, had taken it to the galley-oven, from the door of which a sudden lurch of the ship had ejected it on the main deck, “the contents making a very good representation of the White Sea.” The crime for which he and his companions suffered was for endeavouring to scrape it up again! But the gradual steps by which he was educated upwards, till he became a gunner of the first class, prove that, all in all, he had cheerily taken the bull by the horns, determined to rise as far and fast as he might in an honourable profession. He was after a year or so transferred to a vessel fitting for the West Indies, and soon got a taste of active life. This was in 1837. Forty or fifty years before, the guard-ships were generally little better than floating pandemoniums. They were used partly for breaking in raw hands, and were also the intermediate stopping-places for men waiting to join other ships. In a guard-ship of the period described, a most heterogeneous mass of humanity [pg 45]was assembled. Human invention could not scheme work for the whole, while skulking, impracticable in other vessels of the Royal Navy, was deemed highly meritorious there. A great body of men were thus very often assembled together, who resolved themselves into hostile classes, separated as any two castes of the Hindoos. A clever writer in Blackwood’s Magazine, more than fifty years ago, describes them first as “sea-goers,”—i.e., sailors separated from their vessels by illness, or temporary causes, or ordered to other vessels, who looked on the guard-ship as a floating hotel, and, having what they were pleased to call ships of their own, were the aristocrats of the occasion, who would do no more work than they were obliged. The second, and by far the most numerous class, were termed “waisters,” and were the simple, the unfortunate, or the utterly abandoned, a body held on board in the utmost contempt, and most of whom, in regard to clothing, were wretched in the extreme. The “waister” had to do everything on board that was menial—swabbing, sweeping, and drudging generally. At night, in defiance of his hard and unceasing labour, he too often became a bandit, prowling about seeking what he might devour or appropriate. What a contrast to the clean orderly training-ships of to-day! Some little information on this subject, but imperfectly understood by the public, may perhaps be permitted here.
Of course, at all times the boys, and others who signed up to serve before the mast, received some training and picked up the rest if they were reasonably smart. The brochure from “a seasoned sailor,”35 that has recently appeared, provides a fair account of his treatment and reception. Running away from London, just like many other boys have done, with a few coins in his pocket, he made his way to Sheerness, stopping for a hearty supper of turnips with a family of sheep in a field along the way. When he arrived at his destination, he saw a beautiful flagship surrounded by several large and small vessels. Choosing the smallest ship—most suitable for his size—he went on board and asked the first officer he met—who wore only one epaulet—if his ship was “staffed with boys?” He was told, “No, I want men; what do you want?” "I want to go to sea, sir, please." "You should go home to your mom," was the reply. With the next officer—"a genuine captain, with gray hair, and as straight as an arrow"—he had better luck, and he was eventually accepted as a third-class boy and sent on board a guard ship. Here he was quite fortunate to be taken in by a petty officer, who, as was often the case back then, had his wife living on board. The lady ruled the mess. She also served the grog and, to prevent the men from getting drunk, would keep one finger inside the measure! This allowed her to look after her husband better. She is described as the best "guy" in the mess, and she irresistibly reminds us of Mrs. Trotter in “Peter Simple,” who had such a fear of rum that she wouldn’t touch it unless the water was bad. However, the water was always unpleasant! But the former lady took good care of the newcomer, while, as we know, Mrs. Trotter cheated poor Peter out of three pounds and twelve pairs of stockings before he had been on board for an hour. Mr. Mindry shares the usual stories of the practical jokes he had to endure—like being sent to the doctor’s mate for mustard, which resulted in a peppering; and the constant beatings he received—once, along with a number of others, he got two dozen for throwing up. He was the cook of the mess for the time, and after mixing his dough, he took it to the galley oven, from where a sudden lurch of the ship knocked it out onto the main deck, “the contents provide a great representation of the White Sea.” The crime for which he and his friends were punished was trying to scrape it up again! But the gradual steps by which he educated himself upwards until he became a first-class gunner prove that, overall, he enthusiastically tackled his challenges, determined to rise as far and fast as he could in an honorable profession. After about a year, he was transferred to a ship preparing to go to the West Indies and soon got a taste of active life. This was in 1837. Forty or fifty years earlier, guard ships were usually little better than floating chaos. They were partly used to train inexperienced sailors and also served as temporary stops for men waiting to join other ships. In a guard ship during the period described, a very mixed crowd of people [pg 45]was gathered. Human ingenuity couldn’t create a cohesive workforce for all, while sneaking around, which was impractical on other Royal Navy ships, was considered commendable there. A large group of men often came together, splitting into hostile classes, as distinct as any two castes in India. A clever writer in Blackwood’s Magazine more than fifty years ago described them first as “seafarers,”—i.e., sailors separated from their ships due to illness or temporary circumstances, or assigned to other vessels, who viewed the guard ship as a floating hotel and, considering themselves to have their own ships, were the aristocrats of the moment who wouldn’t do more work than they had to. The second, and far more numerous class, were called “waists,” consisting of the simple, the unfortunate, or the utterly abandoned, a group held in utter contempt on board, most of whom were in terrible shape regarding clothing. The "waist" had to handle all menial tasks on board—mopping, sweeping, and generally doing the drudge work. At night, in spite of his hard and relentless labor, he often became a bandit, roaming about looking for anything he could eat or steal. What a contrast to the clean, orderly training ships of today! Some slight information on this topic, though not well understood by the public, may perhaps be included here.
It is not generally known that our supply of seamen for the Royal Navy is nowadays almost entirely derived from the training-ships—first established about fourteen years ago. In a late blue-book it was stated that during a period of five years only 107 men had been entered from other sources, who had not previously served. Training-ships, accommodating about 3,000, are stationed at Devonport, Falmouth, Portsmouth, and Portland, where the lads remain for about a year previous to being sent on sea-going ships. The age of entry has varied at different periods; it is now fifteen to sixteen and a half years. The recruiting statistics show whence a large proportion come—from the men of Devon, who contribute, as they did in the days of Drake and Hawkins, Gilbert and Raleigh, the largest quota of men willing to make their “heritage the sea.”
It isn't widely known that our supply of sailors for the Royal Navy now mostly comes from training ships, which were first established about fourteen years ago. A recent report revealed that over a five-year period, only 107 men who hadn’t previously served were recruited from other sources. Training ships, housing around 3,000 boys, are located at Devonport, Falmouth, Portsmouth, and Portland, where they stay for about a year before being sent to sea-going ships. The age for joining has changed over time; it's currently between fifteen and sixteen and a half years. The recruitment statistics indicate a significant portion comes from Devon, which continues to provide the largest number of men willing to make their “heritage of the sea.”
Dr. Peter Comrie, R.N., a gentleman who has made this matter a study, informs the writer that on board these ships, as regards cleanliness, few gentlemen’s sons are better attended to, while their education is not neglected, as they have a good schoolmaster on all ships of any size. He says that boys brought up in the service not merely make the best seamen, but generally like the navy, and stick to it. The order, cleanliness, and tidy ways obligatory on board a man-of-war, make, in many cases, the ill-regulated fo’castle of most merchant ships very distasteful to them. Their drilling is just sufficient to keep them in healthy condition. No one can well imagine the difference wrought in the appearance of the street arab, or the Irish peasant boy, by a short residence on board one of these ships. He fills out, becomes plump, loses his gaunt, haggard, hunted look; is natty in his appearance, and assumes that jaunty, rolling gait that a person gifted with what is called “sea-legs” is supposed to exhibit. Still, “we,” writes the doctor, “have known Irish boys, who had very rarely even perhaps seen animal food, when first put upon the liberal dietary of the service, complain that they were being starved, their stomachs having been so used to be distended with large quantities of vegetables, that it took some time before the organ accommodated itself to a more nutritious but less filling dietary.”
Dr. Peter Comrie, R.N., a guy who has studied this topic, tells me that on these ships, when it comes to cleanliness, few gentlemen's sons are treated better, and their education isn't overlooked since there’s a good schoolmaster on every ship of any size. He mentions that boys raised in the service not only become the best sailors, but they also tend to enjoy the navy and stick with it. The order, cleanliness, and neatness required on a warship make the chaotic living quarters of most merchant ships really unappealing to them. Their training is just enough to keep them in good shape. No one can truly grasp how much a street kid or an Irish peasant boy changes after spending a short time on one of these ships. He fills out, gets pleasantly plump, loses his gaunt, haggard, hunted look, appears neat, and takes on that confident, rolling walk that someone with what is known as “sea legs” is supposed to have. Still, “we,” writes the doctor, “have known Irish boys who had very rarely perhaps even seen meat before, when first introduced to the generous meals in the service, complain that they were being starved, their stomachs having been so used to being filled with large amounts of vegetables, that it took some time for their bodies to adjust to a more nutritious but less filling diet.”
You have only got to watch the boy from the training-ship on leave to judge that the navy has yet some popularity. Neatly dressed, clean and natty, surrounded by his quondam playmates, he is “the observed of all observers,” and is gazed at with admiring respect by the street arab from a respectful distance. He has, perhaps, learned to “spin a few yarns,” and give the approved hitch to his trousers, and, while giving a favourable account of his life on board ship, with its forecastle jollity and “four bitter,” is the best recruiting-officer the service can have. The great point to be attended to, in order to make him a sailor, is that “you must catch him young.”36 That a good number have been so caught is proved by the navy estimates, which now provide for over 7,000 boys, 4,000 of the number in sea-going ships.
You just have to watch the guy from the training ship on leave to see that the navy is still pretty popular. Neatly dressed, clean, and sharp, surrounded by his old friends, he is "the focus of all watchers," and is looked at with admiration by the street kid from a respectful distance. He has probably learned to “tell a few stories,” and adjust his trousers just right, and while he shares exciting stories about his life on board, filled with crew camaraderie and "four bitter beers," he’s the best recruiter the navy can have. The key to turning him into a sailor is that “you must catch him early.”36 The fact that a good number have been caught this way is shown by the navy estimates, which now account for over 7,000 boys, with 4,000 of them on sea-going ships.
Governments, as governments, may be paternal, but are rarely very benevolent, and the above excellent institutions are only organised for the safety and strength of the navy. There is another class of training-ships, which owe their existence to benevolence, and deserve every encouragement—those for rescuing our street waifs from the treadmill and prison. The larger part of these do not enter the navy, but are passed into the Merchant Marine, their training being very similar. The Government simply lends the ship. Thus the Chichester, at Greenhithe, a vessel which had been in 1868 a quarter of a century lying useless—never having seen service—was turned over to a society, a mere shell or carcase, her masts, rigging, and other fittings having to be provided by private subscriptions. Her case irresistibly reminds the writer of a vessel, imaginary only in name, described by James Hannay:37—“H.M.S. Patagonian was built as a three-decker, at a cost of £120,000, when it was discovered that she could not sail. She was then cut down into a frigate, at a cost of £50,000, when it was found out that she would not tack. She was next built up into a two-decker, at a cost of another £50,000, and then it was discovered she could be made useful, so the Admiralty kept her unemployed for ten years!” A good use was, however, found at last for the Chichester, thanks to benevolent people, the quality of whose mercy is twice blessed, for they both help the wretched youngsters, and turn them into good boys for our ships. Some of these street arabs previously have hardly been under a roof at night for years together. Hear M. Esquiros:—“To these little ones London is a desert, and, though lost in the drifting sands of the crowd, they never fail to find their way. The greater part of them contract a singular taste for this hard and almost savage kind of life. They love the open sky, and at night all they dread is the eye of the policeman; their young minds become fertile in resources, and glory in their independence in the ‘battle of life;’ but if no helping hand is stretched out to arrest them in this fatal and down-hill path, they surely gravitate to the treadmill and the prison. How could it be otherwise?... The question is, what are these lads good for?” That problem, M. Esquiros, as you with others predicted, has been solved satisfactorily. The poor lads form excellent raw material for our ever-increasing sea-service.
Governments, as they are, can be controlling, but they’re rarely very generous, and the excellent institutions mentioned above are primarily organized for the safety and strength of the navy. However, there is another type of training ship that exists out of kindness and deserves full support—those dedicated to rescuing our homeless children from a life of crime and punishment. Most of these children do not join the navy but are instead integrated into the Merchant Marine, as their training is very similar. The government simply lends the ship. So, the Chichester at Greenhithe, a vessel that had been sitting unused since 1868—never having been put to use—was handed over to a society, a mere shell of a ship, with masts, rigging, and other fittings needing to be funded by private donations. Her situation irresistibly reminds the writer of a fictional vessel described by James Hannay: 37—H.M.S. Patagonian was originally built as a three-decker, costing £120,000, but it was found that she couldn’t sail. She was then redesigned into a frigate, which cost another £50,000, but it turned out she couldn’t tack. Next, she was rebuilt as a two-decker, requiring another £50,000, and then it was realized she could be useful, yet the Admiralty left her without a job for ten years! Eventually, a good use was found for the Chichester, thanks to generous individuals whose kindness is doubly blessed, as they not only help the troubled kids but also turn them into good young men for our ships. Some of these street kids have hardly had a roof over their heads at night for years. Listen to M. Esquiros:—“To these kids, London feels like a desert, and even though they're lost in the busy crowd, they always find a way. Most of them grow to have a strange attachment to this harsh and almost wild lifestyle. They love the open sky, and at night their only fear is getting caught by the police; their young minds become resourceful and thrive on their independence in the ‘battle of life;’ but if no one reaches out to help them break free from this harmful downward path, they'll end up trapped in the grind and in prison. How could it be any different?... The question is, what are these boys really good for?” That dilemma, M. Esquiros, as you and others predicted, has been resolved successfully. These poor boys make excellent raw material for our ever-expanding naval service.
The training of a naval cadet—i.e., an embryo midshipman, or “midshipmite” (as poor Peter Simple was irreverently called—before, however, the days of naval cadets)—is very similar in many respects to that of an embryo seaman, but includes many other acquirements. After obtaining his nomination from the Admiralty, and undergoing a simple preliminary examination at the Royal Naval College in ordinary branches of knowledge, he is passed to a training-ship, which to-day is the Britannia at Dartmouth. Here he is taught all the ordinary acquirements in rigging, seamanship, and gunnery; and, to fit him to be an officer, he is instructed in taking observations for latitude and longitude, in geometry, trigonometry, and algebra. He also goes through a course of drawing-lessons and modern languages. He is occasionally sent off on a brig for a short cruise, and after a year on the training-ship, during which he undergoes a quarterly examination, he is passed to a sea-going ship. His position on leaving depends entirely on his certificate—if he obtains one of the First Class, he [pg 48]is immediately rated midshipman; while if he only obtains a Third Class certificate, he will have to serve twelve months more on the sea-going ship, and pass another examination before he can claim that rank.38
The training of a naval cadet—i.e., a future midshipman, or “midshipmite” (as poor Peter Simple was irreverently called—before, however, the days of naval cadets)—is very similar in many ways to that of a future seaman, but includes many other skills. After getting his nomination from the Admiralty and passing a straightforward preliminary exam at the Royal Naval College in basic subjects, he is assigned to a training ship, which today is the Britain at Dartmouth. Here he learns all the essential skills in rigging, seamanship, and gunnery; and to prepare him to be an officer, he is trained in taking observations for latitude and longitude, as well as geometry, trigonometry, and algebra. He also takes drawing lessons and studies modern languages. Occasionally, he is sent on a brig for a short cruise, and after a year on the training ship, during which he takes quarterly exams, he is assigned to a sea-going ship. His position upon departure entirely depends on his certificate—if he earns a First Class certificate, he [pg 48]is immediately rated as a midshipman; but if he only gets a Third Class certificate, he will need to serve another twelve months on the sea-going ship and pass another exam before he can claim that rank.38
The actual experiences of intelligent sailors, or voyagers, written by themselves, have, of course, a greater practical value than the sea-stories of clever novelists, while the latter, as a class, confine themselves very much to the quarter-deck. Dana’s “Two Years Before the Mast” is so well known that few of our readers need to be told that it is the story of an American student, who had undermined his health by over-application, and who took a voyage, viâ Cape Horn, to California in order to recover it. But the old brig Pilgrim, bound to the northern Pacific coast for a cargo of hides, was hardly a fair example, in some respects, of an ordinary merchant-vessel, to say nothing of a fine clipper or modern steam-ship. Dana’s experiences were of the roughest type, and may be read by boys, anxious to go to sea, with advantage, if taken in conjunction with those of others; many of them are common to all grades of sea service. A little work by a “Sailor-boy,”39 published some years ago, gives a very fair idea of a seaman’s lot in the Royal Navy, and the two stories in conjunction present a fair average view of sea-life and its duties.
The real experiences of experienced sailors or travelers, written by themselves, are obviously more practical than the sea tales from talented novelists, who mostly focus on the quarter-deck. Dana’s "Two Years Before the Mast" is so well known that most of our readers probably don’t need to be told it’s about an American student who damaged his health by overworking and took a voyage from Cape Horn to California to recover. However, the old brig Traveler, heading to the northern Pacific coast for a load of hides, wasn’t exactly a typical merchant ship, let alone a fine clipper or a modern steamship. Dana’s experiences were quite harsh and can be beneficial for young boys eager to go to sea, especially when paired with others; many of them are relatable across all levels of sea service. A little work by a “Deckhand,”39 published a few years ago, gives a decent glimpse into a seaman’s life in the Royal Navy, and when combined, the two stories provide a reasonable overview of life at sea and its responsibilities.
Passing over the young sailor-boy’s admission to the training-ship—the “Guardho,” as he terms it—we find his first days on board devoted to the mysteries of knots and hitch-making, in learning to lash hammocks, and in rowing, and in acquiring the arts of “feathering” and “tossing” an oar. Incidentally he gives us some information on the etiquette observed in boats passing with an officer on board. “For a lieutenant, the coxswain only gets up and takes his cap off; for a captain, the boat’s crew lay on their oars, and the coxswain takes his cap off; and for an admiral the oars are tossed (i.e., raised perpendicularly, not thrown in the air!), and all caps go off.” Who would not be an admiral? While in this “instruction” he received his sailor’s clothes—a pair of blue cloth trousers, two pairs of white duck ditto, two blue serge and two white frocks, two pairs of white “jumpers,” two caps, two pairs of stockings, a knife, and a marking-type. As soon as he is “made a sailor” by these means, he was ordered to the mast-head, and tells with glee how he was able to go up outside by the futtock shrouds, and not through “lubber’s hole.” The reader doubtless knows that the lubber’s hole is an open space between the head of the lower mast and the edge of the top; it is so named from the supposition that a “land-lubber” would prefer that route. The French call it the trou du chat—the hole through which the cat would climb. Next he commenced cutlass-drill, followed by rifle-drill, big-gun practice, instruction in splicing, and all useful knots, and in using the compass and lead-line. He was afterwards sent on a brig for a short sea cruise. “Having,” says he, “to run aloft without shoes was a heavy trial to me, and my feet often were so sore and blistered that I have sat down in the ‘tops’ and cried with the pain; yet up I had to go, and furl and loose my sails; and up I did go, blisters and all. Sometimes the pain was so bad I could not move smartly, and then the unmerited rebuke from a thoughtless officer was as gall and wormwood to me.”
Passing over the young sailor-boy’s mention of the training ship—the "Guardho," as he calls it—we see that his first days on board are spent learning the secrets of knots and hitches, lashing hammocks, rowing, and mastering the skills of “feathering” and throwing an oar. He also shares some tips about the etiquette followed when boats pass with an officer on board. “For a lieutenant, the coxswain just stands and removes his cap; for a captain, the crew stops rowing, and the coxswain takes off his cap; and for an admiral, the oars are raised straight up (i.e. not thrown in the air!), and everyone removes their caps.” Who wouldn’t want to be an admiral? During this “guidance,” he received his sailor’s clothes—a pair of blue pants, two pairs of white pants, two blue serge and two white shirts, two pairs of white “sweaters,” two caps, two pairs of socks, a knife, and a marking item. Once he was “became a sailor” through these means, he was sent to the masthead and excitedly recounts how he climbed up the outside using the futtock shrouds, not the “noob's hole.” The reader likely knows that the lubber’s hole is the space between the top of the lower mast and the edge of the top; it’s called that because it’s believed that a “land lover” would prefer that route. The French call it the cat's hole—the hole through which the cat would climb. Next, he started cutlass drills, followed by rifle drills, big-gun practice, lessons in splicing, and all useful knots, as well as working with the compass and lead line. He was later sent on a brig for a short sea voyage. “Having,” he says, "Climbing the rigging without shoes was really hard for me, and my feet often got so sore and blistered that I would sit down in the ‘tops’ and cry from the pain; yet I had to keep climbing to furl and unfurl my sails; and climb I did, blisters and all. Sometimes the pain was so intense I couldn’t move fast, and then getting an unfair scolding from a careless officer felt like salt in the wound."
Dana, in speaking of the incessant work on board any vessel, says, “A ship is like a lady’s [pg 49]watch—always out of repair.” When, for example, in a calm, the sails hanging loosely, the hot sun pouring down on deck, and no way on the vessel, which lies
Dana, while discussing the endless tasks on any ship, says, "A ship is like a lady's watch—always needing repairs." For instance, when it’s calm, the sails are hanging limply, the sun is beating down on the deck, and the ship is not moving,
there is always sufficient work for the men, in “setting up” the rigging, which constantly requires lightening and repairing, in picking oakum for caulking, in brightening up the metal-work, and in holystoning the deck. The holystone is a large piece of porous stone,40 which is dragged in alternate ways by two sailors over the deck, sand being used to increase its effect. It obtains its name from the fact that Sunday morning is a very common time on many merchant-vessels for cleaning up generally.
there is always enough work for the crew in “setting up” the rigging, which constantly needs to be lightened and repaired, in picking oakum for caulking, in brightening the metal-work, and in using a holystone on the deck. The holystone is a large piece of porous stone, 40 which is dragged back and forth by two sailors over the deck, with sand added to enhance its effectiveness. It gets its name because Sunday morning is a very common time on many merchant vessels for general cleaning.
The daily routine of our young sailor on the experimental cruises gave him plenty of employment. In his own words it was as follows:—Commencing at five a.m.—“Turn hands up; holystone or scrub upper deck; coil down ropes. Half-past six—breakfast, half an [pg 50]hour; call the watch, watch below, clean the upper deck; watch on deck, clean wood and brass-work; put the upper decks to rights. Eight a.m.—hands to quarters; clean guns and arms; division for inspection; prayers; make sail, reef topsails, furl top-sails, top-gallant sails, royals; reef courses, down top-gallant and royal yards. This continued till eight bells, twelve o’clock, dinner one hour. ‘All hands again; cutlass, rifle, and big-gun drill till four o’clock; clear up decks, coil up ropes;’ and then our day’s work is done.” Then they would make little trips to sea, many of them to experience the woes of sea-sickness for the first time.
The daily routine of our young sailor on the experimental cruises kept him busy. In his own words, it goes like this:—Starting at five a.m.—“Gather everyone; scrub the upper deck; coil down the ropes. At six-thirty—breakfast, half an hour; call the watch, watch below, clean the upper deck; watch on deck, clean wood and brass; tidy up the upper decks. At eight a.m.—everyone to quarters; clean guns and gear; prepare for inspection; prayers; set sail, reef topsails, furl top-sails, top-gallant sails, royals; reef courses, lower top-gallant and royal yards. This continued until eight bells, twelve o’clock, then dinner for an hour. ‘All hands again; cutlass, rifle, and big-gun drill until four o’clock; clean up the decks, coil up the ropes;’ and then our day’s work is done.” After that, they would take short trips out to sea, many of them experiencing the struggles of sea-sickness for the first time.
But the boys on the clean and well-kept training-brig were better off in all respects than poor Dana. When first ordered aloft, he tells us, “I had not got my ‘sea-legs’ on, was dreadfully sea-sick, with hardly strength to hold on to anything, and it was ‘pitch-dark’ * * * How I got along I cannot now remember. I ‘laid out’ on the yards, and held on with all my strength. I could not have been of much service; for I remember having been sick several times before I left the top-sail yard. Soon all was snug aloft, and we were again allowed to go below. This I did not consider much of a favour; for the confusion of everything below, and that inexpressibly sickening smell, caused by the shaking up of bilge-water in the hold, made the steerage but an indifferent refuge to the cold, wet decks. I had often read of the nautical experiences of others, but I felt as though there could be none worse than mine; for, in addition to every other evil, I could not but remember that this was only the first night of a two years’ voyage. When we were all on deck, we were not much better off, for we were continually ordered about by the officer, who said that it was good for us to be in motion. Yet anything was better than the horrible state of things below. I remember very well going to the hatchway and putting my head down, when I was oppressed by nausea, and felt like being relieved immediately.” We can fully recommend the example of Dana, who, acting on the advice of the black cook on board, munched away at a good half-pound of salt beef and hard biscuit, which, washed down with cold water, soon, he says, made a man of him.
But the boys on the clean and well-kept training brig were better off in every way than poor Dana. When he was first ordered aloft, he tells us, I hadn’t gotten my “sea legs” yet and was feeling really seasick, barely able to hold on to anything, and it was “pitch dark.” I can’t remember how I managed, but I “laid out” on the yards and held on with all my strength. I probably wasn’t much help; I remember getting sick several times before I left the topsail yard. Soon, everything was secured up there, and we were allowed to go below again. I didn’t think that was much of a benefit; the chaos below and the incredibly nauseating smell from the bilge water made steerage a terrible refuge compared to the cold, wet decks. I’d often read about other people’s sea adventures, but I felt like nothing could be worse than mine because, on top of everything, I couldn’t forget that this was just the first night of a two-year voyage. When we were all on deck, we weren’t in much better shape, as we were constantly ordered around by the officer, who insisted that it was good for us to keep moving. But anything was better than the awful conditions below. I clearly remember leaning down at the hatchway, feeling nauseous, and wanting relief immediately. We can definitely recommend Dana’s approach, who, following the advice of the black cook on board, munched on about half a pound of salt beef and hard biscuits, which, washed down with cold water, soon made him feel like a man.
Some little explanation of the mode of dividing time on board ship may be here found useful. A “watch” is a term both for a division of the crew and of their time: a full watch is four hours. At the expiration of each four hours, commencing from twelve o’clock noon, the men below are called in these or similar terms—“All the starboard (or port) watch ahoy! Eight bells!” The watch from four p.m. to eight p.m. is divided, on a well-regulated ship, into two “dog-watches;” the object of this is to make an uneven number of periods—seven, instead of six, so that the men change the order of their watches daily. Otherwise, it will be seen that a man, who, on leaving port, stood in a particular watch—from twelve noon to four p.m.—would stand in the same watch throughout the voyage; and he who had two night-watches at first would always have them. The periods of the “dog-watches” are usually devoted to smoking and recreation for those off duty.
Some brief explanation of how time is divided on a ship might be useful here. A "watch" refers both to a group of crew members and a time period: a full watch lasts four hours. After each four-hour period, starting from twelve o’clock noon, the crew below is called with phrases like—"All the starboard (or port) watch, listen up! It's eight bells!" The watch from four p.m. to eight p.m. is typically split, on a well-run ship, into two “dog-watching;” this is done to create an odd number of periods—seven instead of six—so that the crew members change their watch schedules daily. Otherwise, a crew member who started on a specific watch—like from twelve noon to four p.m.—would remain on that same watch for the entire voyage; likewise, someone who started with two night-watches would always have those. The "dog-watching" are usually reserved for smoking and relaxation for those not on duty.
As the terms involved must occur frequently in this work, it is necessary also to explain for some readers the division of time itself by “bells.” The limit is “eight bells,” which are struck at twelve, four, and eight o’clock a.m. or p.m. The ship’s bell is sounded each half-hour. Half-past any of the above hours is “one bell” struck sharply by itself. At the hour, two strokes are made sharply following each other. Expressing the strokes by signs, half-past twelve would be | (representing one stroke); one o’clock would be || (two strokes [pg 51]sharply struck, one after the other); half-past one, || |; two o’clock, || ||; half-past two, || || |; three o’clock, || || ||; half-past three, || || || |; and four o’clock, || || || ||, or “eight bells.” The process is then repeated in the next watch, and the only disturbing element comes from the elements, which occasionally, when the vessel rolls or pitches greatly, cause the bell to strike without leave.
As the terms used in this work appear frequently, it's important to explain the way time is divided by "bells." The limit is "8 bells," which are struck at twelve, four, and eight o’clock, either a.m. or p.m. The ship’s bell rings every half-hour. Half-past any of those hours is indicated by "one notification" struck sharply by itself. On the hour, two sharp strokes are made following each other. Representing these strokes as signs, half-past twelve would be | (one stroke); one o’clock would be || (two strokes [pg 51]struck sharply, one after the other); half-past one, || |; two o’clock, || ||; half-past two, || || |; three o’clock, || || ||; half-past three, || || || |; and four o’clock, || || || ||, or "eight bells" This process repeats in the next watch, and the only interruption comes from the weather, which sometimes causes the bell to strike unexpectedly when the vessel rolls or pitches significantly.
Seamen before the mast are divided into three classes—able, ordinary, and boys. In the merchant service a “green hand” of forty may be rated as a boy; a landsman must ship for boy’s wages on the first voyage. Merchant seamen rate themselves—in other words, they cause themselves to be entered on the ship’s books according to their qualifications and experience. There are few instances of abuse in this matter, and for good reason. Apart from the disgrace and reduction of wages and rating which would follow, woe to the man who sets himself up for an A.B. when he should enter as a boy; for the rest of the crew consider it a fraud on themselves. The vessel would be short-handed of a man of the class required, and their work would be proportionately increased. No mercy would be shown to such an impostor, and his life on board would be that of a dog, but anything rather than that of a “jolly sea-dog.”41
Seamen before the mast are divided into three classes—able, ordinary, and boys. In the merchant service, a “newbie” of forty can be rated as a boy; a landsman must work for boy’s wages on the first voyage. Merchant seamen classify themselves—in other words, they register on the ship’s books based on their qualifications and experience. There are few cases of abuse in this, and for good reason. Besides the disgrace and decrease in wages and rating that would come from it, woe to the man who pretends to be an A.B. when he should sign up as a boy; the rest of the crew sees it as a scam against them. The ship would be short-handed of someone in the required class, and their workload would increase accordingly. No mercy would be shown to such an impostor, and his life on board would be miserable, but anything rather than that of a “jolly sea dog.”41
There are lights in the sailor’s chequered life. Seamen are, Shakespeare tells us, “but men”—and, if we are to believe Dibdin, grog is a decided element in their happier hours. “Grog” is now a generic term; but it was not always. One Admiral Vernon—who persisted in wearing a grogram42 tunic so much that he was known among his subordinates as “Old Grog”—earned immortality of a disagreeable nature by watering the rum-ration of the navy to its present standard. At 11.30 a.m., on all ships of the Royal Navy nowadays, half a gill of watered rum—two parts of water to one of the stronger drink—is served out to each of the crew, unless they have forfeited it by some act of insubordination. The officers, including the petty officers, draw half a gill of pure rum; the former put it into the general mess, and many never taste it. “Six-water” grog is a mild form of punishment. “Splicing the main-brace” infers extra grog served out for extraordinary service. Formerly, and, indeed, as late as forty odd years ago, the daily ration was a full gill; but, as sailors traded and bartered their drinks among themselves, it would happen once in awhile that one would get too much “on board.” It has happened occasionally in consequence that a seaman has tumbled overboard, or fallen from the yards or rigging, and has met an inglorious death. Boys are not allowed grog in the Royal Navy, and there is no absolute rule among merchant-vessels. In the American navy there is a coin allowance in lieu of rum, and every nation has its own peculiarities in this matter. In the French navy, wine, very ordinaire, and a little brandy is issued.
There are lights in the sailor’s varied life. Sailors are, as Shakespeare tells us, “just guys”—and if we believe Dibdin, grog is a key part of their happier times. Beverage has become a general term now, but it wasn't always like that. An Admiral Vernon—who often wore a grogram42 tunic so much that his subordinates called him “Old Grog”—is remembered for his less-than-favorable legacy of watering down the navy's rum ration to its current level. Nowadays, at 11:30 a.m. on all Royal Navy ships, each crew member gets half a gill of watered-down rum—two parts water to one part rum—unless they've lost it due to some act of insubordination. The officers, including petty officers, get half a gill of straight rum; they usually place it into the general mess, with many never tasting it. “Six Water” grog is a light form of punishment. "Celebrating a drink" means extra grog given for exceptional service. In the past, and even as recently as forty years ago, the daily ration was a full gill; but since sailors often traded and swapped their drinks among themselves, sometimes one would end up with too much “onboard.” This has occasionally led to seamen falling overboard or from the yards or rigging, resulting in a shameful death. Boys are not allowed to have grog in the Royal Navy, and there isn’t a strict rule among merchant vessels. In the American navy, there’s a cash allowance instead of rum, and each nation has its own unique practices regarding this. In the French navy, they issue rather ordinary wine and a bit of brandy.
There are shadows, too, in the sailor’s life—as a rule, he brings them on himself, but by no means always. If sailors are “but men,” officers rank in the same category, and occasionally act like brutes. So much has been written on the subject of the naval “cat”—a punishment once dealt out for most trifling offences, and not abolished yet, that the writer has some diffidence in approaching the subject. A volume might be [pg 52]written on the theme; let the testimony of Dr. Stables,43 a surgeon of the Royal Navy, suffice. It shall be told in his own words:—
There are shadows, too, in a sailor’s life—usually, he brings them on himself, but not always. If sailors are "just guys," officers belong in the same category and sometimes act like animals. So much has been written about the naval cat—a punishment once given for the smallest offenses, and still not abolished—that the writer feels somewhat hesitant to tackle the topic. A whole volume could be [pg 52]written on it; let the words of Dr. Stables, 43 a surgeon of the Royal Navy, serve as testimony. It will be shared in his own words:—
“One item of duty there is, which occasionally devolves on the medical officer, and for the most part goes greatly against the feeling of the young surgeon; I refer to his compulsory attendance at floggings. It is only fair to state that the majority of captains and commanders use the cat as seldom as possible, and that, too, only sparingly. In some ships, however, flogging is nearly as frequent as prayers of a morning. Again, it is more common on foreign stations than at home, and boys of the first or second class, marines, and ordinary seamen, are for the most part the victims.... We were at anchor in Simon’s Bay. All the minutiæ of the scene I remember as though it were but yesterday. The morning was cool and clear, the hills clad in lilac and green, sea-birds floating high in air, and the waters of the bay reflecting the blue of the sky, and the lofty mountain-sides forming a picture almost dream-like in its quietude and serenity. The men were standing about in groups, dressed in their whitest of pantaloons, bluest of smocks, and neatest of black-silk neckerchiefs. By-and-by the culprit was led in by a file of marines, and I went below with him to make the preliminary examination, in order to report whether or not he might be fit for the punishment.
There’s one responsibility that sometimes falls on the medical officer, and it often goes against the feelings of the young surgeon; I’m referring to their required presence during punishments. It’s important to point out that most captains and commanders use the whip as little as possible, and even then, only when necessary. However, on some ships, flogging occurs almost as often as morning prayers. It’s also more frequent on foreign stations than at home, and the victims are mainly first and second class boys, marines, and ordinary seamen... We were anchored in Simon’s Bay. I remember every detail of that scene as if it were just yesterday. The morning was cool and clear, the hills were adorned in lilac and green, sea birds were soaring high in the sky, and the waters of the bay mirrored the blue of the sky, with the tall mountains creating a scene that felt almost dreamlike in its calmness and beauty. The men stood in groups, wearing their whitest pants, bluest smocks, and neat black silk neckerchiefs. Soon after, the offender was brought in by a line of marines, and I went below with him to conduct the preliminary examination to determine if he was fit for punishment or not.
“He was as good a specimen of the British mariner as one could wish to look upon—hardy, bold, and wiry. His crime had been smuggling spirits on board.
“He was the perfect example of a British sailor—tough, daring, and fit. His crime was bringing alcohol on board without permission.”
“ ‘Needn’t examine me, doctor,’ said he; ‘I aint afeared of their four dozen; they can’t hurt me, sir—leastways my back, you know—my breast, though; hum—m!’ and he shook his head, rather sadly I thought, as he bent down his eyes.
“There’s no need to examine me, doctor,” he said; “I’m not afraid of their forty-eight; they can’t hurt me, sir—at least not my back, you know—but my chest, though; hmm—m!” He shook his head, looking a bit sad, I thought, as he looked down.
“ ‘What,’ said I, ‘have you anything the matter with your chest?’
“ ‘What’s wrong?’ I asked, ‘is something going on with your chest?’
“ ‘Nay, doctor, nay; it’s my feelings they’ll hurt. I’ve a little girl at home that loves me, and, bless you, sir, I won’t look her in the face again nohow.’
“ ‘No, doctor, no; it’s my feelings they’ll hurt. I have a little girl at home who loves me, and, bless you, sir, I won’t be able to look her in the face again at all.’
“I felt his pulse. No lack of strength there, no nervousness; the artery had the firm beat of health, the tendons felt like rods of iron beneath the finger, and his biceps stood out hard and round as the mainstay of an old seventy-four.... All hands had already assembled—the men and boys on one side, and the officers, in cocked hats and swords, on the other. A grating had been lashed against the bulwark, and another placed on deck beside it. The culprit’s shoulders and back were bared, and a strong belt fastened around the lower part of the loins for protection; he was then firmly tied by the hands to the upper, and by the feet to the lower grating; a little basin of cold water was placed at his feet, and all was now prepared. The sentence was read, and orders given to proceed with the punishment. The cat is a terrible instrument of torture; I would not use it on a bull unless in self-defence; the shaft is about a foot and a half long, and covered with green or red baize, according to taste; the thongs are nine, about twenty-eight inches in length, of the thickness of a goose-quill, and with two knots tied on each. Men describe the first blow as like a shower of molten lead.
I checked his pulse. It was strong and steady, with no signs of anxiety; the artery had a healthy rhythm, the tendons felt as solid as iron rods under my fingers, and his biceps were hard and rounded like those of an old seventy-four. Everyone was already gathered—the men and boys on one side, and the officers, in tricorne hats and swords, on the other. A grating had been secured against the bulwark, and another was placed on the deck beside it. The culprit's shoulders and back were exposed, and a sturdy belt was fastened around his lower back for support; he was then tightly bound by the hands to the upper grating and by the feet to the lower grating; a small basin of cold water was placed at his feet, and everything was now ready. The sentence was read, and orders were given to carry out the punishment. The cat is a cruel instrument of torture; I wouldn’t use it on a bull unless it was necessary for self-defense; the handle is about a foot and a half long and covered in green or red fabric, depending on preference; there are nine thongs, each about twenty-eight inches long, the thickness of a goose quill, with two knots tied on each. Men say the first blow feels like a shower of molten lead.
“Combing out the thongs with his five fingers before each blow, firmly and determinedly was the first dozen delivered by the bo’swain’s mate, and as unflinchingly received.
Before each strike, he expertly ran his fingers through the thongs, and the first dozen were given by the bosun’s mate, and they were received without hesitation.
“Then, ‘One dozen, sir, please,’ he reported, saluting the commander.
“Then, ‘One dozen, sir, please,’ he said, saluting the commander.”
“ ‘Continue the punishment,’ was the calm reply.
“ ‘Keep up the punishment,’ was the calm reply.
“A new man, and a new cat. Another dozen reported; again the same reply. Three dozen. The flesh, like burning steel, had changed from red to purple, and blue, and white; and between the third and fourth dozen, the suffering wretch, pale enough now, and in all probability sick, begged a comrade to give him a mouthful of water.
A new guy and a new cat. Another twelve reported; same response again. Thirty-six. The flesh, like burning steel, changed from red to purple, then blue, and finally white; and between the third and fourth dozen, the suffering man, now pale and probably ill, begged a friend for a sip of water.
“There was a tear in the eye of the hardy sailor who obeyed him, whispering as he did so, ‘Keep up, Bill; it’ll soon be over now.’
A tough sailor had a tear in his eye as he listened to him, softly saying, ‘Hang in there, Bill; it’ll be over soon.’
“ ‘Five, six,’ the corporal slowly counted; ‘seven, eight.’ It is the last dozen, and how acute must be the torture! ‘Nine, ten.’ The blood comes now fast enough, and—yes, gentle reader, I will spare your feelings. The man was cast loose at last, and put on the sick-list; he had borne his punishment without a groan, and without moving a muscle. A large pet monkey sat crunching nuts in the rigging, and grinning all the time; I have no doubt he enjoyed the spectacle immensely, for he was only an ape.”
“‘Five, six,’ the corporal counted slowly; ‘seven, eight.’ This is the last dozen, and the pain must be unbearable! ‘Nine, ten.’ The blood is flowing now, and—yes, dear reader, I will spare you the details. The man was finally released and put on the sick list; he endured his punishment without making a sound and without flinching. A large pet monkey sat in the rigging, munching on nuts and grinning the whole time; I have no doubt he thoroughly enjoyed the show, since he was just an ape.”
Dr. Stables gives his opinion on the use of the cat in honest and outspoken terms. He considers “corporal punishment, as applied to men, cowardly, cruel, and debasing to human nature; and as applied to boys, brutal, and sometimes even fiendish.”
Dr. Stables shares his thoughts on the use of the cat in a frank and direct manner. He believes that “corporal punishment, when used on men, is cowardly, cruel, and degrading to human nature; and when used on boys, it's brutal, and sometimes even fiendish.”
The writer has statistics before him which prove that 456 cases of flogging boys took place in 1875, and that only seven men were punished during that year. There is every probability that the use of the naval cat will ere long be abolished, and important as is good discipline on board ship, there are many leading authorities who believe that it can be maintained without it. The captain of a vessel is its king, reigning in a little world of his own, and separated for weeks or months from the possibility of reprimand. If he is a tyrannical man, he can make his ship a floating hell for all on board. A system of fines for small offences has been proposed, and the idea has this advantage, that in case they prove on investigation to have been unjustly imposed, the money can be returned. The disgrace of a flogging sticks to a boy or man, and, besides, as a punishment is infinitely too severe for most of the offences for which it is inflicted. It would be a cruel punishment were the judge infallible, but with an erring human being for an irresponsible judge, the matter is far worse. And that good seamen are deterred from entering the Royal Navy, knowing that the commission of a peccadillo or two may bring down the cat on their unlucky shoulders, is a matter of fact.
The writer has statistics showing that 456 instances of flogging boys happened in 1875, and only seven men were punished that year. It's likely that the use of the naval cat will soon be abolished. While maintaining good discipline on a ship is important, many experts believe it can be achieved without such measures. The captain of a vessel is like a king, ruling in a small world of his own and separated for weeks or months from any chance of reprimand. If he is a tyrant, he can turn his ship into a floating hell for everyone onboard. A system of fines for minor offenses has been suggested, which has the benefit that if they're found to be unfair, the money can be refunded. The shame of being flogged stays with a boy or man, and besides, that punishment is far too harsh for most of the offenses it's used for. It would be a cruel punishment even if the judge were infallible, but with a fallible human acting as an unaccountable judge, the situation is much worse. It’s a fact that good sailors are discouraged from joining the Royal Navy, knowing that committing a minor mistake could lead to the cat's punishment.
We shall meet the sailor on the sea many a time and again during the progress of this work, and see how hardly he earns his scanty reward in the midst of the awful dangers peculiar to the elements he dares. Shakespeare says that he is—
We will encounter the sailor at sea many times throughout this work, witnessing how hard he works to earn his meager rewards amidst the terrifying dangers unique to the elements he faces. Shakespeare says that he is—
that the men of all others who have made England what she is, have not altogether a bed of roses even on a well-conducted vessel, whilst they may lose their lives at any moment by shipwreck and sudden death. George Herbert says—
that the men of all those who have shaped England into what it is, do not necessarily have an easy time even on a well-run ship, as they could lose their lives at any moment due to shipwreck or unexpected death. George Herbert says—
And while the present writer would be sorry to prevent any healthy, capable, adventurous boy from entering a noble profession, he recommends him to first study the literature of the sea to the best and fullest of his ability. Our succeeding chapter will exhibit some of the special perils which surround the sailor’s life, whilst it will exemplify to some extent the qualities specially required and expected from him.
And while the current writer would regret stopping any healthy, capable, adventurous boy from pursuing a noble profession, he suggests that he first study the literature of the sea as thoroughly as he can. Our next chapter will showcase some of the unique dangers that come with a sailor's life, while also highlighting some of the qualities that are particularly needed and expected from him.
CHAPTER 4.
Challenges of the Sailor's Life.
The Loss of the Captain—Six Hundred Souls swept into Eternity without a Warning—The Mansion and the Cottage alike Sufferers—Causes of the Disaster—Horrors of the Scene—Noble Captain Burgoyne—Narratives of Survivors—An almost Incredible Feat—Loss of the Royal George—A great Disaster caused by a Trifle—Nine Hundred Lost—A Child saved by a Sheep—The Portholes Upright—An involuntary Bath of Tar—Rafts of Corpses—The Vessel Blown up in 1839-40—The Loss of the Vanguard—Half a Million sunk in Fifty Minutes—Admirable Discipline on Board—All Saved—The Court Martial.
The Loss of the Captain—Six Hundred Souls were taken into Eternity without a Warning—The Mansion and the Cottage both Affected—Reasons for the Disaster—Terrible Scenes—Brave Captain Burgoyne—Stories from Survivors—An almost Unbelievable Act—Loss of the Royal George—A terrible disaster caused by a small mistake—Nine hundred lives lost—A child saved by a sheep—The portholes upright—An accidental bath in tar—Rafts of bodies—The ship blown up in 1839-40—The loss of the __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Vanguard—Half a million lost in fifty minutes—Impressive discipline on board—Everyone saved—The court-martial.
England, and indeed all Europe, long prior to 1870 had been busily constructing ironclads, and the daily journals teemed with descriptions of new forms and varieties of ships, armour, and armament, as well as of new and enormous guns, which, rightly directed, might sink them to the bottom. Among the more curious of the ironclads of that period, and the construction of which had led to any quantity of discussion, sometimes of a very angry kind, was the turret-ship—practically the sea-going “monitor”—Captain, which Captain Cowper Phipps Coles had at length been permitted to construct. Coles, who was an enthusiast of great scientific attainments, as well as a practical seaman, which too many of our experimentalists in this direction have not been, had distinguished himself in the Crimea, and had later made many improvements in rendering vessels shot-proof. His revolving turrets are, however, the inventions with which his name are more intimately connected, although he had much to do with the general construction of the Captain, and other ironclads of the period.
England, and really all of Europe, had been busy building ironclads long before 1870, and the daily newspapers were filled with descriptions of new types and designs of ships, armor, and weapons, as well as massive new guns that could, if aimed correctly, send them to the ocean floor. One of the more interesting ironclads of that time, which sparked a lot of discussions—sometimes quite heated—was the turret ship—essentially the sea-going “screen”—the Captain, which Captain Cowper Phipps Coles had finally been allowed to build. Coles, who was passionate and highly skilled both scientifically and as a sailor—something that many of our experimenters in this field lack—had made a name for himself in the Crimea and had later introduced many enhancements to make ships resistant to gunfire. However, his revolving turrets are what he’s most closely associated with, although he also contributed significantly to the overall design of the Captain and other ironclads from that era.
The Captain was a large double-screw armour-plated vessel, of 4,272 tons. Her armour in the most exposed parts was eight inches in thickness, ranging elsewhere downwards from seven to as low as three inches. She had two revolving turrets, the strongest and heaviest yet built, and carried six powerful guns. Among the peculiarities of her construction were, that she had only nine feet of “free-board”—i.e., that was the height of her sides out of water. The forecastle and after-part of the vessel were raised above this, and they were connected with a light hurricane-deck. This, as we shall see, played an important part in the sad disaster we have to relate.
The Captain was a large double-screw armored ship weighing 4,272 tons. Its armor in the most vulnerable areas was eight inches thick, tapering to seven inches and as low as three inches in other places. It had two revolving turrets, the strongest and heaviest ever built, and was equipped with six powerful guns. Notably, the ship had only nine feet of "free board"—i.e., that’s the height of its sides above the waterline. The forecastle and the stern of the ship were elevated above this, connected by a lightweight hurricane deck. As we will see, this played a crucial role in the tragic disaster we are about to discuss.
On the morning of the 8th of September, 1870, English readers, at their breakfast-tables, in railway carriages, and everywhere, were startled with the news that the Captain had foundered, with all hands, in the Bay of Biscay. Six hundred men had been swept into [pg 55]eternity without a moment’s warning. She had been in company with the squadron the night before, and, indeed, had been visited by the admiral, for purposes of inspection, the previous afternoon. The early part of the evening had been fine; later it had become what sailors call “dirty weather;” at midnight the wind rose fast, and soon culminated in a furious gale. At 2.15 in the morning of the 7th a heavy bank of clouds passed off, and the stars came out clear and bright, the moon then setting; but no vessel could be discerned where the Captain had been last observed. At daybreak the squadron was all in sight, but scattered. “Only ten ships instead of eleven could be discerned, the ‘Captain’ being the missing one.” Later, it appeared that seventeen of the men and the gunner had escaped, and landed at Corbucion, north of Cape Finisterre, on the afternoon of the 7th. All the men who were saved belonged to the starboard watch; or, in other words, none escaped except those on deck duty. Every man below, whether soundly sleeping after his day’s work, or tossing sleeplessly in his berth, thinking of home and friends and present peril, or watching the engines, or feeding the furnaces, went down, without the faintest possibility of escaping his doom.
On the morning of September 8, 1870, English readers at their breakfast tables, in train cars, and everywhere else were shocked to hear the news that the Captain had sunk, taking all hands with her, in the Bay of Biscay. Six hundred men had been swept into [pg 55]eternity without any warning. She had been with the squadron the night before and had actually been visited by the admiral for an inspection the previous afternoon. The early part of the evening had been nice, but later it turned into what sailors call “bad weather.” At 2:15 AM on the 7th, a thick bank of clouds moved away, and the stars came out bright and clear, with the moon setting; however, no ship could be seen where the Captain had last been spotted. At dawn, the entire squadron was visible, but scattered. “Only ten ships were visible instead of eleven, with the ‘Captain’ as the missing one.” Later, it turned out that seventeen men and the gunner had survived and landed at Corbucion, north of Cape Finisterre, on the afternoon of the 7th. All the men who were rescued were part of the starboard watch; in other words, none escaped except those on deck duty. Every man below deck—whether sound asleep after his day’s work, tossing restlessly in his bunk thinking of home, or watching the engines and feeding the furnaces—went down without even the slightest chance of escaping his fate.
Think of this catastrophe, and what it involved! The families and friends of 600 men plunged into mourning, and the scores on scores of wives and children into poverty! In one street of Portsea, thirty wives were made widows by the occurrence.44 The shock of the news killed one poor woman, then in weak health. Nor were the sad effects confined to the cottages of the poor. The noble-hearted captain of the vessel was a son of Field-Marshal Burgoyne; Captain Coles, her inventor; a son of Mr. Childers, the then First Lord of the Admiralty; the younger son of Lord Northbrook; the third son of Lord Herbert of Lea; and Lord Lewis Gordon, brother of the Marquis of Huntley, were among the victims of that terrible morning. The intelligence arrived during the excitement caused by the defeat and capitulation of Sedan, which, involving, as it did, the deposition of the Emperor and the fate of France, was naturally the great topic of discussion, but for the time it overshadowed even those great events, for it was a national calamity.
Think about this catastrophe and what it meant! The families and friends of 600 men were thrown into mourning, and countless wives and children faced poverty! In one street in Portsea, thirty wives became widows because of the incident. 44 The shock of the news caused one poor woman, who was already in poor health, to die. And the tragic effects didn't just affect the homes of the poor. The brave captain of the ship was a son of Field-Marshal Burgoyne; Captain Coles, who invented it, was a son of Mr. Childers, the First Lord of the Admiralty at the time; the younger son of Lord Northbrook; the third son of Lord Herbert of Lea; and Lord Lewis Gordon, brother of the Marquis of Huntley, were also among the victims of that dreadful morning. The news came during the chaos surrounding the defeat and surrender at Sedan, which was a huge topic of conversation since it led to the Emperor's deposition and had significant implications for France, but for a moment, this tragedy overshadowed even those monumental events because it was a national disaster.
From the statements of survivors we now know that the watch had been called a few minutes past midnight; and as the men were going on deck to muster, the ship gave a terrible lurch to starboard, soon, however, righting herself on that occasion. Robert Hirst, a seaman, who afterwards gave some valuable testimony, was on the forecastle. There was a very strong wind, and the ship was then only carrying her three top-sails, double reefs in each, and the foretop-mast stay-sail. The yards were braced sharp up, and the ship had little way upon her.45 As the watch was mustered, he heard Captain Burgoyne give the order, “Let go the foretop-sail halyards!” followed by, “Let go fore and maintop-sail sheets!” By the time the men got to the top-sail sheets the ship was heeling over to starboard so much that others were being washed off the deck, [pg 57]the ship lying down on her side, as she was gradually turning over and trembling through her whole frame with every blow which the short, jumping, vicious seas, now white with the squall, gave her.46 The roar of the steam from her boilers was terrific, “outscreaming the noise of the storm,” but not drowning the shrieks of the poor engineers and stokers which were heard by some of the survivors. The horrors of their situation can be imagined. The sea, breaking down the funnel, would soon, no doubt, extinguish the furnaces, but not until some of their contents had been dashed into the engine-room, with oceans of scalding water; the boilers themselves may, likely enough, have given way and burst also. Mercifully, it was not for long. Hirst, with two other men, rushed to the weather-forecastle netting and jumped overboard. It was hardly more than a few moments before they found themselves washed on to the bilge of the ship’s bottom, for in that brief space of time the ship had turned completely over, and almost immediately went down. Hirst and his companions went down with the ship, but the next feeling of consciousness by the former was coming into contact with a floating spar, to which he tied himself with his black silk handkerchief. He was soon, however, washed from the spar, but got hold of the stern of the second launch, which was covered with canvas, and floating as it was stowed on board the ship. Other men were there, on the top of the canvas covering. Immediately after, they fell in with the steam-lifeboat pinnace, bottom-up, with Captain Burgoyne and several men clinging to it. Four men, of whom Mr. May,47 the gunner, was one, jumped from off the bottom of the steam-pinnace to the launch. One account says that Captain Burgoyne incited them, by calling out, “Jump, men, jump!” but did not do it himself. The canvas was immediately cut away, and with the oars free, they attempted to pull up to the steam-pinnace to rescue the captain and others remaining there. This they found impossible to accomplish. As soon as they endeavoured to get the boat’s head up to the sea to row her to windward to where the capsized boat was floating, their boat was swamped almost level to her [pg 58]thwarts, and two of the men were washed clean out of her. The pump was set going, and the boat bailed out with their caps, &c., as far as possible. They then made a second attempt to row the boat against the sea, which was as unsuccessful as before. Meantime, poor Burgoyne was still clinging to the pinnace, in “a storm of broken waters.” When the launch was swept towards him once, one of the men on board offered to throw him an oar, which he declined, saying, nobly, “For God’s sake, men, keep your oars: you will want them.” This piece of self-abnegation probably cost him his life, for he went down shortly after, following “the six hundred” of his devoted crew into “the valley of death.” The launch was beaten hither and thither; and a quarter of an hour after the Captain had capsized, sighted the lights of one of their own ships, which was driven by in the gale, its officers knowing nothing of the fate of these unfortunates, or their still more hapless companions. Mr. May, the gunner, took charge of the launch, and at daybreak they sighted Cape Finisterre, inside which they landed after twelve hours’ hard work at the oars.
From the statements of survivors, we now know that the watch was called just after midnight; as the men were heading on deck to muster, the ship suddenly lurched to starboard but managed to right itself. Robert Hirst, a seaman who later provided valuable testimony, was on the forecastle. There was a strong wind, and the ship was only carrying her three topsails, each double reefed, along with the foretopmast staysail. The yards were braced sharply, and the ship was moving slowly. As the watch was mustered, he heard Captain Burgoyne order, “Release the foretop-sail halyards!” followed by, "Release the fore and maintop-sail sheets!" By the time the men reached the top-sail sheets, the ship was leaning so much to starboard that others were being washed off the deck, [pg 57] the ship lying on its side, gradually rolling over and shaking violently with each impact from the choppy, furious seas, now white with the squall. The roar of steam from the boilers was deafening, “screaming louder than the noise of the storm,” but it didn't drown out the screams of the engineers and stokers, who were heard by some survivors. The horror of their situation is unimaginable. The sea, breaking down the funnel, would soon extinguish the furnaces, but not before some of its contents were thrown into the engine room, along with torrents of scalding water; the boilers might have also given way and burst. Thankfully, it didn't last long. Hirst, along with two other men, rushed to the weather-forecastle netting and jumped overboard. It was only moments before they found themselves thrown onto the bilge of the ship’s bottom, as in that brief period the ship had completely turned over and quickly sank. Hirst and his companions went down with the ship, but the next thing Hirst remembers is making contact with a floating spar, to which he tied himself using his black silk handkerchief. Soon after, he was swept away from the spar but managed to grab hold of the stern of the second launch, which was covered with canvas and floating as it was stowed on board. Other men were there, on top of the canvas cover. Shortly after, they encountered the steam lifeboat pinnace, capsized, with Captain Burgoyne and several men clinging to it. Four men, including Mr. May, 47 the gunner, jumped from the bottom of the steam-pinnace to the launch. One account states that Captain Burgoyne urged them on by calling out, “Jump, guys, jump!” but he did not jump himself. They quickly cut away the canvas, and with the oars free, they attempted to row towards the steam-pinnace to rescue the captain and others still there. They found this impossible. As soon as they tried to bring the boat’s head up to the sea to row towards the capsized boat, their boat nearly swamped, coming up to the [pg 58] thwarts, and two of the men were washed out of it. They set the pump going and bailed out the boat with their caps, and other items as best as they could. They then made a second attempt to row the boat against the sea, which was just as unsuccessful as before. Meanwhile, poor Burgoyne was still clinging to the pinnace, in “a storm of rough seas.” When the launch was swept towards him one time, one of the men offered to throw him an oar, which he declined, nobly saying, "For heaven's sake, guys, hold onto your oars: you’ll need them." This act of selflessness likely cost him his life, as he went down shortly after, following "the 600" of his dedicated crew into "the valley of death." The launch was tossed around; and a quarter of an hour after the Captain had capsized, they spotted the lights of one of their own ships, which was being driven by the gale, its officers unaware of the fate of these unfortunate souls or their even more unfortunate companions. Mr. May, the gunner, took charge of the launch, and at daybreak they sighted Cape Finisterre, inside which they landed after twelve hours of hard rowing.
One man, when he found the vessel capsizing, crawled over the weather-netting on the port side, and performed an almost incredible feat. It is well told in his own laconic style:—“Felt ship heel over, and felt she would not right. Made for weather-hammock netting. She was then on her beam-ends. Got along her bottom by degrees, as she kept turning over, until I was where her keel would have been if she had one. The seas then washed me off. I saw a piece of wood about twenty yards off, and swam to it.” In other words, he got over her side, and walked up to the bottom! While in the water, two poor drowning wretches caught hold of him, and literally tore off the legs of his trousers. He could not help them, and they sank for the last time.
One man, when he found the boat capsizing, crawled over the safety net on the left side and accomplished an almost unbelievable feat. He detailed it in his own straightforward way:—I felt the ship tip over and realized it wouldn’t recover. I headed for the safety net. She was lying on her side. I slid along her bottom bit by bit as she continued to roll over, until I reached where her keel would have been if she had one. The waves then swept me off. I saw a piece of wood about twenty yards away and swam to it. In other words, he managed to get over the side and walked up to the bottom! While in the water, two desperate drowning men grabbed onto him and literally ripped the legs off his trousers. He couldn’t save them, and they sank for good.
Many and varied were the explanations given of the causes of this disaster. There had evidently been some uneasiness in regard to her stability in the water at one time, but she had sailed so well on previous trips, in the same stormy waters, that confidence had been restored in her. The belief, afterwards, among many authorities, was that she ought not to have carried sail at all.48 This was the primary cause of the disaster, no doubt; and then, in all probability, when the force of the wind had heeled her over, a heavy sea struck her and completely capsized her—the water on and over her depressed side assisting by weighting her downwards. The side of the hurricane-deck acted, when the vessel was heeled over, as one vast sail, and, no doubt, had much to do with putting her on her beam-ends. The general impression of the survivors appeared to be that, with the ship heeling over, the pressure of a strong wind upon the under part of the hurricane-deck had a greater effect or leverage upon the hull, than the pressure of the wind on her top-sails. They were also nearly unanimous in their opinion that when the Captain’s starboard side was well down in the water, with the weight of water on the turret-deck, and the pressure of the wind blowing from the port hand on the under surface of the hurricane-deck, and thus pushing the ship right over, she had no chance of righting herself again.
Many explanations were offered for the causes of this disaster. There had clearly been some concerns about her stability in the water at one time, but she had performed so well on previous trips in the same rough waters that confidence in her had been restored. Later, many authorities believed she shouldn't have set sail at all. This was undoubtedly the main cause of the disaster; then, likely when the wind's force had caused her to tilt, a heavy wave hit her and completely capsized her—the water on and above her lower side weighing her down even more. The side of the hurricane deck acted as a massive sail when the vessel tilted, and certainly contributed to her being tipped over. The general impression among the survivors was that, with the ship leaning, the pressure from a strong wind on the underside of the hurricane deck had a greater effect or leverage on the hull than the pressure from the wind on her top sails. They also largely agreed that when the Captain’s starboard side was deeply submerged, with the weight of water on the turret deck and the wind blowing from the port side against the underside of the hurricane deck, pushing the ship completely over, she had no chance of righting herself again.
It is to be remarked that long after the Captain had sunk, the admiral of the squadron thought that he saw her, although it was very evident afterwards that it must have been some other vessel. In his despatch to the Admiralty,49 which very plainly indicated that he had some anxiety in regard to her stability in bad weather, he described her appearance and behaviour up till 1.30 a.m.—more than an hour after her final exit to the depths below. In the days of superstitious belief, so common among sailors, a thrilling story of her image haunting the spot would surely have been built on this foundation.
It’s worth noting that long after the Captain had gone down, the squadron's admiral thought he spotted her, even though it was clear later that it must have been some other ship. In his report to the Admiralty,49 which clearly showed he was worried about her stability in rough weather, he described her appearance and behavior up until 1:30 a.m.—more than an hour after she had finally sunk below the waves. In the age of superstitions, so common among sailors, a captivating tale of her ghost haunting the area would surely have been spun from this.
In the old fighting-days of the Royal Navy, when success followed success, and prize after prize rewarded the daring and enterprise of its commanders, they did not think very much of the loss of a vessel more or less, but took the lesser evils with the greater goods. The seamanship was wonderful, but it was very often utterly reckless. A captain trained in the school of Nelson and Cochrane would stop at nothing. The country, accustomed to great naval battles, enriched by the spoils of the enemy—who furnished some of the finest vessels in our fleet—was not much affected by the loss of a ship, and the Admiralty was inclined to deal leniently with a spirited commander who had met with an accident. But then an accident in those days did not mean the loss of half a million pounds or so. The cost of a large ironclad of to-day would have built a small wooden fleet of those days.
In the old fighting days of the Royal Navy, when victories came one after another and commanders were rewarded with prize ships for their bravery and initiative, they didn’t worry much about losing a vessel here and there; they accepted the minor losses in exchange for the bigger wins. The seamanship was incredible, but often it was also extremely reckless. A captain trained under Nelson and Cochrane would stop at nothing. The country, used to grand naval battles and benefiting from the spoils of the enemy—who provided some of the finest ships in our fleet—didn’t really feel the impact of losing a ship, and the Admiralty tended to be lenient with a spirited commander who experienced an accident. However, back then, an accident didn’t mean losing half a million pounds or so. The cost of a large ironclad today could have built a small wooden fleet of that era.
The loss of the Captain irresistibly brings to memory another great loss to the Royal Navy, which occurred nearly ninety years before, and by which 900 lives were in a moment swept into eternity. It proved too plainly that “wooden walls” might capsize as readily as the “crankiest” ironclad. The reader will immediately guess that we refer to the loss of the Royal George, which took place at Spithead, on the 28th of August, 1782, in calm weather, but still under circumstances which, to a very great extent, explain how the Captain—at the best, a vessel of doubtful stability—capsized in the stormy waters of Biscay. The Royal George was, at the time, the oldest first-rate in the service, having been put into commission in 1755. She carried 108 guns, and was considered a staunch ship, and a good sailer. Anson, Boscawen, Rodney, Howe, and Hawke had all repeatedly commanded in her.
The loss of the Captain immediately reminds us of another tragic loss for the Royal Navy, which happened almost ninety years ago and claimed 900 lives in an instant. It clearly showed that "wood walls" could capsize just as easily as the "grumpiest" ironclad. You’ll quickly realize that we’re talking about the loss of the Royal George, which sank at Spithead on August 28, 1782, in calm weather, yet under conditions that largely explain how the Captain—a ship not known for its stability—capsized in the rough waters of Biscay. The Royal George was the oldest first-rate ship in service at that time, having been commissioned in 1755. She carried 108 guns and was regarded as a sturdy ship and a good sailor. Anson, Boscawen, Rodney, Howe, and Hawke had all commanded her multiple times.
From what small causes may great and lamentable disasters arise! “During the washing of her decks, on the 28th, the carpenter discovered that the pipe which admitted the water to cleanse and sweeten the ship, and which was about three feet under the water, was out of repair—that it was necessary to replace it with a new one, and to heel her on one side for that purpose.” The guns on the port side of the ship were run out of the port-holes as far as they would go, and those from the starboard side were drawn in and secured amidships. This brought her porthole-sills on the lower side nearly even [pg 60]with the water. “At about 9 o’clock a.m., or rather before,” stated one of the survivors,50 “we had just finished our breakfast, and the last lighter, with rum on board, had come alongside; this vessel was a sloop of about fifty tons, and belonged to three brothers, who used her to carry things on board the men-of-war. She was lashed to the larboard side of the Royal George, and we were piped to clear the lighter and get the rum out of her, and stow it in the hold.... At first, no danger was apprehended from the ship being on one side, although the water kept dashing in at the portholes at every wave; and there being mice in the lower part of the ship, which were disturbed by the water which dashed in, they were hunted in the water by the men, and there had been a rare game going on.” Their play was soon to be rudely stopped. The carpenter, perceiving that the ship was in great danger, went twice on the deck to ask the lieutenant of the watch to order the ship to be righted; the first time the latter barely answered him, and the second replied, savagely, “If you can manage the ship better than I can, you had better take the command.” In a very short time, he began himself to see the danger, and ordered the drummer to beat to right ship. It was too late—the ship was beginning to sink; a sudden breeze springing upheeled her still more; the guns, shot, and heavy articles generally, and a large part of the men on board, fell irresistibly to the lower side; and the water, forcing itself in at every port, weighed the vessel down still more. She fell on her broadside, with her masts nearly flat on the water, and sank to the bottom immediately. “The officers, in their confusion, made no signal of distress, nor, indeed, could any assistance have availed if they had, after her lower-deck ports were in the water, which forced itself in at every port with fearful velocity.” In going down, the main-yard of the Royal George caught the boom of the rum-lighter and sank her, drowning some of those on board.
From what small causes can great and tragic disasters arise! "While washing the decks on the 28th, the carpenter discovered that the pipe meant for cleaning and deodorizing the ship, located about three feet underwater, was broken. It needed to be replaced with a new one, and the ship had to be tilted to one side for that." The guns on the port side of the ship were pushed out of the portholes as far as they could go, while those on the starboard side were pulled in and secured in the middle. This position made the porthole-sills on the lower side nearly level [pg 60]with the water. "At around 9 a.m., or maybe even a little earlier," one of the survivors,50“We had just finished breakfast when the last lighter, filled with rum, came alongside. This sloop, about fifty tons, was owned by three brothers who used it to transport goods to the warships. It was tied to the left side of the Royal George, and we were instructed to clear the lighter and take the rum on board to store it in the hold. At first, we didn’t see any danger from the ship leaning to one side, even though water kept rushing in through the portholes with every wave. Since there were mice in the lower part of the ship, disturbed by the incoming water, the men started chasing them, turning it into quite a game.” Their play was soon to be abruptly interrupted. The carpenter, realizing the ship was in serious danger, went on deck twice to ask the lieutenant on watch to order the ship to be leveled; the first time he received only a brief response, and the second time the lieutenant snapped back, "If you believe you can manage the ship better than I can, you should take the helm." Very shortly after, he began to recognize the danger himself and commanded the drummer to call for the ship to be righted. It was too late—the ship was starting to sink; a sudden gust of wind tilted her even more; the guns, ammo, heavy items, and a large number of the crew were pulled uncontrollably to the lower side; and the water, forcing its way in through every porthole, weighed the vessel down even further. She toppled onto her side, with her masts nearly lying flat on the water, and sank to the bottom immediately. “The officers, in their panic, didn't call for help, and no help could have arrived after the lower-deck portholes were submerged, with water flooding in through every opening at a terrifying speed.” As she went down, the main-yard of the *Royal George* caught the boom of the rum-lighter and pulled it under, drowning some of those on board.
At this terrible moment there were nearly 1,200 persons51 on board. Deducting the larger proportion of the watch on deck, about 230, who were mostly saved by running up the rigging, and afterwards taken off by the boats sent for their rescue, and, perhaps, seventy others who managed to scramble out of the ports, &c., the whole of the remainder perished. Admiral Kempenfelt, whose flag-ship it was, and who was then writing in his cabin, and had just before been shaved by the barber, went down with her. The first-captain tried to acquaint him that the ship was sinking, but the heeling over of the ship had so jammed the doors of the cabin that they could not be opened. One young man was saved, as the vessel filled, by the force of the water rushing upwards, and sweeping him bodily before it through a hatchway. In a few seconds, he found himself floating on the surface of the sea, where he was, later, picked up by a boat. A little child was almost miraculously preserved by a sheep, which swam some time, and with which he had doubtless been playing on deck. He held by the fleece till rescued by a gentleman in a wherry. His father and mother were both drowned, and the poor little fellow did not [pg 61]even know their names; all that he knew was that his own name was Jack. His preserver provided for him.
At this tragic moment, there were almost 1,200 people on board. After accounting for the majority of those on deck, about 230, who mostly survived by climbing the rigging and were later rescued by boats, and perhaps another seventy who managed to escape through the ports, the rest perished. Admiral Kempenfelt, whose flagship it was, was in his cabin writing and had just been shaved by the barber before it sank. The first captain tried to inform him that the ship was going down, but the tilt of the ship had jammed the cabin doors shut. One young man was saved as the vessel filled with water, which rushed upwards and swept him through a hatchway. A few seconds later, he found himself floating on the sea's surface, where he was later picked up by a boat. A little child was nearly saved by a sheep, which swam for a while and with which he had probably been playing on deck. He held onto the fleece until a gentleman in a small boat rescued him. His father and mother both drowned, and the poor little boy didn’t even know their names; all he knew was that his own name was Jack. His rescuer took care of him.
One of the survivors,52 who got through a porthole, looked back and saw the opening “as full of heads as it could cram, all trying to get out. I caught,” said he, “hold of the best bower-anchor, which was just above me, to prevent falling back again into the porthole, and seizing hold of a woman who was trying to get out of the same porthole, I dragged her out.” The same writer says that he saw “all the heads drop back again in at the porthole, for the ship had got so much on her larboard side that the starboard portholes were as upright as if the men had tried to get out of the top of a [pg 62]chimney, with nothing for their legs and feet to act upon.” The sinking of the vessel drew him down to the bottom, but he was enabled afterwards to rise to the surface and swim to one of the great blocks of the ship which had floated off. At the time the ship was sinking, an open barrel of tar stood on deck. When he rose, it was floating on the water like fat, and he got into the middle of it, coming out as black as a negro minstrel!
One of the survivors,52 who made it through a porthole, looked back and saw the opening “filled with people all trying to get out. I made it,” he said, "To grab onto the best bower-anchor, which was just above me, to avoid falling back into the porthole, and grabbing a woman who was trying to escape through the same porthole, I pulled her out." The same writer mentions that he saw "All the heads lean back into the porthole because the ship had tilted so much to her left side that the right portholes were almost vertical, as if the men were trying to climb out of the top of a [pg 62]chimney, with nothing for their legs and feet to push against." The ship sinking pulled him down to the bottom, but he was able later to swim back to the surface and grab onto one of the large pieces of the ship that had floated away. At that time, there was an open barrel of tar on deck. When he emerged, it was floating in the water like fat, and he climbed into the middle of it, coming out completely blackened like a minstrel!
When this man had got on the block he observed the admiral’s baker in the shrouds of the mizentop-mast, which were above water not far off; and directly after, the poor woman whom he had pulled out of the porthole came rolling by. He called out to the baker to reach out his arm and catch her, which was done. She hung, quite insensible, for some time by her chin over one of the ratlines of the shrouds, but a surf soon washed her off again. She was again rescued shortly after, and life was not extinct; she recovered her senses when taken on board our old friend the Victory, then lying with other large ships near the Royal George. The captain of the latter was saved, but the poor carpenter, who did his best to save the ship, was drowned.
When this man reached the deck, he saw the admiral’s baker in the rigging of the mizentop-mast, which was not far above the water; and right after that, the poor woman he had pulled out of the porthole came rolling by. He shouted to the baker to stretch out his arm and catch her, which he did. She hung there, completely unconscious, for a while by her chin over one of the ratlines of the rigging, but a wave soon knocked her off again. She was rescued once more shortly after, and she was still alive; she regained her senses when brought aboard our old friend the Win, which was lying with other large ships near the Royal George. The captain of the latter was saved, but the poor carpenter, who tried his best to save the ship, drowned.
In a few days after the Royal George sank, bodies would come up, thirty or forty at a time. A corpse would rise “so suddenly as to frighten any one.” The watermen, there is no doubt, made a good thing of it; they took from the bodies of the men their buckles, money, and watches, and then made fast a rope to their heels and towed them to land.” The writer of the narrative from which this account is mainly derived says that he “saw them towed into Portsmouth Harbour, in their mutilated condition, in the same manner as rafts of floating timber, and promiscuously (for particularity was scarcely possible) put into carts, which conveyed them to their final sleeping-place, in an excavation prepared for them in Kingstown churchyard, the burial-place belonging to the parish of Portsea.” Many bodies were washed ashore on the Isle of Wight.
In a few days after the Royal George sank, bodies would start appearing, thirty or forty at a time. A corpse would surface "so suddenly that it would scare anyone." The watermen definitely benefited from it; they took the men's buckles, money, and watches, then tied a rope to their heels and dragged them to shore. The writer of the narrative this account is mostly taken from says that he “watched them towed into Portsmouth Harbour, in their damaged state, looking like rafts of floating wood, and haphazardly (since it was difficult to be precise) loaded onto carts, which brought them to their final resting place, in a grave dug for them in Kingstown churchyard, the burial site for the parish of Portsea.” Many bodies also washed up on the Isle of Wight.
Futile attempts were made the following year to raise the wreck, but it was not till 1839-40 that Colonel Pasley proposed, and successfully carried out, the operations for its removal. Wrought-iron cylinders, some of the larger of which contained over a ton each of gunpowder, were lowered and fired by electricity, and the vessel was, by degrees, blown up. Many of the guns, the capstans, and other valuable parts of the wreck were recovered by the divers, and the timbers formed then, and since, a perfect godsend to some of the inhabitants of Portsmouth, who manufactured them into various forms of “relics” of the Royal George. It is said that the sale of these has been so enormous that if they could be collected and stuck together they would form several vessels of the size of the fine old first-rate, large as she was! But something similar has been said of the “wood of the true cross,” and, no doubt, is more than equally libellous.
Futile attempts were made the following year to raise the wreck, but it wasn't until 1839-40 that Colonel Pasley proposed and successfully carried out the operations for its removal. Wrought-iron cylinders, some of which held over a ton each of gunpowder, were lowered and triggered by electricity, and the ship was gradually blown up. Many of the guns, capstans, and other valuable parts of the wreck were recovered by divers, and the timbers became a real blessing for some of the residents of Portsmouth, who transformed them into various types of “relics” of the *Royal George*. It's said that the sales of these relics have been so huge that if they could be collected and put together, they would make several vessels the size of the impressive old first-rate ship, large as she was! But something similar has been claimed about the “wood of the true cross,” and it's probably even more slanderous.
It is said, by those who descended to the wreck, that its appearance was most beautiful, when seen from about a fathom above the deck. It was covered with seaweeds, shells, starfish, and anemones, while from and around its ports and openings the fish, large and small, swam and played—darting, flashing, and sparkling in the clear green water.
It is said by those who explored the wreck that it looked most beautiful from about six feet above the deck. It was covered in seaweed, shells, starfish, and anemones, while fish of all sizes swam and played around its portholes and openings—darting, flashing, and sparkling in the clear green water.
There is probably no reasonable being in or out of the navy who does not believe that the ironclad is the war-vessel of the immediate future. But that a woeful amount of [pg 63]uncertainty, as thick as the fog in which the Vanguard went down, envelops the subject in many ways, is most certain. The circumstances connected with that great disaster are still in the memory of the public, and were simple and distinct enough. During the last week of August, 1875, the reserve squadron of the Channel Fleet, comprising the Warrior, Achilles, Hector, Iron Duke, and Vanguard, with Vice-Admiral Sir W. Tarleton’s yacht Hawk, had been stationed at Kingstown. At half-past ten on the morning of the 1st of September they got into line for the purpose of proceeding to Queenstown, Cork. Off the Irish lightship, which floats at sea, six miles off Kingstown, the Achilles hoisted her ensign to say farewell—her destination being Liverpool. The sea was moderate, but a fog came on and increased in density every moment. Half an hour after noon, the “look-out” could not distinguish fifty yards ahead, and the officers on the bridge could not see the bowsprit. The ships had been proceeding at the rate of twelve or fourteen knots, but their speed had been reduced when the fog came on, and they were running at not more than half the former speed. The Vanguard watch reported a sail ahead, and the helm was put hard aport to prevent running it down. The Iron Duke was then following close in the wake of the Vanguard, and the action of the latter simply brought them closer, and presented a broadside to the former, which, unaware of any change, had continued her course. The commander of the Iron Duke, Captain Hickley, who was on the bridge at the time, saw the spectre form of the Vanguard through the fog, and ordered his engines to be reversed, but it was too late. The ram of the Iron Duke struck the Vanguard below the armour-plates, on the port side, abreast of the engine-room. The rent made was very large—amounting, as the divers afterwards found, to four feet in width—and the water poured into the hold in torrents. It might be only a matter of minutes before she should go down.53
There’s probably no reasonable person, whether in the navy or not, who doesn’t think the ironclad is the warship of the near future. However, there’s a troubling amount of uncertainty surrounding the topic, as thick as the fog in which the Vanguard sank. The details of that great disaster are still fresh in the public's mind and were straightforward enough. During the last week of August 1875, the reserve squadron of the Channel Fleet, consisting of the Fighter, Achilles, Hector, Iron Duke, and Vanguard, along with Vice-Admiral Sir W. Tarleton’s yacht Hawk, had been stationed at Kingstown. At 10:30 in the morning on September 1st, they fell into line to head toward Queenstown, Cork. Near the Irish lightship, which floats six miles offshore from Kingstown, the Achilles raised her flag to say goodbye while heading to Liverpool. The sea was moderate, but a fog rolled in and thickened rapidly. Half an hour after noon, the lookout couldn’t see more than fifty yards ahead, and the officers on the bridge couldn’t even see the bowsprit. The ships had been moving at twelve to fourteen knots, but their speed was cut in half due to the fog. The Vanguard watch reported a sail ahead, and they turned hard to port to avoid a collision. The Iron Duke was closely following the Vanguard, and the maneuver simply brought them closer together, presenting a broadside to the Iron Duke, which was unaware of any change in the situation. Captain Hickley, the commander of the Iron Duke, who was on the bridge at the time, saw the vague shape of the Vanguard through the fog and ordered his engines to reverse, but it was too late. The ram of the Iron Duke hit the Vanguard below the armor on the port side, right by the engine room. The gash was enormous—divers later discovered it was four feet wide—and water rushed into the hold in torrents. It was only a matter of minutes before she would sink.53
The vessel was doomed; a very brief examination proved that: nothing remained but to save the lives of those on board. Captain Dawkins gave the necessary orders with a coolness which did not represent, doubtless, the conflicting feelings within his breast. The officers ably seconded him, and the crew behaved magnificently. One of the mechanics went below in the engine-room to let off the steam, and so prevent an explosion, at the imminent risk of his life. The water rose quickly in the after-part, and rushed into the engine and boiler rooms, eventually finding its way into the provision-room flat, through imperfectly fastened (so-called) “water-tight” doors, and gradually over the whole ship. There was no time to be lost. Captain Dawkins called out to his men [pg 65]that if they preserved order all would be saved. The men stood as at an inspection—not one moved until ordered to do so. The boats of both ships were lowered. While the launching was going on, the swell of the tide caused a lifeboat to surge against the hull, and one of the crew had his finger crushed. This was absolutely the only casualty. In twenty minutes the whole of the men were transferred to the Iron Duke, no single breach of discipline occurring beyond the understandable request of a sailor once in awhile to be allowed to make one effort to secure some keepsake or article of special value to himself. But the order was stern: “Boys, come instantly.” As “four bells” (2 p.m.) was striking, the last man having been received on the Iron Duke, the doomed vessel whirled round two or three times, and then sank in deep water.54
The ship was doomed; a quick look confirmed that: all that was left was to save the lives of those on board. Captain Dawkins gave the necessary orders with a calmness that likely didn't reflect the turmoil inside him. The officers supported him well, and the crew acted heroically. One mechanic went down into the engine room to release the steam and prevent an explosion, risking his life. Water quickly rose in the back, flooding the engine and boiler rooms, eventually seeping into the provisions area through poorly secured so-called "waterproof" doors, and gradually spreading throughout the ship. There was no time to waste. Captain Dawkins shouted to his men [pg 65] that if they stayed calm, everyone would be saved. The men stood as if at a drill—not one moved until told to do so. The lifeboats of both ships were lowered. During the launch, a wave caused a lifeboat to slam against the side of the ship, and one crew member had his finger crushed. This was the only injury. In twenty minutes, all the men were safely on the Iron Duke, with no significant breaches of order, aside from the occasional sailor asking for a chance to grab a keepsake or something of personal value. But the command was firm: “Boys, come here right now.” As "4 bells" (2 p.m.) rang out, the last man was on the Iron Duke, and the doomed ship spun around a few times before sinking into deep water.
It is obvious, then, that the discipline and courage of the service had not deteriorated from that always expected in the good old days. Captain Dawkins was the last man to leave his sinking ship, and his officers one and all behaved in the same spirit. They endeavoured to quiet and reassure the men—pointing out to them the fatal consequences of confusion. Captain Dawkins may or may not have been rightly censured for his seamanship; there can be no doubt that he performed his duty nobly in these systematic efforts to save his crew. However much was lost to the nation, no mother had to mourn the loss of her sailor-boy; no wife had been made a widow, no child an orphan; five hundred men had been saved to their country.
It’s clear that the discipline and bravery of the crew hadn’t declined from what was always expected in the past. Captain Dawkins was the last to abandon his sinking ship, and all his officers showed the same spirit. They worked to calm and reassure the men, highlighting the dire consequences of panic. Whether Captain Dawkins deserved criticism for his navigation is debatable, but there’s no doubt he acted honorably in his determined efforts to save his crew. Even with the losses to the nation, no mother had to grieve for her sailor son; no wife became a widow, and no child was left an orphan; five hundred men were saved for their country.
One of the officers of the Vanguard, in a letter to a friend, graphically described the scene at and after the collision. After having lunched, he entered the ward-room, where he encountered the surgeon, Dr. Fisher, who was reading a newspaper. “After remarking on the thickness of the fog, Fisher went to look out of one of the ports, and immediately cried out, ‘God help us! here is a ship right into us!’ We rushed on deck, and at that moment the Iron Duke struck us with fearful force, spars and blocks falling about, and causing great danger to us on deck. The Iron Duke then dropped astern, and was lost sight of in the fog. The water came into the engine-room in tons, stopping the engines, putting the fires out, and nearly drowning the engineers and stokers.... The ship was now reported sinking fast, although all the water-tight compartments had been closed. But in consequence of the shock, some of the water-tight doors leaked fearfully, letting water into the other parts of the ship. Minute-guns were being fired, and the boats were got out.... At this moment the Iron Duke appeared, lowering her boats and sending them as fast as possible. The sight of her cheered us up, as we had been frightened that she would not find us in the fog, in spite of the guns. The scene on deck can only be realised by those who have witnessed a similar calamity. The booming of the minute-guns, the noise of the immense volume of steam rushing out of the escape-funnel, and the orders of the captain, were strangely mingled, while a voice from a boat reported how fast she was sinking.”
One of the officers of the Vanguard, in a letter to a friend, vividly described the situation during and after the collision. After having lunch, he went into the ward-room, where he met the surgeon, Dr. Fisher, who was reading a newspaper. After commenting on how thick the fog was, Fisher looked out one of the ports and immediately shouted, ‘God help us! There’s a ship coming right at us!’ We rushed on deck, and in that moment, the Iron Duke collided with us with incredible force, causing spars and blocks to fall around us, creating great danger for those of us on deck. The Iron Duke then moved behind us and vanished into the fog. Water poured into the engine room, stopping the engines, extinguishing the fires, and nearly drowning the engineers and stokers.... The ship was now reported to be sinking rapidly, even though all the watertight compartments had been sealed. However, due to the shock, some of the watertight doors leaked heavily, allowing water to enter other parts of the ship. Minute-guns were being fired, and lifeboats were launched.... At that moment, the Iron Duke reappeared, lowering her lifeboats and sending them out as quickly as possible. Seeing her lifted our spirits, as we had been worried she wouldn’t find us in the fog, despite the guns. The scene on deck can only be understood by those who have experienced a similar disaster. The sound of the minute-guns, the rush of steam escaping from the funnel, and the captain's orders were all strangely mixed together, while a voice from a lifeboat reported how fast we were sinking.”
When the vessel went down, the deck of the Iron Duke was crowded with men watching the finale of the catastrophe. When she was about to sink, she heeled gradually over until the whole of her enormous size to the keel was above water. Then she gradually sank, righting herself as she went down, stern first, the water being blown from hawse-holes in huge spouts by the force of the air rushing out of the ship. She then disappeared from view. The men were much saddened to see their home go down, carrying everything they possessed. They had been paid that morning, and a large number of them lost their little accumulated earnings. These were, of course, afterwards allowed them by the Admiralty.
When the ship went down, the deck of the Iron Duke was packed with men watching the finale of the disaster. As she was about to sink, she tilted slowly until her massive size was completely above water. Then she sank gradually, righting herself as she went down, stern first, with water shooting out of the hawse-holes in massive jets from the rush of air escaping the ship. She then vanished from sight. The men were deeply saddened to see their home go down with everything they owned. They had just been paid that morning, and many of them lost their small savings. Of course, these were later reimbursed to them by the Admiralty.
The Vanguard and the Iron Duke were two of a class of broadside ironclads, built with a view to general and not special utility in warfare. Their thickest armour was eight inches, a mere strip, 100 feet long by three high, and much of the visible part of them was unarmoured altogether, while below it varied from six inches to as low as three-eighths of an inch. It was only the latter thickness where the point of the Iron Duke’s ram entered. Their advocates boasted that they could pass through the Suez Canal, and go anywhere.
The Vanguard and the Iron Duke were both broadside ironclads designed for general use in warfare rather than any specific purpose. Their thickest armor was eight inches, consisting of a strip that was 100 feet long and three feet high, while much of the visible part was completely unarmored. Below the waterline, the armor varied from six inches down to just three-eighths of an inch. It was only at that last thickness where the Iron Duke’s ram came into play. Supporters claimed these ships could navigate the Suez Canal and reach any destination.
Every reader will remember the stormy discussion which ensued, in which not merely the ironclad question, but the court-martial which followed—and the Admiralty decision which followed that—were severely handled. Nor could there be much wonder at all this, for a vessel which had cost the nation over a quarter of a million of pounds sterling, with equipment and property on board which had cost as much more,55 was lost for ever. [pg 67]It was in vain that the then First Lord of the Admiralty56 told us, in somewhat flippant tones, that we ought to be rather satisfied than otherwise with the occurrence. It was not altogether satisfactory to learn from Mr. Reed, the principal designer of both ships, that ironclads were in more danger in times of peace than in times of war.57 In the former they were residences for several hundred sailors, and many of the water-tight doors could not be kept closed without inconvenience; in the latter they were fortresses, when the doors would be closed for safety. The court-martial, constituted of leading naval authorities and officers, imputed blame for the high rate of speed sustained in a fog; the public naturally inquired why a high rate of speed was necessary at all at the time, but their lordships declined to consider this as in any way contributing to the disaster. The Court expressed its opinion pretty strongly upon the conduct of the officers of the Iron Duke, which did the mischief, and also indirectly blamed the admiral in command of the squadron, but the Admiralty could find nothing wrong in either case, simply visiting their wrath on the unfortunate lieutenant on deck at the time. So, to make a long and very unpleasant story short, the loss of the Vanguard brought about a considerable loss of faith in some of our legally constituted naval authorities.58
Every reader will remember the heated debate that followed, during which not just the ironclad’s fate, but also the court-martial that ensued—and the Admiralty’s decision after that—were scrutinized intensely. There was good reason for all this concern, as a ship that had cost the nation over a quarter of a million pounds, with additional equipment and property worth just as much, was lost permanently. [pg 67] It was pointless for the then First Lord of the Admiralty56 to tell us, in a rather careless manner, that we should be more satisfied than upset by the incident. It wasn’t exactly reassuring to hear from Mr. Reed, the main designer of both ships, that ironclads were at greater risk during peacetime than wartime.57 In peacetime, they served as homes for several hundred sailors, and many of the watertight doors couldn’t be kept closed without causing inconvenience; during wartime, they functioned as fortresses, where the doors would be secured for safety. The court-martial, made up of top naval officials and officers, placed blame on the high speed maintained in foggy conditions; the public naturally wondered why high speed was needed at all then, but the court refused to see this as any contributing factor to the tragedy. The Court strongly criticized the conduct of the officers of the Iron Duke, which caused the disaster, and also indirectly blamed the admiral in charge of the squadron, but the Admiralty found nothing amiss in either case, directing their anger solely at the unfortunate lieutenant on deck at the time. So, to shorten a long and very unpleasant story, the loss of the Vanguard resulted in a significant loss of faith in some of our officially established naval authorities.58
CHAPTER 5.
Perils of the Sailor's Life Below is a short piece of text (5 words or fewer). Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links.continued).
The Value of Discipline—The Loss of the Kent—Fire on Board—The Ship Waterlogged—Death in Two Forms—A Sail in Sight—Transference of Six Hundred Passengers to a small Brig—Splendid Discipline of the Soldiers—Imperturbable Coolness of the Captain—Loss of the Birkenhead—Literally Broken in Two—Noble Conduct of the Military—A contrary Example—Wreck of the Medusa—Run on a Sand-bank—Panic on Board—Raft constructed—Insubordination and Selfishness—One Hundred and Fifty Souls Abandoned—Drunkenness and Mutiny on the Raft—Riots and Murders—Reduced to Thirty Persons—The stronger part Massacre the others—Fifteen Left—Rescued at Last—Another Contrast—Wreck of the Alceste—Admirable Conduct of the Crew—The Ironclad Movement—The Battle of the Guns.
The Importance of Discipline—The Loss of the __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Kent—Fire on Board—The Ship is Waterlogged—Death in Two Forms—A Sail in View—Relocating Six Hundred Passengers to a Small Brig—Impressive Discipline of the Soldiers—Steady Composure of the Captain—Loss of the Birkenhead—Literally Broken in Two—Heroic Actions of the Military—A Different Example—Wreck of the Medusa—Stranded on a Sandbank—Panic on Board—Raft Built—Disobedience and Selfishness—One Hundred and Fifty Lives Lost—Drunkenness and Mutiny on the Raft—Riots and Murders—Reduced to Thirty People—The Stronger Individuals Kill the Others—Fifteen Left—Rescued at Last—Another Contrast—Wreck of the Alceste—Extraordinary Actions of the Crew—The Ironclad Maneuver—The Artillery Battle.
It is impossible to read the account of any great disaster at sea, without being strongly impressed with the enormous value of maintaining in the hour of peril the same strict discipline which, under ordinary circumstances, is the rule of a vessel. Few more striking [pg 68]examples of this are to be found, than in the story of the loss of the Kent, which we are now about to relate. The disaster of the Medusa, which we shall record later, in which complete anarchy and disregard of discipline, aggravated a hundredfold the horrors of the situation, only teaches the same lesson from the opposite point of view. Though the most independent people on the earth, all Englishmen worthy of the name appreciate the value of proper subordination and obedience to those who have rightful authority to command. This was almost the only gratifying feature connected with the loss of the Vanguard, and the safe and rapid transference of the crew to the Iron Duke was due to it. But the circumstances of the case were as nought to some that have preceded it, where the difficulties and risks were infinitely greater and the reward much less certain. The Kent was a fine troop-ship, of 1,530 tons, bound from England for Bengal and China. She had on board 344 soldiers, forty-three women, and sixty-six children. The officers, private passengers, and crew brought the total number on board to 640. After leaving the Downs, on the 19th of February, 1825, she encountered terrible weather, culminating in a gale on the 1st of March, which obliged them almost to sail under bare poles. The narrative59 by Sir Duncan MacGregor, one of the passengers, created an immense sensation at its first appearance, and was translated into almost every language of the civilised world. He states that the rolling of the ship, which was vastly increased by a dead weight of some hundred tons of shot and shells that formed a part of its lading, became so great about half-past eleven or twelve o’clock at night, that the main-chains were thrown by every lurch considerably under water; and the best cleated articles of furniture in the cabin and the cuddy were dashed about in all directions.
It’s hard to read about any major disaster at sea without being really struck by the immense value of maintaining strict discipline during times of danger, just like a ship does in normal circumstances. Few examples illustrate this as well as the story of the loss of the Kent, which we’re about to share. The tragedy of the Medusa, which we’ll discuss later, shows the opposite: complete chaos and a total disregard for discipline made the situation far worse. Even though they are the most independent people on earth, all Englishmen worthy of the name understand the importance of proper subordination and obeying those with the rightful authority to command. This was nearly the only positive aspect related to the loss of the Vanguard, and the quick and safe transfer of the crew to the Iron Duke was thanks to it. But the specifics of this situation were nothing compared to some previous incidents, where the challenges and dangers were much greater and the rewards far less certain. The Kent was a well-built troop ship, weighing 1,530 tons, on its way from England to Bengal and China. Onboard were 344 soldiers, forty-three women, and sixty-six children. When you include the officers, private passengers, and crew, the total number of people was 640. After departing from the Downs on February 19, 1825, the ship faced terrible weather, peaking with a gale on March 1 that forced them to sail almost without sails. The account59 by Sir Duncan MacGregor, one of the passengers, caused a huge sensation when it first came out and was translated into nearly every language in the civilized world. He mentions that the rolling of the ship, greatly intensified by around a hundred tons of shot and shells in its cargo, became so extreme around half-past eleven or midnight that the main-chains were submerged with every lurch, and the best-secured furniture in the cabin and the cuddy was thrown around in all directions.
It was a little before this period that one of the officers of the ship, with the well-meant intention of ascertaining that all was fast below, descended with a lantern. He discovered one of the spirit-casks adrift, and sent two or three sailors for some billets of wood to secure it. While they were absent, he unfortunately dropped the lamp, and letting go his hold of the cask in his eagerness to recover it, the former suddenly stove, and the spirits communicating with the light, the whole deck at that part was speedily in a blaze. The fire spread rapidly, and all their efforts at extinguishing it were vain, although bucket after bucket of water, wet sails and hammocks, were immediately applied. The smoke began to ascend the hatchway, and although every effort was made to keep the passengers in ignorance, the terrible news soon spread that the ship was on fire. As long as the devouring element appeared to be confined to the spot where the fire originated, and which they were assured was surrounded on all sides with water-casks, there was some hope that it might be subdued; but soon the light-blue vapour that at first arose was succeeded by volumes of thick, dingy smoke, which ascended through all the hatchways and rolled over the ship. A thorough panic took possession of most on board.
It was shortly before this time that one of the ship's officers, trying to make sure everything was secure below deck, went down with a lantern. He found one of the spirit casks floating around and sent a few sailors to get some pieces of wood to tie it down. While they were gone, he accidentally dropped the lamp, and in his haste to pick it up, he lost grip of the cask. The cask then burst open, and when the spirits ignited from the light, the whole area of the deck was quickly in flames. The fire spread rapidly, and despite their attempts to put it out by throwing bucket after bucket of water and soaking sails and hammocks, nothing worked. Smoke started filling the hatchway, and though they tried to keep the passengers unaware, the frightening news that the ship was on fire quickly spread. As long as the raging fire seemed contained to the area where it started, which they were told was surrounded by water casks, there was still some hope it could be controlled. But soon, the light blue smoke that initially rose was replaced by thick, dark smoke, which poured through all the hatchways and rolled over the ship. A deep panic took hold of most people on board.
The deck was covered with six hundred men, women, and children, many almost frantic with excitement—wives seeking their husbands, children their mothers; strong men appearing as though their reason was overthrown, weak men maudlin and weeping; many good people on their knees in earnest prayer. Some of the older and more stout-hearted soldiers and [pg 69]sailors sullenly took their seats directly over the powder-magazine, expecting momentarily that it would explode and put them out of their misery. A strong pitchy smell suddenly wafted over the ship. “The flames have reached the cable-tier!” exclaimed one; and it was found to be too true. The fire had now extended so far, that there was but one course to pursue: the lower decks must be swamped. Captain Cobb, the commander of the Kent, was a man of action, and, with an ability and decision that seemed only to increase with the imminence of the danger, ordered the lower decks to be scuttled, the coverings of the hatches removed, and the lower ports opened to the free admission of the waves. His instructions were speedily obeyed, the soldiers aiding the crew. The fury of the flames was, of course, checked; but several sick soldiers and children, and one woman, unable to gain the upper deck, were drowned, and others suffocated. As the risk of explosion somewhat diminished, a new horror arose. The ship became water-logged, and presented indications of settling down. Death in two forms stared them in the face.
The deck was covered with six hundred men, women, and children, many almost frantic with excitement—wives searching for their husbands, children looking for their mothers; strong men seeming like they’d lost their minds, weak men emotional and crying; many good people on their knees in earnest prayer. Some of the older and braver soldiers and [pg 69]sailors sullenly took their seats right over the powder magazine, expecting any moment that it would explode and end their suffering. A strong, pitchy smell suddenly wafted over the ship. "The flames have reached the cable tier!" one exclaimed, and it turned out to be true. The fire had spread so far that there was only one option: the lower decks had to be flooded. Captain Cobb, the commander of the Kent, was a man of action, and with a skill and determination that seemed to grow with the danger, ordered the lower decks to be scuttled, the hatch coverings removed, and the lower ports opened to let the waves in. His orders were quickly followed, with the soldiers helping the crew. The flames' fury was, of course, contained; but several ill soldiers and children, along with one woman, who couldn’t reach the upper deck, drowned, and others suffocated. As the risk of explosion lessened, a new horror emerged. The ship became waterlogged and showed signs of sinking. Death in two forms stared them in the face.
No sail had been seen for many days, the vessel being somewhat out of the regular course. But, although it seemed hopeless, a man was sent up to the foretop to scan the horizon. How many anxious eyes were turned up to him, how many anxious hearts beat at that moment, can well be understood. The sailor threw his eyes rapidly over the waste of howling waters, and instantly waved his hat, exclaiming, in a voice hoarse with emotion, “A sail on the lee bow!” Flags of distress were soon hoisted, minute-guns fired, and an attempt made to bear down on the welcome stranger, which for some time did not notice them. But at last it seemed probable, by her slackening sail and altering her course, that the Kent had been seen. Hope revived on board; but there were still three painful problems to be solved. The vessel in the distance was but a small brig: could she take over six hundred persons on board? Could they be transferred during a terrible gale and heavy sea, likely enough to swamp all the boats? Might not the Kent either blow up or speedily founder, before even one soul were saved?
No sail had been seen for many days, as the ship was somewhat off the regular course. But, even though it seemed hopeless, a man was sent up to the foretop to scan the horizon. It’s easy to imagine how many anxious eyes were focused on him and how many hearts were racing at that moment. The sailor quickly surveyed the endless expanse of roaring waters and then waved his hat, shouting in a voice thick with emotion, "A sail on the leeward side!" Distress flags were quickly raised, minute-guns fired, and they tried to steer towards the welcome sight, which for some time didn’t seem to notice them. But finally, it looked likely that the Kent had been spotted, as the distant vessel slowed its sails and changed course. Hope surged on board; however, there were still three painful questions to answer. The distant vessel was just a small brig: could it take over six hundred people on board? Could they be moved during a fierce storm and rough seas, which could easily swamp all the boats? And what if the Kent either blew up or sank quickly before even one person could be saved?
The vessel proved to be the Cambria, a brig bound to Vera Cruz, with a number of miners on board. For fifteen minutes it had been very doubtful to all on the Kent whether their signals of distress—and the smoke issuing from the hatchways formed no small item among them—were seen, or the minute-guns heard. But at length it became obvious that the brig was making for them, and preparations were made to clear and lower the boats of the East Indiaman. “Although,” says Sir Duncan MacGregor, “it was impossible, and would have been improper, to repress the rising hopes that were pretty generally diffused amongst us by the unexpected sight of the Cambria, yet I confess, that when I reflected on the long period our ship had been already burning—on the tremendous sea that was running—on the extreme smallness of the brig, and the immense number of human beings to be saved—I could only venture to hope that a few might be spared.” When the military officers were consulting together, as the brig was approaching, on the requisite preparations for getting out the boats, and other necessary courses of action, one of the officers asked Major MacGregor in what order it was intended the officers should move off, to which he replied, “Of course, in funeral order,” which injunction was instantly confirmed by Colonel Fearon, who said, “Most undoubtedly—the juniors first; but see that any man is cut down who presumes [pg 70]to enter the boats before the means of escape are presented to the women and children.” To prevent any rush of troops or sailors to the boats, the officers were stationed near them with drawn swords. But, to do the soldiers and seamen justice, it was little needed; the former particularly keeping perfect order, and assisting to save the ladies and children and private passengers generally. Some of the women and children were placed in the first boat, which was immediately lowered into a sea so tempestuous that there was great danger that it would be swamped, while the lowering-tackle not being properly disengaged at the stern, there was a great prospect for a few moments that its living freight would be upset in the water. A sailor, however, succeeded in cutting the ropes with an axe, and the first boat got off safely.
The ship turned out to be the Cambria, a brig heading to Vera Cruz, carrying a group of miners. For fifteen minutes, everyone on the Kent was uncertain whether their distress signals—and the smoke coming from the hatchways—were visible or if the minute guns were heard. But eventually, it became clear that the brig was approaching, and preparations were made to clear and lower the boats from the East Indiaman. “Even though,” said Sir Duncan MacGregor, "It was impossible, and it would have felt wrong, to ignore the growing hopes that were spreading among us at the unexpected sight of the Cambria. However, I have to admit that when I thought about how long our ship had been on fire—about the huge waves we were facing—about the small size of the brig and the large number of people who needed saving—I could only hope that a few might be rescued." When the military officers gathered to discuss the necessary preparations for launching the boats as the brig got closer, one of the officers asked Major MacGregor how the officers were supposed to board, to which he replied, “Of course, in funeral style,” an instruction that Colonel Fearon immediately confirmed, saying, "Definitely—the juniors go first; but make sure anyone who tries to board the boats before the women and children have a chance is handled." To prevent any rush from the troops or sailors towards the boats, the officers stood by with drawn swords. However, to be fair to the soldiers and sailors, it was largely unnecessary; especially the soldiers maintained perfect order and assisted in getting the women and children and other passengers off. Some of the women and children were placed in the first boat, which was quickly lowered into such a rough sea that there was a real risk of it capsizing, and since the lowering tackle wasn't properly released at the back, there was a strong chance for a few moments that its living cargo would end up in the water. A sailor, though, managed to cut the ropes with an axe, and the first boat got away safely.
The Cambria had been intentionally lain at some distance from the Kent, lest she should be involved in her explosion, or exposed to the fire from the guns, which, being all shotted, went off as the flames reached them. The men had a considerable distance to row, and the success of the first experiment was naturally looked upon as the measure of their future hopes. The movements of this boat were watched with intense anxiety by all on board. “The better to balance the boat in the raging sea through which it had to pass, and to enable the seamen to ply their oars, the women and children were stowed promiscuously under the seats, and consequently exposed to the risk of being drowned by the continual dashing of the spray over their heads, which so filled the boat during the passage that before their arrival at the brig the poor females were sitting up to their waists in water, and their children kept with the greatest difficulty above it.” Happily, at the expiration of twenty minutes, the cutter was seen alongside their ark of refuge. The next difficulty was to get the ladies and children on board the Cambria, for the sea was running high, and there was danger of the boat being swamped or stove against the side of the brig. The children were almost thrown on board, while the women had to spring towards the many friendly arms extended from the vessel, when the waves lifted the boat momentarily in the right position. However, all were safely transferred to the brig without serious mishap.
The Cambria had been deliberately positioned some distance from the Kent to avoid being caught in its explosion or exposed to the gunfire, which, once ignited, would fire with the flames. The crew had a long distance to row, and the success of the first attempt was naturally seen as a gauge for their future prospects. Everyone on board watched the movements of this boat with great anxiety. “To better stabilize the boat in the rough seas it had to navigate and to assist the sailors in rowing, the women and children were crowded under the seats, making them vulnerable to the risk of drowning from the constant spray hitting their heads. By the time they reached the brig, the unfortunate women were sitting in water up to their waists, fighting to keep their children above it.” Fortunately, after twenty minutes, the cutter was spotted next to their sanctuary. The next challenge was getting the ladies and children on board the Cambria, as the sea was rough, and there was a risk of the boat capsizing or smashing against the side of the brig. The children were nearly tossed aboard, while the women had to leap towards the many outstretched arms from the ship when the waves lifted the boat momentarily into the right position. Fortunately, everyone was safely transferred to the brig without serious incident.
It became impossible for the boats, after the first trip, to come alongside the Kent, and a plan was adopted for lowering the women and children from the stern by tying them two and two together. The heaving of the vessel, and the heavy sea raising the boat one instant and dropping it the next, rendered this somewhat perilous. Many of the poor women were plunged several times in the water before they succeeded in landing safely in the boat, and many young children died from the effects—“the same violent means which only reduced the parents to a state of exhaustion or insensibility,” having entirely quenched the vital spark in their feeble frames. One fine fellow, a soldier, who had neither wife nor child of his own, but who showed great solicitude for the safety of others, insisted on having three children lashed to him, with whom he plunged into the water to reach the boat more quickly. He swam well, but could not get near the boat; and when he was eventually drawn on board again, two of the children were dead. One man fell down the hatchway into the flames; another had his back broken, and was observed, quite doubled, falling overboard; a third fell between the boat and brig, and his head was literally crushed to pieces; others were lost in their attempts to ascend the [pg 71]sides of the Cambria; and others, again, were drowned in their hurry to get on board the boats.
It became impossible for the boats, after the first trip, to come alongside the Kent, so they decided to lower the women and children from the stern by tying them two by two. The swaying of the vessel and the heavy sea raising the boat one moment and dropping it the next made this quite dangerous. Many of the poor women were submerged several times in the water before they managed to get safely into the boat, and many young children died from this—“the same violent methods that only left the parents exhausted or unresponsive,” completely extinguishing the fragile life in their weak bodies. One brave soldier, who had neither wife nor child, but who was very concerned for the safety of others, insisted on having three children tied to him as he jumped into the water to reach the boat faster. He was a good swimmer but couldn't get close to the boat; when he was finally pulled back on board, two of the children had died. One man fell down the hatch into the flames; another broke his back and was seen, completely bent, falling overboard; a third fell between the boat and the brig, and his head was literally crushed; others were lost while trying to climb the [pg 71]sides of the Cambria; and still more drowned in their rush to get on board the boats.
One of the sailors, who had, with many others, taken his post over the magazine, at last cried out, almost in ill-humour, “Well! if she won’t blow up, I’ll see if I can’t get away from her.” He was saved—and must have felt quite disappointed. One of the three boats, swamped or stove during the day, had on board a number of men who had been robbing the cabins during the confusion on board. “It is suspected that one or two of those who went down, must have sunk beneath the weight of their spoils.”
One of the sailors, who, along with many others, had taken his position over the magazine, finally shouted out, almost testily, "Well! If she won't freak out, I'll try to get away from her." He was saved—and must have felt pretty let down. One of the three boats, which had either capsized or been damaged during the day, had some guys on board who had been looting the cabins during the chaos on the ship. “It’s believed that one or two of those who went down must have drowned under the weight of their stolen goods.”
As there was so much doubt as to how soon the vessel would explode or go down, while the process of transference between the vessels occupied three-quarters of an hour each trip, and other delays were caused by timid passengers and ladies who were naturally loath to be separated from their husbands, they determined on a quicker mode of placing them in the boat. A rope was suspended from the end of the spanker-boom, along the slippery top of which the passengers had either to walk, crawl, or be carried. The reader need not be told that this great boom or spar stretches out from the mizen-mast far over the stern in a vessel the size of the Kent. On ordinary occasions, in quiet weather, it would be fifteen or twenty feet above the water, but with the vessel pitching and tossing during the continuous storm, it was raised often as much as forty feet in the air. It will be seen that, under these circumstances, with the boat at the stern now swept to some distance in the hollow of a wave, and now raised high on its crest, the lowering of oneself by the rope, to drop at the right moment, was a perilous operation. It was a common thing for strong men to reach the boat in a state of utter exhaustion, having been several times immersed in the waves and half drowned. But there were many strong and willing hands among the soldiers and sailors ready to help the weak and fearful ones, and the transference went on with fair rapidity, though with every now and again some sad casualty to record. The coolness and determination of the officers, military and marine, the good order and subordination of most of the troops, and the bravery of many in risking their lives for others, seems at this time to have restored some little confidence among the timid and shrinking on board. A little later, and the declining rays and fiery glow on the waves indicated that the sun was setting. One can well understand the feeling of many on board as they witnessed its disappearance and the approach of darkness. Were their lives also to set in outer gloom—the ocean to be that night their grave?
As there was so much uncertainty about when the ship would explode or sink, and since transferring people between the vessels took three-quarters of an hour each trip, coupled with delays caused by nervous passengers and ladies who were understandably reluctant to be separated from their husbands, they decided on a faster way to get everyone into the boat. A rope was hung from the end of the spanker-boom, along which passengers had to walk, crawl, or be carried over the slippery surface. The reader should note that this large boom or spar extends from the mizen-mast far over the stern in a vessel the size of the Kent. Normally, in calm weather, it would be fifteen or twenty feet above the water, but with the ship pitching and tossing during the relentless storm, it was sometimes lifted as high as forty feet into the air. Under these conditions, with the boat at the stern now being swept far away in the trough of a wave and then lifted high on its crest, lowering oneself by the rope to drop at the right moment was dangerous. It was common for strong men to reach the boat utterly exhausted, having been submerged in the waves several times and half-drowned. However, many strong and willing hands among the soldiers and sailors were ready to assist the weak and fearful, and the transfer proceeded fairly quickly, though there were occasional tragic incidents to report. The calmness and determination of the officers, both military and naval, the good order and discipline of most of the troops, and the bravery of many in risking their lives for others seemed to have restored some measure of confidence among those who were frightened and hesitant on board. A little later, as the fading light and fiery glow on the waves indicated that the sun was setting, one could easily understand the feelings of many on board as they observed its disappearance and the coming darkness. Would their lives also end in the outside gloom—the ocean becoming their grave that night?
Late at night Major MacGregor went down to his cabin in search of a blanket to shelter him from the increasing cold. “The scene of desolation that there presented itself was melancholy in the extreme. The place which, only a few short hours before, had been the scene of kindly intercourse and of social gaiety, was now entirely deserted, save by a few miserable wretches who were either stretched in irrecoverable intoxication on the floor, or prowling about, like beasts of prey, in search of plunder. The sofas, drawers, and other articles of furniture, the due arrangement of which had cost so much thought and pains, were now broken into a thousand pieces, and scattered in confusion around.... Some of the geese and other poultry, escaped from their confinement, were cackling in the cuddy; while a solitary pig, wandering from its sty in the forecastle, was ranging at large in undisturbed possession of the Brussels carpet.”
Late at night Major MacGregor went down to his cabin looking for a blanket to protect him from the growing cold. The scene of emptiness in front of him was incredibly sad. The place that, just a few hours earlier, had been filled with friendly conversations and social fun was now completely deserted, except for a few miserable people either passed out on the floor or wandering around like predators looking for something to steal. The sofas, drawers, and other pieces of furniture, which had taken so much thought and effort to arrange, were now in a thousand broken pieces, scattered chaotically around the room.... Some of the geese and other poultry, having escaped from their cages, were cackling in the pantry, while a lone pig, wandering away from its pen in the forecastle, was roaming freely on the Brussels carpet.
It is highly to the credit of the officers, more especially to those who had deck-cabins, from which it would be easy to remove many portable articles, and even trunks and boxes, that they entirely devoted their time and energies to saving life. They left the ship simply with the clothes they stood in, and were the last to leave it, except, of course, where subordinate officers were detailed to look after portions of the troops. Captain Cobb, in his resolution to be the last to leave the ship, tried all he could to urge the few remaining persons on board to drop on the ropes and save themselves. But finding all his entreaties fruitless, and hearing the guns successively explode in the hold, into which they had fallen, he at length, after doing all in his power to save them, got himself into the boat by “laying hold of the topping-lift, or rope that connects the driver-boom with the mizen-top, thereby getting over the heads of the infatuated men who occupied the boom, unable to go either backward or forward, and ultimately dropping himself into the water.” One of the boats persevered in keeping its station under the Kent’s stern, until the flames were bursting out of the cabin windows. The larger part of the poor wretches left on board were saved: when the vessel exploded, they sought shelter in the chains, where they stood till the masts fell overboard, to which they then clung for some hours. Ultimately, they were rescued by Captain Bibbey, of the Caroline, a vessel bound from Egypt to Liverpool, [pg 74]who happened to see the explosion at a great distance, and instantly made all sail in the direction whence it proceeded, afterwards cruising about for some time to pick up any survivors.
It’s a huge credit to the officers, especially those with deck cabins, who easily could have grabbed many portable items and even trunks and boxes, that they completely dedicated their time and energy to saving lives. They left the ship with only the clothes on their backs and were the last to abandon it, except for those subordinate officers assigned to look after parts of the troops. Captain Cobb, determined to be the last to leave the ship, did everything he could to urge the few remaining people on board to drop down the ropes and save themselves. But after realizing that all his pleas were in vain and hearing the guns explode in the hold below, he finally, after exhausting all his options to save them, got himself into the boat by "grabbing the topping-lift, the rope that connects the main boom with the mizzen top, he got over the heads of the foolish men who were on the boom, unable to move backward or forward, and eventually dropped himself into the water." One of the boats continued to stay under the Kent's stern until flames were bursting out of the cabin windows. Most of the poor souls left on board were saved: when the vessel exploded, they found refuge in the chains, where they stayed until the masts fell overboard, and then they clung to them for several hours. Eventually, they were rescued by Captain Bibbey of the Caroline, a ship sailing from Egypt to Liverpool, [pg 74]who happened to see the explosion from a distance and immediately set sail in that direction, cruising around for a while to pick up any survivors.
After the arrival of the last boat at the Cambria, “the flames, which had spread along the upper deck and poop, ascended with the rapidity of lightning to the masts and rigging, forming one general conflagration, that illumined the heavens to an immense distance, and was strongly reflected on several objects on board the brig. The flags of distress, hoisted in the morning, were seen for a considerable time waving amid the flames, until the masts to which they were suspended successively fell, like stately steeples, over the ship’s side.” At last, about half-past one o’clock in the morning, the devouring element having communicated to the magazine, the explosion was seen, and the blazing fragments of the once magnificent Kent were instantly hurled, like so many rockets, high into the air; leaving, in the comparative darkness that succeeded, “the deathful scene of that disastrous day floating before the mind like some feverish dream.”
After the last boat arrived at the Cambria, "The flames, which had spread across the upper deck and poop, quickly surged up to the masts and rigging, creating a huge fire that lit up the sky for miles and was brightly reflected on various objects on board the brig. The distress flags, raised in the morning, could be seen waving among the flames for a while, until the masts they were hanging from eventually fell, like graceful steeples, over the side of the ship." Finally, around half-past one in the morning, the raging fire reached the magazine, and an explosion was seen, sending the burning remnants of the once grand Kent soaring into the air, like rockets; leaving, in the relative darkness that followed, "the haunting scene of that tragic day stuck in the mind like a disturbing dream."
The scene on board the brig beggared description. The captain, who bore the honoured name of Cook, and his crew of eight, did all that was in their power to alleviate the miseries of the six hundred persons added to their number; while they carried sail, even to the extent of danger, in order to make nine or ten knots to the nearest port. The Cornish miners and Yorkshire smelters on board gave up their beds and clothes and stores to the passengers; and it was extremely fortunate that the brig was on her outward voyage, for, had she been returning, she would not, in all probability, have had provisions enough to feed six hundred persons for a single day. But at the best their condition was miserable. In the cabin, intended for eight or ten, eighty were packed, many nearly in a nude condition, and many of the poor women not having space to lie down.
The scene on board the brig was beyond description. The captain, who proudly carried the name Cook, and his crew of eight did everything they could to ease the suffering of the six hundred people added to their number, while they sailed dangerously fast to reach the nearest port at nine or ten knots. The Cornish miners and Yorkshire smelters on board gave up their beds, clothes, and supplies to help the passengers. It was incredibly fortunate that the brig was on its way out, because if it had been returning, it probably wouldn't have had enough provisions to feed six hundred people for even a single day. But even so, their situation was dreadful. In the cabin, designed for eight or ten, eighty were crammed in, many almost completely undressed, and many of the poor women had no space to lie down.
The gale increased; but still they crowded all sail—even at the risk of carrying away the masts—and at length the welcome cry of “Land ahead!” was reported from mouth to mouth. They were off the Scilly lights, and speedily afterwards reached Falmouth, where the inhabitants vied with each other in providing clothing and food and money for all who needed them.
The wind picked up; yet they still raised all their sails—even at the risk of breaking the masts—and eventually the joyful shout of "Land ho!" spread from person to person. They were by the Scilly lights, and soon after arrived in Falmouth, where the locals competed to provide clothing, food, and money for everyone in need.
The total loss from the Kent was eighty-one souls; namely, fifty-four soldiers, one woman, twenty children, one seaman, and five boys of the crew. How much greater might it not have been but for the imperturbable coolness, the commanding abilities, and the persevering and prompt action of Captain Cobb, and the admirable discipline and subordination of the troops!
The total loss from the Kent was eighty-one lives; specifically, fifty-four soldiers, one woman, twenty children, one seaman, and five crew boys. Just think how much worse it could have been if not for the steady composure, leadership skills, and quick and determined actions of Captain Cobb, along with the excellent discipline and teamwork of the troops!
Another remarkable instance of the same thing is to be found in the case of the Birkenhead, where there were desperate odds against any one surviving. The ship was a war-steamer, conveying troops from St. Simon’s Bay to Algoa Bay, Cape Colony, and had, with crew, a total complement of 638 souls on board. She struck on a reef, when steaming at the rate of eight and a half knots, and almost immediately became a total wreck. The rock penetrated her bottom, just aft of the fore-mast, and the rush of water was so great that most of the men on the lower troop-deck were drowned in their hammocks. The commanding officer, Major Seton, called his subordinate officers about him, and impressed upon them the necessity of preserving order and perfect discipline among the men, and of assisting the commander of the ship [pg 75]in everything possible. Sixty soldiers were immediately detailed for the pumps, in three reliefs; sixty more to hold on the tackles of the paddle-box boats, and the remainder were brought on the poop, so as to ease the fore-part of the ship, which was rolling heavily. The commander of the ship ordered the horses to be pitched out of the first-gangway, and the cutter to be got ready for the women and children, who were safely put on board. Just after they were out of the ship, the entire bow broke off at the fore-mast, and the funnel went over the side, carrying away the starboard paddle-box and boat. The other paddle-box boat capsized when being lowered, and their largest boat, in the centre of the ship, could not be got at, so encumbered was it. Five minutes later, the vessel actually “broke in two,” literally realising Falconer’s lines:—
Another notable example of the same occurrence can be found in the case of the Birkenhead, where survival seemed nearly impossible. The ship was a war steamer transporting troops from St. Simon's Bay to Algoa Bay, Cape Colony, and had a total of 638 people on board, including the crew. It struck a reef while traveling at eight and a half knots and quickly became a total wreck. The rock breached the bottom of the ship just behind the foremast, and the influx of water was so extensive that most of the men on the lower troop deck drowned in their hammocks. The commanding officer, Major Seton, gathered his subordinate officers and emphasized the importance of maintaining order and strict discipline among the men and assisting the ship's commander [pg 75]in every possible way. Sixty soldiers were immediately assigned to operate the pumps in three shifts; another sixty were tasked with handling the tackle of the paddle-box boats, while the remaining soldiers were brought to the poop to help balance the heavily rolling front of the ship. The ship's commander ordered the horses to be thrown overboard from the first gangway and prepared the cutter for the women and children, who were safely evacuated aboard it. Right after they left the ship, the entire bow broke off at the foremast, and the funnel toppled over the side, taking the starboard paddle-box and boat with it. The other paddle-box boat capsized while being lowered, and the largest boat in the center of the ship was inaccessible due to the debris. Five minutes later, the vessel actually “snapped in two,” perfectly illustrating Falconer's lines:—
“She parted just abaft the engine-room, and the stern part immediately filled and went down. A few men jumped off just before she did so; but the greater number remained to the last, and so did every officer belonging to the troops.” A number of the soldiers were crushed to death when the funnel fell, and few of those at the pumps could reach the deck before the vessel broke up. The survivors clung, some to the rigging of the main-mast, part of which was out of water, and others to floating pieces of wood. When the Birkenhead divided into two pieces, the commander of the ship called out, “All those who can swim, jump overboard and make for the boats!” Two of the military officers earnestly besought their men not to do so, as, in that case, the boats with the women must be swamped; and, to the honour of the soldiers, only three made the attempt.
“She broke apart just behind the engine room, and the back section quickly filled with water and sank. A few men jumped off just before it happened; however, most of them stayed until the end, along with every officer from the troops.” Many soldiers were crushed when the funnel collapsed, and only a few at the pumps made it to the deck before the ship broke apart. The survivors held on, some to the main mast's rigging, which was still above water, and others to floating pieces of wood. When the Birkenhead split into two, the ship's commander shouted, "Everyone who can swim, jump overboard and swim to the boats!" Two of the military officers urgently urged their men not to do that, as it would swamp the boats with the women on board; to the soldiers' credit, only three tried to jump.
The struggles of a part of them to reach the shore, the weary tramp through a country covered with thick thorny bushes, before they could reach any farm or settlement; the sufferings of thirty or more poor fellows who were clinging, in a state of utter exhaustion, cold, and wretchedness, to the main-topmast and topsail-yard of the submerged vessel, before they were rescued by a passing schooner, have often been told. The conduct of the troops was perfect; and it is questionable whether there is any other instance of such thorough discipline at a time of almost utter hopelessness. The loss of life was enormous, only 192 out of 638 being saved. Had there been any panic, or mutiny, not even that small remnant would have escaped.
The struggle of some to reach the shore, the exhausting trek through a land filled with thick thorny bushes, before they could get to any farm or settlement; the suffering of thirty or more exhausted men clinging, in a state of extreme fatigue, cold, and misery, to the main-topmast and topsail-yard of the sunken ship, before being rescued by a passing schooner, has been told many times. The troops acted perfectly; it's uncertain if there's any other example of such complete discipline in a moment of nearly total hopelessness. The loss of life was immense, with only 192 out of 638 surviving. If there had been any panic or mutiny, not even that small number would have made it out.
Turn we now to another and a sadder case, where the opposite qualities were most unhappily displayed, and the consequences of which were proportionately terrible.
Let's now move on to another case, one that's sadder, where the opposite qualities were unfortunately shown, and the resulting consequences were equally terrible.
On the 17th of June, 1816, the Medusa, a fine French frigate, sailed from Aix, with troops and colonists on board, destined for the west coast of Africa. Several settlements which had previously belonged to France, but which fell into the hands of the English during the war, were, on the peace of 1815, restored to their original owners; and it was to take re-possession that the French Government dispatched the expedition, which consisted of two vessels, one of which was the Medusa. Besides infantry and artillery, officers and men, there was a governor, with priests, schoolmasters, notaries, surgeons, apothecaries, mining and other engineers, naturalists, practical agriculturists, bakers, workmen, and thirty-eight women, the whole expedition numbering 365 persons, exclusive of the ship’s officers and company. Of these the Medusa took 240, making, with her crew and passengers, a total of 400 on board.
On June 17, 1816, the Medusa, a beautiful French frigate, set sail from Aix, carrying troops and colonists heading to the west coast of Africa. Several settlements that had previously belonged to France but were captured by the English during the war were returned to their original owners after the peace treaty of 1815. To reclaim these territories, the French Government launched an expedition consisting of two ships, one of which was the Medusa. In addition to infantry and artillery, the group included a governor, priests, school teachers, notaries, surgeons, pharmacists, mining and other engineers, naturalists, practical farmers, bakers, workers, and thirty-eight women, totaling 365 people, not counting the ship’s officers and crew. Of these, the Medusa carried 240, which, along with her crew and passengers, brought the total on board to 400.
After making Cape Blanco, the expedition had been ordered to steer due westward to sea for some sixty miles, in order to clear a well-known sand-bank, that of Arguin. The captain, however, seems to have been an ill-advised, foolhardy man, and he took a southward course. The vessel shortened sail every two hours to sound, and every half-hour the lead was cast, without slackening sail. For some little time the soundings indicated deep water, but shortly after the course had been altered to S.S.E., the colour of the water changed, seaweeds floated round the ship, and fish were caught from its sides; all indications of shallowing. But the captain heeded not these obvious signs, and the vessel suddenly grounded on a bank. The weather being moderate, there was no reason for alarm, and she would have been got off safely had the captain been even an average sailor. For the time, the Medusa stuck fast on the sand-bank, and as a large part of those on board were landsmen, consternation and disorder reigned supreme, and reproaches and curses were liberally bestowed on the captain. The crew was set to work with anchors and cables to endeavour to work the vessel off. During the day, the topmasts, yards, and booms were unshipped and thrown overboard, which lightened her, but were not sufficient to make her float. Meantime, a council was called, and the governor of the colonies exhibited the plan of a raft, which was considered large enough to carry two hundred persons, with all the necessary stores and provisions. It was to be towed by the boats, while their crews were to come to it at regular meal-times for their rations. The whole party was to land in a body on the sandy shore of the coast—known to be at no great distance—and proceed to the nearest settlements. All this was, theoretically speaking, most admirable, and had there been any leading spirit in [pg 77]command, the plan would have been, as was afterwards proved, quite practicable. The raft was immediately constructed, principally from the spars removed from the vessel as before mentioned.
After reaching Cape Blanco, the expedition was instructed to head straight west for about sixty miles to avoid a well-known sandbank, Arguin. However, the captain seemed to be reckless and took a southerly route instead. The ship reduced its sail every couple of hours to check the depth of the water, and the lead was dropped every thirty minutes without slowing down. For a while, the soundings showed deep water, but soon after changing course to S.S.E., the water color shifted, seaweed began to float around the ship, and fish were caught alongside; all signs indicating shallower waters. Yet, the captain ignored these obvious warnings, and the ship suddenly ran aground on a bank. With moderate weather, there was no need to panic, and the ship could have been freed safely if the captain had been even a decent sailor. For the moment, the Medusa was stuck fast on the sandbank, and since many on board were inexperienced, panic and chaos erupted, with plenty of blame and curses directed at the captain. The crew began working with anchors and cables to try to free the vessel. Throughout the day, they took down the topmasts, yards, and booms and threw them overboard to lighten the ship, but it wasn't enough to make her float. Meanwhile, a meeting was called, and the governor of the colonies proposed a raft design that was thought to be large enough for two hundred people, along with all the necessary supplies. It was to be towed by the boats, while their crews would come to it at regular meal times for rations. Everyone was to land together on the nearby sandy shore and head toward the closest settlements. In theory, this plan was excellent, and if there had been a strong leader in charge, it would have been, as was later proven, entirely doable. The raft was quickly constructed using mainly the spars removed from the ship as mentioned earlier.
Various efforts were made to get the Medusa off the sandbank, and at one time she swung entirely, and turned her head to sea. She was, in fact, almost afloat, and a tow-line applied in the usual way would have taken her into deep water; but this familiar expedient was never even proposed. Or, even had she been lightened by throwing overboard a part of her stores temporarily—which could have been done without serious harm to many articles—she might have been saved. Half-measures were tried, and even these were not acted on with perseverance. During the next night there was a strong gale and heavy swell, and the Medusa heeled over with much violence; the keel broke in two, the rudder was unshipped, and, still holding to the stern-post by the chains, dashed against the vessel and beat a hole into the captain’s cabin, through which the waves entered. It was at this time that the first indications of that unruly spirit which afterwards produced so many horrors appeared among the soldiers, who assembled tumultuously on deck, and could hardly be quieted. Next morning there were seven feet of water in the hold, and the pumps could not be worked, so that it was resolved to quit the vessel without delay. Some bags of biscuit were taken from the bread-room, and some casks of wine got ready to put on the boats and raft. But there was an utter want of management, and several of the boats only received twenty-five pounds of biscuit and no wine, while the raft had a quantity of wine and no biscuit. To avoid confusion, a list had been made the evening before, assigning to each his place. No one paid the slightest attention to it, and no one of those in authority tried to enforce obedience to it. It was a case of “Sauve qui peut!” with a vengeance: a disorderly and disgraceful scramble for the best places and an utter and total disregard for the wants of others.
Various efforts were made to get the Medusa off the sandbank, and at one point, she swung completely around and faced the sea. She was almost floating, and applying a tow-line in the usual way would have pulled her into deeper water; however, this common solution was never even suggested. Even if they had lightened her by throwing some of her supplies overboard temporarily—which could have been done without seriously damaging many items—she might have been saved. They tried half-measures, but even those were not pursued with determination. That night, a strong gale and heavy swell hit, causing the Medusa to tilt violently; the keel broke in two, the rudder got knocked off, and while still hanging onto the stern-post by the chains, it slammed against the ship and created a hole in the captain’s cabin, allowing waves to rush in. It was then that the first signs of the chaotic spirit that later caused many horrors started to show among the soldiers, who gathered frantically on deck and could barely be calmed down. The next morning, there were seven feet of water in the hold, and the pumps couldn’t be operated, so it was decided to abandon the vessel immediately. Some bags of biscuits were pulled from the bread room, and some casks of wine were prepared to load onto the boats and raft. But there was a complete lack of organization, and several boats ended up with only twenty-five pounds of biscuits and no wine, while the raft had a lot of wine and no biscuits. To prevent confusion, a list had been created the night before, assigning each person their place. No one paid any attention to it, and none of those in charge enforced it. It was a case of “Every man for himself!” in full effect: a chaotic and disgraceful scramble for the best spots with utter disregard for the needs of others.
It is, and always has been, a point of honour for the officers to be among the very last to leave (except, of course, where their presence might be needed in the boats), and the captain to be the very last. Here, the captain was among the first to scramble over the side; and his twelve-oared barge only took off twenty-eight persons, when it would have easily carried many more. A large barge took the colonial governor and his family, and the governor’s trunks. His boat wanted for nothing, and would have accommodated ten or more persons than it took. When several of the unfortunate crew swam off and begged to be taken in, they were kept off with drawn swords. The raft60 took the larger part of the soldiers, and had in all on board one hundred and fifty persons. The captain coolly proposed to desert some sixty of the people still on board, and leave them to shift for themselves; but an officer who threatened to shoot him was the means of making him change his mind, [pg 78]and over forty were taken off in the long-boat. Seventeen men, many of whom were helplessly intoxicated, were, however, left to their fate.
It is, and always has been, a point of pride for the officers to be among the very last to leave (except, of course, when their presence might be needed on the boats), with the captain being the very last. Here, the captain was among the first to scramble over the side; and his twelve-oared barge only took off twenty-eight people, even though it could have easily carried many more. A large barge took the colonial governor and his family, and the governor’s luggage. His boat was equipped for everything and could have accommodated ten or more people than it did. When several of the unfortunate crew swam over and begged to be taken in, they were kept off with drawn swords. The raft60 took the majority of the soldiers, with a total of one hundred and fifty people on board. The captain casually suggested abandoning about sixty of the people still on board, leaving them to fend for themselves; but an officer who threatened to shoot him made him change his mind, [pg 78]and over forty were taken off in the long-boat. Unfortunately, seventeen men, many of whom were helplessly drunk, were left to their fate.
On the morning of the 5th of July the signal was given to put to sea, and at first some of the boats towed the raft, which had no one to command it but a midshipman named Coudin, who, having a painful wound on his leg, was utterly useless. The other officers consulted their own personal safety only, and, with a few exceptions, this was the case with every one else. When the lieutenant of the long-boat, fearing that he could not keep the sea with eighty-eight men on board, and no oars, entreated three of the other boats, one after the other, to relieve him of a part of his living cargo, they refused utterly; and the officer of the third, in his hurry to run away, loosed from the raft. This was the signal for a general desertion. The word was passed from one boat to another to leave them to their fate, and the captain had not the manliness to protest. The purser of the Medusa, with a few others, opposed such a dastardly proceeding, but in vain; and the raft, without means of propulsion, was abandoned. As it proved afterwards, the boats, which all reached the land safely, sighted the coast the same evening; and the raft could have been towed to it in a day or two, or at all events sufficiently near for the purpose. The people on it could not at first believe in this treacherous desertion, and once and again buoyed themselves up with the hope that the boats would return or send relief. The lieutenant on the long-boat seems to have been one of the few officers possessing any spark of humanity and manliness. He kept his own boat near the raft for a time, in the hope that the others might be induced to return, but at length had to yield to the clamour of some eighty men on board with him, who insisted on his proceeding in search of land.
On the morning of July 5th, the signal was given to set sail, and at first, some of the boats towed the raft, which only had a midshipman named Coudin in charge. He had a painful leg wound and was completely useless. The other officers only cared about their own safety, and with a few exceptions, so did everyone else. When the lieutenant of the long-boat, worried that he couldn’t navigate with eighty-eight men on board and no oars, begged three of the other boats to help lighten his load, they all refused. The officer of the third boat, in his haste to escape, untied from the raft. This led to a full-on desertion. Word spread from boat to boat to leave the raft to its fate, and the captain didn’t have the courage to protest. The purser of the Medusa and a few others opposed this cowardly act, but it was in vain; the raft, without any means to move, was abandoned. As it turned out later, the boats all made it to shore safely that same evening, and the raft could have been towed to the coast in a day or two, or at least brought close enough for that purpose. At first, the people on the raft couldn’t believe this betrayal, and time after time, they lifted their spirits with the hope that the boats would return or send help. The lieutenant on the long-boat seemed to be one of the few officers who had any humanity or courage. He kept his boat near the raft for a while, hoping the others would come back, but eventually, he had to give in to the demands of the eighty men aboard who insisted he search for land.
The consternation and despair of those on the raft beggars description. The water was, even while the sea was calm, up to the knees of the larger part on board, while the horrors of a slow death from starvation and thirst, and the prospect of being washed off by the waves, should a storm arise, stared them in the face. Several barrels of flour had been placed on the raft at first, along with six barrels of wine and two small casks of water. When only fifty persons had got on it, their weight sunk it so low in the water that the flour was thrown into the sea, and lost. When the raft quitted the ship, with a hundred and fifty souls on her, she was a foot to a foot and a half under water, and the only food on board was a twenty-five-pound bag of biscuit, in a semi-pulpy condition, which just afforded them one meagre ration.
The shock and hopelessness of those on the raft are hard to describe. Even when the sea was calm, the water reached up to the knees of most people on board, while the terrifying thought of slowly dying from starvation and thirst, along with the risk of being thrown overboard by the waves if a storm hit, loomed over them. Initially, several barrels of flour, six barrels of wine, and two small casks of water were placed on the raft. However, when only fifty people got on, their weight sank it so low that the flour fell into the sea and was lost. When the raft left the ship with a hundred and fifty people on it, it was a foot to a foot and a half underwater, and the only food available was a twenty-five-pound bag of biscuits, which were partially mushy, barely providing them with one small meal.
Some on board, to keep up the courage of the remainder, promulgated the idea that the boats had merely made sail for the island of Arguin, and that, having landed their crews, they would return. This for the moment appeased the indignation of the soldiers and others who had, with frantic gesticulations, been wringing their hands and tearing their hair. Night came on, and the wind freshened, the waves rolling over them, and throwing many down with violence. The cries of the people were mingled with the roar of the waves, whilst heavy seas constantly lifted them off their legs and threatened to wash them away. Thus, clinging desperately to the ropes, they struggled with death the whole night through.
Some people on board, to keep the others' spirits up, spread the idea that the boats had just headed for the island of Arguin and, after dropping off their crews, would come back. This momentarily calmed the anger of the soldiers and others who had been frantically waving their arms and pulling their hair out. Night fell, the wind picked up, and the waves crashed over them, violently knocking many down. The shouts of the people blended with the roar of the waves, while the heavy seas constantly knocked them off their feet and threatened to wash them away. So, holding on tightly to the ropes, they fought for their lives all night long.
About seven the next morning, the sea was again calm, when they found that twelve or more unfortunate men had, during the night, slipped between the interstices of the raft [pg 79]and perished. The effects of starvation were beginning to tell upon them:61 all their faculties were strangely impaired. Some fancied that they saw lighted signals in the distance, and answered them by firing off their pistols, or by setting fire to small heaps of gunpowder; others thought they saw ships or land, when there was nothing in sight. The next day strong symptoms of mutiny broke out, the officers being utterly disregarded by the soldiers. The evening again brought bad weather. “The people were now dashed about by the fury of the waves; there was no safety but in the centre of the raft,” where they packed themselves so close that many were nearly suffocated. “The soldiers and sailors, now considering their destruction inevitable, resolved to drown the sense of their situation by drinking till they should lose their reason;” nor could they be persuaded to forego their mad scheme. They rushed upon a cask of wine which was near the centre, and making a hole in it, drank so much, that the fumes soon mounted to their heads, in the empty condition in which they were; and “they then resolved to rid themselves of their officers, and afterwards to destroy the raft by cutting the lashings which kept it together.” One of them commenced hacking away at the ropes with a boarding-hatchet. The civil and military officers rushed on this ringleader, and though he made a desperate resistance, soon dispatched him. The people on the raft were now divided into two antagonistic parties—about twenty civil officers and the better class of passengers on one side, and a hundred or more soldiers and workmen on the other. “The mutineers,” says the narrative, “drew their swords, and were going to make a general attack, when the fall of another of their number struck such a seasonable terror into them that they retreated; but it was only to make another attempt at cutting the ropes. One of them, pretending to rest on the side-rail of the raft, began to work;” when he was discovered, and a few moments afterwards, with a soldier who attempted to defend him, was sent to his last account. This was followed by a general fight. An infantry captain was thrown into the sea by the soldiers, but rescued by his friends. He was then seized a second time, and the revolters attempted to put out his eyes. A charge was made upon them, and many put to death. The wretches threw overboard the only woman on the raft, together with her husband. They were, however, saved, only to die miserably soon afterwards.
About seven the next morning, the sea was calm again when they found that twelve or more unfortunate men had slipped between the gaps in the raft during the night and perished. The effects of starvation were starting to show: all their senses were strangely impaired. Some thought they saw lights in the distance and responded by firing their pistols or lighting small piles of gunpowder; others imagined they saw ships or land when there was nothing in sight. The next day, signs of mutiny began to break out, as the officers were completely disregarded by the soldiers. That evening, bad weather returned. "The people were now tossed around by the anger of the waves; there was no safety except in the center of the raft." where they packed together so tightly that many nearly suffocated. "The soldiers and sailors, now believing their destruction was unavoidable, decided to numb their feelings about the situation by drinking until they lost their senses." they could not be convinced to abandon their crazy plan. They rushed to a cask of wine near the center, made a hole in it, and drank so much that the fumes quickly went to their heads, given their empty stomachs; and "They decided to get rid of their officers and then destroy the raft by cutting the ropes that held it together." One of them started hacking at the ropes with a boarding hatchet. The civil and military officers rushed at this ringleader, and though he put up a desperate fight, they quickly dispatched him. The people on the raft were now divided into two opposing groups—about twenty civil officers and the better class of passengers on one side, and over a hundred soldiers and workers on the other. “The rebels,” says the narrative, “drew their swords and were about to launch a full attack when the unexpected fall of another member caused such fear that they retreated; but it was only to try again at cutting the ropes. One of them, pretending to rest on the side rail of the raft, started to work;” when he was caught, and a few moments later, along with a soldier who tried to defend him, was sent to his end. This was followed by a general fight. An infantry captain was thrown into the sea by the soldiers but rescued by his friends. He was then seized again, and the rebels tried to gouge out his eyes. They were charged, and many were killed. The wretches threw the only woman on the raft overboard along with her husband. However, they were saved, only to die miserably soon afterward.
A second repulse brought many of the mutineers to their senses, and temporarily awed the rest, some asking pardon on their knees. But at midnight the revolt again broke out, the soldiers attacking the party in the centre of the raft with the fury of madmen, even biting their adversaries. They seized upon one of the lieutenants, mistaking him for one of the ship’s officers who had deserted the raft, and he was rescued and protected afterwards [pg 80]with the greatest difficulty. They threw overboard M. Coudin, an elderly man, who was covered with wounds received in opposing them, and a young boy of the party, in whom he took an interest. M. Coudin had the presence of mind both to support the child and to take hold of the raft; and his friends kept off the brutal soldiery with drawn swords, until they were lifted on board again. The combat was so fierce, and the weather at night so bad, that on the return of day it was found that over sixty had perished off the raft. It is stated that the mutineers had thrown over the remaining water and two casks of wine. The indications in the narrative would not point to the latter conclusion, as the soldiers and workmen were constantly intoxicated, and many, no doubt, were washed off by the waves in that condition. A powerful temperance tract might be written on the loss of the Medusa. On the morning of the fourth day after their departure from the frigate, the dead bodies of twelve of the company, who had expired during the night, were lying on the raft. This day a shoal of flying-fish played round the raft, and a number of them got on board,62 and were entangled in the spaces between the timbers. A small fire, lighted with flint and steel and gunpowder, was made inside a barrel, and the fish, half-cooked, was greedily devoured. They did not stop here; the account briefly indicates that they ate parts of the flesh of their dead companions. Horror followed horror: a massacre succeeded their savage feast. Some Spaniards, Italians, and negroes among them, who had hitherto taken no part with the mutineers, now formed a plot to throw their superiors into the sea. A bag of money, which had been collected as a common fund, and was hanging from a rude mast hastily extemporised, probably tempted them. The officers’ party threw their ringleader overboard, while another of the conspirators, finding his villainy discovered, weighted himself with a heavy boarding-axe, and rushing to the fore part of the raft, plunged headlong into the sea and was drowned. A desperate combat ensued, and the fatal raft was quickly piled with dead bodies.
A second setback brought many of the mutineers back to reality and temporarily scared the rest, with some begging for forgiveness on their knees. But at midnight, the rebellion broke out again, with the soldiers attacking the group in the center of the raft with the rage of madmen, even biting their opponents. They grabbed one of the lieutenants, thinking he was one of the ship's officers who had fled the raft, and he was rescued and protected afterward [pg 80]with great difficulty. They tossed M. Coudin, an older man covered in wounds from fighting against them, overboard, along with a young boy he was looking after. M. Coudin had the presence of mind to hold onto the child and the raft, while his friends kept the brutal soldiers at bay with drawn swords until they were brought back on board. The fighting was so intense, and the weather at night so terrible, that by morning it was discovered that over sixty had died off the raft. It was reported that the mutineers had thrown away the remaining water and two casks of wine. However, the details in the narrative don’t support that idea, as the soldiers and workers were often drunk, and many likely fell off into the waves in that state. A powerful temperance pamphlet could be written about the loss of the Medusa. On the morning of the fourth day after leaving the frigate, the bodies of twelve people who had died during the night were lying on the raft. That day, a school of flying fish swam around the raft, and a number of them got aboard and got stuck in the spaces between the timbers. A small fire was lit inside a barrel using flint, steel, and gunpowder, and the half-cooked fish was eagerly eaten. They didn’t stop at that; the account briefly mentions that they also consumed parts of the flesh of their deceased companions. Horror followed horror: a massacre occurred after their savage feast. Some Spaniards, Italians, and Black people among them, who had previously not participated with the mutineers, now plotted to throw their superiors into the sea. A bag of money, collected as a common fund and hanging from a makeshift mast, likely tempted them. The officers' group threw their ringleader overboard, while another conspirator, realizing he had been discovered, weighted himself down with a heavy boarding axe, ran to the front of the raft, and jumped into the sea, drowning himself. A fierce struggle erupted, and the doomed raft quickly became piled with dead bodies.
On the fifth morning, there were only thirty alive. The remnant suffered severely, and one-third of the number were unable to stand up or move about. The salt water and intense heat of the sun blistered their feet and legs, and gave intense pain. In the course of the seventh day, two soldiers were discovered stealing the wine, and they were immediately pushed overboard. This day also, Leon, the poor little boy mentioned before, died from sheer starvation.
On the fifth morning, only thirty were still alive. The survivors were in bad shape, with one-third unable to stand or move. The saltwater and extreme heat from the sun had blistered their feet and legs, causing unbearable pain. By the seventh day, two soldiers were caught stealing wine and were immediately thrown overboard. That day, Leon, the poor little boy mentioned earlier, died from starvation.
The story has been so far nothing but a record of insubordination, murderous brutality, and utter selfishness. But the worst has yet to come. Let the survivors tell their own shameful and horrible story. There were now but twenty-seven left, and “of these twelve, amongst them the woman, were so ill that there was no hope of their surviving, even a few days; they were covered with wounds, and had almost entirely lost their reason.... They might have lived long enough to reduce our stock to a very low ebb; but there was no hope that they could last more than a few days. To put them on short allowance was only hastening their death; while giving them a full ration, was uselessly diminishing [pg 81]a quantity already too low. After an anxious consultation, we came to the resolution of throwing them into the sea, and thus terminating at once their sufferings. This was a horrible and unjustifiable expedient, but who amongst us would have the cruelty to put it into execution? Three sailors and a soldier took it on themselves. We turned away our eyes from the shocking sight, trusting that, in thus endeavouring to prolong our own lives, we were shortening theirs but a few hours. This gave us the means of subsistence for six additional days. After this dreadful sacrifice, we cast our swords into the sea, reserving but one sabre for cutting wood or cordage, as might be necessary.” Was there ever such an example of demoniacal hypocrisy, mingled with pretended humanity!
The story has been nothing but a record of defiance, violent brutality, and complete selfishness. But the worst is yet to come. Let the survivors share their own shameful and horrific tale. There were only twenty-seven left now, and Out of these, twelve, including the woman, were in such poor condition that there was no hope for them to survive, even for a few days; they were covered in wounds and had nearly lost all sense of sanity. They might have lived long enough to deplete our supplies to a dangerously low level, but there was no chance they could last more than a few days. Reducing their diet would only hasten their deaths, while giving them full rations would unnecessarily drain [pg 81]a supply that was already far too low. After a tense discussion, we decided to throw them into the sea to end their suffering right away. It was a terrible and unjustifiable decision, but who among us could be heartless enough to carry it out? Three sailors and a soldier took it upon themselves. We turned away from the horrific scene, hoping that by trying to extend our own lives, we were only shortening theirs by a few hours. This gave us enough food for six more days. After this dreadful sacrifice, we threw our swords into the sea, keeping only one saber for cutting wood or rope if needed. Was there ever such a display of demonic hypocrisy, mixed with feigned humanity!
(After the famous painting by Géricault.)
One can hardly interest himself in the fate of the remaining fifteen, who, if they were not all human devils, must have carried to their dying days the brand of Cain indelibly impressed on their memories. A few days passed, and the indications of a close approach to land became frequent. Meantime, they were suffering from the intense heat, and from excessive thirst. One more example of petty selfishness was afforded by an officer who [pg 82]had found a lemon, which he resolved to keep entirely for himself, until the ominous threats of the rest obliged him to share it. The wine, which should have warmed their bodies and gladdened their hearts, produced on their weakened frames the worst effects of intoxication. Five of the number resolved, and were barely persuaded not to commit suicide, so maddened were they by their potations. Perhaps the sight of the sharks, which now came boldly up to the edges of the raft, had something to do with sobering them, for they decided to live.
One can hardly care about the fate of the remaining fifteen, who, if they weren’t all human monsters, must have carried the mark of Cain etched in their memories until the end. A few days passed, and signs of land becoming closer appeared more frequently. In the meantime, they were suffering from the intense heat and extreme thirst. Another example of petty selfishness came from an officer who [pg 82]had found a lemon, which he decided to keep entirely for himself, until the threatening demands of the others forced him to share it. The wine, which should have warmed them up and lifted their spirits, had the opposite effect on their weakened bodies, leading to severe intoxication. Five of them decided to commit suicide, and only barely got talked out of it, so driven mad were they by their drinking. Perhaps the sight of sharks, which were now boldly approaching the edges of the raft, contributed to their decision to choose life instead.
Three days now passed in intolerable torments. They had become so careless of life, that they bathed even in sight of the sharks; others were not afraid to place themselves naked upon the fore part of the raft, which was then entirely under water; and, though it was exceedingly dangerous, it had the effect of taking away their thirst. They now attempted to construct a boat of planks and spars. When completed, a sailor went upon it, when it immediately upset, and the design of reaching land by this means was abandoned. On the morning of the 17th of July, the sun shone brightly and the sky was cloudless. Just as they were receiving their ration of wine, one of the infantry officers discerned the topmasts of a vessel near the horizon. Uniting their efforts, they raised a man to the top of the mast, who waved constantly a number of handkerchiefs tied together. After two hours of painful suspense, the vessel, a brig, disappeared, and they once more resigned themselves to despair. Deciding that they must leave some record of their fate, they agreed to carve their names, with some account of their disaster, on a plank, in the hope that it might eventually reach their Government and families. But they were to be saved: the brig reappeared, and bore down for them. She proved to be a vessel which had been dispatched by the Governor of Senegal for the purpose of rescuing any survivors; though, considering the raft had now been seventeen days afloat, there was little expectation that any of its hundred and fifty passengers still lived. The wounded and blistered limbs, sunken eyes, and emaciated frames of the remnant told its own tale on board. And yet, with due order and discipline, presence of mind, and united helpfulness, the ship, with every soul who had sailed on her, might have been saved; and a fearful story of cruelty, murder, and cannibalism spared to us. The modern Medusa has been branded with a name of infamy worse than that of the famous classical monster after which she was named. The celebrated picture by Géricault in the Louvre, at Paris, vividly depicts the horrors of the scene.
Three days had passed in unbearable agony. They had become so reckless about their lives that they even bathed in sight of the sharks; some weren't afraid to lie naked on the front of the raft, which was completely underwater at that point; and although it was extremely dangerous, it helped quench their thirst. They tried to build a boat out of planks and spars. Once it was done, a sailor stepped onto it, and it immediately capsized, so they gave up on that plan to reach land. On the morning of July 17th, the sun was shining brightly, and the sky was clear. Just as they were receiving their wine ration, one of the infantry officers spotted the topmasts of a ship on the horizon. They worked together to lift a man to the top of the mast, who waved several handkerchiefs tied together. After two hours of painful anticipation, the brig vanished, and they once again fell into despair. Deciding they needed to leave a record of their fate, they agreed to carve their names and a brief account of their disaster on a plank, hoping it would eventually reach their government and families. But they were to be saved: the brig returned and headed toward them. It turned out to be a vessel sent by the Governor of Senegal to rescue any survivors; though, given that the raft had been adrift for seventeen days, there was little hope that any of the one hundred and fifty passengers were still alive. The wounded and blistered limbs, sunken eyes, and gaunt figures of the survivors told their own story on board. Yet, with proper order and discipline, presence of mind, and collective effort, every soul on the ship could have been saved, and a horrifying account of cruelty, murder, and cannibalism could have been avoided. The modern Medusa bears a name of infamy worse than that of the famous classical monster after which it was named. The renowned painting by Géricault in the Louvre, Paris, vividly illustrates the horrors of the scene.
The wreck of the Medusa has very commonly been compared and contrasted with that of the Alceste, an English frigate, which was wrecked the same year. Lord Amherst was returning from China in this vessel, after fulfilling his mission to the Court of Pekin, instituted at the instance of the East India Company, who had complained to Government of the impediments thrown in the way of their trade by the Chinese. His secretary and suite were with him; and so there was some resemblance to the case of the Medusa, which had a colonial governor and his staff on board. The commander of the Alceste was Captain (afterwards Sir) Murray Maxwell, a true gentleman and a bluff, hearty sailor. Having touched at Manilla, they were passing through the Straits of Gaspar, when the ship suddenly struck on a reef of sunken rocks, and it became evident that she must inevitably and speedily break up. The most perfect discipline prevailed; and the first efforts of the captain were naturally directed to saving the ambassador and his subordinates. The island of Palo Leat [pg 83]was a few miles off; and, although its coast at this part was a salt-marsh, with mangrove-trees growing out in the water so thick and entangled that it almost prevented them landing, every soul was got off safely. Good feeling and sensible councils prevailed. At first there was no fresh water to be obtained. It was
The wreck of the Medusa is often compared to that of the Alceste, an English frigate that sank the same year. Lord Amherst was returning from China on this ship after completing his mission to the Court of Beijing, which was initiated by the East India Company, who had complained to the government about obstacles to their trade caused by the Chinese. His secretary and team were with him, making it somewhat similar to the situation with the Medusa, which also had a colonial governor and his staff on board. The commander of the Alceste was Captain (later Sir) Murray Maxwell, a true gentleman and a hearty sailor. After stopping in Manila, they were navigating through the Straits of Gaspar when the ship suddenly hit a reef of submerged rocks, and it quickly became clear that it would inevitably break apart. Perfect discipline was maintained, and the captain's first priority was to ensure the safety of the ambassador and his team. The island of Palo Leat [pg 83]was just a few miles away; although its coastline was a salt marsh with tangled mangrove trees that almost blocked their landing, everyone was evacuated safely. Good spirits and sound advice prevailed. Initially, there was no fresh water available. It was
In a short time, however, they dug a deep well, and soon reached plenty. Then the Malays attacked and surrounded them; at first a few score, at last six or seven hundred strong. Things looked black; but they erected a stockade, made rude pikes by sticking their knives, dirks, and small swords on the end of poles; and, although they had landed with just seventy-five ball-cartridges, their stock soon grew to fifteen hundred. How? Why, the sailors set to with a will, and made their own, the balls being represented by their jacket-buttons and pieces of the glass of broken bottles! Of loose powder they had, fortunately, a sufficient quantity. The Malays set the wreck on fire. The men waited till it had burned low, and then drove them off, and went and secured such of the stores as could be now reached, or which had floated off. The natives were gathering thick. Murray made his sailors a speech in true hearty style, and their wild huzzas were taken by the Malays for war-whoops: the latter soon “weakened,” as they say in America. From the highest officer to the merest boy, all behaved like calm, resolute, and sensible Britons, and every soul was saved. Lord Amherst, who had gone on to Batavia, sent a vessel for them, on board which Maxwell was the last to embark. At the time of the wreck their condition was infinitely worse than that of the Medusa; but how completely different the sequel! The story is really a pleasant one, displaying, as it does, the happy results of both good discipline and mutual good feeling in the midst of danger. Nil desperandum was evidently the motto of that crew; and their philosophy was rewarded. The lessons of the past and present, in regard to our great ships, have taught us that disaster is not confined to ironclads, nor victory to wooden walls; neither is good discipline dead, nor the race of true-hearted tars extinct. “Men of iron” will soon be the worthy successors of “hearts of oak.”
In a short time, however, they dug a deep well and soon found plenty of water. Then the Malays attacked and surrounded them; initially, it was just a few dozen, but eventually they swelled to six or seven hundred. Things looked grim, but they built a stockade and created makeshift pikes by attaching their knives, dirks, and small swords to the ends of poles. Although they had arrived with only seventy-five rounds of ammunition, their supply soon grew to fifteen hundred. How? The sailors worked hard and made their own ammo, using jacket buttons and pieces of broken glass bottles as projectiles! Thankfully, they had enough loose powder. The Malays set the wreck on fire. The men waited until the flames had died down and then drove them off, securing whatever supplies they could still reach or that had floated away. The natives were gathering in large numbers. Murray gave his sailors a heartfelt speech, and their wild cheers were mistaken by the Malays for war cries; the latter soon “weakened,” as they say in America. From the highest officer to the slightest boy, everyone acted like calm, determined Brits, and every single person was saved. Lord Amherst, who had gone on to Batavia, sent a ship for them, and Maxwell was the last to board. At the time of the wreck, their situation was far worse than that of the Medusa; but how completely different the outcome was! The story is quite encouraging, showcasing the positive results of strong discipline and good camaraderie in the face of danger. Never despair was clearly the motto of that crew, and their mindset was rewarded. The lessons from the past and present about our great ships have shown us that disasters are not limited to ironclads, nor victories to wooden ships; good discipline is still alive, and the spirit of true-hearted sailors is far from extinct. “Tough guys” will soon become worthy successors to "hearts of oak."
Having glanced at the causes which led to the ironclad movement, and noted certain salient points in its history, let us now for a while discuss the ironclad herself. It has been remarked, as a matter of reproach to the administrators and builders of the British ironclad navy, that the vessels composing it are not sufficiently uniform in design, power, and speed. Mr. Reed, however, tells us that la marine moderne cuirassée of France is still more distinguished by the different types and forms of the vessels; and that ours by comparison wears “quite a tiresome appearance of sameness;” while, again, Russia has ironclads even more diversified than those of France. The objection is, perhaps, hardly a fair one, as the exigencies of the navy are many and varied. We might have to fight a first-class power, or several first-class powers, where all our strength would have to be put forth; some second-class power might require chastising, where vessels of a secondary class might suffice; while almost any vessel of the navy would be efficient in the case of wars with native tribes, as, for example, the Maories of New Zealand, or the Indians of the coasts of North-west America. In a great naval conflict, provided the vessels of our fleet steamed pretty evenly as regards speed, there would be an advantage in variety; for it might rather puzzle and [pg 84]worry the enemy, who would not know what next would appear, or what new form turn up. Mr. Reed puts the matter in a nutshell; although it must be seen that, among first-class powers with first-class fleets, the argument cuts both ways. “In the old days,” says he, “when actions had to be fought under sail, and when ships of a class were in the main alike, the limits within which the arts, the resources, and the audacities of the navy were restricted were really very narrow; and yet how brilliant were its achievements! I cannot but believe that, if the English ironclad fleet were now to be engaged in a general action with an enemy’s fleet, the very variety of our ships—those very improvements which have occasioned that variety—would be at once the cause of the greatest possible embarrassment to the enemy, and the means of the most vigorous and diversified attack upon the hostile fleet. This is peculiarly true of all those varieties which result from increase in handiness, in bow-fire, in height of port, and so forth; and unless I have mis-read our naval history, and misappreciate the character of our naval officers of the present day, the nation will, in the day of trial, obtain the full benefit of these advantages.”
Having glanced at the reasons behind the ironclad movement and noted some key points in its history, let's now take a moment to discuss the ironclad itself. It's been pointed out, somewhat critically, that the British ironclad navy lacks uniformity in design, power, and speed. However, Mr. Reed argues that France's modern armored navy is even more varied in terms of the types and forms of its vessels, while ours, in comparison, has a "quite tiresome appearance of sameness;" additionally, Russia's ironclads are even more diverse than France's. This criticism might not be entirely fair, considering the numerous and varied demands placed on the navy. We might need to confront a first-class power or multiple first-class powers, requiring all our strength; or we might need to take action against a second-class power, where lower-class vessels would suffice. Almost any ship in our navy would be effective when dealing with native tribes, like the Maoris in New Zealand or the Indigenous peoples along the coasts of North-west America. In a major naval battle, as long as our fleet's ships were somewhat matched in speed, having a variety of vessels could be advantageous; it could confuse and frustrate the enemy, who wouldn't know what to expect next. Mr. Reed captures this succinctly, although it is important to note that among first-class powers with top-tier fleets, the argument has its nuances. "In the old days," he says, "when battles were fought under sail, and ships of the same class were mostly similar, the limits within which the skills, resources, and boldness of the navy operated were very narrow; yet its achievements were remarkable! I truly believe that if the English ironclad fleet were to engage in a full-scale battle against an enemy fleet now, the very diversity of our ships—those improvements that have led to that diversity—would create the greatest confusion for the enemy and enable us to mount a vigorous and varied attack on their fleet. This is especially true for the various types that have emerged from increased maneuverability, front armament, port height, and so on; and unless I've misinterpreted our naval history and misjudged the capabilities of our current naval officers, our nation will fully benefit from these advantages when the time comes."
It needs no argument to convince the reader that the aim of a naval architect should be to combine in the best manner available, strength and lightness. The dimensions and outside form of the ship in great part determine her displacement; and her capacity to carry weights depends largely on the actual weight of her own hull; while the room within partly depends on the thinness or thickness of her walls. Now, we have seen that in wooden ships the hull weighs more than in iron ships of equal size; and it will be apparent that what is gained in the latter case can be applied to carrying so much the more iron armour. Hence, distinguished authorities do not believe in the wood-built ship carrying heavy armour, nearly so much as in the ironclad, iron-built ship.63 The durability [pg 85]and strength are greater. The authority of such a man as Mr. J. Scott Russell, the eminent shipbuilder, will be conclusive. In a pamphlet,64 published in 1862, he noted the following ten points: 1, That iron steam ships-of-war may be built as strong as wooden ships of greater weight, and stronger than wooden ships of equal weight. 2, That iron ships of equal strength can go on less draught of water than wooden ships. 3, That iron ships can carry much heavier weights than wooden ships [hence they can carry heavier armour]. 4, That they are more durable. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, That they are safer against the sea, against fire, explosive shots, red-hot shots, molten metal; and 10, That they can be made impregnable even against solid shot.
It’s clear that a naval architect’s goal should be to effectively combine strength and lightness. The size and shape of the ship significantly affect its displacement, and its ability to carry weight is largely determined by the weight of its own hull. Additionally, the space inside depends on how thick or thin the walls are. We've observed that wooden ships have heavier hulls than iron ships of the same size, meaning that the extra weight in wooden vessels takes away from their capacity to carry additional iron armor. Therefore, leading experts prefer ironclad ships over wooden ships when it comes to carrying heavy armor. The durability and strength of iron ships are superior. Mr. J. Scott Russell, a notable shipbuilder, has definitive insights on this. In a pamphlet published in 1862, he highlighted the following ten points: 1. Iron warships can be built to be as strong as wooden ships that are heavier, and stronger than wooden ships of the same weight. 2. Iron ships of equal strength can operate in shallower water than wooden ships. 3. Iron ships can carry significantly heavier weights than wooden ships, allowing them to bear heavier armor. 4. They are more durable. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. They offer better protection against the sea, fire, explosive shots, red-hot shots, and molten metal; and 10. They can be made virtually invulnerable even against solid shot.
The last point, alas! is one which Mr. Scott Russell himself would hardly insist upon to-day. When he wrote his pamphlet, five or six inches of armour, with a wood backing, withstood anything that could be fired against it. When the armour of the Warrior, our [pg 86]first real ironclad, had to be tested, a target, twenty feet by ten feet surface, composed of four and a half inch iron and eighteen inches of teak backing—the exact counterpart of a slice out of the ship’s side—was employed. The shot from 68-pounders—the same as composed her original armament—fired at 200 yards, only made small dents in the target and rebounded. 200-pounders had no more effect; the shot flew off in ragged splinters, the iron plates became almost red-hot under the tremendous strokes, and rung like a huge gong; but that was all. Now we have 6½-ton guns that would pierce her side at 500 yards; 12-ton guns that would put a hole through her armour at over a mile, and 25-ton guns that would probably penetrate the armour of any ironclad whatever. Why, some of the ships themselves are now carrying 30-ton guns! It is needless to go on and speak of monster 81 and 100-ton guns after recording these facts. But their consideration explains why the thickness of armour has kept on increasing, albeit it could not possibly do so in an equal ratio.
The last point, unfortunately, is one that Mr. Scott Russell himself would hardly argue today. When he wrote his pamphlet, five or six inches of armor with a wooden backing could resist anything fired at it. When the armor of the Fighter, our [pg 86]first real ironclad, was tested, a target measuring twenty feet by ten feet, made of four and a half inches of iron and eighteen inches of teak backing—the exact match of a section of the ship’s side—was used. Shots from 68-pounders—the same as her original weapons—fired at 200 yards only made small dents in the target and bounced off. 200-pounders had no greater effect; the shots splintered off, the iron plates almost glowed red-hot from the massive impacts, and rang like a giant gong; but that was it. Now we have 6½-ton guns that could pierce her side at 500 yards; 12-ton guns that could create a hole in her armor at over a mile, and 25-ton guns that would likely penetrate the armor of any ironclad. In fact, some ships are now equipped with 30-ton guns! There's no need to mention the massive 81 and 100-ton guns after stating these facts. However, their existence explains why the thickness of armor has continued to grow, even though it couldn’t possibly do so in the same proportion.
Mr. Reed tells us: “This strange contest between attack and defence, however wasteful, however melancholy, must still go on.”65 Sir W. G. Armstrong (inventor of the famous guns), on the other hand, says, “In my opinion, armour should be wholly abandoned for the defence of the guns, and, except to a very limited extent, I doubt the expediency of using it even for the security of the ship. Where armour can be applied for deflecting projectiles, as at the bow of a ship, it would afford great protection, without requiring to be very heavy.”66 Sir William recommends very swift iron vessels, divided into numerous compartments, with boilers and machinery below the water-line, and only very partially protected by armour; considering that victory in the contest as regards strength is entirely on the side of the artillery. Sir Joseph Whitworth (also an inventor of great guns) offered practically to make guns to penetrate any thickness of armour. The bewildered Parliamentary committee says mournfully in its report: “A perfect ship of war is a desideratum which has never yet been attained, and is now farther than ever removed from our reach;”67 while Mr. Reed68 again cuts the gordian knot by professing his belief that in the end, “guns will themselves be superseded as a means of attack, and the ship itself, viewed as a steam projectile—possessing all the force of the most powerful shot, combined with the power of striking in various directions—will be deemed the most formidable weapon of attack that man’s ingenuity has devised.” The contest between professed ship and gun makers would be amusing but for the serious side—the immense expense, and the important interests involved.
Mr. Reed tells us: "This strange battle between offense and defense, no matter how pointless or tragic, has to go on."65 Sir W. G. Armstrong (the inventor of the famous guns), on the other hand, says, "I believe we should completely get rid of armor for gun defense. Unless in very specific situations, I question the practicality of using it for the ship's safety. Where armor can be used for deflecting projectiles, like at the bow of a ship, it could offer significant protection without needing to be too heavy."66 Sir William suggests very fast iron vessels, divided into numerous compartments, with boilers and machinery below the waterline, and only partially protected by armor; believing that in terms of strength, artillery has a complete advantage. Sir Joseph Whitworth (also an inventor of powerful guns) offered to make guns capable of penetrating any thickness of armor. The confused Parliamentary committee sadly notes in its report: "A perfect warship is a goal we've never achieved, and it's now further away than ever."67 while Mr. Reed68 again solves the dilemma by expressing his belief that eventually, "Guns will eventually be replaced as a method of attack, and the ship itself will be viewed as a steam projectile—containing the power of the strongest shot, along with the ability to strike from multiple angles—it will be seen as the most powerful weapon of attack that human creativity has ever developed." The rivalry between shipbuilders and gun manufacturers would be amusing if not for the serious implications—the enormous costs and significant interests involved.
CHAPTER 6.
Sailing Around the World on a Warship.
The Mediterranean—White, blue, green, purple Waters—Gibraltar—Its History—Its first Inhabitants the Monkeys—The Moors—The Great Siege preceded by thirteen others—The Voyage of Sigurd to the Holy Land—The Third Siege—Starvation—The Fourth Siege—Red-hot balls used before ordinary Cannon-balls—The Great Plague—Gibraltar finally in Christian hands—A Naval Action between the Dutch and Spaniards—How England won the Rock—An Unrewarded Hero—Spain’s attempts to regain It—The Great Siege—The Rock itself and its Surroundings—The Straits—Ceuta, Gibraltar’s Rival—The Saltness of the Mediterranean—“Going aloft”—On to Malta.
The Mediterranean—White, blue, green, purple waters—Gibraltar—Its history—Its first inhabitants, the monkeys—The Moors—The Great Siege, preceded by thirteen others—The voyage of Sigurd to the Holy Land—The third siege—Starvation—The fourth siege—Red-hot balls used before regular cannonballs—The Great Plague—Gibraltar finally in Christian hands—A naval battle between the Dutch and Spaniards—How England captured the Rock—An unrewarded hero—Spain’s attempts to reclaim it—The Great Siege—The Rock itself and its surroundings—The Straits—Ceuta, Gibraltar’s rival—The salinity of the Mediterranean—“Going up”—On to Malta.
In this and following chapters, we will ask the reader to accompany us in imagination round the world, on board a ship of the Royal Navy, visiting en route the principal British naval stations and possessions, and a few of those friendly foreign ports which, as on the Pacific station, stand in lieu of them. We cannot do better than commence with the Mediterranean, to which the young sailor will, in all probability, be sent for a cruise after he has been thoroughly “broken in” to the mysteries of life on board ship, and where he has an opportunity of visiting many ports of ancient renown and of great historical interest.
In this and the following chapters, we invite the reader to join us on a journey around the world, aboard a ship of the Royal Navy, visiting the main British naval stations and territories, as well as some friendly foreign ports that, like those on the Pacific station, serve as substitutes. We might as well start with the Mediterranean, where the young sailor will likely be sent for a cruise after he has been fully "broken in" to the ways of life on board ship, giving him the chance to visit many ports of historical significance and ancient fame.
The modern title applied to the sea “between the lands” is not that of the ancients, nor indeed that of some peoples now. The Greeks had no special name for it. Herodotus calls it “this sea;” and Strabo the “sea within the columns,” that is, within Calpe and Abyla—the fabled pillars of Hercules—to-day represented by Gibraltar and Ceuta. The Romans called it variously Mare Internum and Mare Nostrum, while the Arabians termed it Bahr Rüm—the Roman Sea. The modern Greeks call it Aspri Thalassa—the White Sea; it might as appropriately be called blue, that being its general colour, or green, as in the Adriatic, or purple, as at its eastern end: but they use it to distinguish it from the “Sea of Storms”—the Black Sea. The Straits—“the Gate of the Narrow Passage,” as the Arabians poetically describe it, or the Gut, as it is termed by our prosaic sailors and pilots—is the narrow portal to a great inland sea with an area of 800,000 miles, whose shores are as varied in character as are the peoples who own them. The Mediterranean is salter than the ocean, in spite of the great rivers which enter it—the Rhone, Po, Ebro, and Nile—and the innumerable smaller streams and torrents.69 It has other physical and special characteristics, to be hereafter considered.
The modern name used for the sea "between the lands" isn’t what the ancients used, nor is it the same for some cultures today. The Greeks didn’t have a specific name for it. Herodotus referred to it as “this ocean;” and Strabo called it the “ocean between the columns,” referring to Calpe and Abyla—the legendary pillars of Hercules, which we now know as Gibraltar and Ceuta. The Romans called it different names: Mare Internum and Our Sea, while the Arabs named it Bahr Rüm—the Roman Sea. Modern Greeks call it Aspri Thalassa—the White Sea; it could just as easily be called blue, since that's its general color, or green, like in the Adriatic, or purple, like at its eastern end. However, they use this name to differentiate it from the "Stormy Seas"—the Black Sea. The Straits—"the Gate of the Narrow Passage," as the Arabs poetically describe it, or the Gut, as our practical sailors and pilots call it—serve as the narrow entrance to a vast inland sea covering 800,000 square miles, with shores as diverse as the people who inhabit them. The Mediterranean is saltier than the ocean, despite the large rivers that flow into it—the Rhone, Po, Ebro, and Nile—and countless smaller streams and torrents.69 It has other physical and unique characteristics that will be discussed later.
The political and social events which have been mingled with its history are interwoven with those of almost every people on the face of the globe. We shall see how much our own has been shaped and involved. It was with the memory of the glorious deeds of British seamen and soldiers that Browning wrote, when sailing through the Straits:—
The political and social events that are connected to its history are intertwined with those of nearly every nation around the world. We'll explore how significantly our own has been influenced and intertwined. It was the memory of the heroic actions of British sailors and soldiers that inspired Browning while he was sailing through the Straits:—
And the poet is almost literally correct in his description, for within sight, as we enter the Straits of Gibraltar, are the localities of innumerable sea and land fights dating from earliest days. That grand old Rock, what has it not witnessed since the first timid mariner crept out of the Mediterranean into the Atlantic—the Mare Tenebrosum,—the “sea of darkness” of the ancients? Romans of old fought Carthaginian galleys in its bay; the conquering Moors held it uninterruptedly for six hundred years, and in all for over seven centuries; Spain owned it close on two and a half centuries; and England has dared the world to take it since 1704—one hundred and seventy-three years ago. Its very armorial bearings, which we have adopted from those given by Henry of Castile and Leon, are suggestive of its position and value: a castle on a rock with a key pendant—the key to the Mediterranean. The King of Spain still includes Calpe (Gibraltar) in his dominions; and natives of the place, Ford tells us, in his “Handbook to Spain,” are entitled to the rights and privileges of Spanish birth. It has, in days gone by, given great offence to French writers, who spoke of l’ombrageuse puissance with displeasure. “Sometimes,” says Ford, “there is too great a luxe de canons in this fortress ornée; then the gardens destroy ‘wild nature;’ in short, they abuse the red-jackets, guns, nursery-maids, and even the monkeys.” The present colony of apes are the descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Rock. They have held it through all vicissitudes.
And the poet is almost literally right in his description, because in sight, as we enter the Straits of Gibraltar, are the sites of countless sea and land battles from ancient times. That grand old Rock—what has it not seen since the first daring sailor ventured out of the Mediterranean into the Atlantic—the Dark Horse,—the "ocean of darkness" of the ancients? Romans fought Carthaginian ships in its bay; the conquering Moors maintained control for six hundred years, totaling over seven centuries; Spain owned it for nearly two and a half centuries; and England has challenged the world to take it since 1704—one hundred and seventy-three years ago. Its coat of arms, which we’ve taken from those given by Henry of Castile and Leon, reflects its significance and value: a castle on a rock with a key hanging down—the key to the Mediterranean. The King of Spain still includes Calpe (Gibraltar) in his realm; and locals, as Ford tells us in his “Guide to Spain,” have the rights and privileges of Spanish citizenship. It has offended French writers in the past, who referred to the shadowy power with disdain. "Sometimes," Ford says, "There's way too much luxe de canons in this fortress ornée; the gardens are ruining ‘wild nature;’ in short, they're misusing the red-jackets, guns, nannies, and even the monkeys." The current colony of apes are descendants of the original inhabitants of the Rock. They have survived through all challenges.
The Moorish writers were ever enthusiastic over it. With them it was “the Shining Mountain,” “the Mountain of Victory.” “The Mountain of Taric”70 (Gibraltar), says a Granadian poet, “is like a beacon spreading its rays over the sea, and rising far above the neighbouring mountains; one might fancy that its face almost reaches the sky, and that its eyes are watching the stars in the celestial track.” An Arabian writer well describes its position:—“The waters surround Gibraltar on almost every side, so as to make it look like a watch-tower in the midst of the sea.”
The Moorish writers were always excited about it. For them, it was "the Shining Mountain," “the Mountain of Triumph.” “Mount Taric”70 (Gibraltar), a Granadian poet says, “is like a beacon shining its light over the sea and towering above the nearby mountains; one could picture its face almost touching the sky, and its eyes gazing at the stars in the sky.” An Arabian writer aptly describes its position:—"The waters nearly encircle Gibraltar, giving it the appearance of a watchtower in the middle of the sea."
The fame of the last great siege, already briefly described in these pages,71 has so completely overshadowed the general history of the Rock that it will surprise many to learn that it has undergone no less than fourteen sieges. The Moors, after successfully invading Spain, first fortified it in 711, and held uninterrupted possession until 1309, when Ferdinand IV. besieged and took it. The Spaniards only held it twenty-five years, when it reverted to the Moors, who kept it till 1462. “Thus the Moors held it in all about seven centuries and a quarter, from the making a castle on the Rock to the last sorrowful departure of the remnants of the nation. It has been said that Gibraltar was the landing-place of the vigorous Moorish race, and that it was the point of departure on which their footsteps lingered last. In short, it was the European tête de pont, of which Ceuta stands as the African fellow. By these means myriads of Moslems passed into Spain, and with them much for which the Spaniards are wrongfully unthankful. It is said that when the Moors left their houses in Granada, which they [pg 90]did with, so to speak, everything standing, many families took with them the great wooden keys of their mansions, so confident were they of returning home again, when the keys should open the locks and the houses be joyful anew. It was not to be as thus longed for; but many families in Barbary still keep the keys of these long ago deserted and destroyed mansions.”72 And now we must mention an incident of its history, recorded in the “Norwegian Chronicles of the Kings,” concerning Sigurd the Crusader—the Pilgrim. After battling his way from the North, with sixty “long ships,” King Sigurd proceeded on his voyage to the Holy Land, “and came to Niörfa Sound (Gibraltar Straits), and in the Sound he was met by a large viking force (squadron of war-ships), and the King gave them battle; and this was his fifth engagement with heathens since the time he came from Norway. So says Halldor Skualldre:—
The fame of the last great siege, which has already been briefly described in these pages, has completely overshadowed the overall history of the Rock, so it might surprise many to learn that it has experienced no less than fourteen sieges. The Moors, after successfully invading Spain, first fortified it in 711 and maintained continuous possession until 1309, when Ferdinand IV besieged and captured it. The Spaniards held it for only twenty-five years before it reverted to the Moors, who kept it until 1462. The Moors controlled it for about seven and a quarter centuries, starting when they built a castle on the Rock to the last bittersweet departure of what was left of their nation. It's said that Gibraltar was where the vigorous Moorish race first landed and that it was the last point their footsteps touched. In short, it was the European tête de pont, with Ceuta as its counterpart in Africa. Through this route, countless Muslims came into Spain, bringing many things that the Spaniards mistakenly do not appreciate. When the Moors left their homes in Granada, they reportedly left everything as it was. Many families took the large wooden keys to their mansions, convinced they would return when the keys would fit the locks, and their homes would be filled with happiness once again. But that return was not destined to happen, and many families in Barbary still keep the keys to these long-abandoned and destroyed homes.72 Now we must mention an incident from its history, recorded in the "Norwegian Kings' Chronicles," concerning Sigurd the Crusader—the Pilgrim. After making his way from the North with sixty “longships,” King Sigurd continued on his journey to the Holy Land, "and arrived at Niörfa Sound (Gibraltar Straits), where he encountered a large Viking force (squadron of war-ships). The King fought against them; this was his fifth battle with pagans since leaving Norway. So says Halldor Skualldre:—"
Hence he went along Sarkland, or Saracen’s Land, Mauritania, where he attacked a strong party, who had their fortress in a cave, with a wall before it, in the face of a precipice: a place which was difficult to come at, and where the holders, who are said to have been freebooters, defied and ridiculed the Northmen, spreading their valuables on the top of the wall in their sight. Sigurd was equal to the occasion in craft as in force, for he had his ships’ boats drawn up the hill, filled them with archers and slingers, and lowered them before the mouth of the cavern, so that they were able to keep back the defenders long enough to allow the main body of the Northmen to ascend from the foot of the cliff and break down the wall. This done, Sigurd caused large trees to be brought to the mouth of the cave, and roasted the miserable wretches within.” Further fights, and he at last reached Jerusalem, where he was honourably received by Baldwin, whom he assisted with his ships at the siege of Sidon. Sigurd also visited Constantinople, where the Emperor Alexius offered him his choice: either to receive six skif-pound (or about a ton of gold), or see the great games of the hippodrome. The Northman wisely chose the latter, the cost of which was said to be equal to the value of the gold offered. Sigurd presented his ships to the Emperor, and their splendid prows were hung up in the church of St. Peter, at Constantinople.
He traveled through Sarkland, also known as Saracen’s Land, in Mauritania, where he attacked a strong group that had their fortress in a cave, protected by a wall facing a cliff: a difficult spot to reach, where the defenders, rumored to be pirates, mocked and taunted the Northmen, showcasing their treasures on top of the wall where they were visible. Sigurd was ready for the challenge, using both strategy and strength. He had the ships' boats hauled up the hill, filled them with archers and slingers, and lowered them at the cave's entrance to hold back the defenders long enough for the main group of Northmen to climb up from the base of the cliff and break down the wall. Once that was accomplished, Sigurd had large trees brought to the cave's entrance and roasted the unfortunate souls inside. After more battles, he finally reached Jerusalem, where Baldwin welcomed him honorably, and he helped with his ships during the siege of Sidon. Sigurd also visited Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius offered him a choice: either receive six skif-pound (or about a ton of gold), or watch the grand games at the hippodrome. The Northman wisely chose the latter, which was said to cost as much as the gold offered. Sigurd gave his ships to the Emperor, and their magnificent prows were hung up in the church of St. Peter in Constantinople.
In the year 1319, Pedro, Infante of Castile, fought the Moors at Granada. The latter were the victors, and their spoils were enormous, consisting in part of forty-three hundredweights of gold, one hundred and forty hundredweights of silver, with armour, arms, and horses in abundance. Fifty thousand Castilians were slain, and among the captives were the wife and children of the Infante. Gibraltar, then in the hands of Spain, with Tarifa and eighteen castles of the district, were offered, and refused for her ransom. The body of the Infante himself was stripped of its skin, and stuffed and hung over the gate of Granada.
In 1319, Pedro, Infante of Castile, battled the Moors at Granada. The Moors emerged victorious, and they seized an enormous amount of loot, including forty-three hundredweights of gold, one hundred and forty hundredweights of silver, along with plenty of armor, weapons, and horses. Fifty thousand Castilians were killed, and among the captives were the Infante's wife and children. Gibraltar, which was then under Spanish control, along with Tarifa and eighteen castles in the area, were offered for their ransom but ultimately rejected. The body of the Infante was skinned, stuffed, and hung over the gate of Granada.
The third siege occurred in the reign of Mohammed IV., when the Spanish held the [pg 91]Rock. The governor at that time, Vasco Perez de Meira, was an avaricious and dishonest man, who embezzled the dues and other resources of the place and neglected his charge. During the siege, a grain-ship fell on shore,73 and its cargo would have enabled him to hold out a long time. Instead of feeding his soldiers, who were reduced to eating leather, he gave and sold it to his prisoners, with the expectation of either getting heavy ransoms for them, or, if he should have to surrender, of making better terms for himself. It availed him nothing, for he had to capitulate; and then, not daring to face his sovereign, Alfonso XI., he had to flee to Africa, where he ended his days.
The third siege happened during the reign of Mohammed IV., when the Spanish controlled the [pg 91]Rock. At that time, the governor, Vasco Perez de Meira, was greedy and corrupt, embezzling funds and resources from the area while neglecting his responsibilities. During the siege, a cargo ship filled with grain washed ashore, and its supplies could have sustained his troops for a long time. Instead of providing food for his soldiers, who were forced to eat leather, he sold the grain to his prisoners in hopes of receiving hefty ransoms or negotiating better terms for himself if he had to surrender. It made no difference, as he ultimately had to capitulate, and fearing his sovereign, Alfonso XI., he fled to Africa, where he spent the rest of his life.
Alfonso besieged it twice. The first time the Granadians induced him to abandon it, promising a heavy ransom; the next time he commenced by reducing the neighbouring town of Algeciras, which was defended with great energy. When the Spaniards brought forward their wheeled towers of wood, covered with raw hides, the Moors discharged cannon loaded with red-hot balls. This is noteworthy, for cannon was not used by the English till three years after, at the battle of Creçy, while it is the first recorded instance of red-hot shot being used at all.74 It is further deserving of notice, that the very means employed at Algeciras were afterwards so successfully used at the great siege. After taking Algeciras, Alfonso blockaded Gibraltar, when the plague broke out in his camp; he died from it, and the Rock remained untaken. This was the epoch of one of those great pestilences which ravaged Europe. Fifty thousand souls perished in London in 1348 from its effects; Florence lost two-thirds of her population; in Saragossa three hundred died daily. The sixth attack on the part of the King of Fez was unsuccessful; as was that in 1436, when it was besieged by a wealthy noble—one of the De Gusmans. His forces were allowed to land in numbers on a narrow beach below the fortress, where they were soon exposed to the rising of the tide and the missiles of the besieged. De Gusman was drowned, and his body, picked up by the Moors, hung out for twenty-six years from the battlements, as a warning to ambitious nobles.
Alfonso laid siege to it twice. The first time, the Granadians got him to withdraw by promising a huge ransom. The second time, he started by taking the nearby town of Algeciras, which was defended fiercely. When the Spaniards brought out their wooden wheeled towers covered with raw hides, the Moors fired cannons loaded with red-hot balls. This is significant because cannons weren't used by the English until three years later at the Battle of Crécy, and this was the first recorded instance of red-hot shots being used at all.74 It’s also worth noting that the very tactics used at Algeciras were later successfully applied during the great siege. After capturing Algeciras, Alfonso blockaded Gibraltar, but then the plague broke out in his camp; he died from it, leaving the Rock still unconquered. This was during one of those major outbreaks that devastated Europe. Fifty thousand people died in London in 1348 from its effects; Florence lost two-thirds of its population; and in Zaragoza, three hundred died each day. The sixth attack by the King of Fez failed, as did the one in 1436 when a wealthy noble, one of the De Gusmans, besieged it. His forces were allowed to land in large numbers on a narrow beach below the fortress, where they quickly faced the rising tide and the missiles from the defenders. De Gusman drowned, and his body, recovered by the Moors, was hung from the battlements for twenty-six years as a warning to ambitious nobles.
At the eighth siege, in 1462, Gibraltar passed finally into Christian hands. The garrison was weak and the Spaniards gained an easy victory. When Henry IV. learned of its capture, he rejoiced greatly, and took immediate care to proclaim it a fief of the throne, adding to the royal titles that of Lord of Gibraltar. The armorial distinctions still borne by Gibraltar were first granted by him. The ninth siege, on the part of a De Gusman, was successful, and it for a time passed into the hands of a noble who had vast possessions and fisheries in the neighbourhood. Strange to say, such were the troubles of Spain at the time, that Henry the before-named, who was known as “the Weak,” two years after confirmed the title to the Rock to the son of the very man who had been constantly in arms against him. But after the civil wars, and at the advent of Ferdinand and Isabella, there was a decided change. Isabella, acting doubtless under [pg 92]the advice of her astute husband, whose entire policy was opposed to such aggrandisement on the part of a subject, tried to induce the duke to surrender it, offering in exchange the City of Utrera. Ayala75 tells us that he utterly refused. His great estates were protected by it, and he made it a kind of central depôt for his profitable tunny fisheries. He died in 1492, and the third duke applied to Isabella for a renewal of his grant and privileges. She promised all, but insisted that the Rock and fortress must revert to the Crown. But it was not till nine years afterwards that Isabella succeeded in compelling or inducing the Duke to surrender it formally. Dying in 1504, the queen testified her wishes as follows:—“It is my will and desire, insomuch as the city of Gibraltar has been surrendered to the Royal Crown, and been inserted among its titles, that it shall for ever so remain.” Two years after her death, Juan de Gusman tried to retake it, and blockaded it for four months, at the end of which time he abandoned the siege, and had to make reparation to those whose property had been injured. This is the only bloodless one among the fourteen sieges.
At the eighth siege in 1462, Gibraltar finally fell into Christian hands. The garrison was weak, and the Spaniards easily won. When Henry IV learned of its capture, he was very pleased and quickly declared it a fief of the throne, adding the title of Lord of Gibraltar to the royal titles. The armorial distinctions that Gibraltar still carries were first granted by him. The ninth siege, led by a De Gusman, was successful, and for a time it passed into the control of a noble who had extensive lands and fisheries nearby. Strangely, due to the troubles in Spain at that time, Henry, known as "the Weak," confirmed the title to the Rock to the son of the very man who had been repeatedly fighting against him, just two years later. However, after the civil wars and with the rise of Ferdinand and Isabella, things changed significantly. Isabella, likely acting on the advice of her clever husband, who opposed such power increases for his subjects, tried to persuade the duke to give it up, offering the City of Utrera in exchange. Ayala tells us that he completely refused. His large estates were protected by it, and he used it as a central hub for his profitable tuna fisheries. He died in 1492, and the third duke asked Isabella for a renewal of his grant and privileges. She promised everything but insisted that the Rock and fortress must return to the Crown. Yet, it wasn't until nine years later that Isabella managed to make or persuade the Duke to formally surrender it. Dying in 1504, the queen expressed her wishes as follows: “It is my will and desire, since the city of Gibraltar has been surrendered to the Royal Crown and included among its titles, that it shall forever remain so.” Two years after her death, Juan de Gusman attempted to retake it and blockaded it for four months, after which he abandoned the siege and had to compensate those whose properties were damaged. This was the only bloodless siege among the fourteen.
In 1540 a dash was made at the town, and even at a part of the fortress, by Corsairs. They plundered the neighbourhood, burned a chapel and hermitage, and dictated terms in the most high-handed way—that all the Turkish prisoners should be released, and that their galleys should be allowed to take water at the Gibraltar wells. They were afterwards severely chastised by a Spanish fleet.
In 1540, Corsairs launched an attack on the town and even part of the fortress. They looted the area, set fire to a chapel and a hermitage, and imposed demands in an extremely arrogant manner—demanding the release of all Turkish prisoners and that their ships be permitted to take on water at the Gibraltar wells. They were later harshly punished by a Spanish fleet.
In the wars between the Dutch and Spaniards a naval action occurred, in the year 1607, in the port of Gibraltar, which can hardly be omitted in its history. The great Sully has described it graphically when speaking of the efforts of the Dutch to secure the alliance of his master, Henry IV. of France, in their wars against Philip of Spain. He says: “Alvares d’Avila, the Spanish admiral, was ordered to cruise near the Straits of Gibraltar, to hinder the Dutch from entering the Mediterranean, and to deprive them of the trade of the Adriatic. The Dutch, to whom this was a most sensible mortification, gave the command of ten or twelve vessels to one of their ablest seamen, named Heemskerk, with the title of vice-admiral, and ordered him to go and reconnoitre this fleet, and attack it. D’Avila, though nearly twice as strong as his enemy, yet provided a reinforcement of twenty-six great ships, some of which were of a thousand tons burden, and augmented the number of his troops to three thousand five hundred men. With this accession of strength he thought himself so secure of victory that he brought a hundred and fifty gentlemen along with him only to be witnesses of it. However, instead of standing out to sea, as he ought to have done, he posted himself under the town and castle of Gibraltar, that he might not be obliged to fight but when he thought proper.
In the wars between the Dutch and Spaniards, a naval battle took place in 1607 in the port of Gibraltar, which is crucial to its history. The great Sully described it vividly while discussing the Dutch efforts to gain the alliance of his master, Henry IV of France, in their wars against Philip of Spain. He states: Alvares d’Avila, the Spanish admiral, was instructed to patrol near the Straits of Gibraltar to stop the Dutch from entering the Mediterranean and to disrupt their trade in the Adriatic. The Dutch, seeing this as a major setback, assigned ten or twelve ships to one of their top sailors, Heemskerk, who was named vice-admiral. He was tasked with monitoring this fleet and launching attacks against it. D’Avila, almost double the strength of his enemy, added twenty-six large ships, some weighing a thousand tons, and boosted his troop count to three thousand five hundred men. Feeling very confident about victory, he even brought along one hundred and fifty gentlemen to witness it. However, instead of heading out to sea as planned, he positioned himself under the town and castle of Gibraltar so he wouldn’t have to engage in battle unless he chose to.
“Heemskerk, who had taken none of these precautions, no sooner perceived that his enemy seemed to fear him than he advanced to attack him, and immediately began the most furious battle that was ever fought in the memory of man. It lasted eight whole hours. The Dutch vice-admiral, at the beginning, attacked the vessel in which the Spanish admiral was, grappled with, and was ready to board her. A cannon-ball, which wounded him in the thigh soon after the fight began, left him only a hour’s life, during which, and till within [pg 93]a moment of his death, he continued to give orders as if he felt no pain. When he found himself ready to expire, he delivered his sword to his lieutenant, obliging him and all that were with him to bind themselves by an oath either to conquer or die. The lieutenant caused the same oath to be taken by the people of all the other vessels, when nothing was heard but a general cry of ‘Victory or Death!’ At length the Dutch were victorious; they lost only two vessels, and about two hundred and fifty men; the Spaniards lost sixteen ships, three were consumed by fire, and the others, among which was the admiral’s ship, ran aground. D’Avila, with thirty-five captains, fifty of his volunteers, and two thousand eight hundred soldiers, lost their lives in the fight; a memorable action, which was not only the source of tears and affliction to many widows and private persons, but filled all Spain with horror.”76
Heemskerk, who hadn’t taken any precautions, quickly realized that his enemy seemed to be scared of him, so he decided to attack, launching the fiercest battle anyone could remember. It lasted a full eight hours. The Dutch vice-admiral started by assaulting the ship where the Spanish admiral was located, grappling with it and preparing to board. A cannonball hit him in the thigh shortly after the fight began, giving him only an hour to live, during which he kept giving orders as if he felt no pain. When he knew he was about to die, he handed his sword to his lieutenant, compelling him and everyone else with him to swear an oath to either conquer or die. The lieutenant made everyone on the other ships take the same oath, resulting in a united cry of ‘Victory or Death!’ In the end, the Dutch prevailed; they lost only two ships and around two hundred fifty men, while the Spaniards lost sixteen ships, three of which were burned and the others, including the admiral’s ship, ran aground. D’Avila, along with thirty-five captains, fifty volunteers, and two thousand eight hundred soldiers, lost their lives in the battle; it was a significant event that brought not only tears and sorrow to many widows and individuals but also filled all of Spain with horror.76
England won Gibraltar during the War of the Succession, when she was allied with Austria and Holland against Spain and France. The war had dragged on with varied results till 1704, when it was determined to attack Spain at home with the aid of the Portuguese. The commanders of the allied fleets and troops—i.e., the Landgrave George of Hesse-Darmstadt, Sir George Rooke, Admiral Byng, Sir Cloudesley Shovel, Admiral Leake, and the three [pg 94]Dutch admirals—determined to attack Gibraltar, believed to be weak in forces and stores. On the 21st of July, 1704, the fleet, which consisted of forty-five ships, six frigates, besides fire and bomb-ships, came to an anchor off the Rock, and landed 5,000 men, so as to at once cut off the supplies of the garrison. The commanders of the allied forces sent, on the morning after their arrival, a demand for the surrender of Gibraltar to the Archduke Charles, whose claims as rightful King of Spain they were supporting. The little garrison77 answered valiantly; and had their brave governor, the Marquis Diego de Salinas, been properly backed, the fortress might have been Spain’s to-day. The opening of the contest was signalised by the burning of a French privateer, followed by a furious cannonading: the new and old moles were speedily silenced, and large numbers of marines landed. The contest was quite unequal, and the besieged soon offered to capitulate with the honours of war, the right of retaining their property, and six days’ provisions. The garrison had three days allowed for its departure, and those, as well as the inhabitants of the Rock, who chose, might remain, with full civil and religious rights. Thus, in three days’ time the famous fortress fell into the hands of the allies, and possession was taken in the name of Charles III. Sir George Rooke, however, over-rode this, and pulled down the standard of Charles, setting up in its stead that of England. A garrison of 1,800 English seamen was landed. The English were, alone of the parties then present, competent to hold it; and at the Peace of Utrecht, 1711, it was formally ceded “absolutely, with all manner of right for ever, without exemption or impediment,” to Great Britain.
England took control of Gibraltar during the War of the Succession, when it was allied with Austria and Holland against Spain and France. The war had continued with mixed outcomes until 1704, when the decision was made to attack Spain directly with help from the Portuguese. The leaders of the allied fleets and forces—i.e. Landgrave George of Hesse-Darmstadt, Sir George Rooke, Admiral Byng, Sir Cloudesley Shovel, Admiral Leake, and the three [pg 94]Dutch admirals—decided to assault Gibraltar, which was believed to be under-manned and low on supplies. On July 21, 1704, the fleet, made up of forty-five ships and six frigates, in addition to fire and bomb ships, dropped anchor near the Rock and landed 5,000 troops to immediately cut off the supplies to the garrison. The commanders of the allied forces sent a demand for Gibraltar's surrender to Archduke Charles, whom they supported as the rightful King of Spain, the morning after their arrival. The small garrison responded bravely; and if their courageous governor, Marquis Diego de Salinas, had received proper support, the fortress might have remained under Spain's control. The beginning of the conflict was marked by the burning of a French privateer, followed by intense cannon fire: the new and old moles were quickly silenced, and many marines were landed. The odds were heavily in favor of the attackers, and the besieged soon offered to surrender with the honors of war, the right to keep their property, and six days' worth of provisions. The garrison was given three days to leave, and those who wished to stay, including the residents of the Rock, could do so with full civil and religious rights. Within three days, the notable fortress fell to the allies, and possession was taken in the name of Charles III. However, Sir George Rooke disregarded this and lowered Charles's flag, replacing it with England's. A garrison of 1,800 English sailors was established. The English were the only party able to maintain control of it; and at the Peace of Utrecht in 1711, it was formally ceded "definitely, with full rights forever, without any exceptions or barriers," to Great Britain.
The Spaniards departed from the fortress they had valiantly defended, the majority remaining at St. Roque. “Like some of the Moors whom they had dispossessed, their descendants are said to preserve until this day the records and family documents which form the bases of claims upon property on that Rock, which, for more than a century and a half, has known other masters.”
The Spaniards left the fortress they had bravely defended, with most of them staying at St. Roque. “Like some of the Moors they displaced, it's said that their descendants still maintain the records and family documents that support their claims to property on that Rock, which has had various owners for over a century and a half.”
Rooke went absolutely unrewarded. He was persistently ignored by the Government of the day, and being a man of moderate fortune, consulted his own dignity, and retired to his country seat. The same year, 1704, the Spanish again attempted, with the aid of France, to take Gibraltar. England had only three months to strengthen and repair the fortifications, and the force brought against the Rock was by no means contemptible, including as it did a fleet of two-and-twenty French men-of-war. Succour arrived; Sir John Leake succeeded in driving four of the enemy’s ships ashore. An attempt to escalade the fortress was made, under the guidance of a native goat-herd. He, with a company of men, succeeded in reaching the signal station, where a hard fight occurred, and our troops killed or disabled 160 men, and took the remnant prisoners. Two sallies were made from the Rock with great effect, while an attempt made by the enemy to enter through a narrow breach resulted in a sacrifice of 200 lives. A French fleet, under Pointé, arrived; the English admiral captured three and destroyed one of them—that of Pointé himself. To make a six months’ story short, the assailants lost 10,000 men, and then had to raise the siege. Although on several occasions our rulers have since the Peace of Utrecht proposed to cede or exchange the fortress, the spirit of the people would not permit it; and there can be [pg 95]no doubt whatever that our right to Gibraltar is not merely that of possession—nine points of the law—but cession wrung from a people unable to hold it. And that, in war, is fair.
Rooke went completely unrewarded. He was consistently overlooked by the government at the time, and being a man of modest means, he valued his own dignity and retreated to his country estate. The same year, 1704, the Spanish once again tried, with France's help, to take Gibraltar. England had only three months to strengthen and repair the fortifications, and the force that came against the Rock was significant, including a fleet of twenty-two French warships. Help arrived; Sir John Leake managed to drive four of the enemy's ships ashore. An attempt to storm the fortress was made, guided by a local goat-herd. He and a group of men reached the signal station, where a fierce battle took place, resulting in our troops killing or injuring 160 men and capturing the rest. Our forces made two effective sorties from the Rock, while the enemy's attempt to enter through a narrow breach led to the loss of 200 lives. A French fleet, led by Pointé, arrived; the English admiral captured three of their ships and destroyed one, which belonged to Pointé himself. To summarize a six-month story, the attackers lost 10,000 men and had to lift the siege. Although our leaders have proposed giving up or exchanging the fortress several times since the Peace of Utrecht, the people's spirit wouldn't allow it; and there is no doubt that our right to Gibraltar is not just based on possession—nine legal points—but on a cession forced from a people unable to hold it. And that, in war, is fair.
Twenty years later Spain again attempted to wring it from us. Mr. Stanhope, then our representative at Madrid, was told by Queen Isabella: “Either relinquish Gibraltar or your trade with the Indies.” We still hold Gibraltar, and our trade with the Indies is generally regarded as a tolerably good one. In December, 1726, peace or war was made the alternative regarding the cession; another bombardment followed. An officer78 present said that it was so severe that “we seemed to live in flames.” Negotiations for peace followed at no great distance of time, and the Spaniards suddenly drew off from the attack. Various offers, never consummated, were made for an exchange. Pitt proposed to cede it in exchange for Minorca, Spain to assist in recovering it from the French. At another time, Oran, a third-class port on the Mediterranean shores of Africa, was offered in exchange; and Mr. Fitzherbert, our diplomatist, was told that the King of Spain was “determined never to put a period to the present war” if we did not agree to the terms; and again, that Oran “ought to be accepted with gratitude.” The tone of Spain altered very considerably a short time afterwards, when the news arrived of the destruction of the floating batteries, and the failure of the grand attack.79 This was at the last—the great siege of history. A few additional details may be permitted before we pass to other subjects.
Twenty years later, Spain tried again to take it from us. Mr. Stanhope, our representative in Madrid at that time, was told by Queen Isabella: "Either give up Gibraltar or lose your trade with the Indies." We still hold Gibraltar, and our trade with the Indies is generally seen as quite successful. In December 1726, the choice was made between peace or war regarding the cession; another bombing followed. An officer78 present stated that it was so intense that "We felt like we were living in flames." Shortly after, negotiations for peace began, and the Spaniards unexpectedly withdrew from the attack. Various offers, which were never finalized, were made for an exchange. Pitt suggested giving it up in return for Minorca, with Spain agreeing to help recover it from the French. At another point, Oran, a third-class port on the Mediterranean coast of Africa, was offered in exchange; and Mr. Fitzherbert, our diplomat, was informed that the King of Spain was “committed to continuing the current war” if we didn’t accept the terms; and again, that Oran "should be accepted with gratitude." Spain's tone changed significantly soon after, once the news came in about the destruction of the floating batteries and the failure of the major attack.79 This was, after all, the great siege of history. A few more details may be included before we move on to other topics.
The actual siege occupied three years and seven months, and for one year and nine months the bombardment went on without cessation. The actual losses on the part of the enemy can hardly be estimated; 1,473 were killed, wounded, or missing on the floating batteries alone. But for brave Curtis, who took a pinnace to the rescue of the poor wretches on the batteries, then in flames, and the ammunition of which was exploding every minute, more than 350 fresh victims must have gone to their last account. His boat was engulfed amid the falling ruins; a large piece of timber fell through its flooring, killing the coxswain and wounding others. The sailors stuffed their jackets into the leak, and succeeded in saving the lives of 357 of their late enemies. For many days consecutively they had been peppering us at the rate of 6,500 shots, and over 2,000 shells each twenty-four hours. With the destruction of the floating batteries “the siege was virtually concluded. The contest was at an end, and the united strength of two ambitious and powerful nations had been humbled by a straitened garrison of 6,000 effective men.”80 Our losses were comparatively small, though thrice the troops were on the verge of famine. At the period of the great siege the Rock mounted only 100 guns; now it has 1,000, many of them of great calibre. In France, victory for the allies was regarded as such a foregone conclusion that “a drama, illustrative of the destruction of Gibraltar by the floating batteries, was acted nightly to applauding thousands!”81 The siege has, we believe, been a favourite subject at the minor English theatres many a time since; but it need not be stated that the views taken of the result were widely different to those popular at that time in Paris.
The actual siege lasted three years and seven months, with relentless bombardment for one year and nine months. The enemy’s losses are hard to measure; 1,473 were killed, wounded, or missing just from the floating batteries. If it weren’t for brave Curtis, who took a small boat to rescue the poor souls on the burning batteries, where ammunition was exploding every minute, more than 350 additional victims would have perished. His boat was engulfed by collapsing debris; a large piece of timber crashed through its floor, killing the coxswain and injuring others. The sailors stuffed their jackets into the leak and managed to save 357 of their former enemies. For many consecutive days, they pounded us with an average of 6,500 shots and over 2,000 shells every twenty-four hours. With the destruction of the floating batteries, "The siege was basically over. The battle was done, and the combined power of two ambitious and strong nations had been defeated by a limited garrison of 6,000 effective troops."80 Our losses were relatively small, even though the troops faced famine three times. During the peak of the great siege, the Rock had only 100 guns; it now boasts 1,000, many of which are of large caliber. In France, victory for the allies was seen as such a sure thing that "A drama showcasing the destruction of Gibraltar by the floating batteries was performed every night to enthusiastic crowds!"81 The siege has, we believe, been a favorite topic at various smaller English theaters many times since; but it's worth noting that the perceptions of the outcome were quite different from those popular at that time in Paris.
Gibraltar has had an eventful history even since the great siege. In 1804 a terrible epidemic swept the Rock; 5,733 out of a population of 15,000 died in a few weeks. The climate is warm and pleasant, but it is not considered the most healthy of localities even [pg 96]now. And on the 28th of October, 1805, the Victory, in tow of the Neptune, entered the bay, with the body of Nelson on board. The fatal shot had done its work; only eleven days before he had written to General Fox one of his happy, pleasant letters.
Gibraltar has had a dramatic history ever since the great siege. In 1804, a horrific epidemic swept through the Rock; 5,733 out of a population of 15,000 died in just a few weeks. The climate is warm and pleasant, but it isn’t considered the healthiest place even [pg 96]now. Then, on October 28, 1805, the Win, towed by the Neptune, entered the bay with Nelson's body on board. The fatal shot had done its job; just eleven days earlier, he had written to General Fox one of his happy, cheerful letters.
The Rock itself is a compact limestone, a form of grey dense marble varied by beds of red sandstone. It abounds in caves and fissures, and advantage has been taken of these facts to bore galleries, the most celebrated of which are St. Michael’s and Martin’s, the former 1,100 feet above the sea. Tradition makes it a barren rock; but the botanists tell us differently. There are 456 species of indigenous flowering plants, besides many which have been introduced. The advantages of its natural position have been everywhere utilised. It bristles with batteries, many of which can hardly be seen. Captain Sayer tells us that every spot where a gun could be brought to bear on an enemy has one. “Wandering,” says he, “through the geranium-edged paths on the hill-side, or clambering up the rugged cliffs to the eastward, one stumbles unexpectedly upon a gun of the heaviest metal lodged in a secluded nook, with its ammunition, round shot, canister, and case piled around it, ready at any instant.... The shrubs and flowers that grow on the cultivated places, and are preserved from injury with so much solicitude, are often [pg 97]but the masks of guns, which lie crouched beneath the leaves ready for the port-fire.” Everywhere, all stands ready for defence. War and peace are strangely mingled.
The Rock itself is a solid limestone, a type of grey, dense marble interspersed with layers of red sandstone. It's full of caves and cracks, and these features have been used to create tunnels, the most famous of which are St. Michael’s and Martin’s, with the former being 1,100 feet above sea level. Although tradition deems it a barren rock, botanists have a different story. There are 456 species of native flowering plants, in addition to many more that have been brought in. Its natural position has been fully utilized. It’s lined with fortifications, many of which are almost invisible. Captain Sayer notes that every spot where a gun could be aimed at an enemy is equipped with one. “Roaming,” he says, "Walking along the paths lined with geraniums on the hillside, or climbing the rugged cliffs to the east, you might unexpectedly find a heavy gun hidden away in a secluded spot, surrounded by its ammunition, round shots, canisters, and cases stacked around it, ready to fire at any moment.... The plants and flowers in the cultivated areas are carefully maintained, but the camouflaged guns lurking beneath the foliage are prepared for action." Everywhere, everything is set for defense. War and peace are oddly intertwined.
Gibraltar has one of the finest colonial libraries in the world, founded by the celebrated Colonel Drinkwater, whose account of the great siege is still the standard authority. The town possesses some advantages; but as 15,000 souls out of a population of about double that number are crowded into one square mile, it is not altogether a healthy place—albeit much improved of late years. Rents are exorbitant; but ordinary living and bad liquors are cheap. It is by no means the best place in the world for “Jack ashore,” for, as Shakespeare tells us, “sailors” are “but men,” and there be “land rats and water rats,” who live on their weaknesses. The town has a very mongrel population, of all shades of colour and character. Alas! the monkeys, who were the first inhabitants of the Rock—tailless Barbary apes—are now becoming scarce. Many a poor Jocko has fallen from the enemy’s shot, killed in battles which he, at least, never provoked.
Gibraltar has one of the best colonial libraries in the world, established by the renowned Colonel Drinkwater, whose account of the great siege remains the definitive source. The town has its perks; however, with 15,000 people crammed into just one square mile of a total population roughly double that, it's not exactly a healthy place—though it has improved significantly in recent years. Rents are outrageous, but day-to-day living and cheap alcohol are affordable. It's definitely not the ideal spot for “Jack is ashore,” because, as Shakespeare says, “sailors” are "just guys," and there are “land rats and water rats,” who prey on their vulnerabilities. The town has a very mixed population, with all kinds of colors and personalities. Unfortunately, the monkeys—tailless Barbary apes, the first inhabitants of the Rock—are becoming rare. Many a poor Jocko has been taken down by enemy fire, killed in conflicts he certainly never started.
The scenery of the Straits, which we are now about to enter, is fresh and pleasant, and as we commenced with an extract from one well-known poet, we may be allowed to finish with that of another, which, if more hackneyed, is still expressive and beautiful. Byron’s well-known lines will recur to many of our readers:—
The scenery of the Straits, which we are about to enter, is fresh and enjoyable, and since we started with a quote from a famous poet, we can end with one from another, which, although more commonly heard, is still meaningful and beautiful. Byron's famous lines will come to mind for many of our readers:—
In the distance gleams Mons Abyla—the Apes’ Hill of sailors—a term which could have been, for a very long time, as appropriately given to Gibraltar. It is the other sentinel of the Straits; while Ceuta, the strong fortress built on its flanks, is held by Spain on Moorish soil, just as we hold the Rock of Rocks on theirs. Its name is probably a corruption of Septem—Seven—from the number of hills on which it is built. It is to-day a military prison, there usually being here two or three thousand convicts, while both convicts and fortress are guarded by a strong garrison of 3,500 soldiers. These in their turn were, only a few years ago, guarded by the jealous Moors, who shot both guards and prisoners if they dared to emerge in the neighbourhood. There is, besides, a town, as at Gibraltar, with over 15,000 inhabitants, and at the present day holiday excursions are commonly made across the Straits in strong little steamers or other craft. The tide runs into the Straits from the Atlantic at the rate of four or more knots per hour, and yet all this water, with that of the innumerable streams and rivers which fall into the Mediterranean, scarcely suffice to raise a perceptible tide! What becomes of all this water? Is there a hole in the earth through which it runs off? Hardly: evaporation is probably the true secret of its disappearance: and that this is the reason is proved by the greater saltness of the Mediterranean as compared with the Atlantic.
In the distance shines Mons Abyla—the Apes’ Hill of sailors—a name that could have been just as fitting for Gibraltar for a long time. It’s the other guardian of the Straits; while Ceuta, the strong fortress built into its side, is held by Spain on Moorish land, just like we hold the Rock of Rocks on theirs. Its name probably comes from September—meaning Seven—reflecting the number of hills it's built on. Today, it's a military prison, usually housing two or three thousand inmates, while both the convicts and the fortress are protected by a strong garrison of 3,500 soldiers. Not long ago, these soldiers were watched over by the jealous Moors, who shot both guards and prisoners if they ventured too close. There’s also a town, like at Gibraltar, with over 15,000 residents, and these days, holiday trips across the Straits are commonly taken in sturdy little steamers or other boats. The tide flows into the Straits from the Atlantic at a speed of four or more knots per hour, yet all this water, along with countless streams and rivers entering the Mediterranean, barely creates a noticeable tide! What happens to all this water? Is there a hole in the earth where it drains away? Probably not: evaporation is likely the real reason for its disappearance, which is supported by the greater salinity of the Mediterranean compared to the Atlantic.
In sailor’s parlance, “going aloft” has a number of meanings. He climbs the slippery shrouds to “go aloft;” and when at last, like poor Tom Bowling, he lies a “sheer hulk,” and—
In sailor's terms, "climbing up" has several meanings. He climbs the slippery ropes to "climb up;" and when he finally ends up, like poor Tom Bowling, lying a "sheer hulk," and—
“Going-aloft” in the Mediterranean has a very different meaning: it signifies passing upwards and eastwards from the Straits of Gibraltar.82 We are now going aloft to Malta, a British possession hardly second to that of the famed Rock itself.
“Going aloft” in the Mediterranean has a very different meaning: it means heading up and east from the Straits of Gibraltar.82 We are now going aloft to Malta, a British territory that's almost as notable as the famous Rock itself.
CHAPTER 7.
Sailing Around the World on a Warship I'm sorry, but there doesn't seem to be any text provided for modernization. Please provide the phrases you'd like me to work on.continued).
Malta and the Suez Canal.
Calypso’s Isle—A Convict Paradise—Malta, the “Flower of the World”—The Knights of St. John—Rise of the Order—The Crescent and the Cross—The Siege of Rhodes—L’Isle Adam in London—The Great Siege of Malta—Horrible Episodes—Malta in French and English Hands—St. Paul’s Cave—The Catacombs—Modern Incidents—The Shipwreck of St. Paul—Gales in the Mediterranean—Experiences of Nelson and Collingwood—Squalls in the Bay of San Francisco—A Man Overboard—Special Winds of the Mediterranean—The Suez Canal and M. de Lesseps—His Diplomatic Career—Saïd Pacha as a Boy—As a Viceroy—The Plan Settled—Financial Troubles—Construction of the Canal—The Inauguration Fête—Suez—Passage of the Children of Israel through the Red Sea.
Calypso's Isle—A Convict Paradise—Malta, the “Flower of the World”—The Knights of St. John—The Rise of the Order—The Crescent and the Cross—The Siege of Rhodes—L’Isle Adam in London—The Great Siege of Malta—Horrific Events—Malta Under French and English Control—St. Paul’s Cave—The Catacombs—Recent Events—The Shipwreck of St. Paul—Storms in the Mediterranean—Experiences of Nelson and Collingwood—Squalls in San Francisco Bay—A Man Overboard—Unique Winds of the Mediterranean—The Suez Canal and M. de Lesseps—His Diplomatic Career—Saïd Pacha as a Child—As a Viceroy—The Plan Finalized—Financial Issues—Building the Canal—The Inauguration Celebration—Suez—The Journey of the Children of Israel through the Red Sea.
Approaching Malta, we must “not in silence pass Calypso’s Isle.” Warburton describes it, in his delightful work on the East83—a classic on the Mediterranean—as a little paradise, with all the beauties of a continent in miniature; little mountains with craggy summits, little valleys with cascades and rivers, lawny meadows and dark woods, trim gardens and tangled vineyards—all within a circuit of five or six miles.
Approaching Malta, we must "not sail past Calypso's Isle without saying something." Warburton talks about it in his wonderful book on the East83—a classic about the Mediterranean—describing it as a tiny paradise, featuring all the beauties of a continent in miniature: small mountains with rocky peaks, little valleys with waterfalls and rivers, grassy meadows and dark forests, neat gardens and overgrown vineyards—all within a span of five or six miles.
One or two uninhabited little islands, “that seem to have strayed from the continent and lost their way,” dot the sea between the pleasant penal settlement and Gozo, which is also a claimant for the doubtful honour of Calypso’s Isle. Narrow straits separate it from the rock, the “inhabited quarry,” called Malta, of which Valetta is the port. The capital is a cross between a Spanish and an Eastern town; most of its streets are flights of steps.
One or two uninhabited little islands, "that appear to have wandered off the continent and gotten lost," are scattered in the sea between the pleasant penal settlement and Gozo, which also claims to be Calypso’s Isle. Narrow straits separate it from the rocky island, the “occupied quarry,” known as Malta, where Valletta is the port. The capital feels like a mix of a Spanish town and an Eastern city; most of its streets are steep steps.
Although the climate is delightful, it is extremely warm, and there is usually a glare of heat about the place, owing to its rocky nature and limited amount of tree-shade. “All Malta,” writes Tallack,84 “seems to be light yellow—light yellow rocks, light yellow fortifications, light yellow stone walls, light yellow flat-topped houses, light yellow palaces, light yellow roads and streets.” Stones and stone walls are the chief and conspicuous objects in a Maltese landscape; and for good reason, for the very limited soil is propped up and kept in bounds by them on the hills. With the scanty depth of earth the vegetation between the said stone walls is wonderful. The green bushy carob and prickly cactus are [pg 99]to be seen; but in the immediate neighbourhood of Malta few trees, only an occasional and solitary palm. Over all, the bright blue sky; around, the deep blue sea. You must not say anything to a Maltese against it; with him it is “Flor del Mondo”—the “Flower of the World.”
Although the climate is lovely, it is very hot, and there is usually a heat haze in the area due to its rocky landscape and limited tree shade. “All of Malta,” writes Tallack,84 "looks light yellow—light yellow rocks, light yellow fortifications, light yellow stone walls, light yellow flat-roofed houses, light yellow palaces, light yellow roads, and streets." Stones and stone walls are the main and noticeable features in a Maltese landscape, and for good reason, as the very limited soil is supported and contained by them on the hills. With the shallow depth of earth, the plants growing between those stone walls are impressive. The green, bushy carob and prickly cactus are [pg 99]common to see; however, in the immediate area of Malta, there are few trees, just the occasional solitary palm. Above, the sky is a bright blue; around, the sea is a deep blue. You shouldn’t say anything negative about it to a Maltese person; to them, it is "Flower of the World"—the “Flower of the World.”
The poorest natives live in capital stone houses, many of them with façades and fronts which would be considered ornamental in an English town. The terraced roofs make up to its cooped inhabitants the space lost by building. There are five or six hundred promenadable roofs in the city. Tallack says that the island generally is the abode of industry and contentment. Expenses are high, except as regards the purchase of fruits, including the famed “blood,” “Mandolin” (sometimes called quite as correctly “Mandarin”) oranges, and Japan medlars, and Marsala wine from Sicily. The natives live simply, as a rule, but the officers and foreign residents commonly do not; and it is true here, as Ford says of the military gentlemen at Gibraltar, that their faces often look somewhat redder than their jackets in consequence. As in India, many unwisely adopt the high living of their class, in a climate where a cool and temperate diet is indispensable.
The poorest locals live in solid stone houses, many of which have façades and front designs that would be seen as decorative in an English town. The terraced roofs compensate for the space lost by building. There are five or six hundred roofs in the city where people can stroll. Tallack mentions that the island is generally a place of industry and happiness. Living costs are high, except for buying fruits, including the famous "blood," "Mandolin" (sometimes more accurately called "Mandarin") oranges, Japan medlars, and Marsala wine from Sicily. The locals tend to live simply, but officers and foreign residents usually do not; it’s true here, as Ford notes about the military men in Gibraltar, that their faces often appear redder than their jackets as a result. Like in India, many foolishly adopt the lavish lifestyle of their class in a climate where a cool and moderate diet is essential.
The four great characteristics of Malta are soldiers, priests, goats, and bells—the latter not being confined to the necks of the goats, but jangling at all hours from the many church towers. The goats pervade everywhere; there is scarcely any cow’s milk to be obtained in Malta. They may often be seen with sheep, as in the patriarchal days of yore, following their owners, in accordance with the pastoral allusions of the Bible.
The four main characteristics of Malta are soldiers, priests, goats, and bells—the latter not just attached to the goats but ringing at all hours from the many church towers. The goats are everywhere; it's hard to find cow’s milk in Malta. They can often be seen with sheep, just like in the ancient biblical times, following their owners in a pastoral scene.
What nature commenced in Valetta, art has finished. It has a land-locked harbour—really several, running into each other—surrounded by high fortified walls, above which rise houses, and other fortifications above them. There are galleries in the rock following the Gibraltar precedent, and batteries bristling with guns; barracks, magazines, large docks, foundry, lathe-rooms, and a bakery for the use of the “United” Service.
What nature started in Valletta, art has completed. It has a landlocked harbor—actually several that connect with each other—surrounded by tall fortified walls, above which are houses and other fortifications. There are galleries in the rock following the example set by Gibraltar, and batteries filled with cannons; barracks, magazines, large docks, a foundry, workshops, and a bakery for the use of the "Together" Service.
To every visitor the gorgeous church of San Giovanni, with its vaulted roof of gilded arabesque, its crimson hangings, and carved pulpits, is a great object of interest. Its floor resembles one grand escutcheon—a mosaic of knightly tombs, recalling days when Malta was a harbour of saintly refuge and princely hospitality for crusaders and pilgrims of the cross. An inner chapel is guarded by massive silver rails, saved from the French by the cunning of a priest, who, on their approach, painted them wood-colour, and their real nature was never suspected. But amid all the splendour of the venerable pile, its proudest possession to-day is a bunch of old rusty keys—the keys of Rhodes, the keys of the Knights of St. John. What history is not locked up with those keys! There is hardly a country in Europe, Asia, or Northern Africa, the history of which has not been more or less entangled with that of these Knights of the Cross, who, driven by the conquering Crescent from Jerusalem, took refuge successively in Cyprus, Rhodes, Candia, Messina, and finally, Malta.
To every visitor, the stunning church of San Giovanni, with its vaulted roof adorned in gilded arabesque, rich crimson hangings, and intricately carved pulpits, is a major point of interest. Its floor resembles an enormous coat of arms—a mosaic of knightly tombs, reminiscent of the days when Malta was a haven of holy refuge and royal hospitality for crusaders and cross-bearing pilgrims. An inner chapel is protected by heavy silver railings, saved from the French by the cleverness of a priest, who painted them to look like wood, so their true nature was never discovered. But amidst the grandeur of this ancient structure, its most prized possession today is a collection of old, rusty keys—the keys of Rhodes, belonging to the Knights of St. John. What history is locked away with those keys! There's hardly a country in Europe, Asia, or Northern Africa whose history hasn't been intertwined, to some degree, with that of these Knights of the Cross, who, driven from Jerusalem by the conquering Crescent, sought refuge in Cyprus, Rhodes, Candia, Messina, and finally, Malta.
The island had an important place in history and commerce long ere that period. The Phœnicians held it 700 years; the Greeks a century and a half. The Romans retained it for as long a period as the Phœnicians; and after being ravaged by Goths and Vandals, it was for three and a half centuries an appanage of the crown of Byzantium. Next came the Arabs, who were succeeded by the Normans, and soon after it had become a German possession, Charles V. presented it to the homeless knights.
The island had a significant role in history and trade long before that time. The Phoenicians held it for 700 years; the Greeks for a century and a half. The Romans kept it for as long as the Phoenicians did; after being destroyed by Goths and Vandals, it became a territory of the Byzantine Empire for three and a half centuries. Then came the Arabs, followed by the Normans, and shortly after it became a German possession, which Charles V. gifted to the knightly orders without homes.
In the middle of the eleventh century, some merchants of the then flourishing commercial city of Amalfi obtained permission to erect three hostelries or hospitals in the Holy City, for the relief of poor and invalided pilgrims. On the taking of Jerusalem by the Crusaders, the position and prospects of the hospitals of St. John became greatly improved. The organisation became a recognised religious order, vowing poverty, obedience, and chastity. Its members were distinguished by a white cross of four double points worn on a black robe, of the form commonly to be met in the Maltese filigree jewellery of to-day, often to be noted in our West End and other shops. Branch hospitals spread all over Europe with the same admirable objects, and the order received constant acquisitions of property. Under the guidance of Raymond du Puy, military service was added to the other vows, and the monks became the White Cross Knights.85 Henceforth each seat of the order became a military garrison in addition to a hospice, and each knight held himself in readiness to aid with his arms his distressed brethren against the infidel.
In the middle of the eleventh century, some merchants from the thriving commercial city of Amalfi got permission to build three inns or hospitals in the Holy City to help poor and sick pilgrims. When the Crusaders took Jerusalem, the situation and prospects of the hospitals of St. John improved significantly. The organization became a recognized religious order, pledging to live in poverty, obedience, and chastity. Its members were recognized by a white cross with four double points worn on a black robe, similar to the Maltese filigree jewelry you'll find in today's West End shops. Branch hospitals opened across Europe with the same admirable goals, and the order continually acquired more property. Under the leadership of Raymond du Puy, military service was added to the other vows, and the monks became the White Cross Knights. From then on, each location of the order served as both a military garrison and a hospice, and each knight was ready to help their fellow soldiers against the infidels.
Slowly but surely the Crescent overshadowed the Cross: the Holy City had to be evacuated. The pious knights, after wandering first to Cyprus, settled quietly in Rhodes, where for two centuries they maintained a sturdy resistance against the Turks. At the first siege, in 1480, a handful of the former resisted 70,000 of the latter. The bombardment [pg 102]was so terrific that it is stated to have been heard a hundred miles off, and for this extraordinary defence, Peter d’Aubusson, Grand Master, was made a cardinal by the Pope. At the second siege, L’Isle Adam, with 600 Knights of St. John, and 4,500 troops, resisted and long repelled a force of 200,000 infidels. But the odds were too great against him, and after a brave but hopeless defence, which won admiration even from the enemy, L’Isle Adam capitulated. After personal visits to the Pope, and to the Courts of Madrid, Paris, and London, the then almost valueless Rock of Malta was bestowed on the knights in 1530. Its noble harbours, and deep and sheltered inlets were then as now, but there was only one little town, called Burgo—Valetta as yet was not.
Slowly but surely, the Crescent began to overshadow the Cross: the Holy City had to be evacuated. The devoted knights first wandered to Cyprus and then settled quietly in Rhodes, where they held a strong resistance against the Turks for two centuries. During the first siege in 1480, a small group of them resisted 70,000 Turks. The bombardment [pg 102]was so intense that it was said to be heard a hundred miles away, and for this remarkable defense, Peter d’Aubusson, the Grand Master, was made a cardinal by the Pope. In the second siege, L’Isle Adam, with 600 Knights of St. John and 4,500 troops, resisted and held off a force of 200,000 infidels for a long time. But the odds were too great against him, and after a brave but hopeless defense that earned admiration even from the enemy, L’Isle Adam surrendered. After personal visits to the Pope and to the courts in Madrid, Paris, and London, the almost worthless Rock of Malta was given to the knights in 1530. Its noble harbors and deep, sheltered inlets were similar to what they are now, but there was only one small town called Burgo—Valetta did not exist yet.
In London, L’Isle Adam lodged at the provincial hostelry of the order, St. John’s Clerkenwell, still a house of entertainment, though of a very different kind. Henry VIII. received him with apparent cordiality, and shortly afterwards confiscated all the English possessions of the knights! This was but a trifle among their troubles, for in 1565 they were again besieged in Malta. Their military knowledge, and especially that of their leader, the great La Valette, had enabled them to already strongly fortify the place. La Valette had 500 knights and 9,000 soldiers, while the Turks had 30,000 fighting men, conveyed thither in 200 galleys, and were afterwards reinforced by the Algerine corsair, Drugot, and his men. A desperate resistance was made: 2,000 Turks were killed in a single day. The latter took the fortress of St. Elmo, with the loss of Drugot—just before the terror of the Mediterranean—who was killed by a splinter of rock, knocked off by a cannon-ball in its flight. The garrison was at length reduced to sixty men, who attended their devotions in the chapel for the last time. Many of these were fearfully wounded, but even then the old spirit asserted itself, and they desired to be carried to the ramparts in chairs to lay down their lives in obedience to the vows of their order. Next day few of that devoted sixty were alive, a very small number escaping by swimming. The attempts on the other forts, St. Michael and St. Angelo, were foiled. Into the Eastern Harbour (now the Grand), Mustapha ordered the dead bodies of the Christian knights and soldiers to be cast. They were spread out on boards in the form of a cross, and floated by the tide across to the besieged with La Valette, where they were sorrowfully taken up and interred. In exasperated retaliation, La Valette fired the heads of the Turkish slain back at their former companions—a horrible episode of a fearful struggle. St. Elmo alone cost the lives of 8,000 Turks, 150 Knights of St. John, and 1,300 of their men. After many false promises of assistance, and months of terrible suspense and suffering, an auxiliary force arrived from Sicily, and the Turks retired. Out of the 9,500 soldiers and knights who were originally with La Valette, only 500 were alive at the termination of the great siege.
In London, L’Isle Adam stayed at the local inn of the order, St. John’s Clerkenwell, which was still a place of hospitality, though of a very different sort. Henry VIII welcomed him with apparent friendliness, and shortly after that, confiscated all the English possessions of the knights! This was just a minor issue among their troubles, for in 1565 they were once again besieged in Malta. Their military expertise, especially that of their leader, the great La Valette, allowed them to strongly fortify the location. La Valette had 500 knights and 9,000 soldiers, while the Turks had 30,000 troops, transported there on 200 galleys, and were later reinforced by the Algerine corsair, Drugot, and his men. A desperate resistance was mounted: 2,000 Turks were killed in a single day. The Turks captured the fortress of St. Elmo, losing Drugot—who was killed by a rock splinter dislodged by a cannonball in its flight—just before becoming the terror of the Mediterranean. The garrison was eventually reduced to sixty men, who attended their last rites in the chapel. Many of them were badly injured, but despite that, the old spirit emerged, and they wanted to be carried to the ramparts in chairs to lay down their lives in keeping with their vows. The next day, few of that devoted sixty were still alive, with only a tiny number escaping by swimming. Attempts to take the other forts, St. Michael and St. Angelo, were thwarted. Mustapha ordered the bodies of the Christian knights and soldiers to be thrown into the Eastern Harbour (now the Grand). They were laid out on boards in the shape of a cross and carried by the tide to the besieged with La Valette, where they were sadly retrieved and buried. In an act of furious retaliation, La Valette shot back the heads of the Turkish dead at their former comrades—a horrific moment in a dreadful struggle. St. Elmo alone cost the lives of 8,000 Turks, 150 Knights of St. John, and 1,300 of their men. After many empty promises of assistance, and months of awful tension and suffering, a reinforcement arrived from Sicily, prompting the Turks to retreat. Out of the 9,500 soldiers and knights who were initially with La Valette, only 500 survived by the end of the great siege.
This memorable defence was the last of the special exploits of the White Cross Knights, and they rested on their laurels, the order becoming wealthy, luxurious, and not a little demoralised. When the French Revolution broke out in 1789, the confiscation of their property in France naturally followed; for they had been helping Louis XVI. with their revenues just previously. Nine years later, Napoleon managed, by skilful intrigues, to obtain quiet possession of Malta. But he could not keep it, for after two years of blockade it was won by Great Britain, and she has held it ever since. At the Congress of [pg 103]Vienna in 1814, our possession was formally ratified. We hold it on as good a title as we do Gibraltar, by rights acknowledged at the signing of the Peace Treaty.86
This memorable defense was the last of the special exploits of the White Cross Knights, and they became complacent, leading to the order becoming wealthy, luxurious, and somewhat demoralized. When the French Revolution started in 1789, their property in France was naturally confiscated; they had been financially supporting Louis XVI. just before that. Nine years later, Napoleon cleverly managed to take control of Malta. However, he couldn’t keep it, as Great Britain captured it after two years of blockade, and they’ve held it ever since. At the Congress of [pg 103]Vienna in 1814, our claim was formally confirmed. We hold it on as strong a claim as we do Gibraltar, based on the rights acknowledged at the signing of the Peace Treaty.86
The supposed scene of St. Paul’s shipwreck is constantly visited, and although some have doubted whether the Melita of St. Luke is not the island of the same name in the Adriatic, tradition and probability point to Malta.87 At St. Paul’s Bay, there is a small chapel over the cave, with a statue of the apostle in marble, with the viper in his hand. Colonel Shaw tells us that the priest who shows the cave recommended him to take a piece of the stone as a specific against shipwreck, saying, “Take away as much as you please, you will not diminish the cave.” Some of the priests aver that there is a miraculous renovation, and that it cannot diminish! and when they tell you that under one of the Maltese churches the great apostle did penance in a cell for three months, it looks still more as though they are drawing on their imagination.
The supposed spot where St. Paul’s shipwreck happened is always visited, and while some have questioned whether St. Luke’s Melita is actually the island of the same name in the Adriatic, tradition and reason suggest it’s Malta. At St. Paul’s Bay, there’s a small chapel above the cave, featuring a marble statue of the apostle holding a viper in his hand. Colonel Shaw shares that the priest who guides visitors to the cave advised him to take a piece of stone as a charm against shipwrecks, saying, "Take as much as you want; it won't lessen the cave." Some priests claim there’s a miraculous renewal, insisting it cannot be reduced! And when they inform you that under one of the Maltese churches, the great apostle did repentance in a cell for three months, it starts to feel like they’re really just using their imagination.
The great catacombs at Citta Vecchia, Malta, were constructed by the natives as places of refuge from the Turks. They consist of whole streets, with houses and sleeping-places. They were later used for tombs. There are other remains on the island of much greater antiquity, Hagiar Chem (the stones of veneration) date from Phœnician days. These include a temple resembling Stonehenge, on a smaller scale, where there are seven statuettes with a grotesque rotundity of outline, the seven Phœnician Cabiri (deities; “great and powerful ones”). There are also seven divisions to the temple, which is mentioned by Herodotus and other ancient writers.
The large catacombs in Citta Vecchia, Malta, were built by the locals as safe havens from the Turks. They include entire streets, along with homes and sleeping areas. Later, they were used as tombs. There are other older remains on the island, like Hagiar Chem (the stones of veneration), which date back to Phoenician times. These include a temple that resembles Stonehenge but on a smaller scale, featuring seven statuettes with a bizarre, rounded shape, representing the seven Phoenician Cabiri (deities; “great and powerful beings”). The temple also has seven sections, which are noted by Herodotus and other ancient writers.
To come back to our own time. In 1808, the following remarkable event occurred at Malta. One Froberg had raised a levy of Greeks for the British Government, by telling the individual members that they should all be corporals, generals, or what not. It was to be all officers, like some other regiments of which we have heard. The men soon found out the deceit, but drilled admirably until the brutality of the adjutant caused them to mutiny. Malta was at the time thinly garrisoned, and their particular fort had only one small detachment of troops and thirty artillerymen. The mutineers made the officer of artillery point his guns on the town. He, however, managed that the shots should fall harmlessly. Another officer escaped up a chimney, and the Greeks coming into the same house, nearly suffocated him by lighting a large fire below. Troops arrived; the mutineers were secured, and a court-martial condemned thirty, half of whom were to be hanged, and the rest shot. Only five could be hanged at a time: the first five were therefore suspended by the five who came next, and so on. Of the men who [pg 104]were to be shot one ran away, and got over a parapet, where he was afterwards shot: another is thought to have escaped.
To return to our current time. In 1808, a notable event took place in Malta. A guy named Froberg had recruited Greeks for the British Government by telling each individual that they would all be promoted to corporals, generals, or similar ranks. It was supposed to be all officers, like some other regiments we've heard about. The soldiers quickly realized they had been deceived but trained exceptionally well until the harsh treatment from the adjutant led them to rebel. At that time, Malta had a small garrison, and their specific fort had only one small group of troops and thirty artillerymen. The mutineers forced the artillery officer to aim his guns at the town. He, however, cleverly ensured that the shots fell harmlessly. Another officer escaped through a chimney, and when the Greeks entered the same house, they nearly suffocated him by lighting a large fire below. Troops arrived; the mutineers were captured, and a court-martial sentenced thirty of them, half of whom were to be hanged and the rest shot. Only five could be hanged at a time: the first five were therefore suspended by the next five, and so on. Of the men who [pg 104]were to be shot, one ran away and climbed over a parapet, where he was later shot; another is believed to have escaped.
Colonel Shaw tells the story of a soldier of the Sicilian regiment who had frequently deserted. He was condemned to be shot. A priest who visited him in prison left behind him—purposely, there can be little doubt—his iron crucifix. The soldier used it to scrape away the mortar, and moved stone after stone, until he got into an adjoining cell, where he found himself no better off, as it was locked. The same process was repeated, until he at last reached a cell of which the door was open, entered the passage and climbed a wall, beneath which a sentry was posted. Fortunately for the prisoner, a regular Maltese shower was pouring down, and the guard remained in his box. The fugitive next reached a high gate, where it seemed he must be foiled. Not at all! He went back, got his blanket, cut it into strips, made a rope, and by its means climbed the gate, dropped into a fosse, from which he reached and swam across the harbour. He lived concealed for some time among the natives, but venturing one day into the town, was recognised and captured. The governor considered that after all this he deserved his life, and changed his sentence to transportation.
Colonel Shaw tells the story of a soldier from the Sicilian regiment who had deserted multiple times. He was sentenced to be shot. A priest who visited him in prison left behind—likely on purpose—his iron crucifix. The soldier used it to scrape away the mortar and moved stone after stone until he got into an adjoining cell, where he found himself no better off since it was locked. He repeated the same process until he finally reached a cell with an open door, entered the passage, and climbed a wall where a sentry was posted. Fortunately for the prisoner, a heavy Maltese rain was pouring down, and the guard stayed in his box. The escapee then reached a high gate, where it seemed he would be caught. Not at all! He went back, got his blanket, cut it into strips, made a rope, and used it to climb the gate, dropping into a ditch from which he managed to swim across the harbor. He lived in hiding for a while among the locals, but one day he ventured into town, was recognized, and captured. The governor decided that after everything, he deserved to live and changed his sentence to transportation.
Before leaving Malta, which, with its docks, navy-yard, and splendid harbours, fortifications, batteries, and magazines, is such an important naval and military station, we may briefly mention the revenue derived, and expenditure incurred by the Government in connection with it, as both are considerable. The revenue derived from imposts of the usual nature, harbour dues, &c., is about £175,000. The military expenditure is about £366,000, which includes the expenses connected with the detachments of artillery, and the Royal Maltese Fencibles, a native regiment of 600 to 700 men. The expenses of the Royal Navy would, of course, be incurred somewhere, if not in Malta, and have therefore nothing to do with the matter.
Before leaving Malta, which is a significant naval and military station with its docks, navy yard, and impressive harbors, fortifications, batteries, and storage facilities, we should briefly mention the revenue generated and expenses incurred by the Government related to it, as both are substantial. The revenue from typical taxes, harbor fees, etc., is around £175,000. The military expenses are about £366,000, which includes costs associated with artillery detachments and the Royal Maltese Fencibles, a local regiment of 600 to 700 men. The expenses of the Royal Navy would, of course, happen somewhere, whether in Malta or elsewhere, and are thus not relevant to this discussion.
Our next points of destination are Alexandria and Suez, both intimately identified with British interests. On our way we shall be passing through or near the same waters as did St. Paul when in the custody of the centurion Julius, “one of Augustus’ band.” It was in “a ship of Alexandria” that he was a passenger on that disastrous voyage. At Fair Havens, Crete (or Candia), we know that the Apostle admonished them to stay, for “sailing was now dangerous,” but his advice was disregarded, and “when the south wind blew softly” the master and owner of the vessel feared nothing, but
Our next stops are Alexandria and Suez, both closely tied to British interests. On our way, we'll be traveling through or near the same waters that St. Paul did when he was under the guard of the centurion Julius, “one of Augustus' crew.” It was on “an Alexandria ship” that he was a passenger during that fateful journey. At Fair Havens, Crete (or Candia), we know that the Apostle warned them to stay put, for “sailing is now dangerous,” but they ignored his advice, and "when the south wind blew gently" the captain and owner of the ship had nothing to fear, but
and “not long after, there arose against it a tempestuous wind called Euroclydon,” before which the ship drave under bare poles. We know that she had to be undergirded; cables being passed under her hull to keep her from parting; and lightened, by throwing the freight overboard. For fourteen days the ship was driven hither and thither, till at length she was wrecked off Melita. Sudden gales, whirlwinds, and typhoons are not uncommon in the Mediterranean; albeit soft winds and calm seas alternate with them.
and "Shortly after, a stormy wind called Euroclydon came against it," causing the ship to sail with just the bare masts. We know that it had to be reinforced; cables were passed under the hull to prevent it from breaking apart; and it was lightened by tossing the cargo overboard. For fourteen days, the ship was tossed around until it finally wrecked off Melita. Sudden gales, whirlwinds, and typhoons are not unusual in the Mediterranean; although gentle breezes and calm seas alternate with them.
On the 22nd May, 1798, Nelson, while in the Gulf of Genoa, was assailed by a [pg 105]sudden storm, which carried away all the Vanguard’s topmasts, washed one man overboard, killed an unfortunate middy and a seaman on board, and wounded others. This ship, which acted her name at the Nile only two months afterwards, rolled and laboured so dreadfully, and was in such distress, that Nelson himself declared, “The meanest frigate out of France would have been an unwelcome guest!” An officer relates that in the middle of the Gulf of Lyons, Lord Collingwood’s vessel, the Ocean, a roomy 98-gun ship, was struck by a sea in the middle of a gale, that threw her on her beam-ends, [pg 106]so much so that the men on the Royal Sovereign called out, “The admiral’s gone down!” She righted again, however, but was terribly disabled. Lord Collingwood said afterwards that the heavy guns were suspended almost vertically, and that “he thought the topsides were actually parting from the lower frame of the ship.” Admiral Smyth, in his important physical, hydrographical, and nautical work on the Mediterranean, relates that in 1812, when on the Rodney, a new 74-gun ship, she was so torn by the united violence of wind and wave, that the admiral had to send her to England, although sadly in need of ships. He adds, however, that noble as was her appearance on the waters, “she was one of that hastily-built batch of men-of-war sarcastically termed the Forty Thieves!”
On May 22, 1798, while Nelson was in the Gulf of Genoa, a sudden storm hit him, taking down all the topmasts of the Vanguard, washing one man overboard, killing an unfortunate midshipman and a sailor onboard, and injuring others. This ship, which would earn its name at the Nile just two months later, rolled and struggled so violently and was in such trouble that Nelson himself said, "The smallest frigate from France would have been an unwelcome guest!" An officer reports that in the middle of the Gulf of Lyons, Lord Collingwood’s ship, the Ocean, a spacious 98-gun ship, was hit by a wave during a storm that nearly tipped her over, [pg 106]so much that the crew on the Royal Sovereign shouted, “The admiral's gone down!” She managed to right herself, but was severely damaged. Lord Collingwood later remarked that the heavy guns were hanging almost vertically, and that "he thought the top parts were actually coming apart from the lower frame of the ship." Admiral Smyth, in his significant work on the Mediterranean, mentions that in 1812, when he was aboard the Rodney, a new 74-gun ship, she was so battered by the combined force of wind and waves that the admiral had to send her back to England, even though there was a desperate need for ships. He adds that, despite her impressive appearance on the water, "She was part of that quickly assembled fleet of warships mockingly called the Forty Thieves!"
Many are the varieties of winds accompanied by special characteristics met in the Mediterranean, and, indeed, sudden squalls are common enough in all usually calm waters. The writer well remembers such an incident in the beautiful Bay of San Francisco, California. He had, with friends, started in the morning from the gay city of “Frisco” on a deep-sea fishing excursion. The vessel was what is technically known as a “plunger,” a strongly-built two-masted boat, with deck and cabins, used in the bay and coast trade of the North Pacific, or for fishing purposes. When the party, consisting of five ladies, four gentlemen, the master and two men, started in the morning, there was scarcely a breath of wind or a ripple on the water, and oars as large as those used on a barge were employed to propel the vessel.
There are many types of winds in the Mediterranean with unique characteristics, and sudden squalls are quite common in typically calm waters. The author fondly remembers an incident in the beautiful Bay of San Francisco, California. He had set off with friends one morning from the vibrant city of "San Francisco" for a deep-sea fishing trip. The boat was what’s known as a “plunger” a sturdy two-masted vessel with a deck and cabins, used for fishing or trade in the North Pacific. When the group, which included five ladies, four gentlemen, the captain, and two crew members, started their journey in the morning, there was barely a breath of wind and no ripples on the water, so they used large oars like those found on a barge to move the boat.
and at length the desired haven, a sheltered nook, with fine cliffs, seaweed-covered rocks, and deep, clear water, was reached, and a dozen strong lines, with heavy sinkers, put out. The sea was bountiful: in a couple of hours enough fish were caught to furnish a capital lunch for all. A camp was formed on the beach, a large fire of driftwood lighted, and sundry hampers unpacked, from which the necks of bottles had protruded suspiciously. It was an al fresco picnic by the seaside. The sky was blue, the weather was delightful, “and all went merry as a marriage bell.” Later, while some wandered to a distance and bathed and swam, others clambered over the hills, among the flowers and waving wild oats for which the country is celebrated. Then, as evening drew on, preparations were made for a return to the city, and “All aboard” was the signal, for the wind was freshening. All remained on deck, for there was an abundance of overcoats and rugs, and shortly the passing schooners and yachts could hear the strains of minstrelsy from a not altogether incompetent choir, several of the ladies on board being musically inclined. The sea gives rise to thoughts of the sea. The reader may be sure that “The Bay of Biscay,” “The Larboard Watch,” “The Minute Gun,” and “What are the Wild Waves saying?” came among a score of others. Meantime, the wind kept freshening, but all of the number being well accustomed to the sea, heeded it not. Suddenly, in the midst of one of the gayest songs, a squall struck the vessel, and as she was carrying all sail, put her nearly on her beam-ends. So violent was the shock, that most things movable on deck, including the passengers, were thrown or slid to the lower side, many boxes and baskets going overboard. These would have been trifles, but alas, there is something sadder to relate. As one of the men was helping to take in sail, a great sea dashed over the vessel and threw him overboard, and for a few seconds only, his stalwart form was [pg 107]seen struggling in the waves. Ropes were thrown to, or rather towards him, an empty barrel and a coop pitched overboard, but it was hopeless—
and eventually they reached the desired spot, a protected cove with beautiful cliffs, seaweed-covered rocks, and deep, clear water. A dozen strong fishing lines with heavy sinkers were cast out. The sea was generous: within a couple of hours, they caught enough fish to make a fantastic lunch for everyone. They set up camp on the beach, lit a large fire with driftwood, and unpacked various hampers, from which the necks of bottles had suspiciously poked out. It was an outdoor picnic by the seaside. The sky was blue, the weather was lovely, "and everything was joyful like a wedding bell." Later, while some wandered off to swim and bathe, others climbed the hills, exploring the flowers and waving wild oats the area was known for. Then, as evening approached, they began to prepare to head back to the city, and “Boarding now” was the call, for the wind was picking up. Everyone stayed on deck, as there were plenty of overcoats and blankets, and soon the passing schooners and yachts could hear the sounds of music from a not entirely unskilled choir, as several ladies on board were musically talented. The sea inspires thoughts of the sea. You can be sure that "Bay of Biscay," “The Port Watch,” “The Minute Gun” and “What are the Wild Waves talking about?” were among many others sung. Meanwhile, the wind continued to pick up, but everyone on board was well accustomed to the sea and paid it no mind. Suddenly, in the middle of one of the liveliest songs, a squall hit the boat, and since they were carrying full sail, it nearly tipped over. The shock was so violent that most movable items on deck, including the passengers, were thrown or slid to the lower side, with many boxes and baskets going overboard. While these would have been minor losses, there's something much sadder to report. As one of the men was helping take in the sail, a massive wave crashed over the boat and knocked him overboard. For a few heartbreaking seconds, his strong figure was seen struggling in the waves. Ropes were thrown towards him, along with an empty barrel and a coop, but it was hopeless—
and he disappeared in an “ocean grave,” amid the mingled foam and driving spray. No more songs then; all gaiety was quenched, and many a tear-drop clouded eyes so bright before. The vessel, under one small sail only (the jib), drove on, and in half an hour broke out of obscurity and mist, and was off the wharfs and lights of San Francisco in calm water. The same distance had occupied over four hours in the morning.
and he vanished in an "ocean grave" surrounded by the mixed foam and driving spray. No more songs then; all joy was gone, and many tear-drops misted eyes that were once so bright. The boat, with just a small sail (the jib), pushed forward, and in half an hour emerged from the fog and mist, reaching the wharfs and lights of San Francisco in calm water. The same distance had taken over four hours in the morning.
In the Mediterranean every wind has its special name. There is the searching north wind, the Grippe or Mistral, said to be one of the scourges of gay Provence—
In the Mediterranean, every wind has its unique name. There’s the probing north wind, the Flu or Mistral, known as one of the troubles of cheerful Provence—
The north blast, a sudden wind, is called Boras, and hundreds of sailors have practically prayed, with the song,
The north wind, a sudden gust, is called Boras, and hundreds of sailors have practically prayed, along with the song,
The north-east biting wind is the Gregale, while the south-east, often a violent wind, is the dreaded Sirocco, bad either on sea or shore. The last which need be mentioned here, is the stifling south-west wind, the Siffante. But now we have reached the Suez Canal.
The north-east biting wind is the Gregale, while the south-east, often a violent wind, is the dreaded Sirocco, terrible on both sea and shore. The last one to mention here is the stifling south-west wind, the Siffante. But now we've reached the Suez Canal.
This gigantic work, so successfully completed by M. Lesseps, for ever solved the possibility of a work which up to that time had been so emphatically declared to be an impossibility. In effect, he is a conqueror. “Impossible,” said the first Napoleon, “n’est pas Français,” and the motto is a good one for any man or any nation, although the author of the sentence found many things impossible, including that of which we speak. M. de Lesseps has done more for peace than ever the Disturber of Europe did with war.
This huge project, successfully completed by Mr. Lesseps, forever solved the possibility of something that had previously been declared impossible. In reality, he is a conqueror. “Not possible,” said Napoleon I, “is not French,” and that motto is fitting for any person or nation, even though the person who said it found many things impossible, including the very achievement we’re discussing. Mr. de Lesseps has done more for peace than the Disturber of Europe ever accomplished through war.
When M. de Lesseps88 commenced with, not the Canal, but the grand conception thereof, he had pursued twenty-nine years of first-class diplomatic service: it would have been an honourable career for most people. He gave it up from punctilios of honour; lost, at least possibly, the opportunity of great political power. He was required to endorse that which he could not possibly endorse. Lesseps had lost his chance, said many. Let us see. The man who has conquered the usually unconquerable English prejudice would certainly surmount most troubles! He has only carried out the ideas of Sesostris, Alexander, Cæsar, Amrou, the Arabian conqueror, Napoleon the Great, and Mehemet Ali. These are simply matters of history. But history, in this case, has only repeated itself in the failures, not in the successes. Lesseps has made the success; they were the failures! Let us review history, amid which you may possibly find many truths. The truth alone, as far as it may be reached, appears in this work. The Peace Society ought to endorse Lesseps. As it stands, the Peace party—well-intentioned people—ought to raise a statue to the man who has made it almost impossible for England to be involved in war, so far as the great East is concerned, for many a century to come.
When M. de Lesseps88 began not with the Canal, but with the grand vision behind it, he had a solid twenty-nine years of top-notch diplomatic experience. It would have been a respectable career for most people. He gave it up out of a sense of honor, possibly missing out on a chance for significant political power. He was asked to support something he couldn’t possibly agree with. Many said Lesseps had lost his opportunity. But let’s consider this: the man who has overcome the typically difficult English bias would surely handle most other challenges! He has only executed the visions of Sesostris, Alexander, Caesar, Amrou, the Arabian conqueror, Napoleon the Great, and Mehemet Ali. These are just facts from history. But in this case, history has only repeated itself in terms of failures, not successes. Lesseps has achieved success; they were the failures! Let’s look back at history where you might find many truths. The truth, as much as it can be understood, is presented in this work. The Peace Society should support Lesseps. As it stands, the Peace party—well-meaning individuals—should erect a statue for the man who has made it nearly impossible for England to be drawn into war in the East for many centuries to come.
After all, who is the conqueror—he who kills, or he who saves, thousands?
After all, who’s the real conqueror— the one who kills, or the one who saves thousands?
To prove our points, it will not be necessary to recite the full history of the grandest engineering work of this century—a century replete with proud engineering works. Here it can only be given in the barest outline.
To prove our points, we don't need to go through the entire history of the greatest engineering project of this century—a century filled with impressive engineering feats. Here, it can only be summarized in the simplest terms.
Every intelligent child on looking at the map would ask why the natural route to India was not by the Isthmus of Suez, and why a canal was not made. His schoolmaster answered, in days gone by, that there was a difference in the levels of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. That question has been answered successfully, and the difference has not ruined the Canal. Others said that it was impossible to dig a canal through the desert. It has been done! Lord Palmerston, the most serious opponent in England that Lesseps had,89 thought that France, our best ally to-day, would have too much influence in Egypt. Events, thanks to Lord Beaconsfield’s astute policy, by purchasing the Khedive’s interest, have given England the largest share among the shareholders of all nations.
Every smart child looking at the map would wonder why the natural route to India wasn’t through the Isthmus of Suez, and why a canal wasn’t built. Their teacher used to say that there was a difference in the water levels between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. That issue has been successfully resolved, and the difference hasn’t compromised the Canal. Others claimed it was impossible to dig a canal through the desert. It has been achieved! Lord Palmerston, the most serious opponent in England to Lesseps, thought that France, our best ally today, would have too much influence in Egypt. Thanks to Lord Beaconsfield’s clever strategy of buying the Khedive’s interest, England now holds the largest share among all nations' shareholders.
It would not be interesting to follow all the troubles that Lesseps successfully combated. The idea had more than once occurred to him, when in 1852 he applied to Constantinople. The answer was that it in no way concerned the Porte. Lesseps returned to his farm at Berry, and not unlikely constructed miniature Suez Canals for irrigation, thought of camels while he improved the breed of cattle, and built houses, but not on the sand of the desert. Indeed, it was while on the roof of one of his houses, then in course of construction, that the news came to him of the then Pacha of Egypt’s death (Mehemet Ali). They had once been on familiar terms. Mehemet Ali was a terribly severe man, and seeing that his son Saïd Pacha, a son he loved, was growing fat, he had sent him to climb the masts of ships for two hours a day, to row, and walk round the walls of the city. Poor little fat boy! he used to steal round to Lesseps’ rooms, and surreptitiously obtain meals from the servants. Those surreptitious dinners did not greatly hurt the interests of the Canal, as we shall see.
It wouldn't be interesting to go into all the challenges that Lesseps managed to overcome. The thought crossed his mind more than once when he applied to Constantinople in 1852. The answer he received was that it had nothing to do with the Porte. Lesseps went back to his farm in Berry and likely built miniature Suez Canals for irrigation, thought about camels while improving cattle breeds, and constructed houses, but not on the sandy desert. In fact, while he was on the roof of one of his houses, still being built, he learned of the death of the then Pacha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali. They had previously had a friendly relationship. Mehemet Ali was a very strict man, and seeing his beloved son Saïd Pacha getting overweight, he had sent him to climb the masts of ships for two hours daily, row, and walk around the city walls. The poor chubby boy used to sneak over to Lesseps’ rooms to secretly get meals from the servants. Those secret dinners didn't significantly hurt the interests of the Canal, as we will see.
Mehemet Ali had been a moderate tyrant—to speak advisedly. His son-in-law, Defderdar, known popularly as the “Scourge of God,” was his acting vicegerent. The brute once had his groom shod like a horse for having badly shod his charger. A woman of the country one day came before him, complaining of a soldier who had bought milk of her, and had refused to pay for it. “Art thou sure of it?” asked the tyrant. “Take care! they shall tear open thy stomach if no milk is found in that of the soldier.” They opened the stomach of the soldier. Milk was found in it. The poor woman was saved. But, although his successor was not everything that could be wished, he had a good heart, and was not “the terrible Turk.”
Mehemet Ali had been a somewhat moderate dictator, to put it carefully. His son-in-law, Defderdar, known to most as the "God's Scourge," served as his acting deputy. This brute once had his groom fitted with shoes like a horse for having poorly shod his horse. One day, a woman from the countryside came to him, complaining about a soldier who had bought milk from her but refused to pay. "Are you sure?" the tyrant asked. "Be careful! They’ll slice open your stomach if there's no milk found in that of the soldier." They opened the soldier's stomach, and milk was found inside. The poor woman was saved. However, even though his successor wasn’t everything one might hope for, he had a good heart and wasn’t “the awful Turk.”
In 1854, Lesseps met Saïd Pacha in his tent on a plain between Alexandria and Lake Mareotis, a swamp in the desert. His Highness was in good humour, and understood Lesseps perfectly. A fine Arabian horse had been presented to him by Saïd Pacha a few [pg 110]days previously. After examining the plans and investigating the subject, the ruler of Egypt said, “I accept your plan. We will talk about the means of its execution during the rest of the journey. Consider the matter settled. You may rely on me.” He sent immediately for his generals, and made them sit down, repeating the previous conversation, and inviting them to give their opinion of the proposals of his friend. The impromptu counsellors were better able to pronounce on equestrian evolutions than on a vast enterprise. But Lesseps, a good horseman, had just before cleared a wall with his charger, and they, seeing how he stood with the Viceroy, gave their assent by raising their hands to their foreheads. The dinner-tray then appeared, and with one accord all plunged their spoons into the same bowl, which contained some first-class soup. Lesseps considered it, very naturally, as the most important negotiation he had ever made.
In 1854, Lesseps met Saïd Pacha in his tent on a plain between Alexandria and Lake Mareotis, a swamp in the desert. His Highness was in a good mood and understood Lesseps perfectly. A fine Arabian horse had been given to him by Saïd Pacha a few [pg 110] days earlier. After reviewing the plans and discussing the topic, the ruler of Egypt said, "I agree with your plan. We'll talk about how to carry it out for the rest of the trip. It's a done deal. You can rely on me." He immediately called for his generals, had them sit down, repeated the earlier conversation, and asked for their thoughts on his friend's proposals. The spontaneous advisers were better at discussing horse riding than a massive project. But Lesseps, a skilled rider, had just cleared a wall on his horse, and seeing his standing with the Viceroy, they nodded in agreement by raising their hands to their foreheads. Then the dinner tray appeared, and without hesitation, everyone dug their spoons into the same bowl, which held some excellent soup. Lesseps considered this, quite naturally, as the most important negotiation he had ever conducted.
Results speak for themselves. In 1854, there was not a fly in that hideous desert. Water, sheep, fowls, and provisions of all kinds had to be carried by the explorers. When at night they opened the coops of fowls, and let the sheep run loose, they did it with confidence. They were sure that next morning, in that desolate place, the animals dare not desert the party. “When,” says Lesseps, “we struck our camp of a morning, if at the moment of departure a hen had lurked behind, pecking at the foot of a tamarisk shrub, quickly she would jump up on the back of a camel, to regain her cage.” That desert is now peopled. There are three important towns. Port Saïd had not existed before: there is now what would be called a “city,” in America, on a much smaller basis of truth: it has 12,000 people. Suez, with 15,000 people, was not much more than a village previously. Ismaïlia, half-way on the route, has 5,000 or 6,000 of population. There are other towns or villages.
Results speak for themselves. In 1854, there wasn't a fly in that terrible desert. Water, sheep, chickens, and supplies of all kinds had to be transported by the explorers. At night, when they opened the chicken coops and let the sheep roam free, they did it with assurance. They were confident that the next morning, in that desolate place, the animals wouldn't abandon the group. “When,” says Lesseps, "We packed up our camp in the morning. If a hen had stayed behind at that moment, pecking at the base of a tamarisk bush, she would quickly hop onto a camel's back to return to her cage." That desert is now populated. There are three major towns. Port Saïd didn't exist before; now there is what would be called a “city” in America, on a much smaller basis of truth: it has 12,000 residents. Suez, with 15,000 residents, was hardly more than a village before. Ismaïlia, halfway along the route, has a population of 5,000 or 6,000. There are other towns and villages.
A canal actually effecting a junction between the two seas viâ the Nile was made in the period of the Egyptian dynasties. It doubtless fulfilled its purpose for the passage of galleys and smaller vessels; history hardly tells us when it was rendered useless. Napoleon the First knew the importance of the undertaking, and appointed a commission of engineers to report on it. M. Lepère presented him a report on its feasibility, and Napoleon observed on it, “It is a grand work; and though I cannot execute it now, the day may come when the Turkish Government will glory in accomplishing it.” Other schemes, including those of eminent Turkish engineers, had been proposed. It remained to be accomplished in this century. The advantages gained by its construction can hardly be enumerated here. Suffice it to say that a vessel going by the Cape of Good Hope from London to Bombay travels nearly 6,000 miles over the ocean; by the Suez Canal the distance is 3,100, barely more than half the distance.
A canal actually connecting the two seas via the Nile was created during the time of the Egyptian dynasties. It likely served its purpose for the passage of ships and smaller boats; history doesn't really tell us when it became obsolete. Napoleon I recognized the significance of the project and appointed a group of engineers to assess it. M. Lepère submitted a report on its feasibility, and Napoleon commented, “It is a grand work; and though I cannot execute it now, the day may come when the Turkish Government will take pride in accomplishing it.” Other proposals, including those from prominent Turkish engineers, had been suggested. It remained to be completed in this century. The benefits of its construction are hard to list here. It's enough to say that a ship traveling from London to Bombay via the Cape of Good Hope covers nearly 6,000 miles over the ocean; with the Suez Canal, the distance is 3,100 miles, which is just over half the distance.
To tell the history of the financial troubles which obstructed the scheme would be tedious to the reader. At last there was an International Commission appointed, which cost the Viceroy of Egypt £12,000, and yet no single member took a farthing for his services. The names are sufficient to prove with what care it had been selected. On the part of England, Messrs. Rendel and MacClean, both eminent engineers, with, for a sufficiently good reason, Commander Hewet of the East India Company’s service, who for twenty-seven years had been making surveys in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean. France gave two of her greatest engineers, Messrs. Renaud and Liessou: Austria, one [pg 111]of the greatest practical engineers in the world, M. de Negrelli; Italy, M. Paléocapa; Germany, the distinguished Privy Councillor Lentzé; Holland, the Chevalier Conrad; Spain, M. de Montesino. They reported entirely in favour of the route. A second International Congress followed. The Viceroy behaved so magnificently to the scientific gentlemen of all nations who composed the commission, that M. de Lesseps thanked him publicly for having received them almost as crowned heads. The Viceroy answered gracefully, “Are they not the crowned heads of science?”
Telling the story of the financial issues that hindered the project would bore the reader. Eventually, an International Commission was appointed, which cost the Viceroy of Egypt £12,000, yet no member received a penny for their services. The names involved clearly show how carefully it was chosen. From England, there were Messrs. Rendel and MacClean, both prominent engineers, along with Commander Hewet from the East India Company, who had been conducting surveys in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean for twenty-seven years. France contributed two of its finest engineers, Messrs. Renaud and Liessou; Austria sent one of the top practical engineers in the world, M. de Negrelli; Italy provided M. Paléocapa; Germany sent the notable Privy Councillor Lentzé; Holland gave Chevalier Conrad; and Spain contributed M. de Montesino. They all reported strongly in favor of the route. A second International Congress took place. The Viceroy treated the scientists from all nations who made up the commission so graciously that M. de Lesseps publicly thanked him for receiving them almost like royalty. The Viceroy replied kindly, "Are they not the reigning authorities in science?"
At last the financial and political difficulties were overcome. In 1858, an office was opened in Paris, into which money flowed freely. Lesseps tells good-naturedly some little episodes which occurred. An old bald-headed priest entered, doubtless a man who had been formerly a soldier. “Oh! those English,” said he, “I am glad to be able to be revenged on them by taking shares in the Suez Canal.” Another said, “I wish to subscribe for ‘Le Chemin de Fer de l’Ile de Suède’ ” (The Island of Sweden Railway!) It was remarked to him that the scheme did not include a railway, and that Sweden is not an island. “That’s all the same to me,” he replied, “provided it be against the English, I subscribe.” Lord Palmerston, whose shade must feel uneasy in the neighbourhood of the Canal, could not have been more prejudiced. At Grenoble, a whole regiment of engineers—naturally men of intelligence and technical knowledge, clubbed together for shares. The matter was not settled by even [pg 112]the free inflow of money. The Viceroy had been so much annoyed by the opposition shown to the scheme, that it took a good deal of tact on the part of its promoter to make things run smoothly. For the first four years, Lesseps, in making the necessary international and financial arrangements, travelled 30,000 miles per annum.
At last, the financial and political challenges were overcome. In 1858, an office was opened in Paris, and money started flowing in freely. Lesseps humorously shares a few anecdotes that happened. An old bald priest walked in, likely someone who had once been a soldier. "Oh! those Brits," he said, “I’m happy I can get back at them by purchasing shares in the Suez Canal.” Another person remarked, "I want to invest in ‘Le Chemin de Fer de l’Ile de Suède’." (The Island of Sweden Railway!) It was pointed out to him that the project didn’t include a railway and that Sweden isn’t an island. "I don't care about that," he replied, "As long as it's against the English, I'm on board." Lord Palmerston, whose spirit must feel uneasy near the Canal, couldn’t have been more biased. In Grenoble, an entire regiment of engineers—naturally intelligent and knowledgeable individuals—pooled their resources to buy shares. However, the situation wasn’t resolved simply by the influx of money. The Viceroy was so frustrated by the opposition to the project that it took a lot of skill from its promoter to keep things on track. For the first four years, Lesseps traveled 30,000 miles a year to sort out the necessary international and financial arrangements.
At length the scheme emerged from fog to fact. The Viceroy had promised 20,000 Egyptian labourers, but in 1861 he begged to be let out of his engagement. He had to pay handsomely for the privilege. Although the men were paid higher than they had ever been before, their labour was cheap: it cost double or treble the amount to employ foreigners.
At last, the plan became clear. The Viceroy had promised 20,000 Egyptian workers, but in 1861, he asked to back out of his commitment. He had to pay a hefty price to do so. Even though the workers were paid more than they ever had been, their labor was still cheap: it cost two to three times more to hire foreigners.
The Canal, in its course of a shade over 100 miles, passes through several salt marshes, “Les Petits Bassins des Lacs Amers,” in one of which a deposit of salt was found, seven miles long by five miles wide. It also passes through an extensive piece of water, Lake Menzaleh.
The Canal, over a little more than 100 miles, goes through several salt marshes, "Les Petits Bassins des Lacs Amers," where a salt deposit was discovered that is seven miles long and five miles wide. It also runs through a large body of water, Lake Menzaleh.
At Lake Menzaleh the banks are very slightly above the level of the Canal, and from the deck of a big steamer there is an unbounded view over a wide expanse of lake and morass studded with islets, and at times gay and brilliant with innumerable flocks of rosy pelicans, scarlet flamingoes, and snow-white spoonbills, geese, ducks, and other birds. The pelicans may be caught bodily from a boat, so clumsy are they in the water, without the expenditure of powder and shot. Indeed, the sportsman might do worse than visit the Canal, where, it is almost needless to state, the shooting is open to all. A traveller, who has recently passed through the Canal en route to India, writes that there are alligators also to be seen. The whole of the channel through Lake Menzaleh was almost entirely excavated with dredges. When it was necessary to remove some surface soil before there was water enough for the dredges to float, it was done by the natives of Lake Menzaleh, a hardy and peculiar race, quite at home in digging canals or building embankments. The following account shows their mode of proceeding:—“They place themselves in files across the channel. The men in the middle of the file have their feet and the lower part of their legs in the water. These men lean forward and take in their arms large clods of earth, which they have previously dug up below the water with a species of pickaxe called a fass, somewhat resembling a short, big hoe. The clods are passed from man to man to the bank, where other men stand with their backs turned, and their arms crossed behind them, so as to make a sort of primitive hod. As soon as each of these has had enough clods piled on his back, he walks off, bent almost double, to the further side of the bank, and there opening his arms, lets his load fall through to the ground. It is unnecessary to add that this original métier requires the absence of all clothing.”90
At Lake Menzaleh, the banks are just slightly above the level of the Canal, and from the deck of a large steamer, you can see an endless view over a wide area of lake and marsh filled with islets. Sometimes it's vibrant and colorful with countless flocks of rosy pelicans, bright flamingoes, and snow-white spoonbills, as well as geese, ducks, and other birds. Pelicans can be easily caught from a boat because they're so awkward in the water, without needing any ammunition. In fact, a sportsman could do worse than visit the Canal, where, as you might expect, hunting is open to everyone. A traveler who recently passed through the Canal on his way to India noted that there are also alligators to see. The entire channel through Lake Menzaleh was mostly dug out with dredges. When it was necessary to remove some surface soil before there was enough water for the dredges to float, it was done by the natives of Lake Menzaleh, a tough and unique group, quite skilled at digging canals or building embankments. The following account describes their method:—“They line up across the channel. The men in the middle of the line have their feet and lower legs in the water. These men lean forward and lift large clumps of earth, which they previously dug up from beneath the water using a type of pickaxe called a fass, which looks like a short, wide hoe. The clumps are passed from man to man to the bank, where other men stand with their backs turned and arms crossed behind them, forming a sort of primitive hod. Once each of them has enough clumps piled on their back, they walk away, bent almost double, to the far side of the bank, where they open their arms and let the load fall to the ground. It goes without saying that this original métier requires no clothing.”90
Into the channel thus dug the dredges were floated. One of the machines employed deserves special mention. The long couloir (duct) was an iron spout 230 feet long, five and a half wide, and two deep, by means of which a dredger working in the centre of the channel could discharge its contents beyond the bank, assisted by the water which was pumped into it. The work done by these long-spouted dredges has amounted to as much as 120,000 cubic yards a-piece of soil in a month. By all kinds of ingenious appliances invented for the special needs of the occasion, as much as 2,763,000 cubic yards of [pg 113]excavation were accomplished in a month. M. de Lesseps tells us that “were it placed in the Place Vendôme, it would fill the whole square, and rise five times higher than the surrounding houses.” It would cover the entire length and breadth of the Champs Elysées, and reach to the top of the trees on either side.
Into the channel, the dredges were floated. One of the machines used deserves special mention. The long chute (duct) was an iron spout 230 feet long, five and a half feet wide, and two feet deep, allowing a dredger working in the center of the channel to discharge its contents beyond the bank, aided by water pumped into it. These long-spouted dredges could do as much as 120,000 cubic yards of soil each in a month. Through various ingenious devices created for this specific purpose, as much as 2,763,000 cubic yards of [pg 113]excavation were achieved in a month. M. de Lesseps mentions that "If it were positioned in Place Vendôme, it would occupy the whole square and tower five times taller than the nearby buildings." It would cover the full length and width of the Champs Elysées and reach the tops of the trees on either side.
Port Saïd, which owes its very existence to the Canal, is to-day a port of considerable importance, where some of the finest steamships in the world stop. All the through [pg 114]steamers between Europe and the East—our own grand “P. & O.” (Peninsular and Oriental) line, the splendid French “Messageries,” the Austrian Lloyd’s, and dozens of excellent lines, all make a stay here of eight or ten hours. This is long enough for most travellers, as, sooth to say, the very land on which it is built had to be “made,” in other words, it was a tract of swampy desert. It has respectable streets and squares, docks, quays, churches, mosques, and hotels. The outer port is formed by two enormous breakwaters, one of which runs straight out to sea for a distance of 2,726 yards. They have lighthouses upon them, using electricity as a means of illumination. Messrs. Borel and Lavalley were the principal contractors for the work. The ingenious machinery used cost nearly two and a half million pounds (actually £2,400,000), and the monthly consumption of coal cost the Company £40,000.
Port Saïd, which was created because of the Canal, is now a port of significant importance, where some of the best steamships in the world dock. All the major steamers between Europe and the East—our own grand “P. & O.” (Peninsular and Oriental) line, the impressive French “Messageries,” the Austrian Lloyd’s, and many other excellent lines—stop here for eight to ten hours. This is enough time for most travelers since, honestly, the very land it stands on had to be “made”; it was once just a swampy desert. The city has decent streets and squares, docks, quays, churches, mosques, and hotels. The outer port is protected by two massive breakwaters, one of which extends straight out to sea for 2,726 yards. They are equipped with lighthouses that use electricity for lighting. Messrs. Borel and Lavalley were the main contractors for this project. The clever machinery used cost nearly two and a half million pounds (actually £2,400,000), and the monthly coal consumption cost the Company £40,000.
The distance from Port Saïd to Suez is 100 miles. The width of the Canal, where the banks are low, is about 328 feet, and in deep cuttings 190 feet. The deep channel is marked with buoys. The mole at the Port Saïd (Mediterranean) end of the Canal stretches out into the sea for over half a mile, near the Damietta branch of the Nile. This helps to form an artificial harbour, and checks the mud deposits which might otherwise choke the entrance. It cost as much as half a million. In the Canal there are recesses—shall we call them sidings, as on a railway?—where vessels can enter and allow others to pass.
The distance from Port Said to Suez is 100 miles. The width of the Canal, where the banks are low, is about 328 feet, and in deeper sections, it's 190 feet. The deep channel is marked with buoys. The mole at the Port Said (Mediterranean) end of the Canal extends into the sea for over half a mile, near the Damietta branch of the Nile. This creates an artificial harbor and prevents mud deposits that could otherwise block the entrance. It cost as much as half a million. In the Canal, there are recesses—should we call them sidings, like on a railway?—where vessels can enter and let others pass.
The scenery, we must confess, is generally monotonous. At Ismaïlia, however, a town has arisen where there are charming gardens. We are told that “it seems only necessary to pour the waters of the Nile on the desert to produce a soil which will grow anything to perfection.” Here the Viceroy built a temporary palace, and M. de Lesseps himself has a châlet. At Suez itself the scenery is charming. From the height, on which is placed another of the Khedive’s residences, there is a magnificent panorama in view. In the foreground is the town, harbour, roadstead, and mouth of the Canal. To the right are the mountain heights—Gebel Attákah—which hem in the Red Sea. To the left are the rosy peaks of Mount Sinai, so familiar to all Biblical students as the spot where the great Jewish Law was given by God to Moses; and between the two, the deep, deep blue of the Gulf. Near Suez are the so-called “Wells of Moses,” natural springs of rather brackish water, surrounded by tamarisks and date-palms, which help to form an oasis—a pic-nic ground—in the desert. Dean Stanley has termed the spot “the Richmond of Suez.”
The scenery, we have to admit, is mostly pretty dull. However, in Ismaïlia, a town has emerged with lovely gardens. We're told that "It only seems necessary to pour the waters of the Nile onto the desert to create soil that can grow anything perfectly." Here, the Viceroy built a temporary palace, and M. de Lesseps himself has a cabin. In Suez itself, the scenery is beautiful. From the height where another of the Khedive’s residences is located, there's a stunning view. In the foreground, you can see the town, harbor, roadstead, and the mouth of the Canal. To the right are the mountain heights—Gebel Attákah—that surround the Red Sea. To the left are the pink peaks of Mount Sinai, well-known to all Biblical scholars as the place where God gave the great Jewish Law to Moses; and between the two, the deep blue of the Gulf. Near Suez are the so-called “Wells of Moses,” natural springs with somewhat salty water, surrounded by tamarisks and date-palms, creating an oasis—a picnic area—in the desert. Dean Stanley has referred to this place as “the Richmond of Suez.”
Before leaving the Canal on our outward voyage, it will not be out of place to note the inauguration fête, which must have been to M. de Lesseps the proudest day of a useful life. Two weeks before that event, the engineers were for the moment baffled by a temporary obstruction—a mass of solid rock in the channel. “Go,” said the unconquerable projector, “and get powder at Cairo—powder in quantities; and then, if we can’t blow up the rock, we’ll blow up ourselves.” That rock was very soon in fragments! The spirit and bonhomie of Lesseps made everything easy, and the greatest difficulties surmountable. “From the beginning of the work,” says he, “there was not a tent-keeper who did not consider himself an agent of civilisation.” This, no doubt, was the great secret of his grand success.
Before leaving the Canal on our outward voyage, it’s worth mentioning the inauguration fête, which must have been the proudest day of M. de Lesseps' useful life. Two weeks before that event, the engineers were temporarily stumped by a solid rock obstruction in the channel. “Go,” said the unstoppable creator, “and get powder in Cairo—lots of powder; and if we can’t blow up the rock, then we'll blow ourselves up.” That rock was soon reduced to fragments! Lesseps' spirit and good nature made everything easier and the toughest challenges manageable. “From the beginning of the work,” he says, “there wasn’t a tent-keeper who didn’t see themselves as an agent of civilization.” This, without a doubt, was the key to his tremendous success.
The great day arrived. On the 16th of November, 1868, there were 160 vessels [pg 115]ready to pass the Canal. At the last moment that evening it was announced that an Egyptian frigate had run on one of the banks of the Canal, and was hopelessly stuck there, obstructing the passage. She could not be towed off, and the united efforts of several hundred men on the bank could not at first move her. The Viceroy even proposed to blow her up. It was only five minutes before arriving at the site of the accident that an Egyptian admiral signalled to Lesseps from a little steam-launch that the Canal was free. A procession of 130 vessels was formed, the steam yacht L’Aigle, en avant, carrying on board the Empress of the French, the Emperor of Austria, and the Viceroy. This noble-hearted Empress, who has been so long exiled in a country she has learned to love, told Lesseps at Ismaïlia that during the whole journey she had felt “as though a circle of fire were round her head,” fearing that some disaster might mar the day’s proceedings. Her pent-up feelings gave way at last; and when success was assured, she retired to her cabin, where sobs were heard by her devoted friends—sobs which did great honour to her true and patriotic heart.
The big day arrived. On November 16, 1868, 160 vessels were ready to pass through the Canal. At the last minute that evening, it was reported that an Egyptian frigate had run aground on one of the banks of the Canal and was stuck, blocking the way. It couldn't be towed off, and despite the efforts of several hundred men on the shore, they couldn't move it at first. The Viceroy even suggested blowing it up. It was only five minutes before reaching the site of the accident that an Egyptian admiral signaled to Lesseps from a small steam launch that the Canal was clear. A procession of 130 vessels formed, with the steam yacht The Eagle, forward, on board carrying the Empress of the French, the Emperor of Austria, and the Viceroy. This kind-hearted Empress, who had been long exiled in a country she had grown to love, told Lesseps at Ismaïlia that throughout the journey she had felt “as if a circle of fire was around her head,” worried that something might spoil the day’s events. Her emotions eventually overflowed; and when success was assured, she went to her cabin, where her devoted friends heard her sobbing—sobs that showed her true and patriotic heart.
The Viceroy on that occasion entertained 6,000 foreigners, a large proportion of whom were of the most distinguished kind. Men of all nationalities came to honour an enlightened ruler, and witness the opening of a grand engineering work, which had been carried through so many opposing difficulties; to applaud the man of cool head and active brain, who had a few years before been by many jeered at, snubbed, and thwarted. To suitably entertain the vast assemblage, the Viceroy had engaged 500 cooks and 1,000 servants, bringing many of them from Marseilles, Trieste, Genoa, and Leghorn.
The Viceroy, on that occasion, hosted 6,000 guests from abroad, a significant number of whom were highly distinguished individuals. People of all nationalities came to pay tribute to an enlightened leader and to witness the inauguration of an impressive engineering project that had overcome numerous challenges. They gathered to celebrate the man with a calm demeanor and sharp intellect, who just a few years earlier had been mocked, dismissed, and obstructed by many. To properly cater to the large crowd, the Viceroy had hired 500 cooks and 1,000 servants, many of whom were brought in from Marseilles, Trieste, Genoa, and Leghorn.
Although the waters of the Canal are usually placid—almost sleepily calm—they are occasionally lashed up into waves by sudden storms. One such, which did some damage, occurred on December 9th, 1877.
Although the waters of the Canal are usually calm—almost sleepily still—they are sometimes stirred up into waves by sudden storms. One such storm, which caused some damage, happened on December 9th, 1877.
And now, before leaving the subject, it will be right to mention a few facts of importance. The tonnage of vessels passing the Canal quadrupled in five years. As many as thirty-three vessels have been passing in one day at the same time, although this was exceptional. In 1874, the relative proportions, as regards the nationalities of tonnage, if the expression may be permitted, were as follows:—
And now, before wrapping up the topic, it’s important to mention a few key facts. The amount of shipping passing through the Canal increased four times in five years. There were even days when up to thirty-three vessels were passing at the same time, although that was unusual. In 1874, the relative proportions of the nationalities of the tonnage, if that term can be used, were as follows:—
| English | 222,000 | tons. |
| French | 103,000 | „ |
| Dutch | 84,000 | „ |
| Austrian | 63,000 | „ |
| Italian | 50,000 | „ |
| Spanish | 39,000 | „ |
| German | 28,000 | „ |
| Various | 65,000 | „ |
The present tonnage passing the Canal is much greater. All the world knows how and why England acquired her present interest in the Canal, but all the world does not appreciate its value to the full extent.
The current shipping volume passing through the Canal is much higher. Everyone knows how and why England acquired its current stake in the Canal, but not everyone fully understands its value.
Suez has special claims to the attention of the Biblical student, for near it—according to some, eighteen miles south of it—the children of Israel passed through the Red Sea; 2,000,000 men, women, and children, with flocks of cattle went dryshod through the [pg 116]dividing walls of water. Holy Writ informs us that “the Lord caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all that night, and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided.”91 The effect of wind, in both raising large masses of water and in driving them back, is well known, while there are narrow parts of the Red Sea which have been forded. In the morning “the Egyptians pursued, and went in after them to the midst of the sea, even all Pharaoh’s horses, his chariots, and his horsemen.” We know the sequel. The waters returned, and covered the Egyptian hosts; “there remained not so much as one of them.” “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel this song unto the Lord, and spake, saying, I will sing unto the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously: the horse and his rider hath he thrown in the sea. * * *
Suez has a special significance for Bible students because nearby—some say eighteen miles south—the Israelites crossed the Red Sea. 2,000,000 men, women, and children, along with their livestock, walked through the dividing walls of water on dry land. Scripture tells us that “the Lord caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all that night, and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided.” The impact of the wind in both lifting large bodies of water and pushing them back is well understood, and there are parts of the Red Sea that have been crossed. In the morning, “the Egyptians pursued, and went in after them to the midst of the sea, even all Pharaoh’s horses, his chariots, and his horsemen.” We know what happened next. The waters returned and covered the Egyptian forces; “there remained not so much as one of them.” “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel this song unto the Lord, and spake, saying, I will sing unto the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously: the horse and his rider hath he thrown in the sea. * * *
“Pharaoh’s chariots and his host hath he cast into the sea: his chosen captains also are drowned in the Red Sea.
"Pharaoh's chariots and army have been thrown into the sea; his chosen leaders are also drowned in the Red Sea."
“The depths have covered them: they sank into the bottom as a stone.”
"The depths overwhelmed them: they sank to the bottom like a rock."
CHAPTER 8.
Sailing Around the World on a Warship Below is a short piece of text (5 words or fewer). Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links. (continued).
THE INDIA AND CHINA POSTS.
The Red Sea and its Name—Its Ports—On to the India Station—Bombay: Island, City, Presidency—Calcutta—Ceylon, a Paradise—The China Station—Hong Kong—Macao—Canton—Capture of Commissioner Yeh—The Sea of Soup—Shanghai—“Jack”Ashore there—Luxuries in Market—Drawbacks: Earthquakes, and Sand Showers—Chinese Explanations of Earthquakes—The Roving Life of the Sailor—Compensating Advantages—Japan and its People—The Englishmen of the Pacific—Yokohama—Peculiarities of the Japanese—Off to the North.
The Red Sea and Its Name—Its Ports—Going to the India Station—Bombay: Island, City, Presidency—Calcutta—Ceylon, a Paradise—The China Station—Hong Kong—Macao—Canton—Capture of Commissioner Yeh—The Sea of Soup—Shanghai—“Jack”On land there—Luxuries in the Market—Disadvantages: Earthquakes and Sand Showers—Chinese Explanations for Earthquakes—The Nomadic Life of Sailors—Compensatory Benefits—Japan and Its People—Pacific Englishmen—Yokohama—Distinctive Features of the Japanese—Traveling North.
The Red Sea separates Arabia from Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia. Its name is either derived from the animalculæ which sometimes cover parts of its surface, or, more probably, from the red and purple coral which abound in its waters. The Hebrew name signifies “the Weedy Sea,” because the corals have often plant-like forms. There are reefs of coral in the Red Sea which utterly prevent approach to certain parts of the coasts. Many of the islands which border it are of volcanic origin. On the Zeigar Islands there was an alarming eruption in 1846. England owns one of the most important of the islands, that of Perim, in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is a barren, black rock, but possesses a fine harbour, and commands one entrance of the Red Sea. It was occupied by Great Britain in 1799, abandoned in 1801, and re-occupied on the 11th of February, 1857. Its fortifications possess guns of sufficient calibre and power to command the Straits.
The Red Sea separates Arabia from Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia. Its name may come from the tiny organisms that sometimes cover parts of its surface or, more likely, from the red and purple coral that is abundant in its waters. The Hebrew name means "the Weedy Sea" because the corals often have plant-like shapes. There are coral reefs in the Red Sea that completely block access to certain coastal areas. Many of the islands along its shores are volcanic in origin. The Zeigar Islands experienced a significant eruption in 1846. England owns one of the most important islands, Perim, located in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It’s a barren, black rock but has a good harbor and controls one entrance to the Red Sea. It was occupied by Great Britain in 1799, abandoned in 1801, and re-occupied on February 11, 1857. Its fortifications have guns that are powerful enough to dominate the Straits.
The entire circuit of the Red Sea is walled by grand mountain ranges. Some of its ports and harbours are most important places. There is Mocha, so dear to the coffee-drinker; Jiddah, the port for the holy city of Mecca, whither innumerable pilgrims repair; Hodeida, and Locheia. It was in Jiddah that, in 1858, the Moslem population rose against the Christians, and killed forty-five, including the English and French consuls. [pg 118]On the African side, besides Suez, there are the ports of Cosseir, Suakim, and Massuah. The Red Sea is deep for a partially inland sea; there is a recorded instance of soundings to 1,000 fathoms—considerably over a mile—and no bottom found.
The entire coastline of the Red Sea is surrounded by impressive mountain ranges. Some of its ports and harbors are extremely significant. There's Mocha, beloved by coffee enthusiasts; Jiddah, the port for the holy city of Mecca, where countless pilgrims visit; Hodeida, and Locheia. It was in Jiddah that, in 1858, the Muslim population revolted against the Christians, resulting in the deaths of forty-five people, including the English and French consuls. [pg 118]On the African side, besides Suez, there are the ports of Cosseir, Suakim, and Massuah. The Red Sea is quite deep for a mostly inland sea; there’s a recorded instance of depth measurements reaching 1,000 fathoms—over a mile—and no bottom was found.
After leaving the Red Sea, where shall we proceed? We have the choice of the India, China, or Australia Stations. Actually, to do the voyage systematically, Bombay would be the next point.
After leaving the Red Sea, where should we go next? We have the option of the India, China, or Australia Stations. To plan the trip in order, Bombay would be the next stop.
Bombay, in general terms, is three things: a city of three-quarters of a million souls; a presidency of 12,000,000 inhabitants; or an island—the island of Mambai, according to the natives, or Buon Bahia, the “good haven,” if we take the Portuguese version. The city is built on the island, which is not less than eight miles long by three broad, but the presidency extends to the mainland.
Bombay, in simple terms, is three things: a city with around 750,000 people; a region with 12 million residents; or an island—the island of Mambai, as the locals call it, or Buon Bahia, which means “good haven” in Portuguese. The city is located on the island, which is at least eight miles long and three miles wide, but the region also includes areas on the mainland.
In 1509, the Portuguese visited it, and in 1530 it became theirs. In 1661, it was blindly ceded to our Charles II., as simply a part of the dowry of his bride, the Infanta Catherine. Seven years after Charles the Dissolute had obtained what is now the most valuable colonial possession of Great Britain, he ceded it to the Honourable East India Company—though, of course, for a handsome consideration.
In 1509, the Portuguese explored it, and by 1530 it officially became theirs. In 1661, it was mindlessly handed over to our Charles II as just a part of his bride's dowry, the Infanta Catherine. Seven years after Charles the Dissolute acquired what is now Britain's most valuable colonial possession, he transferred it to the Honourable East India Company—though, of course, for a nice sum.
Bombay has many advantages for the sailor. It is always accessible during the terrible south-west monsoons, and possesses an anchoring ground of fifty miles, sheltered by islands and a magnificent series of breakwaters, at the south end of which is a grand lighthouse. Its docks and dockyards cover fifty acres; ship-building is carried on extensively; and there is an immense trade in cotton, coffee, opium, spices, gums, ivory, and shawls. Of its 700,000 inhabitants, 50,000 are Parsees—Persians—descendants of the original Fire-worshippers. A large proportion of them are merchants. It may not be generally known to our readers that the late Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy—who left wealth untold, although all his days he had been a humane and charitable man, and who established in Bombay alone two fine hospitals—was a Parsee.
Bombay has many advantages for sailors. It's always accessible during the harsh south-west monsoons and has a fifty-mile anchoring area, protected by islands and an impressive series of breakwaters, at one end of which stands a grand lighthouse. Its docks and shipyards span fifty acres; shipbuilding is extensive, and there is significant trade in cotton, coffee, opium, spices, gums, ivory, and shawls. Of its 700,000 residents, 50,000 are Parsees—Persians—descendants of the original Fire-worshippers. A large portion of them are merchants. It may not be widely known to our readers that the late Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy—who left behind untold wealth, although he spent his life as a kind and charitable man, and who founded two fine hospitals in Bombay—was a Parsee.
Calcutta, in 1700, was but a collection of petty villages, surrounding the factories or posts of the East India Company, and which were presented to that corporation by the Emperor of Delhi. They were fortified, and received the name of Fort William, in honour of the reigning king. It subsequently received the title of Calcutta, that being the name of one of the aforesaid villages. Seven years after that date, Calcutta was attacked suddenly by Surajah Dowlah, Nawab of Bengal. Abandoned by many who should have defended it, 146 English fell into the enemy’s hands, who put them into that confined and loathsome cell of which we have all read, the “Black Hole of Calcutta.” Next morning but twenty-three of the number were found alive. Lord Clive, eight months later, succeeded in recapturing Calcutta, and after the subsequently famous battle of Plassey, the possessions of the East India Company greatly extended. To-day Calcutta has a “Strand” longer than that of London, and the batteries of Fort William, which, with their outworks, cover an area half a mile in diameter, and have cost £2,000,000, form the strongest fortress in India.
Calcutta, in 1700, was just a group of small villages around the factories or posts of the East India Company, which had been granted to that corporation by the Emperor of Delhi. They were fortified and named Fort William in honor of the reigning king. It later became known as Calcutta, named after one of those villages. Seven years later, Calcutta was suddenly attacked by Surajah Dowlah, the Nawab of Bengal. Many who should have defended it abandoned the city, and 146 English were captured by the enemy, who placed them in that cramped and disgusting cell we all know about, the “Calcutta Black Hole.” The next morning, only twenty-three were found alive. Lord Clive managed to retake Calcutta eight months later, and after the famous battle of Plassey, the East India Company's territories expanded significantly. Today, Calcutta has a “Stranded” longer than London’s, and the batteries of Fort William, including their outerworks, cover an area half a mile in diameter and have cost £2,000,000, making it the strongest fortress in India.
Across the continent by railway, and we land easily in Calcutta. It has, with its suburbs, a larger population than Bombay, but can never rival it as a port, because it is a hundred miles up the Hooghly River, and navigation is risky, although ships of 2,000 [pg 119]tons can reach it. It derives its name from Kali Ghatta, the ghaut or landing-place of the goddess Kali. Terrible cyclones have often devastated it; that in 1867 destroyed 30,000 native houses, and a very large amount of human life.
Across the continent by train, we easily arrive in Calcutta. With its suburbs, it has a larger population than Bombay, but can never match it as a port since it's a hundred miles up the Hooghly River, and navigation is risky, even though ships of 2,000 [pg 119]tons can reach it. Its name comes from Kali Ghatta, the landing place of the goddess Kali. Terrible cyclones have often devastated the area; the one in 1867 destroyed 30,000 native houses and took a significant number of lives.
The sailor’s route would, however, take him, if bound to China or Australia, round the island of Ceylon, in which there are two harbours, Point de Galle, used as a stopping-place, a kind of “junction” for the great steamship lines, of which the splendid Peninsular and Oriental (the “P. & O.”) Company, is the principal. Point de Galle is the most convenient point, but it does not possess a first-class harbour. At Trincomalee, however, there is a magnificent harbour.
The sailor’s route would, however, take him, if headed to China or Australia, around the island of Ceylon, which has two harbors: Point de Galle, used as a stopover, a sort of “intersection” for the major steamship lines, with the impressive Peninsular and Oriental (the “P. & O.”) Company being the main one. Point de Galle is the most convenient spot, but it doesn’t have a top-tier harbor. On the other hand, Trincomalee boasts a magnificent harbor.
Ceylon is one of the most interesting islands in the world. It is the Serendib of the “Arabian Nights,” rich in glorious scenery, equable climate, tropical vegetation, unknown quantities of gems and pearls, and many minerals. The sapphire, ruby, topaz, garnet, and amethyst abound. A sapphire was found in 1853 worth £4,000. Its coffee plantations are a source of great wealth. Palms, flowering shrubs, tree ferns, rhododendrons, as big as timber trees, clothe the island in perennial verdure. The elephant, wild boar, leopard, bear, buffalo, humped ox, deer, palm-cat and civet are common, but there are few dangerous or venomous animals. The Singhalese population, really Hindoo colonists, are effeminate and cowardly. The Kandyans, Ceylonese Highlanders, who dwell in the mountains, are a more creditable race, sturdy and manly. Then there are the Malabars, early Portuguese and Dutch settlers, with a sprinkling of all nationalities.
Ceylon is one of the most fascinating islands in the world. It is the Serendib of the “Arabian Nights,” filled with stunning landscapes, a mild climate, tropical plants, countless gems and pearls, and many minerals. Sapphires, rubies, topazes, garnets, and amethysts are abundant. In 1853, a sapphire was found that was valued at £4,000. Its coffee plantations bring immense wealth. Palms, flowering bushes, tree ferns, and rhododendrons as large as timber trees cover the island in constant greenery. The elephant, wild boar, leopard, bear, buffalo, humped ox, deer, palm civet, and civet are all common, but there aren't many dangerous or venomous animals. The Sinhalese population, who are essentially Hindu colonists, are seen as effeminate and cowardly. The Kandyans, Ceylonese Highlanders living in the mountains, are a more admirable race, strong and masculine. There are also the Malabars, early Portuguese and Dutch settlers, along with a mix of various nationalities.
There, too, are the outcast Veddahs, the real wild men of the woods. With them there is no God—no worship. The Rock Veddahs live in the jungle, follow the chase, sleep in caves or in the woods, eat lizards, and consider roast monkey a prime dish. The Village Veddahs are a shade more civilised.
There, too, are the outcast Veddahs, the true wild men of the woods. They have no God—no worship. The Rock Veddahs live in the jungle, hunt for food, sleep in caves or in the woods, eat lizards, and see roast monkey as a delicacy. The Village Veddahs are a bit more civilized.
One reads constantly in the daily journals of the India, China, or Australian Stations, and the reader may think that they are very intelligible titles. He may be surprised to learn that the East India Station not merely includes the ports of India and Ceylon, but the whole Indian Ocean, as far south as Madagascar, and the east coast of Africa, including Zanzibar and Mozambique, where there are dockyards. The China Station includes Japan, Borneo, Sumatra, the Philippine Islands, and the coast of Kamchatka and Eastern Siberia to Bering Sea. The Australian Station includes New Zealand and New Guinea. The leading stations in China are Hong Kong, Canton, and Shanghai. Vessels bound to the port of Canton have to enter the delta of the Pearl River, the area of which is largely occupied with isles and sandbanks. There are some thirty forts on the banks. When the ship has passed the mouth of this embouchure, which forms, in general terms, a kind of triangle, the sides of which are 100 miles each in length, you can proceed either to the island of Hong Kong, an English colony, or to the old Portuguese settlement of Macao.
One often reads in the daily news from the India, China, or Australian Stations, and it might seem like these are pretty straightforward titles. However, one might be surprised to find out that the East India Station not only covers the ports of India and Ceylon but also the entire Indian Ocean, reaching as far south as Madagascar, and along the east coast of Africa, including Zanzibar and Mozambique, where there are dockyards. The China Station includes Japan, Borneo, Sumatra, the Philippines, and the coast of Kamchatka and Eastern Siberia up to Bering Sea. The Australian Station covers New Zealand and New Guinea. The key stations in China are Hong Kong, Canton, and Shanghai. Ships headed for Canton must navigate through the delta of the Pearl River, which is mostly filled with islands and sandbanks. There are about thirty forts along the banks. Once the ship has passed the mouth of this delta, which generally forms a kind of triangle with each side measuring 100 miles, you can head either to Hong Kong, a British colony, or to the historic Portuguese settlement of Macao.
The name Hong Kong is a corruption of Hiang Kiang,92 which is by interpretation “Scented Stream.” Properly, the designation belongs to a small stream on the southern side of the island, where ships’ boats have long been in the habit of obtaining fine pure [pg 120]water; but now the name is given by foreigners to the whole island. The island is about nine miles in length, and has a very rugged and barren surface, consisting of rocky ranges of hills and mountains, intersected by ravines, through which streams of the purest water flow unceasingly. Victoria, Hong Kong, is the capital of the colony, and the seat of government. It extends for more than three miles east and west, part of the central grounds being occupied by military barracks and hospitals, commissariat buildings, colonial churches, post-office, and harbour-master’s depôt, all of which are overlooked by the Government-house itself, high up on the hill. Close to the sea-beach are the commercial houses, clubs, exchange, and market-places.
The name Hong Kong is a variation of Hiang Kiang, which means “Scented Stream.” Originally, this name referred to a small stream on the southern side of the island, where boats have long gone to collect clean, pure water; however, now foreigners use the name for the entire island. The island is about nine miles long and has a very rugged and barren landscape, made up of rocky hills and mountains intersected by ravines, through which pure water streams flow continuously. Victoria, Hong Kong, is the capital of the colony and the seat of government. It stretches over three miles from east to west, with part of the central area occupied by military barracks, hospitals, supply buildings, colonial churches, the post office, and the harbor master’s depot, all of which are overseen by the Government House sitting high on the hill. Near the beach are the commercial buildings, clubs, the exchange, and marketplaces.
It was the shelter, security, and convenience offered by the harbour that induced our [pg 121]Government to select it for a British settlement; it has one of the noblest roadsteads in the world. Before the cession to England in 1841, the native population on the island did not exceed 2,000; now there are 70,000 or 80,000.
It was the shelter, safety, and convenience provided by the harbor that led our [pg 121]Government to choose it for a British settlement; it has one of the best anchorages in the world. Before the transfer to England in 1841, the native population on the island was less than 2,000; now there are 70,000 or 80,000.
Macao (pronounced Macow) is forty miles to the westward of Hong Kong, and an agreeable place as regards its scenery and surroundings, but deficient as regards its harbour accommodation. Dr. Milne, himself a missionary resident for fourteen years in China, says, writing in 1859: “To some of the present generation of English residents in China, there can be anything but associations of a comfortable kind connected with Macao, recollecting as they must the unfriendly policy which the Portuguese on the spot pursued some sixteen or seventeen years since, and the bitterly hostile bearing which the Chinese of the settlement were encouraged to assume towards the ‘red-haired English.’ ”
Macao (pronounced Macow) is forty miles west of Hong Kong and is a pleasant place in terms of its scenery and surroundings, but it lacks good harbor facilities. Dr. Milne, who was a missionary living in China for fourteen years, wrote in 1859: "For some of the current generation of English residents in China, there are definitely no positive associations with Macao, as they recall the unfriendly policies the Portuguese implemented about sixteen or seventeen years ago and the hostile attitude the local Chinese were encouraged to adopt towards the ‘red-haired English.’"
Macao is a peninsula, eight miles in circuit, stretching out from a large island. The connecting piece of land is a narrow isthmus, which in native topography is called “the stalk of a water-lily.” In 1840 a low wall stretched across this isthmus, the foundation stones of which had been laid about three hundred years ago, with the acknowledged object of limiting the movements of foreigners. This was the notorious “barrier,” which, during the Chinese war of 1840-1, was used to annoy the English. As large numbers of the peasantry had to pass the “barrier gates” with provisions for the mixed population at Macao, it was a frequent manœuvre with the Chinese authorities to stop the market supplies by closing the gate, and setting over it a guard of half-starved and ravenous soldiery.
Macao is a peninsula, about eight miles around, extending from a large island. The narrow strip of land connecting them is called a isthmus, which in local terms is referred to as “the stem of a water lily.” In 1840, a low wall ran across this isthmus, the foundation stones of which were laid around three hundred years earlier, with the aim of restricting the movement of foreigners. This was the infamous “barrier,” which, during the Chinese war of 1840-1, was used to frustrate the English. Since many local people had to pass through the "barrier gates" with supplies for the mixed population in Macao, the Chinese authorities often shut the gate to cut off market supplies and stationed a guard of half-starved soldiers over it.
Leaving Macao for Canton, the ship passes the celebrated “Bogue Forts,” threads her course through a network of islets and mud-banks, and at last drops anchor twelve miles from the city off the island of Whampoa, where the numerous and grotesque junks, “egg boats,” “sampans,” &c., indicate a near approach to an important place. The name Canton is a European corruption of Kwang-tung, the “Broad East.” Among the Chinese it is sometimes described poetically as “the city of the genii,” “the city of grain,” and the “city of rams.” The origin of these terms is thus shown in a native legend. After the foundation of the city, which dates back 2,000 years, five genii, clothed in garments of five different colours, and riding on five rams of different colours, met on the site of Canton. Each of the rams bore in its mouth a stalk of grain having five ears, and presented them to the tenants of the soil, to whom they spake in these words:—
Leaving Macao for Canton, the ship passes the famous “Bogue Forts,” navigates through a maze of islets and mud flats, and finally drops anchor twelve miles from the city off the island of Whampoa, where the many and unusual junks, “egg boats,” “boats” etc., signal the approach to an important destination. The name Canton is a European alteration of Kwang-tung, the “East Coast.” Among the Chinese, it is sometimes poetically referred to as "the city of the geniuses," “the grain city,” and "the city of Rams." The origin of these names is explained in a local legend. After the city was founded, which dates back 2,000 years, five genii, dressed in garments of five different colors and riding on five rams of various hues, gathered at the site of Canton. Each ram carried in its mouth a stalk of grain with five ears and presented them to the people of the land, speaking to them these words:—
Upon this the rams were immediately petrified into stone images. There is a “Temple of the Five Rams” close to one of the gates of Canton.
Upon this, the rams were instantly turned into stone figures. There is a “Five Rams Temple” near one of the gates of Canton.
The river scene at Canton is most interesting. It is a floating town of huts built on rafts and on piles, with boats of every conceivable size, shape and use, lashed together. “It is,” says Dr. Milne, “an aquarium of human occupants.” Canton has probably a population of over a million. The entire circuit of city and suburbs cannot be far from ten miles.
The river scene in Canton is really fascinating. It's a floating town made up of huts on rafts and stilts, with boats of every imaginable size, shape, and purpose, tied together. “It is,” says Dr. Milne, “an aquarium of humans.” Canton probably has a population of over a million people. The whole area of the city and its suburbs is likely around ten miles.
Canton was bombarded in 1857-8 by an allied English and French force. Ten days were given to the stubborn Chinese minister, Yeh, to accede to the terms dictated by the Allies, [pg 122]and every means was taken to inform the native population of the real casus belli, and to advise them to remove from the scene of danger. Consul Parkes and Captain Hall were engaged among other colporteurs in the rather dangerous labour of distributing tracts and bills. In one of their rapid descents, Captain Hall caught a mandarin in his chair, not far from the city gate, and pasted him up in it with bills, then starting off the bearers to carry this new advertising van into the city! The Chinese crowd, always alive to a practical joke, roared with laughter. When the truce expired, more than 400 guns and mortars opened fire upon the city, great pains being taken only to injure the city walls, official Chinese residences, and hill forts. Then a force of 3,000 men was landed, and the city was between two fires. The hill-forts were soon taken, and an expedition planned and executed, chiefly to capture the native officials of high rank. Mr. Consul Parkes, with a party, burst into a yamun, an official residence, and in a few seconds Commissioner Yeh was in the hands of the English. An ambitious aide-de-camp of Yeh’s staff protested strongly that the captive was the wrong man, loudly stammering out, “Me Yeh! Me Yeh!” But this attempted deceit was of no avail; the prize was safely bagged, and shortly afterwards the terms of peace were arranged. The loss of life in the assault was not over 140 British and 30 French.
Canton was bombarded in 1857-58 by an allied English and French force. The stubborn Chinese minister, Yeh, was given ten days to agree to the terms set by the Allies, [pg 122]and every effort was made to inform the local population about the real justification for war and to advise them to evacuate the area of danger. Consul Parkes and Captain Hall, along with other agents, were involved in the risky task of distributing pamphlets and flyers. During one of their hurried trips, Captain Hall found a mandarin in his chair near the city gate and plastered him with flyers, then sent off the bearers to take this new advertising display into the city! The Chinese crowd, always quick to catch on to a practical joke, erupted in laughter. When the truce ended, over 400 guns and mortars opened fire on the city, with the aim of damaging only the city walls, official Chinese residences, and hill forts. Then a force of 3,000 men landed, putting the city in a crossfire. The hill forts were quickly taken, and an operation was organized and carried out mainly to capture high-ranking local officials. Mr. Consul Parkes and his team broke into a yamun, an official residence, and in a matter of seconds, Commissioner Yeh was in English hands. An ambitious aide-de-camp from Yeh’s staff protested vehemently that they had the wrong person, stammering loudly, “Me Yeah! Me Yeah!” But this attempt at deception was futile; the important capture was secured, and shortly after, the terms of peace were negotiated. The casualties from the assault amounted to no more than 140 British and 30 French.
Shanghai is a port which has grown up almost entirely since 1844, the date of its first occupation by foreigners for purposes of commerce. Then there were only forty-four foreign merchant ships, twenty-three foreign residents and families, one consular flag, and two Protestant missionaries. Twelve years later, there were, for six months’ returns, 249 British ships, fifty-seven American, eleven Hamburg, eleven Dutch, nine Swedish, seven Danish, six Spanish, and seven Portuguese, besides those of other nationalities. The returns for the whole year embraced 434 ships of all countries; tea exports, 76,711,659 pounds; silk, 55,537 bales.
Shanghai is a port that has developed almost entirely since 1844, when it was first occupied by foreigners for trade. At that time, there were only forty-four foreign merchant ships, twenty-three foreign residents and their families, one consular flag, and two Protestant missionaries. Twelve years later, for a six-month period, there were 249 British ships, fifty-seven American, eleven from Hamburg, eleven Dutch, nine Swedish, seven Danish, six Spanish, and seven Portuguese, in addition to ships of other nationalities. The total for the entire year included 434 ships from all countries, with tea exports reaching 76,711,659 pounds and silk totaling 55,537 bales.
Shanghai (“the Upper Sea”) has been written variously Canhay, Changhay, Xanghay, Zonghae, Shanhae, Shanghay, and so forth. Its proper pronunciation is as if the final syllable were “high,” not “hay.”
Shanghai ("the Upper Sea") has been spelled in different ways like Canhay, Changhay, Xanghay, Zonghae, Shanhae, Shanghay, and so on. It should be pronounced as if the last syllable were “high” not “hey.”
“Sailing towards the north of China,” says Milne, “keeping perhaps fifty or sixty miles off the coast, as the ship enters the thirtieth parallel, a stranger is startled some fine morning by coming on what looks like a shoal—perhaps a sand-bank, a reef—he knows not what. It is an expanse of coloured water, stretching out as far as the eye can reach, east, north, and west, and entirely distinct from the deep-blue sea which hitherto the vessel had been ploughing. Of course, he finds that it is the ‘Yellow Sea;’ a sea so yellow, turbid, and thick, certainly, that you might think all the pease-soup in creation, and a great deal more, had been emptied into one monster cistern.” The name is therefore appropriate, as are the designations of several others:
"Sailing north of China," says Milne, Staying about fifty or sixty miles off the coast, as the ship crosses the thirtieth parallel, a traveler is surprised one fine morning to come across what appears to be a shoal—maybe a sandbank or a reef; he isn't sure. It’s a stretch of colored water that extends as far as the eye can see—east, north, and west—and it’s completely different from the deep blue sea the vessel has been sailing until now. Naturally, he realizes that it is the ‘Yellow Sea;’ a sea so yellow, murky, and thick that you'd think all the pea soup in the world, and much more, had been poured into one giant cistern. The name fits perfectly, as do the names of several others:
Between the thirtieth degree of north latitude, where the group of the Choosan Islands commences, and the thirty-seventh degree, this sea of soup, this reservoir of tawny liquid, ranges, fed by three great rivers, the Tseen-Tang, the Yangtsze-Kiang, and the Hwang-Ho, the greatest of which is the second, and which contributes the larger part [pg 123]of the muddy solution held in its waters. Forty-five miles from the embouchure of the Yangtsze-Kiang, you reach the Woosung anchorage, and a few miles further the city of Shanghai, where the tributary you have been following divides into the Woosung and Whampoa branches, at the fork of which the land ceded to the British is situated. Here there is a splendid British consulate, churches, mansions, and foreign mercantile houses.
Between the thirtieth degree of north latitude, where the Choosan Islands begin, and the thirty-seventh degree, lies this sea of soup, this reservoir of brown liquid, fed by three major rivers: the Tseen-Tang, the Yangtsze-Kiang, and the Hwang-Ho, with the Yangtsze-Kiang being the largest and contributing the majority of the muddy solution in its waters. Forty-five miles from the mouth of the Yangtsze-Kiang, you arrive at the Woosung anchorage, and a few miles further is the city of Shanghai, where the tributary you’ve been following splits into the Woosung and Whampoa branches, at the fork of which lies the land ceded to the British. Here, you’ll find a beautiful British consulate, churches, mansions, and foreign trading houses.
The old city was built over three centuries ago, and is encircled, as indeed are nearly all large Chinese cities and towns, by a wall twenty-four feet high and fifteen broad; it is nearly four miles in circumference. Shanghai was at one time greatly exposed to the depredations of freebooters and pirates, and partly in consequence of this the wall is plentifully provided with loop-holes, arrow-towers, and military observatories. The six great gates of the city of Shanghai have grandiloquent titles, à la Chinoise. The north gate is the “calm-sea gate;” the great east gate is that for “paying obeisance to the honourable ones;” the little east one is “the precious girdle gate;” the great south is the gate for “riding the dragon,” while another is termed “the pattern Phœnix.”
The old city was built over three hundred years ago and is surrounded, like almost all large Chinese cities and towns, by a wall that's twenty-four feet high and fifteen feet wide; it’s almost four miles around. Shanghai was once very vulnerable to raids by pirates and bandits, which is partly why the wall has plenty of loop-holes, watchtowers, and military lookouts. The six main gates of Shanghai have grand titles, Chinese style. The north gate is the “calm-sea entrance;” the large east gate is for "showing respect to the honorable ones;" the small east gate is “the valuable girdle gate;” the large south gate is for "riding the dragon" while another is called “the Phoenix pattern.”
Its oldest name is Hoo. In early days the following curious mode of catching fish was adopted. Rows of bamboo stakes, joined by cords, were driven into the mud of the stream, among which, at ebb tide, the fish became entangled, and were easily caught. This mode of fishing was called hoo, and as at one time Shanghai was famous for its fishing stakes, it gained the name of the “Hoo city.” The tides rise very rapidly in the river, and sometimes give rise to alarming inundations. Lady Wortley’s description of the waters of the Mississippi apply to the river-water of Shanghai; “it looks marvellously like an enormous running stream of apothecary’s stuff, a very strong decoction of mahogany-coloured bark, with a slight dash of port wine to deepen its hue; it is a mulatto-complexioned river, there is no doubt of that, and wears the deep-tanned livery of the burnished sun.” Within and without the walls, the city is cut up by ditches and moats, which, some years ago, instead of being sources of benefit and health to the inhabitants, as they were originally intended to be, were really open sewers, breathing out effluvia and pestilence. In some respects, however, Shanghai is now better ordered as regards municipal arrangements.
Its oldest name is Hoo. In the past, a unique way of catching fish was used. Rows of bamboo stakes, connected by ropes, were driven into the mud of the stream. During low tide, fish would get trapped among them, making it easy to catch them. This fishing method was called hoo, and since Shanghai was once well-known for its fishing stakes, it earned the nickname "Whoa, city." The tides rise quickly in the river, sometimes causing significant flooding. Lady Wortley’s description of the waters of the Mississippi applies to Shanghai's river water: "It looks wonderfully like a huge, flowing stream of pharmacist's materials, a very strong brew of dark brown bark, with a hint of port wine to enhance its color; it's definitely a river with a mulatto complexion, and it sports the deep-tanned appearance of the shining sun." Inside and outside the walls, the city is divided by ditches and moats, which, years ago, instead of providing benefits and health to the residents as intended, became open sewers, emanating foul smells and disease. In some ways, though, Shanghai is now better organized in terms of city planning.
The fruits of the earth are abundant at Shanghai, and “Jack ashore” may revel in delicious peaches, figs, persimmons, cherries, plums, oranges, citrons, and pomegranates, while there is a plentiful supply of fish, flesh, and fowl. Grains of all kinds, rice, and cotton are cultivated extensively; the latter gives employment at the loom for thousands. On the other hand there are drawbacks in the shape of clouds of musquitoes, flying-beetles, heavy rains, monsoons, and earthquakes. The prognostics of the latter are a highly electric state of the atmosphere, long drought, excessive heat, and what can only be described as a stagnation of all nature. Dr. Milne, reciting his experiences, says: “At the critical moment of the commotion, the earth began to rock, the beams and walls cracked like the timbers of a ship under sail, and a nausea came over one, a sea-sickness really horrible. At times, for a second or two previous to the vibration, there was heard a subterraneous growl, a noise as of a mighty rushing wind whirling about under ground.” [pg 124]The natives were terror-struck, more especially if the quake happened at night, and there would burst a mass of confused sounds, “Kew ming! Kew ming!” (“Save your lives! save your lives!”) Dogs added their yells to the medley, amid the striking of gongs and tomtoms. Next day there would be exhaustless gossip concerning upheaval and sinking of land, flames issuing from the hill-sides, and ashes cast about the country. The Chinese ideas on the subject are various. Some thought the earth had become too hot, and that it had to relieve itself by a shake, or that it was changing its place for another part of the universe. Others said that the Supreme One, to bring transgressors to their senses, thought to alarm them by a quivering of the earth. The notion most common among the lower classes is, that there are six huge sea-monsters, great fish, which support the earth, and that if any one of these move, the earth must be agitated. Superstition is rife in ascribing these earth-shakings chiefly to the remissness of the priesthood. In almost every temple there is a muh-yu—an image of a scaly wooden fish, suspended near the altar, and among the duties of the priests, it is rigidly prescribed that they keep up an everlasting tapping on it. If they become lax in their duties, the fish wriggle and shake the earth to bring the drowsy priests to a sense of their duty.
The fruits of the earth are plentiful in Shanghai, and "Jack is ashore" can enjoy delicious peaches, figs, persimmons, cherries, plums, oranges, citrons, and pomegranates, along with an abundant supply of fish, meat, and poultry. Various grains, rice, and cotton are grown extensively; the latter provides jobs for thousands at the loom. However, there are downsides, including swarms of mosquitoes, flying beetles, heavy rain, monsoons, and earthquakes. Signs of the latter include a highly charged atmosphere, prolonged drought, extreme heat, and what can only be described as a stagnation in nature. Dr. Milne, recalling his experiences, says: “At the crucial moment of the chaos, the ground started to shake, the beams and walls cracked like the wood of a sailing ship, and a wave of nausea hit, a truly terrible seasickness. For a brief moment, just before the shaking, there was a deep rumble, a sound like a strong wind rushing underground.” [pg 124]The locals were terrified, especially if the quake occurred at night, leading to a cacophony of sounds, "Kew ming! Kew ming!" ("Save yourselves! Save yourselves!") Dogs added to the chaos with their barks, amid the clanging of gongs and drums. The next day, there would be endless chatter about land upheaval and sinking, flames coming from the hills, and ashes strewn across the land. The Chinese have various opinions on the matter. Some believe the earth gets too hot and needs to relieve itself by shaking, or that it is shifting to another part of the universe. Others think that the Supreme Being, to wake up wrongdoers, causes anxiety through the shaking of the earth. The most common belief among the lower classes is that there are six enormous sea monsters, great fish that hold up the earth, and if any of them move, the earth will tremble. Superstition thrives, attributing these earthquakes mainly to the negligence of the priests. Almost every temple has a muh-yu—an image of a scaly wooden fish, suspended near the altar, and it is the priests' strict duty to keep a constant tapping on it. If they become lazy in their responsibilities, the fish wiggle and shake the earth to remind the sluggish priests of their duties.
A singular meteorological phenomenon often occurs at Shanghai—a fall of dust, fine, light and impalpable, sometimes black, ordinarily yellow. The sun or moon will scarcely be visible through this sand shower. The deposit of this exquisite powder is sometimes to the extent of a quarter of an inch, after a fall of a day or two; it will penetrate the closest venetian blinds; it overspreads every article of furniture in the house; finds its way into the innermost chambers and recesses. In walking about, one’s clothes are covered with dust—the face gets grimy, the mouth and throat parched; the teeth grate; the eyes, ears, and nostrils become itchy and irritable. The fall sometimes extends as far as Ningpo in the interior—also some 200 miles out at sea. Some think that it is blown all the way from the steppes of Mongolia, after having been wafted by typhoons into the upper regions of the air: others think that it comes across the seas from the Japanese volcanoes, which are constantly subject to eruptions.
A unique weather event often happens in Shanghai—a dust settling, fine, light, and almost imperceptible, sometimes black, usually yellow. The sun or moon is barely visible through this dust storm. The layer of this delicate powder can reach up to a quarter of an inch after a day or two; it seeps through tightly closed Venetian blinds, covers every piece of furniture in the house, and gets into the most hidden corners. When you walk around, your clothes get coated with dust—your face gets dirty, your mouth and throat feel dry; your teeth feel gritty; and your eyes, ears, and nose become itchy and irritated. The dust fall can even reach as far as Ningpo inland—about 200 miles out to sea. Some believe it is carried all the way from the steppes of Mongolia, lifted by typhoons into the upper atmosphere; others think it comes over the seas from the constantly erupting Japanese volcanoes.
The population of Shanghai, rapidly increasing, is probably about 400,000 to 450,000 souls. It swarms with professional beggars. Among the many creditable things cited by Milne regarding the Chinese, is the number of native charitable institutions in Canton, Ningpo, and Shanghai, including Foundling Hospitals, the (Shanghai) “Asylum for Outcast [pg 126]Children, retreats for poor and destitute widows, shelters for the maimed and blind, medical dispensaries, leper hospitals, vaccine establishments, almshouses, free burial societies,” and so forth. So much for the heartless Chinese.
The population of Shanghai is rapidly growing and is likely around 400,000 to 450,000 people. It’s filled with professional beggars. Among the many commendable things noted by Milne about the Chinese is the number of local charitable organizations in Canton, Ningpo, and Shanghai, including Foundling Hospitals, the (Shanghai) “Asylum for Outcast [pg 126]Children, places for poor and homeless widows, shelters for people with disabilities and the blind, medical clinics, hospitals for those with leprosy, vaccination sites, charity homes, free burial organizations,” and more. So much for the heartless Chinese.
The sailor certainly has this compensation for his hard life, that he sees the world, and visits strange countries and peoples by the dozen, privileges for which many a man tied at home by the inevitable force of circumstances would give up a great deal. What an oracle is he on his return, amid his own family circle or friends! How the youngsters in particular hang on his every word, look up at his bronzed and honest face, and wish that they could be sailors,—
The sailor definitely has this advantage for his tough life; he gets to see the world and visit unfamiliar countries and cultures in abundance, opportunities that many people stuck at home due to circumstances would sacrifice a lot for. He becomes a kind of oracle when he returns, surrounded by family and friends! The kids, especially, hang onto his every word, look up to his tanned and genuine face, and wish they could be sailors.
How many curiosities has he not to show—from the inevitable parrot, chattering in a foreign tongue, or swearing roundly in English vernacular, to the little ugly idol brought from India, but possibly manufactured in Birmingham!93 If from China, he will probably have brought home some curious caddy, fearfully and wonderfully inlaid with dragons and impossible landscapes; an ivory pagoda, or, perhaps, one of those wonderfully-carved balls, with twenty or so more inside it, all separate and distinct, each succeeding one getting smaller and smaller. He may have with him a native oil-painting; if a portrait, stolid and hard; but if of a ship, true to the last rope, and exact in every particular. In San Francisco, where there are 14,000 or more Chinese, may be seen native paintings of vessels which could hardly be excelled by a European artist, and the cost of which for large sizes, say 3½ by 2½ feet, was only about fifteen dollars (£3). What with fans, handkerchiefs, Chinese ladies’ shoes for feet about three inches in length, lanterns, chopsticks, pipes, rice-paper drawings, books, neat and quaint little porcelain articles for presents at home, it will be odd if Jack, who has been mindful of the “old folks at home,” and the young folks too, and the “girl he left behind him,” does not become a very popular man.
How many curiosities does he have to share—from the usual parrot, chatting away in a foreign language or swearing in English, to the small, ugly idol shipped from India, but likely made in Birmingham!93 If he visited China, he might have brought back some unique caddy, intricately inlaid with dragons and surreal landscapes; an ivory pagoda, or maybe one of those intricately carved balls with twenty smaller ones inside, all separate and distinct, each one getting smaller. He might have a local oil painting; if it's a portrait, it'll look stiff and harsh; but if it’s of a ship, it'll be accurate down to the last rope. In San Francisco, with its 14,000 or more Chinese residents, you can find local paintings of vessels that could rival a European artist, and the price for large paintings, around 3½ by 2½ feet, is only about fifteen dollars (£3). With fans, handkerchiefs, Chinese ladies’ shoes for feet about three inches long, lanterns, chopsticks, pipes, rice-paper drawings, books, and cute little porcelain gifts for home, it would be surprising if Jack, who has thought of the “seniors at home,” and the young ones too, and the “girl he left behind,” doesn't become quite a popular guy.
And then his yarns of Chinese life! How on his first landing at a port, the natives in proffering their services hastened to assure him in “pigeon English” (“pigeon” is a native corruption of “business,” as a mixed jargon had and has to be used in trading with the lower classes) that “Me all same Englische man; me belly good man;” or “You wantee washy? me washy you?” which is simply an offer to do your laundry work;94 or “You wantee glub (grub); me sabee (know) one shop all same Englische belly good.” Or, perhaps, he has met a Chinaman accompanying a coffin home, and yet looking quite happy and jovial. Not knowing that it is a common custom to present coffins to relatives during lifetime, he inquires, “Who’s dead, John?” “No man hab die,” replies the Celestial, “no man hab die. Me makee my olo fader cumsha. Him likee too muchee, countoo my number one popa, s’pose he die, can catchee,” which freely translated is—“No [pg 127]one is dead. It is a present from me to my aged father, with which he will be much pleased. I esteem my father greatly, and it will be at his service when he dies.” How one of the common names for a foreigner, especially an Englishman, is “I say,” which derived its use simply from the Chinese hearing our sailors and soldiers frequently ejaculate the words when conversing, as for example, “I say, Bill, there’s a queer-looking pigtail!” The Chinese took it for a generic name, and would use it among themselves in the most curious way, as for example, “A red-coated I say sent me to buy a fowl;” or “Did you see a tall I say here a while ago?” The application is, however, not more curious than the title of “John” bestowed on the Chinaman by most foreigners as a generic distinction. Less flattering epithets used to be freely bestowed on us, especially in the interior, such as “foreign devil,” “red-haired devil,” &c. The phrase Hungmaou, “red-haired,” is applied to foreigners of all classes, and arose when the Dutch first opened up trade with China. A Chinese work, alluding to their arrival, says, “Their raiment was red, and their hair too. They had bluish eyes, deeply sunken in their head, and our people were quite frightened by their strange aspect.”
And then his stories about Chinese life! When he first arrived at a port, the locals rushed to offer their services and reassured him in pidgin English (pigeon is a local twist on “business,” as a mixed jargon had to be used in trading with the lower classes) saying, "I'm just like an English man; I'm a good guy." or "Do you want me to wash it for you?" which simply means they want to do your laundry;94 or "You want food; I know a place that has good English food." Or maybe he encountered a Chinese man carrying a coffin home, looking quite happy and cheerful. Not knowing that it’s a common tradition to gift coffins to relatives while they're still alive, he asks, "Who died, John?" “No man has died,” responds the Celestial, “no man has died. I make my old father happy. He likes it too much, counting my number one dad; if he dies, he can catch it,” which translates to—“No one is dead. This is a gift from me to my elderly father, and he will be very happy. I really care about my father, and it will be ready for him when he’s gone.” One of the common names for a foreigner, especially an Englishman, is "I'm saying," which came about because the Chinese heard our sailors and soldiers often exclaim those words in conversation, like, "I told you, Bill, that’s a weird-looking pigtail!" The Chinese took it as a general term and would use it among themselves in the oddest ways, like “A person in a red coat told me to buy a chicken;” or "Did you see a tall person __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ here a while ago?" However, this usage is no more peculiar than the name "John" that most foreigners use to refer to a Chinese person generically. Less flattering titles were often thrown at us, especially in the countryside, such as "foreigner," “red-haired troublemaker,” etc. The term Hungmaou, “redhead,” is used for foreigners of all sorts and originated when the Dutch first opened trade with China. A Chinese text discussing their arrival says, "Their clothes were red, and so was their hair. They had bluish eyes that were deeply set in their heads, and our people were really scared by their unusual appearance."
Jack will have to tell how many strange anomalies met his gaze. For example, in launching their junks and vessels, they are sent into the water sideways. The horseman mounts on the right side. The scholar, reciting his lesson, turns his back on his master. And if Jack, or, at all events one of his superior officers, goes to a party, he should not wear light pumps, but as thick solid shoes as he can get; white lead is used for blacking. On visits of ceremony, you should keep your hat on; and when you advance to your host, you should close your fists and shake hands with yourself. Dinners commence with sweets and fruits, and end with fish and soup. White is the funereal colour. You may see adults gravely flying kites, while the youngsters look on; shuttlecocks are battledored by the heel. Books begin at the end; the paging is at the bottom, and in reading, you proceed from right to left. The surname precedes the Christian name. The fond mother holds her babe to her nose to smell it—as she would a rose—instead of kissing it.
Jack will have to describe the many strange things he saw. For instance, when launching their boats and ships, they go into the water sideways. The horseman gets on from the right side. The scholar, while reciting his lesson, turns away on his teacher. And if Jack, or, at least one of his superior officers, goes to a gathering, he shouldn't wear light shoes, but the thickest, sturdiest shoes he can find; white lead is used for blacking. During formal visits, you should keep your hat on; and when you approach your host, you should clench your fists and give yourself a high five. Dinners start with sweets and fruits, and end with fish and soup. White is the color of mourning. You might see adults seriously flying kites while the kids watch; shuttlecocks are hit with the heel. Books start from the back; the page numbers are at the bottom, and when reading, you go from right to left. The last name comes before the first name. The loving mother holds her baby to her nose to smell it—as she would a rose—rather than kissing it.
What yarns he will have to tell of pigtails! How the Chinese sailor lashes it round his cap at sea; how the crusty pedagogue, with no other rod of correction, will, on the spur of the moment, lash the refractory scholar with it; and how, for fun, a wag will tie two or three of his companions’ tails together, and start them off in different directions! But he will also know from his own or others’ experiences that the foreigner must not attempt practical jokes upon John Chinaman’s tail. “Noli me tangere,” says Dr. Milne, “is the order of the tail, as well as of the thistle.”
What stories he will have to tell about pigtails! How the Chinese sailor wraps it around his cap at sea; how the grumpy teacher, with no other means of discipline, will, on a whim, use it to punish the unruly student; and how, just for fun, a jokester will tie a few of his friends’ pigtails together and send them off in different directions! But he will also know from his own or others’ experiences that you should never pull practical jokes on John Chinaman’s pigtail. “Don't touch me,” says Dr. Milne, “is the rule for the pigtail, just like it is for the thistle.”
Now that most of the restrictions surrounding foreigners in Japan have been removed, and that enlightened people—the Englishmen of the Pacific in enterprise and progress—have taken their proper place among the nations of the earth, visits to Japan are commonly made by even ordinary tourists making the circuit of the globe, and we shall have to touch there again in another “voyage round the world” shortly to follow. The English sailors of the Royal Navy often have an opportunity of visiting the charming islands which constitute Japan. Its English name is a corruption of Tih-punquo—Chinese for “Kingdom of the Source of the Sun.” Marco Polo was the first to bring [pg 129]to Europe intelligence of the bright isles, whose Japanese name, Nipon or Niphon, means literally “Sun-source.”
Now that most of the restrictions on foreigners in Japan have been lifted, and that progressive individuals—the English of the Pacific in business and development—have taken their rightful place among the nations of the world, visits to Japan are now commonly made by even regular tourists traveling around the globe. We will have to stop there again in another "worldwide journey" that will follow soon. English sailors in the Royal Navy often get a chance to visit the beautiful islands that make up Japan. The English name for the country is a variation of Tih-punquo—a Chinese term meaning "Kingdom of the Source of the Sun." Marco Polo was the first to bring [pg 129]to Europe news of the bright islands, whose Japanese name, Nipon or Niphon, literally means "Source of sunlight."
On the way to Yokohama, the great port of Japan, the voyager will encounter the monsoons, the north-east version of which brings deliciously cool air from October to March, while the south-west monsoon brings hot and weary weather. On the way Nagasaki, on the island of Kiusiu, will almost certainly be visited, which has a harbour with a very narrow entrance, with hills running down to the water’s edge, beautifully covered with luxuriant grass and low trees. The Japanese have planted batteries on either side, which would probably prevent any vessel short of a strong ironclad from getting in or out of the harbour. The city has a population at least of 150,000. There are a number of Chinese restricted to one quarter, surrounded by a high wall, in which is a heavy gate, that is securely locked every night. Their dwellings are usually mean and filthy, and compare very unfavourably with the neat, clean, matted dwellings of the Japanese. The latter despise the former; indeed, you can scarcely insult a native more than to compare him with his brother of Nankin. The Japanese term them the Nankin Sans.
On the way to Yokohama, Japan's major port, travelers will experience the monsoons. The northeast monsoon brings pleasantly cool air from October to March, while the southwest monsoon brings hot and exhausting weather. Along the route, Nagasaki, located on the island of Kyushu, is likely to be visited. It has a harbor with a very narrow entrance and hills that slope down to the water's edge, beautifully covered in lush grass and low trees. The Japanese have set up batteries on both sides, which would likely prevent any ship short of a sturdy ironclad from entering or leaving the harbor. The city has a population of at least 150,000. There is a group of Chinese people confined to one quarter, surrounded by a tall wall, with a heavy gate that is securely locked every night. Their homes are typically small and dirty, particularly when compared to the neat, clean, matted homes of the Japanese. The latter look down on the former; in fact, there’s hardly a greater insult to a native than to compare him to someone from Nanking. The Japanese refer to them as the Nanking Sans.
The island of Niphon, on which Yokohama is situated, is about one hundred and seventy miles long by seventy broad, while Yesso is somewhat longer and narrower. Japan really became known to Europe through Fernando Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese who was shipwrecked there in 1549. Seven years later the famous Jesuit, Francis Xavier, introduced the Catholic faith, which for a long time made great progress. But a fatal mistake was made in 1580, when an embassy was sent to the Pope with presents and [pg 130]vows of allegiance. The reigning Tycoon95 had his eyes opened by this act, and saw that to profess obedience to any spiritual lord was to weaken his own power immeasurably. The priests of the old religions, too, complained bitterly of the loss of their flocks, and the Tycoon determined to crush out the Christian faith. Thousands upon thousands of converts were put to death, and the very last of them are said to have been hurled from the rock of Papenberg, at Nagasaki, into the sea. In 1600, William Adams, an English sailor on a Dutch ship, arrived in the harbour of Bungo, and speedily became a favourite with the Tycoon, who, through him, gave the English permission to establish a trading “factory” on the island of Firando. This was later on abandoned, but the Dutch East India Company continued the trade on the same island, under very severe restrictions. The fire-arms and powder on their ships were taken from them immediately on arrival, and only returned when the ships were ready for sea again.
The island of Niphon, where Yokohama is located, is about 170 miles long and 70 miles wide, while Yesso is a bit longer and narrower. Japan became known to Europe through Fernando Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese who was shipwrecked there in 1549. Seven years later, the famous Jesuit, Francis Xavier, introduced the Catholic faith, which made significant progress for a while. However, a critical mistake occurred in 1580 when an embassy was sent to the Pope with gifts and pledges of loyalty. This act opened the reigning Tycoon’s eyes, making him realize that showing allegiance to any spiritual leader would weaken his own power tremendously. The priests of the traditional religions also complained about losing their followers, and the Tycoon decided to eradicate the Christian faith. Thousands of converts were executed, and the very last of them are said to have been thrown from the rock of Papenberg at Nagasaki into the sea. In 1600, William Adams, an English sailor on a Dutch ship, arrived in the harbor of Bungo and quickly became a favorite of the Tycoon, who allowed the English to set up a trading “factory” on the island of Firando. This was eventually abandoned, but the Dutch East India Company continued trade on the same island under very strict regulations. The firearms and gunpowder on their ships were taken from them immediately upon arrival and only returned when the ships were ready to sail again.
Yokohama, the principal port, stands on a flat piece of ground, at the wide end of a valley, which runs narrowing up for several miles in the country. The site was reclaimed from a mere swamp by the energy of the Government; and there is now a fine sea-wall facing the sea, with two piers running out into it, on each of which there is a custom-house. The average Japanese in the streets is clothed in a long thin cotton robe, open in front and gathered at the waist by a cloth girdle. This constitutes the whole of his dress, save a scanty cloth tied tightly round the loins, cotton socks and wooden clogs. The elder women look hideous, but some of their ugliness is self-inflicted, as it is the fashion, when a woman becomes a wife, to draw out the hair of her eyebrows and varnish her teeth black! Their teeth are white, and they still have their eyebrows, but are too much prone to the use of chalk and vermilion on their cheeks. Every one is familiar with the Japanese stature—under the general average—for there are now a large number of the natives resident in London.
Yokohama, the main port, is located on a flat area at the wide end of a valley that narrows for several miles into the countryside. The site was transformed from a swamp through the efforts of the Government, and now there's a solid sea wall facing the ocean, with two piers extending into it, each housing a customs office. On the streets, the average Japanese person wears a long, thin cotton robe that is open in the front and cinched at the waist with a cloth belt. This forms their entire outfit, except for a minimal fabric tied tightly around the hips, cotton socks, and wooden sandals. The older women may appear unattractive, but some of their lack of beauty is by choice, as it’s traditional for married women to pluck out their eyebrows and paint their teeth black! Their teeth are actually white, and they still have their eyebrows, but they tend to use too much chalk and bright red on their cheeks. Everyone knows that the Japanese are generally shorter than average, as there is now a significant number of natives living in London.
Jack will soon find out that the Japanese cuisine is most varied. Tea and sacki, or rice beer, are the only liquors used, except, of course, by travelled, Europeanised, or Americanised Japanese. They sit on the floor, squatting on their heels in a manner which tires Europeans very rapidly, although they look as comfortable as possible. The floor serves them for chair, table, bed, and writing-desk. At meals there is a small stand, about nine inches high, by seven inches square, placed before each individual, and on this is deposited a small bowl, and a variety of little dishes. Chopsticks are used to convey the food to their mouths. Their most common dishes are fish boiled with onions, and a kind of small bean, dressed with oil; fowls stewed and cooked in all ways; boiled rice. Oil, mushrooms, carrots, and various bulbous roots, are greatly used in making up their dishes. In the way of a bed in summer, they merely lie down on the mats, and put a wooden pillow under their heads; but in winter indulge in warm quilts, and have brass pans of charcoal at the feet. They are very cleanly, baths being used constantly, and the public bath-houses being open to the street. Strangely enough, however, although so particular in bodily cleanliness, they never wash their clothes, but wear them till they almost drop to [pg 131]pieces. A gentleman who arrived there in 1859, had to send his clothes to Shanghai to be washed—a journey of 1,600 miles! Since the great influx of foreigners, however, plenty of Niphons have turned laundrymen.
Jack will soon discover that Japanese food is incredibly diverse. Tea and sake, or rice beer, are the only alcoholic drinks served, unless, of course, you’re dealing with more cosmopolitan Japanese who have traveled or adopted Western customs. They sit on the floor, squatting on their heels in a way that quickly tires Europeans, even though they appear to be quite comfortable. The floor serves as their chair, table, bed, and writing desk. During meals, a small stand about nine inches high and seven inches square sits in front of each person, and on it is a small bowl along with various small dishes. They use chopsticks to bring food to their mouths. Their most common dishes include fish boiled with onions, a type of small bean dressed with oil, poultry prepared in various ways, and boiled rice. They frequently use oil, mushrooms, carrots, and different bulbous roots in their cooking. For sleeping in the summer, they simply lie on mats and use a wood pillow under their heads; in winter, they enjoy warm quilts and have brass pans filled with charcoal at their feet. They maintain high standards of cleanliness, taking regular baths, with public bathhouses accessible from the street. Interestingly, however, despite their meticulousness about personal hygiene, they seldom wash their clothes, preferring to wear them until they practically fall apart. A gentleman who arrived in 1859 had to send his clothes to Shanghai for washing—a journey of 1,600 miles! Since the influx of foreigners, though, many Japanese have become laundry workers.
Their tea-gardens, like those of the Chinese, are often large and extremely ornamental, and at them one obtains a cup of genuine tea made before your eyes for one-third of a halfpenny.96
Their tea gardens, like those of the Chinese, are often large and very decorative, and there you can get a cup of real tea made right in front of you for a third of a halfpenny.96
The great attraction, in a landscape point of view, outside Yokohama, is the grand Fusiyama Mountain, an extinct volcano, the great object of reverence and pride in the Japanese heart, and which in native drawings and carvings is incessantly represented. A giant, 14,000 feet high, it towers grandly to the clouds, snow-capped and streaked. It is deemed a holy and worthy deed to climb to its summit, and to pray in the numerous temples that adorn its sides. Thousands of pilgrims visit it annually. And now let us make a northward voyage.
The major attraction, from a landscape perspective, just outside Yokohama, is the magnificent Mount Fuji, an extinct volcano that is a source of deep respect and pride in the Japanese culture, frequently depicted in native artwork and carvings. A towering giant at 14,000 feet, it rises beautifully into the clouds, capped with snow and marked with streaks. Climbing to its peak is seen as a sacred and honorable act, and many temples grace its slopes, inviting prayer. Thousands of pilgrims flock to it each year. Now, let's set sail northward.
CHAPTER 9.
Sailing Around the World on a Warship Please provide the text you'd like me to modernize.continued).
NORTH AND SOUTH—THE AUSTRALIAN STATION.
The Port of Peter and Paul—Wonderful Colouring of Kamchatka Hills—Grand Volcanoes—The Fight at Petropaulovski—A Contrast—An International Pic-nic—A Double Wedding—Bering’s Voyages—Kamchatka worthy of Further Exploration—Plover Bay—Tchuktchi Natives—Whaling—A Terrible Gale—A Novel “Smoke-stack”—Southward again—The Liverpool of the East—Singapore, a Paradise—New Harbour—Wharves and Shipping—Cruelties of the Coolie Trade—Junks and Prahus—The Kling-gharry Drivers—The Durian and its Devotees—Australia—Its Discovery—Botany Bay and the Convicts—The First Gold—Port Jackson—Beauty of Sydney—Port Philip and Melbourne.
The Port of Peter and Paul—Stunning Colors of the Kamchatka Hills—Majestic Volcanoes—The Conflict at Petropavlovsk—A Contrast—An International Gathering—A Double Wedding—Bering’s Expeditions—Kamchatka Deserves More Exploration—Plover Bay—Chukchi Indigenous People—Whaling—A Severe Storm—A New Story "Smoke stack"—Heading South Again—The Liverpool of the East—Singapore, a Paradise—New Harbor—Docks and Shipping—Cruelties of the Coolie Trade—Junks and Prahus—The Kling Drivers—The Durian and its Fans—Australia—Its Discovery—Botany Bay and the Convicts—The First Gold—Port Jackson—Beauty of Sydney—Port Phillip and Melbourne.
Many English men-of-war have visited the interesting peninsula of Kamchatka, all included in the China station. How well the writer remembers the first time he visited Petropaulovski, the port of Peter and Paul! Entering first one of the noblest bays in the whole world—glorious Avatcha Bay—and steaming a short distance, the entrance to a capital harbour disclosed itself. In half an hour the vessel was inside a landlocked harbour, with a sand-spit protecting it from all fear of gales or sudden squalls. Behind was a highly-coloured little town, red roofs, yellow walls, and a church with burnished turrets. The hills around were autumnly frost-coloured; but not all the ideas the expression will convey to an artist could conjure up the reality. Indian yellow merging through tints of gamboge, yellow, and brown ochre to sombre brown; madder lake, brown madder, Indian red to Roman sepia; greys, bright and dull greens indefinable, and utterly indescribable, formed a mélange of colour which defied description whether by brush or pen. It was delightful; but it was puzzling. King Frost had completed at night that which autumn had done by day. Then behind rose the grand mountain of Koriatski, one of a series of great volcanoes. [pg 132]It seemed a few miles off; it was, although the wonderful clearness of the atmosphere belied the fact, some thirty miles distant. An impregnable fortress of rock, streaked and capped with snow, it defies time and man. Its smoke was constantly observed; its pure snows only hid the boiling, bubbling lava beneath.
Many English warships have visited the fascinating peninsula of Kamchatka, all part of the China station. The writer vividly remembers the first time he went to Petropaulovski, the port of Peter and Paul! Entering one of the most magnificent bays in the world—glorious Avatcha Bay—and steaming a short distance, the entrance to a beautiful harbor revealed itself. Within half an hour, the vessel was inside a sheltered harbor, protected by a sand-spit from any threat of storms or sudden squalls. Behind it was a charming little town with red roofs, yellow walls, and a church with shining turrets. The surrounding hills were colored by autumn frost; but not even the best descriptions could capture the reality. Indian yellow blending into shades of gamboge, yellow, and brown ochre to deep brown; madder lake, brown madder, Indian red to Roman sepia; grays and bright, dull greens that were completely indescribable created a mix of colors that defied representation, whether by brush or pen. It was delightful, but also confusing. King Frost had finished what autumn started during the night. Rising behind it was the magnificent Koriatski mountain, one of a series of great volcanoes. It appeared just a few miles away; however, despite the stunning clarity of the atmosphere, it was actually about thirty miles distant. An impenetrable fortress of rock, streaked and capped with snow, it defies time and humanity. Its smoke was continually visible; its pure snow only concealed the boiling, bubbling lava underneath.
With the exception of a few decent houses, the residences of the civil governor, captain of the port, and other officials, and a few foreign merchants, the town makes no great show. The poorer dwellings are very rough, and, indeed, are almost exclusively log cabins. A very picturesque and noticeable building is the old Greek church, which has painted red and green roofs, and a belfry full of bells, large and small, detached from the building, and only a foot or two raised above the ground. It is to be noted that the town, as it existed in Captain Clerke’s time, was built on the sand-spit. It was once a military post, but the Cossack soldiers have been removed to the Amoor.
Aside from a few decent houses belonging to the civil governor, the port captain, and other officials, along with a handful of foreign merchants, the town doesn’t look very impressive. The poorer homes are pretty rough and mostly consist of log cabins. A striking and noteworthy building is the old Greek church, which has red and green painted roofs and a belfry filled with large and small bells, separate from the main structure and raised just a foot or two off the ground. It's important to mention that the town, as it was in Captain Clerke’s time, was built on a sand-spit. It used to be a military post, but the Cossack soldiers have been moved to the Amoor.
There are two monuments of interest in Petropaulovski; one in honour of Bering, the second to the memory of La Perouse. The former is a plain cast-iron column, railed in, while the latter is a most nondescript construction of sheet iron, and is of octagonal form. Neither of these navigators is buried in the town. Poor Bering’s remains lie on the island where he miserably perished, and which now bears his name; while of the fate of La Perouse, and his unfortunate companions, little is known.
There are two monuments of interest in Petropaulovski: one honoring Bering and the other in memory of La Perouse. The first is a simple cast-iron column surrounded by a railing, while the second is an unremarkable octagonal structure made of sheet iron. Neither of these navigators is buried in the town. Poor Bering’s remains rest on the island where he tragically died, which now carries his name; as for La Perouse and his unfortunate companions, not much is known about their fate.
In 1855, Petropaulovski was visited by the allied fleets, during the period of our war with Russia. They found an empty town, for the Russian Government had given up all idea of defending it. The combined fleet captured one miserable whaler, razed the batteries, and destroyed some of the government buildings. There were good and sufficient reasons why they should have done nothing. The poor little town of Saints Peter and Paul was beneath notice, as victory there could never be glorious. But a stronger reason existed in the fact, recorded in a dozen voyages, that from the days of Cook and Clerke to our own, it had always been famous for the unlimited hospitality and assistance shown to explorers and voyagers, without regard to nationality. All is not fair in war. Possibly, however, reason might be found for the havoc done, in the events of the previous year.
In 1855, Petropaulovski was visited by the allied fleets during our war with Russia. They found the town deserted since the Russian Government had completely abandoned any idea of defending it. The combined fleet captured a single pitiful whaler, destroyed the fortifications, and tore down some government buildings. There were valid reasons for them to have taken no action. The small town of Saints Peter and Paul was hardly worth their attention, as a victory there would hold no glory. But a stronger reason existed, noted in many voyages, that from the times of Cook and Clerke to our own, it had always been known for its boundless hospitality and help offered to explorers and travelers, regardless of their nationality. All is not fair in war. However, there might be some justification for the destruction based on the events of the previous year.
In August, 1854, the inhabitants of Petropaulovski had covered themselves with glory, much to their own surprise. On the 28th of the month, six English and French vessels—the President, Virago, Pique, La Fort, l’Eurydice, and l’Obligado—entered Avatcha Bay. Admiral Price reconnoitred the harbour and town, and placed the Virago in position at 2,000 yards. The Russians had two vessels, the Aurora and Dwina, to defend the harbour, and a strong chain was placed across its narrow entrance. The town was defended by seven batteries and earthworks, mounting fifty guns.
In August 1854, the people of Petropaulovski were unexpectedly filled with pride. On the 28th, six English and French ships—the President, Virago, Pique, La Fort, Eurydice, and l’Obligado—entered Avatcha Bay. Admiral Price surveyed the harbor and town and positioned the Feminist warrior 2,000 yards away. The Russians had two ships, the Aurora and Dwina, to defend the harbor, and a strong chain was stretched across its narrow entrance. The town was protected by seven batteries and earthworks with a total of fifty guns.
It was not difficult to silence the batteries, and they were accordingly silenced. The townspeople, with their limited knowledge of the English—those English they had always so hospitably received, and who were now doing their best to kill them—thought their hour was come, and that, if not immediately executed, they would have to languish exiles in a foreign land, far from their beautiful Kamchatka. The town was, and is, defended almost as much by nature as by art. High hills shut it in so completely, and the harbour entrance can be so easily defended, that there is really only one vulnerable point, in its rear, [pg 134]where a small valley opens out into a plot of land bordering the bay. Here it was thought desirable to land a body of men.
It wasn’t hard to silence the artillery, and so they were silenced. The townspeople, with their limited grasp of English—those English they had always welcomed so warmly, and who were now trying to kill them—believed their time had come, and that, if not executed right away, they would have to suffer as exiles in a foreign land, far from their beautiful Kamchatka. The town was, and still is, protected as much by nature as by fortifications. Tall hills surround it completely, and the harbor entrance can be easily defended, leaving only one vulnerable spot at the back, [pg 134]where a small valley opens up to a piece of land next to the bay. Here, it was thought best to land a group of soldiers.
Accordingly, 700 marines and sailors were put ashore. The men looked forward to an easy victory, and hurriedly, in detached and straggling style, pressed forward to secure it. Alas! they had reckoned without their host—they were rushing heedlessly into the jaws of death. A number of bushes and small trees existed, and still exist, on the hill-sides surrounding this spot, and behind them were posted Cossack sharp-shooters, who fired into our men, and, either from skill or accident, picked off nearly every officer. The men, not seeing their enemy, and having lost their leaders, became panic-struck, and fell back in disorder. A retreat was sounded, but the men struggling in the bushes and underbrush (and, in truth, most of them being sailors, were out of their element on land) became much scattered, and it was generally believed that many were killed by the random shots of their companions. A number fled up a hill at the rear of the town; their foes pursued and pressed upon them, and many were killed by falling over the steep cliff in which the hill terminates.
Accordingly, 700 marines and sailors were put ashore. The men looked forward to an easy victory and hurriedly pressed forward in a disorganized manner to secure it. Unfortunately, they had underestimated the situation—they were rushing blindly into danger. There were several bushes and small trees on the hillsides around this area, and behind them were Cossack sharpshooters who fired at our men, and whether by skill or chance, they picked off nearly every officer. The men, unable to see their enemy and having lost their leaders, became panicked and fell back in chaos. A retreat was called, but the men, struggling in the bushes and underbrush (most of them being sailors and out of their element on land), became very scattered, and it was widely believed that many were killed by the stray shots from their own comrades. Some fled up a hill at the back of the town; their foes pursued and attacked them, and many fell over the steep cliff at the hill's edge.
The inhabitants, astonished at their own prowess, and knowing that they could not hold the town against a more vigorous attack, were preparing to vacate it, when the fleet weighed anchor and set sail, and no more was seen of them that year! The sudden death of our admiral is always attributed to the events of that attack, as he was known not to have been killed by a ball from the enemy.97
The residents, amazed at their own skills, realizing they couldn't defend the town against a stronger assault, were getting ready to leave when the fleet raised its anchor and sailed away, never to be seen again that year! The unexpected death of our admiral is often linked to the happenings of that attack, as he was known not to have died from enemy fire.97
The writer has walked over the main battle-field, and saw cannon-balls unearthed when some men were digging gravel, which had laid there since the events of 1854. The last time he passed over it, in 1866, was when proceeding with some Russian and American friends to what might be termed an “international” pic-nic, for there were present European and Asiatic Russians, full and half-breed natives, Americans, including genuine “Yankee” New Englanders, New Yorkers, Southerners, and Californians, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, and one Italian. Chatting in a babel of tongues, the party climbed a path on the hill-side, leading to a beautiful grassy opening, overlooking the glorious bay below, which extended in all directions a dozen or fifteen miles, and on one side farther than the eye could reach. Several grand snow-covered volcanoes towered above, thirty to fifty miles off; one, of most beautiful outline, that of Vilutchinski, was on the opposite shore of Avatcha Bay.
The writer has walked over the main battlefield and saw cannonballs that had been uncovered when some men were digging gravel, which had been there since the events of 1854. The last time he went over it, in 1866, was when he was heading with some Russian and American friends to what could be called an "global" picnic, as there were European and Asian Russians, full and mixed-breed natives, Americans including true "Yankee" New Englanders, New Yorkers, Southerners, and Californians, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, and one Italian present. Chatting in a mix of languages, the group climbed a path on the hillside that led to a beautiful grassy clearing, overlooking the stunning bay below, which stretched in all directions for a dozen or fifteen miles, and on one side farther than the eye could see. Several majestic snow-covered volcanoes loomed in the distance, thirty to fifty miles away; one, shaped most beautifully, was Vilutchinski on the opposite shore of Avatcha Bay.
The sky was bright and blue, and the water without a ripple; wild flowers were abundant, the air was fragrant with them, and, but for the mosquitoes (which are not confined to hot countries, but flourish in the short summer of semi-Arctic climes), it might have been considered an earthly edition of paradise! But even these pests could not worry the company much, for not merely were nearly all the men smokers, but most of the ladies also! Here the writer may remark, parenthetically, that many of the Russian ladies smoke cigarettes, and none object to gentlemen smoking at table or elsewhere. At the many dinners and suppers offered by the hospitable residents, it was customary to draw a few whiffs between the courses; and when the cloth was removed, [pg 135]the ladies, instead of retiring to another room, sat in company with the gentlemen, the larger proportion joining in the social weed. After the enjoyment of a liberal al fresco dinner, songs were in order, and it would be easier to say what were not sung than to give the list of those, in all languages, which were. Then after the songs came some games, one of them a Russian version of “hunt the slipper,” and another very like “kiss in the ring.” The writer particularly remembers the latter, for he had on that occasion the honour of kissing the Pope’s wife! This needs explanation, although the Pope was his friend. In the Greek Church the priest is “allowed to marry,” and his title, in the Russian language, is “Pope.”
The sky was bright and blue, and the water was perfectly calm; wildflowers were everywhere, the air was fragrant with their scent, and aside from the mosquitoes (which are not limited to warm places but thrive in the brief summer of semi-Arctic regions), it could have been seen as a slice of paradise! But even these nuisances didn’t bother the group much, since nearly all the men smoked, and most of the women did too! Here the writer would like to note, in passing, that many Russian women smoke cigarettes, and no one minds if men smoke at the table or anywhere else. At the many dinners and suppers hosted by the friendly locals, it was common to take a few puffs between courses; and when the tablecloth was removed, [pg 135]the ladies, instead of going to another room, stayed with the men, with most joining in the social smoking. After enjoying a generous outdoor dining dinner, it was time for songs, and it would be easier to list what wasn’t sung than to recite all the songs, in every language, that were! Then, after the singing, some games were played, one a Russian version of “find the slipper,” and another very similar to "kiss the ring." The writer particularly remembers the latter, as he had the honor of kissing the Pope’s wife that time! This requires some explanation, even though the Pope was his friend. In the Greek Church, the priest is "allowed to get married," and in Russian, his title is “Pope.”
And the recollection of that particular “Pope” recalls a well-remembered ceremony—that of a double wedding in the old church. During the ceremony it is customary to crown the bride and bridegroom. In this case two considerate male friends held the crowns for three-quarters of an hour over the brides’ heads, so as not to spoil the artistic arrangement of their hair and head-gear. It seems also to be the custom, when, as in the present case, the couples were in the humbler walks of life, to ask some wealthy individual to act as master of the ceremonies, who, if he accepts, has to stand all the expenses. In this case M. Phillipeus, a merchant who has many times crossed the frozen steppes of Siberia in search of valuable furs, was the victim, and he accepted the responsibility of entertaining all Petropaulovski, the officers of the splendid Russian corvette, the Variag, and those of the Telegraph Expedition, with cheerfulness and alacrity.
And the recollection of that particular “Pope” brings to mind a memorable ceremony—a double wedding in the old church. During the ceremony, it's customary to crown the bride and groom. In this case, two thoughtful male friends held the crowns over the brides' heads for three-quarters of an hour to avoid messing up their elaborate hairstyles and headpieces. It also seems to be a tradition, when the couples come from more modest backgrounds, to invite a wealthy person to be the master of ceremonies, who, if they accept, has to cover all the costs. In this situation, M. Phillipeus, a merchant who has crossed the frozen steppes of Siberia multiple times in search of valuable furs, was the one chosen, and he gladly took on the responsibility of entertaining all of Petropaulovski, the officers from the impressive Russian corvette, the Variag, and those from the Telegraph Expedition.
The coast-line of Kamchatka is extremely grand, and far behind it are magnificent volcanic peaks. The promontory which terminates in the two capes, Kamchatka and Stolbevoy, has the appearance of two islands detached from the mainland, the intervening country being low. This, a circumstance to be constantly observed on all coasts, was, perhaps, specially noticeable on this. The island of St. Lawrence, in Bering Sea, was a very prominent example. It is undeniable that the apparent gradual rise of a coast, seen from the sea as you approach it, affords a far better proof of the rotundity of the earth than the illustrations usually employed, that of a ship, which you are supposed to see by instalments, from the main-royal sail (if not from the “sky-scraper” or “moon-raker”) to the hull. The fact is, that the royal and top-gallant sails of a vessel on the utmost verge of the horizon may be, in certain lights, barely distinguishable, while the dark outline of an irregular and rock-bound coast can be seen by any one. First, maybe, appears a mountain peak towering in solitary grandeur above the coast-line, and often far behind it, then the high lands and hills, then the cliffs and low lands, and, lastly, the flats and beaches.
The coastline of Kamchatka is incredibly impressive, with magnificent volcanic peaks rising in the background. The promontory that ends at the two capes, Kamchatka and Stolbevoy, looks like two islands separated from the mainland, as the land in between is low. This is something you can notice on all coasts, but it's especially noticeable here. The island of St. Lawrence in Bering Sea is a clear example of this. It's true that the gradual rise of a coast, seen from the sea as you get closer, provides a much better demonstration of the Earth's roundness than the usual examples, like seeing a ship appear in parts—from the main sails (if not from the "skyscraper" or "moonraker") to the hull. The reality is that the royal and top-gallant sails of a ship at the far edge of the horizon may be barely visible in certain lighting, while the dark outline of a rugged, rocky coast can be seen by anyone. First, you might see a mountain peak standing tall and majestic above the coastline, often far behind it, then the highlands and hills, followed by the cliffs and lowlands, and finally the flat areas and beaches.
It was from the Kamchatka River, which enters Bering Sea near the cape of the same name, that Vitus Bering sailed on his first voyage. That navigator was a persevering and plucky Dane, who had been drawn into the service of Russia through the fame of Peter the Great, and his first expedition was directly planned by that sagacious monarch, although he did not live to carry it out. Müller, the historian of Bering’s career, says: “The Empress Catherine, as she endeavoured in all points to execute most precisely the plans of her deceased husband, in a manner began her reign with an order for the expedition to Kamchatka.” Bering had associated with him two active subordinates, [pg 136]Spanberg and Tschirikoff. They left St. Petersburg on February 5th, 1725, proceeding to the Ochotsk Sea, viâ Siberia. It is a tolerable proof of the difficulties of travel in those days, that it took them two years to transport their outfit thither. They crossed to Kamchatka, where, on the 4th of April, 1728, Müller tells us, “a boat was put upon the stocks, like the packet-boats used in the Baltic, and on the 10th of July was launched, and named the boat Gabriel.” A few days later, and she was creeping along the coast of Kamchatka and Eastern Siberia. Bering on this first voyage discovered St. Lawrence Island, and reached as far north as 67° 18′, where, finding the land trend to the westward, he came to the conclusion that he had reached the eastern extremity of Asia, and that Asia and America were distinct continents. On the first point he was not, as a matter of detail, quite correct; but the second, the important object of his mission, settled for ever the vexed question.
It was from the Kamchatka River, which flows into the Bering Sea near the cape of the same name, that Vitus Bering set out on his first voyage. That navigator was a determined and brave Dane who had been drawn into the service of Russia by the reputation of Peter the Great, and his first expedition was directly organized by that wise monarch, although he did not live to see it carried out. Müller, the historian of Bering’s career, states: "Empress Catherine, aiming to faithfully carry out the plans of her late husband, effectively started her reign with a directive for the expedition to Kamchatka." Bering was joined by two active subordinates, [pg 136]Spanberg and Tschirikoff. They left St. Petersburg on February 5th, 1725, heading to the Sea of Okhotsk, through Siberia. It is a fair indication of the travel difficulties of that time that it took them 2 years to transport their supplies there. They crossed over to Kamchatka, where, on April 4th, 1728, Müller tells us, "A boat was placed on the stocks, similar to the packet boats used in the Baltic, and on July 10th, it was launched and named Gabriel." A few days later, it was traveling along the coast of Kamchatka and Eastern Siberia. Bering discovered St. Lawrence Island on this first voyage and reached as far north as 67° 18′, where, observing that the land curved to the west, he concluded that he had reached the eastern edge of Asia and that Asia and America were separate continents. On the first point, he was not entirely correct, but the second, the main goal of his mission, settled the long-debated question permanently.
A second voyage was rather unsuccessful. His third expedition left Petropaulovski on the 4th of July, 1741. His little fleet became dispersed in a storm, and Bering pursued his discoveries alone. These were not unimportant, for he reached the grand chain of the rock-girt Aleutian Islands, and others nearer the mainland of America. At length the scurvy broke out in virulent form among his crew, and he attempted to return to Kamchatka. The sickness increased so much that the “two sailors who used to be at the rudder were obliged to be led in by two others who could hardly walk, and when one could sit and steer no longer, one in little better condition supplied his place. Many sails they durst not hoist, because there was nobody to lower them in case of need.” At length land appeared, and they cast anchor. A storm arose, and the ship was driven on the rocks; they cast their second anchor, and the cable snapped before it took ground. A great sea pitched the vessel bodily over the rocks, behind which they happily found quieter water. The island was barren, devoid of trees, and with little driftwood. They had to roof over gulches or ravines, to form places of refuge. On the “8th of November a beginning was made to land the sick; but some died as soon as they were brought from between decks in the open air, others during the time they were on the deck, some in the boat, and many more as soon as they were brought on shore.” On the following day the commander, Bering, himself prostrated with disease, was brought ashore, and moved about on a hand-barrow. He died a month after, in one of the little ravines, or ditches, which had been covered with a roof, and when he expired was almost covered with the sand which fell from its sides, and which he desired his men not to remove, as it gave him some little warmth. Before his remains could be finally interred they had literally to be disinterred.
A second voyage was rather unsuccessful. His third expedition left Petropaulovski on July 4, 1741. His small fleet got caught in a storm, and Bering continued his explorations alone. These were significant, as he reached the impressive chain of the rocky Aleutian Islands and others closer to the mainland of America. Eventually, scurvy broke out violently among his crew, forcing him to try to return to Kamchatka. The illness worsened to the point that the "Two sailors who used to steer were forced to be helped in by two others who could barely walk, and when one could no longer sit and steer, another in slightly better shape took his place. They were afraid to raise many sails because there was no one to lower them if needed." Eventually, land appeared, and they dropped anchor. A storm came up, driving the ship onto the rocks; they dropped their second anchor, but the cable snapped before it reached the seabed. A massive wave slammed the vessel against the rocks, behind which they fortunately found calmer waters. The island was barren, lacking trees and little driftwood. They had to cover over gullies or ravines to create places of refuge. On the "On November 8th, we started bringing the sick ashore; however, some died as soon as they were taken from below deck into the open air, others while on the deck, some in the boat, and many more as soon as they reached the shore." The next day, the commander, Bering, himself weakened by illness, was brought ashore and moved around on a hand-barrow. He died a month later in one of the small ravines or ditches that had been covered with a roof, and when he passed, he was almost buried by the sand that fell from the sides, which he asked his men not to remove since it provided him with some warmth. Before his body could be finally buried, they literally had to dig it up again.
The vessel, unguarded, was utterly wrecked, and their provisions lost. They subsisted mainly that fearful winter on the carcases of dead whales, which were driven ashore. In the spring the pitiful remnant of a once hardy crew managed to construct a small vessel from the wreck of their old ship, and at length succeeded in reaching Kamchatka. They then learned that Tschirikoff, Bering’s associate, had preceded them, but with the loss of thirty-one of his crew from the same fell disease which had so reduced their numbers. Bering’s name has ever since been attached to the island where he died.
The ship, unprotected, was completely destroyed, and they lost all their supplies. They survived mainly that terrible winter by eating the bodies of dead whales that had washed ashore. In the spring, the pitiful remnants of a once tough crew managed to build a small boat from the wreck of their old ship and eventually succeeded in reaching Kamchatka. They then discovered that Tschirikoff, Bering’s partner, had arrived before them but had lost thirty-one of his crew to the same deadly disease that had so diminished their own numbers. Bering’s name has since been associated with the island where he died.
There is no doubt that Kamchatka would repay a detailed exploration, which it [pg 137]has never yet received. It is a partially settled country. The Kamchatdales are a good-humoured, harmless, and semi-civilised race, and the Russian officials and settlers at the few little towns would gladly welcome the traveller. The dogs used for sledging in winter are noble animals, infinitely stronger than those of Alaska or even Greenland. The attractions for the Alpine climber cannot be overstated. The peninsula contains a chain of volcanic peaks, attaining, it is stated, in the Klutchevskoi Mountain a height of 16,000 feet. In the country immediately behind Petropaulovski are the three peaks, Koriatski, Avatcha, and Koseldskai; the first is about 12,000 feet in height, and is a conspicuous landmark for the port. A comparatively level country, covered with rank grass and underbrush, and intersected by streams, stretches very nearly to their base.
There’s no doubt that Kamchatka deserves a thorough exploration, which it has never really gotten. It’s a partially settled land. The Kamchatdales are friendly, harmless, and somewhat civilized people, and the Russian officials and settlers in the few small towns would warmly welcome travelers. The sled dogs used in winter are impressive animals, far stronger than those from Alaska or Greenland. The appeal for mountain climbers is enormous. The peninsula features a range of volcanic peaks, with Klutchevskoi Mountain reaching an impressive height of 16,000 feet. Right behind Petropaulovski are three peaks: Koriatski, Avatcha, and Koseldskai; the first stands at about 12,000 feet and serves as a prominent landmark for the port. A mostly flat area, covered in thick grass and underbrush, and crisscrossed by streams, stretches almost all the way to their base.
And now, before leaving the Asiatic coast, let us, as many English naval vessels have done, pay a flying visit to a still more northern harbour, that of Plover Bay, which forms the very apex of the China Station. Sailing, or steaming, through Bering Sea, it is satisfactory to know that so shallow is it that a vessel can anchor in almost [pg 138]any part of it, though hundreds of miles from land.98 Plover Bay does not derive its name from the whaling which is often pursued in its waters, although an ingenious Dutchman, of the service in which the writer was engaged at the periods of his visits, persisted in calling it “Blubber” Bay; its name is due to the visit of H.M.S. Plover in 1848-9, when engaged in the search for Sir John Franklin. The bay is a most secure haven, sheltered at the ocean end by a long spit, and walled in on three sides by rugged mountains and bare cliffs, the former composed of an infinite number of fragments of rock, split up by the action of frost. Besides many coloured lichens and mosses, there is hardly a sign of vegetation, except at one patch of country near a small inner harbour, where domesticated reindeer graze. On the spit before mentioned is a village of Tchuktchi natives; their tents are composed of hide, walrus, seal, or reindeer, with here and there a piece of old sail-cloth, obtained from the whalers, the whole patchwork covering a framework formed of the large bones of whales and walrus. The remains of underground houses are seen, but the people who used them have passed away. The present race makes no use of such houses. Their canoes are of skin, covering sometimes a wooden and sometimes a bone frame. On either side of one of these craft, which is identical with the Greenland “oomiak,” or women’s boat, it is usual to have a sealskin blown out tight, and the ends fastened to the gunwale; these serve as floats to steady the canoe. They often carry sail, and proceed safely far out to sea, even crossing Bering Straits to the American side. The natives are a hardy race; the writer has seen one of them carry the awkward burden of a carpenter’s chest, weighing two hundred pounds, without apparent exertion. One of their principal men was of considerable service to the expedition and to a party of telegraph constructors, who were left there in a wooden house made in San Francisco, and erected in a few days in this barren spot. This native, by name Naukum, was taken down into the engine-room of the telegraph steamer—G. S. Wright. He looked round carefully and thoughtfully, and then, shaking his head, said, solemnly, “Too muchee wheel; makee man too muchee think!” His curiosity on board was unappeasable. “What’s that fellow?” was his query with regard to anything, from the donkey-engine to the hencoops. Colonel Bulkley gave him a suit of mock uniform, gorgeous with buttons. One of the men remarked to him, “Why, Naukum, you’ll be a king soon!” But this magnificent prospect did not seem, judging from the way he received it, to be much to his taste. This man had been sometimes entrusted with as much as five barrels of villainous whisky for trading purposes, and he had always accounted satisfactorily to the trader for its use. The whisky sold to the natives is of the most horrible kind, scarcely superior to “coal oil” or paraffine. They appeared to understand the telegraph scheme in a general way. One explaining it, said, “S’pose lope fixy, well; one Melican man Plower Bay, make talky all same San Flancisco Melican.” Perhaps quite as lucid an explanation as you could get from an agricultural labourer or a street arab at home.
And now, before leaving the Asian coast, let’s take a quick trip to an even more northern harbor, Plover Bay, which is the very tip of the China Station. As we sail or steam through Bering Sea, it's good to know that it's so shallow a vessel can anchor almost anywhere, even hundreds of miles from land. Plover Bay does not get its name from the whaling often done in its waters, although an inventive Dutchman I worked with during my visits insisted on calling it “Blubber” Bay; the name actually comes from H.M.S. Plover's visit in 1848-49 while searching for Sir John Franklin. The bay is a highly secure haven, protected at its ocean entrance by a long spit and surrounded on three sides by rugged mountains and bare cliffs, the latter made up of countless fragments of rock, broken apart by the action of frost. Aside from many colored lichens and mosses, there’s hardly any vegetation, except in one area near a small inner harbor where domesticated reindeer graze. On the mentioned spit is a village of Tchuktchi natives; their tents are made of hide—walrus, seal, or reindeer—with some pieces of old sailcloth from the whalers, all patched together over a framework of large whale and walrus bones. The remains of underground houses can be seen, but the people who used them are gone. The current inhabitants don’t use those houses. Their canoes are made of skin, covering either a wooden or bone frame. On either side of one of these boats, which is similar to the Greenland “oomiak,” or women’s boat, they usually attach a blown-out sealskin to the gunwales; these serve as floats to steady the canoe. They often have sails and can safely venture far out to sea, even crossing Bering Straits to the American side. The natives are a tough group; I once saw one of them carry a heavy carpenter’s chest weighing two hundred pounds with zero effort. One of their prominent men was very helpful to the expedition and to a group of telegraph builders who were left there in a wooden house made in San Francisco and put up in just a few days in this barren area. This native, named Naukum, was taken down into the engine room of the telegraph steamer—G. S. Wright. He looked around carefully and thoughtfully, then shook his head and said solemnly, “Too muchee wheel; makee man too muchee think!” His curiosity on board was insatiable. “What’s that fellow?” was his question about everything, from the donkey-engine to the hencoops. Colonel Bulkley gave him a mock uniform adorned with buttons. One of the men joked, “Why, Naukum, you’ll be a king soon!” But this grand prospect didn’t seem very appealing to him, judging by his reaction. This man had sometimes been trusted with as much as five barrels of terrible whisky for trading, and he always accounted for its use satisfactorily to the trader. The whisky sold to the natives is of such poor quality, it's barely better than “coal oil” or paraffin. They seemed to understand the telegraph scheme in general. One explained it by saying, “S’pose lope fixy, well; one Melican man Plower Bay, make talky all same San Flancisco Melican.” Perhaps it was as clear an explanation as you could get from an agricultural laborer or a street kid back home.
Colonel Bulkley, at his second visit to Plover Bay, caused a small house of planks [pg 139]to be constructed for Naukum, and made him many presents. A draughtsman attached to the party made a sketch, “A Dream of the Future,” which was a lively representation of the future prospects of Naukum and his family. The room was picturesque with paddles, skins, brand-new Henry rifles, preserved meat tins, &c.; and civilisation was triumphant.
Colonel Bulkley, at his second visit to Plover Bay, had a small wooden house built for Naukum and gave him many gifts. A draftsman in the group created a sketch, "Vision of the Future," which was a vibrant portrayal of the future opportunities for Naukum and his family. The room was charming with paddles, animal skins, brand-new Henry rifles, preserved meat cans, etc.; and civilization was victorious.
Although Plover Bay is almost in sight of the Arctic Ocean, very little snow remained on the barren country round it, except on the distant mountains, or in deep ravines, where it has lain for ages. “That there snow,” said one of the sailors, pointing to such a spot, “is three hundred years old if it’s a day. Why, don’t you see the wrinkles all over the face of it?” Wrinkles and ridges are common enough in snow; but the idea of associating age with them was original.
Although Plover Bay is just about in sight of the Arctic Ocean, very little snow was left on the barren land around it, except on the faraway mountains or in deep ravines, where it has been sitting for ages. “That snow over there,” one of the sailors said, pointing to such a spot, "it's three hundred years old if it’s a day. Don’t you see the wrinkles everywhere?" Wrinkles and ridges are pretty common in snow, but the idea of linking age to them was unique.
The whalers are often very successful in and outside Plover Bay in securing their prey. Each boat is known by its own private mark—a cross, red stripes, or what not—on its sail, so that at a distance they can be distinguished from their respective vessels. When the whale is harpooned, often a long and dangerous job, and is floating dead in the water, a small flag is planted in it. After the monster is towed alongside the vessel, it is cut up into large rectangular chunks, and it is a curious and not altogether pleasant sight to witness the deck of a whaling ship covered with blubber. This can be either barreled, or the oil “tryed out” on the spot. If the latter, the blubber is cut into “mincemeat,” and chopping knives, and even mincing machines, are employed. The oil is boiled out on board, and the vessel when seen at a distance looks as if on fire. On these occasions the sailors have a feast of dough-nuts, which are cooked in boiling whale-oil, fritters of whale brain, and other dishes. The writer has tasted whale in various shapes, but although it is eatable, it is by no means luxurious food.
The whalers are often very successful in and outside Plover Bay at capturing their prey. Each boat has its own unique mark—a cross, red stripes, or something similar—on its sail, so they can be recognized from a distance. When a whale is harpooned, which can be a long and dangerous process, and it floats dead in the water, a small flag is placed in it. After the whale is towed alongside the ship, it is cut into large rectangular pieces, and it’s a strange and not entirely pleasant sight to see the deck of a whaling ship covered in blubber. This can either be put into barrels or the oil “tried out” right there. If the latter is done, the blubber is cut into "mincemeat" and chopping knives, and even mincing machines, are used. The oil is boiled out on board, and from a distance, the vessel looks like it’s on fire. During these times, the sailors enjoy a feast of doughnuts cooked in boiling whale oil, whale brain fritters, and other dishes. The writer has tried whale in various forms, and while it’s edible, it’s definitely not gourmet food.
It was in these waters of Bering Sea and the Arctic that the Shenandoah played such havoc during the American war. In 1865 she burned thirty American whalers, taking off the officers and crews, and sending them down to San Francisco. The captain of an English whaler, the Robert Tawns, of Sydney, had warned and saved some American vessels, and was in consequence threatened by the pirate captain. The writer was an eye-witness of the results of this wanton destruction of private property. The coasts were strewed with the remains of the burned vessels, while the natives had boats, spars, &c., in numbers.
It was in these waters of the Bering Sea and the Arctic that the Shenandoah caused so much chaos during the American war. In 1865, it destroyed thirty American whalers, taking their officers and crews and sending them down to San Francisco. The captain of an English whaler, the Robert Tawns, from Sydney, had warned and saved some American vessels and, as a result, was threatened by the pirate captain. The writer witnessed the aftermath of this careless destruction of private property. The coasts were scattered with the remains of the burned ships, and the locals had a lot of boats, spars, etc.
But Plover Bay has an interest attaching to it of far more importance than anything to be said about whaling or Arctic expeditions. It is more than probable that from or near that bay the wandering Tunguse, or Tchuktchi, crossed Bering Straits, and peopled America. The latter, in canoes holding fifteen or twenty persons, do it now; why not in the “long ago?” The writer has, in common with many who have visited Alaska (formerly Russian-America, before the country was purchased by the United States), remarked the almost Chinese or Japanese cast of features possessed by the coast natives of that country. Their Asiatic origin could not be doubted, and, on the other hand, Aleuts—natives of the Aleutian Islands, which stretch out in a grand chain from Alaska—who had shipped as sailors on the Russo-American Telegraph Expedition, and a Tchuktchi [pg 140]boy brought down to be educated, were constantly taken for Japanese or Chinamen in San Francisco, where there are 40,000 of the former people. Junks have on two occasions been driven across the Pacific Ocean, and have landed their crews.99 These facts occurred in 1832-3; the first on the coast near Cape Flattery, North-west America, and the second in the harbour of Oahu, Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands. In the former case all the crew but two men and a boy were killed by the natives. In the latter case, however, the Sandwich Islanders treated the nine Japanese, forming the crew of the junk, with kindness, and, when they saw the strangers so much resembling them in many respects, said, “It is plain, now, we come from Asia.” How easily, then, could we account for the peopling of any island or coast in the Pacific. Whether, therefore, stress of weather obliged some unfortunate Chinamen or Japanese to people America, or whether they, or, at all events, some Northern Asiatics, took the “short sea route,” viâ Bering Straits, [pg 141]there is a very strong probability in favour of the New World having been peopled from not merely the Old World, but the Oldest World—Asia.
But Plover Bay has a significance that goes far beyond anything related to whaling or Arctic expeditions. It’s highly likely that from or near that bay, the nomadic Tunguse, or Tchuktchi, crossed Bering Straits and populated America. They still do it today in canoes that hold fifteen or twenty people, so why not back in the "long ago?" Like many who've visited Alaska (formerly Russian-America, before the U.S. bought it), I’ve noticed that the coastal natives have features reminiscent of Chinese or Japanese people. Their Asian origin is unquestionable, and similarly, Aleuts—natives of the Aleutian Islands, which form a long chain extending from Alaska—who served as sailors on the Russo-American Telegraph Expedition, along with a Tchuktchi [pg 140]boy brought down for schooling, were often mistaken for Japanese or Chinese in San Francisco, where there are 40,000 of the latter. Junks have twice been blown across the Pacific Ocean, landing their crews. These incidents happened in 1832-3; the first near Cape Flattery on the Northwest American coast, and the second in the harbor of Oahu in the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands. In the first case, all but two men and a boy were killed by the natives. However, in the second case, the Sandwich Islanders treated the nine Japanese crew members of the junk kindly, and when they saw how much the strangers resembled them, they said, "It’s clear now that we come from Asia." This provides a simple explanation for how any island or coast in the Pacific could have been populated. Whether harsh weather forced some unfortunate Chinese or Japanese to reach America, or whether they, or at least some Northern Asiatics, took the "short sea path," via Bering Straits, [pg 141]there is a strong likelihood that the New World was populated not just from the Old World, but from the Oldest World—Asia.
The Pacific Ocean generally bears itself in a manner which justifies its title. The long sweeps of its waves are far more pleasant to the sailor than the “choppy” waves of the Atlantic. But the Pacific is by no means always so, as the writer very well knows. He will not soon forget November, 1865, nor will those of his companions who still survive.
The Pacific Ocean usually lives up to its name. The long, smooth waves are much more enjoyable for sailors than the “choppy” waves of the Atlantic. However, the Pacific isn't always calm, as the author knows all too well. He won't soon forget November 1865, nor will the other surviving members of his group.
Leaving Petropaulovski on November 1st, a fortnight of what sailors term “dirty weather” culminated in a gale from the south-east. It was no “capful of wind,” but a veritable tempest, which broke over the devoted ship. At its outset, the wind was so powerful that it blew the main-boom from the ropes which held it, and it swung round with great violence [pg 142]against the “smoke-stack” (funnel) of the steamer, knocking it overboard. The guys, or chains by which it had been held upright, were snapped, and it went to the bottom. Here was a dilemma; the engines were rendered nearly useless, and a few hours later were made absolutely powerless, for the rudder became disabled, and the steering-wheel was utterly unavailable. During this period a very curious circumstance happened; the sea driving faster than the vessel—itself a log lying in the trough of the waves, which rose in mountains on all sides—acted on the screw in such a manner that in its turn it worked the engines at a greater rate than they had ever attained by steam! After much trouble the couplings were disconnected, but for several hours the jarring of the machinery revolving at lightning speed threatened to make a breach in the stern.
Leaving Petropaulovski on November 1st, a two-week period of what sailors call “bad weather” culminated in a storm from the southeast. It was no "capful of air," but a real tempest that crashed down on the beleaguered ship. At the beginning, the wind was so strong that it ripped the main-boom from its ropes, swinging it violently [pg 142]against the "smokestack" (funnel) of the steamer, knocking it overboard. The supporting chains snapped, and it sank. This created a dilemma; the engines were nearly useless, and a few hours later became completely powerless as the rudder failed, rendering the steering wheel completely inoperable. During this time, a very strange thing happened; the sea was driving faster than the vessel itself, which was like a log lying in the trough of waves that rose like mountains all around. This action affected the screw, causing it to work the engines at a higher rate than they had ever achieved by steam! After a lot of effort, the couplings were disconnected, but for several hours, the jolting of the machinery spinning at lightning speed threatened to break the stern.
No one on board will soon forget the night of that great gale. The vessel, scarcely larger than a “penny” steamer, and having “guards,” or bulwarks, little higher than the rail of those boats, was engulfed in the tempestuous waters. It seemed literally to be driving under the water. Waves broke over it every few minutes; a rope had to be stretched along the deck for the sailors to hold on by, while the brave commander, Captain Marston, was literally tied to the aft bulwark, where, half frozen and half drowned, he remained at his post during an entire night. The steamer had the “house on deck,” so common in American vessels. It was divided into state-rooms, very comfortably fitted, but had doors and windows of the lightest character. At the commencement of the gale, these were literally battered to pieces by the waves dashing over the vessel; it was a matter of doubt whether the whole house might not be carried off bodily. The officers of the expedition took refuge in the small cabin aft, which had been previously the general ward-room of the vessel, where the meals were served. A great sea broke over its skylight, smashing the glass to atoms, putting out the lamps and stove, and filling momentarily the cabin with about three feet of water. A landsman would have thought his last hour had come. But the hull of the vessel was sound; the pumps were in good order, and worked steadily by a “donkey” engine in the engine-room, and the water soon disappeared. The men coiled themselves up that night amid a pile of ropes and sails, boxes, and miscellaneous matters lying on the “counter” of the vessel, i.e., that part of the stern lying immediately over the rudder. Next morning, in place of the capital breakfasts all had been enjoying—fish and game from Kamchatka, tinned fruits and meats from California, hot rolls and cakes—the steward and cook could only, with great difficulty, provide some rather shaky coffee and the regular “hard bread” (biscuit) of the ship.
No one on board will soon forget the night of that massive storm. The vessel, barely bigger than a “penny” steamer and with “guards” or bulwarks not much higher than the rails on those boats, was swallowed by the wild waters. It felt like it was literally being driven underwater. Waves crashed over it every few minutes; a rope had to be run along the deck for the crew to hang onto, while the brave captain, Captain Marston, was literally tied to the back bulwark, where, half frozen and half soaked, he stayed at his post for the entire night. The steamer had the “house on deck,” which is common in American vessels. It was divided into state-rooms, quite comfortably furnished, but the doors and windows were very flimsy. At the start of the storm, these were practically smashed to pieces by waves crashing over the ship; it was questionable whether the whole house might be carried off entirely. The officers of the expedition took shelter in the small cabin at the back, which had previously been the main wardroom of the vessel, where meals were served. A huge wave crashed over its skylight, shattering the glass into tiny pieces, extinguishing the lamps and stove, and temporarily filling the cabin with about three feet of water. A landlubber would have thought his last hour had come. But the hull of the vessel was sound; the pumps were in good condition and worked steadily by a “donkey” engine in the engine room, and the water soon disappeared. The men huddled up that night among a pile of ropes and sails, boxes, and various items lying on the “counter” of the vessel, i.e., the part of the stern directly over the rudder. The next morning, instead of the wonderful breakfasts everyone had been enjoying—fish and game from Kamchatka, canned fruits and meats from California, hot rolls and cakes—the steward and cook could only, with great difficulty, provide some rather weak coffee and the usual “hard bread” (biscuit) of the ship.
The storm increased in violence; it was unsafe to venture on deck. The writer’s room-mate, M. Laborne, a genial and cultivated man of the world, who spoke seven languages fluently, sat down, and wrote a last letter to his mother, enclosing it afterwards in a bottle. “It will never reach her,” said poor Laborne, with tears dimming his eyes; “but it is all I can do.” Each tried to comfort the other, and prepare for the worst. “If we are to die, let us die like men,” said Adjutant Wright. “Come down in the engine-room,” another said, “and if we’ve got to die, let’s die decently.” The chief engineer lighted a fire on the iron floor below the boilers, and it was the only part of the vessel which was at all comfortable. Noble-hearted [pg 143]Colonel Bulkley spent his time in cheering the men, and reminding them that the sea has been proved to be an infinitely safer place than the land. No single one on board really expected to survive. Meantime, the gale was expending its rage by tearing every sail to ribbons. Rags and streamers fluttered from the yards; there was not a single piece of canvas intact. The cabins held a wreck of trunks, furniture, and crockery.
The storm grew stronger; it was too dangerous to go on deck. The writer’s roommate, M. Laborne, a friendly and cultured man who spoke seven languages fluently, sat down and wrote a final letter to his mother, later putting it in a bottle. “It will never get to her,” said poor Laborne, with tears in his eyes; “but it’s all I can manage.” They both tried to comfort each other and prepare for the worst. "If we're going to die, let’s die like men." said Adjutant Wright. "Come to the engine room," another suggested, "and if we have to die, let’s do it with dignity." The chief engineer started a fire on the iron floor below the boilers, and it became the only somewhat comfortable place on the ship. Noble-hearted [pg 143]Colonel Bulkley spent his time encouraging the men, reminding them that the sea is actually a much safer place than land. No one on board truly expected to survive. Meanwhile, the storm was unleashing its fury by ripping every sail to shreds. Rags and streamers whipped from the yards; there wasn’t a single piece of canvas left whole. The cabins were a mess of trunks, furniture, and broken dishes.
In one of the cabins several boxes of soap, in bars, had been stored. When the gale commenced to abate, some one ventured into the house on deck, when it was discovered that it was full of soapsuds, which swashed backwards and forwards through the series of rooms. The water had washed and rewashed the bars of soap till they were not thicker than sticks of sealing-wax.
In one of the cabins, several boxes of bar soap had been stored. As the storm began to calm down, someone went into the cabin on deck and found it filled with soapy water, which sloshed back and forth through the various rooms. The water had washed and rewashed the bars of soap until they were no thicker than sticks of sealing wax.
At last, after a week of this horrible weather, morning broke with a sight of the sun, and moderate wind. There were spare sails on board, and the rudder could be repaired; but what could be done about the funnel? The engineer’s ingenuity came out conspicuously. He had one of the usual water-tanks brought on deck, and the two ends knocked out. Then, setting it up over the boiler, he with pieces of sheet-iron raised this square erection till it was about nine feet high, and it gave a sufficient draught to the furnaces. “Covert’s Patent Smoke-Stack” created a sensation on the safe arrival of the vessel in San Francisco, and was inspected by hundreds of visitors. The little steamer had ploughed through 10,000 miles of water that season. She was immediately taken to one of the wharfs, and entirely remodelled. The sides were slightly raised, and a ward-room and aft-cabin, handsomely fitted in yacht-fashion, took the place of the house on deck. It was roofed or decked at top in such a manner that the heaviest seas could wash over the vessel without doing the slightest injury, and she afterwards made two voyages, going over a distance of 20,000 miles. Poor old Wright! She went to the bottom at last, with all her crew and passengers, some years later, off Cape Flattery, at the entrance of the Straits of Fuca, and scarcely a vestige of her was ever found.
At last, after a week of terrible weather, morning came with a glimpse of the sun and a gentle wind. There were extra sails on board, and the rudder could be fixed; but what to do about the funnel? The engineer’s cleverness really shone through. He had one of the regular water tanks brought on deck and removed both ends. Then, he set it up over the boiler and, using pieces of sheet metal, built this square structure to about nine feet high, which provided enough airflow for the furnaces. “Covert’s Patent Smokestack” caused quite a stir when the ship safely arrived in San Francisco, and hundreds of visitors came to check it out. The little steamer had navigated 10,000 miles of water that season. It was immediately taken to one of the docks and completely remodeled. The sides were raised a bit, and a ward-room and aft cabin, elegantly designed in yacht style, replaced the deckhouse. It was roofed in such a way that even the heaviest waves could wash over the vessel without causing any damage, and she later completed two voyages, covering a distance of 20,000 miles. Poor old Wright! She eventually sank with all her crew and passengers some years later off Cape Flattery, at the entrance of the Straits of Fuca, and hardly a trace of her was ever found.
And now, retracing our steps en route for the Australian station, let us call at one of the most important of England’s settlements, which has been termed the Liverpool of the East. Singapore consists of an island twenty-five miles long and fifteen or so broad, lying off the south extremity of Malacca, and having a city of the same name on its southern side. The surface is very level, the highest elevation being only 520 feet. In 1818, Sir Stamford Raffles found it an island covered with virgin forests and dense jungles, with a miserable population on its creeks and rivers of fishermen and pirates. It has now a population of about 100,000, of which Chinese number more than half. In 1819 the British flag was hoisted over the new settlement; but it took five years on the part of Mr. Crawford, the diplomatic representative of Great Britain, to negotiate terms with its then owner, the Sultan of Johore, whereby for a heavy yearly payment it was, with all the islands within ten miles of the coast, given up with absolute possession to the Honourable East India Company. Since that period, its history has been one of unexampled prosperity. It is a free port, the revenue being raised entirely from imports on opium and spirits. Its prosperity as a commercial port is due to the fact that it is an entrepôt for the whole trade of the Malayan Archipelago, the Eastern Archipelago, Cochin China, [pg 144]Siam, and Java. Twelve years ago it exported over sixty-six million rupees’ worth of gambier, tin, pepper, nutmegs, coffee, tortoise-shell, rare woods, sago, tapioca, camphor, gutta-percha, and rattans. It is vastly greater now. Exclusive of innumerable native craft, 1,697 square-rigged vessels entered the port in 1864-5. It has two splendid harbours, one a sheltered roadstead near the town, with safe anchorage; the other, a land-locked harbour, three miles from the town, capable of admitting vessels of the largest draught. Splendid wharfs have been erected by the many steam-ship companies and merchants, and there are fortifications which command the harbour and roads.
And now, retracing our steps on the way to the Australian station, let’s stop at one of England’s most significant settlements, often called the Liverpool of the East. Singapore is an island about twenty-five miles long and around fifteen miles wide, located off the southern tip of Malacca, with a city of the same name on its southern side. The land is fairly flat, with the highest point reaching only 520 feet. In 1818, Sir Stamford Raffles discovered it as an island covered in untouched forests and thick jungles, inhabited by a small population of fishermen and pirates along its creeks and rivers. Now, it has a population of about 100,000, more than half of whom are Chinese. The British flag was raised over the new settlement in 1819, but it took Mr. Crawford, the British diplomatic representative, five years to negotiate terms with its then owner, the Sultan of Johore. After a substantial annual payment, the island and all its surrounding islands within ten miles were handed over in full possession to the Honourable East India Company. Since that time, its history has been marked by exceptional prosperity. It operates as a free port, with all revenue generated from imports of opium and spirits. Its success as a trading port stems from being a hub for the entire trade of the Malayan Archipelago, the Eastern Archipelago, Cochin China, [pg 144]Siam, and Java. Twelve years ago, it exported over sixty-six million rupees worth of gambier, tin, pepper, nutmeg, coffee, tortoise shell, rare woods, sago, tapioca, camphor, gutta-percha, and rattan. Its exports have grown significantly since then. Excluding numerous native boats, 1,697 square-rigged vessels entered the port in 1864-5. It has two magnificent harbors: one is a sheltered roadstead near the town with safe anchorage, while the other is a land-locked harbor, three miles from the town, capable of accommodating the largest ships. Impressive wharfs have been built by various steamship companies and merchants, along with fortifications that oversee the harbor and approaches.
“A great deal has been written about the natural beauties of Ceylon and Java,” says Mr. Cameron,100 “and some theologians, determined to give the first scene in the Mosaic narrative a local habitation, have fixed the paradise of unfallen man on one or other of those noble islands. Nor has their enthusiasm carried them to any ridiculous extreme; for the beauty of some parts of Java and Ceylon might well accord with the description given us, or rather which we are accustomed to infer, of that land from which man was driven on his first great sin.
"There's been a lot of talk about the natural beauty of Ceylon and Java," says Mr. Cameron,100Some theologians, eager to pinpoint the first scene in the Mosaic story, have located the paradise of unfallen man on one of those stunning islands. Their enthusiasm hasn't taken them to any unreasonable lengths; the beauty of certain regions in Java and Ceylon could certainly match the description we typically interpret of that land from which man was expelled after his first significant sin.
“I have seen both Ceylon and Java, and admired in no grudging measure their many charms; but for calm placid loveliness, I should place Singapore high above them both. It is a loveliness, too, that at once strikes the eye, from whatever point we view the island, which combines all the advantages of an always beautiful and often imposing coast-line, with an endless succession of hill and dale stretching inland. The entire circumference of the island is one panorama, where the magnificent tropical forest, with its undergrowth of jungle, runs down at one place to the very water’s edge, dipping its large leaves in the glassy sea, and at another is abruptly broken by a brown rocky cliff, or a late landslip, over which the jungle has not yet had time to extend itself. Here and there, too, are scattered little green islands, set like gems on the bosom of the hushed waters, between which the excursionist, the trader, or the pirate, is wont to steer his course. ‘Eternal summer gilds these shores;’ no sooner has the blossom of one tree passed away, than that of another takes its place and sheds perfume all around. As for the foliage, that never seems to die. Perfumed isles are in many people’s minds merely fabled dreams, but they are easy of realisation here. There is scarcely a part of the island, except those few places where the original forest and jungle have been cleared away, from which at night-time, on the first breathings of the land winds, may not be felt those lovely forest perfumes, even at the distance of more than a mile from shore. These land winds—or, more properly, land airs, for they can scarcely be said to blow, but only to breathe—usually commence at ten o’clock at night, and continue within an hour or two of sunrise. They are welcomed by all—by the sailor because they speed him on either course, and by the wearied resident because of their delicious coolness.”
"I have been to both Ceylon and Java and truly admire their many attractions; however, when it comes to peaceful beauty, I would rank Singapore above them both. Its beauty captivates you from any viewpoint on the island, blending a consistently stunning and often impressive coastline with a continuous range of hills and valleys inland. The entire perimeter of the island presents a breathtaking view, where the magnificent tropical forest, with its undergrowth of jungle, meets the water’s edge in one spot, with large leaves dipping into the shimmering sea, while in another area it’s abruptly interrupted by a brown rocky cliff or a recent landslide, where the jungle hasn’t had time to reclaim. Scattered throughout are small green islands, like gems nestled in the calm waters, commonly navigated by travelers, traders, or pirates. ‘Eternal summer gilds these shores;’ as soon as the blossoms of one tree fade, another blooms to take its place, filling the air with fragrance. The greenery never seems to fade. While scented islands may seem like pure fantasy to many, they come alive here. There’s hardly a spot on the island, except for a few areas where the original forest and jungle have been cleared, from which the refreshing scents of the forest can be noticed at night, even from over a mile away from the shore. These land winds—or more precisely, land breezes, since they barely blow and merely breathe—usually begin around ten o’clock at night and last until a couple of hours after sunrise. Everyone enjoys them: sailors who appreciate the favorable winds for their journeys and tired residents for their refreshing coolness."
Another writer101 speaks with the same enthusiasm of the well-kept country roads, and approaches to the houses of residents, where one may travel for miles through unbroken avenues of fruit-trees, or beneath an over-arching canopy of evergreen palms. The long and well-kept approaches to the European dwellings never fail to win the praise of [pg 145]strangers. “In them may be discovered the same lavish profusion of overhanging foliage which we see around us on every side; besides that, there are often hedges of wild heliotrope, cropped as square as if built up of stone, and forming compact barriers of green leaves, which yet blossom with gold and purple flowers.” Behind these, broad bananas nod their bending leaves, while a choice flower-garden, a close-shaven lawn, and a croquet-ground, are not uncommonly the surroundings of the residence. If it is early morning, there is an unspeakable charm about the spot. The air is cool, even bracing; and beneath the shade of forest trees, the rich blossom of orchids are seen depending from the boughs, while songless birds twitter among the foliage, or beneath shrubs which the convolvulus has decked with a hundred variegated flowers. Here and there the slender stem of the aloe, rising from an armoury of spiked leaves, lifts its cone of white bells on high, or the deep orange pine-apple peeps out from a green belt of fleshy foliage, and breathes its bright fragrance around. The house will invariably have a spacious verandah, [pg 146]underneath which flowers in China vases, and easy chairs of all kinds, are placed. If perfect peace can steal through the senses into the soul—if it can be distilled like some subtle ether from all that is beautiful in nature—surely in such an island as this we shall find that supreme happiness which we all know to be unattainable elsewhere. Alas! even in this bright spot, unalloyed bliss cannot be expected. The temperature is very high, showing an average in the shade, all the year round, of between 85° and 95° Fahr. Prickly heat, and many other disorders, are caused by it on the European constitution.
Another writer speaks with the same enthusiasm for the well-maintained country roads and pathways leading to residents' homes, where one can travel for miles through uninterrupted rows of fruit trees, or under a generous canopy of evergreen palms. The long, carefully kept paths to the European homes consistently earn praise from visitors. “Here, you can discover the same lavish abundance of hanging foliage that surrounds us on all sides; in addition, there are often hedges of wild heliotrope, trimmed as neatly as if made of stone, forming compact barriers of green leaves that still bloom with golden and purple flowers.” Behind these, broad banana plants sway with their drooping leaves, while a lovely flower garden, a neatly mowed lawn, and a croquet area are commonly found around the house. If it’s early morning, the place has an indescribable charm. The air is cool and refreshing; beneath the shade of the trees, the vibrant blossoms of orchids hang down from the branches, while silent birds chirp among the leaves or beneath shrubs adorned with a hundred colorful flowers by the convolvulus. Here and there, the slender stem of the aloe rises from a cluster of spiky leaves, bearing a cone of white bells high above, or the deep orange pineapple peeks out from a green border of fleshy leaves, spreading its bright fragrance. The house will always feature a spacious verandah, where flowers in Chinese vases and various types of easy chairs are arranged. If perfect peace can seep into the senses and reach the soul—if it can be distilled like some delicate essence from all that is beautiful in nature—surely in an island like this, we will find that ultimate happiness which we all recognize as unattainable elsewhere. Alas! even in this beautiful place, pure bliss can't be guaranteed. The temperature is quite high, averaging between 85° and 95° Fahrenheit in the shade all year round. Prickly heat and various other ailments can arise from this for those of European descent.
The old Strait of Singhapura, that lies between the island of Singapore and the mainland of Johore, is a narrow tortuous passage, for many centuries the only thoroughfare for ships passing to the eastward of Malacca. Not many years ago, where charming bungalows, the residences of the merchants, are built among the ever verdant foliage, it was but the home of hordes of piratical marauders, who carried on their depredations with a high hand, sometimes adventuring on distant voyages in fleets of forty or fifty prahus. Indeed, it is stated, in the old Malay annals, that for nearly two hundred years the entire population of Singapore and the surrounding islands and coasts of Johore subsisted on fishing and pirating; the former only being resorted to when the prevailing monsoon was too strong to admit of the successful prosecution of the latter. Single cases of piracy sometimes occur now; but it has been nearly stopped. Of the numberless vessels and boats which give life to the waters of the old strait, nearly all have honest work to do—fishing, timber carrying, or otherwise trading. “A very extraordinary flotilla,” says Mr. Cameron, “of a rather nondescript character may be often seen in this part of the strait at certain seasons of the year. These are huge rafts of unsawn, newly-cut timber; they are generally 500 or 600 feet long, and sixty or seventy broad, the logs being skilfully laid together, and carefully bound by strong rattan-rope, each raft often containing 2,000 logs. They have always one or two attap-houses built upon them, and carry crews of twenty or twenty-five men, the married men taking their wives and children with them. The timber composing them is generally cut many miles away, in some creek or river on the mainland.” They sometimes have sails. They will irresistibly remind the traveller of those picturesque rafts on the Rhine, on which there are cabins, with the smoke curling from their stove-pipes, and women, children, and dogs, the men with long sweeps keeping the valuable floating freight in the current. Many a German, now in England or America, made his first trip through the Fatherland to its coast on a Rhine raft.
The old Strait of Singhapura, located between the island of Singapore and the mainland of Johore, is a narrow, winding passage that has been the only route for ships traveling east of Malacca for many centuries. Not long ago, where charming bungalows now serve as homes for merchants amidst lush greenery, there were just bands of pirate marauders who operated with impunity, sometimes embarking on long voyages in fleets of forty or fifty boats. In fact, old Malay records indicate that for nearly two hundred years, the whole population of Singapore and the nearby islands and coasts of Johore lived off fishing and piracy, with fishing only being done when the monsoon winds were too strong for successful pirating. Piracy still occurs occasionally, but it has nearly been eradicated. Among the countless vessels and boats that now populate the waters of the old strait, almost all are engaged in honest work—fishing, transporting timber, or trading. “A very impressive flotilla,” says Mr. Cameron, You can often see large, unremarkable rafts of freshly cut timber in this part of the strait during certain times of the year. These rafts typically measure about 500 to 600 feet long and 60 to 70 feet wide, with logs expertly arranged and securely fastened with strong rattan rope. Each raft often holds around 2,000 logs. They usually have one or two attap houses built on them and carry crews of twenty to twenty-five men, with married men often bringing their wives and children along. The timber is usually cut many miles away, from some creek or river on the mainland. They sometimes have sails, and they will undoubtedly remind travelers of those scenic rafts on the Rhine, which feature cabins with smoke curling from their chimneys, while women, children, and dogs are aboard, and the men use long poles to keep the valuable floating cargo in the current. Many Germans now in England or America made their first trip through their homeland to its coast on a Rhine raft.
The sailor generally makes his first acquaintance with the island of Singapore by entering through New Harbour, and the scenery is said to be almost unsurpassed by anything in the world. The steamer enters between the large island and a cluster of islets, standing high out of the water with rocky banks, and covered to their summits by rich green jungle, with here and there a few forest trees towering above it high in the air. Under the vessel’s keel, too, as she passes slowly over the shoaler patches of the entrance, may be seen beautiful beds of coral, which, in their variegated colours and fantastic shapes, vie with the scenery above. The Peninsular and Oriental Steamers’ wharfs are situated at the head of a small bay, with the island of Pulo Brani in front. They have a frontage of 1,200 feet, and coal sheds built of brick, and tile-roofed; they often [pg 147]contain 20,000 tons of coal. Including some premises in Singapore itself, some £70,000 or £80,000 have been expended on their station—a tolerable proof of the commercial importance of the place. Two other companies have extensive wharfs also. The passengers land here, and drive up to the city, a distance of some three miles. Those who remain on board, and “Jack” is likely to be of the number, for the first few days after arrival, find entertainment in the feats of swarms of small Malay boys, who immediately surround the vessel in toy boats just big enough to float them, and induce the passengers to throw small coins into the water, for which they dive to the bottom, and generally succeed in recovering. Almost all the ships visiting Singapore have their bottoms examined, and some have had as many as twenty or thirty sheets of copper put on by Malay divers. One man will put on as many as two sheets in an hour, going down a dozen or more times. There are now extensive docks at and around New Harbour.
The sailor usually makes his first introduction to the island of Singapore by entering through New Harbour, and the scenery is said to be nearly unmatched by anything in the world. The steamer navigates between the large island and a group of small islets, rising high out of the water with rocky shores, covered to their peaks by lush green jungle, with a few tall forest trees standing above it. Beneath the vessel, as it slowly glides over the shallower areas at the entrance, beautiful coral beds can be seen, which, in their varied colors and unique shapes, compete with the scenery above. The Peninsular and Oriental Steamers’ wharfs are located at the head of a small bay, with the island of Pulo Brani in front. They have a frontage of 1,200 feet, and brick coal sheds with tile roofs; they often [pg 147]hold 20,000 tons of coal. Including some properties in Singapore itself, around £70,000 or £80,000 have been spent on their station—a solid indication of the commercial significance of the place. Two other companies also have large wharfs. Passengers disembark here and take a drive into the city, about three miles away. Those who stay on board, and “Jack” is likely to be one of them for the first few days after arrival, find entertainment in the tricks of swarms of small Malay boys, who quickly surround the vessel in toy boats just big enough to hold them, encouraging the passengers to toss small coins into the water, which they dive for and typically manage to retrieve. Almost all ships visiting Singapore have their hulls checked, and some have had as many as twenty or thirty sheets of copper applied by Malay divers. One diver can apply as many as two sheets in an hour, going down a dozen times or more. There are now extensive docks at and around New Harbour.
On rounding the eastern exit of New Harbour, the shipping and harbour of Singapore at once burst on the view, with the white walls of the houses, and the dark verdure of the shrubbery of the town nearly hidden by the network of spars and rigging that intervenes. The splendid boats of the French Messageries, and our own Peninsular and Oriental lines, the opium steamers of the great firm of Messrs. Jardine, of China, and Messrs. Cama, of Bombay; and the beautifully-modelled American or English clippers, which have taken the place of the box-shaped, heavy-rigged East Indiamen of days of yore, with men-of-war of all nations, help to make a noble sight. This is only part of the scene, for interspersed are huge Chinese junks of all sizes, ranging up to 600 or 700 tons measurement. The sampans, or two-oared Chinese boats, used to convey passengers ashore, are identical in shape. All have alike the square bow and the broad flat stern, and from the largest to the smallest, on what in a British vessel would be called her “head-boards,” all have two eyes embossed and painted, glaring out over the water. John Chinaman’s explanation of this custom is, that if “no got eyes, no can see.” During the south-west monsoon they are in Singapore by scores, and of all colours, red, green, black, or yellow; these are said to be the badge of the particular province to which they belong. Ornamental painting and carving is confined principally to the high stern, which generally bears some fantastic figuring, conspicuous in which can invariably be traced the outlines of a spread eagle, not unlike that on an American dollar. Did “spread-eagleism” as well as population first reach America from China?
On rounding the eastern exit of New Harbour, the shipping and harbor of Singapore immediately came into view, with the white walls of the houses and the dark greenery of the town's shrubbery nearly hidden by the intricate network of masts and rigging. The stunning boats from the French Messageries, along with our own Peninsular and Oriental lines, the opium steamers from the major firm of Messrs. Jardine in China, and Messrs. Cama in Bombay; as well as the beautifully designed American and English clippers that have replaced the bulky East Indiamen of the past, alongside warships from all nations, create a magnificent sight. But that’s just part of the scene, as intermixed are large Chinese junks of various sizes, some measuring up to 600 or 700 tons. The sampans, or two-oared Chinese boats used to take passengers ashore, share the same design. They all have a square bow and a broad flat stern, and from the largest to the smallest, on what would be called the "headboards" of a British vessel, they all display two eyes embossed and painted, staring out over the water. The explanation from John Chinaman for this custom is that if “Without eyes, one cannot see.” During the southwest monsoon, they are abundant in Singapore, appearing in various colors—red, green, black, or yellow—which are said to represent the specific province they belong to. Ornamental painting and carving mainly adorn the high stern, typically featuring some whimsical designs, in which the outline of a spread eagle can often be traced, somewhat similar to the one on an American dollar. Did “spread-eagleism” and population first reach America from China?
“It is difficult,” says Mr. Cameron, “while looking at these junks, to imagine how they can manage in a seaway; and yet at times they must encounter the heaviest weather along the Chinese coast in the northern latitudes. It is true that when they encounter a gale they generally run before it; but yet in a typhoon this would be of little avail to ease a ship. There is no doubt they must possess some good qualities, and, probably, speed, with a fair wind in a smooth sea, is one of them. Not many years ago a boat-builder in Singapore bought one of the common sampans used by the coolie boatmen, which are exactly the same shape as the junks, and rigged her like an English cutter, giving her a false keel, and shifting weather-board, and, strange to say, won with her every race that he tried.”
“It’s hard,” says Mr. Cameron, "Looking at these junks, it’s hard to believe they can handle the open sea, especially given the rough weather along the Chinese coast in the north. It’s true that they usually try to escape a storm, but even that doesn’t help much in a typhoon. They definitely have some good qualities, one of which is speed, particularly when there’s a good wind on calm water. Recently, a boat builder in Singapore purchased one of the common sampans used by coolie boatmen, which has the same shape as the junks, and he rigged it like an English cutter, adding a false keel and adjustable weather-board. Surprisingly, he won every race he entered with it."
Passing the junks at night, a strange spectacle may be observed. Amid the beating [pg 148]of gongs, jangling of bells, and discordant shouts, the nightly religious ceremonies of the sailors are performed. Lanterns are swinging, torches flaring, and gilt paper burning, while quantities of food are scattered in the sea as an offering of their worship. Many of those junks, could they but speak, might reveal a story, gentle reader—
Passing the junks at night, a strange sight can be seen. Amid the loud sounds of gongs, clanging of bells, and chaotic shouts, the sailors hold their nightly religious ceremonies. Lanterns sway, torches blaze, and gold paper burns, while food is thrown into the sea as an offering in their worship. Many of those junks, if they could speak, might tell a story, dear reader—
The chief trade of not a few has been, and still is, the traffic of human freight; and it is, unfortunately, only too lucrative. Large numbers of junks leave China for the islands annually packed with men, picked up, impressed, or lured on board, and kept there till the gambier and pepper planters purchase them, and hurry them off to the interior. It is not so much that they usually have to complain of cruelty, or even an unreasonably long term of servitude; their real danger is in the overcrowding of the vessels that bring them. The men cost nothing, except a meagre allowance of rice, and the more the shipper can crowd into his vessel the greater must be his profit. “It would,” says the writer just quoted, “be a better speculation for the trader whose junk could only carry properly 300 men, to take on board 600 men, and lose 250 on the way down, than it would be for him to start with his legitimate number, and land them all safely; for in the first case, he would bring 350 men to market, and in the other only 300. That this process of reasoning is actually put in practice by the Chinese, there was not long ago ample and very mournful evidence to prove. Two of these junks had arrived in the harbour of Singapore, and had remained unnoticed for about a week, during which the owners had bargained for the engagement of most of their cargo. At this time two dead bodies [pg 149]were found floating in the harbour; an inquest was held, and it then transpired that one of these two junks on the way down from China had lost 250 men out of 600, and the other 200 out of 400.”
The main business for many has been, and continues to be, the trade of human cargo, which is unfortunately quite profitable. Every year, many junks leave China for the islands loaded with people, who are either kidnapped, coerced, or tricked on board, and are kept there until the gambier and pepper planters buy them and rush them off to the interior. It's not so much that they often complain about cruelty or excessively long periods of servitude; their real risk lies in the overcrowding of the ships that transport them. The men cost nothing except for a small ration of rice, and the more the shipper can pack into his vessel, the larger his profit will be. "It would," says the quoted writer, It would be a better deal for the trader whose junk could only handle a proper load of 300 men to take on 600 men and lose 250 on the trip down, rather than starting with his legitimate number and landing them all safely; because in the first case, he would bring 350 men to market, while in the other, he would only have 300. Evidence that this way of thinking is actually practiced by the Chinese was recently revealed, and it was both significant and very tragic. Two of these junks arrived in the harbor of Singapore and went unnoticed for about a week, during which the owners negotiated to sell most of their cargo. At that time, two dead bodies [pg 149] were found floating in the harbor; an inquest was held, and it was discovered that one of these junks lost 250 men out of 600 on the trip down from China, while the other lost 200 out of 400.
The Malay prahus are the craft of the inhabitants of the straits, and are something like the Chinese junks, though never so large as the largest of the latter, rarely exceeding fifty or sixty tons burden. They have one mast, a tripod made of three bamboos, two or three feet apart at the deck, and tapering up to a point at the top. Across two of the bamboos smaller pieces of the same wood are lashed, making the mast thus act as a shroud or ladder also. They carry a large lug-sail of coarse grass-cloth, having a yard both at top and bottom. The curious part of them is the top hamper about the stem. With the deck three feet out of the water forward, the top of the housing is fifteen or more feet high. They are steered with two rudders, one on either quarter. In addition to the ships and native craft, are hundreds of small boats of all descriptions constantly moving about with fruits, provisions, birds, monkeys, shells, and corals for sale. The sailor [pg 150]has a splendid chance of securing, on merely nominal terms, the inevitable parrot, a funny little Jocko, or some lovely corals, of all hues, green, purple, pink, mauve, blue, and in shape often resembling flowers and shrubbery. A whole boat-load of the latter may be obtained for a dollar and a half or a couple of dollars.
The Malay prahus are the boats used by the inhabitants of the straits, similar to Chinese junks but never as large as the biggest ones, typically not exceeding fifty or sixty tons. They feature a single mast, a tripod made of three bamboo poles spaced two or three feet apart on the deck and tapering to a point at the top. Smaller pieces of bamboo are lashed across two of the poles, allowing the mast to also function as a shroud or ladder. They carry a large lug-sail made from coarse grass cloth, with a yard at both the top and bottom. One unique aspect is the top structure at the bow. With the deck three feet above the water in the front, the housing can reach fifteen feet or more in height. They are steered using two rudders, one on each side. In addition to larger ships and native boats, there are hundreds of small boats of various types constantly moving around, selling fruits, provisions, birds, monkeys, shells, and corals. A sailor has a great chance of getting a parrot, a funny little Jocko, or some beautiful corals in different colors, like green, purple, pink, mauve, and blue, often shaped like flowers and shrubs, all for just a dollar and a half or a couple of dollars.
Singapore has a frontage of three miles, and has fine Government buildings, court-house, town-hall, clubs, institutes, masonic lodge, theatre, and the grandest English cathedral in Asia—that of St. Andrew’s. In Commercial Square, the business centre of Singapore, all nationalities seem to be represented. Here, too, are the Kling gharry-drivers, having active little ponies and neat conveyances. Jack ashore will be pestered with their applications. “These Klings,” says Mr. Thomson, “seldom, if ever, resort to blows; but their language leaves nothing for the most vindictive spirit to desire. Once, at one of the landing-places, I observed a British tar come ashore for a holiday. He was forthwith beset by a group of Kling gharry-drivers, and, finding that the strongest of British words were as nothing when pitted against the Kling vocabulary, and that no half-dozen of them would stand up like men against his huge iron fists, he seized the nearest man, and hurled him into the sea. It was the most harmless way of disposing of his enemy, who swam to a boat, and it left Jack in undisturbed and immediate possession of the field.” The naval officer will find excellent deer-hunting and wild-hog shooting to be had near the city, and tiger-hunting at a distance. Tigers, indeed, were formerly terribly destructive of native life on the island; it was said that a man per diem was sacrificed. Now, cases are more rare. For good living, Singapore can hardly be beaten; fruit in particular is abundant and cheap. Pine-apples, cocoa-nuts, bananas of thirty varieties, mangoes, custard-apples, and oranges, with many commoner fruits, abound. Then there is the mangosteen, the delicious “apple of the East,” thought by many to surpass any fruit in the world, and the durian, a fruit as big as a boy’s head, with seeds as big as walnuts enclosed in a pulpy, fruity custard. The taste for this fruit is an acquired one, and is impossible to describe, while the smell is most disgusting. So great is the longing for it, when once the taste is acquired, that the highest prices are freely offered for it, particularly by some of the rich natives. A former King of Ava spent enormous sums over it, and could hardly then satisfy his rapacious appetite. A succeeding monarch kept a special steamer at Rangoon, and when the supplies came into the city it was loaded up, and dispatched at once to the capital—500 miles up a river. The smell of the durian is so unpleasant that the fruit is never seen on the tables of the merchants or planters; it is eaten slily in corners, and out of doors.
Singapore has a three-mile coastline and features impressive government buildings, a courthouse, town hall, clubs, institutes, a Masonic lodge, a theater, and the grandest English cathedral in Asia—St. Andrew’s. In Commercial Square, the business hub of Singapore, people from all nationalities seem to be represented. Here, you also find the Kling gharry-drivers, who have energetic little ponies and tidy carriages. Once Jack is on shore, he'll be bombarded with their offers. “They're Klings,” says Mr. Thomson, “rarely, if ever, use violence; but their words are sharp enough to challenge even the most vengeful person. Once, at one of the landing spots, I saw a British sailor come ashore for a holiday. He was quickly surrounded by a group of Kling gharry-drivers, and realizing that even the strongest British insults were no match for the Kling vocabulary, and that none of them could withstand his powerful fists, he grabbed the nearest man and threw him into the sea. It was the most harmless way to handle his opponent, who swam to a boat, leaving the sailor completely in control of the situation.” The naval officer will find great deer hunting and wild boar shooting near the city, along with tiger hunting farther out. Tigers, in fact, were once a significant threat to local life on the island; it was said that a man daily allowance was taken. Now, such incidents are much rarer. As for good food, Singapore is hard to beat; fruit, in particular, is plentiful and cheap. Pineapples, coconuts, bananas in thirty varieties, mangoes, custard apples, and oranges, along with many other common fruits, are abundant. Then there’s the mangosteen, known as the delicious "apple of the East" believed by many to be the best fruit in the world, and the durian, a fruit as large as a boy’s head, containing walnut-sized seeds nestled in a pulpy, custard-like flesh. Acquiring a taste for this fruit is a process, and its flavor is difficult to describe, while its smell is quite off-putting. Once someone acquires a taste for it, the craving becomes so intense that high prices are willingly paid, especially by wealthy locals. A former king of Ava spent vast amounts on it, never quite satiating his greedy appetite. The next monarch even had a special steamer at Rangoon, and when supplies arrived in the city, they were quickly loaded and sent straight to the capital—500 miles up the river. The smell of durian is so unpleasant that it’s never found on the tables of merchants or planters; it’s eaten discreetly in private and outdoors.
And Jack ashore will find many other novelties in eating. Roast monkey is obtainable, although not eaten as much as formerly by the Malays. In the streets of Singapore a meal of three or four courses can be obtained for three halfpence from travelling restaurateurs, always Chinamen, who carry their little charcoal stoves and soup-pots with them. The authority principally quoted says that, contrary to received opinion, they are very clean and particular in their culinary arrangements. One must not, however, too closely examine the nature of the viands. And now let us proceed to the Australian Station, which includes New Guinea, Australia proper, and New Zealand.
And Jack on shore will discover many new things to eat. Roast monkey is available, though it's not consumed as much as it used to be by the Malays. In the streets of Singapore, you can get a meal of three or four courses for just three halfpence from traveling restaurants, which are always run by Chinese people, who carry their little charcoal stoves and soup pots with them. The main authority referenced suggests that, contrary to popular belief, they are very clean and meticulous in their cooking practices. However, it's better not to closely inspect the nature of the food. Now, let's move on to the Australian Station, which includes New Guinea, mainland Australia, and New Zealand.
This is a most important colony of Great Britain, although by no means its most [pg 151]important possession, a country as English as England itself, tempered only by a slight colonial flavour. Here Jack will find himself at home, whether in the fine streets of Melbourne, or the older and more pleasant city of Sydney, with its beautiful surroundings.
This is a really important colony of Great Britain, though it's not its most significant possession. It's a country as English as England itself, just with a bit of a colonial vibe. Here, Jack will feel at home, whether he's in the nice streets of Melbourne or the older, more charming city of Sydney, with its beautiful scenery.
When the seventeenth century was in its early youth, that vast ocean which stretches from Asia to the Antarctic was scarcely known by navigators. The coasts of Eastern Africa, of India, and the archipelago of islands to the eastward, were partially explored; but while there was a very strong belief that a land existed in the southern hemisphere, it was an inspiration only based on probabilities. The pilots and map-makers put down, as well as they were able, the discoveries already made; must there not be some great island or continent to balance all that waste of water which they were forced to place on the southern hemisphere? Terra Australis, “the Southern Land,” was therefore in a sense discovered before its discovery, just as the late Sir Roderick Murchison predicted gold there before Hargreaves found it.102
When the seventeenth century was just starting out, the vast ocean stretching from Asia down to Antarctica was barely known to sailors. The coasts of Eastern Africa, India, and the islands further east had been partially explored; however, there was a strong belief that land existed in the southern hemisphere, but it was based only on speculation. The navigators and map-makers recorded the discoveries that had been made as best as they could; must there not be some large island or continent to balance out all that empty water they had to depict in the southern hemisphere? Terra Australis, “the South,” was therefore, in a way, discovered before it was actually found, similar to how the late Sir Roderick Murchison predicted gold there before Hargreaves discovered it.102
In the year 1606, Pedro Fernando de Quiros started from Peru on a voyage of discovery to the westward. He found some important islands, to which he gave the name “Australia del Espiritu Santo,” and which are now believed to have been part of the New Hebrides group. The vessel of his second in command became separated in consequence of a storm, and by this Luis vas Torres in consequence reached New Guinea and Australia proper, besides what is now known as Torres Straits, which channel separates them. The same year a Dutch vessel coasted about the Gulf of Carpentaria, and it is to the persistent efforts of the navigators of Holland that the Australian coasts became well explored. From 1616, at intervals, till 1644, they instigated many voyages, the leading ones of which were the two made by Tasman, in the second of which he circumnavigated Australia. “New Holland” was the title long applied to the western part of Australia—sometimes, indeed, to the whole country.
In 1606, Pedro Fernando de Quiros set out from Peru on a westward voyage of discovery. He discovered significant islands, which he named "Australia of the Holy Spirit," now believed to be part of the New Hebrides group. The ship of his second in command, Luis de Torres, got separated due to a storm, allowing him to reach New Guinea and the mainland of Australia, as well as what is now known as Torres Straits, the channel that separates them. That same year, a Dutch ship navigated around the Gulf of Carpentaria, and it was through the determined efforts of Dutch navigators that the Australian coasts became well charted. From 1616, at various times until 1644, they organized many voyages, the most notable being two led by Tasman, who circumnavigated Australia on his second journey. "New Holland" was the name long given to the western part of Australia—sometimes, in fact, to the entire continent.
The voyages of the Dutch had not that glamour of romance which so often attaches to those of the Spanish and English. They did not meet natives laden with evidences of the natural wealth of their country, and adorned by barbaric ornaments. On the contrary, the coasts of Australia did not appear prepossessing, while the natives were wretched and squalid. Could they have known of its after-destiny, England might not hold it to-day. When Dampier, sent out by William III. more than fifty years afterwards, re-discovered the west coast of Australia, he had little to record more than the number of sharks on the coast, his astonishment at the kangaroos jumping about on shore, and his disgust for the few natives he met, whom he described as “the most unpleasant-looking and worst-featured of any people” he had ever encountered.
The journeys of the Dutch didn’t have the same allure of adventure that often comes with the Spanish and English explorations. They didn’t come across natives adorned with signs of their country's natural riches or exotic decorations. Instead, the shores of Australia looked uninviting, and the locals appeared miserable and filthy. If they had known what would happen in the future, England might not possess it today. When Dampier was sent out by William III over fifty years later, he re-discovered the west coast of Australia but had little to share besides counting the sharks off the coast, marveling at the kangaroos hopping along the shore, and expressing his disgust at the few locals he encountered, whom he described as "the most unattractive and poorly featured of any group" he had ever seen.
Nearly seventy years elapsed before any other noteworthy discovery was made in regard to Australia. In Captain Cook’s first voyage, in 1768, he explored and partially surveyed the eastern part of its coasts, and discovered the inlet, to which a considerable notoriety afterwards clung, which he termed Botany Bay, on account of the luxuriant vegetation [pg 152]of its shores. Rounding the western side, he proceeded northwards to Torres Straits, near which, on a small island off the mainland, he took possession of the whole country, in the name of his sovereign, George III., christening it New South Wales. It is still called Possession Island. Captain Cook gave so favourable an account of Botany Bay on his return, that it was determined at once to form a colony, in which convict labour should be systematically employed. Accordingly, a fleet of eleven vessels, under Captain Phillip, left Portsmouth on the 13th of May, 1787, and after a tedious voyage, reached Botany Bay the following January.
Nearly seventy years passed before any other significant discovery was made regarding Australia. In Captain Cook’s first voyage in 1768, he explored and partially surveyed the eastern part of its coasts, discovering an inlet that later gained quite a bit of fame, which he named Botany Bay, due to the rich vegetation along its shores. After navigating around the western side, he traveled north to Torres Straits, where, on a small island off the mainland, he took possession of the entire country in the name of his sovereign, George III, naming it New South Wales. It is still referred to as Ownership Island. Captain Cook reported so positively about Botany Bay upon his return that it was promptly decided to establish a colony that would systematically utilize convict labor. As a result, a fleet of eleven vessels, led by Captain Phillip, departed from Portsmouth on May 13, 1787, and after a long and challenging voyage, arrived at Botany Bay the following January.
Captain Phillip found the bay was not a safe anchorage, and in other respects was unsuitable. A few miles to the northward he discovered an inlet, now named Port Jackson—from the name of the seaman who discovered it—and which had been overlooked by Cook. The fleet was immediately removed thither, the convicts landed, and the British flag raised on the banks of Sydney Cove. Of the thousand individuals who formed this first nucleus of a grand colony, more than three-fourths were convicted offenders. For some time they were partially dependent on England for supplies. It had been arranged that they should not, at first, be left without sufficient provisions. The first ship sent out after the colonists had been landed for this purpose was struck by an iceberg in the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope, and might not have been saved at all, but for the seamanship of the “gallant, good Riou,” who afterwards lost his life at the battle of Copenhagen. He managed to keep her afloat, and she was at length towed into Table Bay, and a portion of her stores saved. Meantime, the colonists were living “in the constant belief that they should one day perish of hunger.” Governor Phillip set a noble example by putting himself on the same rations as the [pg 153]meanest convict; and when on state occasions he was obliged to invite the officers of the colony to dine with him at the Government House, he used to intimate to the guests that “they must bring their bread along with them.” At last, in June, 1790, some stores arrived; and in the following year a second fleet of vessels came out from England, one ship of the Royal Navy and ten transports; 1,763 convicts had left England on board the latter, of whom nearly 200 died on the voyage, and many more on arrival. The number of free settlers was then, and long afterwards, naturally very small; they did not like to be so intimately and inevitably associated with convicted criminals. In 1810 the total population of Australia was about 10,000. In 1836 it had risen to 77,000, two-fifths of whom were convicts in actual bondage, while of the remainder, a large proportion had at one time been in the same condition. Governor King, one of the earlier officials of the colony, complained that “he could not make farmers out of pickpockets;” and Governor Macquarie later said that “there were only two classes of individuals in New South Wales—those who had been convicted, and those who ought to have been.” Under these discouraging circumstances, coupled with all kinds of other difficulties, the colony made slow headway. Droughts and inundations, famine or scarcity, and hostility on the part of the natives, helped seriously to retard its progress. About the period of Sir Thomas Brisbane’s administration, there was an influx of a better class of colonists, owing to the inauguration of free emigration. In 1841, transportation to New South Wales ceased. Ten years later the discovery of gold by Mr. E. H. Hargreaves (on the 12th of February, 1851) caused the first great “rush” to the colony, which influx has since continued, partly for better reasons than gold-finding—the grand chances offered for stock-raising, agricultural, horticultural, and vinicultural pursuits.
Captain Phillip found that the bay was not a safe place to anchor and was unsuitable in other ways. A few miles to the north, he discovered an inlet that is now called Port Jackson—named after the sailor who found it—and had been overlooked by Cook. The fleet was quickly moved there, the convicts were landed, and the British flag was raised at Sydney Cove. Of the thousand individuals who formed this initial group of a grand colony, more than three-quarters were convicted offenders. For a while, they relied on England for supplies. It was arranged that they would not be left without enough provisions initially. The first ship sent out after the colonists had landed for this purpose encountered an iceberg near the Cape of Good Hope and might not have been saved if it weren't for the seamanship of the “gallant, good Riou,” who later lost his life in the battle of Copenhagen. He managed to keep the ship afloat, and it was eventually towed into Table Bay, where some of its supplies were salvaged. Meanwhile, the colonists lived “in the constant belief that they should one day perish of hunger.” Governor Phillip set a noble example by putting himself on the same ration as the lowest convict; when he had to invite the colony’s officers to dinner at Government House, he would let them know that “they must bring their bread along with them.” Finally, in June 1790, some supplies arrived, and the following year a second fleet of ships came from England, including one Royal Navy ship and ten transports; 1,763 convicts had left England on the latter, nearly 200 of whom died during the voyage, and many more upon arrival. The number of free settlers was very small at that time and for a long time afterward; they didn’t want to be closely associated with convicted criminals. By 1810, the total population of Australia was around 10,000. By 1836, it had risen to 77,000, two-fifths of whom were convicts, while a large portion of the remainder had at one point been in the same situation. Governor King, one of the early officials of the colony, complained that “he could not make farmers out of pickpockets;” and Governor Macquarie later stated that “there were only two classes of individuals in New South Wales—those who had been convicted and those who ought to have been.” Under these discouraging circumstances, along with various other difficulties, the colony made slow progress. Droughts and floods, famine or scarcity, and conflicts with the natives seriously hindered its development. Around the time of Sir Thomas Brisbane’s administration, a better class of colonists began to arrive due to the start of free emigration. In 1841, transportation to New South Wales ceased. Ten years later, the discovery of gold by Mr. E. H. Hargreaves (on February 12, 1851) sparked the first great “rush” to the colony, which has continued since then, partly for reasons better than just gold—great opportunities for stock-raising, farming, gardening, and wine production.
To the north and south of Sydney, the coast is a nearly unbroken range of iron-bound cliffs. But as a vessel approaches the shore, a narrow entrance, between the two “Heads” of Port Jackson, as they are called, discloses itself. It is nowhere greater than a mile in width, and really does not appear so much, on account of the height of the cliffs. On entering the harbour a fine sea-lake appears in view, usually blue and calm, and in one of its charming inlets is situated the city of Sydney. “There is not,” writes Professor Hughes, “a more thoroughly English town on the face of the globe—not even in England itself—than this southern emporium of the commerce of nations. Sydney is entirely wanting in the novel and exotic aspect which belongs to foreign capitals. The emigrant lands there, and hears his own mother tongue spoken on every side; he looks around upon the busy life of its crowded streets, and he gazes on scenes exactly similar to those daily observable in the highways of London, Liverpool, Birmingham, or Manchester.... ‘Were it not,’ says Colonel Mundy, ‘for an occasional orange-tree in full bloom, or fruit in the background of some of the older cottages, or a flock of little green parrots whistling as they alight for a moment on a house-top, one might fancy himself in Brighton or Plymouth.’ ”103 Gay equipages crowd its streets, which are lined with handsome shops; the city abounds in fine public buildings. In the outskirts of the city are flour-mills of all kinds, worked by horse, water, wind, and steam; great distilleries and breweries, soap and candle works, tanneries, and woollen-mills, at the latter of which they turn out an excellent tweed cloth. Ship-building is carried on extensively around Port Jackson. Although now overshadowed by the commercial superiority of Melbourne, it has the preeminence as a port. In fact, Melbourne is not a sea-port at all, as we shall see. Vessels of large burdens can lie alongside the wharves of Sydney, and “Jack,” in the Royal Navy at least, is more likely to stop there for awhile, than ever to see Melbourne. He will find it a cheap place in most respects, for everywhere in New South Wales meat is excessively low-priced; they used formerly to throw it away, after taking off the hides and boiling out the fat, but are wiser now, and send it in tins all over the world. Such fruits as the peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, fig, grape, cherry, and orange are as plentiful as blackberries. The orangeries and orchards of New South Wales are among its sights; and in the neighbourhood of Sydney and round Port Jackson there are beautiful groves of orange-trees, which extend in some places down to the water’s edge. Individual settlers have groves which yield as many as thirty thousand dozen oranges per annum. One may there literally “sit under his own vine and fig-tree.” If a peach-stone is thrown down in almost any part of Australia where there is a little moisture, a tree will spring up, which in a few years will yield handsomely. A well-known botanist used formerly to carry with him, during extensive travels, a small bag of peach-stones to plant in suitable places, and many a wandering settler has blessed him since. Pigs were formerly often fed on peaches, as was done in California, a country much resembling Southern Australia; it is only of late years they have been utilised in both places by drying or otherwise preserving. A basket-load may be obtained in the Sydney markets during the season for a few pence. The summer heat of Sydney is about that of Naples, while its winter corresponds with that of Sicily.
To the north and south of Sydney, the coast is mostly lined with steep iron-bound cliffs. But as a ship gets closer to shore, a narrow entrance between the two “Heads” of Port Jackson reveals itself. It’s never more than a mile wide, and it doesn’t seem that wide because of the height of the cliffs. Once you enter the harbor, you see a beautiful sea-lake, usually blue and calm, and in one of its lovely inlets lies the city of Sydney. “There is not,” writes Professor Hughes, “a more thoroughly English town on the face of the globe—not even in England itself—than this southern hub of international trade. Sydney lacks the novel and exotic charm typical of foreign capitals. The emigrant arrives and hears his own language spoken all around; he looks around at the busy life of its crowded streets and sees scenes that are exactly like those he’d find in the streets of London, Liverpool, Birmingham, or Manchester.... ‘Were it not,’ says Colonel Mundy, ‘for an occasional orange tree in full bloom, or fruit in the background of some of the older cottages, or a flock of little green parrots landing momentarily on a rooftop, one might think he was in Brighton or Plymouth.’” Chic carriages fill its streets, which are lined with attractive shops; the city is full of impressive public buildings. On the outskirts, there are flour mills powered by horses, water, wind, and steam; large distilleries and breweries, soap and candle factories, tanneries, and woolen mills, the last of which produce excellent tweed fabric. Shipbuilding is prevalent around Port Jackson. Although it has been surpassed by Melbourne’s commercial strength, it remains a key port. In fact, Melbourne isn’t really a seaport at all, as we will see. Large ships can dock at the wharves of Sydney, and “Jack,” at least in the Royal Navy, is more likely to spend some time there rather than ever visit Melbourne. He will find it fairly affordable in most ways, as meat is extremely cheap throughout New South Wales; they used to throw it away after skinning and boiling out the fat, but they are smarter now and send it in cans all over the globe. Fruits like peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, fig, grape, cherry, and orange are just as common as blackberries. The orange groves and orchards of New South Wales are among its attractions; around Sydney and Port Jackson, there are beautiful orange tree groves that sometimes reach all the way to the water's edge. Individual farmers have groves that yield up to thirty thousand dozen oranges a year. Here, one can truly “sit under his own vine and fig tree.” If a peach pit is thrown down in almost any area of Australia where there’s a bit of moisture, a tree will sprout that will bear fruit generously in a few years. A well-known botanist used to carry a small bag of peach pits during his extensive travels to plant in suitable spots, and many a wandering settler has thanked him since. Pigs used to be fed peaches like they were in California, a place very similar to Southern Australia; only in recent years have they been dried or preserved for use in both locations. A basket full can be found in the Sydney markets during the season for just a few cents. The summer heat in Sydney is about the same as in Naples, while its winter feels like Sicily.
But are there no drawbacks to all this happy state of things? Well, yes; about the worst is a hot blast which sometimes blows from the interior, known popularly in Sydney as a “brick-fielder” or “southerly buster.” It is much like that already described, and neither the most closely-fastened doors nor windows will keep out the fearful dust-storm. “Its effect,” says Professor Hughes, “is particularly destructive of every sense of comfort; the dried and dust-besprinkled skin acquiring for the time some resemblance to parchment, and the hair feeling more like hay than any softer material.”
But are there no drawbacks to all this great situation? Well, yes; the worst one is a hot wind that sometimes blows in from the interior, commonly known in Sydney as a “brick fielder” or “southerly buster.” It's quite similar to what was already mentioned, and neither tightly closed doors nor windows can keep out the terrifying dust storm. “Its impact,” says Professor Hughes, “is especially damaging to any sense of comfort; the dry, dust-covered skin begins to look like parchment, and the hair feels more like straw than anything softer.”
Should Jack or his superior officers land during the heat of autumn, he may have the opportunity of passing a novel Christmas—very completely un-English. The gayest and brightest flowers will be in bloom, and the musquitoes out in full force. “Sitting,” says a writer, “in a thorough draught, clad in a holland blouse, you may see men and boys dragging from the neighbouring bush piles of green stuff (oak-branches in full leaf and acorn, and a handsome shrub with a pink flower and pale green leaf—the ‘Christmas’ of Australia) for the decoration of churches and dwellings, and stopping every fifty yards to wipe their perspiring brows.”
Should Jack or his superior officers land during the busy fall season, he might have the chance to experience a completely un-English Christmas. The brightest and most colorful flowers will be blooming, and the mosquitoes will be swarming. "Seated," a writer says, "On a breezy day, dressed in a light blouse, you can see men and boys pulling loads of green materials (oak branches with full leaves and acorns, along with a lovely shrub with pink flowers and light green leaves—the ‘Christmas’ of Australia) for decorating churches and homes, taking a break every fifty yards to wipe off their sweat."
Before leaving Sydney, the grand park, called “The Domain,” which stretches down to the blue water in the picturesque indentations around Port Jackson, must be mentioned. It contains several hundred acres, tastefully laid out in drives, and with public walks cut through the indigenous or planted shrubberies, and amidst the richest woodland scenery, or winding at the edge of the rocky bluffs or by the margin of the glittering waters. Adjoining this lovely spot is one of the finest botanic gardens in the world, considered by all Sydney to be a veritable Eden.
Before leaving Sydney, the beautiful park known as “The Domain,” which runs down to the blue waters in the scenic inlets around Port Jackson, should be noted. It covers several hundred acres and is beautifully designed with drives and public paths that weave through native and cultivated shrubs, surrounded by lush woodland scenery, or meandering along the rocky cliffs or beside the sparkling waters. Next to this lovely spot is one of the best botanical gardens in the world, regarded by everyone in Sydney as a true paradise.
Port Phillip, like Port Jackson, is entered by a narrow passage, and immediately inside is a magnificent basin, thirty miles across in almost any direction. It is so securely sheltered that it affords an admirable anchorage for shipping. Otherwise, Melbourne, now a grand city with a population of about 300,000, would have had little chance of attaining its great commercial superiority over any city of Australia. Melbourne is situated about eight miles up the Yarra-Yarra (“flowing-flowing”) river, which flows into the head of Port Phillip. That poetically-named, but really lazy, muddy stream is only navigable for vessels of very small draught. But Melbourne has a fine country to back it. Many of the old and rich mining-districts were round Port Phillip, or on and about streams flowing into it. Wheat, maize, potatoes, vegetables and fruits in general, are greatly cultivated; and the colony of Victoria is pre-eminent for sheep-farming and cattle-runs, and the industries connected with wool, hides, tallow, and, of late, meat, which they bring forth. Melbourne itself lies rather low, and its original site, now entirely filled in, was swampy. Hence came occasional epidemics—dysentery, influenza, and so forth.
Port Phillip, like Port Jackson, has a narrow entrance, and just inside is a beautiful bay that's about thirty miles wide in almost any direction. It’s so well protected that it provides excellent anchorage for ships. Without this, Melbourne, now a vibrant city with around 300,000 people, would have struggled to achieve such a strong commercial presence compared to other cities in Australia. Melbourne is located about eight miles up the Yarra-Yarra (“flowing-flowing”) river, which feeds into Port Phillip. This poetically named but quite sluggish and muddy river is only navigable for very small boats. However, Melbourne is surrounded by fertile land. Many of the old, rich mining areas are around Port Phillip or along the rivers that flow into it. There's a lot of farming of wheat, corn, potatoes, vegetables, and various fruits. The Victoria colony is especially known for sheep farming, cattle grazing, and industries related to wool, hides, tallow, and more recently, meat. Melbourne itself is relatively low-lying, and its original location, which has been completely filled in, used to be swampy. This led to occasional outbreaks of diseases like dysentery and influenza.
CHAPTER X.
Traveling the World on a Warship Please provide the text you would like me to modernize.continued).
THE PACIFIC STATION.
Across the Pacific—Approach to the Golden Gate—The Bay of San Francisco—The City—First Dinner Ashore—Cheap Luxury—San Francisco by Night—The Land of Gold, Grain, and Grapes—Incidents of the Early Days—Expensive Papers—A Lucky Sailor—Chances for English Girls—The Baby at the Play—A capital Port for Seamen—Hospitality of Californians—Victoria, Vancouver Island—The Naval Station at Esquimalt—A Delightful Place—Advice to Intending Emigrants—British Columbian Indians—Their fine Canoes—Experiences of the Writer—The Island on Fire—The Chinook Jargon—Indian “Pigeon-English”—North to Alaska—The Purchase of Russian America by the United States—Results—Life at Sitka—Grand Volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands—The Great Yukon River—American Trading Posts round Bering Sea.
Across the Pacific—Approach to the Golden Gate—The Bay of San Francisco—The City—First Dinner on Land—Affordable Luxury—San Francisco at Night—The Land of Gold, Grain, and Grapes—Stories from the Early Days—Expensive Newspapers—A Lucky Sailor—Opportunities for English Women—The Baby at Play—A Great Port for Sailors—Californian Hospitality—Victoria, Vancouver Island—The Naval Base at Esquimalt—A Beautiful Place—Advice for Would-Be Emigrants—British Columbian Indigenous Peoples—Their Beautiful Canoes—The Writer's Experiences—The Island on Fire—The Chinook Language—Indian “Pigeon English”—Heading North to Alaska—The Acquisition of Russian America by the United States—Results—Life in Sitka—Impressive Volcanoes of the Aleutian Islands—The Great Yukon River—American Trading Posts around Bering Sea.
A common course for a vessel crossing the Pacific would be from Australia or New Zealand to San Francisco, California. The mail-steamers follow this route, touching at the Fiji and Hawaiian groups of islands; and the sailor in the Royal Navy is as likely to find this route the orders of his commander as any other. If the writer, in describing the country he knows better than any other, be found somewhat enthusiastic and gushing, he will at least give reasons for his warmth. On this subject, above all others, he writes [pg 157]con amore. He spent over twelve years on the Pacific coasts of America, and out of that time about seven in the Golden State, California.
A common route for a ship traveling across the Pacific would be from Australia or New Zealand to San Francisco, California. The mail steamers take this path, stopping at the Fiji and Hawaiian island groups; and a sailor in the Royal Navy is just as likely to receive orders for this route from his commander as he is for any other. If the author, while describing the region he knows best, seems a bit enthusiastic and overly emotional, he will at least provide reasons for his passion. On this topic, more than any other, he writes [pg 157]with love. He spent over twelve years along the Pacific coasts of America, with about seven of those years in the Golden State, California.
It has been said, “See Naples, and die!” The reader is recommended to see the glorious Bay of San Francisco before he makes up his mind that there is nought else worthy of note, because he has sailed on the blue waters of the most beautiful of the Mediterranean bays. How well does the writer remember his first sight of the Golden Gate, as the entrance to San Francisco Bay is poetically named! The good steamer on which he had spent some seventy-five days—which had passed over nearly the entire Atlantic, weathered the Horn, and then, with the favouring “trade-winds,” had sailed and steamed up the Pacific with one grand sweep to California, out of sight of land the whole time—was sadly in want of coals when she arrived off that coast, which a dense fog entirely hid from view. The engines were kept going slowly by means of any stray wood on board; valuable spars were sacrificed, and it was even proposed to strip the woodwork out of the steerage, which contained about two hundred men, women, and children. Guns and rockets were fired, but at first with no result, and the prospect was not cheering. But at last the welcome little pilot-boat loomed through the fog, and was soon alongside, and a healthy, jovial-looking pilot came aboard. “You can all have a good dinner to-night ashore,” said that excellent seaman to the passengers, “and the sea shan’t rob you of it.” The fog lifted as the vessel slowly steamed onwards.
It has been said, “Visit Naples, and die!” The reader is encouraged to experience the stunning Bay of San Francisco before deciding that there’s nothing else worth seeing, just because they've sailed on the beautiful blue waters of the Mediterranean. The writer vividly remembers the first time he saw the Golden Gate, as the entrance to San Francisco Bay is poetically called! The good steamer he spent about seventy-five days on—which had crossed nearly the entire Atlantic, rounded the Horn, and then, with the help of the "trade winds," had sailed and steamed up the Pacific in one grand sweep to California, completely out of sight of land the whole time—was in desperate need of coal when it arrived off that coast, completely hidden by a thick fog. The engines were kept running slowly using any spare wood on board; valuable spars were sacrificed, and there was even a suggestion to strip the woodwork out of the steerage, which held around two hundred men, women, and children. Guns and rockets were fired, but initially with no response, and the situation looked grim. But finally, the welcome little pilot boat appeared through the fog, quickly came alongside, and a robust, cheerful pilot boarded the ship. "You all can have a nice dinner tonight on land," said that excellent seaman to the passengers, "and the sea won't take it away from you." The fog lifted as the vessel slowly moved onward.
On approaching the entrance to the bay, on the right cliffs and rocks are seen, with a splendid beach, where carriages and buggies are constantly passing and repassing. On the top of a rocky bluff, the Seal Rock or “Cliff” House, a popular hotel; below it, in the sea, a couple or so of rocky islets covered with sea-lions, which are protected by a law of the State. To the left, outside some miles, the Farralone Islands, with a capital lighthouse perched on the top of one of them. Entering the Golden Gate, and looking to the right again, the Fort Point Barracks and the outskirts of the city; to the left the many-coloured headlands and cliffs, on whose summits the wild oats are pale and golden in the bright sunlight. Before one, several islands—Alcatraz, bristling with guns, and covered with fortifications; Goat Island, presumably so called because on it there are no goats. Beyond, fifty miles of green water, and a forest of shipping; and a city, the history of which has no parallel on earth. Hills behind, with streets as steep as those of Malta; high land, with spires, and towers, and fine edifices innumerable; and great wharves, and slips, and docks in front of all; with steamships and steam ferry-boats constantly arriving and departing. And now the vessel anchors in the stream, and if not caring to haggle over the half-dollar—a large sum in English ears—which the boatman demands from each passenger who wishes to go ashore, the traveller finds himself in a strange land, and amid a people of whom he will learn to form the very highest estimate.
As you approach the entrance to the bay, you’ll see cliffs and rocks on the right, along with a stunning beach where carriages and buggies are constantly coming and going. On top of a rocky bluff sits the Seal Rock or “Cliff” House, a popular hotel; below, in the sea, there are a few rocky islets covered with sea lions, which are protected by state law. To the left, several miles away, are the Farralone Islands, featuring a prominent lighthouse on top of one of them. Upon entering the Golden Gate and looking to the right again, you’ll spot Fort Point Barracks and the outskirts of the city; to the left are colorful headlands and cliffs, where wild oats appear pale and golden in the bright sunlight. In front of you are several islands—Alcatraz, armed with guns and protected with fortifications; Goat Island, likely named because there are no goats on it. Beyond that lies fifty miles of green water and a bustling scene of shipping, along with a city whose history is unmatched anywhere in the world. The hills behind are dotted with streets as steep as those in Malta; there’s high land showcasing countless spires, towers, and impressive buildings; and in front of all this are great wharves, slips, and docks, with steamships and ferryboats constantly arriving and departing. Now the vessel anchors in the stream, and if you’re not interested in negotiating the half-dollar—a considerable amount from an English perspective—that the boatman asks of each passenger wanting to go ashore, you’ll find yourself in a new land among people of whom you will come to hold a very high opinion.
That first dinner, after the eternal bean-coffee, boiled tea, tinned meats, dried vegetables, and “salt horse” of one’s ship, in a neat restaurant, where it seems everything on earth can be obtained, will surprise most visitors. An irreproachable potage: broiled salmon (the fish is a drug, almost, on the Pacific coasts); turtle steaks, oyster plant, artichokes, and green corn; a California quail “on toast;” grand muscatel grapes, green figs, and a cooling slice of melon; Roquefort cheese, or a very good imitation of it; black coffee, and [pg 158]cigars; native wine on the table; California cognac on demand; service excellent—napkins, hot plates, flowers on the table; price moderate for the luxuries obtained, and no waiter’s fees. The visitor will mentally forgive the boatman of the morning. Has he arrived in the Promised Land, in the Paradise of bon vivants? It seems so. In the evening, he may take a stroll up Montgomery Street, and a good seat at a creditably performed opera may be obtained. Nobody knows better than the sailor and the traveller the splendid luxury of such moments, after a two or three months’ monotonous voyage. And, in good sooth, he generally abandons himself to it. He has earned it, and who shall say him nay? The same evening may be, he will go to a 300-roomed hotel—they have now one of 750 rooms—where, for three dollars (12s. 6d.), he can sup, sleep, breakfast, and dine sumptuously. He will be answered twenty questions for nothing by a civil clerk in the office of the hotel, read the papers for nothing in the reading-room, have a bath—for nothing—and find that it is not the thing to give fees to the waiters. It is a new revelation to many who have stopped before in dozens of first-class English and Continental houses.
That first dinner, after surviving endless bean coffee, boiled tea, canned meats, dried vegetables, and “salt horse” on the ship, in a nice restaurant where it seems everything on earth can be found, will surprise most visitors. A perfect potage: broiled salmon (the fish is practically a drug on the Pacific coasts); turtle steaks, oyster plant, artichokes, and sweet corn; California quail “on toast;” grand muscatel grapes, green figs, and a refreshing slice of melon; Roquefort cheese or a very good imitation; black coffee, and cigars; native wine on the table; California cognac on request; excellent service—napkins, hot plates, flowers on the table; reasonable prices for the luxuries offered, and no tipping expected. The visitor will mentally forgive the boatman from this morning. Has he arrived in the Promised Land, the Paradise of bon vivants? It seems so. In the evening, he can take a stroll up Montgomery Street and secure a good seat at a well-performed opera. Nobody knows better than sailors and travelers the fantastic luxury of such moments after two or three months of monotonous sailing. And honestly, they generally give in to it. They’ve earned it, and who’s going to argue? That same evening, he may go to a 300-room hotel—they now have one with 750 rooms—where, for three dollars (12s. 6d.), he can eat a sumptuous supper, sleep, have breakfast, and dine. A friendly clerk at the hotel office will answer twenty questions for free, he can read the papers for free in the reading room, take a bath—for free—and discover that it’s not done to tip the waiters. This is a new revelation for many who have previously stayed in dozens of first-class English and Continental hotels.
“Seen,” says Mr. W. F. Rae,104 “as I saw it for the first time, the appearance of San Francisco is enchanting. Built on a hill-slope, up which many streets run to the top, and illumined as many of these streets were with innumerable gas-lamps, the effect was that of a huge dome ablaze with lamps arranged in lines and circles. Those who have stood in Princes Street at night, and gazed upon the Old Town and Castle of Edinburgh, can form a very correct notion of the fairy-like spectacle. Expecting to find San Francisco a city of wonders, I was not disappointed when it seemed to my eyes a city of magic—such a city as Aladdin might have ordered the genii to create in order to astonish and dazzle the spectator. I was warned by those whom personal experience of the city had taught to distinguish glitter from substance, not to expect that the reality of the morrow would fulfil the promise of the evening. Some of the parts which now appeared the most fascinating were said to be the least attractive when viewed by day. Still, the panorama was deprived of none of its glories by these whispers of well-meant warning.” The present writer has crossed the Bay in the ferry and other boats a hundred times, and on a fine night—and they have about nine months of fine nights in California—he never missed the opportunity of going forward towards the bows of the boat when it approached San Francisco. As Mr. Rae writes, “The full-orbed stars twinkling overhead are almost rivalled by the myriads of gas-lights illuminating the land.” Less than thirty years ago this city of 300,000 souls was but a mission-village, and the few inhabitants of California were mostly demoralised Mexicans, lazy half-breeds, and wretched Indians, who could almost live without work, and, as a rule, did so. Wild cattle roamed at will, and meat was to be had for the asking. The only ships which arrived were like the brig Pilgrim, described by Dana in “Two Years before the Mast,” bound to California for hides and tallow. Now, the tonnage of the shipping of all nations which enters the port of San Francisco is enormous. The discovery made by Marshall, in 1847, first brought about the revolution. “Such is the power of gold.” Now, California depends far [pg 159]more on her corn, and wool, and hides, her wine, her grapes, oranges, and other fruits, and on innumerable industries. Reader, you have eaten bread made from California wheat—it fetches a high price in Liverpool on account of its fine quality; you may have been clothed in California wool, and your boots made of her leather; more than likely you have drunk California wine, of which large quantities are shipped to Hamburgh, where they are watered and doctored for the rest of Europe, and exported under French and German names; your head may have been shampooed with California borax; and your watch-chain was probably, and some of your coin assuredly, made from the gold of the Golden State.
“Watched,” says Mr. W. F. Rae,104 The first time I saw it, San Francisco was mesmerizing. It's built on a hillside, with a lot of streets leading up to the top, lit by countless gas lamps. The effect is like a huge dome glowing with lights arranged in lines and circles. Anyone who has stood on Princes Street at night, looking at Edinburgh's Old Town and Castle, can get a sense of this magical scene. Expecting San Francisco to be a city of wonders, I wasn’t disappointed when it felt like a magical place—one that Aladdin might have asked the genies to create to amaze and dazzle its visitors. I was cautioned by those who had learned from personal experience to distinguish between glitz and reality, not to expect that the next day would match the promise of the night. Some places that looked most captivating at night were said to be the least appealing in daylight. Still, the view lost none of its beauty because of those well-meaning warnings. The current writer has crossed the Bay by ferry and other boats a hundred times, and on a clear night—and in California, there are about nine months of clear nights—he never missed the chance to head to the front of the boat as it approached San Francisco. As Mr. Rae writes, "The bright stars twinkling above are nearly matched by the countless gas lights lighting up the ground." Less than thirty years ago, this city of 300,000 people was just a mission village, and most of California's few inhabitants were demoralized Mexicans, lazy mixed-race individuals, and miserable Indians, who could almost live without working, and generally did. Wild cattle roamed freely, and meat was easy to get. The only ships that arrived were like the brig Pilgrim, described by Dana in "Two Years Before the Mast," which came to California for hides and tallow. Now, the shipping tonnage from all nations entering the port of San Francisco is enormous. The discovery made by Marshall in 1847 first sparked the revolution. "That's the power of gold." Now, California relies much more on corn, wool, hides, wine, grapes, oranges, and other fruits, along with countless industries. Reader, you have eaten bread made from California wheat—it fetches a high price in Liverpool due to its excellent quality; you may have worn clothes made from California wool, and your boots may have been made from her leather; chances are you've drunk California wine, which is shipped in large quantities to Hamburg, where it is diluted and treated for the rest of Europe and exported under French and German labels; your head may have been washed with California borax; and your watch-chain was probably, and some of your coins surely, made from the gold of the Golden State.
This is not a book on “The Land,” but two or three stories of Californian life in the early days may, however, be forgiven. The first is of a man who had just landed from a ship, and who offered a somewhat seedy-looking customer, lounging on the wharf, a dollar to carry his portmanteau. He got the reply, “I’ll give you an ounce of gold to see you carry it yourself.” The new arrival thought he had come to a splendid country, and shouldered his burden like a man, when the other, a successful gold-finder, not merely gave him his ounce—little less than £4 sterling—but treated him to a bottle of champagne, which cost another ounce. The writer can well believe the story, for he paid two and a half dollars—nearly half a guinea—for an Illustrated London News, and two dollars for a copy of Punch, in the Cariboo mines, in 1863; while a friend—now retired on a competency in England—started a little weekly newspaper, the size of a sheet of foolscap, selling it for one dollar (4s. 2d.) per copy. He was fortunately not merely a competent writer, but a practical printer. He composed his articles on paper first, and then in type; worked the press, delivered them to his subscribers, collected advertisements and payments, and no doubt would have made his own paper—if rags had not been too costly!
This isn't a book about “The Land,” but it’s fine to share two or three stories about life in California during the early days. The first story is about a man who just got off a ship and offered a somewhat shabby-looking guy lounging on the wharf a dollar to carry his suitcase. The guy responded, "I'll give you an ounce of gold if you can carry it yourself." The newcomer thought he had arrived in an amazing place and shouldered his bag like a champ, while the other man, a successful gold miner, not only gave him his ounce—worth almost £4—but also treated him to a bottle of champagne, which cost another ounce. I can believe the story because I paid two and a half dollars—nearly half a guinea—for an Illustrated London News and two dollars for a copy of
A sailor purchased, about the year 1849, in an auction-room, while out on a “spree,” the lots of land on which the Plaza, one of the most important business squares of San Francisco, now stands. He went off again, and after several years cruising about the world, returned to find himself a millionaire. The City Hall stands on that property; it is surrounded by offices, shops, and hotels, and very prettily planted with shrubs, grass-plots, and flowers.
A sailor bought, around 1849, at an auction while on a “shopping spree,” the land where the Plaza, one of the key business squares in San Francisco, now stands. He left again and after several years cruising around the world, came back to find he was a millionaire. The City Hall is located on that property, which is surrounded by offices, shops, and hotels, and is nicely decorated with shrubs, grassy areas, and flowers.
There was a period when females were so scarce in California that the miners and farm-hands, ay, and farmers and proprietors too—a large number of these were old sailors—would travel any distance merely to see one.105 At this present time any decent English housemaid receives twenty dollars (£4) per month, and is “found,” while a superior servant, a first-class cook, or competent housekeeper, gets anything from thirty dollars upwards.
There was a time when there were so few women in California that miners, farm workers, and even farmers and business owners—many of whom were old sailors—would travel any distance just to see one. 105 Nowadays, a good English housemaid earns twenty dollars (£4) per month and is “handled,” while a top-notch servant, a first-rate cook, or skilled housekeeper can make thirty dollars or more.
Theatres at San Francisco were once rude buildings of boards and canvas, and the stalls were benches. A story is told that at a performance at such a house quite a commotion was caused by the piercing squall of a healthy baby—brought in by a mother who, perhaps, had not had any amusement for a year or two, and most assuredly had no servant with whom to leave it at home—which was heard above the music. “Here, you [pg 160]fiddlers,” roared out a stalwart man in a red shirt and “gum” boots, just down from the mines, “stop that tune; I haven’t heard a baby cry for several years; it does me good to hear it.” The “one touch of nature” made that rough audience akin, and all rose to their feet, cheering the baby, and insisting that the orchestra must stop, and stop it did until the child was quieted. Then a collection was made—not of coppers and small silver, but of ounces and dollars—to present the child with something handsome as a souvenir of its success.
The theaters in San Francisco used to be simple structures made of wood and canvas, and the seating was just benches. There's a story about a performance in one of those venues where quite a stir was caused by the loud wailing of a healthy baby—brought in by a mother who probably hadn't had any fun for a year or two and definitely didn't have a servant to leave the baby with at home—which could be heard over the music. “Hey, you musicians,” shouted a big guy in a red shirt and “gum” boots, fresh from the mines, "Turn off that song; I haven't heard a baby cry in years; it’s nice to hear." That “a touch of nature” brought the rough crowd together, and everyone stood up, cheering for the baby and demanding that the orchestra stop, which they did until the child was calmed down. Then a collection was taken—not of coins and small change, but of ounces and dollars—to give the child something nice as a memento of its fame.
San Francisco, as the most important commercial emporium and port of the whole Pacific, has a particular interest to the “man of the sea.” It has societies, “homes,” and bethels for his benefit, and a fine marine hospital. At the Merchants’ Exchange he will find the latest shipping-news and quotations, while many public institutions are open to him, as to all others. Above all, he will find one of the most conscientious and kind, as well as influential, of British Consuls there—and how often the sailor abroad may need his interference, only the sailor and merchant knows—who is also one of the oldest in H.B.M. consular service. No matter his sect, it is represented; San Francisco is full of churches and chapels. If he needs instruction and literary entertainment, he will get it at the splendid Mercantile Library, or admirably-conducted Mechanics’ Institute. There is a capital “Art Association,” with hundreds of members. He will find journalism of a new type: [pg 161]“live,” vigorous, generous, and semi-occasionally vicious. The papers of San Francisco will, however, compare favourably with those of any other American city, short of New York and Boston. The sailor will find the city as advanced in all matters pertaining to modern civilisation, whether good or bad, as any he has ever visited. The naval officer will find admirable clubs, and if of the Royal Navy will most assuredly be put on the books of one or more of them for the period of his stay. He will find, too, that San Francisco hospitality is unbounded, that balls and parties are nowhere better carried out, and that the rising generation of California girls are extremely good-looking, and that the men are stalwart, fine-looking fellows, very unlike the typical bony Yankee, who, by-the-by, is getting very scarce even in his own part of the country, the New England States.
San Francisco, the leading commercial hub and port of the entire Pacific, holds special significance for the “man of the ocean.” It has associations, “houses,” and places of worship to support him, along with a well-equipped marine hospital. At the Merchants’ Exchange, he can access the latest shipping news and market prices, and many public institutions welcome him just like anyone else. Most importantly, he will encounter one of the most dedicated and compassionate, as well as influential, British Consuls—only sailors and merchants truly understand how often they need his assistance—who is also one of the longest-serving in H.B.M. consular service. No matter his faith, it is represented; San Francisco is filled with churches and chapels. If he seeks knowledge and literary entertainment, he can find it at the impressive Mercantile Library or the well-run Mechanics’ Institute. There’s an excellent "Art Collective," with hundreds of members. He will find journalism of a new kind: [pg 161]“stream,” vibrant, generous, and occasionally a bit scandalous. The newspapers in San Francisco, however, stack up well against those in any other American city, aside from New York and Boston. The sailor will see that the city is as advanced in all aspects of modern civilization—good or bad—as any he has ever visited. Naval officers will find great clubs, and if they are from the Royal Navy, they will certainly be added to the membership list of one or more during their stay. They will also discover that San Francisco's hospitality knows no bounds, that parties and events are exceptionally well organized, and that the young women of California are incredibly attractive, while the men are robust and handsome, very different from the typical lanky Yankee, who, by the way, is becoming quite rare even in his own region, the New England states.
If Jack has been to China, he will recognise the truth of the fact that parts of San Francisco are Chinese as Hong Kong itself. There are Joss-houses, with a big, stolid-looking idol sitting in state, the temple gay with tinsel and china, metal-work and paint, smelling faintly of incense, and strongly of burnt paper. There are Chinese restaurants by the dozen, from the high-class dining-rooms, with balconies, flowers, small banners and inscriptions, down to the itinerant restaurateur with his charcoal-stove and soup-pot. Then there are Chinese theatres, smelling strongly of opium and tobacco, where the orchestra sits at the back of the stage, which is curtainless and devoid of scenery. The dresses of the performers are gorgeous in the extreme. When any new arrangement of properties, &c., is required on the stage, the changes are made before your eyes; as, for example, placing a table to represent a raised balcony, or piling up some boxes to form a castle, and so forth. Their dramas are often almost interminable, for they take the reign of an emperor, for example, and play it through, night after night, from his birth to his death. In details they are very literal, and hold “the mirror up to nature” fully. If the said emperor had special vices, they are displayed on the stage. The music is, to European ears, fearful and wonderful—a mixture of discordant sounds, resembling those of ungreased cart-wheels and railway-whistles, mingled with the rolling of drums and striking of gongs. Some of the streets are lined with Chinese shops, ranging from those of the merchants in tea, silks, porcelain, and lacquered ware—a dignified and polite class of men, who are often highly educated, and speak English extremely well—to those of the cigar-makers, barbers, shoemakers, and laundry-men. Half the laundry-work in San Francisco is performed by John Chinaman. There is one Chinese hotel or caravanserai, which looks as though it might at a stretch accommodate two hundred people, in which 1,200 men are packed.
If Jack has been to China, he'll recognize that parts of San Francisco are just as Chinese as Hong Kong. There are Joss houses, with a large, solid-looking idol sitting in place, the temple bright with tinsel and china, metalwork and paint, smelling faintly of incense and strongly of burnt paper. There are Chinese eateries everywhere, from upscale dining rooms with balconies, flowers, small banners, and inscriptions to the street vendor restaurant owner with his charcoal stove and soup pot. Then there are Chinese theatres, filled with the strong scents of opium and tobacco, where the orchestra sits at the back of the stage, which has no curtain or scenery. The performers' costumes are extremely vibrant. When a new set piece is needed on stage, the changes happen right before your eyes, like setting a table to represent a raised balcony or stacking boxes to create a castle, and so on. Their dramas can often feel endless, as they might take the life of an emperor, for example, and play it out night after night, from his birth to his death. In detail, they are very literal and hold "the mirror to nature" fully. If that emperor had specific vices, they’re displayed on stage. The music, to European ears, is a mix of unsettling and fascinating sounds, like squeaky cart wheels and train whistles, blended with the rolling of drums and the banging of gongs. Some streets are lined with Chinese shops, from those selling tea, silks, porcelain, and lacquerware—managed by a dignified and polite class of men who are often well-educated and speak English very well—to cigar makers, barbers, shoemakers, and laundry-guys. Half of the laundry work in San Francisco is done by John Chinaman. There’s one Chinese hotel or caravanserai that looks like it could maybe hold two hundred people, but it crams in 1,200 men.
The historian of the future will watch with interest the advancing or receding waves of population as they move over the surface of the globe, now surging in great waves of resistless force, now peacefully subsiding, leaving hardly a trace behind. The Pacific Mail Steamship Company’s steamers have brought from China to San Francisco as many as 1,200 Chinamen—and, very occasionally, of course, more than that number—on a single trip. The lowest estimate of the number of Chinese in California is 70,000, while they are spread all over the Pacific states and territories, and, indeed, in lesser numbers, all over the American continent. One finds them in New England factories, New York laundries, and Southern plantations. Their reception in San Francisco used to be with brickbats and [pg 162]other missiles, and hooting and jeering, on the part of the lower classes of the community. This is not the place to enter into a discussion on the political side of the question. Suffice it to say that they were and still are a necessity in California, where the expense of reaching the country has kept out “white” labour to an extent so considerable, that it still rules higher than in almost any part of the world. The respectable middle classes would hardly afford servants at all were it not for the Chinese. All the better classes support their claims to full legal and social rights. The Chinamen who come to San Francisco are not coolies, and a large number of them pay their own passages over. When brought over by merchants, or one of the six great Chinese companies, their passage-money is advanced, and they, of course, pay interest for the accommodation. On arrival in California, if they do not immediately go to work, they proceed to the “Company-house” of their particular province, where, in a kind of caravanserai, rough accommodations for sleeping and cooking are afforded. Hardly a better system of organisation could be adopted than that of the companies, who know exactly where each man in their debt is to be found, if he is hundreds of miles from San Francisco. Were it possible to adopt the same system in regard to emigrants from this country, thousands would be glad to avail themselves of the opportunity of proceeding to the Golden State.
The historian of the future will observe with interest the shifting waves of population as they move across the globe, sometimes surging with unstoppable force and other times settling down quietly, leaving barely a trace behind. The Pacific Mail Steamship Company's ships have brought as many as 1,200 Chinese immigrants to San Francisco on a single trip—and occasionally even more. The lowest estimate of the Chinese population in California is 70,000, and they are spread out across the Pacific states and territories, as well as in smaller numbers throughout the American continent. You can find them in factories in New England, laundries in New York, and on plantations in the South. Their arrival in San Francisco was often met with brickbats and other projectiles, along with hooting and jeering from the lower classes of the community. This isn't the place for a political discussion on the matter. It’s enough to say they were and continue to be essential in California, where the costs of reaching the country have kept many “white” workers away to such a degree that labor remains at a premium compared to almost anywhere else in the world. Many respectable middle-class families would struggle to find any servants if it weren't for the Chinese. The better classes support their claims to full legal and social rights. The Chinese immigrants arriving in San Francisco are not just coolies; many of them pay their own way. When they are brought over by merchants or one of the six major Chinese companies, their passage is advanced, and they typically pay interest for that assistance. Once they arrive in California, if they don't go straight to work, they usually head to the “Company-house” from their home province, where they find basic accommodations for sleeping and cooking. The organization of these companies is effective; they know exactly where each person who owes them money can be found, even if they are hundreds of miles away from San Francisco. If a similar system could be established for emigrants from this country, thousands would be eager to take advantage of the opportunity to move to the Golden State.
One little anecdote, and the Chinese must be left to their fate. It happened in 1869. Two Chinese merchants had been invited by one of the heads of a leading steamship company to visit the theatre, where they had taken a box. The merchants, men of high standing among their countrymen, accepted. Their appearance in front of it was the signal for an outburst of ruffianism on the part of the gallery; it was the “gods” versus the celestials, and for a time the former had it all their own way. In vain Lawrence Barrett, the actor, came forward on the stage to try and appease them. He is supposed to have said that any well-conducted person had a right to his seat in the house. An excited gentleman in the dress-circle reiterated the same ideas, and was rewarded by a torrent of hisses and caterwauling. The Chinamen, alarmed that it might result in violence to them, would have retired, but a dozen gentlemen from the dress-circle and orchestra seats requested them to stay, promising them protection, and the merchants remained. They could see that all the better and more respectable part of the house wished them to remain. After twenty or more minutes of interruption, the gallery was nearly cleared by the police, and the performance allowed to proceed. And yet the very class who are so opposed to the Caucasian complain that he does not spend his money in the country where he makes it, but hoards it up for China. The story explains the actual position of the Chinaman in America to-day. The upper and middle classes, ay, and the honest mechanics who require their assistance, support their claims; the lowest scum of the population persecute, injure, and not unfrequently murder them. Many a poor John Chinaman has, as they say in America, been “found missing.”
One small story, and the Chinese must be left to their fate. It happened in 1869. Two Chinese merchants were invited by one of the heads of a major steamship company to visit the theater, where they had taken a box. The merchants, respected figures among their countrymen, accepted. Their arrival outside sparked a wave of hostility from the gallery; it was the “gods” vs. the celestials, and for a while, the former had it all their way. In vain, actor Lawrence Barrett stepped onto the stage to try to calm them down. He reportedly said that any well-behaved person had a right to their seat in the house. An agitated man in the dress-circle echoed his sentiments and was met with a barrage of boos and shouting. The Chinese merchants, worried that it might lead to violence against them, would have left, but a dozen men from the dress-circle and orchestra seats asked them to stay, promising protection, and the merchants remained. They noticed that the better and more respectable patrons wanted them to stay. After twenty minutes of disruption, the police almost cleared the gallery, allowing the show to continue. Yet the very group who oppose Caucasians complain that they don’t spend their money in the country where they earn it, but save it for China. This story illustrates the current status of the Chinese in America today. The upper and middle classes, along with the honest workers who need their help, support their claims; meanwhile, the lowest segment of the population persecutes, harms, and often murders them. Many a poor John Chinaman has, as they say in America, been “found missing person.”
The sailor ashore in San Francisco may likely enough have an opportunity of feeling the tremor of an earthquake. As a rule, they have been exceedingly slight, but that of the 21st October, 1868, was a serious affair. Towers and steeples swayed to and fro: tall houses trembled, badly-built wooden houses became disjointed; walls fell. Many buildings, for some time afterwards, showed the effects in cracked walls and plastering, dislocated [pg 163]doors and window-frames. A writer in the Overland Monthly, soon after the event, put the matter forcibly when recalling the great earthquake of Lisbon. He said, “Over the parts of the city where ships anchored twenty years ago, they may anchor again,” for the worst effects were confined to the “made” ground—i.e., land reclaimed from the Bay. Dwellings on the rocky hills were scarcely injured at all, reminding us of the relative fates of the man “who built his house upon a rock” and of him who placed it on the sand. Four persons only were killed on that occasion, all of them from the fall of badly-constructed walls, loose parapets, &c. The alarm in the city was great; excited people rushing wildly through the streets, and frightened horses running through the crowds.
The sailor on land in San Francisco might have a chance to experience the shock of an earthquake. Generally, they have been quite minor, but the one on October 21, 1868, was significant. Towers and steeples swayed back and forth; tall buildings shook, and poorly built wooden houses fell apart. Many structures showed signs of damage for a while after, with cracked walls and plaster, and misaligned doors and window frames. A writer in the Overland Monthly, shortly after the event, made a strong point when referencing the famous earthquake in Lisbon. He stated, “Over the areas of the city where ships anchored twenty years ago, they might anchor again,” since the most severe damage was limited to the "created" ground—i.e. land that was reclaimed from the Bay. Homes on the rocky hills were hardly affected at all, reminding us of the different outcomes for the man “who built his house on a rock” versus the one who built on sand. Only four people lost their lives that day, all due to the collapse of poorly constructed walls and loose parapets. Panic swept through the city, with people rushing frantically through the streets and frightened horses running among the crowds.
California possesses other ports of importance, but as regards English naval interests in the Pacific, Esquimalt, Vancouver Island, B.C., which has a fine land-locked harbour of deep water, dock, and naval hospital, deserves the notice of the reader. It is often the rendezvous for seven or eight of H.M.’s vessels, from the admiral’s flag-ship to the tiniest steam gun-boat. Victoria, the capital, is three miles off, and has a pretty little harbour itself, not, however, adapted for large vessels. Formerly the colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia, the mainland, were separate and distinct colonies; they are now identified under the latter name. Their value never warranted the full paraphernalia of a double colonial government—two governors, colonial secretaries, treasurers, attorney-generals, &c., &c.; for these countries, charming and interesting to the tourist and artist, will only attract population slowly. The resources of British Columbia in gold, timber, coal, fisheries, &c., are considerable; but the long winters on the mainland, and the small quantity of open land, are great drawbacks. Approaching Vancouver Island from the sea, the “inside channel” is entered through the grand opening to the Straits of Fuca, which Cook missed and Vancouver discovered. To the eastward are the rocks and light of Cape Flattery, while the rather low termination of Vancouver Island, thick with timber, is seen to the westward. The scene in the Straits is often lively with steamers and shipping, great men-of-war, sometimes of foreign nationalities; coast packet-boats proceeding not merely to Vancouver Island, but to the ports of Washington Territory, on the American side; timber (called “lumber” always on that side of the world) vessels; colliers proceeding to Nanaimo or Bellingham Bay to the coal-mines; coasting and trading schooners; and Indian canoes, some of them big enough to accommodate sixty or more persons, and carrying a good amount of sail. The Straits have many beauties; and as, approaching the entrance of Esquimalt Harbour, the Olympian range of mountains, snow-covered and rugged, loom in the distance, the scene is grandly beautiful; while in the channel, rocky islets and islands, covered with pine and arbutus, abound. Outside the Straits two lighthouses are placed, to warn the unwary voyager by night. Often those lighthouses may be noted apparently upside down! Mirage is common enough in the Straits of Fuca.
California has other important ports, but when it comes to British naval interests in the Pacific, Esquimalt in Vancouver Island, B.C., which has a great sheltered harbor with deep water, a dock, and a naval hospital, should grab the reader's attention. It often serves as the meeting point for seven or eight of Her Majesty's vessels, from the admiral's flagship to the smallest steam gunboat. Victoria, the capital, is three miles away and boasts a charming small harbor, although it's not suitable for large boats. Vancouver Island and British Columbia, on the mainland, were once separate colonies; now they are combined under the latter name. Their worth never justified the full setup of a dual colonial government—two governors, colonial secretaries, treasurers, attorneys-general, etc.; these regions, appealing and fascinating to tourists and artists, will attract residents gradually. British Columbia has significant resources like gold, timber, coal, and fishing, but the long winters on the mainland and limited arable land are major disadvantages. Approaching Vancouver Island from the sea, the “inside channel” is accessed through the grand entryway to the Straits of Fuca, which Cook overlooked and Vancouver discovered. To the east are the rocks and light of Cape Flattery, while the relatively low end of Vancouver Island, thick with trees, is visible to the west. The scene in the Straits is often bustling with steamers and ships, large warships, sometimes from foreign countries; coast packet boats heading not only to Vancouver Island but also to ports in Washington Territory on the American side; timber vessels (called “lumber” on that side of the world); colliers heading to Nanaimo or Bellingham Bay for coal; coasting and trading schooners; and Indian canoes, some large enough for sixty or more people and carrying a good amount of sail. The Straits are beautiful; as you approach the entrance of Esquimalt Harbour, the snow-capped and rugged Olympian mountain range looms in the distance, creating a magnificent scene, while rocky islets and islands, covered with pine and arbutus, are plentiful in the channel. Outside the Straits, two lighthouses are positioned to alert unwary travelers at night. Often, those lighthouses might look upside down! Mirage is quite common in the Straits of Fuca.
Victoria, in 1862, had at least 12,000 or 15,000 people, mostly drawn thither by the fame of the Cariboo mines, on the mainland of British Columbia. Not twenty per cent. ever reached those mines. When ships arrived in the autumn, it was utterly useless to attempt the long journey of about 600 miles, partly by steamer, but two-thirds of which must be accomplished on foot or horseback, or often mule-back, over [pg 164]rugged mountain-paths, through swamps and forests. Consequently, a large number had to spend the winter in idleness; and in the spring, in many cases, their resources were exhausted. Many became tired of the colony; “roughing it” was not always the pleasant kind of thing they had imagined, and so they went down to California, or left for home. Others were stuck fast in the colony, and many suffered severe privations; although, so long as they could manage to live on salmon alone, they could obtain plenty from the Indians, who hawked it about the streets for a shilling or two shillings apiece—the latter for a very large fish. The son of a baronet at one time might be seen breaking stones for a living in Victoria; and unless men had a very distinct calling, profession, or trade, they had to live on their means or have a very rough time of it.
Victoria, in 1862, had at least 12,000 or 15,000 people, mostly drawn there by the fame of the Cariboo mines on the mainland of British Columbia. Not even twenty percent ever made it to those mines. When ships arrived in the autumn, it was completely pointless to try the long journey of about 600 miles, partly by steamer, but two-thirds of which had to be done on foot, horseback, or often on a mule, over rugged mountain paths, through swamps and forests. As a result, many had to spend the winter doing nothing, and by spring, in many cases, their resources were gone. Many grew tired of the colony; “roughing it” wasn't always the enjoyable experience they had imagined, so they headed down to California or went back home. Others were stuck in the colony, and many endured severe hardships; although as long as they could survive on salmon alone, they could get plenty from the Indians, who sold it around the streets for a shilling or two—two shillings for a very large fish. At one point, the son of a baronet could be seen breaking stones for a living in Victoria; unless men had a very clear job, profession, or trade, they had to live on their savings or have a tough time.
These remarks are not made to deter adventurous spirits from going abroad; but we would advise them to “look well before they leap.” But how utterly unfitted for mining-work were the larger part of the young men who had travelled so far, only to be disappointed. There was no doubt of the gold being there: two hundred ounces of the precious metal have been “washed out” in an eight hours’ “shift” (a “shift” is the same as a “watch” on board ship); and this was kept up for many days in succession, the miners working day and night. But that mine had been three years in process of development, and only one of the original proprietors was among the lucky number of shareholders. A day or so before the first gold had been found—“struck” is the technical expression—his credit was exhausted, and he had begged vainly for flour, &c., to enable him to live and work. The ordinary price of a very ordinary meal was two dollars; and it will be seen that, unless employed, or simply travelling for pleasure, it was a ruinous place to stop in. Fancy, then, the condition of perhaps as many as 4,000 unemployed men, out of a total of 7,000 men, on the various creeks, a good half of whom were of the middle and upper classes at home. But for one happy fact, that beef—which, as the miners said, packed itself into the mines (in other words, the cattle were driven in from a distance of hundreds of miles)—was reasonably cheap, hundreds of them must have starved. Everything—from flour, tea, sugar, bacon, and beans, to metal implements and machinery—had to be packed there on the backs of mules, and cost from fifty cents and upwards per pound for the mere cost of transportation. Tea was ten shillings a pound, flour and sugar a dollar a pound, and so on. Those who fancy that gold-mining, and especially deep gravel-mining, as in Cariboo, is play-work, may be told that it is perhaps the hardest, as it is certainly the most risky and uncertain, work in the world; and that it requires machinery, expensive tools, &c., which, in places like Cariboo, cost enormous sums to supply. If labour was to be employed—good practical miners, carpenters, &c. (much of the machinery was of wood)—received, at that period, ten to sixteen dollars per day. This digression may be pardoned, as the sea is so intimately bound up with questions of emigration. Apart from this, from personal observation, the writer knows that quite a proportion of miners have been sailors, and, in many cases, deserted their ships. In the “early days” of Australia, California, and British Columbia, this was eminently the case.
These comments aren’t meant to discourage adventurous people from traveling abroad; however, we recommend that they “look before they leap.” But it's clear that most of the young men who traveled such long distances were completely unfit for mining work and ended up disappointed. There was no question that the gold was there: two hundred ounces of the precious metal had been “faded” in an eight-hour "change" (a "move" is the same as a “watch” on a ship); and this continued for many days in a row, with miners working day and night. However, that mine had been in development for three years, and only one of the original owners was among the fortunate shareholders. A day or so before the first gold was discovered—"hit" is the term used—his credit had run out, and he had desperately asked for flour, etc., to survive and keep working. The typical price for a very basic meal was $2; and it's clear that, unless they were employed or just traveling for fun, it was an expensive place to stay. Imagine the situation of maybe 4,000 unemployed men out of a total of 7,000 on the various creeks, a good number of whom came from the middle and upper classes back home. Fortunately, beef—which, as the miners said, packed up into the mines (in other words, the cattle were driven in from hundreds of miles away)—was reasonably priced, or many of them would have starved. Everything—from flour, tea, sugar, bacon, and beans to metal tools and machinery—had to be packed in on the backs of mules and cost at least fifty cents per pound just for transportation. Tea was ten shillings a pound, flour and sugar a dollar a pound, and so on. Those who think that gold mining, especially deep gravel mining like in Cariboo, is easy work might be surprised to learn that it’s likely the hardest, not to mention the most risky and uncertain, job in the world; and it requires machinery and expensive tools, which, in places like Cariboo, cost a fortune to provide. Skilled workers—good miners, carpenters, etc. (much of the machinery was made of wood)—were paid between ten to sixteen dollars a day at that time. This aside can be forgiven, as the sea is closely related to issues of emigration. Additionally, from personal experience, the writer knows that a significant number of miners were sailors, and many abandoned their ships. This was especially true during the “early days” of Australia, California, and British Columbia.
A large proportion of the sailors in the Royal Navy have, or will at some period, pass some time on the Pacific station, in which case, they will inevitably go to Vancouver [pg 165]Island, where there is much to interest them.106 They will find Victoria a very pretty little town, with Government house, cathedral, churches and chapels, a mechanics’ institute, a theatre, good hotels and restaurants—the latter generally in French hands. He will find a curious mixture of English and American manners and customs, and a very curious mixture of coinage—shillings being the same as quarter-dollars, while crowns are only the value of dollars (5s., against 4s. 2d.). Some years ago the island system was different from that of the mainland; on the latter, florins were equal to half-dollars (which they are, nearly), while on the island they were 37½ cents only (1s. 7½d.). The Hudson’s Bay Company, which has trading-posts throughout British Columbia, took advantage of the fact to give change for American money, on their steamers, in English florins, obtaining them on the island. They thus made nearly twenty-five per cent. in their transaction, besides getting paid the passenger’s fare. Yet the traveller, strange to say, did not lose by this, for, on landing at New Westminster, he found that what was rated at a little over eighteenpence on Vancouver Island, had suddenly, after travelling only seventy miles or so, increased in value to upwards of two shillings!
A large number of sailors in the Royal Navy have, or will at some point, spend some time on the Pacific station, during which they will definitely go to Vancouver [pg 165] Island, where there's plenty to spark their interest. They will find Victoria to be a charming little town, featuring Government House, a cathedral, churches and chapels, a mechanics' institute, a theater, and good hotels and restaurants—most of which are run by the French. They'll encounter a unique blend of English and American customs, as well as an unusual mix of currency—shillings being equivalent to quarter-dollars, while crowns are valued at only dollars (5s. compared to 4s. 2d.). A few years back, the currency system on the island was different from that on the mainland; on the mainland, florins were equal to half-dollars (which are nearly the same), while on the island they were only worth 37½ cents (1s. 7½d.). The Hudson's Bay Company, which operates trading posts throughout British Columbia, took advantage of this to give change for American money on their steamers in English florins, which they obtained on the island. This allowed them to make almost twenty-five percent profit on their transactions, in addition to collecting the passenger fare. Strangely enough, the traveler didn't end up losing out on this, because upon arriving at New Westminster, they found that what was valued at just over eighteen pence on Vancouver Island had suddenly increased to more than two shillings after traveling only about seventy miles!
Outside Victoria there are many pleasant drives and walks: to “The Arm,” where, amid a charming landscape, interspersed with pines and natural fir woods, wild flowers, and mossy rocks, there is a pretty little rapid, or fall; to Saanich, where the settlers’ homesteads have a semi-civilised appearance, half of the houses being of squared logs, but [pg 166]comfortable withal inside, and where a rude plenty reigns; or to Beacon Hill, where there is an excellent race-course and drive, which commands fine views up and down the Straits. In sight is San Juan Island, over which England and America once squabbled, while the two garrisons which occupied it fraternised cordially, and outvied with each other in hospitality. The island—rocky, and covered with forest and underbrush, with a farm or two, made by clearing away the big trees, with not a little difficulty, and burning and partially uprooting the stumps—does not look a worthy subject for international differences. But the fact is, that it commands the Straits to some extent. However, all that is over now, and it is England’s property by diplomatic arrangement. There are other islands, nearly as large, in the archipelago which stretches northward up the Gulf of Georgia, which have not a single human inhabitant, and have never been visited, except by some stray Indians, miners, or traders who have gone ashore to cook a meal or camp for the night.
Outside Victoria, there are many nice drives and walks: to “The Arm,” where, amid a beautiful landscape filled with pines and natural fir woods, wildflowers, and mossy rocks, there's a lovely little rapid or waterfall; to Saanich, where the settlers’ homes have a semi-civilized look, half of the houses being made of squared logs, but [pg 166]comfortable inside, and where there's a rough abundance; or to Beacon Hill, which has an excellent racetrack and drive that offers great views up and down the Straits. In sight is San Juan Island, which England and America once argued over, while the two garrisons stationed there got along well, competing with each other in hospitality. The island—rocky, wooded, and filled with underbrush, with a farm or two created by clearing away the large trees with quite a bit of effort, burning, and partially uprooting the stumps—doesn't seem like a valuable reason for international disputes. But the truth is, it does have some strategic importance in the Straits. However, all that is settled now, and it's England’s territory due to diplomatic agreements. There are other islands, almost as large, in the archipelago that stretches northward up the Gulf of Georgia, which have not a single human inhabitant and have hardly ever been visited, except by some wandering Indians, miners, or traders who have landed to cook a meal or camp for the night.
Any one who has travelled by small canoes on the sea must remember those happy camping-times, when, often wet, and always hungry and tired, the little party cautiously selected some sheltered nook or specially good beach, and then paddled with a will ashore. No lack of drift-wood or small trees on that coast, and no lord of the manor to interfere with one taking it. A glorious fire is soon raised, and the cooking preparations commenced. Sometimes it is only the stereotyped tea—frying-pan bread (something like the Australian “damper,” only baked before the fire), or “slapjacks” (i.e., flour-and-water pancakes), fried bacon, and boiled Chili beans; but ofttimes it can be varied by excellent fish, game, bear-meat, venison, or moose-meat, purchased from some passing Indians, or killed by themselves. It is absurd to suppose that “roughing it” need mean hardship and semi-starvation all the time. Not a bit of it! On the northern coasts now being described, one may often live magnificently, and most travellers learn instinctively to cook, and make the most of things. Nothing is finer in camp than a roast fish—say a salmon—split and gutted, and stuck on a stick before the fire, not over it. A few dozen turns, and you have a dish worthy of a prince. Or a composition stew—say of deer and bear-meat and beaver’s tail, well seasoned, and with such vegetables as you may obtain there; potatoes from some seaside farm—and there are such on that coast, where the settler is as brown as his Indian wife—or compressed vegetables, often taken on exploring expeditions. Or, again, venison dipped in a thick batter and thrown into a pan of boiling-hot fat, making a kind of meat fritter, with not a drop of its juices wasted. Some of these explorers and miners are veritable chefs. They can make good light bread in the woods from plain flour, water, and salt, and ask no oven but a frying-pan. They will make beans, of a kind only given to horses at home, into a delicious dish, by boiling them soft—a long job, generally done at the night camp—and then frying them with bread-crumbs and pieces of bacon in the morning, till they are brown and crisp.
Anyone who has traveled by small canoes on the sea must remember those enjoyable camping times when, often wet, and always hungry and tired, the little group carefully chose a cozy spot or a particularly nice beach and then paddled vigorously to shore. There’s no shortage of driftwood or small trees along that coast, and no landowner to stop you from taking it. Before long, a glorious fire is set up, and cooking begins. Sometimes it’s just the usual tea, frying-pan bread (similar to Australian “damper,” but baked in front of the fire), or “slapjacks” (flour-and-water pancakes), along with fried bacon and boiled chili beans; but often it’s enhanced by fantastic fish, game, bear meat, venison, or moose meat purchased from passing Indigenous people or hunted by themselves. It’s ridiculous to think that “roughing it” has to mean hardship and near-starvation all the time. Not at all! On the northern coasts being described, it’s often possible to live really well, and most travelers instinctively learn to cook and make the most of what they have. Nothing beats a roast fish in camp—like a salmon—split and cleaned, and placed on a stick in front of the fire, not directly over it. A few dozen turns, and you’ll have a meal fit for a prince. Or a mixed stew—like deer and bear meat and beaver tail, well seasoned with whatever vegetables you can find; perhaps potatoes from a nearby seaside farm—such farms exist there, where the settler looks as brown as his Indigenous wife—or dehydrated vegetables brought along on exploring trips. Or, you might dip venison into thick batter and fry it in a pan of boiling hot fat, creating a meat fritter with every drop of its juices preserved. Some of these explorers and miners are real chefs. They can bake good light bread in the woods using just flour, water, and salt, needing no oven but a frying pan. They turn beans, usually reserved for horses back home, into a delicious dish by boiling them soft—a lengthy task often done at the night camp—then frying them in the morning with breadcrumbs and bits of bacon until they’re brown and crispy.
It was at one of these camps, on an island in the Gulf of Georgia, that a camp fire spread to some grass and underbrush, mounted with lightning rapidity a steep slope, and in a few minutes the forest at the top was ablaze. The whole island was soon in flames! For hours afterwards the flames and smoke could be seen. No harm was done; for it is extremely unlikely that island will be inhabited for the next five hundred years. But [pg 167]forest fires in partially inhabited districts are more serious, or when near trails or roads. In the long summer of Vancouver Island, where rain, as in California, is almost unknown, these fires, once started, may burn for weeks—ay, months.
It was at one of these camps, on an island in the Gulf of Georgia, that a campfire spread to some grass and brush, quickly climbing a steep slope, and in just a few minutes, the forest at the top was on fire. The whole island was soon engulfed in flames! For hours afterward, the fire and smoke were visible. No damage was done since it’s highly unlikely that the island will be inhabited for the next five hundred years. But [pg 167]forest fires in areas with people nearby are much more serious, especially when they're close to trails or roads. During the long summer on Vancouver Island, where rain, similar to California, is almost nonexistent, these fires, once ignited, can burn for weeks—possibly even months.
The Indians of this part of the coast, of dozens of petty tribes, all speaking different languages, or, at all events, varied dialects, are not usually prepossessing in appearance, but the male half-breeds are often fine-looking fellows, and the girls pretty. The sailor will be interested in their cedar canoes, which on Vancouver Island are beautifully modelled. A first-class clipper has not more graceful lines. They are always cut from one log, and are finely and smoothly finished, being usually painted black outside, and finished with red ornamental work within. They are very light and buoyant, and will carry great weights; but one must be careful to avoid rocks on the coast, or “snags” in the rivers, for any sudden concussion will split them all to pieces. When on the Vancouver Island Exploring Expedition, a party of men found themselves suddenly deposited in a swift-running stream, from the canoe having almost parted in half, after touching on a sunken rock or log. All got to shore safely, and it took about half a day of patching and caulking to make her sufficiently river-worthy (why not say “river-worthy” as well as “sea-worthy?”) to enable them to reach camp. The writer, in 1864, came down from the extreme end of Bute Inlet—an arm of the sea on the mainland of British Columbia—across the Gulf of Georgia (twenty miles of open sea), coasting southwards to Victoria, V.I., the total voyage being 180 miles, in an open cedar canoe, only large enough for four or five people. The trip occupied five days. But while there is some risk in such an undertaking, there is little in a voyage in the great Haidah canoes of Queen Charlotte’s Island (north of Vancouver Island). These canoes are often eighty feet long, but are still always made from a single log, the splendid pines of that coast107 affording ample opportunity. They have masts, and carry as much sail as a schooner, while they can be propelled by, say, forty or fifty paddles, half on either side, wielded by as many pairs of brawny arms. The savage Haidahs are a powerful race, of whom not much is known. They, however, often come to Victoria, or the American ports on Puget Sound, for purposes of trading.
The Indigenous people of this coastal region, made up of numerous small tribes all speaking different languages or varied dialects, may not always be striking in appearance, but the mixed-race men are often handsome, and the women are pretty. Sailors are typically intrigued by their cedar canoes, which are beautifully crafted on Vancouver Island. A top-notch clipper wouldn't have more elegant lines. They are always carved from a single log and are finely polished, usually painted black on the outside, with red decorative details inside. They are very light and buoyant and can carry heavy loads; however, you need to be cautious of rocks along the coast or submerged logs in the rivers, as any sudden impact can break them apart. During the Vancouver Island Exploring Expedition, a group of men unexpectedly found themselves in a fast-moving stream when their canoe nearly split in half after hitting a submerged rock or log. Everyone made it to shore safely, and it took about half a day of repairs to make the canoe river-worthy enough for them to reach their camp. The author, in 1864, traveled from the far end of Bute Inlet—an arm of the sea in mainland British Columbia—across the Gulf of Georgia (a twenty-mile stretch of open sea), heading south to Victoria, V.I. The overall journey was 180 miles in a cedar canoe that was only big enough for four or five people and took five days to complete. While there's some risk involved in such an expedition, a trip in the large Haida canoes from Queen Charlotte Island (north of Vancouver Island) poses much less danger. These canoes can be up to eighty feet long but are still made from a single log, thanks to the impressive pines in that area. They feature masts and can carry as much sail as a schooner while being propelled by about forty or fifty paddles, with half on each side, powered by just as many strong arms. The Haida people are a powerful group, not much is known about them, but they often come to Victoria or the American ports on Puget Sound for trading purposes.
“How,” it might be asked, “does the trade communicate with so many varieties of natives, all speaking different tongues?” The answer is that there is a jargon, a kind of “pigeon-English,” which is acquired, more or less, by almost all residents on the coast for purposes of intercourse with their Indian servants or others. This is the Chinook jargon, a mixture of Indian, English, and French—the latter coming from the French Canadian voyageurs, often to be found in the employ of the Hudson’s Bay Company, as they were formerly in the defunct North-West Company. Some of the words used have curious origins. Thus, an Englishman is a “King-George-man,” because the first explorers, Cook, Vancouver, and others, arrived there during the Georgian era. An American is a “Boston-man,” because the first ships from the United States which visited that coast [pg 168]hailed from Boston. This lingo has no grammar, and a very few hundred words satisfies all its requirements. Young ladies, daughters of Hudson’s Bay Company’s employés in Victoria, rattle it off as though it were their mother-tongue. “Ikte mika tikkee?” (“What do you want?”) is probably the first query to an Indian who arrives, and has something to sell. “Nika tikkee tabac et la biscuit” (“I want some tobacco and biscuit”). “Cleush; mika potlatch salmon?” (“Good; will you give me a salmon?”). “Naāāāwitka, Se-ām” (“Yes, sir”); and for a small piece of black cake-tobacco and two or three biscuits (sailors’ “hard bread” or “hard tack”) he will exchange a thirty-pound or so salmon.
"How" one might ask, "Does the trade interact with so many different types of natives, each speaking their own languages?" The answer is that there’s a jargon, a kind of pidgin English which is picked up, more or less, by almost everyone living on the coast for interacting with their Indian workers or others. This is the Chinook jargon, a mix of Indian, English, and French—the latter coming from the French Canadian travelers, who were often employed by the Hudson’s Bay Company, just as they used to be with the now-defunct North-West Company. Some of the words used have interesting origins. For example, an Englishman is called a “King George Man,” because the first explorers, like Cook and Vancouver, arrived during the Georgian era. An American is referred to as a "Boston guy," since the first ships from the United States that visited that coast [pg 168]came from Boston. This lingo has no grammar, and just a few hundred words cover all its needs. Young women, daughters of Hudson’s Bay Company employees in Victoria, speak it as if it were their native language. “Ikte mika tikkee?” (“What do you need?”) is probably the first question for an Indian who comes and has something to sell. "Nika brings the tobacco and the cookie." ("I want some tobacco and cookies."). “Cleush; mika potlatch salmon?” ("Sure, can you give me a salmon?"). “Naāāāwitka, Se-ām” ("Yes, sir."); and for a small piece of black cake-tobacco and two or three biscuits (sailors’ “stale bread” or hardtack), he will trade a salmon weighing about thirty pounds.
The Chinook jargon, in skilful hands, is susceptible of much. But it is not adapted for sentiment or poetry, although a naval officer, once stationed on the Pacific side, did evolve an effusion, which the sailor is almost sure to hear there. It needed, however, a fair amount of English to make it read pleasantly. Old residents and visitors will recognise some of its stanzas:—
The Chinook jargon, in skilled hands, can say a lot. But it's not really suited for feelings or poetry, though a naval officer who was once posted on the Pacific side did come up with a piece that sailors are likely to hear there. It did require a good bit of English to make it enjoyable to read. Long-time residents and visitors will recognize some of its verses:—
which, addressed to a “sweet Klootchman,” a “forest maiden,” means, that loving her so much, all that he had was hers. Much greater absurdities have been put in plain English.
which, addressed to a “sweet Klootchman,” a “forest girl,” means that he loved her so much that everything he had was hers. Much greater absurdities have been expressed in straightforward English.
A bishop of British Columbia was, however, hardly so successful; not being himself a student of Chinook, the entire vocabulary of which would have taken him rather less time to learn than the barest elements of Latin, he engaged an interpreter, through whom to address the Indians. The latter was perfectly competent to say all that can be said in Chinook, but was rather nonplussed when his lordship commenced his address by “Children of the forest!” He scratched his head and looked at the bishop, who, however, was determined, and commenced once more, “Children of the forest!” The interpreter knew that it must make nonsense, but he was cornered, and had to do it. And this is what he said: “Tenass man copa stick!”—literally, “Little men among the stumps” (or trunks of trees). The writer will not comment upon the subject here, more than to say that Chinook is not adapted for the translation of Milton or Shakespeare; while the simplest story or parable of the Scriptures must be unintelligible, or worse, when attempted in that jargon.
A bishop of British Columbia, however, wasn’t very successful; since he wasn’t a student of Chinook—learning its entire vocabulary would have taken him less time than grasping the basics of Latin—he hired an interpreter to speak to the Indigenous people. The interpreter was fully capable of conveying everything that could be expressed in Chinook, but he was confused when the bishop began his speech with “Children of the forest!” He scratched his head and looked at the bishop, who was determined and started again, “Children of the forest!” The interpreter knew it didn’t make sense, but he was in a tough spot and had to go along with it. So he said, “Tenass man copa stick!”—which literally means “Little men among the stumps” (or trunks of trees). The writer won’t comment further except to say that Chinook is not suitable for translating Milton or Shakespeare; even the simplest stories or parables from the Scriptures would be incomprehensible or, worse, when attempted in that jargon.
The only other settlement on Vancouver Island which has any direct interest to the Royal Navy, is Nanaimo, the coal-mines of which yield a large amount of the fuel used by the steamships when in that neighbourhood and about all that is used on the island; a quantity is also shipped to San Francisco. The mines are worked by English companies, and are so near the coast that, by means of a few tramways and locomotives, the coal is conveyed to the wharves, where it can be at once put on board. It is a pleasant [pg 169]little place, and many an English miner would be glad to be as well off as the men settled there, who earn more money than at home, own their cottages and plots of land, obtain most of their supplies cheaper than in England, and have a beautiful gulf before them, in summer, at least, as calm as a lake, on which boating and canoeing is all the rage in the evenings or on holidays.
The only other settlement on Vancouver Island that has any direct interest to the Royal Navy is Nanaimo, whose coal mines produce a significant amount of the fuel used by steamships in the area and pretty much all that is used on the island; a fair amount is also shipped to San Francisco. The mines are operated by English companies and are located close to the coast, so the coal is transported to the wharves via a few tramways and locomotives, where it can be loaded onto ships right away. It’s a nice little place, and many English miners would be happy to be as well off as the men living there, who earn more money than at home, own their homes and pieces of land, buy most of their supplies cheaper than in England, and enjoy a beautiful gulf in front of them that, at least in the summer, is as calm as a lake, where boating and canoeing are popular in the evenings or on holidays.
The Pacific Station is an extensive one, for it commences at the most northernmost parts of Bering Sea, and extends below Cape Horn. It embraces the Alaskan coast. Many English men-of-war have visited these latitudes, principally, however, in the cause of science and discovery.
The Pacific Station is vast, starting from the northernmost areas of the Bering Sea and stretching down past Cape Horn. It includes the Alaskan coast. Many British warships have visited these regions, mostly for the purpose of science and exploration.
In the old days, when the colony of Russian America was little better than are many parts of Siberia—convict settlements—the few Government officials and officers of the Russian Fur Company were, it may well be believed, only too ready to welcome any change in the monotony of their existence, and a new arrival, in the shape of a ship from some foreign port, was a day to be remembered, and of which to make much. The true Russians are naturally hospitably and sociably inclined, and such times were the occasion for balls, dinners, and parties to any extent. The writer well remembers his first visit to Sitka, which, although the capital of Alaska, is situated on an island off the mainland. On approaching the small and partially land-locked harbour, a mountain of no inconsiderable height, wooded to the top, appeared in view, and below it a little town of highly-coloured roofs, in the middle of which rose a picturesque rock, surmounted by a semi-fortified castle, which, in the distance at least, looked most imposing. Near this, but separated by a stockade, was the village of the Kalosh Indians, a powerful tribe, who had at times, as the members of the expedition learned, given a considerable amount of trouble to the Russians—in 1804 they murdered nearly the whole of the Russian garrison—while beyond on every side were rocky shores and wooded heights. An old hulk or two, lying on the beach below the old castle, itself principally built of wood, the residence of the Governor of Russian America, then Prince Maksutoff, which had been roofed in and were used for magazines of stores, and some rather shaky pile-wharfs, made up the town.
In the past, when the colony of Russian America was not much better than some areas of Siberia—convict settlements—the few government officials and officers of the Russian Fur Company were eager to welcome any change in their monotonous lives. The arrival of a ship from a foreign port was a memorable event, one worth celebrating. True Russians are naturally hospitable and sociable, so these occasions led to balls, dinners, and parties of all kinds. The writer vividly recalls his first visit to Sitka, which, although the capital of Alaska, is located on an island off the mainland. As he approached the small, partially land-locked harbor, a tall mountain, fully wooded, came into view. Below it was a little town with brightly colored roofs, and in the center stood a picturesque rock topped with a semi-fortified castle that looked quite impressive from a distance. Nearby, but separated by a stockade, was the village of the Kalosh Indians, a powerful tribe that, as the members of the expedition learned, had caused the Russians a significant amount of trouble—nearly the entire Russian garrison was killed by them in 1804. Surrounding them were rocky shores and wooded heights. A couple of old hulks lay on the beach below the old castle, which was primarily made of wood and served as the residence of the Governor of Russian America, then Prince Maksutoff. These hulks had been roofed over to be used as storage magazines, along with some rather shaky pile-wharfs that made up the town.
Soon was experienced the warmth of a Russian welcome, and for a week afterwards a succession of gaieties followed, which were so very gay that they would have killed most men, unless they had been fortified with a long sea-trip just before. Every Russian seemed to wish the party to consider all that he had at their service; the samovar boiled up everywhere as they approached; the little lunch-table of anchovies, and pickles, rye-bread, butter, cheese, and so forth, with the everlasting vodka, was everywhere ready, and except duty called, no one was obliged to go off at night to the three vessels comprising the expedition to which the writer was attached, for the best bed in the house was always at his service. There was only one bar-room in the whole town, and there only a kind of lager-bier and vodka were to be obtained. When the country was, for a consideration of 7,250,000 dollars, transferred to the United States, there was a “rush” from Victoria and San Francisco. Keen Hebrew traders, knowing that furs up country bore a merely nominal price, and that Sitka was the great entrepôt for their collection—a million dollars’ worth being frequently gathered there at a time—thought they would be able to buy them for next to nothing still. Parcels of land in the town, which had not at [pg 170]the utmost a greater value than a few hundred dollars, now ran up to fabulous prices; 10,000 dollars was asked for a log house! Hotels, “saloons”—i.e., bar-rooms à l’Américaine—German lager-bier cellars, and barbers’ shops sprang up like mushrooms; a newspaper-office was opened, and everything reminded one of the sudden growth of mining-towns in the early days of California. Alas! everything else went up in proportion, excepting salmon, which must be a drug on that coast for many centuries to come;108 provisions greatly rose in price, and the competition for furs was so great that they became nearly as dear as in San Francisco. The consequence may be imagined; there was an exodus, and the following January the whole city could have been bought for a song. The Russian officials, of course, left it shortly after the transfer, and most of the others as speedily as they could. The “capital” has never recovered from the shock; for, although organised fur-companies are scattered over the country, in one instance the United States Government leasing the sole right—that of fur-sealing, on the Aleutian Islands—to a firm which has a Russian prince as a partner, Sitka is not the entrepôt it was; everything in furs is brought to San Francisco before being consigned to all quarters of the globe. The value of Alaska to the United States is at present very small, but so little is known about it that one can hardly form an estimate concerning its future. It possesses minerals, but these will always be worked with difficulty, on account of the climate. Its grand salmon-fisheries are, however, a tangible property; the cod in Bering Sea is as plentiful as it ever was on the Newfoundland banks; and there are innumerable forests of trees, easily accessible, reaching down to the coast—of pines, firs, and cedars, of size sufficient for the tallest masts and largest spars, so that Alaska has a direct interest for the ship-builder.
Soon, they experienced the warmth of a Russian welcome, and for a week afterward, a series of festivities followed that were so lively they could have overwhelmed most people, unless they had just come off a long sea voyage. Every Russian seemed eager to make sure the guests knew all that he had to offer; the samovar was boiling everywhere they went; the little lunch spread of anchovies, pickles, rye bread, butter, cheese, and so on, along with the ever-present vodka, was always ready, and unless on duty, no one had to return at night to the three ships involved in the expedition the writer was attached to, since the best bed in the house was always available. There was only one bar in the entire town, and there, only a type of lager beer and vodka could be found. When the country was sold to the United States for $7,250,000, there was a "hurry" from Victoria and San Francisco. Sharp Jewish traders, knowing that furs collected in the interior were worth almost nothing and that Sitka was the key warehouse for their gathering—with a million dollars' worth often amassed there—believed they could still buy them for next to nothing. Land parcels in the town, once worth only a few hundred dollars, suddenly skyrocketed; $10,000 was being asked for a log cabin! Hotels, "bars"—i.e. bar rooms in the American style—German lager-bier cellars, and barbershops popped up like mushrooms; a newspaper office was established, and everything reminded one of the rapid rise of mining towns in early California. Unfortunately, everything else rose in price proportionally, except salmon, which is likely to remain undervalued on that coast for many centuries to come;108 prices for provisions soared, and the competition for furs became so intense that they nearly cost as much as they did in San Francisco. As a result, many people left, and by the following January, the whole city could have been purchased for a pittance. The Russian officials, of course, departed shortly after the transfer, and most others quickly followed. The "money" has never fully recovered from the shock; although organized fur companies are spread throughout the country—with the U.S. government leasing the exclusive fur-sealing rights on the Aleutian Islands to a firm that has a Russian prince as a partner—Sitka is no longer the warehouse it once was; all furs are sent to San Francisco before being shipped worldwide. The current value of Alaska to the United States is quite low, but since so little is known about it, it’s hard to predict its future. It has mineral resources, but these will always be difficult to extract due to the climate. However, its vast salmon fisheries are a significant asset; the cod in Bering Sea is just as abundant as it ever was off the Newfoundland banks; and there are countless forests of trees, easily accessible, reaching down to the coast—pines, firs, and cedars, large enough for the tallest masts and largest spars, making Alaska a place of direct interest for shipbuilders.
By its acquisition, the United States not merely extended its seaboard for, say, 1,500 miles north, but it obtained Mount St. Elias, by far the largest peak of the North American continent, and one of the loftiest mountains of the globe. “Upon Mont Blanc,” says an American writer,109 “pile the loftiest summit in the British Islands, and they would not reach the altitude of Mount St. Elias. If a man could reach its summit, he would be two miles nearer the stars than any other American could be, east of the Mississippi.... As a single peak it ranks among the half-dozen loftiest on the globe. Some of the Himalaya summits reach, indeed, a couple of miles nearer Orion and the Pleiades, but they rise from an elevated plateau sloping gradually upwards for hundreds of miles. As an isolated peak, St. Elias may look down upon Mont Blanc and Teneriffe, and claim brotherhood with Chimborazo and Cotopaxi.” It acquired also one of the four great rivers of the globe, of which the writer had the pleasure of being one of the earliest explorers. The Yukon, which renders the waters of Bering Sea fresh or semi-fresh for a dozen miles beyond its many mouths, is a sister-river to the Amazon, Mississippi, and, perhaps, the Plata; it has affluents to which the Rhine or Rhône are but brooks.
By its acquisition, the United States not only extended its coastline by about 1,500 miles north, but it also gained Mount St. Elias, the largest peak on the North American continent and one of the tallest mountains in the world. "On Mont Blanc" says an American writer,109 "If you stacked the tallest mountain in the British Isles on top of it, it still wouldn't match the height of Mount St. Elias. If someone could reach its summit, they would be two miles closer to the stars than any other American east of the Mississippi. As a single peak, it ranks among the top six highest in the world. Some of the Himalayan peaks are a couple of miles closer to Orion and the Pleiades, but they rise from a high plateau that gradually climbs for hundreds of miles. As a standalone peak, St. Elias stands higher than Mont Blanc and Teneriffe, and can be compared to Chimborazo and Cotopaxi." It also acquired one of the four great rivers in the world, of which the writer had the privilege of being one of the earliest explorers. The Yukon, which makes the waters of Bering Sea fresh or semi-fresh for about twelve miles past its many mouths, is a sister river to the Amazon, Mississippi, and perhaps the Plata; it has tributaries that make the Rhine or Rhône look like small streams.
The Kalosh Indians of Sitka live in semi-civilised wooden barns or houses, with [pg 171]invariably a round hole for a door, through which one creeps. They are particularly ingenious in carving; and Jack has many an opportunity of obtaining grotesque figures, cut from wood or slate-stone, for a cast-off garment or a half-dollar. One brought home represents the Russian soldier of the period, prior to the American annexation, and is scarcely a burlesque of his stolid face, gigantic moustache, close fitting coat with very tight sleeves, and loose, baggy trousers. Masks may be seen cut from some white stone, which would not do dishonour to a European sculptor. But now, leaving Sitka, let us make a rapid trip to the extreme northern end of the Pacific Station.
The Kalosh Indians of Sitka live in semi-civilized wooden barns or houses, with [pg 171]usually having a round hole for a door that you have to crawl through. They are really skilled at carving, and Jack often finds opportunities to buy quirky figures made from wood or slate-stone for an old piece of clothing or a half-dollar. One he brought home depicts a Russian soldier from before the American annexation, and it’s not far off from a caricature of his blank expression, huge moustache, form-fitting coat with very tight sleeves, and loose, baggy trousers. You can also find masks carved from white stone that wouldn't shame a European sculptor. But now, leaving Sitka, let's take a quick trip to the far northern end of the Pacific Station.
Men-of-war proceeding north of Sitka—which, except for purposes of science or war, is not likely to be the case, although the Pacific Station extends to the northernmost parts of Alaska—would voyage into Bering Sea through Ounimak Pass, one of the best passages between the rocky and rugged Aleutian Islands. In the pass the scenery is superb, grand volcanic peaks rising in all directions. While there, many years ago, the writer well remembers going on deck one morning, when mists and low clouds hung over the then placid waters, and seeing what appeared to be a magnificent mountain peak, snowy and scarped, right overhead the vessel, and having a wreath of white cloud surrounding it, while a lower and greyer bank of mist hid its base. It seemed baseless, and as though rising from nothing; while the bright sunlight above all, and which did not reach the vessel, lit up the eternal snows in brilliant contrasts of light and shadow. This was the grand peak of Sheshaldinski, which rises nearly 9,000 feet above the sea level.
Men-of-war heading north of Sitka—which, aside from scientific or military reasons, isn't very common, even though the Pacific Station stretches to the northernmost parts of Alaska—would navigate into Bering Sea through Ounimak Pass, one of the best routes between the rocky and rugged Aleutian Islands. The scenery in the pass is stunning, with grand volcanic peaks rising in all directions. Many years ago, the writer remembers going on deck one morning, when mist and low clouds hung over the calm waters, and spotting what looked like a magnificent mountain peak, snowy and jagged, directly above the vessel, surrounded by a wreath of white clouds, while a lower, grayer layer of mist concealed its base. It seemed to rise from nowhere; the bright sunlight above, which didn't reach the ship, illuminated the eternal snows in brilliant contrasts of light and shadow. This was the grand peak of Sheshaldinski, which rises nearly 9,000 feet above sea level.
The Aleutian Islands are thinly inhabited, and the Aleuts—a harmless, strong, half-Esquimaux kind of people—often leave them. They make very good sailors. The few Russian settlements, among the principal of which was Kodiak, were simply trading posts and fur-sealing establishments. Since the purchase of Alaska, the United States Government has leased them to a large mercantile firm, which makes profits from the sealing. North of the islands, after steaming over a considerable waste of waters, the only settlements on the coast of the whole country are Michaelovski and Unalachleet, both trading posts; while south of the former are the many mouths of one of the grandest rivers in the world, the Yukon, almost a rival to the Amazon and Mississippi. That section of the country lying round the great river is tolerably rich in fur-bearing animals, including sable, mink, black and silver-grey fox, beaver, and bear. The moose and deer abound; while fish, more especially salmon, is very abundant. Salmon, thirty or more pounds in weight, caught in the Yukon, has often been purchased for a half-ounce of tobacco or four or five common sewing-needles. The coasts of Northern Alaska are rugged and uninviting, and not remarkable for the grand scenery common in the southern division.
The Aleutian Islands are sparsely populated, and the Aleuts—a friendly, strong people, somewhat similar to Inuit—often leave the islands. They are excellent sailors. The few Russian settlements, the most notable being Kodiak, were just trading posts and fur-sealing operations. Since Alaska was purchased, the U.S. government has leased these areas to a large commercial firm that profits from sealing. North of the islands, after navigating a vast expanse of water, the only coastal settlements in the entire region are Michaelovski and Unalakleet, both trading posts. South of Michaelovski are the many channels of one of the largest rivers in the world, the Yukon, which rivals the Amazon and Mississippi. The area surrounding this great river is fairly rich in fur-bearing animals like sable, mink, black and silver-grey fox, beaver, and bear. Moose and deer are plentiful, while fish, especially salmon, are very abundant. Salmon weighing thirty pounds or more caught in the Yukon has often been traded for half an ounce of tobacco or four or five common sewing needles. The coasts of Northern Alaska are rugged and uninviting, lacking the stunning scenery found in the southern part.
Leaving the north, and passing the leading station already described on Vancouver Island, the sailor has the whole Pacific coasts of both Americas, clear to Cape Horn, before him as part of the Pacific Station. There is Mexico, with its port of Acapulco; New Granada, with the important sea-port town of Panama; Callao, Peru; and Valparaiso, in Chili: at any of which H.B.M. vessels are commonly to be found. Panama is, indeed, a very important central point, as officers of the Royal Navy, ordered to join vessels elsewhere, usually leave their own at Panama, cross the isthmus, and take steamer to England, viâ St. Thomas’s, or by way of New York, thence crossing to Liverpool. The [pg 172]railroad—which, during its construction, is said to have cost the life of a Chinaman for every sleeper laid down, so fatal was the fever of the isthmus—has the dearest fares of any in the world. The distance from Panama across to Aspinwall (Colon) is about forty miles, and the fare is £5! An immense amount of travel crosses the isthmus; and it is only matter of time for a canal to be cut through some portion of it, or the isthmus of Darien adjoining. Steamers of the largest kind are arriving daily at Panama from San Francisco, Mexico, and all parts of South America; while, on the Atlantic side, they come from Southampton, Liverpool, New York and other American ports.
Leaving the north, and passing the main station already mentioned on Vancouver Island, the sailor has the entire Pacific coasts of both Americas, all the way to Cape Horn, ahead of him as part of the Pacific Station. There’s Mexico, with its port of Acapulco; Colombia, with the important seaport town of Panama; Callao, Peru; and Valparaiso, in Chile, where H.B.M. vessels are usually found. Panama is, in fact, a crucial central point, as Royal Navy officers, assigned to join vessels elsewhere, typically leave their own ships in Panama, cross the isthmus, and take a steamer to England, via St. Thomas or New York, then crossing to Liverpool. The railroad—which, during its construction, reportedly cost the life of a Chinese worker for every sleeper laid down, due to the deadly fever of the isthmus—has the highest fares of any in the world. The distance from Panama to Aspinwall (Colon) is about forty miles, and the fare is £5! A huge amount of travel passes through the isthmus; and it's just a matter of time before a canal is built through some part of it, or the neighboring isthmus of Darien. Large steamers arrive daily at Panama from San Francisco, Mexico, and all over South America, while on the Atlantic side, they come from Southampton, Liverpool, New York, and other American ports.
Southward, with favouring breezes and usually calm seas, one soon arrives at Callao—a place which may yet become a great city, but which, like everything else in Peru, has been retarded by interminable dissensions in regard to government and politics, and by the ignorance and bigotry of the masses. Peru had an advantage over Chili in wealth and importance at one time; but, while the latter country is to-day one of the most satisfactory and stable republics in the world, one never knows what is going to happen next in Peru. Hence distrust in commerce; and hence the sailor will not find a tithe of the shipping in Callao Roads that he will at the wharfs of Valparaiso. Lima, the capital, is situated behind Callao, at a distance of about six miles. When seen from the deck of a vessel in the roadstead, the city has a most imposing appearance, with its innumerable domes and spires rising from so elevated a situation, and wearing a strange and rather Moorish air. On nearing the city, everything speaks eloquently of past splendour and present wretchedness; public walks and elegant ornamental stone seats choked with rank weeds, and all in ruins. You enter Lima through a triumphal arch, tawdry and tumbling to pieces; you find that the churches, which looked so imposing in the distance, are principally stucco and tinsel. Lima has a novelty in one of its theatres. It is built in a long oval, the stage occupying nearly the whole of one long side, all the boxes being thus comparatively near it. The pit audience is men, and the galleries, women; and all help to fill the house, between the acts, with tobacco smoke from their cigarettes.
Traveling south, with favorable winds and generally calm seas, you'll soon reach Callao—a place that could become a great city but, like everything else in Peru, has been held back by endless political disputes and the ignorance and prejudice of the people. At one point, Peru had an edge over Chile in wealth and significance; however, while Chile is now one of the most stable and satisfactory republics in the world, Peru remains unpredictable. This causes a lack of trust in commerce, so sailors will find far less shipping in Callao Roads than at the docks in Valparaiso. Lima, the capital, is located about six miles behind Callao. From the deck of a ship in the harbor, the city looks quite impressive, with countless domes and spires rising from a high vantage point, giving it a somewhat Moorish feel. As you approach the city, everything shows signs of former glory and current decay; public paths and stylish stone seats are overrun with weeds and falling apart. You enter Lima through a triumphal arch, which is gaudy and crumbling; you'll discover that the churches, which appeared so grand from afar, are mostly made of plaster and cheap decorations. Lima also has a unique feature in one of its theaters. It’s shaped like a long oval, with the stage taking up nearly the entire long side, putting all the boxes relatively close to it. The audience in the pit is all men, and the galleries are all women; they fill the house with cigarette smoke between acts.
The sailor, who has been much among Spanish people or those of Spanish origin, will find the Chilians the finest race in South America. Valparaiso Harbour is always full of shipping, its wharfs piled with goods; while the railroad and old road to the capital, Santiago, bears evidence of the material prosperity of the country. The country roads are crowded with convoys of pack-mules, while the ships are loading up with wheat, wines, and minerals, the produce of the country. Travelling is free everywhere. Libraries, schools, literary, scientific, and artistic societies abound; the best newspapers published in South America are issued there. Santiago, the city of marble palaces—where even horses are kept in marble stalls—is one of the most delightful places in the world. The lofty Andes tower to the skies in the distance, forming a grand background, and a fruitful, cultivated, and peaceful country surrounds it.
The sailor who has spent a lot of time among Spanish people or those of Spanish descent will find the Chileans to be the finest people in South America. Valparaiso Harbor is always busy with ships, and its docks are stacked with goods. The railroad and the old road to the capital, Santiago, show the country's material prosperity. The countryside is filled with convoys of pack mules, while ships are being loaded with wheat, wine, and minerals, which are the country’s main products. Traveling is easy everywhere. There are plenty of libraries, schools, and literary, scientific, and artistic societies; the best newspapers in South America are published there. Santiago, the city of marble palaces—where even horses are kept in marble stalls—is one of the most wonderful places in the world. The towering Andes rise dramatically in the distance, creating a stunning backdrop, and a lush, cultivated, and peaceful countryside surrounds it.
Valparaiso—the “Vale of Paradise”—was probably named by the early Spanish adventurers in this glowing style because any coast whatever is delightful to the mariner who has been long at sea. Otherwise, the title would seem to be of an exaggerated nature. The bay is of a semi-circular form, surrounded by steep hills, rising to the height of near 2,000 feet, sparingly covered with stunted shrubs and thinly-strewed grass. The town is [pg 174]built along a narrow strip of land, between the cliffs and the sea; and, as this space is limited in extent, the buildings have straggled up the sides and bottoms of the numerous ravines which intersect the hills. A suburb—the Almendral, or Almond Grove—much larger than the town proper, spreads over a low sandy plain, about half a mile broad, bordering the bay. In the summer months—i.e., November to March—the anchorage is safe and pleasant; but in the wintry months, notably June and July, gales are prevalent from the north, in which direction it is open to the sea.
Valparaiso—the “Paradise Valley”—was likely named by early Spanish explorers in an optimistic way because any coastline is a welcome sight to sailors who have been at sea for a long time. Otherwise, the name seems a bit over the top. The bay is shaped like a semicircle and is surrounded by steep hills that rise nearly 2,000 feet, sparsely covered with small shrubs and scattered grass. The town is [pg 174]built along a narrow strip of land between the cliffs and the sea; since this area is limited, the buildings have spread up the sides and into the bottoms of the many ravines that cut through the hills. A suburb—the Almendral, or Almond Grove—much larger than the town itself, stretches across a low sandy plain about half a mile wide, along the bay. During the summer months—i.e., November to March—the anchorage is safe and pleasant; but in the winter months, particularly June and July, strong winds come from the north, where it is exposed to the sea.
Captain Basil Hall, R.N., gave some interesting accounts of life in Chili in his published Journal,110 and they are substantially true at the present day. He reached Valparaiso at Christmas, which corresponds in climate to our midsummer. Crowds thronged the streets to enjoy the cool air in the moonlight; groups of merry dancers were seen at every turn; singers were bawling out old Spanish romances to the tinkle of the guitar; wild-looking horsemen pranced about in all directions, stopping to talk with their friends, but never dismounting; and harmless bull-fights, in which the bulls were only teased, not killed, served to make the people laugh. The whole town was en carnival. “In the course of the first evening of these festivities,” says Captain Hall, “while I was rambling about the streets with one of the officers of the ship, our attention was attracted, by the sound of music, to a crowded pulperia, or drinking-house. We accordingly entered, and the people immediately made way and gave us seats at the upper end of the apartment. We had not sat long before we were startled by the loud clatter of horses’ feet, and in the next instant, a mounted peasant dashed into the company, followed by another horseman, who, as soon as he reached the centre of the room, adroitly wheeled his horse round, and the two strangers remained side by side, with their horses’ heads in opposite directions. Neither the people of the house, nor the guests, nor the musicians, appeared in the least surprised by this visit; the lady who was playing the harp merely stopped for a moment to remove the end of the instrument a few inches further from the horses’ feet, and the music and conversation went on as before. The visitors called for a glass of spirits, and having chatted with their friends around them for two minutes, stooped their heads to avoid the cross-piece of the doorway, and putting spurs to their horses’ sides, shot into the streets as rapidly as they had entered; the whole being done without discomposing the company in the smallest degree.” The same writer speaks of the common people as generally very temperate, while their frankness and hospitality charmed him. Brick-makers, day-labourers, and washerwomen invited him and friends into their homes, and their first anxiety was that the sailors might “feel themselves in their own house;” then some offering of milk, bread, or spirits. However wretched the cottage or poor the fare, the deficiency was never made more apparent by apologies; with untaught politeness, the best they had was placed before them, graced with a hearty welcome. Their houses are of adobes, i.e., sun-dried bricks, thatched in with broad palm-leaves, the ends of which, by overhanging the walls, afford shade from the scorching sun and shelter from the rain. Their mud floors have a portion raised seven or eight inches above the level of the rest, and covered with matting, which forms the couch for the invariable siesta. In the cottages Hall saw young women grinding baked corn in [pg 175]almost Scriptural mills of two stones each. From the coarse flour obtained, the poor people make a drink called ulpa. In the better class of houses he was offered Paraguay tea, or mattee, an infusion of a South American herb. The natives drink it almost boiling hot. It is drawn up into the mouth through a silver pipe: however numerous the company, all use the same tube, and to decline on this account is thought the height of rudeness. The people of Chili, generally, are polite to a degree; and Jack ashore will have no cause to complain, provided he is as polished as are they. He generally contrives, however, to make himself popular, while his little escapades of wildness are looked upon in the light of long pent-up nature bursting forth.
Captain Basil Hall, R.N., shared some interesting stories about life in Chile in his published Journal, 110, and they are largely true today. He arrived in Valparaiso at Christmas, which is summertime there. Crowds filled the streets to enjoy the cool night air; groups of cheerful dancers were everywhere; singers were belting out old Spanish songs accompanied by the strumming of guitars; wild-looking horsemen galloped around, stopping to chat with friends but never getting off their horses; and playful bullfights, where the bulls were only teased and not harmed, entertained the crowd. The entire town was in carnival. "On the first night of these celebrations," says Captain Hall, As I was wandering through the streets with one of the ship's officers, we were drawn in by the sound of music to a crowded pulperia, or tavern. We walked in, and the people quickly made room for us and offered us seats at the front of the room. We had barely settled in when we were startled by the loud clattering of horse hooves. In a moment, a peasant rode into the crowd, closely followed by another rider who, as soon as he reached the center of the room, skillfully turned his horse around. The two strangers stood side by side, their horses facing opposite directions. Neither the people in the tavern, nor the guests, nor the musicians seemed the least bit surprised by this sudden visit; the lady playing the harp simply paused to move the end of the instrument a few inches away from the horses' feet, and the music and conversations continued as if nothing had happened. The visitors ordered a drink, and after chatting with their friends for a couple of minutes, they ducked their heads to avoid hitting the door frame and, with a nudge to their horses, galloped back out into the streets just as quickly as they’d entered; the whole scene unfolded without upsetting anyone in the slightest. The same writer describes the common people as usually very moderate in their drinking, while their openness and hospitality impressed him. Bricklayers, day laborers, and washerwomen welcomed him and his friends into their homes, eager for the sailors to “make yourself at home;” then they would offer some milk, bread, or alcohol. No matter how poor the cottage or simple the meal, they never made it more obvious with apologies; with genuine kindness, they served whatever they had, accompanied by a warm welcome. Their houses are made of adobe, i.e., sun-dried bricks, thatched with wide palm leaves, which hang over the walls to provide shade from the blazing sun and protection from the rain. The floors are made of mud, with one section raised seven or eight inches higher than the rest, covered with matting that serves as a bed for the customary nap. In the cottages, Hall observed young women grinding baked corn in [pg 175]almost biblical mills made up of two stones each. From the coarse flour they produce, the locals make a drink called
CHAPTER 11.
Sailing Around the World on a Warship Below is a short piece of text (5 words or fewer). Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links. (continued).
FROM THE HORN TO HALIFAX.
The dreaded Horn—The Land of Fire—Basil Hall’s Phenomenon—A Missing Volcano—The South American Station—Falkland Islands—A Free Port and Naval Station—Penguins, Peat, and Kelp—Sea Trees—The West India Station—Trinidad—Columbus’s First View of it—Fatal Gold—Charles Kingsley’s Enthusiasm—The Port of Spain—A Happy-go-lucky People—Negro Life—Letters from a Cottage Ornée—Tropical Vegetation—Animal Life—Jamaica—Kingston Harbour—Sugar Cultivation—The Queen of the Antilles—Its Paseo—Beauty of the Archipelago—A Dutch Settlement in the Heart of a Volcano—Among the Islands—The Souffrière—Historical Reminiscences—Bermuda: Colony, Fortress, and Prison—Home of Ariel and Caliban—The Whitest Place in the World—Bermuda Convicts—New York Harbour—The City—First Impressions—Its fine Position—Splendid Harbour—Forest of Masts—The Ferry-boats, Hotels, and Bars—Offenbach’s Impressions—Broadway, Fulton Market, and Central Park—New York in Winter—Frozen Ships—The great Brooklyn Bridge—Halifax and its Beauties—Importance of the Station—Bedford Basin—The Early Settlers—The Blue Noses—Adieu to America.
The dreaded Horn—The Land of Fire—Basil Hall’s phenomenon—A missing volcano—The South American station—Falkland Islands—A free port and naval base—Penguins, peat, and kelp—Sea trees—The West India station—Trinidad—Columbus’s first sight of it—Fatal gold—Charles Kingsley’s excitement—The port of Spain—A carefree people—Black life—Letters from a fancy cottage—Tropical vegetation—Animal life—Jamaica—Kingston Harbour—Sugar cultivation—The Queen of the Antilles—Its waterfront—Beauty of the archipelago—A Dutch settlement in the center of a volcano—Among the islands—The Souffrière—Historical memories—Bermuda Colony, Fortress, and Prison—Home of Ariel and Caliban—The Whitest Place in the World—Bermuda Convicts—New York Harbor—The City—First Impressions—Its Great Location—Splendid Harbor—Forest of Masts—The Ferry Boats, Hotels, and Bars—Offenbach’s Impressions—Broadway, Fulton Market, and Central Park—New York in Winter—Frozen Ships—The Great Brooklyn Bridge—Halifax and Its Beauty—Importance of the Station—Bedford Basin—The Early Settlers—The Blue Noses—Goodbye to America.
And now the exigencies of the service require us to tear ourselves away from gay and pleasant Valparaiso, and voyage in spirit round the Horn to the South-East American Station, which includes the whole coast, from Terra del Fuego to Brazil and Guiana. Friendly ports, Rio and Montevideo, are open to the Royal Navy as stations for necessary repairs or supplies; but the only strictly British port on the whole station is that at the dreary Falkland Islands, to be shortly described.
And now the demands of our duty require us to leave the cheerful and enjoyable Valparaiso and mentally journey around the Horn to the South-East American Station, which covers the entire coast from Tierra del Fuego to Brazil and Guiana. Friendly ports like Rio and Montevideo are available to the Royal Navy for essential repairs or supplies, but the only truly British port in the entire area is the bleak one at the Falkland Islands, which will be described shortly.
Every schoolboy knows that Cape Horn is even more dreaded than the other “Cape of Storms,” otherwise known as “The Cape,” par excellence. In these days, the introduction of steam has reduced much of the danger and horrors of the passage round, though on occasions they are sufficiently serious. In fact, now that there is a regular tug-boat service in the Straits of Magellan, there is really no occasion to go round it at all. In 1862 the writer rounded it, in a steamer of good power, when the water was as still as a mill-pond, and the Horn itself—a barren, black, craggy, precipitous rock, towering above the utter desolation and bleakest solitudes of that forsaken spot—was plainly in sight.
Every schoolboy knows that Cape Horn is even more feared than the other “Cape of Storms,” also known as “The Cape,” the ultimate example. Nowadays, the use of steam has reduced much of the danger and horror of the passage around it, though there are still times when it can be quite serious. In fact, now that there's a regular tugboat service in the Straits of Magellan, there’s really no reason to go around it at all. In 1862, I navigated around it in a powerful steamer, when the water was as calm as a millpond, and Cape Horn itself—a stark, black, jagged rock, rising above the utter desolation and bleakest solitude of that forsaken place—was clearly visible.
Captain Basil Hall, and his officers and crew, in 1820, when rounding Cape Horn observed a remarkable phenomenon, which may account for the title of the “Land of Fire” bestowed upon it by Magellan. A brilliant light suddenly appeared in the north-western [pg 176]quarter. “At first of a bright red, it became fainter and fainter, till it disappeared altogether. After the lapse of four or five minutes, its brilliancy was suddenly restored, and it seemed as if a column of burning materials had been projected into the air. This bright appearance lasted from ten to twenty seconds, fading by degrees as the column became lower, till at length only a dull red mass was distinguishable for about a minute, after which it again vanished.” The sailors thought it a revolving light, others that it must be a forest on fire. All who examined it carefully through a telescope agreed in considering it a volcano, like Stromboli, emitting alternately jets of flame and red-hot stones. The light was visible till morning; and although during the night it appeared to be not more than eight or ten miles off, no land was to be seen. The present writer would suggest the probability of its having been an electrical phenomenon.
Captain Basil Hall and his officers and crew, in 1820, while rounding Cape Horn, noticed a remarkable phenomenon that might explain why Magellan named it the "Land of Fire". A bright light suddenly appeared in the north-western [pg 176]quarter. “At first bright red, it gradually faded until it completely vanished. After four or five minutes, its brightness suddenly came back, appearing as though a column of burning material was shot into the air. This bright display lasted for ten to twenty seconds, fading as the column lowered, until eventually only a dull red mass was visible for about a minute, after which it disappeared again.” The sailors thought it was a revolving light, while others believed it was a forest on fire. Everyone who looked at it carefully through a telescope agreed that it resembled a volcano, like Stromboli, shooting jets of flame and hot stones alternately. The light was visible until morning, and although it seemed to be only eight or ten miles away during the night, no land was seen. The current writer would suggest that it was likely an electrical phenomenon.
The naval station at the Falklands is at Port Stanley, on the eastern island, where there is a splendid land-locked harbour, with a narrow entrance. The little port is, and has been, a haven of refuge for many a storm-beaten mariner: not merely from the fury of the elements, but also because supplies of fresh meat can be obtained there, and, indeed, everything else. Wild cattle, of old Spanish stock, roam at will over many parts of the two islands. When the writer was there, in 1862, beef was retailed at fourpence per pound, and Port Stanley being a free port, everything was very cheap. How many boxes of cigars, pounds of tobacco, cases of hollands, and demijohns of rum were, in consequence, [pg 177]taken on board by his 300 fellow-passengers would be a serious calculation. The little town has not much to recommend it: It has, of course, a Government House and a church, and barracks for the marines stationed there. It is, moreover, the head-quarters of the Falkland Islands Company, a corporation much like the Hudson’s Bay Company, trading in furs and hides, and stores for ships and native trade. The three great characteristics of Port Stanley are the penguins, which abound, and are to be seen waddling in troops in its immediate vicinity, and stumbling over the stones if pursued; the kelp, which is so thick and strong in the water at the edge of the bay in places, that a strong boat’s crew can hardly get “way” enough on to reach the shore; and the peat-bogs, which would remind an Irishman of his beloved Erin. Peat is the principal fuel of the place; and what glorious fires it makes! At least, so thought a good many of the passengers who took the opportunity of living on shore during the fortnight of the vessel’s stay. For about three shillings and sixpence a day one could obtain a good bed, meals of beef-steaks and joints and fresh vegetables—very welcome after the everlasting salt junk and preserved vegetables of the ship—with the addition of hot rum and water, nearly ad libitum. Then the privilege of stretching one’s legs is something, after five or six weeks’ confinement. There is duck and [pg 178]loon-shooting to be had, or an excursion to the lighthouse, a few miles from the town, where the writer found children, of several years of age, who had never even beheld the glories of Port Stanley, and yet were happy; and near which he saw on the beach sea-trees—for “sea-weed” would be a misnomer, the trunks being several feet in circumference—slippery, glutinous, marine vegetation, uprooted from the depths of ocean. Some of them would create a sensation in an aquarium.
The naval station at the Falklands is in Port Stanley, on the eastern island, where there’s an excellent land-locked harbor with a narrow entrance. This small port has long been a refuge for many storm-tossed sailors, not just from the violence of the weather, but also because fresh meat and just about everything else can be found there. Wild cattle, descended from old Spanish stock, roam freely across many parts of the two islands. When I visited in 1862, beef was sold for fourpence a pound, and since Port Stanley is a free port, everything was quite cheap. It would be quite a task to calculate how many boxes of cigars, pounds of tobacco, cases of gin, and demijohns of rum were taken on board by the 300 fellow passengers. The little town doesn’t have much going for it: it has a Government House, a church, and barracks for the marines stationed there. It’s also the headquarters of the Falkland Islands Company, a corporation similar to the Hudson’s Bay Company, involved in trading furs, hides, and supplies for ships and local commerce. The three main features of Port Stanley are the penguins, which are abundant and can be seen waddling around in groups and stumbling over rocks if chased; the kelp, which is so thick and strong in some areas of the bay that a strong crew can barely gain enough “way” to reach the shore; and the peat bogs, which would remind an Irishman of his beloved homeland. Peat is the primary fuel here, and it creates fantastic fires! Many passengers took advantage of the chance to stay on land during the ship’s two-week visit. For about three shillings and sixpence a day, you could get a good bed, meals of steak and roasts, and fresh vegetables—very welcome after weeks of salted meat and tinned vegetables from the ship—plus hot rum and water, almost as much as you wanted. Stretching your legs is a treat after five or six weeks of confinement. There's duck and loon shooting available, or a trip to the lighthouse a few miles from the town, where I found children, several years old, who had never seen the wonders of Port Stanley but were still happy. Nearby, I saw on the beach "sea-trees"—because calling them “seaweed” wouldn’t do justice, as their trunks are several feet in circumference—slippery, slimy marine vegetation pulled from the ocean’s depths. Some of them would cause quite a stir in an aquarium.
The harbour of Port Stanley is usually safe enough, but, in the extraordinary gales which often rage outside, does not always afford safe anchorage. The steamship on which the writer was a passenger lay far out in the bay, but the force of a sudden gale made her drag her anchors, and but for the steam, which was immediately got up, she would have gone ashore. A sailing-vessel must have been wrecked in the same position. Of course, the power of the engines was set against the wind, and she was saved. Passengers ashore could not get off for two days, and those on board could not go ashore. No boat could have lived, even in the bay, during a large part of the time.
The harbor of Port Stanley is usually safe enough, but during the intense storms that often rage outside, it doesn't always provide reliable anchorage. The steamship where the writer was a passenger was anchored far out in the bay when a sudden storm hit, causing her to drag her anchors. If it hadn't been for the steam that was quickly generated, she would have been grounded. A sailing vessel in the same position would have likely been wrecked. Fortunately, the power of the engines was working against the wind, and she was saved. Passengers on land couldn't get off for two days, and those on board couldn't go ashore. No boat could have survived, even in the bay, for much of that time.
The West Indian Station demands our attention next. Unfortunately, it must not take the space it deserves, for it would occupy that required for ten books of the size of this—ay, twenty—to do it the barest justice. Why? Read Charles Kingsley’s admirable work, “At Last”—one, alas! of the last tasks of a well-spent life—and one will see England’s interest in those islands, and must think also of those earlier days, when Columbus, Drake, and Raleigh sailed among the waters which divide them—days of geographical discovery worth speaking of, of grand triumphs over foes worth fighting, and of gain amounting to something.
The West Indian Station needs our attention next. Unfortunately, it can’t take the space it truly deserves, as it would require the space of ten books of this size—or even twenty—to do it any justice. Why? Read Charles Kingsley’s excellent work, "Finally"—which, sadly, is one of the last projects of a well-lived life—and you’ll see England’s interest in those islands. You’ll also think about those earlier days when Columbus, Drake, and Raleigh sailed through the waters that separate them—days of geographical discoveries that are worth mentioning, of great victories over enemies worth fighting, and of profits that actually mattered.
On the 31st July, 1499, Columbus, on his third voyage, sighted the three hills which make the south-eastern end of Trinidad. He had determined to name the first land he should sight after the Holy Trinity, and so he did. The triple peaks probably reminded him.
On July 31, 1499, Columbus, on his third voyage, spotted the three hills that form the southeastern tip of Trinidad. He had decided to name the first land he saw after the Holy Trinity, and that's exactly what he did. The three peaks likely reminded him of that.
Washington Irving tells us, in his “Life of Columbus,” that he was astonished at the verdure and fertility of the country, having expected that it would be parched, dry, and sterile as he approached the equator; whereas, he beheld beautiful groves of palm-trees, and luxuriant forests sweeping down to the sea-side, with gurgling brooks and clear, deep streams beneath the shade. The softness and purity of the climate, and the beauty of the country, seemed, after his long sea voyage, to rival the beautiful province of Valencia itself. Columbus found the people a race of Indians fairer than any he had seen before, “of good stature, and of very graceful bearing.” They carried square bucklers, and had bows and arrows, with which they made feeble attempts to drive off the Spaniards who landed at Punta Arenal, near Icacque, and who, finding no streams, sank holes in the sand, and so filled their casks with fresh water—as is done by sailors now-a-days in many parts of the world. “And there,” says Kingsley, “that source of endless misery to these harmless creatures, a certain Cacique—so goes the tale—took off Columbus’s cap of crimson velvet, and replaced it with a circle of gold which he wore.”
Washington Irving tells us, in his “Columbus's Life,” that he was amazed by the lushness and richness of the land, having expected it to be parched, dry, and barren as he neared the equator; instead, he saw beautiful palm groves and thriving forests extending to the shore, with babbling brooks and clear, deep streams in the shade. The mildness and clarity of the climate, along with the beauty of the land, seemed, after his long sea journey, to rival the lovely province of Valencia itself. Columbus found the people to be a tribe of Indians who were fairer than any he had seen before, "of good height and very graceful presence." They carried square shields and had bows and arrows, with which they made weak attempts to fend off the Spaniards who landed at Punta Arenal, near Icacque, and who, finding no streams, dug holes in the sand, and thus filled their barrels with fresh water—just like sailors do today in many parts of the world. “And there,” says Kingsley, "That source of endless misery for these innocent people, a certain Cacique—so the story goes—took off Columbus’s red velvet cap and put a circle of gold in its place that he wore."
Alas for them! that fatal present of gold brought down on them enemies far more ruthless than the Caribs of the northern islands, who had a habit of coming down in their canoes and carrying off the gentle Arrawaks, to eat them at their leisure—after the fashion [pg 179]which Defoe, always accurate, has immortalised in “Robinson Crusoe.” Crusoe’s island has been thought by many to be meant for Tobago; Man Friday having been stolen in Trinidad.
Unfortunately for them! That deadly gift of gold brought forth enemies far more ruthless than the Caribs from the northern islands, who had a habit of paddling down in their canoes and taking the gentle Arrawaks to eat them at their leisure—just like [pg 179] what Defoe, always precise, has made famous in "Robinson Crusoe." Many believe Crusoe's island was based on Tobago, with Man Friday having been captured in Trinidad.
No scenery can be more picturesque than that afforded by the entrance to Port of Spain, the chief town in the colony of Trinidad, itself an island lying outside the delta of the great Orinoco River. “On the mainland,” wrote Anthony Trollope,111 “that is, the land of the main island, the coast is precipitous, but clothed to the very top with the thickest and most magnificent foliage. With an opera-glass, one can distinctly see the trees coming forth from the sides of the rocks, as though no soil were necessary for them, and not even a shelf of stone needed for their support. And these are not shrubs, but forest trees, with grand spreading branches, huge trunks, and brilliant-coloured foliage. The small island on the other side is almost equally wooded, but is less precipitous.” There, and on the main island itself, are nooks and open glades where one would not be badly off with straw hats and muslin, pigeon-pies and champagne. One narrow shady valley, into which a creek of the sea ran, made Trollope think that it must have been intended for “the less noisy joys of some Paul of Trinidad with his Creole Virginia.” The same writer, after describing the Savannah, which includes a park and race-course, speaks of the Government House, then under repairs. The governor was living in a cottage, hard by. “Were I that great man,” said he, “I should be tempted to wish that my great house might always be under repair, for I never saw a more perfect specimen of a pretty spacious cottage, opening, as a cottage should do, on all sides and in every direction.... And then the necessary freedom from boredom, etiquette, and governors’ grandeur, so hated by governors themselves, which must necessarily be brought about by such a residence! I could almost wish to be a governor myself, if I might be allowed to live in such a cottage.” The buildings of Port of Spain are almost invariably surrounded by handsome flowering trees. A later writer tells us that the governors since have stuck to the cottage, and the gardens of the older building have been given to the city as a public pleasure-ground. Kingsley speaks of it as a paradise.
No view can be more beautiful than the entrance to Port of Spain, the main town in Trinidad, which is an island situated just outside the mouth of the great Orinoco River. "On the main land," wrote Anthony Trollope,111 "The main island has a steep coast that is completely covered with the thickest and most beautiful greenery. With binoculars, you can easily see trees growing directly from the cliffs, as if they don’t need any soil at all, not even a piece of stone for support. And these aren’t just bushes, but full-sized trees with wide branches, huge trunks, and colorful leaves. The small island on the other side is nearly as green, but it's not as steep." There, and on the main island itself, are cozy spots and open clearings where you could enjoy a day in straw hats and light clothes, with meat pies and champagne. One narrow shady valley, where a creek from the sea flowed, made Trollope think it must have been meant for "the peaceful pleasures of a Paul from Trinidad with his Creole Virginia." The same author, after describing the Savannah, which includes a park and racecourse, talks about the Government House, which was then being renovated. The governor was living in a nearby cottage. "If I were that significant person," he remarked, "I sometimes wish that my big house was always being renovated because I've never seen a more perfect example of a beautiful, spacious cottage, with openings on all sides and in every direction... Plus, the escape from boredom, social rules, and the pomp of leadership, which even the governors find boring, would be unavoidable with such a home! I could almost wish to be a governor myself if it meant living in a cottage like that." The buildings in Port of Spain are almost always surrounded by beautiful flowering trees. A later writer mentions that governors have continued to live in the cottage, and the gardens of the older building have been turned into a public park for the city. Kingsley described it as a paradise.
Jack ashore, who, after a long and perhaps stormy voyage, would look upon any land as a haven of delight, will certainly think that he has at last reached the “happy land.” It is not merely the climate, the beauty, or the productions of the country; nor the West Indian politeness and hospitality—both proverbial; but the fact that nobody seems to do, or wants to do, anything, and yet lives ten times as well as the poorer classes of England. There are 8,000 or more human beings in Port of Spain alone, who “toil not, neither do they spin,” and have no other visible means of subsistence except eating something or other—mostly fruit—all the live-long day, who are happy, very happy. The truth is, that though they will, and frequently do, eat more than a European, they can almost do without food, and can live, like the Lazzaroni, on warmth and light. “The best substitute for a dinner is a sleep under a south wall in the blazing sun; and there are plenty of south walls in Port of Spain.” Has not a poor man, under these circumstances, the same right to be idle as a rich one? Every one there looks strong, healthy, and well-fed. The author [pg 180]of “Westward Ho!” was not likely to be deceived, and says: “One meets few or none of those figures and faces—small, scrofulous, squinny, and haggard—which disgrace the civilisation of a British city. Nowhere in Port of Spain will you see such human beings as in certain streets of London, Liverpool, and Glasgow. Every one plainly can live and thrive if they choose; and very pleasant it is to know that.” And wonderfully well does that mixed and happy-go-lucky population assimilate. Trinidad belongs to Great Britain; but there are more negroes, half-breeds, Hindoos, and Chinese there than Britons by ten times ten; and the language of the island is mainly French, not English or Spanish. Under cool porticoes and through tall doorways are seen dark shops, built on Spanish models, and filled with everything under the sun. On the doorsteps sit negresses, in flashy Manchester “prints” and stiff turbans, “all aiding in the general work of doing nothing,” or offering for sale fruits, sweetmeats, or chunks of sugar-cane. These women, as well as the men, invariably carry everything on their heads, whether it be a half-barrow load of yams, a few ounces of sugar, or a beer-bottle.
Jack, who has just come ashore after a long and possibly rough journey, is likely to see any land as a welcome escape. He will definitely feel like he has finally arrived at the "happy place." It’s not just the climate, beauty, or resources of the country; nor the famous politeness and hospitality of the West Indies; it’s the fact that no one seems to do anything or wants to do anything, yet they live ten times better than the poorer classes in England. In Port of Spain alone, there are over 8,000 people who "they don’t work or weave," and their only visible way of surviving is by eating something—mostly fruit—all day long, and they are very happy. The truth is, they often eat more than Europeans, but they can almost go without food and can live, like the Lazzaroni, on warmth and light. “The best substitute for dinner is a nap against a south wall in the hot sun; and there are plenty of south walls in Port of Spain.” Doesn’t a poor man, under these circumstances, have just as much right to be idle as a rich one? Everyone there looks strong, healthy, and well-fed. The author [pg 180]of “Westward Ho!” was unlikely to be mistaken, and says: "You rarely encounter those figures and faces—small, sickly, squinty, and worn—that tarnish the image of a British city. You won’t find such people in Port of Spain as you do in some streets of London, Liverpool, and Glasgow. Everyone here clearly has the opportunity to live and thrive if they want, and it’s reassuring to know that." And that mixed and carefree population blends together wonderfully. Trinidad belongs to Great Britain, but there are far more Black people, mixed-race individuals, Hindoos, and Chinese there than British by a long shot, and the island’s primary language is mostly French, not English or Spanish. Under cool porticos and through tall doorways, you see dark shops built in Spanish style, filled with everything imaginable. On the doorsteps sit Black women in bright Manchester “prints” and stiff turbans, "all contributing to the overall effort of accomplishing nothing," or selling fruits, sweets, or chunks of sugar-cane. These women, like the men, always carry everything on their heads, whether it’s a half-barrow load of yams, a few ounces of sugar, or a beer bottle.
One of the regrets of an enthusiastic writer must ever be that he cannot visit all the lovely and interesting spots which he may so easily describe. The present one, enamoured [pg 182]with San Francisco, which he has visited, and Singapore and Sydney, which as yet he hasn’t, would, if such writers as Charles Kingsley and Anthony Trollope are to be credited, add Trinidad to the list. Read the former’s “Letter from a West Indian Cottage Ornée,” or the latter’s description of a ride through the cool woods and sea-shore roads, to be convinced that Trinidad is one of the most charming islands in the whole world. Bamboos keep the cottage gravel path up, and as tubes, carry the trickling, cool water to the cottage bath; you hear a rattling as of boards or stiff paper outside your window: it is the clashing together of a fan-palm, with leaf-stalks ten feet long and fans more feet wide. The orange, the pine-apple, and the “flower fence” (Poinziana); the cocoa-palm, the tall Guinea grass, and the “groo-groos” (a kind of palm: Acrocomia sclerocarpa); the silk-cotton tree, the tamarind, and the Rosa del monte bushes—twenty feet high, and covered with crimson roses; tea shrubs, myrtles, and clove-trees intermingle with vegetation common elsewhere. Thus much for a mere chance view.
One of the regrets an enthusiastic writer often feels is that they can’t visit all the beautiful and interesting places they easily describe. The current one, in love with San Francisco, which they have visited, and Singapore and Sydney, which they haven’t yet explored, would, if writers like Charles Kingsley and Anthony Trollope are to be believed, add Trinidad to that list. Read Kingsley’s “Letter from a West Indian Cottage Ornée,” or Trollope’s description of a ride through the cool woods and seaside roads, and you'll be convinced that Trinidad is one of the most charming islands in the world. Bamboos line the gravel path to the cottage and act as tubes, carrying trickling, cool water to the cottage bath; you hear the rattling sound of something outside your window: it’s the leaves of a fan-palm slapping against each other, with leaf stalks ten feet long and fans even wider. The orange, pineapple, and “flower fence” (Poinciana); the cocoa-palm, tall Guinea grass, and “groo-groos” (a type of palm: Acrocomia sclerocarpa); the silk-cotton tree, tamarind, and Rosa del monte bushes—twenty feet high and covered with crimson roses; tea shrubs, myrtles, and clove trees mix in with plants that are common elsewhere. That’s just from a quick look.
The seaman ashore will note many of these beauties; but his superior officers will see more. The cottage ornée, to which they will be invited, with its lawn and flowering shrubs, tiny specimens of which we admire in hot-houses at home; the grass as green as that of England, and winding away in the cool shade of strange evergreens; the yellow cocoa-nut palms on the nearest spur of hill throwing back the tender blue of the distant mountains; groups of palms, with perhaps Erythrinas umbrosa (Bois immortelles, they call them in Trinidad), with vermilion flowers—trees of red coral, sixty feet high—interspersed; a glimpse beyond of the bright and sleeping sea, and the islands of the Bocas “floating in the shining waters,” and behind a luxuriously furnished cottage, where hospitality is not a mere name, but a very sound fact; what on earth can man want more?
The sailor on land will notice many of these beauties, but his superior officers will notice even more. The decorative cottage they’ll be invited to, with its lawn and blooming shrubs, tiny versions of which we admire in greenhouses back home; the grass as green as that of England, winding away in the cool shade of unusual evergreens; the yellow coconut palms on the nearest hillside reflecting the soft blue of the distant mountains; clusters of palms, possibly including Erythrinas umbrosa (Immortal woods, as they call them in Trinidad), with bright red flowers—trees like red coral, soaring sixty feet high—interspersed; a view beyond of the bright and calm sea, and the islands of the Bocas “floating in the sparkling waters,” and behind a well-appointed cottage where hospitality is not just a word but a genuine reality; what more could a person possibly want?
Kingsley, in presence of the rich and luscious beauty, the vastness and repose, to be found in Trinidad, sees an understandable excuse for the tendency to somewhat grandiose language which tempts perpetually those who try to describe the tropics, and know well that they can only fail. He says: “In presence of such forms and such colouring as this, one becomes painfully sensible of the poverty of words, and the futility, therefore, of all word-painting; of the inability, too, of the senses to discern and define objects of such vast variety; of our æsthetic barbarism, in fact, which has no choice of epithets, save such as ‘great,’ and ‘vast,’ and ‘gigantic;’ between such as ‘beautiful,’ and ‘lovely,’ and ‘exquisite,’ and so forth: which are, after all, intellectually only one stage higher than the half-brute ‘Wah! wah!’ with which the savage grunts his astonishment—call it not admiration; epithets which are not, perhaps, intellectually as high as the ‘God is great!’ of the Mussulman, who is wise enough not to attempt any analysis, either of Nature or of his feelings about her, and wise enough, also ... in presence of the unknown, to take refuge in God.”
Kingsley, in the presence of the rich and lush beauty, the vastness and tranquility found in Trinidad, sees a valid reason for the tendency toward somewhat grandiose language that constantly tempts those who attempt to describe the tropics, knowing they can only fall short. He says: “When confronted with forms and colors like these, you become painfully aware of the limitations of words and the futility of trying to describe things; of our senses struggling to perceive and define objects of such vast variety; of our aesthetic simplicity, which only offers words like ‘great,’ ‘vast,’ and ‘gigantic,’ along with terms like ‘beautiful,’ ‘lovely,’ and ‘exquisite,’ among others. These words are, after all, only a small step above the primitive ‘Wah! wah!’ that a savage uses to express surprise—let's not call it admiration. These terms might not be as intellectually sophisticated as the ‘God is great!’ of a Muslim, who is wise enough not to overthink either Nature or his feelings about it, and also wise enough, when faced with the unknown, to seek comfort in God.”
Monkeys of many kinds, jaguars, toucans, wild cats; wonderful ant-eaters, racoons, and lizards; and strange birds, butterflies, wasps, and spiders abound, but none of those animals which resent the presence of man. Happy land!
Monkeys of various kinds, jaguars, toucans, wildcats; amazing anteaters, raccoons, and lizards; and unusual birds, butterflies, wasps, and spiders are everywhere, but none of these animals mind the presence of humans. What a wonderful place!
But the gun has fired. H.M.S. Sea is getting all steam up. The privilege of leave cannot last for ever: it is “All aboard!” Whither bound? In the archipelago of the West Indies there are so many points of interest, and so many ports which the sailor of [pg 183]the Royal Navy is sure to visit. There are important docks at Antigua, Jamaica, and Bermuda; while the whole station—known professionally as the “North American and West Indian”—reaches from the north of South America to beyond Newfoundland, Kingston, and Jamaica, where England maintains a flag-ship and a commodore, a dockyard, and a naval hospital.
But the gun has fired. H.M.S. Sea is steaming up. The privilege of leave can't last forever: it’s "All aboard!" Where to? In the West Indies, there are so many points of interest and ports that a Royal Navy sailor is sure to visit. There are important docks at Antigua, Jamaica, and Bermuda; the entire station—professionally known as the “North American and Caribbean”—extends from the north of South America to beyond Newfoundland, Kingston, and Jamaica, where England has a flagship, a commodore, a dockyard, and a naval hospital.
Kingston Harbour is a grand lagoon, nearly shut in by a long sand-spit, or rather bank, called “The Palisades,” at the point of which is Port Royal, which, about ninety years ago, was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Mr. Trollope says that it is on record that hardy “subs” and hardier “mids” have ridden along the Palisades, and have not died from sunstroke in the effort. But the chances were much against them. The ordinary ingress and egress, as to all parts of the island’s coasts, is by water. Our naval establishment is at Port Royal.
Kingston Harbour is a large lagoon, almost completely enclosed by a long sand spit, or rather a bank, called “The Palisades,” at the end of which is Port Royal, which, about ninety years ago, was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Mr. Trollope mentions that it’s recorded that tough “subs” and even tougher “mid” have ridden along the Palisades and managed to avoid dying from heatstroke in the process. But they had a lot working against them. The usual way to get to and from all parts of the island’s coast is by water. Our naval base is located at Port Royal.
Jamaica has picked up a good deal in these later days, but is not the thriving country it was before the abolition of slavery. Kingston is described as a formal city, with streets at right angles, and with generally ugly buildings. The fact is, that hardly any Europeans or even well-to-do Creoles live in the town, and, in consequence, there are long streets, which might almost belong to a city of the dead, where hardly a soul is to be seen: at all events, in the evenings. All the wealthier people—and there are a large number—have country seats—“pens,” as they call them, though often so charmingly situated, and so beautifully surrounded, that the term does not seem very appropriate. The sailor’s pocket-money will go a long way in Kingston, if he confines himself to native productions; but woe unto him if he will insist on imported articles! All through the island the white people are very English in their longings, and affect to despise the native luxuries. Thus, they will give you ox-tail soup when real turtle would be infinitely cheaper. “When yams, avocado pears, the mountain cabbage, plantains, and twenty other delicious vegetables may be had for the gathering, people will insist on eating bad English potatoes; and the desire for English pickles is quite a passion.” All the servants are negroes or mulattoes, who are greatly averse to ridicule or patronage; while, if one orders them as is usual in England, they leave you to wait on yourself. Mr. Trollope discovered this. He ordered a lad in one of the hotels to fill his bath, calling him “old fellow.” “Who you call fellor?” asked the youth; “you speak to a gen’lman gen’lmanly, and den he fill de bath.”
Jamaica has seen some improvement in recent times, but it isn't as prosperous as it was before slavery was abolished. Kingston is described as a formal city, with streets laid out at right angles and mostly unattractive buildings. The truth is, hardly any Europeans or even affluent Creoles live in the town, resulting in long streets that could almost belong to a ghost town, where hardly anyone is visible, especially in the evenings. All the wealthier residents—of which there are many—have country homes—“pens,” as they're called, though they're often so beautifully located and surrounded that the term doesn’t seem quite right. A sailor’s pocket money will stretch far in Kingston if he sticks to local goods, but woe to him if he insists on imported items! Throughout the island, white people are very English in their tastes and tend to look down on local luxuries. For example, they might offer you oxtail soup when real turtle soup would be much cheaper. "When yams, avocados, mountain cabbage, plantains, and twenty other tasty vegetables are easily available, people still choose to eat bad English potatoes; and the desire for English pickles is pretty strong." All the servants are Black or mixed race, and they are very sensitive to mockery or condescension; if you order them around like is common in England, they'll leave you to fend for yourself. Mr. Trollope found this out. He asked a boy at one of the hotels to fill his bath, calling him “old dude.” "Who you calling fella?" the boy responded; "You talk to a gentleman respectfully, and then he fills the bath."
The sugar-cane—and by consequence, sugar and rum—coffee, and of late tobacco, are the staple productions of Jamaica. There is one district where the traveller may see an unbroken plain of 4,000 acres under canes. The road over Mount Diabolo is very fine, and the view back to Kingston very grand. Jack ashore will find that the people all ride, but that the horses always walk. There are respectable mountains to be ascended in Jamaica: Blue Mountain Peak towers to the height of 8,000 feet. The highest inhabited house on the island, the property of a coffee-planter, is a kind of half-way house of entertainment; and although Mr. Trollope—who provided himself with a white companion, who, in his turn, provided five negroes, beef, bread, water, brandy, and what seemed to him about ten gallons of rum—gives a doleful description of the clouds and mists and fogs which surrounded the Peak, others may be more fortunate.
The sugar cane—and as a result, sugar and rum—coffee, and more recently, tobacco, are the main products of Jamaica. There's an area where travelers can see a continuous 4,000-acre field of sugarcane. The road over Mount Diabolo is great, and the view back to Kingston is impressive. When you're ashore, you'll notice that everyone rides, but the horses only walk. Jamaica has some respectable mountains to climb: Blue Mountain Peak rises to about 8,000 feet. The highest inhabited house on the island belongs to a coffee planter and serves as a sort of halfway point for travelers; even though Mr. Trollope—who brought along a white companion, who in turn brought five Black men, beef, bread, water, brandy, and what seemed like ten gallons of rum—gives a gloomy account of the clouds, mist, and fog surrounding the Peak, others might have better luck.
The most important of the West Indian Islands, Cuba—“Queen of the Antilles”—[pg 184]does not, as we all know, belong to England, but is the most splendid appanage of the Spanish crown. Havana, the capital, has a grand harbour, large, commodious, and safe, with a fine quay, at which the vessels of all nations lie. The sailor will note one peculiarity: instead of laying alongside, the ships are fastened “end on”—usually the bow being at the quay. The harbour is very picturesque, and the entrance to it is defended by two forts, which were taken once by England—in Albemarle’s time—and now could be knocked to pieces in a few minutes by any nation which was ready with the requisite amount of gunpowder.
The most important of the West Indian Islands, Cuba—"Queen of the Antilles"—[pg 184]does not, as we all know, belong to England, but is a wonderful territory of the Spanish crown. Havana, the capital, has an impressive harbor—large, convenient, and safe—with a great quay where ships from all nations dock. Sailors will notice one unique feature: instead of docking alongside, the ships are tied up "finish on"—usually with the bow facing the quay. The harbor is very scenic, and its entrance is protected by two forts, which were once captured by England during Albemarle’s time, and now could easily be taken down in minutes by any nation equipped with enough gunpowder.
Havana is a very gay city, and has some special attractions for the sailor—among others being its good cigars and cheap Spanish wine and fruits. Its greatest glory is the Paseo—its Hyde Park, Bois de Boulogne, Corso, Cascine, Alamèda—where the Cuban belles and beaux delight to promenade and ride. There will you see them, in bright-coloured, picturesque attire—sadly Europeanised and Americanised of late, though—seated in the volante, a kind of hanging cabriolet, between two large wheels, drawn by one or two horses, on one of which the negro servant, with enormous leggings, white breeches, red jacket, and gold lace, and broad-brimmed straw hat, rides. The volante is itself bright with [pg 185]polished metal, and the whole turn-out has an air of barbaric splendour. These carriages are never kept in a coach-house, but are usually placed in the halls, and often even in the dining-room, as a child’s perambulator might with us. Havana has an ugly cathedral and a magnificent opera-house.
Havana is a lively city that has some unique attractions for sailors, including its great cigars, affordable Spanish wine, and fresh fruits. Its biggest highlight is the Paseo—like their own Hyde Park, Bois de Boulogne, Corso, Cascine, or Alamèda—where Cuban beauties and handsome men love to stroll and ride. There, you'll find them in bright, colorful outfits—though they've sadly become more European and American over time—sitting in the volante, a type of hanging carriage between two large wheels, pulled by one or two horses. One of the horses is usually ridden by a Black servant dressed in oversized leggings, white pants, a red jacket with gold trim, and a wide-brimmed straw hat. The volante itself is shiny with polished metal, giving the whole setup a touch of extravagant flair. These carriages are never stored in a garage; they're often kept in hallways, and sometimes even inside dining rooms, just like a baby's stroller might be in our homes. Havana boasts an unattractive cathedral and an impressive opera house.
Slave labour is common, and many of the sugar and tobacco planters are very wealthy. Properties of many hundred acres under cultivation are common. Mr. Trollope found the negroes well-fed, sleek, and fat as brewers’ horses, while no sign of ill-usage came before him. In crop times they sometimes work sixteen hours a day, and Sunday is not then a day of rest for them. There are many Chinese coolies, also, on the island.
Slave labor is common, and many of the sugar and tobacco planters are quite wealthy. Large properties with hundreds of acres in cultivation are typical. Mr. Trollope observed that the Black workers were well-fed, healthy, and robust, showing no signs of mistreatment. During harvest seasons, they sometimes work sixteen hours a day, and Sunday isn't a day off for them. There are also many Chinese laborers on the island.
Kingsley, speaking of the islands in general, says that he “was altogether unprepared for their beauty and grandeur.” Day after day, the steamer took him past a shifting diorama of scenery, which he likened to Vesuvius and Naples, repeated again and again, with every possible variation of the same type of delicate loveliness. Under a cloudless sky, and over the blue waters, banks of light cloud turned to violet and then to green, and then disclosed grand mountains, with the surf beating white around the base of tall cliffs and isolated rocks, and the pretty country houses of settlers embowered in foliage, and gay little villages, and busy towns. “It was easy,” says that charming writer, “in presence of such scenery, to conceive the exultation which possessed the souls of the first discoverers of the West Indies. What wonder if they seemed to themselves to have burst into fairy-land—to be at the gates of the earthly Paradise? With such a climate, such a soil, such vegetation, such fruits, what luxury must not have seemed possible to the dwellers along those shores? What riches, too, of gold and jewels, might not be hidden among those forest-shrouded glens and peaks? And beyond, and beyond again, ever new islands, new continents, perhaps, and inexhaustible wealth of yet undiscovered worlds.”112
Kingsley, talking about the islands in general, says that he “was totally unprepared for their beauty and splendor.” Day after day, the steamer took him past a changing display of scenery, which he compared to Vesuvius and Naples, appearing over and over again with every possible twist of the same kind of delicate beauty. Under a clear sky, and over the blue waters, banks of light clouds shifted from violet to green, revealing grand mountains, with the surf crashing white around the base of steep cliffs and isolated rocks, along with charming country houses tucked in greenery, vibrant little villages, and bustling towns. “It's easy,” says that delightful writer, "to experience the joy that filled the hearts of the first explorers of the West Indies in the presence of such breathtaking scenery. It's no surprise they believed they had entered a fairy tale—being at the gates of paradise on earth. With such a climate, such fertile soil, such lush vegetation, and such fruits, what luxuries must have seemed possible for those living along those shores? What treasures of gold and jewels might be hidden in those forest-covered valleys and peaks? And beyond, always more islands, maybe even new continents, and endless wealth of yet undiscovered worlds."112
The resemblance to Mediterranean, or, more especially, Neapolitan, scenery is very marked. “Like causes have produced like effects; and each island is little but the peak of a volcano, down whose shoulders lava and ash have slidden toward the sea.” Many carry several cones. One of them, a little island named Saba, has a most remarkable settlement half-way up a volcano. Saba rises sheer out of the sea 1,500 or more feet, and, from a little landing-place, a stair runs up 800 feet into the very bosom of the mountain, where in a hollow live some 1,200 honest Dutchmen and 800 negroes. The latter were, till of late years, nominally the slaves of the former; but it is said that, in reality, it was just the other way. The blacks went off when and whither they pleased, earned money on other islands, and expected their masters to keep them when they were out of work. The good Dutch live peaceably aloft in their volcano, grow garden crops, and sell them to vessels or to surrounding islands. They build the best boats in the West Indies up in their crater, and lower them down the cliff to the sea! They are excellent sailors and good Christians. Long may their volcano remain quiescent!
The resemblance to Mediterranean, particularly Neapolitan, scenery is very noticeable. "Similar causes have resulted in similar effects, and each island is mainly just the top of a volcano, with lava and ash flowing down its slopes toward the ocean." Many of them have several cones. One little island, called Saba, has a remarkable community halfway up a volcano. Saba rises steeply out of the sea, over 1,500 feet high, and from a small landing spot, a staircase ascends 800 feet into the heart of the mountain, where about 1,200 hardworking Dutch people and 800 Black individuals reside. The latter were, until recently, nominally the slaves of the former; but it is said that, in reality, it was often the opposite. The Black residents would leave whenever and wherever they wanted, earn money on other islands, and expected their masters to support them when they were out of work. The decent Dutch live peacefully up in their volcano, grow garden produce, and sell it to passing ships or to nearby islands. They build the best boats in the West Indies inside their crater and lower them down the cliff to the sea! They are excellent sailors and good Christians. May their volcano stay calm for a long time!
When the steamer stops at some little port, or even single settlement, the negro boats come alongside with luscious fruit and vegetables—bananas and green oranges; the sweet sop, a fruit which looks like a strawberry, and is as big as an orange; the custard-[pg 186]apples—the pulp of which, those who have read “Tom Cringle’s Log” will remember, is fancied to have an unpleasant resemblance to brains; the avocado, or alligator-pears, otherwise called “midshipman’s butter,” which are eaten with pepper and salt; scarlet capsicums, green and orange cocoa-nuts, roots of yam, and cush-cush, help to make up baskets as varied in colour as the gaudy gowns and turbans of the women. Neither must the junks of sugar-cane be omitted, which the “coloured” gentlemen and ladies delight to gnaw, walking, sitting, and standing; increasing thereby the size of their lips, and breaking out, often enough, their upper front teeth. Rude health is in their faces; their cheeks literally shine with fatness.
When the steamer stops at a small port or even just a single settlement, local boats pull up alongside with delicious fruit and vegetables—bananas and green oranges; the sweet sop, a fruit that looks like a strawberry but is as big as an orange; custard apples—the pulp of which, those who have read “Tom Cringle’s Log” will remember, is thought to have an unpleasant resemblance to brains; avocados, or alligator pears, also known as “midshipman’s butter,” eaten with pepper and salt; scarlet peppers, green and orange coconuts, yam roots, and cush-cush, all make up colorful baskets as vibrant as the flashy gowns and turbans of the women. We also can’t forget the chunks of sugar cane that the “colored” gentlemen and ladies enjoy chewing on, whether they are walking, sitting, or standing; this habit makes their lips fuller and often leads to breaking their front teeth. Their faces radiate good health; their cheeks literally shine from being well-fed.
But in this happy archipelago there are drawbacks: in the Guadaloupe earthquake of 1843, 5,000 persons lost their lives in the one town of Point-à-Pitre alone. The Souffrière volcano, 5,000 feet high, rears many a peak to the skies, and shows an ugly and uncertain humour, smoking and flaming. The writer so often quoted gives a wonderfully beautiful description of this mountain and its surroundings. “As the sun rose, level lights of golden green streamed round the peak, right and left, over the downs; but only for a while. As the sky-clouds vanished in his blazing rays, earth-clouds rolled up from the valleys behind, wreathed and weltered about the great black teeth of the crater, and then sinking among them and below them, shrouded the whole cone in purple darkness for the day; while in the foreground blazed in the sunshine broad slopes of cane-field; below them again the town (the port of Basse Terre), with handsome houses, and old-fashioned churches and convents, dating possibly from the seventeenth century, embowered in mangoes, tamarinds, and palmistes; and along the beach, a market beneath a row of trees, with canoes drawn up to be unladen, and gay dresses of every hue. The surf whispered softly on the beach. The cheerful murmur of voices came off the shore, and above it, the tinkling of some little bell, calling good folks to early mass. A cheery, brilliant picture as man could wish to see, but marred by two ugly elements. A mile away on the low northern cliff, marked with many a cross, was the lonely cholera cemetery, a remembrance of the fearful pestilence which, a few years since, swept away thousands of the people: and above frowned that black giant, now asleep: but for how long?”
But in this beautiful archipelago, there are disadvantages: during the Guadaloupe earthquake of 1843, 5,000 people lost their lives in the town of Point-à-Pitre alone. The Souffrière volcano, rising 5,000 feet high, boasts many peaks that reach toward the sky and has a troubling and unpredictable mood, smoking and glowing ominously. The frequently quoted writer offers a stunningly beautiful description of this mountain and its surroundings. As the sun rose, a golden green light spread across the peak, to the left and right, over the hills, but only for a brief moment. As the clouds in the sky vanished in its bright rays, clouds from the earth rolled up from the valleys behind, swirling around the dark edges of the crater and then sinking among and below them, wrapping the entire cone in purple darkness for the day. In the foreground, wide slopes of sugarcane glimmered in the sunlight; below them, the town (the port of Basse Terre), with beautiful houses and old churches and convents that might date back to the seventeenth century, was nestled among mango, tamarind, and palm trees. Along the beach, there was a market under a row of trees, with canoes pulled up to be unloaded and brightly colored dresses everywhere. The surf gently whispered on the shore. The cheerful chatter of voices came from the beach, and on top of it all, the ringing of a small bell called people to early mass. It was a lively, colorful scene that anyone would love to see, but it was marred by two unpleasant features. A mile away on the low northern cliff, marked with many crosses, stood the lonely cholera cemetery, a reminder of the horrific epidemic that had wiped out thousands of people just a few years earlier; and above it loomed that dark giant, now at rest: but for how long?
The richness of the verdure which clothes these islands to their highest peaks seems a mere coat of green fur, and yet is often gigantic forest trees. The eye wanders over the green abysses, and strains over the wealth of depths and heights, compared with which fine English parks are mere shrubberies. There is every conceivable green, or rather of hues, ranging from pale yellow through all greens into cobalt; and “as the wind stirs the leaves, and sweeps the lights and shadows over hill and glen, all is ever-changing, iridescent, like a peacock’s tail; till the whole island, from peak to shore, seems some glorious jewel—an emerald, with tints of sapphire and topaz, hanging between blue sea and white surf below, and blue sky and white cloud above.” And yet, over all this beauty, dark shadows hang—the shadow of war and the shadow of slavery. These seas have been oft reddened with the blood of gallant sailors, and every other gully holds the skeleton of an Englishman.
The lush greenery that covers these islands all the way to their highest points looks like a simple coat of green fur, but it’s often made up of massive forest trees. Your gaze drifts over the green depths, taking in the vast heights and depths, which make fine English parks seem like mere gardens. There’s every imaginable shade of green, or rather hues, from pale yellow through various greens to cobalt; and "As the wind stirs the leaves, creating changing light and shadows over the hills and valleys, everything keeps transforming, sparkling like a peacock's tail; until the whole island, from the highest point to the shoreline, looks like a stunning jewel—an emerald, with touches of sapphire and topaz, hanging between the blue sea and white waves below, and the blue sky and white clouds above." Yet, over all this beauty, dark shadows linger—the shadow of war and the shadow of slavery. These seas have often been stained with the blood of brave sailors, and every other ravine hides the remains of an Englishman.
Here it was that Rodney broke De Grasse’s line, took and destroyed seven French ships of war, and scattered the rest: saving Jamaica, and, in sooth, the whole West [pg 187]Indies, and bringing about the honourable peace of 1783. Yon lovely roadstead of Dominica: there Rodney caught up with the French just before, and would have beaten them so much the earlier but for his vessels being becalmed. In that deep bay at Martinique, now lined with gay houses, was for many years the Cul-de-sac Royal, the rendezvous and stronghold of the French fleet. That isolated rock hard by, much the shape and double the size of the great Pyramids, is Sir Samuel Hood’s famous Diamond Rock,113 to which that brave old navigator literally tied with a hawser or two his ship, the Centaur, and turned the rock into a fortress from whence to sweep the seas. The rock was for several months rated on the books of the Admiralty as “His Majesty’s Ship, Diamond Rock.” She had at last to surrender, for want of powder, to an overwhelming force—two seventy-fours and fourteen smaller ships of war—but did not give in till seventy poor Frenchmen were lying killed or wounded, and three of their gun-boats destroyed, her own loss being only two men killed and one wounded. Brave old sloop of war! And, once more, those glens and forests of St. Lucia remind us of Sir John Moore and Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who fought, not merely the French, but the “Brigands”—negroes liberated by the Revolution of 1792.
Here it was that Rodney broke De Grasse’s line, took and destroyed seven French warships, and scattered the rest, saving Jamaica and, really, the whole West Indies, leading to the honorable peace of 1783. That beautiful harbor in Dominica: there Rodney caught up with the French just before and would have defeated them much earlier if his ships hadn't been becalmed. In that deep bay at Martinique, now lined with colorful houses, was for many years the Cul-de-sac Royal, the meeting point and stronghold of the French fleet. That isolated rock nearby, shaped like and twice the size of the great Pyramids, is Sir Samuel Hood’s famous Diamond Rock, to which that brave old navigator literally tied his ship, the Centaur, with a couple of cables and turned the rock into a fortress to control the seas. The rock was for several months recorded in the Admiralty's books as “HMS Diamond Rock.” It ultimately had to surrender, due to a lack of gunpowder, to an overwhelming force—two seventy-fours and fourteen smaller warships—but didn't give in until seventy poor Frenchmen lay dead or wounded, with three of their gunboats destroyed, while her own loss was just two men killed and one wounded. Brave old sloop of war! And once again, those valleys and forests of St. Lucia remind us of Sir John Moore and Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who fought not only the French but also the “Bandits”—freed slaves from the Revolution of 1792.
But the good ship must proceed; and as British naval interests are under consideration, let her bows be turned to Bermuda—a colony, a fortress and a prison, and where England owns an extensive floating dock, dock-yards, and workshops.114 Trollope says that its geological formation is mysterious. “It seems to be made of soft white stone, composed mostly of little shells—so soft, indeed, that you might cut Bermuda up with a hand-saw. And people are cutting up Bermuda with hand-saws. One little island, that on which the convicts are established, has been altogether so cut up already. When I visited it, two fat convicts were working away slowly at the last fragment.” Bermuda is the crater of an extinct volcano, and is surrounded by little islets, of which there is one for every day of the year in a space of twenty by three miles. These are surrounded again by reefs and rocks, and navigation is risky.
But the good ship must continue on its way; and since British naval interests are at stake, let her head towards Bermuda—a colony, a fortress, and a prison, where England has a large floating dock, shipyards, and workshops.114 Trollope mentions that its geological structure is puzzling. "It looks like it's made of a soft white stone, mostly made up of tiny shells—so soft that you could cut Bermuda with a hand saw. And people are actually cutting Bermuda with hand saws. One small island, the one where the convicts are held, has already been completely chopped up. When I went there, two big convicts were slowly working on the last piece." Bermuda is the remnant of an extinct volcano and is surrounded by small islets, with one for each day of the year within an area of twenty by three miles. These are further encircled by reefs and rocks, making navigation hazardous.
Were the Bermudas the scene of Ariel’s tricks? They were first discovered, in 1522, by Bermudez, a Spaniard; and Shakespeare seems to have heard of them, for he speaks of the
Were the Bermudas the place where Ariel pulled off his tricks? They were first discovered in 1522 by a Spaniard named Bermudez; and it seems Shakespeare knew about them, as he mentions the
Trollope says that there is more of the breed of Caliban in the islands than of Ariel. Though Caliban did not relish working for his master more than the Bermudian of to-day, there was an amount of energy about him entirely wanting in the existing islanders.
Trollope says that there are more people like Caliban in the islands than like Ariel. Even though Caliban didn’t enjoy working for his master any more than today’s Bermudians, he had a level of energy completely lacking in the current islanders.
There are two towns, St. George and Hamilton, on different islands. The former is the head-quarters of the military, and the second that of the governor. It is the summer head-quarters of the admiral of the station. The islands are, in general, wonderfully fertile, and will, with any ordinary cultivation, give two crops of many [pg 188]vegetables in the year. It has the advantages of the tropics, plus those of more temperate climes. For tomatoes, onions, beet-root, sweet potatoes, early potatoes, as well as all kinds of fruits, from oranges, lemons, and bananas to small berries, it is not surpassed by any place in the world; while arrowroot is one of its specialities. It is the early market-garden for New York. Ship-building is carried on, as the islands abound in a stunted cedar, good for the purpose, when it can be found large enough. The working population are almost all negroes, and are lazy to a degree. But the whites are not much better; and the climate is found to produce great lassitude.
There are two towns, St. George and Hamilton, located on different islands. St. George is the military headquarters, while Hamilton serves as the governor's base. It's also the summer headquarters for the admiral of the station. The islands are generally very fertile and can produce two crops of many vegetables per year with just average cultivation. They offer the benefits of tropical climates along with those of more temperate areas. For tomatoes, onions, beets, sweet potatoes, early potatoes, and all kinds of fruits—from oranges and lemons to bananas and small berries—there's no place in the world that compares; arrowroot is one of its specialties. It serves as the early market garden for New York. Shipbuilding takes place here as these islands are rich in stunted cedar, suitable for the purpose when large enough. The working population is mostly made up of Black individuals, who tend to be quite lazy. But the white population isn’t much better, and the climate tends to lead to a lot of lethargy.
It is the sea round the Bermudas, more than the islands themselves, perhaps, that give its beauty. Everywhere the water is wonderfully clear and transparent, while the land is broken up into narrow inlets and headlands, and bays and promontories, nooks and corners, running here and there in capricious and ever-varying forms. The oleander, with their bright blossoms, are so abundant, almost to the water’s edge, that the Bermudas might be called the “Oleander Isles.”
It’s the sea around Bermuda, more than the islands themselves, that really makes it beautiful. The water is incredibly clear and transparent everywhere, while the land is made up of narrow inlets and headlands, bays and promontories, nooks and crannies, all appearing in unpredictable and ever-changing shapes. The oleander bushes, with their bright flowers, grow so abundantly almost to the water’s edge that Bermuda could easily be called the “Oleander Islands.”
The Bermuda convict, in Trollope’s time, seemed to be rather better off than most [pg 189]English labourers. He had a pound of meat—good meat, too, while the Bermudians were tugging at their teeth with tough morsels; he had a pound and three-quarters of bread—more than he wanted; a pound of vegetables; tea and sugar; a glass of grog per diem; tobacco-money allowed, and eight hours’ labour. He was infinitely better off than most sailors of the merchant service.
The Bermuda convict during Trollope’s time seemed to have it better than most English laborers. He received a pound of meat—good meat, too—while the Bermudians struggled with tough bites; a pound and three-quarters of bread—more than he needed; a pound of vegetables; tea and sugar; a daily glass of grog; tobacco money provided, and eight hours of work. He was definitely better off than most sailors in the merchant service.
St. George, the military station of the colony, commands the only entrance among the islands suitable for the passage of large vessels, the narrow and intricate channel which leads to its land-locked haven being defended by strong batteries. The lagoons, and passages, and sea canals between the little islands make communication by water as necessary as in Venice. Every one keeps a boat or cedar canoe. He will often do his business on one island and have his residence on a second. Mark Twain has a wonderful facility for description; and his latest articles, “Random Notes of an Idle Excursion,” contain a picturesque account of the Bermudas, and more particularly of Hamilton, the leading port. He says that he found it a wonderfully white town, white as marble—snow—flour. “It was,” says he, “a town compacted together upon the sides [pg 190]and tops of a cluster of small hills. Its outlying borders fringed off and thinned away among the cedar forests, and there was no woody distance of curving coast or leafy islet sleeping on the dimpled, painted sea but was flecked with shining white points—half-concealed houses peeping out of the foliage. * * * There was an ample pier of heavy masonry; upon this, under shelter, were some thousands of barrels, containing that product which has carried the fame of Bermuda to many lands—the potato. With here and there an onion. That last sentence is facetious, for they grow at least two onions in Bermuda to one potato. The onion is the pride and the joy of Bermuda. It is her jewel, her gem of gems. In her conversation, her pulpit, her literature, it is her most frequent and eloquent figure. In Bermudian metaphor it stands for perfection—perfection absolute.
St. George, the military station of the colony, oversees the only entrance among the islands suitable for large vessels. The narrow and complex channel leading to its sheltered harbor is protected by strong batteries. The lagoons, passages, and sea canals between the small islands make water communication just as vital as in Venice. Everyone owns a boat or a cedar canoe. People often conduct business on one island while living on another. Mark Twain has a remarkable talent for description, and his latest articles, “Random Notes from a Leisurely Trip,” provide a vivid account of the Bermudas, especially Hamilton, the main port. He describes it as a remarkably white town, as white as marble—snow—flour. "It was," he says, A town built on the slopes and peaks of a cluster of small hills. Its outer edges blended into the cedar forests, and there wasn't a distant stretch of winding coastline or leafy islet on the dimpled, painted sea that wasn’t speckled with bright white spots—houses half-hidden among the trees. * * * There was a large pier made of heavy stone; on it, sheltered, were thousands of barrels holding the product that has made Bermuda famous around the world—the potato. With a few onions scattered here and there. That last line is humorous, as Bermuda produces at least two onions for every potato. The onion is Bermuda's pride and joy. It is her jewel, her gem among gems. In her conversations, her churches, her literature, it is her most common and expressive symbol. In Bermudian metaphor, it represents perfection—absolute perfection.
“The Bermudian, weeping over the departed, exhausts praise when he says, ‘He was an onion!’ The Bermudian, extolling the living hero, bankrupts applause when he says, ‘He is an onion!’ The Bermudian, setting his son upon the stage of life to dare and do for himself, climaxes all counsel, supplication, admonition, comprehends all ambition, when he says, ‘Be an onion!’ ” When the steamer arrives at the pier, the first question asked is not concerning great war or political news, but concerns only the price of onions. All the writers agree that for tomatoes, onions, and vegetables generally, the Bermudas are unequalled; they have been called, as noted before, the market-gardens of New York.
The Bermudian, grieving over the loss, runs out of words when he says, ‘He was an onion!’ The Bermudian, honoring the living hero, has nothing more to say when he says, ‘He is an onion!’ The Bermudian, urging his son to step into the stage of life and pave his own path, summarizes all advice, requests, warnings, and dreams when he says, ‘Be an onion!’ When the steamer gets to the pier, the first question isn’t about the latest war or political updates, but just about the price of onions. All the writers agree that for tomatoes, onions, and vegetables in general, the Bermudas are unbeatable; they’ve been called, as mentioned before, the market-gardens of New York.
Jack who is fortunate enough to be on the West India and North American Stations must be congratulated. “The country roads,” says the clever writer above quoted, “curve and wind hither and thither in the delightfulest way, unfolding pretty surprises at every turn; billowy masses of oleander that seem to float out from behind distant projections, like the pink cloud-banks of sunset; sudden plunges among cottages and gardens, life and activity, followed by as sudden plunges into the sombre twilight and stillness of the woods; glittering visions of white fortresses and beacon towers pictured against the sky on remote hill-tops; glimpses of shining green sea caught for a moment through opening headlands, then lost again; more woods and solitude; and by-and-by another turn lays bare, without warning, the full sweep of the inland ocean, enriched with its bars of soft colour, and graced with its wandering sails.
Jack, who is lucky enough to be stationed in the West Indies and North America, deserves congratulations. "The country roads," says the clever writer mentioned above, Twist and turn in the most charming way, revealing lovely surprises at every corner; fluffy clusters of oleander seem to float out from behind distant hills, like the pink clouds at sunset; sudden dips among cottages and gardens, full of life and activity, followed by quick shifts into the dark quiet of the woods; shimmering images of white fortresses and lighthouse towers silhouetted against the sky on distant hilltops; brief glimpses of the sparkling green sea briefly visible through opening headlands, then lost again; more woods and solitude; and eventually, another turn unexpectedly reveals the vastness of the inland ocean, adorned with soft color bands and highlighted by its drifting sails.
“Take any road you please, you may depend upon it you will not stay in it half a mile. Your road is everything that a road ought to be; it is bordered with trees, and with strange plants and flowers; it is shady and pleasant, or sunny and still pleasant; it carries you by the prettiest and peacefulest and most home-like of homes, and through stretches of forest that lie in a deep hush sometimes, and sometimes are alive with the music of birds; it curves always, which is a continual promise, whereas straight roads reveal everything at a glance and kill interest. * * * There is enough of variety. Sometimes you are in the level open, with marshes, thick grown with flag-lances that are ten feet high, on the one hand, and potato and onion orchards on the other; next you are on a hill-top, with the ocean and the islands spread around you; presently the road winds through a deep cut, shut in by perpendicular walls thirty or forty feet high, marked with the oddest and abruptest stratum lines, suggestive of sudden and eccentric old upheavals, and garnished with, here and there, a clinging adventurous flower, and here and there [pg 191]a dangling vine; and by-and-by, your way is along the sea edge, and you may look down a fathom or two through the transparent water and watch the diamond-like flash and play of the light upon the rocks and sands on the bottom until you are tired of it—if you are so constituted as to be able to get tired of it.”
"Choose any road you like, and you can bet you won’t be on it for long. Your road has everything a good road should have; it’s lined with trees and unique plants and flowers; it’s shady and pleasant, or sunny and still nice; it takes you past the coziest, most welcoming homes and through stretches of forest that can be eerily quiet at times, or filled with the sounds of birds; it always curves, which keeps you intrigued, while straight roads show everything at once and kill your curiosity. * * * There’s a lot of variety. Sometimes you’re in open fields, with marshes thick with tall flag plants on one side and potato and onion gardens on the other; then you’re at a hilltop with the ocean and islands all around you; shortly after, the road winds through a deep cut, flanked by steep walls that are thirty or forty feet high, marked with strange lines that hint at sudden and odd geological shifts, dotted here and there with a daring little flower, and occasionally a hanging vine; eventually, your path runs along the edge of the sea, and you can look down a fathom or two through the clear water and see the sparkling light dancing on the rocks and sand below until you grow tired of it—if you’re someone who can actually get tired of it."
But as there are spots in the sun, and the brightest lights throw the deepest shadows everywhere; so on the Bermuda coasts there are, in its rare storms, dangers of no small kind among its numerous reefs and rocks. The North Rock, in particular, is the monument which marks the grave of many a poor sailor in by-gone days. At the present time, however, tug-boats, and the use of steam generally, have reduced the perils of navigation among the hundreds of islands which constitute the Bermuda group to a minimum.
But just like there are spots on the sun and the brightest lights create the darkest shadows everywhere, the Bermuda coasts have certain dangers during its rare storms among the many reefs and rocks. The North Rock, in particular, stands as a memorial for many unfortunate sailors from the past. Nowadays, though, tugboats and the use of steam have minimized the risks of navigating through the hundreds of islands that make up the Bermuda group.
The recent successful trip of Cleopatra’s Needle in a vessel of unique construction will recall that of the Bermuda floating-dock, which it will be remembered was towed across the Atlantic and placed in its present position.
The recent successful journey of Cleopatra's Needle in a uniquely designed vessel brings to mind the Bermuda floating dock, which, as we recall, was towed across the Atlantic and positioned in its current location.
Bermuda being, from a naval point of view, the most important port on the North American and West Indian Stations, it had long been felt to be an absolute necessity that a dock capable of holding the largest vessels of war should be built in some part of the island. After many futile attempts to accomplish this object, owing to the porous nature of the rock of which the island is formed, it was determined that Messrs. Campbell, Johnstone & Co., of North Woolwich, should construct a floating-dock according to their patented inventions: those built by them for Carthagena, Saigon, and Callao having been completely successful. The dimensions of the dock for Bermuda, which was afterwards named after that island, are as follows:—
Bermuda is, from a naval perspective, the most important port in the North American and West Indian regions. It has long been seen as essential to build a dock that can accommodate the largest warships on some part of the island. After numerous unsuccessful attempts to achieve this due to the porous nature of the island's rock, it was decided that Messrs. Campbell, Johnstone & Co. from North Woolwich would construct a floating dock using their patented designs. The docks they built for Carthagena, Saigon, and Callao were completely successful. The dimensions of the dock for Bermuda, which was later named after the island, are as follows:—
| Length over all | 381 | feet. |
| Length between caissons | 330 | „ |
| Breadth over all | 124 | „ |
| Breadth between sides | 84 | „ |
| Depth inside | 53 | „ 5 in. |
She is divided into eight longitudinal water-tight compartments, and these again into sets of compartments, called respectively load on and balance chambers. Several small compartments were also made for the reception of the pumps, the machinery for moving capstans, and cranes, all of which were worked by steam. She is powerful and large enough to lift an ironclad having a displacement of 10,400 tons, and could almost dock the Great Eastern.
She is divided into eight long, watertight compartments, which are further divided into sets known as load and balance chambers. Several smaller compartments were also created to house the pumps, machinery for operating the capstans, and cranes, all of which were powered by steam. She is strong and large enough to lift an ironclad with a displacement of 10,400 tons and could nearly dock the Great Eastern.
The building of the Bermuda was begun in August, 1866; she was launched in September, 1868, and finally completed in May, 1869. For the purposes of navigation two light wooden bridges were thrown across her, on the foremost of which stood her compass, and on the after the steering apparatus. She was also supplied with three lighthouses and several semaphores for signalling to the men-of-war which had her in tow, either by night or day. In shape she is something like a round-bottomed canal boat with the ends cut off. From an interesting account of her voyage from Sheerness to Bermuda by “One of those on Board,” we gather the following information respecting her trip. Her crew numbered eighty-two hands, under a Staff-Commander, R.N.; there were also on board an assistant naval surgeon, an Admiralty commissioner, and the writer [pg 192]of the book from which these particulars are taken. The first rendezvous of the Bermuda was to be at the Nore.
The construction of the Bermuda started in August 1866; it was launched in September 1868 and completed in May 1869. To aid in navigation, two light wooden bridges were built across it, with the compass on the front bridge and the steering apparatus on the back. It was also equipped with three lighthouses and several semaphores to signal the warships towing it, both day and night. Its shape resembles a round-bottomed canal boat with the ends cut off. From an intriguing account of its journey from Sheerness to Bermuda by “One of those on board,” we learn the following details about the trip. The crew consisted of eighty-two members under a Staff-Commander of the Royal Navy; there was also an assistant naval surgeon, an Admiralty commissioner, and the author [pg 192] of the book containing these details. The first meeting point for the Bermuda was set to be at the Nore.
On the afternoon of the 23rd of June, 1869, the Bermuda was towed to the Nore by four ordinary Thames tugs, accompanied by H.M.SS. Terrible, Medusa, Buzzard, and Wildfire. On arriving at the Nore off the lightship she found the Northumberland waiting for her. The tugs cast off, and a hawser was passed to the Northumberland, which took her in tow as far as Knob Channel, the Terrible bringing up astern. The Agincourt was now picked up, and passing a hawser on board the Northumberland, took the lead in the maritime tandem. A hawser was now passed to the Terrible from the stern of the Bermuda, so that by towing that vessel she might be kept from swaying from side to side. The Medusa steamed on the quarter of the Northumberland, and the Buzzard acted as a kind of floating outrider to clear the way. The North Foreland was passed the same evening, at a speed of four knots an hour. Everything went well until the 25th, when she lost sight of land off the Start Point late in the afternoon of that day. On the 28th she was half-way across the Bay of Biscay, when, encountering a slight sea and a freshening wind, she showed her first tendency to roll, an accomplishment in which she was [pg 193]afterwards beaten by all her companions, although the prognostications about her talents in this direction had been of the most lugubrious description. It must be understood that the bottom of her hold, so to speak, was only some ten feet under the surface of the water, and that her hollow sides towered some sixty feet above it. On the top of each gunwale were wooden houses for the officers, with gardens in front and behind, in which mignonette, sweet peas, and other English garden flowers, grew and flourished, until they encountered the parching heat of the tropics. The crew was quartered in the sides of the vessel; and the top of the gunwales, or quarter-decks, as they might be called, communicated with the lower decks by means of a ladder fifty-three feet long.
On the afternoon of June 23, 1869, the Bermuda was towed to the Nore by four standard Thames tugs, followed by H.M.SS. Awful, Medusa, Buzzard, and Wildfire. Upon arriving at the Nore near the lightship, she found the Northumberland waiting for her. The tugs released their lines, and a towing line was passed to the Northumberland, which took her in tow as far as Knob Channel, with the Awful following behind. The Agincourt was then brought on board, passing a towing line to the Northumberland, taking the lead in the maritime convoy. A line was also passed from the stern of the Bermuda to the Awful to keep her steady and prevent swaying. The Medusa positioned herself off the quarter of the Northumberland, while the Buzzard acted as a sort of floating escort to clear the path. They passed the North Foreland that evening, traveling at a speed of four knots per hour. All proceeded smoothly until the 25th, when she lost sight of land off Start Point late that afternoon. By the 28th, she was halfway across the Bay of Biscay when, faced with a slight sea and increasing winds, she began to roll for the first time—something she later did less effectively than her companions, despite earlier gloomy predictions regarding her capabilities in this regard. It's important to note that the bottom of her hold was only about ten feet below the water's surface, while her hollow sides rose about sixty feet above it. On top of each gunwale were wooden cabins for the officers, with gardens in front and back where mignonette, sweet peas, and other English garden flowers thrived until they met the drying heat of the tropics. The crew was housed along the sides of the vessel, and the top of the gunwales, or quarter-decks as they might be termed, connected to the lower decks via a fifty-three-foot ladder.
To return, however, to the voyage. Her next rendezvous was at Porto Santo, a small island on the east coast of the island of Madeira. On July 4th, about six o’clock in the morning, land was signalled. This proved to be the island of Porto Santo; and she brought up about two miles off the principal town early in the afternoon, having made the voyage from Sheerness in exactly eleven days. Here the squadron was joined by the Warrior, Black Prince, and Lapwing (gunboat), the Helicon leaving them for Lisbon. Towards nightfall they started once more in the following order, passing to the south of Bermuda. The Black Prince and Warrior led the team, towing the Bermuda, the Terrible being towed by her in turn, to prevent yawing, and the Lapwing following close on the heels of the Terrible. All went well until the 8th, when the breeze freshened, the dock rolling as much as ten degrees. Towards eight o’clock in the evening a mighty crash was heard, and the whole squadron was brought up by signal from the lighthouses. On examination it was found that the Bermuda had carried away one of the chains of [pg 194]her immense rudder, which was swaying to and fro in a most dangerous manner. The officers and men, however, went to work with a will, and by one o’clock the next morning all was made snug again, and the squadron proceeded on its voyage. During this portion of the trip, a line of communication was established between the Bermuda and the Warrior, and almost daily presents of fresh meat and vegetables were sent by the officers of the ironclad to their unknown comrades on board the dock. On the 9th, the day following the disaster to the rudder, they fell in with the north-east trade winds, which formed the subject of great rejoicing. Signals were made to make all sail, and reduce the quantity of coal burned in the boilers of the four steam vessels. The next day, the Lapwing, being shorter of coal than the others, she was ordered to take the place of the Terrible, the latter ship now taking the lead by towing the Black Prince. The Lapwing, however, proved not to be sufficiently powerful for this service. A heavy sea springing up, the dock began to yaw and behave so friskily that the squadron once more brought to, and the old order of things was resumed.
To go back to the journey, her next stop was Porto Santo, a small island on the east side of Madeira. On July 4th, around six in the morning, land was spotted. This turned out to be Porto Santo, and she anchored about two miles from the main town early in the afternoon, having taken exactly eleven days to sail from Sheerness. At this point, the squadron was joined by the Fighter, Black Prince, and Lapwing (gunboat), while the Helicon headed off to Lisbon. As night fell, they set off again in this order, passing south of Bermuda. The Black Prince and Fighter led the group, towing the Bermuda, which in turn was towing the Awful to keep it steady, while the Lapwing followed closely behind the Awful. Everything was going smoothly until the 8th, when the wind picked up and the dock rolled as much as ten degrees. Around eight in the evening, a loud crash was heard, and the entire squadron was signaled to stop by the lighthouses. Upon investigation, it was discovered that the Bermuda had lost one of the chains for its huge rudder, which was swinging dangerously. The officers and crew got to work quickly, and by one o'clock the next morning, everything was secured again, allowing the squadron to continue its journey. During this part of the trip, a communication line was set up between the Bermuda and the Fighter, with the officers of the ironclad sending daily supplies of fresh meat and vegetables to their unknown colleagues on the dock. On the 9th, the day after the rudder mishap, they encountered the north-east trade winds, which was cause for celebration. Signals were given to set all sails and reduce the amount of coal burned in the boilers of the four steam vessels. The following day, since the Lapwing was low on coal compared to the others, it was ordered to replace the Awful, which then took the lead by towing the Black Prince. However, the Lapwing turned out not to be powerful enough for this task. As a heavy sea began to rise, the dock started to yaw and act so unpredictably that the squadron once again came to a stop, returning to the previous order.
On the 25th the Lapwing was sent on ahead to Bermuda to inform the authorities of the close advent of the dock. It was now arranged that as the Terrible drew less water than any of the other ships, she should have the honour of piloting the dock through the Narrows—a narrow, tortuous, and shallow channel, forming the only practicable entrance for large ships to the harbour of Bermuda. On the morning of the 28th, Bermuda lighthouse was sighted, and the Spitfire was shortly afterwards picked up, having been sent by the Bermudan authorities to pilot the squadron as far as the entrance of the Narrows. She also brought the intelligence that it had been arranged that the Viper and the Vixen had been ordered to pilot the dock into harbour. As they neared Bermuda, the squadron were met by the naval officer in charge of the station, who, after having had interviews with the captains of the squadron and of the Bermuda, rescinded the order respecting the Vixen and the Viper, and the Terrible was once more deputed to tow the Bermuda through the Narrows. Just off the mouth of this dangerous inlet, the Bermuda being in tow of the Terrible only, the dock became uncontrollable, and would have done her best to carry Her Majesty’s ship to Halifax had not the Warrior come to her aid, after the Spitfire and Lapwing had tried ineffectually to be of assistance.
On the 25th, the Lapwing was sent ahead to Bermuda to notify the authorities about the upcoming arrival of the dock. It was decided that since the Awful had a shallower draft than the other ships, it would have the honor of guiding the dock through the Narrows—a narrow, winding, and shallow passage that was the only viable entrance for large ships into the Bermuda harbor. On the morning of the 28th, they spotted Bermuda lighthouse, and shortly after, the Spitfire arrived, sent by the Bermudan authorities to guide the squadron to the entrance of the Narrows. It was also reported that the Viper and the Vixen had been assigned to guide the dock into the harbor. As they approached Bermuda, the squadron was met by the naval officer in charge of the station, who, after meeting with the captains of the squadron and the Bermuda, canceled the order regarding the Vixen and the Viper, and the Awful was again assigned to tow the Bermuda through the Narrows. Just at the entrance of this perilous channel, with the Bermuda being towed only by the Awful, the dock became uncontrollable and would have drifted Her Majesty’s ship to Halifax if not for the timely intervention of the Fighter, after the Spitfire and Lapwing had attempted in vain to assist.
By this time, however, the water in the Narrows had become too low for the Warrior; the Bermuda had, therefore, to wait until high water next morning in order to complete the last, and, as it proved, the most perilous part of her journey. After the Warrior and the Terrible had towed the dock through the entrance of the inlet, the first-named ship cast off. The dock once more became unmanageable through a sudden gust of wind striking her on the quarter. Had the gust lasted for only a few seconds longer, the dock would have stranded—perhaps for ever. She righted, however, and the Terrible steaming hard ahead, she passed the most dangerous point of the inlet, and at last rode securely in smooth water, within a few cables’ length of her future berth, after a singularly successful voyage of thirty-six days.
By this time, however, the water in the Narrows had dropped too low for the Warrior; the Bermuda had to wait until high tide the next morning to finish the last, and as it turned out, the most dangerous part of her journey. After the Fighter and the Awful towed the dock through the entrance of the inlet, the first ship untied. The dock became unmanageable again due to a sudden gust of wind hitting her side. If the gust had lasted just a few more seconds, the dock would have run aground—possibly for good. However, it stabilized, and with the Awful powering ahead, she passed the most perilous spot of the inlet and finally found herself safely in calm waters, just a short distance from her future docking spot after a remarkably successful voyage of thirty-six days.
It says much for the naval and engineering skill of all concerned in the transport of this unwieldy mass of iron, weighing 8,000 tons, over nearly 4,000 miles of ocean, without the loss of a single life, or, indeed, a solitary accident that can be called serious. The [pg 195]conception, execution, and success of the project are wholly unparalleled in the history of naval engineering.
It speaks volumes about the naval and engineering expertise of everyone involved in transporting this massive 8,000-ton mass of iron over nearly 4,000 miles of ocean without losing a single life or encountering any serious accidents. The [pg 195]planning, execution, and success of the project are completely unmatched in the history of naval engineering.
Leaving Bermuda, whither away? To the real capital of America, New York. It is true that English men-of-war, and, for the matter of that, vessels of the American navy, comparatively seldom visit that port, which otherwise is crowded by the shipping of all nations. There are reasons for this. New York has not to-day a dock worthy of the name; magnificent steamships and palatial ferry-boats all lie alongside wharfs, or enter “slips,” which are semi-enclosed wharfs. Brooklyn and Jersey City have, however, docks.
Leaving Bermuda, where to next? To the real capital of America, New York. It’s true that English warships and, for that matter, vessels of the American navy don’t often visit that port, which is otherwise filled with ships from all over the world. There are reasons for this. New York doesn’t currently have a dock that’s worthy of the name; magnificent steamships and luxurious ferry boats all sit alongside wharfs or go into “slips,” which are semi-enclosed wharfs. Brooklyn and Jersey City, however, do have docks.
Who that has visited New York will ever forget his first impressions? The grand Hudson, or the great East River, itself a strait: the glorious bay, or the crowded island, alike call for and deserve enthusiastic admiration. If one arrives on a sunny day, maybe not a zephyr agitates the surface of the noble Hudson, or even the bay itself: the latter landlocked, save where lost in the broad Atlantic; the former skirted by the great Babylon of America and the wooded banks of Hoboken. Round the lofty western hills, a fleet of small craft—with rakish hulls and snowy sails—steal quietly and softly, while steamboats, that look like floating islands, almost pass them with lightning speed. Around is the shipping of every clime; enormous ferry-boats radiating in all directions; forests of masts along the wharfs bearing the flags of all nations. And where so much is strange, there is one consoling fact: you feel yourself at home. You are among brothers, speaking the same language, obeying the same laws, professing the same religion.
Who that has visited New York will ever forget their first impressions? The grand Hudson, or the great East River, which is essentially a strait: the beautiful bay, or the bustling island, both call for and deserve enthusiastic admiration. If you arrive on a sunny day, maybe not even a breeze disrupts the surface of the majestic Hudson, or the bay itself, which is landlocked except where it meets the vast Atlantic; the former lined by the great Babylon of America and the forested banks of Hoboken. Around the tall western hills, a fleet of small boats—with sleek hulls and white sails—glides quietly, while steamboats that look like floating islands speed past them like lightning. Surrounding it all is shipping from every corner of the globe; massive ferryboats heading out in all directions; forests of masts along the docks flying the flags of all nations. And in the midst of all this unfamiliarity, there’s one reassuring fact: you feel at home. You are among family, speaking the same language, following the same laws, practicing the same religion.
New York city and port of entry, New York county, State of New York, lies at the head of New York Bay, so that there is a good deal of New York about it. It is the commercial emporium of the United States, and if it ever has a rival, it will be on the other side of the continent, somewhere not far from San Francisco. Its area is, practically, the bulk of Manhattan or New York Island, say thirteen miles long by two wide. Its separation from the mainland is caused by the Harlem River, which connects the Hudson and East Rivers, and is itself spanned by a bridge and the Croton aqueduct. New York really possesses every advantage required to build a grand emporium. It extends between two rivers, each navigable for the largest vessels, while its harbour would contain the united or disunited navies, as the case may be, of all nations. The Hudson River, in particular, is for some distance up a mile or more in width, while the East River averages over two-fifths of a mile. The population of New York, with its suburban appendages, including the cities of Brooklyn and Jersey City, is not less than that of Paris.
New York City and port of entry, New York County, State of New York, is located at the head of New York Bay, so there’s a lot of New York in it. It’s the commercial hub of the United States, and if it ever has a competitor, it will be on the other side of the continent, somewhere near San Francisco. Its area essentially covers most of Manhattan or New York Island, roughly thirteen miles long and two miles wide. The Harlem River separates it from the mainland, connecting the Hudson and East Rivers, and is crossed by a bridge and the Croton aqueduct. New York really has all the advantages needed to build a major center of commerce. It stretches between two rivers, each navigable by the largest ships, while its harbor could accommodate the united or disunited navies of all nations. The Hudson River, in particular, is a mile or more wide in some places, while the East River averages over two-fifths of a mile. The population of New York, along with its suburbs, including Brooklyn and Jersey City, is at least as large as that of Paris.
The harbour is surrounded with small settlements, connected by charmingly-situated villas and country residences. It is toward its northern end that the masts, commencing with a few stragglers, gradually thicken to a forest. In it are three fortified islands. By the strait called the “Narrows,” seven miles from the lower part of the city, and [pg 196]which is, for the space of a mile, about one mile wide, it communicates with the outer harbour, or bay proper, which extends thence to Sandy Hook Light, forty miles from the city, and opens directly into the ocean, forming one of the best roadsteads on the whole Atlantic coasts of America. The approach to the city, as above indicated, is very fine, the shores of the bay being wooded down to the water’s edge, and thickly studded with villages, farms, and country seats. The view of the city itself is not so prepossessing; like all large cities, it is almost impossible to find a point from which to grasp the grandeur in its entirety, and the ground on which it is built is nowhere elevated. Therefore there is very little to strike the eye specially. Many a petty town makes a greater show in this respect.
The harbor is surrounded by small communities, linked together by charming villas and country homes. At the north end, the masts, starting with a few scattered ones, gradually increase in number until they resemble a forest. There are three fortified islands in the harbor. By the strait called the "Narrows," seven miles from the southern part of the city, and [pg 196]which spans about a mile and is around one mile wide, it connects to the outer harbor or bay, which stretches from there to Sandy Hook Light, forty miles from the city, and opens directly into the ocean, forming one of the best anchorages along the entire Atlantic coast of America. The approach to the city, as mentioned earlier, is quite lovely, with the bay’s shores lined with trees down to the water and dotted with villages, farms, and country estates. However, the view of the city itself is less impressive; like many large cities, it’s nearly impossible to find a spot that captures its grandeur as a whole, and the ground it’s built on isn’t elevated anywhere. So, there’s not much that particularly stands out visually. Many smaller towns make a bigger impression in this regard.
Those ferry-boats! The idea in the minds of most Englishmen is associated with boats that may pass over from one or two to a dozen or so people, possibly a single horse, or a donkey-cart. There you find steamers a couple of hundred or more feet long, with, on either side of the engines, twenty or more feet space. On the true deck there is accommodation for carriages, carts, and horses by the score; above, a spacious saloon for passengers. They have powerful engines, and will easily beat the average steamship. On arrival at the dock, they run into a kind of slip, or basin, with piles around stuck in the soft bottom, which yield should she strike them, and entirely do away with any fear of [pg 197]concussion. “I may here add,” notes an intelligent writer,115 “that during my whole travels in the States, I found nothing more perfect in construction and arrangement than the ferries and their boats, the charges for which are most moderate, varying according to distances, and ranging from one halfpenny upwards.”
Those ferries! Most Englishmen think of small boats that can carry anywhere from one or two to a dozen or so people, maybe a single horse or a donkey cart. But then there are steamers that are a couple of hundred feet long, with about twenty feet of space on either side of the engines. On the actual deck, there’s room for numerous carriages, carts, and horses; above that, there's a spacious area for passengers. They have powerful engines and can easily outperform the average steamship. When they arrive at the dock, they slide into a sort of slip or basin, surrounded by piles stuck into the soft bottom, which flex if the boat hits them, eliminating any worries about collision. "I can add," notes an intelligent writer, 115 "Throughout my travels in the States, I found nothing more perfectly constructed and organized than the ferries and their boats. The fares are very reasonable, varying based on distance, and starting from just one halfpenny."
The sailor ashore in New York—and how many, many thousands visit it every year!—will find much to note. The public buildings of the great city are not remarkable; but the one great street, Broadway, which is about eight miles long, and almost straight, is a very special feature. Unceasing throngs of busy men and women, loungers and idlers, vehicles of all kinds, street cars, omnibuses, and carriages—there are no cabs hardly in New York—pass and re-pass from early morn to dewy eve, while the shops, always called “stores,” rival those of the Boulevards or Regent Street. Some of the older streets were, no doubt, as Washington Irving tells us, laid out after the old cow-paths, as they are as narrow and tortuous as those of any European city. The crowded state of Broadway at certain points rivals Cheapside. The writer saw in 1867 a light bridge, which spanned the street, and was intended for the use of ladies and timid pedestrians. When, in 1869, he re-passed through the city it had disappeared, and on inquiry he learnt the reason. Unprincipled roughs had stationed themselves at either end, and levied black-mail toll on old ladies and unsophisticated country-people.
The sailor on land in New York—and so many thousands visit it every year!—will find a lot to notice. The public buildings of the great city aren’t exceptional; but the one major street, Broadway, which is about eight miles long and almost straight, is a standout feature. Constant crowds of busy men and women, hangers-on and loafers, all sorts of vehicles, street cars, buses, and carriages—there are hardly any cabs in New York—move back and forth from early morning to evening, while the shops, always called “shops” are as impressive as those on the Boulevards or Regent Street. Some of the older streets, as Washington Irving points out, were likely laid out after the old cow-paths, as they are as narrow and winding as those of any European city. At certain points, the busyness of Broadway is comparable to Cheapside. The writer saw in 1867 a light bridge that crossed the street, meant for ladies and nervous pedestrians. When he passed through the city again in 1869, it was gone, and upon asking, he found out why. Unprincipled thugs had stationed themselves at either end, collecting extortion fees from elderly ladies and unsuspecting country folks.
So extreme is the difference between the intense heat of summer and the equally intense cold of winter in New York, that the residents regularly get thin in the former and stout in the latter. And what a sight are the two rivers at that time! Huge masses of ice, crashing among themselves, and making navigation perilous and sometimes impossible, descending the stream at a rapid rate; docks and slips frozen in; the riggings and shrouds of great ships covered with icicles, and the decks ready for immediate use as skating-rinks. The writer crossed in the ferry-boat from Jersey City to New York, in January, 1875, and acquired a sincere respect for the pilot, who wriggled and zig-zagged his vessel through masses of ice, against which a sharp collision would not have been a joke. When, on the following morning, he left for Liverpool, the steamship herself was a good model for a twelfth-night cake ornament, and had quite enough to do to get out from the wharf. Five days after, in mid-Atlantic, he was sitting on deck in the open air, reading a book, so much milder at such times is it on the open ocean.
The difference between the scorching heat of summer and the bone-chilling cold of winter in New York is so drastic that residents often lose weight in the summer and gain it in the winter. And what a sight the two rivers are during that time! Huge ice chunks crash into each other, making navigation dangerous and sometimes impossible, rushing downstream at a fast pace; docks and slips are frozen solid; the rigging and masts of large ships are covered in icicles, and the decks are ready to be used as skating rinks. The writer took the ferry from Jersey City to New York in January 1875 and gained a deep respect for the pilot, who maneuvered the boat through ice masses, as a sharp collision would have been no joke. On the following morning, when he departed for Liverpool, the steamship looked like a perfect decoration for a twelfth-night cake and struggled to get away from the wharf. Five days later, in the middle of the Atlantic, he was sitting on deck in the open air, reading a book, as it was much milder out on the open ocean during that time.
But our leave is over, and although it would be pleasant to travel in imaginative company up the beautiful Hudson, and visit one of the wonders of the world—Niagara, to-day a mere holiday excursion from New York—we must away, merely briefly noting before we go another of the wonders of the world, a triumph of engineering skill: the great Brooklyn bridge, which connects that city with New York. Its span is about three-quarters of a mile; large ships can pass under it, while vehicles and pedestrians cross in mid-air over their mast tops, between two great cities, making them one. Brooklyn is a great place for the residences of well-to-do New Yorkers, and the view from its “Heights”—an elevation covered with villas and mansions—is grand and extensive. Apart from this, Brooklyn is a considerable city, with numerous churches and chapels, public buildings, and places of amusement.
But our time here is up, and even though it would be nice to explore the beautiful Hudson River with imaginative company and visit one of the wonders of the world—Niagara Falls, which is now just a holiday trip from New York—we have to leave. Before we go, let’s briefly mention another wonder of the world, a feat of engineering: the great Brooklyn Bridge, which connects Brooklyn with New York. Its span is about three-quarters of a mile; large ships can pass underneath it, while vehicles and pedestrians cross high above their masts, linking the two great cities. Brooklyn is a fantastic place for well-off New Yorkers to live, and the view from its "Heights"—an area filled with villas and mansions—is impressive and expansive. Besides this, Brooklyn is a substantial city, with many churches and chapels, public buildings, and places of entertainment.
Halifax is the northernmost depôt of the whole West India and North American Station, and is often a great rendezvous of the Royal Navy. It is situated on a peninsula on the south-east coast of Nova Scotia, of which it is the capital. Its situation is very picturesque. The town stands on the declivity of a hill about 250 feet high, rising from one of the finest harbours in the world. The city front is lined with handsome wharfs, while merchants’ houses, dwellings, and public edifices arrange themselves on tiers, stretching along and up the sides of the hill. It has fine wide streets; the principal one, which runs round the edge of the harbour, is capitally paved. The harbour opposite the town, where ships usually anchor, is rather more than a mile wide, and after narrowing to a quarter of a mile above the upper end of the town, expands into Bedford Basin, a completely land-locked sheet of water. This grand sea-lake has an area of ten square miles, and is capable of containing any number of navies. Halifax possesses another advantage not common to every harbour of North America: it is accessible at all seasons, and navigation is rarely impeded by ice. There are two fine lighthouses at Halifax; that on an island off Sambro Head is 210 feet high. The port possesses many large ships of its own, generally employed in the South Sea whale and seal fishery. It is a very prosperous fishing town in other respects.
Halifax is the northernmost depot in the entire West India and North American Station and often serves as a major meeting point for the Royal Navy. It's located on a peninsula on the southeast coast of Nova Scotia, which is its capital. The setting is quite scenic. The town is built on the slope of a hill that rises about 250 feet from one of the finest harbors in the world. The waterfront is lined with beautiful wharves, while merchants' houses, homes, and public buildings are arranged in tiers along the hill. It has wide streets, with the main one circling the edge of the harbor and paved beautifully. The harbor in front of the town, where ships typically anchor, is just over a mile wide and narrows to a quarter of a mile above the northern end of the town before expanding into Bedford Basin, a completely landlocked body of water. This impressive sea-lake covers ten square miles and can accommodate any number of navies. Halifax also has an advantage not common to many North American harbors: it's accessible year-round, and ice rarely disrupts navigation. There are two impressive lighthouses in Halifax; one on an island off Sambro Head stands 210 feet tall. The port also has several large ships that are usually used for whaling and seal fishing in the South Seas. It's a thriving fishing town in other ways too.
The town of Halifax was founded in 1749. The settlers, to the number of 3,500, largely composed of naval and military men, whose expenses out had been paid by the [pg 199]British Government to assist in the formation of the station, soon cleared the ground from stumps, &c., and having erected a wooden government house and suitable warehouses for stores and provisions, the town was laid out so as to form a number of straight and handsome streets. Planks, doors, window-frames, and other portions of houses, were imported from the New England settlements, and the more laborious portion of the work, which the settlers executed themselves, was performed with great dispatch. At the approach of winter they found themselves comfortably settled, having completed a number of houses and huts, and covered others in a manner which served to protect them from the rigour of the weather, there very severe. There were now assembled at Halifax about 5,000 people, whose labours were suddenly suspended by the intensity of the frost, and there was in consequence considerable enforced idleness. Haliburton116 mentions the difficulty that the governor had to employ the settlers by sending them out on various expeditions, in palisading the town, and in other public works.
The town of Halifax was founded in 1749. The settlers, around 3,500 in number, were mostly naval and military personnel whose expenses had been covered by the [pg 199]British Government to help establish the station. They quickly cleared the land of stumps and built a wooden government house along with warehouses for supplies. The town was designed with a network of straight, attractive streets. Planks, doors, window frames, and other building materials were imported from New England, and the settlers handled the more labor-intensive tasks with great efficiency. By the time winter arrived, they were settled in comfortably, having completed several houses and huts, while also winterizing others to shield them from the harsh weather. The population in Halifax had grown to about 5,000 people, but their work was abruptly halted by the severe frost, resulting in significant enforced idleness. Haliburton mentions the challenges the governor faced in keeping the settlers occupied by sending them on various missions, such as building palisades around the town and working on other public projects.
In addition to £40,000 granted by the British Government for the embarkation and other expenses of the first settlers, Parliament continued to make annual grants for the same purpose, which, in 1755, amounted to the considerable sum of £416,000.
In addition to £40,000 provided by the British Government for the departure and other costs of the first settlers, Parliament kept making yearly grants for the same reason, which, in 1755, totaled a significant amount of £416,000.
The town of Halifax was no sooner built than the French colonists began to be alarmed, and although they did not think proper to make an open avowal of their jealousy and disgust, they employed their emissaries clandestinely in exciting the Indians to harass the inhabitants with hostilities, in such a manner as should effectually hinder them from extending their plantations, or perhaps, indeed, induce them to abandon the settlement. The Indian chiefs, however, for some time took a different view of the matter, waited upon the governor, and acknowledged themselves subjects of the crown of England. The French court thereupon renewed its intrigues with the Indians, and so far succeeded that for several years the town was frequently attacked in the night, and the English could not stir into the adjoining woods without the danger of being shot, scalped, or taken prisoners.
The town of Halifax was hardly established before the French colonists started to feel uneasy. While they didn't openly express their jealousy and frustration, they secretly sent agents to encourage the Indians to harass the settlers with attacks, aiming to effectively stop them from expanding their farms or possibly even force them to leave the settlement altogether. However, the Indian chiefs initially saw things differently; they visited the governor and recognized their allegiance to the British crown. In response, the French government renewed its efforts to influence the Indians, and over the next few years, the town faced frequent nighttime assaults. The English settlers found it dangerous to venture into the nearby woods, risking being shot, scalped, or captured.
Among the early laws of Nova Scotia was one by which it was enacted that no debts contracted in England, or in any of the colonies prior to the settlement of Halifax, or to the arrival of the debtor, should be recoverable by law in any court in the province. As an asylum for insolvent debtors, it is natural to suppose that Halifax attracted thither the guilty as well as the unfortunate; and we may form some idea of the state of public morals at that period from an order of Governor Cornwallis, which, after reciting that the dead were usually attended to the grave by neither relatives or friends, twelve citizens should in future be summoned to attend the funeral of each deceased person.
Among the early laws of Nova Scotia was a rule stating that no debts incurred in England or in any of the colonies before the settlement of Halifax, or before the arrival of the debtor, could be collected in any court in the province. As a refuge for insolvent debtors, it’s reasonable to think that Halifax attracted both the guilty and the unfortunate; we can get a sense of the public morals of that time from an order by Governor Cornwallis, which noted that the dead were usually not accompanied to the grave by relatives or friends. Therefore, twelve citizens would now be called to attend the funeral of each deceased person.
The Nova Scotians are popularly known by Canadians and Americans as “Blue Noses,” doubtless from the colour of their nasal appendages in bitter cold weather. It has been already mentioned that Halifax is now a thriving city; but there must have been a period when the people were not particularly enterprising, or else that most veracious individual, “Sam Slick,” greatly belied them. Judge Haliburton, in his immortal “Clockmaker,” introduces the following conversation with Mr. Slick:—
The Nova Scotians are commonly referred to by Canadians and Americans as “Blue Noses,” likely because of the color of their noses in freezing weather. It has been noted that Halifax is now a bustling city; however, there must have been a time when the people were not very ambitious, or else the notoriously truthful character, “Sam Slick,” exaggerated their qualities. Judge Haliburton, in his classic "Clockmaker," presents the following conversation with Mr. Slick:—
“ ‘You appear,’ said I to Mr. Slick, ‘to have travelled over the whole of this province, [pg 200]and to have observed the country and the people with much attention; pray, what is your opinion of the present state and future prospects of Halifax?’ ‘If you will tell me,’ said he, ‘when the folks there will wake up, then I can answer you; but they are fast asleep. As to the province, it’s a splendid province, and calculated to go ahead; it will grow as fast as a Virginny gall—and they grow so amazing fast, if you put one of your arms round one of their necks to kiss them, by the time you’ve done they’ve growed up into women. It’s a pretty province, I tell you, good above and better below: surface covered with pastures, meadows, woods, and a nation sight of water privileges; and under the ground full of mines. It puts me in mind of the soup at Treemont house—good enough at top, but dip down and you have the riches—the coal, the iron ore, the gypsum, and what not. As for Halifax, it’s well enough in itself, though no great shakes neither; a few sizeable houses, with a proper sight of small ones, like half-a-dozen old hens with their broods of young chickens: but the people, the strange critters, they are all asleep. They walk in their sleep, and talk in their sleep, and what they say one day they forget the next; they say they were dreaming.’ ” This was first published in England in 1838; all accounts now speak of Halifax as a well-built, paved, and cleanly city, and of its inhabitants as enterprising.
“'You seem,' I said to Mr. Slick, 'to have traveled all around this province, and to have closely observed the land and its people; please, what do you think of the current state and future prospects of Halifax?' He replied, 'If you can tell me when the people there will wake up, then I can answer you; but they are fast asleep. As for the province, it’s a fantastic place with a lot of potential; it will grow as quickly as a Virginia girl—and they grow so fast that if you put your arms around them to kiss them, by the time you’re done, they've grown up into women. It’s a beautiful province, I tell you, good on the surface and even better below: the land is filled with pastures, meadows, forests, and plenty of water resources; and underground, it’s full of minerals. It reminds me of the soup at Tremont House—good enough on top, but if you dig down, you discover the riches—the coal, iron ore, gypsum, and so on. As for Halifax, it’s decent in itself, but nothing extraordinary; a few larger houses, with plenty of smaller ones, like a handful of old hens with their chicks: but the people, those strange folks, they are all asleep. They walk in their sleep, talk in their sleep, and what they say one day, they forget the next; they claim they were dreaming.'” This was first published in England in 1838; all accounts now describe Halifax as a well-constructed, paved, and clean city, and its residents as enterprising.
CHAPTER 12.
Around the World on a Warship (continued).
THE AFRICAN STATION.
Its Extent—Ascension—Turtle at a Discount—Sierra Leone—An Unhealthy Station—The Cape of Good Hope—Cape Town—Visit of the Sailor Prince—Grand Festivities—Enthusiasm of the Natives—Loyal Demonstrations—An African “Derby”—Grand Dock Inaugurated—Elephant Hunting—The Parting Ball—The Life of a Boer—Circular Farms—The Diamond Discoveries—A £12,000 Gem—A Sailor First President of the Fields—Precarious Nature of the Search—Natal—Inducements held out to Settlers—St. Helena and Napoleon—Discourteous Treatment of a Fallen Foe—The Home of the Caged Lion.
Its Scope—Rise—Turtle for Sale—Sierra Leone—An Unhealthy Place—The Cape of Good Hope—Cape Town—Visit from the Sailor Prince—Grand Festivities—Local Excitement—Loyal Displays—An African “Derby”—Grand Dock Opened—Elephant Hunting—The Farewell Ball—The Life of a Boer—Circular Farms—The Diamond Discoveries—A £12,000 Gem—A Sailor Becomes the First President of the Fields—Uncertain Nature of the Search—Natal—Incentives Offered to Settlers—St. Helena and Napoleon—Harsh Treatment of a Fallen Enemy—The Home of the Caged Lion.
And now we are off to the last of the British naval stations under consideration—that of the African coast. It is called, in naval phraseology, “The West Coast of Africa and Cape of Good Hope Station,” and embraces not merely all that the words imply, but a part of the east coast, including the important colony of Natal. Commencing at latitude 20° N. above the Cape Verd Islands, it includes the islands of Ascension, St. Helena, Tristan d’Acunha, and others already described.
And now we are heading to the last of the British naval stations under consideration—the one on the African coast. It’s officially called "The West Coast of Africa and Cape of Good Hope Station," and it covers not just everything that name suggests but also part of the east coast, including the important colony of Natal. Starting at latitude 20° N. above the Cape Verde Islands, it includes the islands of Ascension, St. Helena, Tristan da Cunha, and others already mentioned.
Ascension, which is a British station, with dockyard, and fort garrisoned by artillery and marines, is a barren island, about eight miles long by six broad. Its fort is in lat. 70° 26′ N.: long., 140° 24′ W. It is of volcanic formation, and one of its hills rises to the considerable elevation of 2,870 feet. Until the imprisonment of Napoleon at St. Helena, it was utterly uninhabited. At that period it was garrisoned with a small British force; and so good use was made of their time that it has been partly cultivated and very greatly improved. Irrigation was found, as elsewhere, to work wonders, and as there are magnificent springs, this was rendered easy. Vast numbers of turtle are taken on its shores; and, in consequence, the soldiers prefer the soup of pea, and affect to despise turtle steaks worth half a guinea apiece in London, and fit to rejoice the heart of an alderman! The writer saw the same thing in Vancouver Island, where at the boarding-house of a very large steam saw-mill, the hands struck against the salmon, so abundant on those coasts. They insisted upon not having it more than twice a week for dinner, and that it should be replaced by salt pork. The climate of Ascension is remarkably healthy. The object in occupying it is very similar to the reason for holding the Falkland Islands—to serve as a depôt for stores, coal, and for watering ships cruising in the South Atlantic.
Ascension, which is a British station with a dockyard and a fort manned by artillery and marines, is a barren island that measures about eight miles long and six miles wide. Its fort is located at lat. 70° 26′ N and long. 140° 24′ W. The island is of volcanic origin, and one of its hills reaches a significant height of 2,870 feet. Until Napoleon was imprisoned at St. Helena, it was completely uninhabited. At that time, a small British force was stationed there, and they made good use of their time, leading to partial cultivation and significant improvements. Irrigation proved to be effective, and due to the availability of excellent springs, it was not difficult to implement. Many turtles are caught along its shores, so the soldiers prefer pea soup and pretend to look down on turtle steaks that are worth half a guinea each in London, which could delight any alderman! The author observed a similar attitude in Vancouver Island, where at a boarding house next to a large steam sawmill, workers encountered salmon in such abundance that they insisted on having it no more than twice a week for dinner, choosing to have salt pork instead. Ascension's climate is notably healthy. The purpose of occupying it is quite similar to that of the Falkland Islands—to serve as a depot for supplies, coal, and to provide water for ships operating in the South Atlantic.
Sierra Leone is, perhaps, of all places in the world, the last to which the sailor would wish to go, albeit its unhealthiness has been, as is the case with Panama, grossly exaggerated. Thus we were told that when a clergyman with some little influence was pestering the Prime Minister for the time being for promotion, the latter would appoint him to the Bishopric of Sierra Leone, knowing well that in a year or so the said bishopric would be vacant and ready for another gentleman!
Sierra Leone is, maybe, the last place in the world that any sailor would want to go, even though its unhealthiness has been, like in Panama, seriously overstated. We were told that when a clergyman with some influence kept bothering the Prime Minister at the time for a promotion, the Prime Minister would appoint him to the Bishopric of Sierra Leone, fully aware that in a year or so that position would be open and available for another person!
Sierra Leone is a British colony, and the capital is Free Town, situated on a peninsula lying between the broad estuary of the Sherboro and the Sierra Leone rivers, connected with the mainland by an isthmus not more than one mile and a half broad. The colony [pg 203]also includes a number of islands, among which are many good harbours. Its history has one interesting point. When, in 1787, it became a British colony, a company was formed, which included a scheme for making it a home for free negroes, and to prove that colonial produce could be raised profitably without resorting to slave labour. Its prosperity was seriously affected during the French Revolution by the depredations of French cruisers, and in 1808 the company ceded all its rights to the Crown. Its population includes negroes from 200 different African tribes, many of them liberated from slavery and slave-ships, a subject which will be treated hereafter in this work.
Sierra Leone is a British colony, and the capital is Freetown, located on a peninsula between the wide estuary of the Sherbro and Sierra Leone rivers, connected to the mainland by an isthmus that's no more than a mile and a half wide. The colony [pg 203]also includes several islands, many of which have great harbors. Its history has one interesting point. When it became a British colony in 1787, a company was formed with a plan to make it a home for free Africans and to demonstrate that colonial produce could be grown profitably without using slave labor. Its prosperity took a serious hit during the French Revolution due to attacks from French ships, and in 1808, the company gave up all its rights to the Crown. Its population includes people from 200 different African tribes, many of whom were freed from slavery and slave ships, a topic that will be discussed later in this work.
One of the great industries of Sierra Leone is the manufacture of cocoa-nut oil. The factories are extensive affairs. It is a very beautiful country, on the whole, and when acclimatised, Europeans find that they can live splendidly on the products of the country. The fisheries, both sea and river, are wonderfully productive, and employ about 1,500 natives. Boat-building is carried on to some extent, the splendid forests yielding timber so large that canoes capable of holding a hundred men have been made from a single log, like those already mentioned in connection with the north-west coast of America. Many of the West Indian products have been introduced; sugar, coffee, indigo, ginger, cotton, and rice thrive well, as do Indian corn, the yam, plantain, pumpkins, banana, cocoa, baobab, pine-apple, orange, lime, guava, papaw, pomegranate, orange, and lime. Poultry is particularly abundant. It therefore might claim attention as a fruitful and productive country but for the malaria of its swampy rivers and low lands.
One of the major industries in Sierra Leone is making coconut oil. The factories are massive operations. Overall, it's a beautiful country, and once acclimated, Europeans find that they can live quite well off the local products. The fisheries, both in the sea and rivers, are incredibly productive and provide jobs for about 1,500 locals. Boat-building is also practiced to some extent, with the amazing forests providing timber so large that canoes capable of holding a hundred people can be made from a single log, similar to those noted along the northwest coast of America. Many products from the West Indies have been introduced; sugar, coffee, indigo, ginger, cotton, and rice grow very well, alongside corn, yam, plantain, pumpkins, bananas, cocoa, baobab, pineapple, orange, lime, guava, pawpaw, and pomegranate. Poultry is especially plentiful. It could be recognized as a fruitful and productive country, if not for the malaria from its swampy rivers and lowlands.
And now, leaving Sierra Leone, our good ship makes for the Cape of Good Hope, passing, mostly far out at sea, down that coast along which the Portuguese mariners crept so cautiously yet so surely till Diaz and Da Gama reached South Africa, while the latter showed them the way to the fabled Cathaia, the Orient—India, China, and the Spice Islands.
And now, leaving Sierra Leone, our good ship heads towards the Cape of Good Hope, mostly sailing far out at sea along the coast where the Portuguese sailors crept carefully yet confidently until Diaz and Da Gama arrived in South Africa, while the latter guided them to the legendary Cathaia, the East—India, China, and the Spice Islands.
In the year 1486 “The Cape” of capes par excellence, which rarely nowadays bears its full title, was discovered by Bartholomew de Diaz, a commander in the service of John II. of Portugal. He did not proceed to the eastward of it, and it was reserved for the great Vasco da Gama—afterwards the first Viceroy of India—an incident in whose career forms, by-the-by, the plot of L’Africaine, Meyerbeer’s grand opera, to double it. It was called at first Cabo Tormentoso—“the Cape of Storms”—but by royal desire was changed to that of “Buon Esperanza”—“Good Hope”—the title it still bears. Cape Colony was acquired by Great Britain in 1620, although for a long time it was practically in the hands of the Dutch, a colony having been planted by their East India Company. The Dutch held it in this way till 1795, when the territory was once more taken by our country. It was returned to the Dutch at the Peace of Amiens, only to be snatched from them again in 1806, and finally confirmed to Britain at the general peace of 1815.
In 1486, “Cape Cod”, known as the ultimate cape, which rarely goes by its full name today, was discovered by Bartholomew de Diaz, a commander serving John II of Portugal. He didn't venture east of it, and it was left for the great Vasco da Gama—who later became the first Viceroy of India—an episode in his life that happens to be the plot of The African Woman, Meyerbeer’s grand opera, to navigate around it. It was initially named Cabo Tormentoso—“the Cape of Storms”—but at the request of the king, it was renamed to “Good Hope”—"Hopeful"—the name it still carries today. Cape Colony was taken by Great Britain in 1620, although it had largely been under Dutch control, with a colony established by their East India Company. The Dutch held onto it until 1795, when it was once again captured by Britain. It was returned to the Dutch at the Peace of Amiens, only to be seized by Britain again in 1806, and ultimately confirmed to Britain at the general peace of 1815.
The population, including the Boers, or farmers of Dutch descent, Hottentots, Kaffirs, and Malays, is not probably over 600,000, while the original territory is about 700 miles long by 400 wide, having an area of not far from 200,000 square miles. The capital of the colony is Cape Town, lying at the foot, as every schoolboy knows, of the celebrated Table Mountain.
The population, including the Boers (farmers of Dutch descent), Hottentots, Kaffirs, and Malays, is likely not more than 600,000. The original territory measures about 700 miles long and 400 miles wide, covering an area of nearly 200,000 square miles. The capital of the colony is Cape Town, located at the foot of the famous Table Mountain, as every school kid knows.
A recent writer, Mr. Boyle,117 speaks cautiously of Cape Town and its people. There are respectable, but not very noticeable, public buildings. “Some old Dutch houses there are, distinguishable chiefly by a superlative flatness and an extra allowance of windows. The population is about 30,000 souls, white, black, and mixed. I should incline to think more than half fall into the third category. They seem to be hospitable and good-natured in all classes.... There is complaint of slowness, indecision, and general ‘want of go’ about the place. Dutch blood is said to be still too apparent in business, in local government, and in society. I suppose there is sound basis for these accusations, since trade is migrating so rapidly towards the rival mart of Port Elizabeth.... But ten years ago the entire export of wool passed through Cape Town. Last year, as I find in the official returns, 28,000,000 lbs. were shipped at the eastern port out of the whole 37,000,000 lbs. produced in the colony. The gas-lamps, put up by a sort of coup d’état in the municipality, were not lighted until last year, owing to the opposition of the Dutch town councillors. They urged that decent people didn’t want to be out at night, and the ill-disposed didn’t deserve illumination. Such facts seem to show that the city is not quite up to the mark in all respects.”
A recent writer, Mr. Boyle,117 speaks cautiously about Cape Town and its people. There are respectable, but not very noticeable, public buildings. “There are some old Dutch houses, mainly noted for their unique flatness and extra windows. The population is about 30,000 people, including white, black, and mixed individuals. I’d guess that more than half fall into the mixed category. They seem to be friendly and good-natured across all classes.... People talk about the slowness, indecision, and a general ‘lack of drive’ in the area. It’s said that Dutch influence is still too strong in business, local government, and society. I think there’s some truth to these claims, as trade is quickly moving to the competing port of Port Elizabeth.... But ten years ago, all the wool exports went through Cape Town. Last year, according to official records, 28,000,000 lbs. were shipped from the eastern port out of the total 37,000,000 lbs. produced in the colony. The gas lamps, which were installed after a kind of coup d’état in the municipality, weren’t lit until last year because the Dutch town councillors opposed it. They claimed that decent people didn’t want to be out at night, and that those with bad intentions didn’t deserve lighting. These facts seem to show that the city isn’t quite meeting expectations in all areas.”
Simon’s Bay, near Table Bay, where Cape Town is situated, is a great rendezvous for the navy; there are docks and soldiers there, and a small town. The bay abounds in fish. The Rev. John Milner, chaplain of the Galatea, says that during the visit of Prince Alfred, “large shoals of fish (a sort of coarse mackerel) were seen all over the bay; numbers came alongside, and several of them were harpooned with grains by some of the youngsters from the accommodation-ladder. Later in the day a seal rose, and continued fishing and rising in the most leisurely manner. At one time it was within easy rifle distance, and might have been shot from the ship.”118 Fish and meat are so plentiful in the colony that living is excessively cheap.
Simon’s Bay, close to Table Bay where Cape Town is located, is a major meeting point for the navy, complete with docks, soldiers, and a small town. The bay is filled with fish. The Rev. John Milner, chaplain of the Galatea, mentions that during Prince Alfred’s visit, "Large schools of fish (a type of coarse mackerel) were seen all over the bay; many swam right up to the side of the ship, and a few kids from the accommodation ladder harpooned some with grains. Later that day, a seal showed up and casually fished, popping up in a very relaxed manner. At one point, it was within easy rifle range and could have been shot from the ship."118 Fish and meat are so abundant in the colony that living costs are extremely low.
The visit of his Royal Highness the Sailor Prince, in 1867, will long be remembered in the colony. That, and the recent diamond discoveries, prove that the people cannot be accused of sloth and want of enterprise. On arrival at Simon’s Bay, the first vessels made out were the Racoon, on which Prince Alfred had served his time as lieutenant, the Petrel, just returned from landing poor Livingstone at the Zambesi, and the receiving-ship Seringapatam. Soon followed official visits, dinner, ball, and fireworks from the ships. When the Prince was to proceed to Cape Town, all the ships fired a royal salute, and [pg 206]the fort also, as he landed at the jetty, where he was received by a guard of honour of the 99th Regiment. A short distance from the landing-place, at the entrance to the main street, was a pretty arch, decorated with flowering shrubs, and the leaves of the silver-tree. On his way to this his Royal Highness was met by a deputation from the inhabitants of Simon’s Town and of the Malay population. “This was a very interesting sight; the chief men, dressed in Oriental costumes, with bright-coloured robes and turbans, stood in front, and two of them held short wands decorated with paper flowers of various colours. The Duke shook hands with them, and then they touched him with their wands. They seemed very much pleased, and looked at him in an earnest and affectionate manner. Several of the Malays stood round with drawn swords, apparently acting as a guard of honour. The crowd round formed a very motley group of people of all colours—negroes, brown Asiatics, Hottentots, and men, women, and children of every hue. The policemen had enough to do to keep them back as they pressed up close round the Duke.” After loyal addresses had been received, and responded to, the Prince and suite drove off for Cape Town, the ride to which is graphically described by the chaplain and artist of the expedition. “The morning was very lovely. Looking to seaward was the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Hanglip, and the high, broken shores of Hottentot Holland, seen over the clear blue water of the bay. The horses, carriages, escort with their drawn swords, all dashing at a rattling pace along the sands in the bright sunshine, and the long lines of small breakers on the beach, was one of the most exhilarating sights imaginable. In places the cavalcade emerged from the sands up on to where the road skirts a rocky shore, and where at this season of the year beautiful arum lilies and other bright flowers were growing in the greatest profusion. About four miles from Simon’s Bay, we passed a small cove, called Fish-hook Bay, where a few families of Malay fishermen reside. A whale they had killed in the bay the evening before lay anchored ready for ‘cutting in.’ A small flag, called by whalers a ‘whiff,’ was sticking up in it. We could see from the road that it was one of the usual southern ‘right’ whales which occasionally come into Simon’s Bay, and are captured there. After crossing the last of the sands, we reached Kalk Bay, a collection of small houses where the people from Cape Town come to stay in the summer. As we proceeded, fresh carriages of private individuals and horsemen continued to join on behind, and it was necessary to keep a bright look-out to prevent them rushing in between the two carriages containing the Duke and Governor, with their suites. Various small unpretending arches (every poor man having put up one on his own account), with flags and flowers, spanned the road in different places between Simon’s Town and Farmer Peck’s, a small inn about nine miles from the anchorage, which used formerly to have the following eccentric sign-board:—
The visit of His Royal Highness the Sailor Prince in 1867 will be remembered in the colony for a long time. This, along with the recent diamond discoveries, demonstrates that the people cannot be accused of laziness or lack of initiative. Upon reaching Simon’s Bay, the first ships spotted were the Raccoon, where Prince Alfred had served as lieutenant, the Petrel, which had just returned from dropping off poor Livingstone at the Zambesi, and the receiving ship Seringapatam. Official visits, dinner, a ball, and fireworks from the ships soon followed. When the Prince was set to travel to Cape Town, all the ships fired a royal salute, and [pg 206]the fort also did, as he landed at the jetty, where he was greeted by a guard of honor from the 99th Regiment. A short distance from the landing area, at the start of the main street, stood a lovely arch decorated with flowering shrubs and silver-tree leaves. On his way there, His Royal Highness was met by a delegation from the residents of Simon’s Town and the Malay community. This was a really fascinating scene; the prominent figures, dressed in traditional Eastern outfits with colorful robes and turbans, stood at the front, and two of them held short sticks decorated with various colored paper flowers. The Duke shook hands with them, and then they touched him with their sticks. They seemed quite happy, looking at him earnestly and fondly. Several Malays stood nearby with drawn swords, acting as a guard of honor. The crowd was a diverse mix of people of all colors—Black individuals, brown Asians, Hottentots, and men, women, and children of every shade. The police were busy keeping them back as they pressed closely around the Duke. After receiving and responding to loyal addresses, the Prince and his entourage set off for Cape Town, with the ride vividly described by the chaplain and artist of the expedition. The morning was beautiful. Looking out to sea, we could see the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Hanglip, and the rugged shores of Hottentot Holland, all visible over the clear blue waters of the bay. The horses, carriages, and escort with their drawn swords sped along the sands at a brisk pace under the bright sunshine, with the long lines of small waves crashing on the beach creating one of the most exhilarating sights imaginable. At times, the procession moved from the sands onto the rocky shore, where at this time of year, beautiful arum lilies and other vibrant flowers bloomed in abundance. About four miles from Simon’s Bay, we passed a small cove known as Fish-hook Bay, where a few families of Malay fishermen lived. A whale they had caught the previous evening was anchored, ready for ‘cutting in.’ A small flag, called a ‘whiff,’ was flying from it. From the road, we could see it was one of the typical southern ‘right’ whales that occasionally enter Simon’s Bay to be captured there. After crossing the last stretch of sand, we arrived at Kalk Bay, a cluster of small homes where people from Cape Town come to stay in the summer. As we continued, more private carriages and horsemen joined the procession, making it important to watch for them to prevent them from cutting in between the two carriages carrying the Duke and the Governor, along with their entourages. Various small, unassuming arches (each local man had set one up on his own) adorned with flags and flowers stretched across the road at different spots between Simon’s Town and Farmer Peck’s, a small inn about nine miles from the anchorage, which once had the following eccentric signboard:—
This house was decorated with evergreens, and over the door was a stuffed South African leopard springing on an antelope. A little further on, after discussing lunch at a half-way house, a goodly number of volunteer cavalry, in blue-and-white uniforms, appeared to escort the Sailor Prince into Cape Town. The road passes through pleasant country; but the thick red dust which rose as the cavalcade proceeded was overwhelming. It was a South African version of the ‘Derby’ on a hot summer’s day. At various places parties of school-children, arrayed along the road-side, sung the National Anthem in little piping voices, the singing being generally conducted by mild-looking men in black gloves and spectacles. At one place stood an old Malay, playing ‘God Save the Queen’ on a cracked clarionet, who, quite absorbed as he was in his music, and apparently unconscious of all around him, looked exceedingly comic. There was everywhere a great scrambling crowd of Malays and black boys, running and tumbling over each other, shouting and laughing; women with children tied on their backs, old men, and girls dressed in every conceivable kind of ragged rig and picturesque colour, with head-gear of a wonderful nature, huge Malay hats, almost parasols in size, and resembling the thatch of an English corn-rick; crowns of old black hats; turbans of all proportions and colours, swelled the procession as it swept along. When the cavalry-trumpet sounded ‘trot,’ the cloud of dust increased tenfold. Everybody, apparently, who could muster a horse was mounted, so that ahead and on every side the carriage in which we were following the Duke was hemmed in and surrounded, and everything became mixed up in one thick cloud of red dust, in which helmets, swords, hats, puggeries, turbans, and horses almost disappeared. The crowd hurraed louder than ever, pigs squealed, dogs howled, riders tumbled off; the excitement was irresistible. ‘Oh! this is fun; stand up—never mind dignity. Whoo-whoop!’ and we were rushed into the cloud of dust, to escape being utterly swamped and left astern of the Duke, standing up in the carriage, and holding on in front, to catch what glimpses we could of what was going on.... Some of the arches were very beautiful; they were all decorated with flowering shrubs, flowers (particularly the arum lily) and leaves of the silver-tree. In one the words Welcome Back119 were formed with oranges. One of the most curious had on its top a large steamship, with Galatea inscribed upon it, and a funnel out of which real smoke was made to issue as the Duke passed under. Six little boys dressed as sailors formed the crew, and stood up singing ‘Rule Britannia.’ ” And so they arrived in Cape Town, to have levées, receptions, entertainments, and balls by the dozen.
This house was decorated with evergreens, and above the door was a stuffed South African leopard leaping onto an antelope. A little further down the road, after discussing lunch at a halfway house, a large group of volunteer cavalry in blue-and-white uniforms appeared to escort the Sailor Prince into Cape Town. The road went through beautiful countryside; however, the thick red dust that rose as the cavalcade moved along was overwhelming. It felt like a South African version of the ‘Derby’ on a hot summer day. At various spots, groups of schoolchildren lined the roadside, singing the National Anthem in soft voices, usually led by gentle-looking men in black gloves and glasses. At one point, an elderly Malay played ‘God Save the Queen’ on a cracked clarinet, completely engrossed in his music and seeming not to notice his surroundings, which looked rather funny. There were massive crowds of Malays and black boys everywhere, running and tumbling over each other, shouting and laughing; women with children strapped to their backs, old men, and girls dressed in all sorts of ragged clothing and colorful outfits, wearing extraordinary headgear, huge Malay hats that resembled thatch from an English corn rick, crowns of old black hats, and turbans of all shapes and colors filled the procession as it flowed along. When the cavalry trumpet sounded ‘trot,’ the cloud of dust grew significantly. Everyone who could find a horse was mounted, so we were surrounded on all sides by the carriage following the Duke, and everything was mixed together in a thick cloud of red dust, where helmets, swords, hats, puggeries, turbans, and horses almost vanished. The crowd cheered louder than ever, pigs squealed, dogs howled, and some riders fell off; the excitement was contagious. ‘Oh! this is fun; stand up—don’t worry about dignity. Whoo-whoop!’ We were swept into the cloud of dust, trying to avoid being completely overwhelmed and left behind the Duke, who stood up in the carriage, hanging on in front to catch whatever glimpses we could of what was happening.... Some of the arches were stunning; they were all decorated with flowering shrubs, flowers (especially the arum lily), and leaves of the silver tree. One arch formed the words Welcome Back__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ with oranges. One of the most interesting had a large steamship on top, with Galatea written on it, and a funnel from which real smoke was produced as the Duke passed underneath. Six little boys dressed as sailors made up the crew, singing ‘Rule Britannia.’ And so they arrived in Cape Town, ready for flood barriers, receptions, entertainments, and balls by the dozen.
While at the Cape the Duke of Edinburgh laid the foundation of a grand graving-dock, an adjunct to the Table Bay Harbour Works, a most valuable and important addition to the resources of the Royal Navy, enabling the largest ironclad to be repaired at that distant point. The dock is four hundred feet long, and ninety feet wide. For more than forty years previously frequent but unsuccessful efforts had been made to provide [pg 208]a harbour of refuge in Table Bay; now, in addition to this splendid dock, it has a fine breakwater.
While at the Cape, the Duke of Edinburgh established a major dry dock, which is part of the Table Bay Harbour Works. This is a significant and valuable enhancement to the resources of the Royal Navy, allowing even the largest ironclad ships to be repaired there. The dock measures four hundred feet in length and ninety feet in width. For over forty years before this, there had been numerous attempts to create a safe harbor in Table Bay, which were all unsuccessful; now, alongside this impressive dock, there is also a sturdy breakwater.
Officers of the Royal Navy may occasionally get the opportunity afforded the Prince, of attending an elephant hunt. From the neighbourhood of the Cape itself the biggest of beasts has long retired; but three hundred miles up the coast, at Featherbed Bay, where there is a settlement, it is still possible to enjoy some sport.
Officers of the Royal Navy might sometimes have the chance like the Prince to go to an elephant hunt. The largest animals have long left the area around the Cape itself, but three hundred miles up the coast, at Featherbed Bay, where there’s a settlement, it’s still possible to have some fun.
To leave the port or town of Knysna—where, by-the-by, the Duke was entertained at a great feed of South African oysters—was found to be difficult and perilous. The entrance to the harbour is very fine; a high cliff comes down sheer to the sea on one side, while on the other there is an angular bluff, with a cave through it. As the Petrel steamed out, a large group of the ladies of the district waved their handkerchiefs, and the elephant-hunters cheered. It was now evident, from the appearance of the bar, that the Petrel had not come out a moment too soon. A heavy sea of rollers extended nearly the whole way across the mouth of the harbour, and broke into a long thundering crest of foam, leaving only one small space on the western side clear of actual surf. For this opening the Petrel steered; but even there the swell was so great that the vessel reared and pitched fearfully, and touched the bottom as she dipped astern into the deep trough of the sea. The slightest accident to the rudder, and nothing short of a miracle could have saved them from going on to the rocks, where a tremendous surf was breaking. Providentially, she got out safely, and soon the party was transferred to the Racoon, which returned to Simon’s Bay.
Leaving the port or town of Knysna—where, by the way, the Duke was treated to a big feast of South African oysters—turned out to be challenging and risky. The entrance to the harbor is quite impressive; on one side, a steep cliff drops straight down to the sea, while on the other side, there's an angular bluff with a cave running through it. As the Petrel steamed out, a large group of the local ladies waved their handkerchiefs, and the elephant hunters cheered. It soon became clear, from the sight of the bar, that the Petrel hadn't left a moment too soon. A heavy set of waves stretched almost completely across the mouth of the harbor, crashing into a long thundering foam crest, leaving only a small area on the western side free of surf. The Petrel aimed for this opening; but even there, the swell was so intense that the vessel rocked and pitched violently, and it scraped the bottom as it dipped into the deep trough of the sea. A slight issue with the rudder, and nothing short of a miracle could have saved them from smashing into the rocks, where a massive surf was crashing. Fortunately, they made it out safely, and soon the party was moved to the Raccoon, which headed back to Simon’s Bay.
On his return from the elephant hunt, the Prince gave a parting ball. A capital ballroom, 135 feet long by 44 wide, was improvised out of an open boat-house by a party of blue-jackets, who, by means of ships’ lanterns, flags, arms arranged as ornaments, and beautiful ferns and flowers, effected a transformation as wonderful as anything recorded in the “Arabian Nights,” the crowning feature of the decorations being the head of one of the elephants from the Knysna, surmounting an arch of evergreens. Most of the visitors had to come all the way from Cape Town, and during the afternoon were to be seen flocking along the sands in vehicles of every description, many being conveyed to Simon’s Town a part of the distance in a navy steam-tender or the Galatea’s steam-launch. The ball was, of course, a grand success.
On his return from the elephant hunt, the Prince hosted a farewell ball. A fantastic ballroom, 135 feet long and 44 feet wide, was set up in an open boathouse by a group of sailors who used ship lanterns, flags, weapons arranged as decorations, and beautiful ferns and flowers to create a transformation as incredible as anything found in the "Arabian Nights" with the highlight of the decorations being the head of one of the elephants from Knysna, placed above an arch of evergreens. Most of the guests traveled all the way from Cape Town, and throughout the afternoon, they could be seen making their way along the sands in vehicles of all kinds, with many being transported to Simon’s Town for part of the distance in a navy steam tender or the Galatea steam launch. The ball was, of course, a huge success.
This not being a history of Cape Colony, but rather of what the sailor will find at or near its ports and harbours, the writer is relieved from any necessity of treating on past or present troubles with the Boers or the natives. Of course, everything was tinted couleur de rose at the Prince’s visit, albeit at that very time the colony was in a bad way, with over speculation among the commercial classes, a cattle plague, disease among sheep, and a grape-disease. Mr. Frederick Boyle, whose recent work on the Diamond-fields has been already quoted, and who had to leave a steamer short of coal at Saldanha Bay, seventy or eighty miles from Cape Town, and proceed by a rather expensive route, presents a picture far from gratifying of some of the districts through which he passed. At Saldanha Bay agriculture gave such poor returns that it did not even pay to export produce to the Cape. The settlers exist, but can hardly be said to live. They have plenty of cattle and sheep, sufficient maize and corn, but little money. Mr. Boyle describes the homestead of a Boer substantially as follows:—
This isn't a history of Cape Colony, but instead focuses on what sailors will find at its ports and harbors, allowing the writer to skip over any past or present issues with the Boers or the locals. Everything seemed rosy during the Prince’s visit, even though the colony was actually struggling, dealing with over-speculation among businesses, a cattle disease, illness in sheep, and a grape disease. Mr. Frederick Boyle, whose recent work on the Diamond-fields has been referenced, had to leave a ship that was low on coal at Saldanha Bay, about seventy or eighty miles from Cape Town, and take a more expensive route. He paints a rather unflattering picture of some of the areas he traveled through. At Saldanha Bay, agriculture was so poor that it wasn't even worth it to export goods to the Cape. The settlers exist but can barely be said to live. They have plenty of cattle and sheep, enough maize and corn, but very little cash. Mr. Boyle describes a Boer homestead in the following way:—
Reaching the home of a farmer named Vasson, he found himself in the midst of a scene quite patriarchal. All the plain before the house was white with sheep and lambs, drinking at the “dam” or in long troughs. The dam is an indispensable institution in a country where springs are scarce, and where a river is a prodigy. It is the new settler’s first work, even before erecting his house, to find a hollow space, and dam it up, so as to make a reservoir. He then proceeds to make the best sun-dried bricks he can, and to erect his cottage, usually of two, and rarely more than three, rooms. Not unfrequently, there is a garden, hardly worthy of the name, where a few potatoes and onions are raised. The farmers, more especially the Dutch, are “the heaviest and largest in the world.” At an early age their drowsy habits and copious feeding run them into flesh. “Three times a day the family gorges itself upon lumps of mutton, fried in the tallowy fat of the sheep’s tail, or else—their only change of diet—upon the tasteless fricadel—kneaded balls of meat and onions, likewise swimming in grease. Very few vegetables they have, and those are rarely used. Brown bread they make, but scarcely touch it. Fancy existing from birth to death upon mutton scraps, half boiled, half fried, in tallow! So doth the Boer. It is not eating, but devouring, with him. And fancy the existence! always alone with one’s father, mother, brothers, and sisters; of whom not one can do more than write his name, scarce one can read, not one has heard of any event in history, nor dreamed of such [pg 210]existing things as art or science, or poetry, or aught that pertains to civilisation.” An unpleasant picture, truly, and one to which there are many exceptions. It was doubtful whether Mr. Vasson could read. His farm was several thousand acres. The ancient law of Cape Colony gave the settler 3,000 morgen—something more than 6,000 acres. He was not obliged to take so much, but, whatever the size of his farm might be, it must be circular in shape; and as the circumference of a property could only touch the adjoining grants it follows that there were immense corners or tracts of land left waste between. Clever and ambitious farmers, in these later days, have been silently absorbing said corners into their estates, greatly increasing their size.
Reaching the home of a farmer named Vasson, he found himself in a very traditional setting. The area in front of the house was covered in sheep and lambs, drinking at the “dam” or in long troughs. The dam is a crucial feature in a country where springs are few and rivers are rare. For a new settler, the first task, even before building a house, is to find a low spot and create a dam for a water reservoir. After that, they make the best sun-dried bricks they can and build a cottage, typically with two rooms, rarely more than three. There’s often a small garden, not much to speak of, where a few potatoes and onions are grown. The farmers, especially the Dutch, are “the heaviest and largest in the world.” From a young age, their lethargic lifestyle and heavy eating lead them to gain weight. “Three times a day, the family feasts on chunks of mutton, fried in the fatty grease from the sheep’s tail, or else— their only change of diet— on the bland fricadel—balls of meat and onions, also soaked in grease. They have very few vegetables, and those are rarely used. They make brown bread but hardly eat it. Imagine living from birth to death on mutton scraps, half boiled and half fried in fat! That’s how the Boer lives. It’s not just eating; it’s devouring for him. And consider the life! Always alone with one’s father, mother, brothers, and sisters; none of whom can do more than write their name, hardly any can read, none have heard about any historical events, nor dreamed of things like art or science, or poetry, or anything related to civilization.” It’s truly an unpleasant picture, though there are many exceptions. It was unclear whether Mr. Vasson could read. His farm spanned several thousand acres. The old law of Cape Colony gave settlers 3,000 morgen—over 6,000 acres. They weren’t required to take the full amount, but whatever size their farm was, it had to be circular in shape; and since the circumference could only touch the neighboring lands, it meant there were vast unused corners or pieces of land left empty in between. Clever and ambitious farmers in recent years have been quietly absorbing those corners into their properties, significantly increasing their size.
The Cape cannot be recommended to the notice of poor emigrants, but to capitalists it offers splendid inducements. Mr. Irons, in his work on the Cape and Natal settlements,120 cites several actual cases, showing the profits on capital invested in sheep-farming. In one case £1,250 realised, in about three years, £2,860, which includes the sale of the wool. A second statement gives the profits on an outlay of £2,225, after seven years. It amounts to over £8,000. Rents in the towns are low; beef and mutton do not exceed fourpence per pound, while bread, made largely from imported flour, is a shilling and upwards per four-pound loaf.
The Cape isn't a good choice for poor emigrants, but it offers fantastic opportunities for investors. Mr. Irons, in his book on the Cape and Natal settlements,120 mentions several real cases that demonstrate the profits from investing in sheep farming. In one instance, £1,250 grew to £2,860 in about three years, including wool sales. Another example shows a profit from an investment of £2,225 after seven years, totaling over £8,000. Town rents are low; beef and mutton cost no more than fourpence per pound, while bread, mostly made from imported flour, sells for a shilling or more per four-pound loaf.
So many sailors have made for the Diamond-fields, since their discovery, from the Cape, Port Elizabeth, or Natal, and so many more will do the same, as any new deposit is found, that it will not be out of place here to give the facts concerning them. In 1871, when Mr. Boyle visited them, the ride up cost from £12 to £16, with additional expenses for meals, &c. Of course, a majority of the 50,000 men who have been congregated at times at the various fields could not and did not afford this; but it is a tramp of 750 miles from Cape Town, or 450 from Port Elizabeth or Natal. From the Cape, a railway, for about sixty miles, eases some of the distance. On the journey up, which reads very like Western experiences in America, two of three mules were twenty-six hours and a half in harness, and covered 110 miles! South Africa requires a society for the prevention of cruelty to animals, one would think. Mr. Boyle also saw another way by which the colonist may become rapidly wealthy—in ostrich-farming. Broods, purchased for £5 to £9, in three years gain their full plumages, and yield in feathers £4 to £6 per annum. They become quite tame, are not delicate to rear, and are easily managed. And they also met the down coaches from the fields, on one of which a young fellow—almost a boy—had no less than 235 carats with him. At last they reached Pniel (“a camp”), a place which once held 5,000 workers and delvers, and in November, 1872, was reduced to a few hundred, like the deserted diggings in California and Australia. It had, however, yielded largely for a time.
So many sailors have headed to the diamond fields since they were discovered, coming from the Cape, Port Elizabeth, or Natal, and many more will follow as new deposits are found. It’s worth sharing some facts about them. In 1871, when Mr. Boyle visited, the trip cost between £12 and £16, plus additional expenses for meals, etc. Of course, most of the 50,000 men who gathered at various fields at times couldn’t afford this. It’s a trek of 750 miles from Cape Town or 450 from Port Elizabeth or Natal. A railway from the Cape helps with about sixty miles of the distance. On the way up, which sounds a lot like adventures in the American West, two or three mules spent twenty-six and a half hours in harness and covered 110 miles! One might think South Africa needs an organization to prevent cruelty to animals. Mr. Boyle also observed another way for colonists to make quick money—ostrich farming. Chicks bought for £5 to £9 can grow their full plumage in three years and produce feathers worth £4 to £6 a year. They become quite tame, aren’t hard to raise, and are easy to manage. They even encountered coaches coming from the fields, one of which had a young guy—almost a boy—with 235 carats. Finally, they reached Pniel (“a campsite”), a place that once housed 5,000 workers and diggers but was down to just a few hundred by November 1872, similar to the abandoned diggings in California and Australia. However, it had produced a lot at one time.
The words, “Here be diamonds,” are to be found inscribed on an old mission-map of a part of the Colony, of the date of 1750, or thereabouts. In 1867, a trader up country, near Hope Town, saw the children of a Boer playing with some pebbles, picked up along the banks of the Orange River. An ostrich-hunter named O’Reilly was present, and the pair of them were struck with the appearance of one of the stones, and they tried it on glass, scratching the sash all over. A bargain was soon struck: O’Reilly was to take it to Cape Town; and there Sir P. E. Wodehouse soon gave him £500 for it. Then came an [pg 211]excitement, of course. In 1869, a Hottentot shepherd, named Swartzboy, brought to a country store a gem of 83½ carats. The shopman, in his master’s absence, did not like to risk the £200 worth of goods demanded. Swartzboy passed on to the farm of one Niekirk, where he asked, and eventually got, £400. Niekirk sold it for £12,000 the same day! Now, of course, the excitement became a fevered frenzy.
The words, “Here are diamonds,” are found inscribed on an old mission map of part of the Colony, dated around 1750. In 1867, a trader upcountry, near Hope Town, saw some Boer children playing with pebbles they picked up along the banks of the Orange River. An ostrich hunter named O’Reilly was there, and they both noticed one of the stones looked special, so they tested it on glass and it scratched the surface. They quickly made a deal: O’Reilly would take it to Cape Town, where Sir P. E. Wodehouse soon paid him £500 for it. This naturally caused a big stir. In 1869, a Hottentot shepherd named Swartzboy brought a gem weighing 83½ carats to a local store. The shop assistant, in his boss’s absence, didn’t want to risk the £200 worth of goods Swartzboy was asking for. So, Swartzboy moved on to a farm owned by Niekirk, where he asked for, and eventually got, £400. Niekirk sold it the same day for £12,000! At that point, the excitement turned into a full-blown frenzy.
Supreme among the camps around Pniel reigned Mr. President Parker, a sailor who, leaving the sea, had turned trader. Mr. Parker, with his counsellors, were absolute in power, and, all in all, administered justice very fairly. Ducking in the river was the mildest punishment; the naval “cat” came next; while dragging through the river was the third grade; last of all came the “spread eagle,” in which the culprit was extended flat, hands and feet staked down, and so exposed to the angry sun.
At the top of the camps around Pniel was Mr. President Parker, a sailor who, after leaving the sea, became a trader. Mr. Parker and his advisors held absolute power and, overall, administered justice quite fairly. Ducking in the river was the easiest punishment; the naval “cat” was next; then there was dragging through the river; and lastly came the “spread eagle” where the offender was laid flat, hands and feet staked down, exposed to the harsh sun.
In a short time, the yield from the various fields was not under £300,000 per month, and claims were sold at hundreds and thousands of pounds apiece. Then came a time of depression, when the dealers would not buy, or only at terribly low prices. Meantime, although meat was always cheap, everything else was very high. A cabbage, for example, often fetched 10s., a water-melon 15s., and onions and green figs a shilling apiece. Forage for horses was half-a-crown a bundle of four pounds. To-day they are little higher on the Fields than in other parts of the Colony.
In a short time, the profits from the various fields were not less than £300,000 per month, and claims were sold for hundreds and thousands of pounds each. Then came a period of economic downturn, when dealers wouldn’t buy, or only at extremely low prices. Meanwhile, although meat was always cheap, everything else was very expensive. A cabbage, for instance, often went for 10 shillings, a watermelon for 15 shillings, and onions and green figs for a shilling each. Horse feed was half a crown for a bundle of four pounds. Today, they are only slightly higher in the Fields than in other parts of the Colony.
That a number of diggers have made snug little piles, ranging from two or three to eight, ten, or more thousand pounds, is undeniable, but they were very exceptional cases, after all. The dealers in diamonds, though, often turned over immense sums very rapidly.
That quite a few diggers have made comfortable amounts of money, ranging from two or three thousand to eight, ten, or even more thousand pounds, is undeniable, but those were very rare cases, after all. However, the diamond dealers often moved large sums of money very quickly.
And now, before taking our leave of the African station, let us pay a flying visit to Natal, which colony has been steadily rising of late years, and which offers many advantages to the visitor and settler. The climate, in spite of the hot sirocco which sometimes blows over it, and the severe thunderstorms, is, all in all, superior to most of the African climates, inasmuch as the rainfall is as nearly as possible that of London, and it falls at the period when most wanted—at the time of greatest warmth and most active vegetation. The productions of Natal are even more varied than those of the Cape, while arrowroot, sugar, cotton, and Indian corn are staple articles. The great industries are cattle and sheep-rearing, and, as in all parts of South Africa, meat is excessively cheap, retailing at threepence or fourpence a pound.
And now, before we leave the African station, let’s take a quick trip to Natal, a colony that has been steadily improving in recent years and offers many benefits for visitors and settlers. The climate, despite the hot sirocco winds that occasionally blow through and the severe thunderstorms, is generally better than most African climates because the rainfall is similar to that of London and occurs when it’s most needed—during the hottest times and when plants are growing most actively. Natal has a wider variety of products than the Cape, with staple items including arrowroot, sugar, cotton, and corn. The main industries are raising cattle and sheep, and, like in all parts of South Africa, meat is incredibly cheap, selling for three or four pence a pound.
Natal was discovered by Vasco da Gama, and received from him the name of Terra Natalis—“Land of the Nativity”—because of his arriving on Christmas Day. Until 1823 it was little known or visited. A settlement was then formed by a party of Englishmen, who were joined by a number of dissatisfied Dutchmen from the Cape. In 1838 the British Government took possession. There was a squabble, the colonists being somewhat defiant for a while, and some little fighting ensued. It was proposed by the settlers to proclaim the Republic of Natalia, but on the appearance of a strong British force, they subsided quietly, and Natal was placed under the control of the Governor of the Cape. In 1856, it was erected into a separate colony.
Natal was discovered by Vasco da Gama, who named it Terra Natalis—"Birthplace of Jesus"—because he arrived on Christmas Day. Until 1823, it was mostly unknown and not frequently visited. A settlement was then established by a group of Englishmen, who were joined by several dissatisfied Dutchmen from the Cape. In 1838, the British Government took control. There was a bit of tension, with the colonists being somewhat defiant for a time, and some minor fighting broke out. The settlers proposed to declare the Republic of Natalia, but when a strong British force appeared, they quickly calmed down, and Natal was placed under the authority of the Governor of the Cape. In 1856, it became a separate colony.
To moderate capitalists it offers many advantages. Land is granted on the easiest terms, usually four shillings per acre; and free grants are given, in proportion to a settler’s capital: £500 capital receives a land order for 200 acres. An arrowroot plantation and [pg 212]factory can be started for £500 or £600, and a coffee plantation for something over £1,000. Sugar-planting, &c., is much more expensive, and would require for plant, &c., £5,000, or more.
To moderate capitalists, it offers many advantages. Land is provided on very easy terms, usually four shillings per acre; and free grants are available based on a settler’s capital: £500 in capital gets a land order for 200 acres. You can start an arrowroot plantation and [pg 212]factory for £500 or £600, and a coffee plantation for just over £1,000. Sugar planting, etc., is much more expensive and would require at least £5,000 or more for plants, etc.
And now, on the way home from the African station, the good ship will pass close to, if indeed it does not touch at, the Island of St. Helena, a common place of refreshment for vessels sailing to the northward. Vessels coming southward rarely do so; sailing ships can hardly make the island. It lies some 1,200 miles from the African coasts, in mid-ocean. St. Helena has much the appearance, seen from a distance, of the summit of some great submarine mountain, its rugged and perpendicular cliffs rising from the shore to altitudes from 300 to 1,500 feet. In a few scattered places there are deep, precipitous ravines, opening to the sea, whose embouchures form difficult but still possible landing-places for the fishermen. In one of the largest of these, towards the north-west, the capital and port of the island, James Town, is situated. It is the residence of the authorities. The anchorage is good and sufficiently deep, and the port is well protected from the winds. The town is entered by an arched gateway, within which is a spacious parade, lined with official residences, and faced by a handsome church. The town is in no way remarkable, but has well-supplied shops. The leading inhabitants prefer to live outside it on the higher and cooler plateaux of the island, where many of them have very fine country houses, foremost of which is a villa named Plantation House, belonging to the governor, surrounded by pleasant grounds, handsome trees and shrubs. In the garden grounds tropical and ordinary fruits and vegetables flourish; the mango, banana, tamarind, and sugar-cane; the orange, citron, grape, fig, and olive, equally with the common fruits of England. The yam and all the European vegetables abound; three crops of potatoes have been often raised from the same ground in one year. The hills are covered with the cabbage tree, and the log-wood and gum-wood trees. Cattle and sheep are scarce, but goats browse in immense herds on the hills. No beasts of prey are to be met, but there are plenty of unpleasant and poisonous insects. Game and fish are abundant, and turtles are often found. All in all, it is not a bad place for Jack after a long voyage, although not considered healthy. It has a military governor, and there are barracks.
And now, on the way home from the African station, the good ship will pass close to, or maybe even stop at, the Island of St. Helena, a popular stop for ships heading north. Ships coming from the south rarely visit; sailing vessels can barely reach the island. It’s about 1,200 miles from the African coast, right in the middle of the ocean. From a distance, St. Helena looks like the peak of a massive underwater mountain, with its steep and vertical cliffs rising from the shore to heights between 300 and 1,500 feet. There are a few scattered deep, steep ravines that open up to the sea, creating challenging but possible landing spots for fishermen. In one of the largest ravines, towards the northwest, is the capital and port of the island, Jamestown. This is where the authorities live. The anchorage is good and deep enough, and the port is well-protected from the winds. The town features an arched gateway leading into a wide parade area, lined with official residences and facing a pretty church. The town isn’t particularly special, but the shops are well-stocked. Most of the prominent residents prefer to live outside the town on the higher, cooler plateaus of the island, where many of them have impressive country homes. The most notable is a villa called Plantation House, which belongs to the governor, surrounded by lovely grounds and beautiful trees and shrubs. In the garden, both tropical and regular fruits and vegetables thrive, including mangoes, bananas, tamarinds, sugar cane, oranges, citrons, grapes, figs, and olives, along with common English fruits. Yams and all European vegetables grow abundantly; it’s common to get three crops of potatoes from the same land in one year. The hills are covered with cabbage trees, logwood, and gumwood trees. Cattle and sheep are rare, but you’ll find large herds of goats grazing on the hills. There are no predators, but there are plenty of annoying and poisonous insects. Game and fish are plentiful, and turtles can often be found. Overall, it’s not a bad spot for sailors after a long journey, though it isn’t regarded as particularly healthy. There’s a military governor, and barracks are present.
The interior is a plateau, divided by low mountains, the former averaging 1,500 feet above the sea. The island is undoubtedly of volcanic origin. It was discovered on the 22nd May (St. Helena’s Day), by Juan de Nova, a Portuguese. The Dutch first held it, and it was wrested from them first by England in 1673, Charles II. soon afterwards granting it to the East India Company, who, with the exception of the period of Napoleon’s imprisonment, held the proprietorship to 1834, when it became an appanage of the Crown.
The interior is a plateau, separated by low mountains, averaging 1,500 feet above sea level. The island is definitely volcanic in origin. It was discovered on May 22nd (St. Helena’s Day) by Juan de Nova, a Portuguese explorer. The Dutch were the first to control it, but it was taken from them by England in 1673. Charles II soon granted it to the East India Company, which kept ownership until 1834, except during the time of Napoleon’s imprisonment, when it became a part of the Crown.
The fame of the little island rests on its having been the prison of the great disturber of Europe. Every reader knows the circumstances which preceded that event. He had gone to Rochefort with the object of embarking for America, but finding the whole coast so blockaded as to render that scheme impracticable, surrendered himself to Captain Maitland, commander of the English man-of-war Bellerophon, who immediately set sail for Torbay. No notice whatever was taken of his letter—an uncourteous proceeding, to say the least of it, towards a fallen foe—and on the 7th of August he was removed [pg 213]to the Northumberland, the flag-ship of Sir George Cockburn, which immediately set sail for St. Helena.
The fame of the little island comes from being the prison of the great disruptor of Europe. Every reader knows the circumstances leading up to that event. He had gone to Rochefort intending to sail to America, but finding the entire coast so blockaded that it made that plan impossible, he surrendered to Captain Maitland, the commander of the English warship Bellerophon, who then set sail for Torbay. His letter received no acknowledgment whatsoever—an impolite act, to say the least, towards a defeated enemy—and on the 7th of August, he was transferred [pg 213]to the Northumberland, the flagship of Sir George Cockburn, which promptly set sail for St. Helena.
On arrival the imperial captive was at first lodged in a sort of inn. The following day the ex-emperor and suite rode out to visit Longwood, the seat selected for his residence, and when returning noted a small villa with a pavilion attached to it, about two miles from the town, the residence of Mr. Balcombe, an inhabitant of the island. The spot attracted the emperor’s notice, and the admiral, who had accompanied him, thought it would be better for him to remain there than to go back to the town, where the sentinels at the doors and the gaping crowds in a manner confined him to his chamber. The place pleased the emperor, for the position was quiet, and commanded a fine view. The pavilion was a kind of summer-house on a pointed eminence, about fifty paces from the house, where the family were accustomed to resort in fine weather, and this was the retreat hired for the temporary abode of the emperor. It contained only one room on the ground-floor, without curtains or shutters, and scarcely possessed a seat; and when Napoleon retired to rest, one of the windows had to be barricaded, so draughty was it, in order to exclude the night air, to which he had become particularly sensitive. What a contrast to the gay palaces of France!
Upon arrival, the imperial captive was initially settled in a kind of inn. The next day, the former emperor and his entourage rode out to check out Longwood, the place chosen for his residence. On their way back, they noticed a small villa with a pavilion about two miles from town, which belonged to Mr. Balcombe, a local resident. The location caught the emperor’s attention, and the admiral who was with him suggested it would be better for him to stay there rather than return to the town, where the sentinels at the doors and the curious crowds kept him mostly confined to his room. The emperor liked the place because it was quiet and had a nice view. The pavilion was like a summer house on a steep hill, about fifty steps from the main house, where the family would go in nice weather, and this was the temporary retreat rented for the emperor. It had just one room on the ground floor, with no curtains or shutters, and barely any seating. When Napoleon went to bed, one of the windows had to be blocked up since it was so drafty, to keep out the night air, which he had become especially sensitive to. What a contrast to the lavish palaces of France!
In December the emperor removed to Longwood, riding thither on a small Cape [pg 214]horse, and in his uniform of a chasseur of the guards. The road was lined with spectators, and he was received at the entrance to Longwood by a guard under arms, who rendered the prescribed honour to their illustrious captive. The place, which had been a farm of the East India Company, is situated on one of the highest parts of the island, and the difference between its temperature and that of the valley below is very great. It is surrounded by a level height of some extent, and is near the eastern coast. It is stated that continual and frequently violent winds blow regularly from the same quarter. The sun was rarely seen, and there were heavy rainfalls. The water, conveyed to Longwood in pipes, was found to be so unwholesome as to require boiling before it was fit for use. The surroundings were barren rocks, gloomy deep valleys, and desolate gullies, the only redeeming feature being a glimpse of the ocean on one hand. All this after La Belle France!
In December, the emperor moved to Longwood, riding there on a small Cape horse, dressed in his uniform as a chasseur of the guards. The road was lined with onlookers, and he was welcomed at the entrance to Longwood by a guard standing at attention, who paid the required tribute to their famous captive. The location, which had previously been a farm for the East India Company, is situated on one of the highest points of the island, and the temperature difference between it and the valley below is quite significant. It's surrounded by a flat area of considerable size and is close to the eastern coast. It’s said that strong, often violent winds consistently blow from the same direction. The sun was seldom seen, and heavy rains occurred regularly. The water, brought to Longwood through pipes, was found to be so unhealthy that it had to be boiled before it was safe to use. The landscape consisted of barren rocks, gloomy deep valleys, and bleak gullies, with the only redeeming aspect being a glimpse of the ocean on one side. All this after La Belle France!
Longwood as a residence had not much to boast of. The building was rambling and inconveniently arranged; it had been built up by degrees, as the wants of its former inmates had increased. One or two of the suite slept in lofts, reached by ladders and trap-doors. The windows and beds were curtainless, and the furniture mean and scanty. Inhospitable and in bad taste, ye in power at the time! In front of the place, and separated by a tolerably deep ravine, the 53rd Regiment was encamped in detached bodies on the neighbouring heights. Here the caged lion spent the last five weary years of his life till called away by the God of Battles.
Longwood as a home didn’t have much to be proud of. The building was sprawling and inconveniently laid out; it had been constructed over time as the needs of its previous residents grew. One or two of the rooms had beds in lofts, accessed by ladders and trapdoors. The windows and beds didn’t have curtains, and the furniture was minimal and shabby. Unwelcoming and poorly designed, you in power at the time! In front of the place, and separated by a fairly deep ravine, the 53rd Regiment was camped in separate groups on the nearby hills. Here, the imprisoned lion spent the last five exhausting years of his life until he was called away by the God of Battles.
CHAPTER 13.
The Service—Officers' Life Aboard.
Conditions of Life on Ship-board—A Model Ward-room—An Admiral’s Cabin—Captains and Captains—The Sailor and his Superior Officers—A Contrast—A Commander of the Old School—Jack Larmour—Lord Cochrane’s Experiences—His Chest Curtailed—The Stinking Ship—The First Command—Shaving under Difficulties—The Speedy and her Prizes—The Doctor—On Board a Gun-boat—Cabin and Dispensary—Cockroaches and Centipedes—Other horrors—The Naval Chaplain—His Duties—Stories of an Amateur—The Engineer—His Increasing Importance—Popularity of the Navy—Nelson always a Model Commander—The Idol of his Colleagues, Officers, and Men—Taking the Men into his Confidence—The Action between the Bellona and Courageux—Captain Falknor’s Speech to the Crew—An Obsolete Custom—Crossing the Line—Neptune’s Visit to the Quarter-deck—The Navy of To-day—Its Backbone—Progressive Increase in the Size of Vessels—Naval Volunteers—A Noble Movement—Excellent Results—The Naval Reserve.
Life on a Ship—A Model Wardroom—An Admiral’s Cabin—Captains and Their Commanders—The Sailor and His Superior Officers—A Comparison—An Old-School Commander—Jack Larmour—Lord Cochrane’s Experiences—His Supplies Cut Short—The Unpleasant Ship—His First Command—Shaving in Tough Conditions—The Fast and Her Captured Ships—The Doctor—Onboard a Gunboat—Cabin and Medical Room—Cockroaches and Centipedes—Other Nightmares—The Naval Chaplain—His Roles—Stories from an Amateur—The Engineer—His Growing Importance—Popularity of the Navy—Nelson as a Model Commander—The Idol of His Peers, Officers, and Crew—Trusting His Men—The Conflict between the Bellona and Brave—Captain Falknor’s Speech to the Crew—An Old Tradition—Crossing the Line—Neptune’s Visit to the Quarterdeck—The Modern Navy—Its Foundation—Larger Ships—Naval Volunteers—A Noble Effort—Positive Results—The Naval Reserve.
In the previous pages we have given some account of the various stations visited by the Royal Navy of Great Britain. Let us next take a glance at the ships themselves—the quarter-deck, the captain’s cabin, and the ward-room. In a word, let us see how the officers of a ship live, move, and have their being on board.
In the previous pages, we've provided an overview of the different locations visited by the Royal Navy of Great Britain. Now, let's take a look at the ships themselves—the quarter-deck, the captain’s cabin, and the wardroom. In short, let's explore how the officers of a ship live, work, and exist on board.
Their condition depends very much on their ship, their captain, and themselves. The first point may be dismissed briefly, as the general improvement in all descriptions of vessels, including their interior arrangements, is too marked to need mentioning. The ward-room of a modern man-of-war is often as well furnished as any other dining-room—handsomely carpeted, the sides adorned with pictures, with comfortable chairs and lounges, [pg 215]and excellent appointments at table. In the ward-room of a Russian corvette visited by the writer, he found a saloon large enough for a ball, with piano, and gorgeous side-board, set out as in the houses of most of the northern nations of Europe, with sundry bottles and incitives to emptying them, in the shape of salt anchovies and salmon, caviare and cheese. In a British flag-ship he found the admiral’s cabin, while in port at least, a perfect little bijou of a drawing-room, with harmonium and piano, vases of flowers, portfolios of drawings, an elaborate stove, and all else that could conduce to comfort and luxury. Outside of this was a more plainly-furnished cabin, used as a dining-room. Of course much of this disappears at sea. The china and glass are securely packed, and all of the smaller loose articles stowed away; the piano covered up in canvas and securely “tied up” to the side; likely enough the carpet removed, and a rough canvas substituted. Still, all is ship-shape and neat as a new pin. The few “old tubs” of vessels still in the service are rarely employed beyond trifling harbour duties, or are kept for emergencies on foreign stations. They will soon disappear, to be replaced by smart and handy little gun-boats or other craft, where, if the accommodations are limited, at least the very most is made of the room at command. How different all this is to many of the vessels of the last century and commencement of this, described by our nautical novelists as little better than colliers, pest ships, and tubs, smelling of pitch, paint, bilge-water, tar, and rum! Readers will remember Marryat’s captain, who, with his wife, was so inordinately fond of pork that he turned his ship into a floating pig-sty. At his dinner there appeared mock-turtle soup (of pig’s head); boiled pork and pease pudding; roast spare rib; sausages and pettitoes; and, last of all, sucking-pig. He will doubtless remember how he was eventually frightened off the ship, then about to proceed to the West Indies, by the doctor telling him that with his habit of living he would not give much for his life on that station. But although Marryat’s characters were true to the life of his time, you would go far to find a similar example to-day. Captains still have their idiosyncrasies, but not of such a marked nature. There may be indolent captains, like he who was nicknamed “The Sloth;” or, less likely, prying captains, like he in “Peter Simple,” who made himself so unpopular that he lost all the good sailors on board, and had to put up with a “scratch crew;” or (a comparatively harmless variety) captains who amuse their officers with the most outrageous yarns, but who are in all else the souls of honour. Who can help laughing over that Captain Kearney, who tells the tale of the Atta of Roses ship? He relates how she had a puncheon of the precious essence on board; it could be smelt three miles off at sea, and the odour was so strong on board that the men fainted when they ventured near the hold. The timbers of the ship became so impregnated with the smell that they could never make any use of her afterwards, till they broke her up and sold her to the shopkeepers of Brighton and Tunbridge-wells, who turned her into scented boxes and fancy articles, and then into money. The absolutely vulgar captain is a thing of the past, for the possibilities of entering “by the hawse-hole,” the technical expression applied to the man who was occasionally in the old times promoted from the fo’castle to the quarter-deck, are very rare indeed nowadays. Still, there are gentlemen—and there are gentlemen. The perfect example is a rara avis everywhere.
Their condition depends a lot on their ship, their captain, and themselves. The first point can be quickly dismissed, as the overall improvement in all types of vessels, including their interior arrangements, is too significant to overlook. The wardroom of a modern warship is often as nicely furnished as any dining room—well-carpeted, the walls decorated with pictures, with comfortable chairs and couches, [pg 215]and great dining setups. In the wardroom of a Russian corvette visited by the writer, he found a saloon big enough for a ball, with a piano, and a lavish sideboard, set up like in the homes of many northern European nations, with various bottles and snacks to go with them, like salt anchovies and salmon, caviar, and cheese. In a British flagship, he found the admiral’s cabin, while in port at least, a charming little drawing room, complete with a harmonium and piano, flower vases, portfolios of sketches, an elaborate stove, and everything else for comfort and luxury. Outside of this was a more simply furnished cabin used as a dining room. Of course, much of this is put away at sea. The china and glass are securely stored, and all the smaller loose items packed away; the piano covered up in canvas and securely “busy” to the side; likely the carpet is removed, and a rough canvas replaces it. Still, everything is shipshape and tidy as a new pin. The few “old bathtubs” still in service are rarely used except for minor harbor duties or kept for emergencies on foreign stations. They will soon disappear, replaced by smart little gunboats or other crafts, where, if the accommodations are limited, at least the maximum is made of the available space. How different all this is compared to many vessels from the last century and the beginning of this one, described by our nautical novelists as barely better than colliers, pest ships, and tubs, reeking of pitch, paint, bilge-water, tar, and rum! Readers will remember Marryat’s captain, who, along with his wife, was so excessively fond of pork that he turned his ship into a floating pig-sty. At his dinner, there was mock-turtle soup (made from pig’s head); boiled pork and pea pudding; roast spare rib; sausages and pettitoes; and, lastly, sucking-pig. He will surely recall how he was eventually scared off the ship, about to set sail for the West Indies, when the doctor told him that with his eating habits, he wouldn’t live long on that station. But while Marryat’s characters were true to the life of his time, you would have a hard time finding a similar example today. Captains still have their quirks, but they aren’t as pronounced. There may be lazy captains, like the one nicknamed “The Sloth” or, less likely, nosy captains, like the one in “Peter Simple” who made himself so unpopular that he lost all the good sailors and had to make do with a “scratch squad;” or (a comparatively harmless type) captains who entertain their officers with outrageous stories, but who are otherwise honorable. Who can help but laugh at Captain Kearney, who tells the tale of the Atta of Roses ship? He describes how she had a barrel of the precious essence on board; it could be smelled three miles off at sea, and the odor was so overpowering that the crew fainted when they got too close to the hold. The timbers of the ship became so infused with the smell that they couldn’t use her again until they dismantled her and sold her to shopkeepers in Brighton and Tunbridge Wells, who turned her into scented boxes and fancy goods, and then into cash. The completely uncouth captain is a relic of the past, as the chances of someone entering "through the hawse-hole," the technical term for a man who was sometimes promoted from the forecastle to the quarter-deck, are extremely rare these days. Still, there are gentlemen—and then there are gentlemen. The perfect example is a rare bird everywhere.
The true reason why a captain may make his officers and men constitute an agreeable happy family, or a perfect pandemonium of discontent and misery, consists in the abuse of his absolute power. That power is necessarily bestowed on him; there must be a head; without good discipline, no vessel can be properly handled, or the emergencies of seamanship and warfare met. But as he can in minor matters have it all his own way, and even in many more important ones can determine absolutely, without the fear of anything or anybody short of a court-martial, he may, and often does, become a martinet, if not a very tyrant.
The real reason why a captain can make his officers and crew feel like a happy family or turn them into a complete chaos of discontent and misery lies in the misuse of his absolute power. That power is necessary; there needs to be a leader. Without proper discipline, no ship can be managed effectively, nor can the challenges of sailing and combat be handled. However, since he can usually get his way in minor issues and even in many more significant ones without fear of consequences beyond a court-martial, he often becomes a strict enforcer, if not an outright tyrant.
The subordinate officer’s life may be rendered a burden by a cantankerous and exacting captain. Every trifling omission may be magnified into a grave offence. Some captains seem to go on the principle of the Irishman who asked, “Who’ll tread on my coat tails?” or of the other, “Did you blow your nose at me, sir?” And again, that which in the captain is no offence is a very serious one on the part of the officer or seaman. He may exhaust the vocabulary of abuse and bad language, but not a retort may be made. In the Royal Navy of to-day, though by no means in the merchant service, this is, however, nearly obsolete. However tyrannically disposed, the language of commanders and officers is nearly sure to be free from disgraceful epithets, blasphemies, and scurrilous abuse, cursing and swearing. Officers should be, and generally are, gentlemen.
The subordinate officer’s life can become a burden due to a grumpy and demanding captain. Every minor mistake can be blown out of proportion. Some captains seem to follow the logic of the Irishman who asked, "Who will step on my coat tails?" or the other one who said, "Did you just blow your nose at me, sir?" Moreover, what may not be an offense for the captain is often a serious one for the officer or sailor. The officer might be subjected to a barrage of insults and harsh language, but they’re not allowed to respond. In today’s Royal Navy, though this is not the case in the merchant service, that practice is almost obsolete. Regardless of any tyrannical tendencies, commanders and officers typically avoid using disgraceful language, blasphemies, and vulgar insults, including cursing and swearing. Officers should be, and generally are, gentlemen.
A commanding lieutenant of the old school—a type of officer not to be found in the Royal Navy nowadays—is well described by Admiral Cochrane.121 “My kind uncle,” writes he, “the Hon. John Cochrane, accompanied me on board the Iliad for the purpose of introducing me to my future superior officer, Lieutenant Larmour, or, as he was more familiarly known in the service, Jack Larmour—a specimen of the old British seaman, little calculated to inspire exalted ideas of the gentility of the naval profession, though presenting at a glance a personification of its efficiency. Jack was, in fact, one of a not very numerous class, whom, for their superior seamanship, the Admiralty was glad to promote from the forecastle to the quarter-deck, in order that they might mould into ship-shape the questionable materials supplied by parliamentary influence, even then paramount in the navy to a degree which might otherwise have led to disaster. Lucky was the commander who could secure such an officer for his quarter-deck.
A commanding lieutenant from the old days—a type of officer you won't find in the Royal Navy today—is well described by Admiral Cochrane.121 "My cool uncle," he writes, The Hon. John Cochrane came aboard the Iliad with me to introduce me to my future boss, Lieutenant Larmour, or as he was more commonly known, Jack Larmour. He was a classic example of the old British sailor, not exactly the kind to inspire lofty ideas about the grace of the naval profession, but at first glance, he represented its efficiency. Jack was one of a small group that the Admiralty was pleased to promote from the forecastle to the quarter-deck for their exceptional seamanship, helping to shape up questionable recruits who had political connections, a significant concern in the navy that could lead to disaster. A lucky commander was one who could secure such an officer for his quarter-deck.
“On my introduction, Jack was dressed in the garb of a seaman, with marlinspike slung round his neck, and a lump of grease in his hand, and was busily employed in setting up the rigging. His reception of me was anything but gracious. Indeed, a tall fellow, over six feet high, the nephew of his captain, and a lord to boot, were not very promising recommendations for a midshipman. It is not impossible he might have learned from my uncle something about a military commission of several years’ standing; and this, coupled with my age and stature, might easily have impressed him with the idea that he had caught a scapegrace with whom the family did not know what to do, and that he was hence to be saddled with a ‘hard bargain.’
When I got there, Jack was dressed like a sailor, with a marlinspike around his neck and a chunk of grease in his hand, focused on the rigging. His welcome was anything but warm. In fact, a tall guy, over six feet, the captain's nephew and a lord as well, didn't seem like a great choice for a midshipman. He might have heard from my uncle about my military background; with my age and height, it probably made him think he was dealing with a troublemaker that the family couldn’t control, and that he was stuck with a ‘hard bargain.’
“After a little constrained civility on the part of the first lieutenant, who was evidently not very well pleased with the interruption to his avocation, he ordered me to [pg 218]‘get my traps below.’ Scarcely was the order complied with, and myself introduced to the midshipman’s berth, than I overheard Jack grumbling at the magnitude of my equipments. ‘This Lord Cochrane’s chest? Does Lord Cochrane think he is going to bring a cabin aboard? Get it up on the main-deck!’
After a moment of awkward politeness from the first lieutenant, who clearly wasn’t happy about the interruption to his work, he told me to [pg 218]‘get my stuff below.’ Once I followed the order and was taken to the midshipman’s quarters, I heard Jack complaining about how much gear I had. ‘This Lord Cochrane’s chest? Does Lord Cochrane think he’s bringing an entire cabin on board? Get it up on the main deck!’
“This order being promptly obeyed, amidst a running fire of similar objurgations, the key of the chest was sent for, and shortly afterwards the sound of sawing became audible. It was now high time to follow my property, which, to my astonishment, had been turned out on the deck—Jack superintending the sawing off one end of the chest just beyond the keyhole, and accompanying the operation by sundry uncomplimentary observations on midshipmen in general, and on myself in particular.
This order was quickly executed, despite a bunch of similar insults, and a request was made for the key to the chest. Shortly after, the noise of sawing became audible. It was now essential to retrieve my belongings, which, to my surprise, had been thrown on the deck—Jack was supervising the sawing of one end of the chest just beyond the keyhole, making all kinds of unflattering remarks about midshipmen in general and about me specifically.
“The metamorphosis being completed to the lieutenant’s satisfaction—though not at all to mine, for my neat chest had become an unshapely piece of lumber—he pointed out the ‘lubberliness of shore-going people in not making keyholes where they could most easily be got at,’ viz., at the end of a chest instead of the middle!” Lord Cochrane took it easily, and acknowledges warmly the service Jack Larmour rendered him in teaching him his profession.
The transformation met the lieutenant’s approval—though it certainly didn’t meet mine, since my well-defined chest had become a bulky piece of wood—he highlighted the ‘clumsiness of landlubbers for not making keyholes where they could be easily accessed,’ particularly at the end of a chest instead of the middle! Lord Cochrane took it in stride and warmly acknowledged the assistance Jack Larmour provided in teaching him his trade.
Later, Lord Cochrane, when promoted to a lieutenancy, was dining with Admiral Vandepat, and being seated near him, was asked what dish was before him. “Mentioning its nature,” says he, “I asked whether he would permit me to help him. The uncourteous reply was—that whenever he wished for anything he was in the habit of asking for it. Not knowing what to make of a rebuff of this nature, it was met with an inquiry if he would allow me the honour of taking wine with him. ‘I never take wine with any man, my lord,’ was the unexpected reply, from which it struck me that my lot was cast among Goths, if no worse.” Subsequently he found that this apparently gruff old admiral assumed some of this roughness purposely, and that he was one of the kindest commanders living.
Later, Lord Cochrane, after being promoted to a lieutenancy, was having dinner with Admiral Vandepat. Sitting close to him, he was asked what dish was on his plate. "Referring to its nature," he says, "I asked if I could help him. He rudely replied that whenever he wanted something, he just asked for it. Unsure how to respond to such dismissal, I asked if he would let me have the honor of having a drink with him. ‘I never take a drink with any man, my lord,’ was the surprising answer, which made me feel like I was surrounded by barbarians, at best." Later on, he realized that this seemingly gruff old admiral put on some of that roughness on purpose, and that he was actually one of the kindest commanders around.
In 1798, when with the Mediterranean fleet, ludicrous examples, both of the not very occasional corruption of the period, and the rigid etiquette required by one’s superior officer, occurred to Lord Cochrane, and got him into trouble. The first officer, Lieutenant Beaver, was one who carried the latter almost to the verge of despotism. He looked after all that was visible to the eye of the admiral, but permitted “an honest penny to be turned elsewhere.” At Tetuan they had purchased and killed bullocks on board the flagship, for the use of the whole squadron. The reason for this was that the hides, being valuable, could be stowed away in her hold or empty beef-casks, as especial perquisites to certain persons on board. The fleshy fragments on the hides soon decomposed, and rendered the hold of the vessel so intolerable that she acquired the name of the “Stinking Scotch ship.” Lord Cochrane, as junior lieutenant, had much to do with these arrangements, and his unfavourable remarks on these raw-hide speculations did not render those interested very friendly towards him. One day, when at Tetuan, he was allowed to go wild-fowl shooting ashore, and became covered with mud. On arriving rather late at the ship, he thought it more respectful to don a clean uniform before reporting himself on the quarter-deck. He had scarcely made the change, when the first lieutenant came into the ward-room, and harshly demanded of Lord Cochrane the reason for not having reported himself. [pg 219]His reply was, that as the lieutenant had seen him come up by the side he must be aware that he was not in a fit condition to appear on the quarter-deck. The lieutenant replied so offensively before the ward-room officers, that he was respectfully reminded by Cochrane of a rule he had himself laid down, that “Matters connected with the service were not there to be spoken of.” Another retort was followed by the sensible enough reply, “Lieutenant Beaver, we will, if you please, talk of this in another place.” Cochrane was immediately reported to the captain by Beaver, as having challenged him: the lieutenant actually demanded a court-martial! And the court-martial was held, the decision being that Cochrane should be admonished to be “more careful in future.”
In 1798, while serving with the Mediterranean fleet, Lord Cochrane found himself in trouble due to ridiculous examples of the widespread corruption of the time and the strict etiquette imposed by his superior officer. The first officer, Lieutenant Beaver, almost took this etiquette to an extreme. He managed everything that was visible to the admiral but allowed "an honest penny to be spent elsewhere." In Tetuan, they bought and slaughtered bullocks on the flagship, for the use of the entire squadron. This was done because the hides had value and could be stored in the ship's hold or empty beef barrels, serving as special perks for certain people on board. The leftover bits of flesh quickly rotted, making the ship's hold so unbearable that it earned the nickname “the Stinky Scottish ship.” As the junior lieutenant, Cochrane was heavily involved in these arrangements, and his negative comments about these shady dealings didn’t win him any friends among those involved. One day, while in Tetuan, he went on shore to do some wild-fowl shooting and ended up covered in mud. When he returned to the ship a bit late, he thought it would be more respectful to change into a clean uniform before reporting to the quarter-deck. He had just made the switch when the first lieutenant entered the ward-room and harshly asked Cochrane why he hadn’t reported in yet. [pg 219]Cochrane responded that since the lieutenant had seen him coming up the side, he must know he wasn't in a suitable condition to be on the quarter-deck. The lieutenant retorted so rudely in front of the ward-room officers that Cochrane respectfully reminded him of a rule he had set, which stated that "Topics related to the service shouldn't be discussed there." Another comeback from the lieutenant was met with the sensible response, “Lieutenant Beaver, let's discuss this in another location, if that's alright with you.” Beaver immediately reported Cochrane to the captain for allegedly challenging him, and he even requested a court-martial! The court-martial was held, and the decision was that Cochrane should be admonished to be “be more careful in the future.”
Lord Cochrane was soon after given a command. The vessel to which he was appointed was, even eighty years ago, a mere burlesque of a ship-of-war. She was about the size of an average coasting brig, her burden being 158 tons. She was crowded rather than manned, with a crew of eighty-four men and six officers. Her armament consisted of fourteen 4-pounders! a species of gun little larger than a blunderbuss, and formerly known in the service as “minion,” an appellation quite appropriate. The cabin had not so much as room for a chair, the floor being entirely occupied by a small table surrounded with lockers, answering the double purpose of store-chests and seats. The difficulty was to get seated, the ceiling being only five feet high, so that the object could only be accomplished by rolling on the lockers: a movement sometimes attended with unpleasant failure. Cochrane’s only practicable way of shaving consisted in removing the skylight, and putting his head through to make a toilet-table of the quarter-deck!
Lord Cochrane was soon given a command. The ship he was assigned to was, even eighty years ago, more of a joke than a real warship. It was about the size of an average coastal brig, with a capacity of 158 loads. It was crowded rather than manned, with a crew of eighty-four men and six officers. Its armament consisted of fourteen 4-pounders! a type of gun that was only slightly larger than a blunderbuss, and was previously known in the service as "minion," a name that was quite fitting. The cabin didn’t even have enough space for a chair, as the floor was completely taken up by a small table surrounded by lockers, serving the dual purpose of storage and seating. The challenge was to find a place to sit, as the ceiling was only five feet high, making it necessary to roll onto the lockers to achieve this, a movement that sometimes led to unfortunate mishaps. Cochrane’s only practical method for shaving involved removing the skylight and sticking his head through to use the quarter-deck as a makeshift toilet table!
On this little vessel—the Speedy—Cochrane took a number of prizes, and having on one occasion manned a couple of them with half his crew and sent them away, was forced to tackle the Gamo, a Spanish frigate of thirty-two heavy guns and 319 men. The exploit has hardly been excelled in the history of heroic deeds. The commander’s orders were not to fire a single gun till they were close to the frigate, and he ran the Speedy under her lee, so that her yards were locked among the latter’s rigging. The shots from the Spanish guns passed over the little vessel, only injuring the rigging, while the Speedy’s mere pop-guns could be elevated, and helped to blow up the main-deck of the enemy’s ship. The Spaniards speedily found out the disadvantage under which they were fighting, and gave the orders to board the little English vessel; but it was avoided twice by sheering off sufficiently, then giving them a volley of musketry and a broadside before they could recover themselves. After the lapse of an hour, the loss to the Speedy was only four men killed and two wounded, but her rigging was so cut up and the sails so riddled that Cochrane told his men they must either take the frigate or be taken themselves, in which case the Spaniards would give no quarter. The doctor, Mr. Guthrie, bravely volunteered to take the helm, and leaving him for the time both commander and crew of the ship, Cochrane and his men were soon on the enemy’s deck, the Speedy being put close alongside with admirable skill. A portion of the crew had been ordered to blacken their faces and board by the Gamo’s head. The greater portion of the Spanish crew were prepared to repel boarders in that direction, but stood for a few moments as it were transfixed to the deck by the apparition of so many diabolical-looking figures emerging from the white smoke of the bow guns, while the other men rushed on them from behind [pg 220]before they could recover from their surprise at the unexpected phenomenon. Observing the Spanish colours still flying, Lord Cochrane ordered one of his men to haul them down, and the crew, without pausing to consider by whose orders they had been struck, and naturally believing it to be the act of their own officers, gave in. The total English loss was three men killed, and one officer and seventeen men wounded. The Gamo’s loss was the captain, boatswain, and thirteen seamen killed, with forty-one wounded. It became a puzzle what to do with 263 unhurt prisoners, the Speedy having only forty-two sound men left. Promptness was necessary; so, driving the prisoners into the hold, with their own guns pointed down the hatchway, and leaving thirty men on the prize, Cochrane shaped the vessel’s course to Port Mahon, which was reached safely. Some Barcelona gun-boats, spectators of the action, did not venture to rescue the frigate.
On this small ship—the Fast—Cochrane captured several prizes, and at one point manned a couple of them with half his crew and sent them off. This left him to face the Gamo, a Spanish frigate armed with thirty-two heavy guns and a crew of 319 men. This feat is rarely matched in the annals of heroic acts. The commander instructed his men not to fire a single shot until they were close to the frigate, maneuvering the Fast so that her sails became entangled with the larger ship's rigging. The Spanish gunfire flew over the small vessel, only damaging the rigging, while the Speedy’s lighter guns were elevated and managed to damage the enemy’s main deck. The Spaniards quickly realized their disadvantage and ordered a boarding attempt on the little English ship; however, Cochrane skillfully avoided it twice by steering away, then delivering a volley of gunfire and broadside before they could regroup. After an hour, the Speedy only suffered four men killed and two wounded, but her rigging was severely damaged and her sails full of holes. Cochrane informed his men they had to either capture the frigate or be captured themselves, as the Spaniards would show no mercy. The doctor, Mr. Guthrie, bravely volunteered to take the helm, and while he assumed command of the ship, Cochrane and his crew soon boarded the enemy's deck, expertly positioning the Fast alongside. Part of the crew was instructed to blacken their faces and board from the Gamo’s bow. Most of the Spanish crew, expecting to repel boarders from that direction, were momentarily frozen in shock by the sudden appearance of so many menacing-looking figures emerging from the white smoke of the bow guns, while others advanced from behind [pg 220]before the Spaniards could recover from their surprise. Noticing the Spanish colors still flying, Lord Cochrane ordered one of his men to take them down, and the crew, without stopping to think about whose orders had been given, naturally assumed it was their own officers' doing, and surrendered. The total English casualties were three men killed, and one officer and seventeen men wounded. The Gamo’s casualties included the captain, boatswain, and thirteen sailors killed, along with forty-one wounded. The challenge then became what to do with 263 unharmed prisoners, as the Speedy had only forty-two fit men left. Time was of the essence; so, Cochrane shoved the prisoners into the hold with their own guns aimed down the hatch and left thirty men on the prize before heading the ship towards Port Mahon, which they reached safely. A few Barcelona gunboats that witnessed the action did not dare to attempt a rescue of the frigate.
The doctor on board a man-of-war has, perhaps, on the whole, better opportunities and, in times of peace, more leisure than the other officers for noting any circumstances of interest that may occur. Dr. Stables, in his interesting little work,122 describes his cabin on board a small gun-boat as a miserable little box, such as at home he would have kept rabbits or guinea-pigs in, but certainly not pigeons. He says that it might do for a commodore—Commodore Nutt. It was ventilated by a small scuttle, seven inches in diameter, which could only be raised in harbour, and beneath which, when he first went to sea, he was obliged to put a leather hat-box to catch the water; unfortunately, the bottom rotted out, and he was at the mercy of the waves. This cabin was alive with scorpions, cockroaches, and other “crawling ferlies,”
The doctor on board a warship probably has better chances and, in times of peace, more free time than the other officers to notice any interesting happenings. Dr. Stables, in his fascinating little book, 122 describes his cabin on a small gunboat as a cramped little box that at home he would have used for keeping rabbits or guinea pigs, but definitely not pigeons. He mentions that it could serve a commodore—Commodore Nutt. It had a small vent, just seven inches wide, which could only be opened when in port, and beneath it, when he first set sail, he had to place a leather hatbox to catch the water; unfortunately, the bottom rotted out, leaving him exposed to the waves. This cabin was crawling with scorpions, cockroaches, and other “crawling creatures,”
His dispensary was off the steerage, and sister-cabin to the pantry. To it he gained access by a species of crab-walking, squeezing himself past a large brass pump, edging in sideways. The sick would come one by one to the dispensary, and there he saw and treated each case as it arrived, dressing wounds, bruises, and putrefying sores. There was no sick berth attendant, but the lieutenant told off “a little cabin-boy” for his use. He was not a model cabin-boy, like the youngster you see in the theatres. He certainly managed at times to wash out the dispensary, in the intervals of catching cockroaches and making poultices, but in doing the first he broke half the bottles, and making the latter either let them burn or put salt into them. Finally, he smashed so much of the doctor’s apparatus that he was kicked out. In both dispensary and what Dr. Stables calls his “burrow,” it was difficult to prevent anything from going to utter destruction. The best portions of his uniform got eaten by cockroaches or moulded by damp, while his instruments required cleaning every morning, and even this did not keep the rust at bay.
His dispensary was off the steerage and next to the pantry. He got there by crab-walking, squeezing past a large brass pump, and maneuvering in sideways. The sick would come in one by one, and he would see and treat each case as it arrived, dressing wounds, bruises, and infected sores. There wasn’t a sick berth attendant, but the lieutenant assigned “a young cabin boy” to help him out. He wasn’t a perfect cabin-boy, like the kids you see in movies. He sometimes managed to clean the dispensary while also dealing with cockroaches and making poultices, but while cleaning, he broke half the bottles, and with the poultices, he either let them burn or put salt in them. In the end, he ruined so much of the doctor’s equipment that he got kicked out. In both the dispensary and what Dr. Stables calls his "den," it was hard to keep anything from falling apart. The best parts of his uniform were eaten by cockroaches or ruined by dampness, while his instruments needed cleaning every morning, and even that didn’t stop them from rusting.
And then, those terrible cockroaches! To find, when you awake, a couple, each two inches in length, meandering over your face, or even in bed with you!—to find one in a state of decay in the mustard-pot!—to have to remove their droppings and eggs from the edge of your plate previous to eating your soup! and so on, ad nauseam. But on small vessels stationed in the tropics—as described by the doctor—there were, and doubtless sometimes are now, other unpleasantnesses. For instance, you are looking for a book, and [pg 221]put your hand on a full-grown scaly scorpion. Nice sensation! the animal twining round your finger, or running up your sleeve! Dénoûment: cracking him under foot—joy at escaping a sting!
And then, those awful cockroaches! To wake up and find a couple, each two inches long, crawling on your face or even in bed with you!—to discover one rotting in the mustard jar!—to have to clear their droppings and eggs off the edge of your plate before you can eat your soup! and so on, to the point of nausea. But on small ships in the tropics—as the doctor described—there were, and probably still are, other unpleasant things. For example, you’re looking for a book and [pg 221]end up touching a full-grown scaly scorpion. What a nice feeling! The creature wrapping around your finger or crawling up your sleeve! Denouement: crushing it underfoot—what a relief to avoid being stung!
“You are enjoying your dinner, but have been for some time sensible of a strange, titillating feeling about the region of your ankle; you look down at last, to find a centipede on your sock, with his fifty hind legs—you thank God not his fore-fifty!—abutting on your shin. Tableaux: green-to-red light from the eyes of the many-legged—horror of yourself as you wait till he thinks proper to ‘move on.’
You’re enjoying your dinner, but you’ve been feeling a weird, tingling sensation around your ankle for a while. You finally look down and see a centipede on your sock, its fifty back legs—thankfully not its front fifty!—pressing against your shin. Tableaux: green-to-red light from the eyes of the many-legged creature—horror washes over you as you wait for it to decide to ‘move on.’
“To awake in the morning, and find a large, healthy-looking tarantula squatting on your pillow, within ten inches of your nose, with his basilisk eyes fixed on yours, and apparently saying: ‘You’re awake, are you? I’ve been sitting here all the morning, watching you.’
Waking up in the morning to see a big, healthy tarantula sitting on your pillow, just ten inches from your face, with its piercing eyes fixed on yours, almost seeming to say: ‘Oh, you’re awake? I’ve been here all morning, watching you.’
“You think, if you move, he’ll bite you somewhere—and if he does bite you, you’ll go mad, and dance ad libitum—so you twist your mouth in the opposite direction, and ejaculate—‘Steward!’ But the steward does not come; in fact, he is forward, seeing after breakfast. Meanwhile, the gentleman on the pillow is moving his horizontal mandibles in a most threatening manner; and just as he moves for your nose, you tumble [pg 222]out of your bed with a shriek, and, if a very nervous person, probably run on deck in your shirt!”
"You think that if you make a move, he’ll attack you, and if he does attack you, you’ll go crazy and start dancing freely—so you twist your mouth in the opposite direction and shout—‘Steward!’ But the steward doesn’t come; he’s busy cleaning up after breakfast. Meanwhile, the guy on the pillow is threateningly moving his jaw, and just as he lunges for your nose, you tumble out of your bed with a scream, and if you’re really anxious, you probably run on deck in your shirt!"
The doctor’s last description of an accumulation of these horrors is fearful to even think about. The bulkheads all around your berth are black with cock and hen-roaches, a few of which are nipping your toe, and running off with little bits of the skin of your leg; while a troop of ants are carrying a dead one over your pillow; musquitoes and flies attacking you everywhere; rats running in and rats running out; your lamp just flickering and dying away into darkness, with the delicious certainty that an indefinite number of earwigs and scorpions, besides two centipedes and a tarantula, are hiding themselves somewhere in your cabin! All this is possible; still Dr. Stables describes life on other vessels under more favourable auspices.
The doctor’s final description of this accumulation of horrors is terrifying to even imagine. The walls around your bunk are covered in cockroaches, some of which are nibbling at your toes and scurrying off with bits of skin from your leg, while a line of ants carries a dead one over your pillow. Mosquitoes and flies are attacking you everywhere; rats are running in and out; your lamp is just flickering and fading into darkness, with the unsettling certainty that countless earwigs and scorpions, along with two centipedes and a tarantula, are hiding somewhere in your cabin! All of this is possible; yet Dr. Stables describes life on other ships under much better conditions.
The important addition of a chaplain to the establishment on board our ships of war seems, from the following letter of George, Duke of Buckingham, to have been first adopted in the year 1626:—
The important addition of a chaplain to the establishment on board our warships seems, from the following letter of George, Duke of Buckingham, to have been first adopted in the year 1626:—
“After my hearty commendations. His Majesty having given order for preachers to goe in every of his ships to sea, choyce hath been made of one Mr. Daniel Ambrose, Master of Arts and Fellow of your College, to be one. Accordingly, upon signification to me to come hither, I thought good to intimate unto you, that His Majesty is so careful of such scholars as are willing to put themselves forward in so good actions, as that he will expect—and I doubt not but that you will accordingly take order—that the said Mr. Ambrose shall suffer noe detriment in his place with you, by this his employment; but that you will rather take care that he shall have all immunities and emoluments with advantage, which have been formerly, or may be, granted to any upon the like service. Wherein, not doubting of your affectionate care, I rest,
"After sending my warm regards, I want to inform you that His Majesty has ordered that preachers be assigned to every ship setting sail. Mr. Daniel Ambrose, Master of Arts and a fellow of your College, has been selected for this position. As soon as I was notified to come here, I thought it was important to let you know that His Majesty is very concerned about scholars who are eager to engage in such good work. He will expect—and I’m sure you will ensure—that Mr. Ambrose does not face any loss in his position with you because of this assignment; instead, you will make sure that he receives all the privileges and benefits that have been previously granted to others in similar roles. Confident in your thoughtful attention to this matter, I remain,"
“G. Buckingham.
Sailors, in spite of their outbursts of recklessness, have frequently, from the very nature of their perilous calling, an amount of seriousness underlying their character, which makes them particularly amenable to religious influences. The chaplain on a large modern ironclad or frigate has as many men in his charge, as regards spiritual matters, as the vicar of a country town or large village, whilst he has many more opportunities of reaching them directly. Many of our naval chaplains are noble fellows; and to them come the sailors in any distress of mind, for the soothing advice so readily given. He may not dare to interfere with the powers that be when they are in danger of punishment, except in very rare cases; but he can point them out their path of duty, and how to walk in it, making them better sailors and happier men. He can lend them an occasional book, or write for them an occasional letter home; induce them to refrain from dissipation when on liberty; cheer them in the hour of greatest peril, while on the watery deep, and give them an occasional reproof, but in kindness, not in anger. To his brother officers he has even better opportunities of doing good than to the men. On the smaller classes of vessels—gun-boats and the like—the captain has to perform chaplain’s duties, by reading prayers on the Sabbath. This is the case also on well-regulated steamships or passenger sailing-vessels of the merchant service. The fine steamers of such lines as the Cunard, or White Star, of the Royal Mail Company, or of the P. and O., have, of course, frequently, some clergyman, minister, or missionary on board, who is willing to celebrate divine service.
Sailors, despite their reckless moments, often have a serious side because of the risky nature of their work, which makes them more open to religious influences. The chaplain on a modern ironclad or frigate is responsible for as many men in spiritual matters as the vicar of a small town or large village, and he has even more chances to connect with them directly. Many of our naval chaplains are great individuals, and sailors turn to them in times of mental distress for comforting advice. While he may not challenge authority when there's a risk of punishment, except in rare cases, he can guide them on their responsibilities and how to fulfill them, helping them become better sailors and happier people. He can lend them a book or write a letter home, encourage them to avoid partying when on leave, support them during the most dangerous moments at sea, and offer occasional gentle corrections instead of angry reprimands. He has even better chances to do good with his fellow officers than with the crew. On smaller vessels, like gunboats, the captain has to take on chaplain duties by leading prayers on Sundays. This is also true for well-organized steamships or passenger sailing vessels in the merchant service. The impressive steamers from lines like Cunard, White Star, the Royal Mail Company, or P. and O. often have a clergyman, minister, or missionary on board who is willing to conduct religious services.
A Committee of the Lower House of Convocation has recently collected an immense amount of statistics regarding the provision made by private ship-owners for the spiritual welfare of their men, and the result as regards England is not at all satisfactory. In point of fact, it is rarely made at all. The committee seeks to encourage the growth of religion among sailors by providing suitable and comfortable church accommodation at all ports, and urges owners to instruct their captains as to conducting divine service on Sundays, and to furnish Bibles, prayer-books, and instructive works of secular literature. Too much must not, however, be expected from Jack. The hardships and perils through which he passes excuse much of his exuberance ashore. It is his holiday-time; and, so long as he is only gay, and not abandoned, the most rigid must admit that he has earned the right to recreation. A distinguished French naval officer used to say that the sailor fortunately had no memory. “Happy for him,” said he, “that he is thus oblivious. Did he remember all the gales and tempests, the cold, the drenching rain, the misery, the privations, the peril to life and limb which he has endured, he would never, when he sets foot on shore, go to sea again. But he has no memory. The clouds roll away, the sea is calm, the sun shines, the boat bears him to land; the wine flows; the music strikes up; pretty girls smile: he forgets all the past, and lives only in the present.”
A committee from the House of Convocation has recently gathered a large amount of data about what private ship owners are doing for the spiritual well-being of their crew, and the findings for England are quite disappointing. In fact, it’s rarely addressed at all. The committee aims to promote religious growth among sailors by ensuring there are suitable and comfortable church facilities at all ports and urges ship owners to instruct their captains on how to conduct church services on Sundays, as well as to provide Bibles, prayer books, and informative secular literature. However, we shouldn't expect too much from sailors. The hardships and dangers they face justify a lot of their excitement when they’re on shore. It’s their time to relax, and as long as they are just cheerful and not reckless, even the strictest must agree that they have earned the right to unwind. A notable French naval officer once said that sailors are fortunate because they have no memory. "Happy for him." he remarked, "He's completely unaware. If he recalled all the storms and tempests, the cold, the heavy rain, the pain, the struggles, and the threats to his life and well-being that he has endured, he would never choose to go to sea again once he stepped onto land. But he has no memory. The skies clear, the sea is peaceful, the sun is shining, the boat brings him to shore; the wine pours, the music plays, attractive girls smile: he forgets everything that happened before and lives only in the moment."
While the chaplain may, and no doubt generally does, earn the respect and esteem of the men, woe to any example of the “Chadband” order who shall be found on board. This is, in the Royal Navy, almost impossible; but it sometimes happens that, on passenger ships, some sanctimonious and fanatical individual or other has had a very rough time of it. He is regarded as a kind of Jonah. In a recent number of that best of American magazines, the Atlantic Monthly, the woes and trials of one poor Joseph Primrose, a well-meaning minister who went out to America in 1742, are amusingly recounted. There were, aboard the Polly, the vessel in which he took passage, several of the crew who viewed their religious exercises askance. “These men,” says he, “had been foremost in a general indignation uprising that had ensued upon the stoppage of their daily allowance of rum; which step had been taken on my earnest recommendation. For this injurious drink we had substituted a harmless and refreshing beverage concocted of molasses, vinegar, and water, from a choice receipt I had come upon in a medical book aboard the vessel. The sailors, to a man, refused to touch it, egged on by these contumacious fellows, and more especially by one Springer, a daring villain, who reviled me with bitter execrations. In fine, the captain was obliged, for our own safety, to restore the cherished dram; and I had the mortification to find myself, from that time forth, an object of dislike and suspicion to these men, who were kept within decent bounds only by respect for their master. I became convinced, on reflection, that I had gone the wrong way about this unfortunate piece of business; having, in fact, made a very serious error in the beginning, gentle argument and good example being more apt to bring about the desired end than compulsory measures, these dulling the understanding by rousing the temper, especially among persons of the meaner sort. All my efforts—and they were not few—to place myself on a friendly footing with these men were of no avail: they had conceived the notion that I was their enemy, and met all my advances with obstinate coldness. As Captain Hewlett exacted the daily attendance at prayers of every soul on board, these [pg 224]knaves were compelled to be on hand with their fellows; but they rarely failed to conduct themselves with such indecent levity as made me rue their presence, playing covertly at cat’s-cradle, jack-straws, and what not; besides grinning familiarly in my face, whenever they could contrive to catch my eye.” This unseemly behaviour was as nothing to what followed ashore. While addressing a large assemblage, he noted the advent of a number of unmannerly fellows, who, with a great deal of clatter, elbowed their way to the front. “The moment I clapped eyes upon them,” says poor Primrose, “I knew them for the sailors who had so persecuted me aboard the Polly, and my heart sank at the bare sight of them.” They sung, or rather bawled, ribald words to the music of the hymns; and one of them, when rebuked by some gentleman present, whipped out his cutlass, and a general row ensued, which broke up the assembly. A little later, Primrose induced a tavern-keeper to allow him to preach on his premises. “A West Indian vessel coming into port about the middle of April, and a horde of roystering sailors gathering in the common room of the ‘Sailor’s Rest’ to drink, I announced a discourse on the subject of ‘gin-guzzling,’ choosing one that I had delivered aboard the Polly, and which seemed to fit the occasion to a nicety. No sooner had the landlord seen the notice to this effect that I had attached to his door-cheek, than he sends for me to repair to the tavern without loss of time; and on my appearance, in great haste, comes blustering up to me in a most offensive manner, demanding whether I purposed the ruin of his trade, by putting forth of such a mischievous paper; adding, with astounding audacity, that he should certainly lose all the custom I had been the means of fetching to his house, did I persist in my intent. Mark the cunning of the knave! He had encouraged my labours for none other purpose than the bringing of fresh grist to his mill; and here was I, blindly leading precious souls to destruction, the poor dupe of a specious villain—a wretch without bowels! My agony of mind on being thus suddenly enlightened was of such a desperate sort, that, gnashing my teeth, I leapt upon the miscreant, and, bearing him to the ground with an awful crash, beat him about the head and shoulders with the stout cane I carried; and with such good will, that I presently found myself lying in the town gaol, covered with the blood of my enemy, and every bone in my body aching from the unaccustomed exercise.... Truly was I as forlorn and friendless a creature as the world ever saw. My clothing had been rent beyond repair in the shameful struggle, and, yet worse, one of my shoes was gone—how and where I knew not; and although I promised the gaoler’s little lad a penny in the event of his finding it, nothing was ever heard of it from that day to this. One thought alone cheered me in the dark abyss into which I was fallen. I had administered wholesome and righteous correction in proper season: hip and thigh had I hewed my enemy; and, to reflect upon that, was as a healing balm to my sore bones.” Mr. Primrose was at length released, and returned to England.
While the chaplain may typically earn the respect and esteem of the crew, woe to any “Chadband”-like example found onboard. In the Royal Navy, this is nearly impossible; however, sometimes on passenger ships, a self-righteous and fanatical person has a rough time. He is seen as a kind of Jonah. A recent edition of the best American magazine, *Atlantic Monthly*, amusingly recounts the troubles faced by one Joseph Primrose, a well-meaning minister who journeyed to America in 1742. Aboard the *Polly*, the ship he traveled on, there were several crew members who looked at his religious practices with disdain. “These men,” he says, “had been the ringleaders in a general uproar that followed the cutting off of their daily rum ration, a decision I strongly recommended. We had replaced that harmful drink with a harmless and refreshing mix of molasses, vinegar, and water, based on a recipe I found in a medical book on the vessel. The sailors flatly refused to touch it, encouraged by those troublesome individuals, especially one Springer, a brazen rogue, who hurled bitter curses at me. Ultimately, the captain had to restore their beloved drink for our own safety; and ever since, I found myself the target of their dislike and suspicion, only kept in check by their respect for their captain. On reflecting, I realized I had approached the situation all wrong; gentle persuasion and good examples are usually more effective than forced measures, which tend to provoke anger and dull understanding, especially among the lower sort. Despite my numerous attempts to establish a friendly relationship with the crew, they remained obstinately cold, convinced I was their enemy. While Captain Hewlett mandated that everyone on board attend prayers daily, these scoundrels had to be present with their companions; however, they often behaved with such disrespectful levity that I regretted their presence, covertly playing games like cat’s-cradle and jack-straws, and smirking at me whenever they could catch my eye.” This inappropriate behavior was mild compared to what happened ashore. While speaking to a large crowd, he noticed a group of unruly men who pushed their way to the front. “The moment I laid eyes on them,” says poor Primrose, “I recognized them as the sailors who had tormented me aboard the *Polly*, and my heart sank at the sight of them.” They sang, or rather yelled, inappropriate lyrics to the hymns; and when one of them was chastised by a gentleman there, he drew his cutlass, resulting in a brawl that broke up the gathering. Later, Primrose managed to persuade a tavern owner to let him preach on his premises. “A West Indian ship came into port around mid-April, and a rowdy group of sailors gathered in the common room of the ‘Sailor’s Rest’ to drink. I announced a sermon on the topic of ‘gin-guzzling,’ one I had delivered aboard the *Polly* that seemed fitting for the occasion. The moment the landlord saw the notice I had put on his door, he summoned me to the tavern without delay; and on my arrival, he blustered up to me in an extremely rude manner, asking if I intended to ruin his business by publishing such a harmful notice. He added, astonishingly, that he would surely lose all the customers I had brought to his establishment if I continued with my plans. Observe the cunning of the scoundrel! He had supported my efforts solely to draw new business to his tavern, and here I was, unknowingly leading precious souls to ruin, a poor fool of a deceptive villain—a heartless wretch! The sudden realization caused me such mental anguish that, gritting my teeth, I jumped on the villain, knocked him to the ground with a terrible crash, and thrashed him about the head and shoulders with my sturdy cane; with such enthusiasm that I soon found myself lying in the town jail, covered in my enemy's blood, while every bone in my body ached from the strenuous activity.... Truly, I was as hopeless and friendless a creature as the world ever saw. My clothes were tattered beyond repair from the disgraceful struggle, and, worse still, one of my shoes was missing—how and where, I had no idea; and although I promised the jailer's little boy a penny for finding it, I never heard of it again. One thought alone kept me going in the dark pit I had fallen into. I had delivered a healthy and just correction at the right moment: I had thoroughly punished my enemy; and just thinking about that was like a healing balm for my sore bones.” Mr. Primrose was eventually released and returned to England.
Another officer of the Royal Navy—the engineer—deserves particular notice, for his position is becoming daily of more and more importance. It is not merely the care and working of the engines which propel the vessel in which he is concerned; the chief and his subordinates have charge of various hydraulic arrangements often used now-a-days on large vessels, in connection with the steering apparatus; of electrical and gas-producing apparatus; the mechanical arrangements of turrets and gun-carriages; pumping machinery; [pg 225]the management of steam-launches and torpedoes. Take the great ironclad Thunderer (that on which the terrible boiler explosion occurred) as an example: she has twenty-six engines for various purposes, apart from the engines used to propel the vessel, which have an actual power of 6,000 horses. The Téméraire has thirty-four engines distinct from those required for propulsion. A competent authority says that, “with the exception of the paymaster’s and surgeon’s stores, he is responsible for everything in and outside the ship (meaning the hull, apart from the navigator’s duties), to say nothing of his duties while under weigh.” And yet engineers of the navy do not yet either derive the status or emoluments fairly due to them, considering the great and increasing responsibilities thrown upon them of late years. Sir Walter Scott makes Rob Roy express “his contempt of weavers and spinners, and sic-like mechanical persons, and their pursuits;” and in the naval service some such feeling still lingers.
Another officer of the Royal Navy—the engineer—deserves special attention, as his role is becoming increasingly important each day. It's not just about taking care of and operating the engines that drive the ship; the chief engineer and his team manage various hydraulic systems now commonly used on large vessels, especially in relation to the steering mechanisms, as well as electrical and gas-producing equipment, the mechanical systems of turrets and gun carriages, pumping machinery, [pg 225]and the operation of steam launches and torpedoes. Take the great ironclad Thunderer (the one that suffered the terrible boiler explosion) as an example: she has 26 engines for various uses, aside from the engines that propel the ship, which generate an impressive 6,000 horsepower. The Reckless has 34 engines separate from those needed for propulsion. An expert notes that, "Except for the paymaster’s and surgeon’s supplies, he is responsible for everything inside and outside the ship (excluding the navigator’s duties), plus his responsibilities while at sea." Yet, navy engineers still do not receive the status or compensation they truly deserve, considering the significant and growing responsibilities they have taken on in recent years. Sir Walter Scott has Rob Roy express "his disdain for weavers, spinners, and other similar craftsmen and their work;" and in the naval service, some of that sentiment still remains.
The first serious introduction of steam-vessels into the Royal Navy occurred about the year 1829, the Navy List of that year showing seven, of which three only were commissioned, and these for home ports. No mention is made of engineers; they were simply taken over from the contractor with the vessel, and held no rank whatever. In 1837 an Admiralty Circular conferred warrants on engineers, who were to rank immediately below [pg 226]carpenters; they were to be assisted by boys, trained by themselves. Three years later, the standard was raised, and they were divided into three classes; in 1842 a slight increase of pay was given, and they were advanced to the magnificent rank of “after captains’ clerks,” and were given a uniform, with buttons having a steam-engine embossed upon them. In 1847 the Government found that the increasing demands of the merchant and passenger service took all the best men (the engineers’ pay, to-day, is better on first-class steamship lines than in the Navy), and they were forced to do something. The higher grades were formed into chief engineers, and they were raised to the rank of commissioned officers, taking their place after masters. The first great revolution in regard to the use of steam in the Royal Navy took place in 1849, by means of the screw-propeller. In that year Dupuy Delorme constructed the Napoleon, a screw-vessel carrying 100 guns, and with engines of 600 horse-power, and England had to follow. Then came the Russian War, the construction of ironclad batteries, and finally, the ironclad movement, which commenced in England in 1858, by the construction of the Warrior and similar vessels.
The serious introduction of steam ships into the Royal Navy began around 1829. The Navy List from that year shows seven steam vessels, of which only three were commissioned and all were assigned to home ports. There’s no mention of engineers; they were simply hired from the contractor along with the ship and had no official rank. In 1837, an Admiralty Circular granted warrants to engineers, ranking just below carpenters; they were to be assisted by boys whom they trained. Three years later, the standards were raised, and engineers were divided into three classes. In 1842, there was a slight increase in pay, and they were promoted to the impressive rank of “after the captains' clerks,” also receiving a uniform with buttons featuring an embossed steam engine. In 1847, the Government realized that the growing demands from the merchant and passenger services were taking all the best engineers (whose pay today is better on first-class steamship lines than in the Navy), and they were compelled to make changes. Higher grades became chief engineers, receiving the rank of commissioned officers, positioned just below masters. The first major change regarding the use of steam in the Royal Navy happened in 1849 with the introduction of the screw propeller. That year, Dupuy Delorme built the Napoleon, a screw vessel armed with 100 guns and 600 horsepower engines, forcing England to follow suit. Then came the Russian War, the development of ironclad batteries, and eventually, the ironclad movement which began in England in 1858 with the construction of the Fighter and similar vessels.
It becomes a particularly serious question, at the present time, whether the system, as regards the rank and pay of engineers, does not deter the most competent men from entering the Royal Navy. Many very serious explosions and accidents have occurred on board ironclads, which would seem to indicate that our great commercial steamship lines are far better engineered. The Admiralty has organised a system for training students at the dockyard factories, followed up by a course of study at the Naval College, Greenwich; and it is to be hoped that these efforts will lead to greater efficiency in the service. A naval engineer of the present day needs to be a man of liberal education, and of considerable scientific knowledge, both theoretical and practical, and he should then receive on board that recognition which his talents would command ashore. At present, a chief engineer, R.N., ranks with a commander, and other engineers with lieutenants. It is probable that, at some date in the not very distant future, higher ranks will be thrown open to the engineer, as his importance on board is steadily increasing.
It raises a really important issue right now whether the pay and rank system for engineers is discouraging the best candidates from joining the Royal Navy. There have been many serious explosions and accidents on ironclads, suggesting that our major commercial shipping lines are much better engineered. The Admiralty has set up a training program for students at the dockyard factories, followed by a course at the Naval College in Greenwich; we hope these efforts will lead to improved efficiency in the service. Today's naval engineer needs to have a well-rounded education and substantial scientific knowledge, both theoretical and practical, and they should receive the recognition on board that their skills would earn them on land. Currently, a chief engineer in the Royal Navy ranks with a commander, while other engineers rank with lieutenants. It's likely that, sooner rather than later, higher ranks will be available to engineers, as their importance on board continues to grow.
The seamen of all nations, it has, in effect, been said, resemble each the other more than do the nations to which they belong. “As,” says a well-known writer, “the sea receives and amalgamates the waters of all the rivers which pour into it, so it tends to amalgamate the men who make its waves their home.... The seaman from the United States is said to carry to the forecastle a large stock of ‘equality and the rights of man,’ and to be unpleasantly distinguished by the inbred disrespect for authority which cleaves, perhaps inseparably, to a democrat who believes that he has whipped mankind, and that it is his mission, at due intervals, to whip them again. But, on board, he, too, tones down to the colour of blue water, and is more a seaman than anything else.” The French sailor is painted, by Landelle, as the embodiment of the same frolicsome lightheartedness, carelessness of the future, abandonment to impulse, and devotion to his captain, comrades, and ship, with which we are familiar in the English sailor, on the stage. But although depicted as much more polished than, it is to be feared, the average sailor could be in truth, he finishes by saying: “Il est toujours prêt à céder le haut du pavé à tout autre qu’à un soldat.” It would seem, then, that the French sailor revenges the treatment of society on the soldiers of his country. Is there not a similar [pg 227]feeling existing, perhaps to a more limited extent, between the sailors and soldiers of our own country? It hardly, however, extends to the officers of the “United Service.”
The sailors from all countries, it has been suggested, are more similar to each other than to the nations they come from. “As,” a famous author puts it, “The sea takes in and mixes the waters of all the rivers that flow into it, so it tends to blend the people who make its waves their home.... The sailor from the United States is known for bringing a strong sense of ‘equality and the rights of man,’ and he often stands out, perhaps unfortunately, for his deep-seated disrespect for authority that tends to accompany a democrat who believes he has mastered humanity and feels it’s his responsibility to do so again from time to time. But on board, he also adapts to the environment and becomes more of a sailor than anything else.” The French sailor is illustrated by Landelle as the embodiment of the same carefree spirit, neglect of the future, impulsivity, and loyalty to his captain, fellow sailors, and ship that we recognize in the English sailor in theatrical portrayals. However, although he is portrayed as more refined than, it is feared, the average sailor truly is, he concludes by stating: “He is always ready to give up the spotlight to anyone but a soldier.” It seems, then, that the French sailor takes out his grievances with society on the soldiers of his country. Is there not a similar [pg 227]feeling existing, perhaps to a more limited extent, between the sailors and soldiers of our own country? It hardly, however, extends to the officers of the “United Service.”
Another trait of the British sailor’s character: Jack will forgive much to the officer who is ever ready, brave, and daring, who is a true seaman in times of peace, and a sailor militant in times of war. Lord Nelson, the most heroic seaman the world ever saw, it is pleasant to remember, was equally the idol of his colleagues, of his subordinate officers, and of his men for these very reasons. After he had explained to his captains his proposed plan of attack, just prior to the commencement of the battle of Trafalgar, he took the men of the Victory into his confidence. He walked over all the decks, speaking kindly to the different classes of seamen, and encouraging them, with his usual affability, praising the manner in which they had barricaded certain parts of the ship. “All was perfect, death-like silence, till just before the action began. Three cheers were given his lordship as he ascended the quarter-deck ladder. He had been particular in recommending cool, steady firing, in preference to a hurrying fire, without aim or precision; and the event justified his lordship’s advice, as the masts of his opponents came tumbling down on their decks and over their sides.”123 After the fatal bullet had done its work, and Nelson was conveyed below, the surgeon came and probed the wound. The ball was extracted; but the dying hero told the medical man how sure he was that his wound was fatal, and begged, when he had dressed it, that he would attend to the other poor fellows, equal sufferers with himself. A boatswain’s mate on board the Brilliant frigate, shortly afterwards, when first acquainted of the death of Nelson, paid a tribute of affection and honest feeling, which shows how clearly he had gained the hearts of all. The boatswain’s mate, then doing duty as boatswain, was ordered to pipe all hands to quarters; he did not respond, and the lieutenant on duty went to inquire the cause. The man had been celebrated for his promptness, as well as bravery, but he was found utterly unnerved, and sobbing like a child. “I can’t do it,” said he—“poor dear fellow, that I have been in many a hard day with!—and to lose him now! I wouldn’t have cared so much for my old father, mother, brothers, or sisters; but to think of parting with poor Nelson!” and he broke down utterly. The officer, honouring his feelings, let him go below. Who does not remember how, when the body of Nelson lay in state at Greenwich, a deputation of the Victory’s crew paid their last loving respects, tearful and silent, and could scarcely be removed from the scene? or how, when the two Union-Jacks and St. George’s ensign were being lowered into the grave at St. Paul’s—the colours shattered as was the body of the dead hero—the brave fellows who had borne them each tore off a part of the largest flag, to remind them ever after of England’s greatest victory and England’s greatest loss? Many an otherwise noble and brave officer has utterly failed in endearing himself to his men; and there can be no doubt of the value of being thoroughly en rapport with them—the more as it in no way need relax discipline. It is an implied compliment to a crew from their commander, to be taken, at the proper time, into his confidence. The following anecdote will show how much an action was decided by this, and with how little loss of life.
Another trait of the British sailor’s character: Jack will forgive a lot to the officer who is always ready, brave, and daring, who is a true seaman in times of peace and a fighting sailor in times of war. It’s nice to remember that Lord Nelson, the most heroic sailor the world has ever seen, was also the idol of his colleagues, his subordinate officers, and his men for these exact reasons. Before the battle of Trafalgar began, after explaining his attack plan to his captains, he took the men of the Win into his confidence. He walked all over the decks, speaking kindly to the different classes of sailors and encouraging them with his usual friendliness, praising how they had barricaded certain parts of the ship. "Everything was completely silent, like death, until just before the battle began. Three cheers were given to his lordship as he climbed the quarter-deck ladder. He had stressed the importance of calm, steady firing instead of a hurried, uncontrolled barrage; and the event proved his advice right, as the masts of his enemies came crashing down onto their decks and over the sides."123 After the fatal bullet did its damage and Nelson was taken below deck, the surgeon came to examine the wound. The bullet was removed, but the dying hero told the doctor he was sure his wound was fatal, and after it had been treated, he asked him to attend to the other wounded men, who were suffering just like him. A boatswain’s mate on board the Awesome frigate, shortly after he learned of Nelson's death, expressed a heartfelt tribute that showed just how completely Nelson had won the hearts of all. The boatswain’s mate, who was then acting as boatswain, was ordered to call all hands to quarters; he didn’t respond, and the lieutenant on duty went to find out why. The man was known for his quickness as well as bravery, but he was found completely shaken and crying like a child. "I can't do this," he said—"Poor dear fellow, I've gone through so many hard days with!—and to lose him now! I wouldn’t care as much about my old father, mother, brothers, or sisters; but just the thought of saying goodbye to poor Nelson!" and he completely broke down. The officer, respecting his feelings, let him go below. Who doesn’t remember how, when Nelson’s body lay in state at Greenwich, a delegation from the crew of the Win paid their last loving respects, tearful and silent, and could barely be persuaded to leave? Or how, when the two Union Jacks and St. George’s ensign were being lowered into the grave at St. Paul’s—the colors shattered just like the body of the fallen hero—the brave sailors carrying them each tore off a piece of the largest flag, as a reminder of England’s greatest victory and England’s greatest loss? Many otherwise noble and brave officers have completely failed to win their men’s affection; and there is no doubt about the value of being truly in agreement with them—the more so as it doesn't have to ease up on discipline. It’s an unspoken compliment from a commander to take a crew into his confidence at the right time. The following anecdote will illustrate how an action was greatly influenced by this, with very little loss of life.
The Bellona, of 74 guns and 558 men, with a most valuable freight on merchants’ account, and commanded by the celebrated Captain R. Faulkner, and the Brilliant, a 36-gun frigate, Captain Loggie, sailed from the Tagus in August, 1761. When off Vigo, three sail were discovered approaching the land, and the strangers continued their approach, till they found out the character of the English vessels, and then crowded on all sail, in flight. Upon this, the Bellona and Brilliant pursued, coming up with them next morning, to find that they would have to engage one ship of 74 guns, the Courageux, with 700 men, and two frigates of 36 guns each, the Malicieuse and Ermine. After exchanging a few broadsides, the French vessels shot ahead; when Captain Loggie, seeing that he could not expect to take either of the smaller vessels, determined to manœuvre, and lead them such a wild-goose chase, that the Bellona should have to engage the Courageux alone. During the whole engagement, he withstood the united attacks of both the frigates, each of them with equal force to his own, and at last obliged them to sheer off, greatly damaged. Meanwhile, the Courageux and Bellona had approached each other very fast. The Courageux, when within musket-shot, fired her first broadside, and there was much impatience on the Bellona to return it; but they were restrained by Faulkner, who called out to them to hold hard, and not to fire till they saw the whites of the Frenchmen’s eyes, adding, “Take my word for it, they will never stand the singeing of their whiskers!” His speech to the sailors just before the action is a model of sailor-like advice. “Gentlemen, I have been bred a seaman from my youth, and, consequently, am no orator; but I promise to carry you all near enough, and then you may speak for yourselves. Nevertheless, I think it necessary to acquaint you with the plan I propose to pursue, in taking this ship, that you may be the better prepared.... I propose to lead you close on the enemy’s larboard quarter, when we will discharge two broadsides, and then back astern, and range upon the other quarter, and so tell your guns as you pass. I recommend you at all times to point chiefly at the quarters, with your guns slanting fore and aft; this is the principal part of a ship. If you kill the officers, break the rudder, and snap the braces, she is yours, of course; but, for this reason, I desire you may only fire one round of shot and grape above, and two rounds, shot only, below. Take care and send them home with exactness. This is a rich ship; they will render you, in return, their weight in gold.” This programme was very nearly carried out; almost every shot took effect. The French still kept up a very brisk fire, and in a moment the Bellona’s shrouds and rigging were almost all cut to pieces, and in nine minutes her mizen-mast fell over the stern. Undaunted, Faulkner managed to wear his ship round; the officers and men flew to their respective opposite guns, and carried on, from the larboard side, a fire even more terrible than they had hitherto kept up from the starboard guns. “It was impossible for mortal beings to withstand a battery so incessantly repeated, and so fatally directed, and, in about twenty minutes from the first shot, the French colours were hauled down, and orders were immediately given in the Bellona to cease firing, the enemy having struck. The men had left their quarters, and all the officers were on the quarter-deck, congratulating one another on their victory, when, unexpectedly, a round of shot came from the lower tier of the Courageux. It is impossible to describe the rage that animated the Bellona’s crew on this occasion. Without waiting for orders, they flew again to their guns, and in a moment [pg 229]poured in what they familiarly termed two ‘comfortable broadsides’ upon the enemy, who now called out loudly for quarter, and firing at length ceased on both sides.” The Courageux was a mere wreck, having nothing but her foremast and bowsprit standing, several of her ports knocked into one, and her deck rent in a hundred places. She lost 240 killed, and 110 wounded men were put ashore at Lisbon. On board the Bellona only six men were killed outright, and about twenty-eight wounded; the loss of her mizen was her only serious disaster.
The Bellona, with 74 guns and 558 crew members, carrying a valuable cargo for merchants, commanded by the renowned Captain R. Faulkner, along with the Awesome, a 36-gun frigate under Captain Loggie, set sail from the Tagus in August 1761. While off Vigo, three ships were spotted approaching the shore, and as they realized the English vessels’ identity, they quickly fled. The Bellona and Amazing pursued them, catching up the next morning to discover they faced one ship of 74 guns, the Brave, with 700 men, as well as two frigates each armed with 36 guns, the Playful and Weasel. After a few broadsides, the French ships increased their distance; noticing that capturing the smaller ships was unlikely, Captain Loggie decided to maneuver, leading them on a wild chase to allow the Bellona to engage the Brave alone. Throughout the engagement, he fended off the coordinated attacks from both frigates, equally matched to his own, and eventually forced them to retreat, badly damaged. Meanwhile, the Brave and Bellona closed the distance quickly. When within musket range, the Brave fired its first broadside, and the crew of the Bellona was eager to respond, but Faulkner urged them to wait until they were closer, saying, "Trust me, they won't tolerate the burning of their whiskers!" His comments to the sailors just before the fight were classic sailor advice. "Gentlemen, I've been a sailor since I was young and I'm not a great speaker; however, I promise to get you close enough so you can speak for yourselves. Still, I want to share the plan for capturing this ship, so you can be ready... I suggest we position ourselves near the enemy's left side and fire two broadside shots, then pull back and come around to the other side while firing as we pass. I recommend aiming mainly at the quarters with your guns angled fore and aft; that's the most critical part of the ship. If we take out the officers, disable the rudder, and cut the braces, she will be ours. For this reason, I want you to fire only one round of shot and grape shot up high, and two rounds of shot down low. Make sure your shots are on target. This is a valuable ship, and they will reward you with gold." This plan was almost perfectly executed; nearly every shot found its target. The French maintained a strong fire, and soon the Bellona’s rigging was mostly shredded, and within nine minutes, her mizen-mast collapsed over the stern. Undeterred, Faulkner successfully turned his ship; the officers and crew quickly moved to their opposite guns and unleashed a barrage even more intense than before from the starboard side. It was impossible for any soldier to withstand such relentless and precisely aimed fire, and about twenty minutes after the first shot, the French flag was lowered, prompting orders on the Bellona to cease firing, as the enemy had surrendered. The crew had left their positions, and all the officers were on the quarterdeck, congratulating each other on their victory, when unexpectedly, a volley erupted from the lower deck of the Courageux. The fury among the Bellona’s crew was beyond words. Without waiting for orders, they rushed back to their guns and fired what they called two ‘comfortable broadsides’ at the enemy, who then loudly pleaded for mercy, leading to a halt in firing from both sides. The Brave was barely afloat, with only its foremast and bowsprit remaining, several ports damaged, and its deck torn in many places. It lost 240 men killed, and 110 wounded were put ashore at Lisbon. Onboard the Bellona, only six men were killed, with about twenty-eight wounded; the loss of her mizen was her only significant misfortune.
One more possibility in the officer’s existence, although now nearly obsolete. The ceremonies formerly attendant on “crossing the line”—i.e., passing over the equator—so often described, have, of late years, been more honoured in the breach than in the observance. On merchant vessels they had become a nuisance, as the sailors often made them an opportunity for levying black mail on timid and nervous passengers. In the Royal Navy, they afforded the one chance for “getting even” with unpopular officers; and very roughly was it sometimes accomplished. They are for this reason introduced in this chapter, as the officers had a direct interest in them. With trifling exceptions, the programme was as follows. The men stripped to the waist, wearing only “duck” unmentionables, prepared, immediately after breakfast, for the saturnalia of the day—a day when the ship was en carnival, and discipline relaxed. Early in the day, a man at the masthead, peering through a telescope, would announce a boat on the weather-bow, and soon after, a voice from the jibboom was heard hailing the ship, announcing that Neptune wished to come on board. The ship was accordingly hove-to, when a sailor, in fashionable coat, knee-breeches, and powdered hair, came aft, and announced to the commander that he was gentleman’s gentleman to the god of the sea, who desired an interview. This accorded, the procession of Neptune from the forecastle at once commenced. The triumphal car was a gun-carriage, drawn by half-a-dozen half-naked and grotesquely-painted sailors, their heads covered by wigs of sea-weed. Neptune was always masked, as were many of his [pg 230]satellites, in order that the officers should not know who enacted the leading rôles. The god wore a crown, and held out a trident, on which a dolphin, supposed to have been impaled that morning, was stuck. He had a flowing wig and beard of oakum, and was, in all points, “made-up” for Neptune himself. His suite included a secretary of state, his head stuck all over with long quills; a surgeon, with lancet, pill-box, and medicines; his barber, with a razor cut from an iron hoop, and with an assistant, who carried a tub for a shaving-box. Mrs. Neptune was represented by the ugliest man on board, who, with sea-weed hair and a huge night-cap, carried a baby—one of the boys of the ship—in long clothes; the latter played with a marline-spike, given it to assist in cutting its teeth. The nurse followed, with a bucketful of burgoo (thick oatmeal porridge or pudding), and fed the baby incessantly with the cook’s iron ladle. Sea-nymphs, selected from the clumsiest and fattest of the crew, helped to swell the retinue. As soon as the procession halted before the captain, behind whom the steward waited, carrying a tray with a bottle of wine and glasses, Neptune and Amphitrite paid submission to the former, as representative of Great Britain, and the god presented him the dolphin. After the interview, in which Neptune not unfrequently poked fun and thrust home-truths at the officers, the captain offered the god and goddess a bumper of wine, and then the rougher part of the ceremony commenced. Neptune would address his court somewhat as follows: “Hark ye, my Tritons, you’re here to shave and duck and bleed all as needs it; but you’ve got to be gentle, or we’ll get no more fees. The first of ye as disobeys me, I’ll tie to a ten-ton gun, and sink him ten thousand fathoms below, where he shall drink nothing but salt-water and feed on seaweed for the next hundred years.” The cow-pen was usually employed for the ducking-bath; it was lined with double canvas, and boarded up, so as to hold several butts of water. Marryat, in the first naval novel he wrote, says: “Many of the officers purchased exemption from shaving and physic by a bottle of rum; but none could escape the sprinkling of salt water, which fell about in great profusion; even the captain received his share.... It was easy to perceive, on this occasion, who were favourites with the ship’s company, by the degree of severity with which they were treated. The tyro was seated on the side of the cow-pen: he was asked the place of his nativity, and the moment he opened his mouth the shaving-brush of the barber—which was a very large paint-brush—was crammed in, with all the filthy lather, with which they covered his face and chin; this was roughly scraped off with the great razor. The doctor felt his pulse, and prescribed a pill, which was forced into his cheek; and the smelling-bottle, the cork of which was armed with sharp points of pins, was so forcibly applied to his nose as to bring blood. After this, he was thrown backward into the bath, and allowed to scramble out the best way he could.” The first-lieutenant, the reader may remember, dodged out of the way for some time, but at last was surrounded, and plied so effectually with buckets of salt water, that he fled down a hatchway. The buckets were pitched after him, “and he fell, like the Roman virgin, covered with the shields of the soldiers.” Very unpopular men or officers were made to swallow half a pint of salt water. Those good old times!
One more possibility in the officer's life, though now almost outdated. The ceremonies that used to accompany “crossing the line”—that is, crossing over the equator—have recently been more honored in the breach than in practice. On merchant ships, they had become a hassle since sailors often used them as a chance to extort money from nervous passengers. In the Royal Navy, they provided a rare opportunity for “getting even” with unpopular officers, and the execution of this was sometimes very rough. For this reason, they are mentioned in this chapter, as the officers had a vested interest in them. With minor exceptions, the routine was as follows. The men would strip to the waist, wearing only “duck” undergarments, and prepare, right after breakfast, for the day's festivities—a day when the ship was in festive mode, and rules were more relaxed. Early in the day, a lookout at the masthead would spot a boat on the weather-bow and announce it, followed by a voice from the jibboom calling the ship, stating that Neptune wanted to come onboard. The ship would then come to a halt, and a sailor, dressed in a fashionable coat, knee-breeches, and powdered wig, would come up and announce to the captain that he was the “gentleman’s gentleman” to the god of the sea, who requested a meeting. Once this was agreed to, the procession of Neptune from the forecastle would begin. The triumphal float was a gun carriage, pulled by a handful of half-naked and brightly painted sailors, their heads adorned with wigs made of seaweed. Neptune was always masked, just like many of his attendants, so the officers wouldn’t know who played the leading roles. The god wore a crown and held out a trident, with a dolphin, supposedly speared that morning, stuck on it. He had a flowing wig and beard made of oakum and was, in every detail, “made-up” to look like Neptune himself. His entourage included a Secretary of State, with his head covered in long quills; a surgeon, carrying a lancet, pillbox, and medicines; and his barber, with a razor cut from an iron hoop, along with an assistant who carried a tub as a shaving box. Mrs. Neptune was played by the ugliest man aboard, who, with seaweed hair and a huge nightcap, carried a baby—one of the ship's boys—dressed in long clothes; the boy played with a marline spike, given to him to help with teething. The nurse followed, with a bucket full of burgoo (thick oatmeal porridge), and continually fed the baby with the cook’s iron ladle. Sea nymphs, chosen from the clumsiest and heaviest crew members, added to the entourage. As soon as the procession stopped in front of the captain, behind whom the steward stood with a tray of wine and glasses, Neptune and Amphitrite showed respect to the captain, as the representative of Great Britain, and the god presented him with the dolphin. After the meeting, where Neptune often made jokes and revealed harsh truths about the officers, the captain offered the god and goddess a drink of wine, and then the rougher part of the ceremony began. Neptune would address his court like this: “Listen up, my Tritons, you’re here to shave, dunk, and bleed as needed; but you’ve got to be gentle, or we won’t collect any more fees. The first of you who disobeys me, I’ll tie to a ten-ton gun and sink him ten thousand fathoms below, where he shall drink nothing but salt water and feed on seaweed for the next hundred years.” The cow-pen was typically used for the dunking bath; it was lined with double canvas and boarded up to hold several casks of water. Marryat, in his first naval novel, states: “Many of the officers bought their way out of shaving and medical treatments with a bottle of rum; but none could escape the splashing of salt water, which fell in great profusion; even the captain got his share.... On this occasion, it was easy to see who were favorites with the crew based on how severely they were treated. The novice was sat on the edge of the cow-pen: he was asked where he was born, and as soon as he opened his mouth, the barber’s shaving brush—which was a very large paintbrush—was shoved in, covering his face and chin with the filthy lather; this was then roughly scraped off with the big razor. The doctor took his pulse, prescribed a pill, which was forced into his cheek; and the smelling bottle, whose cork was covered with sharp pins, was applied so forcefully to his nose that it drew blood. After that, he was thrown backward into the bath and allowed to scramble out however he could.” The first lieutenant, as you may remember, dodged this for a while but eventually found himself surrounded and was doused so effectively with buckets of salt water that he fled down a hatchway. The buckets were thrown after him, “and he fell, like the Roman virgin, covered with the shields of the soldiers.” Very unpopular officers or crew members were forced to drink half a pint of salt water. Ah, those good old days!
Pleasant is it to read of life on board a modern first-class man-of-war. Where there are, perhaps, thirty officers in the ward-room, it would be hard indeed if one cannot [pg 231]find a kindred spirit, while on such a vessel the band will discourse sweet music while you dine, and soothe you over the walnuts and wine, after the toils of the day, with selections from the best operas, waltzes, and quadrilles. Then comes the coffee, and the post-prandial cigar in the smoking-room. At sea, luncheon is dispensed with, and the regular hour is half-past two; but in port both lunch and dinner are provided, and the officers on leave ashore can return to either. Say that you have extended your ramble in the country, you will have established an appetite by half-past five, the hour when the officers’ boat puts off from shore, wharf, or pier. Perhaps the most pleasant evening is the guests’ night, one of which is arranged for every week, when the officer can, by notifying the mess caterer, invite a friend or two. The mess caterer is the officer selected to superintend the victualling department, as the wine caterer does the liquid refreshments. It is by no means an enviable position, for it is the Englishman’s conceded right to growl, and sailors are equal to the occasion. Dr. Stables remarks on the unfairness of this under-the-table stabbing, when most probably the caterer is doing his best to please. But on a well-regulated ship, where the officers are harmonious, and either not extravagant or with private means, the dinner-hour is the most agreeable time in the day. After the cloth has been removed, and the president, with a due preliminary tap on the table to attract attention, has given the only toast of the evening—“The Queen”—the bandmaster, who has been peering in at the door for some minutes, starts the National Anthem at the right time, and the rest of the evening is devoted to pleasant intercourse, or visits ashore to the places of amusement or houses of hospitable residents.
It's enjoyable to read about life on a modern first-class warship. With around thirty officers in the wardroom, it would be quite a challenge not to find someone you connect with. On such a vessel, the band plays sweet music during dinner and provides a relaxing atmosphere over walnuts and wine after a long day, featuring selections from the best operas, waltzes, and quadrilles. Then comes coffee and a post-dinner cigar in the smoking room. At sea, lunch isn’t served, and the regular meal time is 2:30 PM; however, in port, both lunch and dinner are available, and officers on leave can return for either. Suppose you've extended your walk in the countryside; you'll likely be hungry by 5:30 PM, the time when the officers' boat departs from shore, wharf, or pier. The most enjoyable evening tends to be guest night, which happens once a week when an officer can invite a friend or two by notifying the mess caterer. The mess caterer is the officer tasked with overseeing the food service, much like the wine caterer handles drinks. It’s not an enviable role, as it’s accepted that Englishmen love to complain, and sailors are no exception. Dr. Stables comments on the unfairness of this backstabbing, especially when the caterer is probably doing his best. But on a well-run ship, where the officers get along and aren't overly extravagant or have their own means, dinner time is the most pleasant part of the day. After the table is cleared, and the president has tapped the table to get everyone’s attention, he gives the only toast of the evening—“The Queen”. At the right moment, the bandmaster, who has been peeking in at the door for a few minutes, starts the National Anthem, and the rest of the evening is spent enjoying good conversation or visiting local entertainment spots or the homes of friendly residents.
Before leaving, for the nonce, the Royal Navy, its officers and men, a few facts may be permitted, particularly interesting at the present time. The navy, as now constituted, has for its main backbone fifty-four ironclads. There are of all classes of vessels no less than 462, but more than a fourth of these are merely hulks, doing harbour service, &c., while quite a proportion of the remainder—varying according to the exigencies of the times—are out of commission. There are seventy-eight steam gun-boats and five fine Indian troop-ships. These numbers are drawn from the official Navy List of latest date.
Before leaving, for the time being, the Royal Navy, along with its officers and crew, here are a few facts that may be of particular interest at the moment. The navy, as it stands now, has a primary fleet of fifty-four ironclads. In total, there are 462 vessels of all types, but more than a quarter of these are just hulks, serving in harbors, etc., while quite a number of the rest—fluctuating based on current needs—are out of commission. There are seventy-eight steam gunboats and five impressive troop ships from India. These figures are taken from the most recent official Navy List.
It is said that since the ironclad movement commenced, not less than £300,000,000 has been disbursed (in about twenty years) by the different countries of the world. Even Japan, Peru, Venezuela, Chili, the Argentine Confederation, possess many of this class of vessel, of more or less power. The British fleet, under the command of Vice-Admiral Hornby, in the Mediterranean, &c., though numerically not counting twenty per cent. of the fleets in the days of Nelson and Collingwood, when “a hundred sail of the line” frequently assembled, has cost infinitely more. A cool half million is not an exceptional cost for an ironclad, while one of the latest of our turret-ships, the Inflexible, has cost the nation three-quarters of a million sterling at the least. She is to carry four eighty-ton guns. A recent correspondent of a daily journal states that next to Great Britain, “the ironclad fleet of the Sultan ranks foremost among the navies of the world.” Be that as it may, there can be little doubt that if Russia had succeeded in acquiring it, it would, with her own fleet, have constituted a very powerful rival.
It’s said that since the ironclad movement started, around £300,000,000 has been spent (over about twenty years) by various countries around the globe. Even Japan, Peru, Venezuela, Chile, and the Argentine Confederation have many vessels of this type, with varying power. The British fleet, led by Vice-Admiral Hornby in the Mediterranean and elsewhere, while not comprising twenty percent of the fleets during the days of Nelson and Collingwood, when “a hundred sail of the line” often gathered, has cost significantly more. A cool half million is a typical cost for an ironclad, while one of our latest turret-ships, the *Inflexible*, has cost the nation at least three-quarters of a million pounds. It’s set to carry four eighty-ton guns. A recent correspondent for a daily newspaper claims that next to Great Britain, “the ironclad fleet of the Sultan ranks foremost among the navies of the world.” Regardless, there’s little doubt that if Russia had managed to get it, it would have combined with her own fleet to form a very powerful rival.
The progressive augmentation in the size of naval vessels has been rapid in Great [pg 232]Britain. When Henry VIII. constructed his Henry Grace de Dieu, of 1,000 tons,124 it was, indeed, a great giant among pigmies, for a vessel of two or three hundred tons was then considered large. At the death of Elizabeth she left forty-two ships, of 17,000 tons in all, and 8,346 men; fifteen of her vessels being 600 tons and upwards. From this period the tonnages of the navy steadily increased. The first really scientific architect, Mr. Phineas Pett, remodelled the navy to good purpose in the reigns of James I. and Charles I. Previous to this time the vessels with their lofty poops and forecastles had greatly resembled Chinese junks. He launched the Sovereign of the Seas, a vessel 232 feet in length, and of a number of tons exactly corresponding to the date, 1637, when she left the slips. Cromwell found a navy of fourteen two-deckers, and left one of 150 vessels, of which one-third were line-of-battle ships. He was the first to lay naval estimates before Parliament, and obtained £400,000 per annum for the service. James II. left 108 ships of the line, and sixty-five other vessels of 102,000 tons, with 42,000 men. William III. brought it to 272 ships, of 159,020 tons. George II. left, in 1760, 412 ships, of 321,104 tons. Twenty-two years later the navy had reached 617 vessels, and in 1813 we had the enormous number of 1,000 vessels, of which 256 were of the line, measuring 900,000 tons, carrying 146,000 seamen and marines, and costing £18,000,000 per annum to maintain. But since the peace of 1815, the number of vessels has greatly diminished, while an entirely new era of naval construction has been inaugurated. In the seventeenth century a vessel of 1,500 tons was considered of enormous size. At the end of the eighteenth, 2,500 was the outside limit, whilst there are now many vessels of 4,000 tons, and the navy possesses frigates of 6,000 and upwards. Several of our enormous ironclads have a tonnage of over 11,000 tons, while the Great Eastern—of course a very exceptional case—has a tonnage of 22,500.
The rapid growth in the size of naval vessels has been significant in Great Britain. When Henry VIII built his Henry Grace of God, which weighed 1,000 tons, it was truly a giant compared to smaller ships because a vessel weighing two or three hundred tons was considered large at that time. By the time Elizabeth passed away, she had left behind forty-two ships with a total tonnage of 17,000 tons and a crew of 8,346 men; fifteen of her ships were 600 tons or more. From this point on, the tonnage of the navy consistently increased. The first really skilled naval architect, Mr. Phineas Pett, made significant improvements to the navy during the reigns of James I and Charles I. Before this, ships with their tall sterns and bow sections looked a lot like Chinese junks. He launched the Ruler of the Seas, a ship measuring 232 feet and with a tonnage that matched its launch year, 1637. Cromwell discovered a navy of fourteen two-deckers and left behind a fleet of 150 vessels, a third of which were line-of-battle ships. He was the first to present naval budgets to Parliament, securing £400,000 annually for the navy. James II left behind 108 ships of the line and sixty-five additional vessels totaling 102,000 tons, with a crew of 42,000 men. William III increased the fleet to 272 ships with a tonnage of 159,020 tons. By 1760, George II had left 412 ships totaling 321,104 tons. Twenty-two years later, the navy had grown to 617 vessels, and by 1813, it reached an astonishing 1,000 ships, including 256 line ships with a combined tonnage of 900,000 tons, manned by 146,000 sailors and marines, costing £18,000,000 a year to maintain. However, since the peace of 1815, the number of vessels has sharply declined, marking the beginning of a completely new era in naval construction. In the seventeenth century, a ship weighing 1,500 tons was seen as enormous. By the end of the eighteenth century, 2,500 tons was the largest size encountered, whereas today, there are many vessels weighing 4,000 tons and above, with frigates in the navy exceeding 6,000 tons. Some of our massive ironclads have a tonnage over 11,000 tons, while the Great Eastern—of course, a very exceptional case—has a tonnage of 22,500.
Whilst we have efficient military volunteers enough to form a grand army, our naval volunteers do not number more than the contingents for a couple of large vessels. There are scarcely more than a thousand of the latter, and only three stations. London, Liverpool, and Brighton divide the honour between them of possessing corps. The writer believes that he will be doing a service to many young men—who in their turn may do good service for their country—in briefly detailing the conditions and expenses of joining. In a very short period of time the members have become wonderfully efficient, and the sailor-like appearance of the men is well illustrated by the fact, that at a recent reception at the Mansion House a number of them were taken for men-of-war’s men, and so described in several daily journals. Their prowess is illustrated by the prizes distributed by Lady Ashley, at the inspection of the 1st London Corps, in the West India Docks, on February 9th last. Badges were won by the gunner making the best practice with the heavy gun at sea, and by the marksman making the greatest number of points with the rifle. The “Lord Ashley challenge prize,” for the best gun’s crew at sea, was won by fourteen men of No. 2 battery, who fired forty-two rounds at 1,300 yards in thirty-seven minutes, scoring 411 points out of a possible 504 points. The official report says:—“that further [pg 233]comment on the men or their instructor is superfluous.” The list included rifle, battery, and boating prizes.
While we have enough efficient military volunteers to create a large army, our naval volunteers number only enough for a couple of large ships. There are barely more than a thousand of them, spread across just three stations. London, Liverpool, and Brighton share the honor of having naval corps. The writer believes it would be helpful for many young men—who in turn could serve their country well—to outline the conditions and costs of joining. In a very short time, the members have become impressively capable, and their sailor-like appearance was notably recognized at a recent event at the Mansion House, where several were mistaken for actual sailors and described as such in various daily newspapers. Their skills were demonstrated by the awards given by Lady Ashley during the inspection of the 1st London Corps at the West India Docks on February 9th. Badges were awarded for the best performance with heavy guns at sea and for the marksman with the highest points using a rifle. The “Lord Ashley Challenge Prize,” for the top gun crew at sea, was claimed by fourteen members of No. 2 battery, who fired forty-two rounds at 1,300 yards in thirty-seven minutes, scoring 411 out of a possible 504 points. The official report states:—“Any additional comment on the men or their instructor is unnecessary.” The list included prizes for rifle, battery, and boating.
The Royal Navy Artillery Volunteers are raised under an Act passed in 1873, and are directly subject to the authority of the Admiralty. They may be assembled for actual employment, their duties then consisting of coast or harbour service. They are not required to go aloft, or to attend to the engine fires, but in regard to berthing and messing must conform to the arrangements usual with seamen. The force is formed into brigades, each brigade consisting of four or more batteries, of from sixty to eighty men. Each brigade has a lieutenant-commander, and each battery a sub-lieutenant, chief petty officer, first and second-class petty officers, buglers, &c., while the staff includes a lieutenant-instructor, first-class petty officer instructor, surgeon, bugle-major, and armourer. Those desiring to join a corps should communicate with the Secretary of the Admiralty. The annual subscription to the 1st London Corps is one guinea, while each member has to provide himself with two white frocks, one blue serge frock, one pair of blue trousers, one blue cloth cap, &c., black handkerchief, flannel, knife, lanyard, and monkey-jacket, costing in the neighbourhood of six pounds. When on a cruise, in gunboat, the volunteer requires in addition serge trousers and jumpers, flannel shirt, towels, and brush and comb, [pg 234]canvas bags, &c. The officers’ uniforms are the same as those of the Royal Navy, with the exception of silver, for the most part, taking the place of gold. It is more expensive to join the naval than the military volunteers, and the class composing the corps are generally well-to-do young men, a large number of them employed in shipping offices, and mercantile pursuits connected with the sea.
The Royal Navy Artillery Volunteers were established under an Act passed in 1873 and are directly under the authority of the Admiralty. They can be called into active duty, which involves coast or harbor service. They are not required to go aloft or manage the engine fires, but they must follow the usual arrangements for berthing and meals, just like sailors. The force is organized into brigades, with each brigade consisting of four or more batteries made up of sixty to eighty men. Each brigade has a lieutenant-commander, and each battery has a sub-lieutenant, chief petty officer, first and second-class petty officers, buglers, etc., while the staff includes a lieutenant-instructor, first-class petty officer instructor, surgeon, bugle-major, and armorer. Anyone wishing to join a corps should contact the Secretary of the Admiralty. The annual fee for the 1st London Corps is one guinea, and each member must provide two white frocks, one blue serge frock, a pair of blue trousers, a blue cloth cap, a black handkerchief, flannel, a knife, lanyard, and monkey jacket, costing around six pounds. When on a cruise in a gunboat, volunteers also need serge trousers and jumpers, a flannel shirt, towels, a brush and comb, [pg 234]canvas bags, etc. The officers’ uniforms are the same as those of the Royal Navy, except that silver mostly replaces gold. Joining the naval volunteers is more expensive than joining the military volunteers, and the members are generally well-off young men, many of whom work in shipping offices and other sea-related commercial pursuits.
The drills consist of practice with great guns, rifle, pistol, and cutlass exercises. “Efficient” volunteers are entitled to a badge, while men returned five times as efficient may wear one star, and those returned ten times two stars, above said badge. Every volunteer must attend at least two drills a month, until he has obtained the standard of an “efficient.” When on actual service, the Royal Naval Artillery Volunteers will receive the same pay, allowances, and victuals as those of relative rank in the navy, and when embarked on any of Her Majesty’s ships for more than forty-eight hours, in practice, will either be victualled or receive a money compensation. The cruises in gun-boats, &c., usually last ten days, and the vessel visits many of the Channel ports, &c., more especially off points where gun practice is practicable. A volunteer wounded, either on drill or in actual service, is entitled to the same compensation as any seaman in the navy would be under similar circumstances, and if killed his widow (if any) to the same gratuities out of the Greenwich Hospital Funds as would a Royal Navy seaman’s widow. Members who are able to take advantage of the cruise in gun-boats must have attended drill regularly for three months previously. It must be remembered that each man costs the Government from £8 to £10 for the first year, in the expenses incurred in great gun and other practice; and it is therefore made a point of honour to those joining that they will devote sufficient time to their drills to make themselves thoroughly efficient.
The drills include practice with large guns, rifles, pistols, and cutlass exercises. "Effective" volunteers receive a badge, while those deemed five times as efficient can wear one star, and those who are ten times efficient can wear two stars above the badge. Every volunteer must attend at least two drills each month until they meet the standard of being an “efficient.” When on active duty, the Royal Naval Artillery Volunteers will receive the same pay, allowances, and food as those with the same rank in the navy. If they are on any of Her Majesty’s ships for over forty-eight hours during practice, they will either be provided with food or receive a monetary compensation. The cruises on gunboats usually last ten days, and the vessel visits many ports in the Channel, especially at locations where gun practice can take place. A volunteer who is injured, either during drills or while on active duty, is entitled to the same compensation as any sailor in the navy would receive under similar circumstances, and if killed, their widow (if applicable) is entitled to the same benefits from the Greenwich Hospital Funds as a Royal Navy sailor's widow. Members who wish to participate in the gunboat cruise must have attended drills regularly for the three months prior. It’s important to remember that each individual costs the Government between £8 and £10 in their first year due to expenses related to gun practice and other training; therefore, it’s essential for new members to commit enough time to their drills to become fully proficient.
The London Naval Artillery Volunteers have a fine vessel, the President, now in the West India Docks, on which to exercise, while to accustom them to living on board ship, the old Rainbow, off Temple Pier, is open to them, under certain conditions, as a place of residence. A number avail themselves of this: sleep on board in hammocks, and contribute their quota of the mess expenses. The writer is the last to decry other manly exercises, such as cricket, foot-ball, racing, or pedestrianism, but naval volunteering has the advantage of not merely comprising a series of manly exercises, but in being directly practical and specially health-giving.
The London Naval Artillery Volunteers have a great ship, the President, currently in the West India Docks, where they can train. To help them get used to life on a ship, the old Rainbow, moored off Temple Pier, is available to them as a living space under certain conditions. Many take advantage of this: they sleep on board in hammocks and share the mess expenses. The writer isn’t dismissing other masculine activities like cricket, football, racing, or walking, but naval volunteering stands out because it not only involves a range of rugged exercises but is also directly practical and particularly beneficial for health.
And to prevent the need of impressment, the Government did well in establishing the Royal Naval Reserve. The latest estimates provided £140,000 for the year; the number, which at present is about 20,000 men, is not to exceed 30,000. The service is divided into two classes: the first class consisting of seamen of the merchant service, and the second, fishermen on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. Both divisions are practical sailors, and the value of their services in a time of war would be inestimable. They are required to drill twenty-eight days in each year, for which they receive about £6 per annum, and sundry allowances for travelling, &c. The former class can be drilled at our stations abroad, so that a merchant seaman is not necessarily tied to England, or to mere coasting trade.
And to avoid the need for impressment, the Government made a smart move by establishing the Royal Naval Reserve. The latest estimates indicate £140,000 for the year; the current number, which is around 20,000 men, is not to exceed 30,000. The service is split into two categories: the first category consists of seamen from the merchant service, and the second includes fishermen along the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland. Both groups are skilled sailors, and their contributions during wartime would be invaluable. They are required to complete twenty-eight days of training each year, for which they receive about £6 per year, along with various allowances for travel, etc. The first group can train at our stations abroad, meaning that a merchant seaman isn't necessarily restricted to England or only coastal trade.
CHAPTER 14.
The Other Side of the Picture—Mutiny.
Bligh’s Bread-fruit Expedition—Voyage of the Bounty—Otaheite—The Happy Islanders—First Appearance of a Mutinous Spirit—The Cutter Stolen and Recovered—The Bounty sails with 1,000 Trees—The Mutiny—Bligh Overpowered and Bound—Abandoned with Eighteen Others—Their Resources—Attacked by Natives—A Boat Voyage of 3,618 miles—Violent Gales—Miserable Condition of the Boat’s Crew—Bread by the Ounce—Rum by the Tea-spoonful—Noddies and Boobies—“Who shall have this?”—Off the Barrier Reef—A Haven of Rest—Oyster and Palm-top Stews—Another Thousand Miles of Ocean—Arrival at Coupang—Hospitality of the Residents—Ghastly Looks of the Party—Death of Five of the Number—The Pandora Dispatched to Catch the Mutineers—Fourteen in Irons—Pandora’sBox—The Wreck—Great Loss of Life—Sentences of the Court Martial—The Last of the Mutineers—Pitcairn Island—A Model Settlement—Another Example: The greatest Mutiny of History—40,000 Disaffected Men at one point—Causes—Legitimate Action of the Men at First—Apathy of Government—Serious Organisation—The Spithead Fleet Ordered to Sea—Refusal of the Crews—Concessions Made, and the First Mutiny Quelled—Second Outbreak—Lord Howe’s Tact—The Great Mutiny of the Nore—Richard Parker—A Vile Character but Man of Talent—Wins the Men to his Side—Officers Flogged and Ducked—Gallant Duncan’s Address—Accessions to the Mutineers—Parker practically Lord High Admiral—His Extravagant Behaviour—Alarm in London—The Movement Dies out by Degrees—Parker’s Cause Lost—His Execution—Mutinies at Other Stations—Prompt Action of Lords St. Vincent and Macartney.
Bligh's Breadfruit Expedition—Voyage of the Bounty—Otaheite—The Happy Islanders—Early Signs of a Mutinous Environment—The Cutter Stolen and Recovered—The Reward sets sail with 1,000 Trees—The Mutiny—Bligh Overpowered and Tied Up—Left Behind with Eighteen Others—Their Supplies—Attacked by Locals—A Boat Journey of 3,618 miles—Harsh Storms—Terrible Condition of the Boat’s Crew—Bread by the Ounce—Rum by the Teaspoon—Noddies and Boobies—“Who will get this?”—Off the Barrier Reef—A Place to Rest—Oyster and Palm-top Stews—Another Thousand Miles of Ocean—Arrival at Coupang—Hospitality of the Locals—Ghastly Appearance of the Group—Death of Five Members—The Pandora Sent to Capture the Mutineers—Fourteen in Chains—Pandora’sBox—The Shipwreck—Significant Loss of Life—Sentences from the Court Martial—The Last of the Mutineers—Pitcairn Island—A Model Settlement—Another Example: The largest Mutiny in History—40,000 Discontented Men at one time—Causes—Initially Legitimate Actions of the Men—Government Apathy—Serious Organization—The Spithead Fleet Ordered to Sea—Crews Refuse—Concessions Made, and the First Mutiny Quelled—Second Outbreak—Lord Howe’s Tact—The Great Mutiny at the Nore—Richard Parker—A Despicable Character but Talented—Gains Support from the Men—Officers Whipped and Dunked—Gallant Duncan’s Speech—New Additions to the Mutineers—Parker effectively becomes Lord High Admiral—His Excessive Behavior—Panic in London—The Movement Gradually Fades—Parker’s Cause Lost—His Execution—Mutinies at Other Stations—Swift Action by Lords St. Vincent and Macartney.
The Royal Navy has ever been the glory of our country, but there are spots even on the bright sun. The service has been presented hitherto almost entirely under its best aspects. Example after example of heroic bravery, unmurmuring endurance, and splendid discipline, have been cited. Nor can we err in painting it couleur de rose, for its gallant exploits have won it undying fame. But in the service at one time—thank God those times are hardly possible now—mutiny and desertion on a large scale were eventualities to be considered and dreaded; they were at least remote possibilities. In a few instances they became terrible facts. In the merchant service we still hear of painful examples: every reader will remember the case of the Lennie mutineers, who murdered the captain and mates in the Bay of Biscay, with the object of selling the ship in Greece, and were defeated by the brave steward, who steered for the coast of France, and was eventually successful in communicating with the French authorities. The example about to be related is a matter of historical fact, from which the naval service in particular may still draw most important lessons.
The Royal Navy has always been the pride of our country, but even the brightest sun has its spots. The service has mostly been portrayed in a positive light. Numerous examples of heroic bravery, unwavering endurance, and excellent discipline have been highlighted. We cannot go wrong in painting it in a rosy light, as its courageous achievements have earned it lasting fame. However, there were times when—thankfully those days are mostly behind us—mutiny and large-scale desertion were real threats we had to worry about; they were at least possible scenarios. In some cases, they became horrifying realities. In the merchant service, we still hear of distressing incidents: every reader likely recalls the case of the *Lennie* mutineers, who killed the captain and mates in the Bay of Biscay with the intent of selling the ship in Greece, but were stopped by the brave steward, who navigated to the coast of France and ultimately managed to contact the French authorities. The story about to be told is a matter of historical fact, from which the naval service, in particular, can still learn very important lessons.
In the year 1787, being seventeen years after Captain Cook’s memorable first voyage, a number of merchants and planters resident in London memorialised his Majesty George III., that the introduction of the bread-fruit tree from the southern Pacific Islands would be of great benefit to the West Indies, and the king complied with their request. A small vessel, the Bounty, was prepared, the arrangements for disposing the plants being made by Sir Joseph Banks, long the distinguished President of the Royal Society, and one of the most eminent men of science of the day. Banks had been with Cook among these very islands; indeed, it is stated that in his zeal for acquiring knowledge, he had undergone the process of tattooing himself. The ship was put under the command of Lieutenant Bligh, with officers and crew numbering in all forty-four souls, to whom were added a practical botanist and assistant.
In 1787, seventeen years after Captain Cook’s famous first voyage, several merchants and planters living in London petitioned King George III. They argued that bringing the breadfruit tree from the southern Pacific Islands would greatly benefit the West Indies, and the king agreed to their request. A small ship, the Reward, was prepared, with arrangements for transporting the plants made by Sir Joseph Banks, who had long been the respected President of the Royal Society and one of the most prominent scientists of his time. Banks had accompanied Cook to these islands; in fact, it’s said that in his eagerness to gain knowledge, he had even tattooed himself. The ship was placed under the command of Lieutenant Bligh, with a total of forty-four officers and crew members, along with a practical botanist and assistant.
The Bounty sailed from Spithead on December 23rd, 1787 and soon encountered very [pg 236]severe weather, which obliged them to refit at Teneriffe. Terrible gales were experienced near Cape Horn, “storms of wind, with hail and sleet, which made it necessary to keep a constant fire night and day, and one of the watch always attended to dry the people’s wet clothes. This stormy weather continued for nine days; the ship required pumping every hour; the decks became so leaky that the commander was obliged to allot the great cabin to those who had wet berths to hang their hammocks in.”125 It was at last determined, after vainly struggling for thirty days to make headway, to bear away for the Cape of Good Hope. The helm was accordingly put a-weather, to the great joy and satisfaction of all on board.
The Bounty set sail from Spithead on December 23rd, 1787 and soon faced some very [pg 236]harsh weather, which forced them to make repairs at Teneriffe. They experienced fierce gales near Cape Horn, “Windstorms brought hail and sleet, requiring a constant fire to be maintained day and night, and one crew member had to always dry the wet clothes. This rough weather continued for nine days; the ship needed to be pumped out every hour, and the decks became so leaky that the captain had to allocate the main cabin for those with wet berths to hang their hammocks.”125 Eventually, after struggling for thirty days to make progress, it was decided to head for the Cape of Good Hope. The helm was then turned to port, much to the joy and satisfaction of everyone on board.
They arrived at the Cape late in May, and stopped there for thirty-eight days, refitting, replenishing provisions, and refreshing the worn-out crew. On October 26th they anchored in Matavai Bay, Otaheite, and the natives immediately came out to the ship in great numbers. Tinah, the chief of the district, on hearing of the arrival of the Bounty, sent a small pig and a young plantain tree, as a token of friendship, and the ship was liberally supplied with provisions. Handsome presents were made to Tinah, and he was told that they had been sent to him, on account of the kindness of the people to Captain Cook [pg 238]during his visit. “Will you not, Tinah,” said Bligh, “send something to King George in return?” “Yes,” he replied, “I will send him anything I have,” and then enumerated the different articles in his power, among which he mentioned the bread-fruit. This was exactly what Bligh wished, and he was told that the bread-fruit trees were what King George would greatly like, and the chief promised that a large number should be placed on board.
They arrived at the Cape late in May and stayed there for thirty-eight days, making repairs, restocking supplies, and giving the exhausted crew a break. On October 26th, they dropped anchor in Matavai Bay, Otaheite, and the locals quickly came out to the ship in large numbers. Tinah, the district chief, upon hearing about the arrival of the Bounty, sent a small pig and a young plantain tree as a sign of friendship, and the ship was generously stocked with provisions. They gave Tinah some nice gifts and explained that they were sent to him because of the kindness shown to Captain Cook [pg 238]during his visit. “Won't you, Tinah,” Bligh asked, "Should we send something back to King George?" "Yep," he replied, "I'll send him everything I have." and then listed the different items he could offer, including the bread-fruit. This was exactly what Bligh wanted, and he was told that King George would really like the bread-fruit trees, and the chief promised that a large number would be loaded onto the ship.
The importance of the bread-fruit to these people cannot be over-stated. That old navigator, Dampier, had well described it a hundred years before. “The bread-fruit, as we call it, grows on a large tree, as big and high as our largest apple-trees; it hath a spreading head, full of branches and dark leaves. The fruit grows on the boughs like apples; it is as big as a penny loaf when wheat is at five shillings the bushel; it is of a round shape, and hath a thick, tough rind; when the fruit is ripe, it is yellow and soft, and the taste is sweet and pleasant. The natives of Guam use it for bread. They gather it, when full grown, while it is green and hard; then they bake it in an oven, which scorcheth the rind and makes it black, but they scrape off the outside black crust, and there remains a tender, thin crust; and the inside is soft, tender, and white.” The fruit lasts in season eight months. During Lord Anson’s two months’ stay at Tinian, no ship’s bread was consumed, the officers and men all preferring the bread-fruit. Byron speaks of these South Sea Islands, where labour is the merest play work, the earth affording nearly spontaneously all that the natives need, as
The significance of the breadfruit to these people can't be overstated. This old navigator, Dampier, described it well a hundred years ago. The breadfruit, as we call it, grows on a large tree, as big and tall as our largest apple trees; it has a wide canopy filled with branches and dark leaves. The fruit develops on the branches like apples; it's about the size of a small loaf of bread when wheat costs five shillings a bushel; it’s round with thick, tough skin; when ripe, it turns yellow and soft, with a sweet and pleasant taste. The natives of Guam use it as bread. They harvest it when fully grown but still green and firm; then they bake it in an oven, which chars the skin and turns it black, but they scrape off the burnt outer layer, leaving a tender, thin crust, and the inside is soft, tender, and white. The fruit remains in season for eight months. During Lord Anson’s two-month stay at Tinian, no ship’s bread was consumed; the officers and men all preferred the breadfruit. Byron mentions these South Sea Islands, where work is almost effortless, as the earth provides nearly everything the natives need, as
The Otaheitans of those days were a most harmless, amiable, and unsophisticated people. One day the gudgeon of the cutter’s rudder was missing, and was believed to have been stolen. “I thought,” says Bligh, “it would have a good effect to punish the boat-keeper in their presence, and accordingly I ordered him a dozen lashes. All who attended the punishment interceded very earnestly to get it mitigated; the women showed great sympathy.” The intercourse between the crew and natives was very pleasant. The Otaheitans showed the most perfect ease of manner, with “a candour and sincerity about them that is quite refreshing.” When they offered refreshments, for instance, if they were not accepted, they did not press them; they had not the least idea of that ceremonious kind of refusal which expects a second invitation. “Having one day,” says Bligh, “exposed myself too much in the sun, I was taken ill, on which all the powerful people, both men and women, collected round me, offering their assistance.” On an occasion when the Bounty had nearly gone ashore in a tremendous gale of wind, and on another when she did go aground, after all was right again, these kind-hearted people came in crowds to congratulate the captain on her escape; many of them shed tears while the danger seemed imminent. In the evenings, the whole beach was like a parade, crowded [pg 239]with several hundred men, women, and children, all good-humoured, and affectionate to one another; their sports and games were continued till near dark, when they peaceably returned to their homes. They were particularly cleanly, bathing every morning, and often twice a day.
The Otaheitans of that time were a harmless, friendly, and simple people. One day, the gudgeon from the cutter’s rudder went missing and was thought to have been stolen. "I was thinking," says Bligh, "It would be effective to punish the boatkeeper in front of them, so I ordered him to receive twelve lashes. Everyone who saw the punishment pleaded passionately for it to be reduced; the women showed a lot of compassion." The interaction between the crew and the locals was very pleasant. The Otaheitans had a wonderful ease of manner, "with a refreshingly honest and sincere approach." When they offered refreshments, for example, if they were not accepted, they didn’t press the issue; they had no concept of that formal kind of refusal where a second invitation is expected. “One day,” says Bligh, "After spending too much time in the sun, I got sick, and all the important people, both men and women, came around me to offer their help." On one occasion when the Bounty nearly ran aground in a fierce storm, and again when she did run aground, after everything was righted, these kind-hearted people came in crowds to congratulate the captain on her safe escape; many of them cried while it seemed the danger was real. In the evenings, the whole beach resembled a parade, filled [pg 239]with hundreds of men, women, and children, all cheerful and affectionate towards one another; their games continued until nearly dark, when they calmly returned to their homes. They were especially clean, bathing every morning and often twice a day.
It is sad to turn from this pleasant picture to find the spirit of desertion and mutiny appearing among the crew. There can be no doubt that the allurements of the island, its charming climate and abundant productions, the friendliness of the natives, and ease of living, were the main causes. Bligh made one fatal mistake in his long stay of over five months, during which the crew had all opportunities of leave ashore. Every man of them had his tayo, or friend. From the moment he set his foot ashore he found himself in the midst of ease and indolence, all living in a state of luxury, without submitting to anything approaching real labour. Such enticements were too much for a common sailor, for must he not contrast the islander’s happy lot with his own hardships on board?
It’s unfortunate to shift from this pleasant scene to see the spirit of abandonment and rebellion emerging among the crew. There’s no doubt that the island’s appeal, its lovely weather and plentiful resources, the friendliness of the locals, and the relaxed lifestyle were the primary reasons. Bligh made one critical error during his lengthy stay of over five months, giving the crew plenty of chances to go ashore. Each of them had their tayo, or friend. From the moment he stepped onto the land, he found himself surrounded by comfort and laziness, living in a state of luxury without having to do any real work. Such temptations were too strong for an ordinary sailor, as he couldn’t help but compare the islander’s joyful life with his own struggles on the ship.
One morning the small cutter was missing, with three of the crew. They had taken with them eight stands of arms and ammunition. The master was dispatched with one of the chiefs in their pursuit, but before they had got any great distance, they met the boat with five of the natives, who were bringing her back to the ship. “For this service they were handsomely rewarded. The chiefs promised to use every possible means to detect and bring back the deserters, which, in a few days, some of the islanders had so far accomplished as to seize and bind them, but let them loose again on a promise that they would return to their ship, which they did not exactly fulfil, but gave themselves up soon after, on a search being made for them.” A few days after this it was found that the cable by which the ship rode had been cut, close to the water’s edge, so that it held by only a strand. Bligh considered this the act of one of his own people, who wished the ship to go ashore, so that they might remain at Otaheite. It may, however, have chafed in the natural course of affairs.
One morning, the small boat was missing, along with three of the crew members. They had taken eight sets of weapons and ammunition with them. The captain was sent out with one of the chiefs to look for them, but before they had gone very far, they encountered a boat with five locals who were bringing the missing boat back to the ship. "For this service, they were generously rewarded. The chiefs promised to do everything they could to find and bring back the deserters. In a few days, some of the islanders managed to catch and tie them up, but they released them again on the condition that they would return to their ship. They didn’t fully honor that promise, but they gave themselves up shortly after a search was started for them." A few days later, it was discovered that the cable holding the ship had been cut, close to the waterline, leaving it hanging by just a strand. Bligh believed this was done by one of his own crew members who wanted the ship to run aground so they could stay in Tahiti. However, it might have just frayed naturally over time.
And now the Bounty, having taken on board over a thousand of the bread-fruit plants, besides other shrubs and fruits, set sail, falling in soon after with many canoes, whose owners and passengers sold them hogs, fowls, and yams, in quantities. Some of the sailing canoes would carry ninety persons. Bligh was congratulating himself on his ship being in good condition, his plants in perfect order, and all his men and officers in good health. On leaving deck on the evening of April 27th he had given directions as to the course and watches. Just before sunrise on the 28th, while he was yet asleep, Mr. Christian, officer of the watch, with three of the men, came into his cabin, and seizing him, tied his hands behind his back, threatening him with instant death if he spoke or made the least noise. “I called, however,” says Bligh, “as loud as I could, in hopes of assistance; but they had already secured the officers who were not of their party, by placing sentinels at their doors. There were three men at my cabin-door besides the four within; Christian had only a cutlass in his hand, the others had muskets and bayonets. I was hauled out of bed, and forced on deck in my shirt, suffering great pain from the tightness with which they had tied my hands.” The master and master’s mate, the gunner, and the gardener, were confined below, and the forecastle hatch was guarded by sentinels. The boatswain was ordered to hoist the launch out, with a threat that he had [pg 240]better do it instantly, and two of the midshipmen and others were ordered into it. Bligh was simply told, “Hold your tongue, sir, or you are dead this instant!” when he remonstrated. “I continued,” says he, “my endeavours to turn the tide of affairs, when Christian changed the cutlass which he had in his hand for a bayonet that was brought to him, and holding me with a strong grip by the cord that tied my hands, he threatened, with many oaths, to kill me immediately, if I would not be quiet; the villains round me had their pieces cocked and bayonets fixed.” The boatswain and seamen who were to be turned adrift with Bligh were allowed to collect twine, canvas, lines, sails, cordage, and an eight-and-twenty gallon cask of water; the clerk secured one hundred and fifty pounds of bread, with a small quantity of rum and wine, also a quadrant and compass, but he was forbidden to touch the maps, observations, or any of the surveys or drawings. He did, however, secure the journals and captain’s commission. The mutineers having forced those of the seamen whom they meant to get rid of into the boat, Christian directed a dram to be served to each of his own crew. Isaac Martin, one of the guard over Bligh, had an inclination to serve him, and fed him with some fruit, his lips being quite parched. This kindness was observed, and Martin was ordered away. The same man, with three others, desired to go with the captain, but this was refused. They begged him to remember that they had no hand in the transaction. “I asked [pg 241]for arms,” says Bligh, “but they laughed at me, and said I was well acquainted with the people among whom I was going, and therefore did not want them; four cutlasses, however, were thrown into the boat after we were veered astern.
And now the Reward, having loaded over a thousand breadfruit plants, along with other shrubs and fruits, set sail, soon encountering many canoes, whose owners and passengers sold them hogs, chickens, and yams in large quantities. Some of the sailing canoes could carry as many as ninety people. Bligh was feeling pleased that his ship was in good shape, his plants were well cared for, and all his crew and officers were in good health. Before leaving the deck on the evening of April 27th, he had given directions regarding the course and watches. Just before sunrise on the 28th, while he was still asleep, Mr. Christian, the officer on watch, along with three men, came into his cabin, seized him, and tied his hands behind his back, threatening him with immediate death if he spoke or made any noise. “I called, though,” says Bligh, “I shouted as loudly as I could, hoping for help, but they had already secured the officers not in their group by posting sentries at their doors. There were three men at my cabin door in addition to the four inside; Christian had only a cutlass, while the others were armed with muskets and bayonets. I was pulled out of bed and taken on deck in just my shirt, feeling intense pain from the ropes binding my wrists.” The captain and the mate, the gunner, and the gardener were confined below, with sentinels guarding the forecastle hatch. The boatswain was ordered to hoist out the launch, accompanied by a threat that he better do it immediately, and two of the midshipmen and others were directed into it. Bligh was simply told, "Shut your mouth, sir, or you'll be dead right now!" when he protested. "I kept going," he says, "My attempts to change the situation when Christian swapped the cutlass he was holding for a bayonet that was handed to him, and while holding me tightly with the rope binding my hands, he threatened, with numerous curses, to kill me right away if I didn’t stay quiet; the scoundrels surrounding me had their weapons ready and bayonets drawn." The boatswain and sailors who were to be cast adrift with Bligh were allowed to gather twine, canvas, lines, sails, cordage, and a twenty-eight-gallon cask of water; the clerk secured one hundred and fifty pounds of bread, along with a small amount of rum and wine, as well as a quadrant and compass, but he was forbidden to touch the maps, observations, or any surveys or drawings. He did, however, manage to secure the journals and the captain’s commission. The mutineers, having forced the sailors they intended to get rid of into the boat, directed that a drink be served to each member of their crew. Isaac Martin, one of the guards over Bligh, wanted to help him and offered him some fruit since his lips were completely parched. This kindness was noticed, and Martin was ordered away. The same man, along with three others, asked to go with the captain, but this was denied. They pleaded with him to remember that they had no part in the events. “I asked for weapons,” says Bligh, "but they laughed at me, saying I knew the people I was going to see and didn't need their help; however, four cutlasses were thrown into the boat after we were set adrift."
“The officers and men being in the boat, they only waited for me, of which the master-at-arms informed Christian, who then said, ‘Come, Captain Bligh, your officers and men are now in the boat, and you must go with them; if you attempt to make the least resistance, you will instantly be put to death;’ and without further ceremony, with a tribe of armed ruffians about me, I was forced over the side, when they untied my hands.” A few pieces of pork were thrown to them, and after undergoing a great deal of ridicule, and having been kept for some time to make sport for these unfeeling wretches, they were at length cast adrift in the open sea. Bligh heard shouts of “Huzza for Otaheite!” among the mutineers for some considerable time after they had parted from the vessel.
"The officers and crew were in the boat, just waiting for me, which the master-at-arms informed Christian. He then said, ‘Come on, Captain Bligh, your officers and crew are already in the boat, and you need to go with them; if you even try to resist, you’ll be killed immediately;’ and without any further conversation, surrounded by a group of armed thugs, I was pushed over the side, where they untied my hands." A few pieces of pork were tossed to them, and after enduring a lot of ridicule and being kept around for a while as entertainment for these heartless men, they were finally set adrift in the open sea. Bligh heard the mutineers shouting "Hooray for Tahiti!" for quite a while after they had separated from the ship.
In the boat, well weighted down to the water’s edge, were nineteen persons, including the commander, master, acting-surgeon, botanist, gunner, boatswain, carpenter, and two midshipmen. On the ship were twenty-five persons, mostly able seamen, but three midshipmen were among the number, two of whom had no choice in the matter, being detained against their will.
In the boat, heavily loaded down to the water’s edge, were nineteen people, including the commander, captain, acting surgeon, botanist, gunner, boatswain, carpenter, and two midshipmen. On the ship were twenty-five people, mainly skilled sailors, but there were three midshipmen as well, two of whom were forced to be there against their will.
Lieutenant Bligh, although a good seaman, was a tyrannical man, and had made himself especially odious on board by reason of his severity, and especially in regard to the issuing of provisions. He had had many disputes with Christian in particular, when his language was of the coarsest order. Still, the desire to remain among the Otaheitans, or, at all events, among these enticing islands, seems to have been the main cause of the mutiny.
Lieutenant Bligh, although a skilled sailor, was a harsh leader and had become especially disliked on board due to his strictness, particularly when it came to rationing supplies. He had numerous clashes with Christian in particular, during which he used very crude language. Nonetheless, the desire to stay among the Otaheitans, or at least in these appealing islands, appears to have been the primary reason for the mutiny.
It was shown afterwards that Christian had only the night before determined to make his escape on a kind of small raft; that he had informed four of his companions, and that they had supplied him with part of a roast pig, some nails, beads, and other trading articles, and that he abandoned the idea because, when he came on deck to his watch at four a.m., he found an opportunity which he had not expected. He saw Mr. Hayward, the mate of his watch, fall asleep, and the other midshipmen did not put in an appearance at all. He suddenly conceived the idea of the plot, which he disclosed to seven of the men, three of whom had “tasted the cat,” and were unfavourable to Bligh. They went to the armourer, and secured the keys of his chest, under the pretence of wanting a musket to fire at a shark, then alongside. Christian then proceeded to secure Lieutenant Bligh, the master, gunner, and botanist. He stated that he had been much annoyed at the frequent abusive and insulting language of his commanding officer. Waking out of a short half-hour’s disturbed sleep, to take the command of the deck—finding the mates of the watch asleep—the opportunity tempting, and the ship completely in his power, with a momentary impulse he darted down the fore-hatchway, got possession of the arm-chest, and made the hazardous experiment of arming such of the men as he deemed he could trust. It is said that he intended to send away his captain in a small, wretched boat, worm-eaten and decayed, but the remonstrances of a few of the better-hearted induced him to substitute the cutter.
It was later revealed that Christian had only decided the night before to escape on a small raft. He told four of his companions, who helped him by giving him some roast pig, nails, beads, and other trade items. He changed his mind when he came on deck for his watch at four a.m. and found an unexpected opportunity. He saw Mr. Hayward, the mate on duty, asleep, and the other midshipmen didn’t show up at all. In that moment, he came up with a plan, which he shared with seven of the crew members, three of whom had "tasted the cat" and disliked Bligh. They went to the armory and got the keys to his locker by pretending they needed a musket to shoot at a shark nearby. Christian then moved to secure Lieutenant Bligh, the master, the gunner, and the botanist. He expressed that he had been frustrated with the constant abusive and insulting language from his commanding officer. After waking from a disturbed half-hour nap to take over the watch—finding the mates asleep—he saw the opportunity right in front of him. With a sudden impulse, he rushed down the fore-hatchway, took control of the armory, and took the risky step of arming the few men he thought he could trust. It's said he initially planned to send his captain away in a small, miserable, rotting boat, but the pleas from some of the more compassionate crew members convinced him to use the cutter instead.
And now to follow the fortunes of Lieutenant Bligh and his companions. Their first consideration was to examine their resources. There were sixteen pieces of pork, weighing two pounds each, the bread and water as before mentioned, six quarts of rum, and six bottles of wine. Being near the island of Tofoa, they resolved to seek a supply of bread-fruit and water, so as to preserve their other stock, and they did obtain a small quantity of the former, but little water. The natives seeing their defenceless condition meditated their destruction, and speedily crowded the beach, knocking stones together, the preparatory signal for an attack. With some difficulty the seamen succeeded in getting their things together, and got all the men, except John Norton, one of the quartermasters, into the boat, the surf running high. The poor man was literally stoned to death within their sight. They pushed out to sea in all haste, and were followed by volleys of big stones, some of the canoes pursuing them. Their only expedient left to gain time was to throw overboard some of their clothing, which, fortunately, induced the natives to stop and pick them up. Night coming on, the canoes returned to the shore.
And now let's follow the journey of Lieutenant Bligh and his crew. Their first priority was to assess what they had. They had sixteen pieces of pork weighing two pounds each, the same bread and water as before, six quarts of rum, and six bottles of wine. Since they were near the island of Tofoa, they decided to look for more breadfruit and water to conserve their remaining supplies. They managed to gather a small amount of breadfruit but very little water. The locals, noticing their vulnerable state, plotted against them and quickly filled the beach, making noise by banging stones together, a signal that an attack was imminent. With some effort, the sailors managed to gather their belongings and got all the men into the boat, except for John Norton, one of the quartermasters, as the surf was quite rough. Unfortunately, the poor man was literally stoned to death right before their eyes. They hurriedly took off into the sea, pursued by volleys of large stones, with some canoes following them. The only way they could buy some time was by throwing some of their clothes overboard, which thankfully caused the natives to stop and pick them up. As night fell, the canoes returned to shore.
The nearest place where they could expect relief was Timor, a distance of full 1,200 leagues, and the men agreed to be put on an allowance, which on calculation was found not to exceed one ounce of bread per diem, and a gill of water. Recommending them, therefore, in the most solemn manner, not to depart from their promises, “we bore away,” says Bligh, “across a sea where the navigation is but little known, in a small boat, twenty-three feet long from stem to stern, deeply laden with eighteen men.... It was about eight at night on the 2nd of May when we bore away under a reefed lug-foresail; and having divided the people into watches, and got the boat into a little order, we returned thanks to God for our miraculous preservation, and in full confidence of His gracious support, I found my mind more at ease than it had been for some time past.” Next morning the sun rose fiery and red, a sure indication of a gale, and by eight o’clock it blew a violent storm, the waves running so high that their sail was becalmed when between the seas. They lightened the boat by throwing overboard all superfluous articles, and removing the tools, put the bread, on which their very existence depended, in the chest. Miserably wet and cold as were all, Bligh administered a tea-spoonful of rum to each at dinner time. The sea still rose, and the fatigue of baling became very great. Next morning at daylight the men’s limbs were benumbed, and another spoonful of spirit was administered. Whatever might be said of Bligh’s previous conduct, there is no doubt that at this juncture he exerted himself wonderfully and very judiciously to save the lives of all. Their dinner this day consisted of five small cocoa-nuts. On the night of the 4th the gale abated, and they examined the bread, much of which was found to be damaged and rotten, but it was still preserved for use. On the 6th they hooked a fish, “but,” says the commander, “we were miserably disappointed by its being lost in trying to get it into the boat.” They were terribly cramped for want of room on board, although Bligh did for the best by putting them watch and watch, so that half of them at a time could lie at the bottom of the boat. On the 7th they passed close to some rocky isles, from which two large sailing canoes came out and pursued hotly, but gave over the chase in the afternoon. This day heavy rain fell, when everybody set to work to catch some, with such success that they not merely quenched their thirst, but increased [pg 243]their stock to thirty-five gallons. As a corresponding disadvantage they got wet through. On the 8th the allowance issued was an ounce and a half of pork, a tea-spoonful of rum, half a pint of cocoa-nut milk, and an ounce of bread. Bligh constructed a pair of scales of two cocoa-nut shells, using pistol-balls for weights. The next nine days brought bad weather, and much rain, the sea breaking over the boat so much that two men were kept constantly baling, and it was necessary to keep the boat before the waves to prevent her filling. When day broke it showed a miserable set of beings, full of wants, aches, and pains, and nothing to relieve them. They found some comfort by wringing their clothes in sea-water, by which means they found a certain limited amount of warmth. But though all were shivering with cold and wet, the commander was obliged to tell them that the rum ration—one tea-spoonful—must for the present be discontinued, as it was running low.
The closest place where they could expect help was Timor, a full distance of 1,200 leagues away. The men agreed to be put on a ration, which was calculated to be no more than 1 oz of bread per day and a gill of water. Therefore, recommending them very seriously not to break their promises, “we headed out,” says Bligh, "Across a sea with uncertain navigation, in a small boat measuring twenty-three feet from bow to stern, heavily loaded with eighteen men... It was around 8 PM on May 2nd when we set off under a reefed lug-foresail. After organizing the crew into shifts and arranging the boat a bit, we thanked God for our miraculous survival. Feeling confident in His gracious support, I found my mind much more at ease than it had been for a while." The next morning, the sun rose fiery and red, a sure sign of a storm brewing, and by eight o’clock, it was blowing a fierce storm, with waves so high that their sail was stuck between the swells. They lightened the boat by throwing overboard all unnecessary items and moved the tools, putting the bread, on which their lives depended, in the chest. Despite being cold and miserable, Bligh gave each man a tsp of rum at dinner time. The sea continued to rise, and the effort of baling became very tiring. The next morning at daybreak, the men’s limbs were numb, and another spoonful of rum was given. Whatever might be said about Bligh’s earlier behavior, there’s no doubt that at this moment he worked incredibly hard and wisely to save everyone’s lives. Their dinner that day consisted of five small coconuts. By the night of the 4th, the storm had eased, and they checked the bread, finding much of it damaged and rotten, but still usable. On the 6th, they caught a fish, “but,” says the commander, "We were really disappointed when it got away while we were trying to bring it into the boat." They were extremely cramped for space on board, but Bligh did his best by putting them in shifts, so half of them could lie at the bottom of the boat at a time. On the 7th, they passed close to some rocky islands, from which two large sailing canoes came out and chased them fiercely but gave up in the afternoon. That day, it rained heavily, and everyone worked to catch some rainwater, managing not only to quench their thirst but also increasing [pg 243]their supply to thirty-five gallons. As a downside, they got completely soaked. On the 8th, their ration included an ounce and a half of pork, a teaspoonful of rum, half a pint of coconut milk, and an ounce of bread. Bligh made a scale from two coconut shells, using pistol balls as weights. The next nine days brought bad weather and heavy rain, with the sea crashing over the boat so much that two men had to constantly bail out water, and they needed to keep the boat facing the waves to prevent it from filling. At daybreak, it showed a miserable group of people, full of needs, aches, and pains, with nothing to help them. They found some comfort by wringing their clothes in seawater, which provided a limited bit of warmth. However, despite everyone shivering from the cold and wet, the commander had to tell them that the rum ration—one teaspoonful—would have to be stopped for now, as it was running low.
“During the whole of the afternoon of the 21st,” says Bligh, “we were so covered with rain and salt water that we could scarcely see. We suffered extreme cold, and every one dreaded the approach of night. Sleep, though we longed for it, afforded no comfort; for my own part, I almost lived without it. * * * The misery we suffered this night exceeded the preceding. The sea flew over us with great force, and kept us baling with horror and anxiety. At dawn of day I found every one in a most distressed condition, and I began to fear that another such night would put an end to the lives of several, who seemed no longer able to support their sufferings. I served an allowance of two tea-spoonfuls of rum; after drinking which, and having wrung our clothes, and taken our breakfast of bread and water, we became a little refreshed.” On the 24th, for the first time in fifteen days, they experienced the warmth of the sun, and dried their now threadbare garments.
"All afternoon on the 21st," says Bligh, “We were so soaked from the rain and saltwater that we could barely see. We were freezing cold, and everyone was anxious about the night approaching. Sleep, though we desperately needed it, didn’t provide any relief; as for me, I barely got any. * * * The suffering we went through that night was worse than the night before. The sea crashed over us with tremendous force, forcing us to bail constantly with fear and worry. When dawn came, I saw everyone in a severely distressed state, and I started to worry that another night like this would cost several lives since they seemed unable to handle their suffering any longer. I distributed two teaspoons of rum to each person; after drinking that, wringing out our clothes, and having breakfast of bread and water, we felt a bit more refreshed.” On the 24th, for the first time in fifteen days, they felt the warmth of the sun and dried their now worn-out clothes.
On the 25th, at mid-day, some noddies flew so near the boat that one was caught by hand. This bird, about the size of a small pigeon, was divided into eighteen portions, and allotted by the method known as “Who shall have this?” in which one person, who turns his back to the caterer, is asked the question, as each piece is indicated. This system gives every one the chance of securing the best share. Bligh used to speak of the amusement it gave the poor half-starved people when the beak and claws fell to his lot. That and the following day two boobies, which are about as large as ducks, were also caught. The sun came out so powerfully that several of the people were seized with faintness. But the capture of two more boobies revived their spirits, and as from the birds, and other signs, Mr. Bligh had no doubt they were near land, the feelings of all became more animated. On the morning of the 28th the “barrier reef” of what was then known as the eastern coast of New Holland, now Australia, appeared, with the surf and breakers outside, and smooth water within. The difficulty was to find a passage; but at last a fine opening was discovered, and through this the boat passed rapidly with a strong stream, and came immediately into smooth water. Their past hardships seemed all at once forgotten. The coast appeared, and in the evening they landed on the sandy point of an island, where they soon found that the rocks were covered with oysters, and that plenty of fresh water was attainable. By help of a small sun-glass a fire was made, and soon a stew of oysters, pork, and bread was concocted, which gladdened their hearts, [pg 244]each receiving a full pint. The 29th of May being the anniversary of the restoration of Charles II., the spot was not inappropriately named Restoration Island.
On the 25th, around noon, some noddies flew so close to the boat that one was caught by hand. This bird, roughly the size of a small pigeon, was divided into eighteen pieces and shared using the method known as “Who's getting this?”, where one person turns their back to the person serving and is asked the question as each piece is pointed out. This way, everyone has a chance to get the best portion. Bligh would talk about how much it amused the poor, half-starved people when he ended up with the beak and claws. The next day, two boobies, which are about the size of ducks, were also caught. The sun got so intense that several people felt faint. But the capture of two more boobies lifted their spirits, and as Mr. Bligh observed signs indicating they were close to land, everyone felt more energized. On the morning of the 28th, the “Great Barrier Reef” of what was then known as the eastern coast of New Holland, now Australia, came into view, with surf and breakers outside and calm water inside. The challenge was finding a passage; however, a nice opening was eventually found, allowing the boat to pass swiftly through a strong current and into smooth water. Suddenly, all their past struggles seemed to fade away. They saw the coast, and in the evening, they landed on a sandy point of an island, where they quickly discovered that the rocks were covered with oysters and fresh water was easy to find. With the help of a small sun-glass, they made a fire, and soon a stew of oysters, pork, and bread was prepared, which brought them joy, [pg 244]each receiving a full pint. Since the 29th of May marked the anniversary of the restoration of Charles II., the location was aptly named Restoration Island.
Bligh soon noted the alteration for the better in the looks of his men, which proved the value of oysters, stewed, as they sometimes were, with fresh green palm-tops. Strange to say, that the mutinous spirit, which had been satisfactorily absent before, broke out in one or two of the men, and Bligh had, in one instance, to seize a cutlass and order the man to defend himself. The threatened outbreak ended quietly.
Bligh quickly noticed the improvement in the appearance of his men, which showed the benefits of having oysters, sometimes cooked with fresh green palm-tops. Strangely, the rebellious attitude that had been missing reappeared in one or two of the crew members, and Bligh had to grab a cutlass and tell one man to defend himself. Fortunately, the potential conflict was resolved without any issues.
But although the worst of their voyage was over, their troubles in other ways were serious. While among the islands off the coast of Australia several of them were seriously affected with weakness, dizziness, and violent pains in their bowels. Infinitesimal quantities of wine were administered, to their great benefit. A party was sent out on one of the islands to catch birds, and they returned with a dozen noddies; these and a few clams were all they obtained. On the 3rd of June they left Cape York, and once more launched their little boat on the open ocean. On the 5th a booby was caught by the hand, the blood of which was divided among three of the men who were weakest, and the bird kept for next day’s dinner. The following day the sea ran high, and kept breaking over the boat. Mr. Ledward, the surgeon, and Lebogue, an old hardy sailor, appeared to be breaking up fast, and no other assistance could be given them than a tea-spoonful or two of wine. On the morning of the 10th there was a visible alteration for the worse in many of the people. Their countenances were ghastly and hollow, their limbs swollen, and all extremely debilitated; some seeming to have lost their reason. But next day Bligh was able to announce that they had passed the meridian of Timor, and the following morning land was sighted with expressions of universal joy and satisfaction. Forty-one days had they been on the ocean in their miserable boat, and by the log they had run 3,618 nautical miles. On the 14th they arrived at Coupang Bay, where they were received with all kinds of hospitality. The party on landing presented the appearance of spectres: their bodies skin and bones, and covered with sores; their clothing in rags. But the strain had been too much for several of them. The botanist died at Coupang, three of the men at Batavia, and one on the passage home. The doctor was left behind and not afterwards heard of. Bligh arrived in England on March 14th, and received much sympathy. He was immediately promoted, and afterwards successfully carried the bread-fruit tree to the West Indies. Meantime the Government naturally proposed to bring the mutineers to trial, whatever it might cost.
But even though the worst part of their journey was over, they faced serious problems in other ways. While they were among the islands off the coast of Australia, several of them suffered from weakness, dizziness, and intense abdominal pain. Small amounts of wine were given to them, which helped a lot. A group was sent out on one of the islands to catch birds, and they came back with a dozen noddies; those and a few clams were all they managed to get. On June 3rd, they left Cape York and launched their small boat into the open ocean again. On the 5th, someone caught a booby by hand, and the blood was shared among three of the weakest men, while the bird was saved for dinner the next day. The following day, the sea was rough, and waves kept crashing over the boat. Mr. Ledward, the surgeon, and Lebogue, a tough old sailor, seemed to be getting worse, and the only help they could receive was a teaspoon or two of wine. On the morning of the 10th, there was a noticeable decline in many of the people. Their faces looked pale and hollow, their limbs were swollen, and everyone was extremely weak; some appeared to have lost their minds. But the next day, Bligh was able to announce that they had passed the meridian of Timor, and the following morning, land was sighted, bringing cheers of joy and relief. They had spent forty-one days at sea in their miserable little boat, having traveled 3,618 nautical miles according to the log. On the 14th, they arrived at Coupang Bay, where they were welcomed with all sorts of hospitality. When they landed, the group looked like ghosts: their bodies were skin and bones, covered in sores, and their clothes were in tatters. But the strain had been too much for some. The botanist died at Coupang, three men died at Batavia, and one on the way home. The doctor was left behind and was never heard from again. Bligh reached England on March 14th and received a lot of sympathy. He was promoted immediately and later successfully introduced the breadfruit tree to the West Indies. In the meantime, the government naturally planned to put the mutineers on trial, no matter the cost.
The Pandora, a frigate of twenty-four guns, and one hundred and sixty men, was selected for the service, and was placed under the command of Captain Edward Edwards, with orders to proceed to Otaheite, and if necessary the other islands. The voyage was destined to end in shipwreck and disaster, but the captain succeeded in securing a part of the mutineers, of whom ten were brought to England, and four drowned on the wreck.
The Pandora, a frigate armed with twenty-four guns and staffed by one hundred and sixty crew members, was chosen for the mission and placed under Captain Edward Edwards' command. He was ordered to head to Otaheite and, if needed, to other islands. The journey was set to conclude with shipwreck and disaster, but the captain managed to capture some of the mutineers, successfully bringing ten back to England, while four drowned in the wreck.
The Pandora reached Matavia Bay on the 23rd of March, 1791. The armourer and two of the midshipmen, Mr. Heywood and Mr. Stewart, came off immediately, and showed their willingness to afford information. Four others soon after appeared, and from them the captain learned that the rest of the Bounty’s people had built a schooner, and sailed [pg 245]the day before for another part of the island. They were pursued, and the schooner secured, but the mutineers had fled to the mountains. A day or two elapsed, when they ventured down, and when within hearing were ordered to lay down their arms, which they did, and were put in irons. Captain Edwards put them into a round-house, built on the after part of the quarter-deck, in order to isolate them from the crew. According to the statement of one of the prisoners, the midshipmen were kept ironed by the legs, separate from the men, in a kind of round-house, aptly termed “Pandora’s Box,” which was entered by a scuttle in the roof, about eighteen inches square. “The prisoners’ wives visited the ship daily, and brought their children, who were permitted to be carried to their unhappy fathers. To see the poor captives in irons,” says the only narrative published of the Pandora’s visit, “weeping over their tender offspring, was too moving a scene for any feeling heart. Their wives brought them ample supplies of every delicacy that the country afforded while we lay there, and behaved with the greatest fidelity and affection to them.”126 Stewart, the midshipman, had espoused the daughter of an old chief, and they had lived together in the greatest harmony; a beautiful little girl had been the fruit of the union. When Stewart was confined in irons, Peggy, for so her husband had named her, flew with her infant in a canoe to the arms of her husband. The interview was so painful that Stewart begged she might not be admitted on board again. Forbidden to see him, she sank into the greatest dejection, and seemed to have lost all relish for food and existence; she pined away and died two months afterwards.127
The Pandora arrived at Matavia Bay on March 23, 1791. The armorer and two midshipmen, Mr. Heywood and Mr. Stewart, came over right away and offered to provide information. Four others appeared soon after, and from them, the captain learned that the rest of the Bounty’s crew had built a schooner and sailed [pg 245] the day before to another part of the island. They were chased, and the schooner was captured, but the mutineers had escaped to the mountains. A day or two later, they came down and, when they were close enough to hear, were ordered to lay down their arms, which they did, and were put in chains. Captain Edwards placed them in a round house built on the back part of the quarter-deck to keep them away from the crew. According to one prisoner’s account, the midshipmen were kept chained by the legs, separated from the men, in a sort of round house called "Pandora's Box" which was accessed through a scuttle in the roof that was about eighteen inches square. "The prisoners’ wives visited the ship daily, bringing their children, who were allowed to see their unhappy fathers. Seeing the poor captives in chains," says the only published account of the Pandora's visit, "Seeing them weep for their little ones was a heartbreaking sight for anyone with feelings. Their wives brought them all kinds of delicious foods the country had to offer while we were there, showing them deep loyalty and love." 126 Stewart, the midshipman, had married the daughter of an old chief, and they had lived happily together; they had a beautiful little girl as a result of their union. When Stewart was locked up, Peggy, as he had named her, paddled with her baby in a canoe to see her husband. The reunion was so distressing that Stewart asked that she not be allowed on board again. Heartbroken and unable to see him, she fell into deep despair, losing all desire for food and life; she wasted away and died two months later. 127
All the mutineers that were left on the island having been secured, the ship proceeded to other islands in search of those who had gone away in the Bounty. It must be mentioned, however, that two of the men had perished by violent deaths. They had [pg 246]made friends with a chief, and one of them, Churchill, was his tayo, or sworn friend. The chief died suddenly without issue, and Churchill, according to the custom of the country, succeeded to his property and dignity. The other, Thomson, murdered Churchill, probably to acquire his possessions, and was in his turn stoned to death by the natives. Captain Edwards learned that after Bligh had been set adrift, Christian had thrown overboard the greater part of the bread-fruit plants, and divided the property of those they had abandoned. They at first went to an island named Toobouai, where they intended to form a settlement, but the opposition of the natives, and their own quarrels, determined them to revisit Otaheite. There the leading natives were very curious to know what had become of Bligh and the rest, and the mutineers invented a story to the effect that they had unexpectedly fallen in with Captain Cook at an island he had just discovered, and that Lieutenant Bligh was stopping with him, and had appointed Mr. Christian commander of the Bounty; and, further, he was now come for additional supplies for them. This story imposed upon the simple-minded natives, and in the course of a very few days the Bounty received on board thirty-eight goats, 312 hogs, eight dozen fowls, a bull and a cow, and large quantities of fruit. They also took with them a number of natives, male and female, intending to form a settlement at Toobouai. Skirmishes with the natives, generally brought on by their own violent conduct or robberies, and eternal bickerings among themselves, delayed the progress of their fort, and it was subsequently abandoned, sixteen of the men electing to stop at Otaheite, and the remaining nine leaving finally in the Bounty, Christian having been heard frequently to say that his object was to find some uninhabited island, in which there was no harbour, that he would run the ship ashore, and make use of her materials to form a settlement. This was all that Captain Edwards could learn, and after a fruitless search of three months he abandoned further inquiry, and proceeded on his homeward voyage.
All the remaining mutineers on the island were secured, and the ship continued to other islands to look for those who had escaped on the Reward. It’s worth noting that two of the men had died violent deaths. They had [pg 246]made friends with a chief, and one of them, Churchill, was his tayo, or sworn friend. The chief died unexpectedly without heirs, and Churchill, following local customs, inherited his property and status. The other, Thomson, killed Churchill, probably to take his belongings, and was subsequently stoned to death by the locals. Captain Edwards found out that after Bligh had been set adrift, Christian had thrown most of the breadfruit plants overboard and divided up the property of those they had left behind. They initially went to an island called Toobouai, aiming to establish a settlement, but due to conflict with the natives and their own disputes, they decided to return to Otaheite. There, the prominent locals were very curious about Bligh and the others, and the mutineers made up a story that they had unexpectedly encountered Captain Cook at an island he had just discovered, and that Lieutenant Bligh was with him, having appointed Mr. Christian as captain of the Bounty; furthermore, he had come back for extra supplies. This story fooled the simple-minded natives, and within a few days, the Reward took on board thirty-eight goats, 312 pigs, eight dozen chickens, a bull and a cow, along with large amounts of fruit. They also brought several native men and women with them, planning to settle in Toobouai. Conflicts with the locals, mainly sparked by their own aggressive behavior and thefts, along with constant arguing among themselves, slowed down the construction of their fort, which they eventually abandoned, with sixteen of the men choosing to stay in Otaheite, while the remaining nine left on the Reward. Christian was often heard saying he aimed to find some uninhabited island without a harbor where he could run the ship aground and use its materials to create a settlement. This was all Captain Edwards could find out, and after a fruitless three-month search, he gave up further investigation and set off on his journey home.
Off the east coast of New Holland, the Pandora ran on a reef, and was speedily a wreck. In an hour and a half after she struck, there were eight and a half feet of water in her hold, and in spite of continuous pumping and baling, it became evident that she was a doomed vessel. With all the efforts made to save the crew, thirty-one of the ship’s company and four mutineers were lost with the vessel. Very little notice, indeed, seems to have been taken of the latter by the captain, who was afterwards accused of considerable inhumanity. “Before the final catastrophe,” says the surgeon of the vessel, “three of the Bounty’s people, Coleman, Norman, and M’Intosh, were now let out of irons, and sent to work at the pumps. The others offered their assistance, and begged to be allowed a chance of saving their lives; instead of which, two additional sentinels were placed over them, with orders to shoot any who should attempt to get rid of their fetters. Seeing no prospect of escape, they betook themselves to prayer, and prepared to meet their fate, every one expecting that the ship would soon go to pieces, her rudder and part of the stern-post being already beaten away.” When the ship was actually sinking, it is stated that no notice was taken of the prisoners, although Captain Edwards was entreated by young Heywood, the midshipman, to have mercy on them, when he passed over their prison to make his own escape, the ship then lying on her broadside with the larboard bow completely under water. Fortunately, the master-at-arms, either by accident, or [pg 247]probably design, when slipping from the roof of “Pandora’s Box” into the sea, let the keys unlocking the hand-cuffs and irons fall through the scuttle, and thus enabled them to commence their own liberation, in which they were assisted by one brave seaman, William Moulter, who said he would set them free or go to the bottom with them. He wrenched away, with great difficulty, the bars of the prison. Immediately after the ship went down, leaving nothing visible but the top-mast cross-trees.
Off the east coast of New Holland, the Pandora ran aground on a reef and quickly became a wreck. An hour and a half after it struck, there were eight and a half feet of water in the hold, and despite continuous pumping and bailing, it was clear that the ship was doomed. Despite all efforts to save the crew, thirty-one members of the crew and four mutineers were lost with the vessel. The captain, who was later accused of significant cruelty, seemed to pay little attention to the latter. “Before the final disaster,” the ship's surgeon recalls, Three members of the Bounty’s crew—Coleman, Norman, and M’Intosh—were freed from their restraints and assigned to work at the pumps. The others offered to assist and pleaded for a chance to save their lives; instead, two more guards were placed over them with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to escape their handcuffs. Realizing there was no way out, they turned to prayer and braced for their fate, each expecting that the ship would soon break apart since the rudder and part of the stern-post had already been damaged. When the ship was actually sinking, it is said that no attention was given to the prisoners, although young Heywood, the midshipman, pleaded with Captain Edwards to show them mercy as he passed over their cell to make his own escape, with the ship lying on its side and the port bow completely underwater. Fortunately, the master-at-arms, either by accident or [pg 247]maybe intentionally, dropped the keys to the handcuffs and irons into the sea when he slipped from the roof of "Pandora's Box", allowing the prisoners to begin their own escape, supported by one courageous sailor, William Moulter, who declared he would free them or sink with them. He managed, with great effort, to pull the bars off their cell. Just after the ship sank, only the top-mast cross-trees were visible.
More than half an hour elapsed before the survivors were all picked up by the boats. Amongst the drowned were Mr. Stewart, the midshipman, and three others of the Bounty’s people, the whole of whom perished with the manacles on their hands. Thirty-one of the ship’s company were lost. The four boat-loads which escaped had scarcely any provisions on board, the allowance being two wine-glasses of water to each man, and a very small quantity of bread, calculated for sixteen days. Their voyage of 1,000 miles on the open ocean, and the sufferings endured, were similar to those experienced by Bligh’s party, but not so severe. After staying at Coupang for about three weeks, they left on a Dutch East Indiaman, which conveyed them to Samarang, and subsequently Batavia, whence they proceeded to Europe.
More than half an hour passed before all the survivors were picked up by the boats. Among those who drowned were Mr. Stewart, the midshipman, and three others from the Bounty's crew, all of whom died with handcuffs on. Thirty-one members of the ship's company were lost. The four boatloads that escaped had barely any food onboard, with each man receiving just two glasses of water and a very small amount of bread, meant to last sixteen days. Their 1,000-mile journey across the open ocean and the hardships they faced were similar to what Bligh's crew experienced but not as harsh. After staying in Coupang for about three weeks, they left on a Dutch East Indiaman, which took them to Samarang and then to Batavia, from where they continued on to Europe.
After an exhaustive court-martial had been held on the ten prisoners brought home by Captain Edwards, three of the seamen were condemned and executed; Mr. Heywood, the midshipman, the boatswain’s-mate, and the steward were sentenced to death, but afterwards pardoned; four others were tried and acquitted. It will be remembered that four others were drowned at the wreck.
After a lengthy court-martial was held for the ten prisoners brought back by Captain Edwards, three of the sailors were found guilty and executed; Mr. Heywood, the midshipman, the boatswain’s mate, and the steward were sentenced to death but later pardoned; four others were tried and found not guilty. It should be noted that four others drowned in the shipwreck.
Twenty years had rolled away, and the mutiny of the Bounty was almost forgotten, when Captain Folger, of the American ship Topaz, reported to Sir Sydney Smith, at Valparaiso, that he had discovered the last of the survivors on Pitcairn Island. This fact was transmitted to the Admiralty, and received on May 14th, 1809, but the troublous times prevented any immediate investigation. In 1814, H.M.S. Briton, commanded by Sir Thomas Staines, and the Tagus, Captain Pipon, were cruising in the Pacific, when they fell in with the little known island of Pitcairn. He discovered not merely that it was inhabited, but afterwards, to his great astonishment, that every individual on the island spoke very good English. The little village was composed of neat huts, embowered in luxuriant plantations. “Presently they observed a few natives coming down a steep descent with their canoes on their shoulders, and in a few minutes perceived one of these little vessels dashing through a heavy surf, and paddling off towards the ships; but their astonishment was extreme when, on coming alongside, they were hailed in the English language with ‘Won’t you heave us a rope now?’
Twenty years had passed, and the mutiny of the Reward was almost forgotten when Captain Folger, of the American ship Topaz, reported to Sir Sydney Smith in Valparaiso that he had found the last of the survivors on Pitcairn Island. This information was sent to the Admiralty and received on May 14th, 1809, but turbulent times delayed any immediate investigation. In 1814, H.M.S. Britisher, commanded by Sir Thomas Staines, and the
“The first young man that sprang with extraordinary alacrity up the side and stood before them on the deck, said, in reply to the question, ‘Who are you?’ that his name was Thursday October Christian, son of the late Fletcher Christian, by an Otaheitan mother; that he was the first born on the island, and that he was so called because he was brought into the world on a Thursday in October. Singularly strange as all this was to Sir Thomas Staines and Captain Pipon, this youth soon satisfied them that he was none other than the person he represented himself to be, and that he was fully acquainted with the whole history of the Bounty; and, in short, the island before them was the retreat [pg 248]of the mutineers of that ship. Young Christian was, at this time, about twenty-four years of age, a fine tall youth, full six feet high, with dark, almost black hair, and a countenance open and extremely interesting. As he wore no clothes, except a piece of cloth round his loins, and a straw hat, ornamented with black cock’s feathers, his fine figure, and well-shaped muscular limbs, were displayed to great advantage, and attracted general admiration. * * * He told them that he was married to a woman much older than himself, one of those that had accompanied his father from Otaheite. His companion was a fine, handsome youth of seventeen or eighteen years of age, of the name of George Young, the son of Young, the midshipman.” In the cabin, when invited to refreshments, one of them astonished the captains by asking the blessing with much appearance of devotion, “For what we are going to receive, the Lord make us truly thankful.” The only surviving Englishman of the crew was John Adams, and when the captains landed through the surf, with no worse result than a good wetting, the old man came down to meet them. Both he and his aged wife were at first considerably alarmed at seeing the king’s uniform, but was reassured when he was told that they had no intention of disturbing him. Adams said that he had no great share in the mutiny, that he was sick at the time, and was afterwards compelled to take a musket. He even [pg 249]expressed his willingness to go to England, but this was strongly opposed by his daughter. “All the women burst into tears, and the young men stood motionless and absorbed in grief; but on their being assured that he should on no account be molested, it is impossible,” says Pipon, “to describe the universal joy that these poor people manifested.”
The first young man who quickly jumped up the side and stood in front of them on the deck replied to the question, ‘Who are you?’, that his name was Thursday October Christian, the son of the late Fletcher Christian, with an Otaheitan mother. He mentioned that he was the first-born on the island and was named that way because he was born on a Thursday in October. As unusual as this was to Sir Thomas Staines and Captain Pipon, this young man soon proved that he was indeed who he claimed to be and that he was fully aware of the complete history of the Bounty; in short, the island they were looking at was the refuge [pg 248] of the mutineers from that ship. Young Christian was about twenty-four years old at the time, a tall young man standing six feet tall, with dark, nearly black hair and a face that was open and very charming. Wearing only a piece of cloth around his waist and a straw hat decorated with black cock feathers, his impressive physique and well-toned muscular limbs stood out attractively, earning general admiration. * * * He told them he was married to a woman much older than himself, one of those who had followed his father from Otaheite. His companion was a handsome young man around seventeen or eighteen years old, named George Young, the son of Young, the midshipman. In the cabin, when invited to refreshments, one of them surprised the captains by asking for a blessing with noticeable devotion, "May the Lord help us to be truly thankful for what we are about to receive." The only surviving Englishman from the crew was John Adams, and when the captains landed through the surf, with only a good soaking as a result, the old man came down to meet them. Both he and his elderly wife were initially quite alarmed to see the king’s uniform, but they were reassured when they were told that there was no intention to disturb him. Adams mentioned that he wasn’t heavily involved in the mutiny, that he was ill at the time, and was later forced to take up a musket. He even [pg 249]said he would be willing to go to England, but his daughter strongly opposed this. "All the women started crying, and the young men stood frozen, overwhelmed by sadness; but when they were told he wouldn't be hurt at all, it was impossible," says Pipon, "to describe the universal joy that these unfortunate people displayed."
When Christian had arrived at the island, he found no good anchorage, so he ran the Bounty into a small creek against the cliff, in order to get out of her such articles as might be of use. Having stripped her, he set fire to the hull, so that afterwards she should not be seen by passing vessels, and his retreat discovered. It is pretty clear that the misguided young man was never happy after the rash and mutinous step he had taken, and he became sullen, morose, and tyrannical to his companions. He was at length shot by an Otaheitan, and in a short time only two of the mutineers were left alive.
When Christian arrived at the island, he found no good place to anchor, so he ran the Reward into a small creek against the cliff to unload anything useful. After stripping the ship, he set fire to the hull so that it wouldn’t be seen by passing vessels, preventing his retreat from being discovered. It's pretty clear that the misguided young man was never happy after his rash and mutinous decision; he became sullen, moody, and tyrannical with his companions. Eventually, he was shot by an Otaheitan, and soon only two of the mutineers were left alive.
The colony at this time comprised forty-six persons, mostly grown-up young people, all of prepossessing appearance. John Adams had made up for any share he may have had in the revolt, by instructing them in religious and moral principles. The girls were modest and bashful, with bright eyes, beautifully white teeth, and every indication of health. They carried baskets of fruit over such roads and down such precipices as were scarcely passable by any creatures except goats, and over which we could scarcely scramble with the help of our hands. When Captain Beechey, in his well-known voyage of discovery on the Blossom, called there in 1825, he found Adams, then in his sixty-fifth year, dressed in a sailor’s shirt and trousers, and with all a sailor’s manners, doffing his hat and smoothing down his bald forehead whenever he was addressed by the officers of the Blossom. Many circumstances connected with the subsequent history of the happy little colony cannot be detailed here. Suffice it to say that it still thrives, and is one of the most model settlements of the whole world, although descended from a stock so bad. Of the nine who landed on Pitcairn’s Island only two died a natural death. Of the original officers and crew of the Bounty more than half perished in various untimely ways, the whole burden of guilt resting on Christian and his fellow-conspirators.
The colony at that time had forty-six people, mostly young adults, all of whom were quite attractive. John Adams had made up for any involvement he might have had in the revolt by teaching them religious and moral values. The girls were modest and shy, with bright eyes, beautiful white teeth, and every sign of good health. They carried baskets of fruit over roads and down cliffs that were barely passable for any animals except goats, and we could hardly make our way across them even with our hands. When Captain Beechey visited during his famous voyage of discovery on the Blossom in 1825, he found Adams, then sixty-five years old, dressed in a sailor's shirt and pants, behaving like a sailor, tipping his hat and smoothing his bald head whenever the officers of the Bloom spoke to him. Many details about the later history of this happy little colony cannot be shared here. It’s enough to say that it still thrives and is one of the most exemplary settlements in the world, despite its troubled origins. Of the nine who landed on Pitcairn's Island, only two died of natural causes. More than half of the original officers and crew of the Reward met unfortunate ends, with the entire burden of blame falling on Christian and his fellow conspirators.
The mutiny just described sinks into insignificance before that which is about to be recounted, the greatest mutiny of English history—that of the Nore. At that one point no less than 40,000 men were concerned, while the disaffection spread to many other stations, some of them far abroad. There can be little doubt that prior to 1797, the year of the event, our sailors had laboured under many grievances, while the navy was full of “pressed” men, a portion of whom were sure to retain a thorough dislike to the service, although so many fought and died bravely for their country. Some of the grievances which the navy suffered were probably the result of careless and negligent legislation, rather than of deliberate injustice, but they were none the less galling on that account. The pay of the sailor had remained unchanged from the reign of Charles II., although the prices of the necessaries and common luxuries of life had greatly risen. His pension had also remained at a stationary rate; that of the soldier had been augmented. On the score of provisions he was worse off than an ordinary pauper. He was in the hands of the purser, whose usual title at that time indicates his unpopularity: he was termed “Nipcheese.” The provisions served were of the worst quality; fourteen instead of sixteen ounces went [pg 250]to the navy pound. The purser of those days was taken from an inferior class of men, and often obtained his position by influence, rather than merit. He generally retired on a competency after a life of deliberate dishonesty towards the defenders of his country, who, had they received everything to which they were entitled, would not have been too well treated, and, as it was, were cheated and robbed, without scruple and without limit. The reader will recall the many naval novels, in which poor Jack’s daily allowance of grog was curtailed by the purveyor’s thumb being put in the pannikin: this was the least of the evils he suffered. In those war times the discipline of the service was specially rigid and severe, and most of this was doubtless necessary. Men were not readily obtained in sufficient numbers; consequently, when in harbour, leave ashore was very constantly refused, for fear of desertions. These and a variety of other grievances, real or fancied, nearly upset the equilibrium of our entire navy. It is not too much to say that not merely England’s naval supremacy was for a time in the greatest jeopardy through the disaffection of the men, but that our national existence, almost—and most certainly our existence as a first-class power—was alarmingly threatened, the cause being nothing more nor less than a very general spirit of mutiny. To do the sailors justice, they sought at first to obtain fair play by all legitimate means in their power. It must be noted, also, that a large number of our best officers knew that there was very general discontent. Furthermore, it was well known on shore that numerous secret societies opposed to monarchy, and incited by the example of the French Revolution, had been established. Here, again, the Government had made a fatal mistake. Members of these societies had been convicted in numbers, and sent to sea as a punishment. These men almost naturally became ringleaders and partakers in the mutiny, which would, however, have occurred sooner or later, under any circumstances. In the case of the mutiny at Spithead, about to be recounted, the sailors exhibited an organisation and an amount of information which might have been expected from “sea-lawyers” rather than ordinary Jack Tars; while in the more serious rebellion of the Nore, the co-operation of other agents was established beyond doubt.
The mutiny just described seems trivial compared to what is about to be detailed, the largest mutiny in English history—the one at the Nore. At that point, no fewer than 40,000 men were involved, and the discontent spread to many other stations, some even overseas. There's little doubt that before 1797, the year of the event, sailors had many grievances, while the navy was filled with "stressed" men, many of whom harbored a deep dislike for the service, even though many fought bravely and died for their country. Some of the navy's complaints likely resulted from careless and negligent laws, rather than from outright injustice, but they were still very irritating. The sailor's pay had stayed the same since the reign of Charles II, even though the prices of essential goods and everyday luxuries had risen significantly. His pension remained unchanged; in contrast, the soldier's pension had increased. In terms of provisions, sailors were worse off than the average poor person. They depended on the purser, whose title at the time reveals his unpopularity: he was called “Nipcheese.” The quality of the provisions was terrible; fourteen ounces instead of sixteen made up the navy pound. The pursers of that time were usually from a lower social class and often got their position through influence rather than merit. They typically retired comfortably after a career of outright dishonesty towards the defenders of their country, who, if they had received what they were owed, still wouldn’t have been treated well. In reality, they were cheated and robbed, without any shame or limits. Readers will remember the countless naval novels where poor Jack's daily ration of grog was shorted because the purveyor's thumb was placed in the mug; this was just one of the many hardships he faced. During those war years, the discipline in the service was particularly strict and harsh, much of which was probably necessary. Men weren't easily found in sufficient numbers, so when in harbor, shore leave was often denied for fear of desertions. These, and a variety of other real or perceived grievances, nearly disrupted the balance of the entire navy. It’s not an exaggeration to say that not only was England's naval supremacy at serious risk due to the men’s discontent, but our very national existence—certainly our status as a first-class power—was alarmingly threatened, all stemming from a widespread spirit of mutiny. To give the sailors credit, they initially sought fair treatment by all legitimate means available to them. It should also be mentioned that many of our best officers were aware of the widespread discontent. Furthermore, it was well-known on land that several secret societies opposing the monarchy, inspired by the example of the French Revolution, had been formed. Here again, the Government made a critical error. Members of these societies were convicted in large numbers and punished by being sent to sea. These men almost naturally became ringleaders and participants in the mutiny, which, however, would have occurred sooner or later, under any circumstances. In the case of the mutiny at Spithead, about to be narrated, the sailors displayed an organization and level of awareness that might have been expected from “marine attorneys” rather than regular Jack Tars; while in the more serious rebellion at the Nore, the involvement of other agents was indisputably established.
The first step taken by the men was perfectly legitimate, and had it been met in a proper spirit by the authorities, this history need never have been penned. At the end of February, 1797, the crews of four line-of-battle ships at Spithead addressed separate petitions to Lord Howe, Commander-in-Chief of the Channel Fleet, asking his kind interposition with the Admiralty, to obtain from them a relief of their grievances, so that they might at length be put on a similar footing to the army and militia, in respect both of their pay and of the provision they might be enabled to make for their wives and families. Lord Howe, being then in bad health, communicated the subject of their petitions to Lord Bridport and Sir Peter Parker, the port admiral, who, with a want of foresight and disregard of their country’s interest which cannot be excused, returned answer that “the petitions were the work of some evil-disposed person or persons,” and took no trouble to investigate the allegations contained in them. Lord Howe, therefore, did nothing; and the seamen, finding their applications for redress not only disregarded, but treated with contempt, determined to compel the authorities to give them that relief which they had before submissively asked.
The first step taken by the men was completely legitimate, and if the authorities had responded appropriately, this history might never have been written. At the end of February 1797, the crews of four line-of-battle ships at Spithead submitted separate petitions to Lord Howe, the Commander-in-Chief of the Channel Fleet, asking for his help with the Admiralty to address their grievances so they could finally be put on the same level as the army and militia regarding their pay and the support they could provide for their wives and families. Lord Howe, who was in poor health at the time, shared their petitions with Lord Bridport and Sir Peter Parker, the port admiral, who, showing a lack of foresight and disregard for their country’s interests that cannot be justified, replied that "the petitions were created by some malicious individual or individuals," and did not bother to investigate the claims made in them. As a result, Lord Howe did nothing, and the seamen, feeling that their requests for help were not only ignored but treated with contempt, decided to force the authorities to provide the support they had previously asked for in a submissive manner.
In about six weeks they organised their plans with such secrecy that it was not till [pg 251]everything was arranged on a working basis that the first admiral, Lord Bridport, gained any knowledge of the conspiracy going on around him. He communicated his suspicions to the Lords of the Admiralty; and they, thinking a little active service would prove the best cure for what they simply regarded as a momentary agitation, sent down orders for the Channel Fleet to put to sea. The orders arrived at Portsmouth on April 15th, and in obedience to them Lord Bridport signalled to the fleet to make the necessary preparations. As might almost have been expected, it was the signal, likewise, for the outbreak of the mutiny. Not a sailor bestirred himself; not a rope was bent; but, as if by common consent, the crews of every vessel in the squadron manned the yards and rigging, and gave three cheers. They then proceeded to take the command of each ship from the officers, and appointed delegates from each vessel to conduct negotiations with the authorities of the Admiralty. No violence nor force was used. The first-lieutenant of the London, ordered by Admiral Colpoys, one of the best-hated officers of the service, shot one of the mutineers, but his death was not avenged. They again forwarded their petition to the Admiralty, and its closing sentences showed their temperance, and argued strongly in favour of their cause. They desired “to convince the nation at large that they knew where to cease to ask, as well as where to begin; and that they asked nothing but what was moderate, and might be granted without detriment to the nation or injury to the service.” The Admiralty authorities, seeing that with the great power in their hands they had acted peaceably, only abstaining from work, yielded all the concessions asked; and a full pardon was granted in the king’s name to the fleet in general, and to the ringleaders in particular. In a word, the mutiny ended for the time being.
In about six weeks, they organized their plans so secretly that it wasn’t until [pg 251]everything was set up on a working basis that the first admiral, Lord Bridport, learned about the conspiracy happening around him. He shared his suspicions with the Lords of the Admiralty, who thought that some active duty would be the best way to handle what they saw as a temporary unrest, and sent orders for the Channel Fleet to go to sea. The orders arrived at Portsmouth on April 15th, and in response, Lord Bridport signaled the fleet to prepare. As might have been expected, this was also the signal for the mutiny to begin. Not a single sailor moved; not a rope was pulled; but, as if by a common agreement, the crews of every ship in the squadron took to the yards and rigging and cheered three times. They then took command of each ship from the officers and appointed delegates from each vessel to negotiate with the Admiralty authorities. No violence or force was used. The first lieutenant of the London, ordered by Admiral Colpoys, one of the most disliked officers in the service, shot one of the mutineers, but his death went unavenged. They sent their petition to the Admiralty again, and its closing sentences showed their restraint and strongly supported their cause. They wanted “to convince the entire nation that they understood when to stop asking, as well as when to start; and that they requested only what was fair and could be granted without harming the nation or compromising the service.” The Admiralty authorities, recognizing that with the considerable power they had, they had acted peacefully by simply refusing to work, granted all the concessions requested; and a full pardon was issued in the king’s name to the fleet as a whole, and to the ringleaders specifically. In short, the mutiny ended for the time being.
It was resumed on May 7th. As Parliament had delayed in passing the appropriations for the increase of pay and pensions, the crews rose en masse and disarmed all their officers, although still abstaining from actual violence. Lord Howe, always a popular officer with the men, and their especial idol after his great victory of June 1st, 1794, was sent down by the Cabinet with full power to ratify all the concessions which had been made, and to do his best to convince the men that the Government had no desire of evading them. He completely mollified the men, and even succeeded in exacting an expression of regret and contrition for their outbreak. He assured them that their every grievance should be considered, and a free pardon, as before, given to all concerned. The men again returned to duty. The fleet at Plymouth, which had followed that of Portsmouth into the mutiny, did the same; and thus, in a month from the first outbreak, as far as these two great fleets were concerned, all disaffection, dissatisfaction, and discontent had passed away, through the tact and judicious behaviour of Lord Howe. There can be no doubt that the tyranny of many of the officers had a vast deal to do with the outbreak. In the list of officers whom the men considered obnoxious, and that Lord Howe agreed should be removed, there were over one hundred in one fleet of sixteen ships.
It resumed on May 7th. Since Parliament had delayed passing the budget for increased pay and pensions, the crews rose in large numbers and disarmed all their officers, while still refraining from actual violence. Lord Howe, who was always a popular officer with the men and especially adored after his great victory on June 1st, 1794, was sent by the Cabinet with full authority to approve all the concessions that had been made and to do his best to convince the men that the Government had no intention of avoiding them. He completely pacified the men and even managed to get them to express regret for their actions. He assured them that every grievance would be addressed, and a general pardon, as before, would be given to everyone involved. The men returned to duty. The fleet at Plymouth, which had joined Portsmouth in the mutiny, did the same; thus, within a month of the initial outbreak, for these two major fleets, all discontent and dissatisfaction had vanished due to Lord Howe's tact and wise handling. There’s no doubt that the tyranny of many officers contributed significantly to the uprising. In the list of officers the men found objectionable, which Lord Howe agreed should be removed, there were over one hundred in just one fleet of sixteen ships.
Strange to say, the very same week in which the men of the Portsmouth fleet returned to their duty, acknowledging all their grievances to be removed, the fleet at the Nore arose in a violent state of mutiny, displaying very different attributes to those shown by the former. Forty thousand men, who had fought many a battle for king and country, and in steadfast reliance upon whose bravery the people rested every night in tranquillity, [pg 252]confident in their patriotism and loyalty, became irritated by ungrateful neglect on the one part, and by seditious advisers on the other, and turned the guns which they had so often fired in defence of the English flag against their own countrymen and their own homes.
It's strange to think that in the same week the Portsmouth fleet returned to duty, having resolved all their grievances, the fleet at the Nore erupted into a violent mutiny, showing completely different behavior than before. Forty thousand men, who had fought in many battles for their king and country—on whose bravery the people relied for their nightly peace—confident in their patriotism and loyalty, became frustrated with neglect on one side and stirring advice on the other. They turned the guns they had so often fired in defense of the English flag against their fellow countrymen and their own homes.
Richard Parker, the chief ringleader at the Nore, was a thoroughly bad man in every respect, and one utterly unworthy the title of a British sailor, of which, indeed, he had been more than once formally deprived. He was the son of an Exeter tradesman in a fair way of business, had received a good education, and was possessed of decided abilities. He was a remarkably bold and resolute man, or he would never have acquired the hold he had for a time over so many brave sailors. He was unmistakably
Richard Parker, the main leader at the Nore, was a truly terrible person in every way and completely unworthy of being called a British sailor, a title he had actually lost more than once. He was the son of a successful tradesman from Exeter, had a good education, and had notable skills. He was an exceptionally bold and determined man; otherwise, he could never have gained the influence he had for a while over so many courageous sailors. He was clearly
and until overtaken by justice, he ruled with absolute sway.
and until he was overtaken by justice, he ruled with complete authority.
Parker had, eleven years previously, entered the navy as a midshipman on board the Culloden, from which vessel he had been discharged for gross misconduct. A little later, he obtained, however, a similar appointment on the Leander frigate, and was again dismissed. We next find him passing through several ships in rotation, from which he was invariably dismissed, no captain allowing him to remain when his true character disclosed itself. It did not usually take long. At length he became mate of the Resistance, on which vessel, shortly after joining, he was brought to a court-martial and “broke”—i.e., his commission taken away—and declared incapable of serving again as an officer. After serving a short time as a common sailor on board the Hebe, he was either invalided or discharged, for we find him residing in Scotland; and as he could no more keep out of trouble ashore than he could afloat, he was soon in Edinburgh gaol for debt. But men were wanted for the navy, and he was eventually sent up to the fleet as one of the quota of men required from Perth district. He received the parochial bounty of £30 allowed to each man. He joined the Sandwich, the flag-ship of Admiral Buckner, Commander-in-Chief at the Nore. The best authorities believe him to have been employed as an emissary of the revolutionists, as, although he had only just been discharged from gaol, he had abundance of money. His good address and general abilities, combined with the liberality and conviviality he displayed, speedily obtained him an influence among his messmates, which he used to the worst purpose. He had scarcely joined the fleet when, aided by disaffected parties ashore, he began his machinations, and speedily seduced the majority of the seamen from their duty. In some respects the men followed the example of those at Portsmouth, selecting delegates and forwarding petitions, but in other respects their conduct was disgracefully different. When mastery of the officers had been effected, Parker became, in effect, Lord High Admiral, and committed any number of excesses, even firing on those ships which had not followed the movement. Officers were flogged, and on board the flag-ship, the vessel on which Parker remained, many were half-drowned, as the following account, derived from an unimpeachable source,128 [pg 254]will show. Their hammocks were fastened to their backs, with an 18-pounder bar-shot as a weight; their hands were tied together, likewise their feet. They were then made fast to a tackle suspended from a yard-arm, and hauled up almost to the block; at the word of command they were dropped suddenly in the sea, where they were allowed to remain a minute. They were again hoisted up, and the process repeated, until about every sign of life had fled. The unfortunate victims were then hoisted up by the heels; this was considerately done to get rid of the water from their stomachs. They were then put to bed in their wet hammocks.
Parker had, eleven years earlier, joined the navy as a midshipman on the Culloden, from which he was discharged for serious misconduct. Soon after, he got a similar position on the Leander frigate, but was again let go. We then see him passing through several ships in succession, each time getting dismissed, as no captain would keep him once his true nature was revealed. It usually didn’t take long. Eventually, he became the mate of the Resistance. Shortly after joining, he faced a court-martial and was “broken”—meaning his commission was revoked—and declared unfit to serve again as an officer. After a brief stint as a regular sailor on the Hebe, he was either invalided or discharged, as he was found living in Scotland. Just like he couldn’t stay out of trouble at sea, he found himself in trouble on land and ended up in Edinburgh jail for debt. However, the navy was in need of men, and he was eventually sent to the fleet as part of the quota required from the Perth district. He received the parish bounty of £30 given to each man. He joined the Sandwich, the flagship of Admiral Buckner, Commander-in-Chief at the Nore. Most accounts suggest he acted as an emissary for the revolutionists, as he had plenty of money despite just being released from jail. His charm and overall skills, combined with the generosity and sociability he showed, quickly gave him influence among his messmates, which he exploited for the worst ends. He had barely joined the fleet when, supported by dissatisfied individuals on land, he started his scheming and quickly led most of the sailors away from their duties. In some ways, the men imitated those at Portsmouth, choosing delegates and sending petitions, but in other ways, their actions were disgracefully different. Once the officers’ control was broken, Parker effectively became the Lord High Admiral and committed numerous excesses, even firing on ships that didn’t support the movement. Officers were whipped, and on the flagship, the vessel Parker stayed on, many were nearly drowned, as the following account from a reliable source will show. Their hammocks were tied to their backs, with an 18-pounder bar-shot as a weight; their hands were bound together, as were their feet. They were then secured to a tackle hanging from a yard-arm and hoisted almost to the block; on command, they were suddenly dropped into the sea, where they were left for a minute. They were pulled up again, and the process repeated until nearly all signs of life were gone. The unfortunate victims were then hoisted up by their heels; this was done to remove the water from their stomachs. They were then put to bed in their wet hammocks.
On June 6th the mutinous fleet was joined by the Agamemnon, Leopard, Ardent, and Iris men-of-war, and the Ranger sloop, which vessels basely deserted from a squadron under Admiral Duncan, sent to blockade the Texel. Shortly after, a number of vessels of the line arrived at the mouth of the Thames, and still further augmented the ranks of the mutineers. By this means eleven vessels were added to the list. Duncan, gallant old salt as he was, when he found himself deserted by the greater part of his fleet, called his own ship’s crew (the Venerable, 74) together, and addressed them in the following speech:—
On June 6th, the rebellious fleet was joined by the Agamemnon, Leopard, Passionate, and Iris warships, along with the Ranger sloop. These ships had shamefully abandoned a squadron under Admiral Duncan, which was sent to blockade the Texel. Shortly afterwards, several line vessels arrived at the mouth of the Thames, further increasing the numbers of the mutineers. This brought the total to eleven vessels. Duncan, brave old sailor that he was, upon realizing that most of his fleet had deserted him, gathered his own crew (the Respected, 74) and delivered the following speech:—
“My lads,—I once more call you together with a sorrowful heart, from what I have lately seen of the dissatisfaction of the fleets: I call it dissatisfaction, for the crews have no grievances. To be deserted by my fleet, in the face of an enemy, is a disgrace which, I believe, never before happened to a British admiral, nor could I have supposed it possible. My greatest comfort under God is, that I have been supported by the officers, seamen, and marines of this ship; for which, with a heart overflowing with gratitude, I request you to accept my sincere thanks. I flatter myself much good may result from your example, by bringing these deluded people to a sense of their duty, which they owe, not only to their king and country, but to themselves.
“My friends, I bring you together once more with a heavy heart because of what I’ve recently seen regarding the dissatisfaction among the fleets. I call it dissatisfaction since the crews have no real complaints. It’s a shame to be abandoned by my fleet while facing an enemy, something I believe has never happened to a British admiral before, and I never thought it possible. My greatest comfort, with God’s help, is that I have been supported by the officers, seamen, and marines of this ship; for this, with a heart full of gratitude, I sincerely thank you. I hope that your example can inspire some good by helping these misguided individuals recognize their duty, which they owe not only to their king and country but to themselves.”
“The British Navy has ever been the support of that liberty which has been handed down to us by our ancestors, and which I think we shall maintain to the latest posterity; and that can only be done by unanimity and obedience. This ship’s company, and others who have distinguished themselves by their loyalty and good order, deserve to be, and doubtless will be, the favourites of a grateful country. They will also have, from their inward feelings, a comfort which will be lasting, and not like the bloating and false confidence of those who have swerved from their duty.
"The British Navy has always been the foundation of the freedom our ancestors gave us, and I believe we will maintain it for future generations; this can only happen through unity and discipline. The crew of this ship, along with others who have demonstrated their loyalty and good conduct, rightly deserve to be, and definitely will be, the favorites of a grateful nation. They will also discover a lasting sense of comfort from their core beliefs, unlike the shallow and false confidence of those who have abandoned their responsibilities."
“It has often been my pride with you to look into the Texel, and see a foe which dreaded coming out to meet us; my pride is now humbled indeed! my feelings are not easily expressed! Our cup has overflowed and made us wanton. The all-wise Providence has given us this check as a warning, and I hope we shall improve by it. On Him then let us trust, where our only security may be found. I find there are many good men amongst us; for my own part, I have had full confidence of all in this ship, and once more beg to express my approbation of your conduct.
"I’ve often been proud to look out at the Texel and see an enemy too scared to confront us; now, my pride is truly humbled! I can hardly express my feelings! Our good luck has made us reckless. The all-knowing Providence has given us this setback as a warning, and I hope we can learn from it. Let’s place our trust in Him, where our only safety can be found. I see many good people among us; for my part, I’ve trusted everyone on this ship completely, and I want to once again express my approval of your actions."
“May God, who has thus far conducted you, continue so to do; and may the British Navy, the glory and support of our country, be restored to its wonted splendour, and be not only the bulwark of Britain, but the terror of the world.
“May God, who has guided you this far, continue to do so; and may the British Navy, the pride and backbone of our country, be restored to its former glory, serving not just as a defense for Britain but as a powerful force globally.”
“But this can only be effected by a strict adherence to our duty and obedience; and let us pray that the Almighty God may keep us in the right way of thinking.
"But this can only happen if we strictly do our duties and obey; and let’s hope that God keeps us on the right path of thinking."
“God bless you all!”
“Bless you all!”
At an address so unassuming and patriotic, the whole ship’s crew were dissolved in tears, and one and all declared, with every expression of warmth they could use, their determination to stay by the admiral in life or death. Their example was followed by all the other ships left in the squadron, and the brave and excellent old admiral, notwithstanding the defection of so many of his ships, repaired to his station, off the coast of Holland, to watch the movements of the Dutch fleet. Here he employed a device to hide the sparseness of his fleet by employing one of his frigates, comparatively close in shore, to make signals constantly to himself and to the other vessels in the offing, many of them imaginary, and give the enemy the impression that a large squadron was outside. He had resolved, however, not to refuse battle, if the Dutch fleet should have the courage to come out and offer it.
At a place so humble and patriotic, the entire crew of the ship was in tears, and each one expressed, with every ounce of sincerity they could muster, their commitment to stand by the admiral through life or death. Their sentiment was mirrored by all the other ships remaining in the squadron, and the brave and distinguished old admiral, despite losing so many of his ships, made his way to his position off the coast of Holland to keep an eye on the movements of the Dutch fleet. Here, he used a tactic to conceal the small size of his fleet by having one of his frigates send constant signals to him and the other vessels offshore, many of which were imaginary, creating the illusion that a large squadron was out at sea. Nevertheless, he had made up his mind not to shy away from battle if the Dutch fleet had the bravery to come out and challenge him.
But to return to the mutineers. The accession of the new vessels so elated Parker that he gave way to the wildest fits of extravagance. He talked of taking the whole fleet to sea, and selling it to our enemies. He tried to stop the navigation of the Thames, declaring that he would force his way up to London, and bombard the city if the Government did not accede to his terms. The alarm at these proceedings became general in the metropolis, and the funds fell lower than ever known before or since in the financial history of our country. An order was given to take up the buoys marking the channel of the Thames, while the forts were heavily armed and garrisoned, so that should Parker attempt his vainglorious threat, the fleet might be destroyed. The Government now acted with more promptness and decision than they had previously displayed. Lord Spencer, Lord Arden, and Admiral Young hastened to Sheerness, and held a board, at which Parker and the other delegates attended, but the conduct of the mutineers was so audacious that these Lords of the Admiralty returned to town without the slightest success. The principal article of conflict on the part of the seamen’s delegates was the unequal distribution of prize-money, for the omission of which matter in the recent demands, they greatly upbraided their fellow-seamen at Portsmouth. Bills were immediately passed in Parliament inflicting the heaviest penalties on those who aided or encouraged the mutineers in any way, or even held intercourse with them, which speedily had the effect of damping their ardour, and by the end of the first week in June the fire which Parker had fanned into a serious conflagration, began to die out. The fleets at Portsmouth and Plymouth disowned all fellowship with them, and the example of one or two ships, such as the Clyde, which from the first had resisted Parker’s influence, commenced to be of effect. The ringleader himself, seeing that his influence was waning, and knowing the perilous position in which he had placed himself, tried to re-open negotiations with the Admiralty, but his demands were too ridiculous to be considered; whereupon he hung Mr. Pitt and Mr. Dundas in effigy at the yard-arm of the Sandwich. It is a curious fact, showing that the crews were simply egged on by the ringleaders, and that there was plenty of loyalty at bottom, that on June 4th, the king’s birthday, the whole fleet insisted on firing a royal salute, displaying the colours as usual, and hauling down the red flag during the ceremony. Mr. Parker, however, insisted that it should fly on the flag-ship.
But to return to the mutineers. The arrival of the new ships thrilled Parker so much that he went into a wild frenzy of extravagance. He spoke about taking the entire fleet to sea and selling it to our enemies. He tried to halt navigation on the Thames, stating he would force his way to London and bombard the city if the Government didn’t agree to his terms. This caused widespread alarm in the city, and stock prices plummeted to their lowest level ever recorded in our country's financial history. An order was issued to remove the buoys marking the Thames channel, while the forts were heavily armed and garrisoned, to ensure that if Parker attempted his boastful threat, the fleet could be destroyed. The Government now acted with more urgency and decisiveness than before. Lord Spencer, Lord Arden, and Admiral Young rushed to Sheerness to meet with Parker and the other delegates, but the mutineers behaved so brazenly that these Lords of the Admiralty returned to the city without any success. The main point of conflict raised by the sailors’ delegates was the unfair distribution of prize money, which they heavily criticized their fellow sailors at Portsmouth for leaving out of their recent demands. Parliament quickly passed bills imposing severe penalties on anyone who assisted or encouraged the mutineers in any way, or even communicated with them, which effectively dampened their zeal. By the end of the first week in June, the fire Parker had sparked into a serious conflict began to fade. The fleets at Portsmouth and Plymouth disavowed any association with them, and the example set by a few ships, such as the Clyde, which had resisted Parker’s influence from the beginning, started to have an impact. The ringleader himself, seeing that his power was decreasing and understanding the dangerous position he was in, tried to reopen negotiations with the Admiralty, but his demands were too absurd to be taken seriously; so he hung Mr. Pitt and Mr. Dundas in effigy at the yard-arm of the Sandwich. It’s interesting to note that the crews were really incited by the ringleaders, and that there was still plenty of loyalty underneath all of that; on June 4th, the king’s birthday, the entire fleet insisted on firing a royal salute, displaying their colors as usual, and lowering the red flag during the ceremony. Mr. Parker, however, insisted that it should remain raised on the flagship.
On June 10th two of the ships, the Leopard and Repulse, hauled down the flag of mutiny, and sailed into the Thames; their example was soon followed by others. Parker and his cause were lost.
On June 10th, two of the ships, the Leopard and Repel, lowered the flag of rebellion and sailed into the Thames; others quickly followed their lead. Parker and his efforts were doomed.
On the evening of June 14th this miserable affair was at an end. The crew of the Sandwich, Parker’s own ship, brought that vessel under the guns of the fort at Sheerness, and handed him as a prisoner to the authorities. Sixteen days afterwards he was hanged. His wife presented a petition to the queen in favour of her wretched husband, and is stated to have offered a thousand guineas if his life could be spared. But he, of all men who were ever hanged, deserved his fate, for he had placed the very kingdom itself in peril. Other executions took place, but very few, considering the heinousness of the crime committed. Still, the Government knew that the men had been in the larger proportion of cases more sinned against than sinning; and when later, Duncan’s victory over the Dutch fleet provided an occasion, an amnesty was published, and many who had been confined in prison, some of them under sentence of death, were released. En passant, it may be remarked that three marines were shot at Plymouth on July 6th of the same year, for endeavouring to excite a mutiny in the corps, while another was sentenced to receive a thousand lashes.
On the evening of June 14th, this miserable situation came to a close. The crew of the Sandwich, Parker’s own ship, brought the vessel under the guns of the fort at Sheerness and handed him over as a prisoner to the authorities. Sixteen days later, he was hanged. His wife submitted a petition to the queen on behalf of her unfortunate husband and is said to have offered a thousand guineas if his life could be saved. However, he, more than anyone else who was ever hanged, deserved his fate because he had put the very kingdom at risk. Other executions occurred, but very few considering the seriousness of the crime committed. Still, the Government understood that in many cases, the men were more wronged than wrongdoers; and later, when Duncan’s victory over the Dutch fleet provided an opportunity, an amnesty was announced, and many who had been imprisoned, some even sentenced to death, were released. In passing, it’s worth noting that three marines were shot in Plymouth on July 6th of the same year for trying to incite a mutiny in the corps, while another was sentenced to receive a thousand lashes.
The mutinous spirit evinced at Portsmouth, Plymouth, and the Nore spread, even to foreign stations. Had it not been for Duncan’s manly and sensible appeal to his crew, where there were some disaffected spirits, our naval supremacy might have been seriously compromised as regards the Dutch. On board the Mediterranean Fleet, then lying off the coast of Portugal, the mutineers had for a time their own way. The admiral commanding, Lord St. Vincent, was, however, hardly the man to be daunted by any number of evil-disposed fellows. He had only just before added to his laurels by another victory over the enemies of his country. The ringleaders on board the flagship St. George were immediately seized, brought to trial, and hanged the next day, although it was Sunday, a most unusual time for an execution. Still further to increase the force of the example, he departed from the usual custom of drawing men from different ships to assist at the execution, and ordered that none but the crew of the St. George itself should touch a rope. The brave old admiral, by his energy and promptitude, soon quieted every symptom of disaffection.
The rebellious attitude shown at Portsmouth, Plymouth, and the Nore spread even to foreign stations. If it hadn't been for Duncan's strong and sensible appeal to his crew, which included some discontented individuals, our naval dominance might have been seriously threatened regarding the Dutch. On the Mediterranean Fleet, which was stationed off the coast of Portugal, the mutineers were briefly in control. However, the admiral in charge, Lord St. Vincent, was not the type to be intimidated by any number of troublemakers. He had just recently added to his achievements with another victory against the enemies of his country. The ringleaders aboard the flagship St. George were quickly captured, put on trial, and hanged the next day, even though it was Sunday, which was quite unusual for an execution. To further strengthen the example, he broke from the usual practice of involving men from different ships in the execution and ordered that only the crew of the St. George should handle the ropes. The brave old admiral promptly quelled any signs of dissatisfaction through his energy and decisiveness.
The last of the mutinies broke out at the Cape of Good Hope, on October 9th of the same year, when a band of mutineers seized the flagship of Admiral Pringle, and appointed delegates in the same way as their shipmates at home, showing plainly how extended was the discontent in the service, and how complete was the organisation of the insurgents. Lord Macartney, who commanded at the Cape, was, however, master of the occasion. Of the admiral the less said the better, as he showed the white feather, and was completely non-plussed. Macartney manned the batteries with all the troops available, and ordered red-hot shot to be prepared. He then informed the fleet that if the red flag was not at once withdrawn, and a white one hoisted, he would open fire and blow up every ship the crew of which held out. The admiral at the same time informed the delegates that all the concessions they required had already been granted to the fleets at home, and of course to them. In a quarter of an hour the red flag was hauled down, and a free pardon [pg 257]extended to the bulk of the offenders. The ringleaders were, however, hanged, and a few others flogged. The mutinous spirit never re-asserted itself.
The last mutiny broke out at the Cape of Good Hope on October 9th of the same year when a group of mutineers took control of Admiral Pringle's flagship and appointed delegates just like their fellow sailors back home, clearly showing how widespread the discontent in the service was and how well-organized the insurgents had become. Lord Macartney, who was in charge at the Cape, managed the situation effectively. As for the admiral, it’s better not to say much since he showed cowardice and was completely bewildered. Macartney stationed all available troops at the batteries and ordered them to prepare red-hot shot. He then informed the fleet that unless the red flag was taken down immediately and a white flag raised, he would open fire and blow up every ship whose crew resisted. At the same time, the admiral told the delegates that all the concessions they requested had already been granted to the fleets back home, and, of course, to them as well. Within fifteen minutes, the red flag was lowered, and a general pardon [pg 257]was offered to most of the offenders. However, the ringleaders were hanged, and a few others were flogged. The mutinous spirit never returned.
Since that time, thank God! no British fleet has mutinied; and as at the present day the sailors of the Royal Navy are better fed, paid, and cared for than they ever were before, there is no fear of any recurrence of disaffection. One need only look at the Jack Tar of the service, and compare him with the appearance of almost any sailor of any merchant marine, to be convinced that his grievances to-day are of the lightest order. The wrongs experienced by sailors in a part of the merchant service have been recently remedied in part; but it is satisfactory to be able to add that there is every probability of their condition being greatly improved in the future. On this point, however, we shall have more to say in a later chapter.
Since then, thank goodness, no British fleet has revolted; and today, the sailors of the Royal Navy are better fed, paid, and taken care of than ever before, so there’s no worry about any repeat of discontent. Just look at the sailors in the service and compare them to almost any sailor from any merchant marine, and you'll see that their complaints today are pretty minimal. The issues faced by sailors in part of the merchant service have recently been partly addressed; but it’s encouraging to say that there's a strong chance their situation will be greatly improved in the future. We’ll have more to say about this in a later chapter.
CHAPTER 15.
The History of Ships and Shipping Interests.
The First Attempts to Float—Hollowed Logs and Rafts—The Ark and its Dimensions—Skin Floats and Basket-boats—Maritime Commerce of Antiquity—Phœnician Enterprise—Did they Round the Cape?—The Ships of Tyre—Carthage—Hanno’s Voyage to the West Coast of Africa—Egyptian Galleys—The Great Ships of the Ptolemies—Hiero’s Floating Palace—The Romans—Their Repugnance to Seafaring Pursuits—Sea Battles with the Carthaginians—Cicero’s Opinions on Commerce—Constantinople and its Commerce—Venice—Britain—The First Invasion under Julius Cæsar—Benefits Accruing—The Danish Pirates—The London of the Period—The Father of the British Navy—Alfred and his Victories—Canute’s Fleet—The Norman Invasion—The Crusades—Richard Cœur de Lion’s Fleet—The Cinque Ports and their Privileges—Foundation of a Maritime Code—Letters of Marque—Opening of the Coal Trade—Chaucer’s Description of the Sailors of his Time—A Glorious Period—The Victories at Harfleur—Henry V.’s Fleet of 1,500 Vessels—The Channel Marauders—The King-Maker Pirate—Sir Andrew Wood’s Victory—Action with Scotch Pirates—The Great Michael and the Great Harry—Queen Elizabeth’s Astuteness—The Nation never so well Provided—“The Most Fortunate and Invincible Armada”—Its Size and Strength—Elizabeth’s Appeal to the Country—A Noble Response—Effingham’s Appointment—The Armada’s First Disaster—Refitted, and Resails from Corunna—Chased in the Rear—A Series of Contretemps—English Volunteer Ships in Numbers—The Fire-ships at Calais—The Final Action—Flight of the Armada—Fate of Shipwrecked Spanish in Ireland—Total Loss to Spain—Rejoicings and Thanksgivings in England.
The First Attempts to Float—Hollowed Logs and Rafts—The Ark and its Size—Skin Floats and Basket-Boats—Ancient Maritime Trade—Phoenician Ventures—Did They Sail Around the Cape?—The Ships of Tyre—Carthage—Hanno’s Voyage to the West Coast of Africa—Egyptian Galleys—The Great Ships of the Ptolemies—Hiero’s Floating Palace—The Romans—Their Aversion to Seafaring—Naval Battles with the Carthaginians—Cicero’s Thoughts on Trade—Constantinople and Its Trade—Venice—Britain—The First Invasion by Julius Caesar—Advantages Gained—The Danish Pirates—London During This Time—The Father of the British Navy—Alfred and His Victories—Canute’s Fleet—The Norman Invasion—The Crusades—Richard the Lionheart’s Fleet—The Cinque Ports and Their Rights—Foundation of a Maritime Code—Letters of Marque—Opening of the Coal Trade—Chaucer’s Description of Sailors in His Time—A Glorious Era—The Victories at Harfleur—Henry V’s Fleet of 1,500 Vessels—The Channel Raiders—The King-Maker Pirate—Sir Andrew Wood’s Victory—Confrontation with Scottish Pirates—The Awesome Michael and the Great Harry—Queen Elizabeth’s Intelligence—The Nation has never been better Prepared—“The Most Fortunate and Invincible Armada”—Its Size and Strength—Elizabeth’s Call to the Nation—A Noble Response—Effingham’s Appointment—The Armada’s First Setback—Refitted, and Sets Sail from Corunna—Chased from Behind—A Series of Bad luck—English Many Volunteer Ships—The Fire Ships at Calais—The Final Battle—The Armada's Retreat—The Fate of Shipwrecked Spaniards in Ireland—Complete Loss for Spain—Celebrations and Thanks in England.
It will not now be out of place to take a rapid survey of the progress of naval architecture, from log and coracle to wooden walls and ironclads, noting rapidly the progressive steps which led to the present epoch.
It’s a good time to quickly review the development of naval architecture, from logs and coracles to wooden ships and ironclads, highlighting the key advancements that brought us to today’s era.
It is only from the Scriptures, and from fragmentary allusions in the writings of profane historians and poets, that we can derive any knowledge of the vessels employed by the ancients. Doubtless our first parents noticed branches of trees or fragments of wood floating upon the surface of that “river” which “went out of Eden to water the garden;” and from this to the use of logs singly, or combined in rafts, or hollowed into canoes, would be an easy transition. The first boat was probably a mere toy model; and, likely enough, great was the surprise when it was discovered that its sides, though thin, would support a considerable weight in the water. The first specimen of naval architecture of which we have any description is unquestionably the ark, built by Noah. If the cubit be taken as eighteen inches, she was 450 feet long, 75 in breadth, and 45 in depth, whilst her tonnage, according to the present system of admeasurement, would be about 15,000 tons. It is more than probable that this huge vessel was, after all, little more than a raft, or barge, with a stupenduous house reared over it, for it was constructed merely for the purpose of floating, and needed no means of propulsion. She may have been, comparatively speaking, slightly built in her lofty upper works, her carrying capacity being thereby largely increased. Soon after the Flood, if not, indeed, before it, other means of flotation must have suggested themselves, such as the inflated skins of animals; these may be seen on the ancient monuments of Assyria, discovered by Layard, where there are many representations of people crossing rivers by this means. Next came wicker-work baskets of rushes or reeds, smeared with mud or pitch, similar to the ark in which Moses was found. Mr. Layard found such boats in use on the Tigris; they were constructed of twisted reeds made water-tight by bitumen, and were often large enough for four or five persons. Pliny says, in his time, “Even now in British waters, vessels of vine-twigs sewn round with leather are used.” The words in italics might be used were Pliny writing to-day. Basket-work coracles, covered with leather or prepared flannel, are still found in a few parts [pg 259]of Wales, where they are used for fording streams, or for fishing. Wooden canoes or boats, whether hollowed from one log or constructed of many parts, came next. The paintings and sculptures of Upper and Lower Egypt show regularly formed boats, made of sawn planks of timber, carrying a number of rowers, and having sails. The Egyptians were averse to seafaring pursuits, having extensive overland commerce with their neighbours.
We can only learn about the boats used by ancient people from the Scriptures and a few references in the writings of historians and poets. It's likely that our first ancestors saw branches or pieces of wood floating on the surface of that "river" that "went out of Eden to tend the garden;" and this could have led them easily to using single logs, or tying them together in rafts, or carving them into canoes. The first boat was probably just a toy model, and it must have been quite a surprise to realize that its thin sides could support a significant weight in water. The earliest description of a boat we have is unquestionably the ark built by Noah. If we consider a cubit to be about eighteen inches, the ark would have been 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet deep, with a tonnage of around 15,000 tons by today’s measurement standards. It’s likely that this massive vessel was really just a raft or barge with a huge house built on top, designed only for floating and without any need for propulsion. Comparatively, it may have been somewhat lightweight in its tall upper structure, which allowed for greater carrying capacity. Shortly after the Flood, if not even before, other methods of floating probably emerged, like using the inflated skins of animals; these can be seen on ancient Assyrian monuments discovered by Layard, where there are various depictions of people crossing rivers this way. After that came woven baskets made of reeds or rushes, coated with mud or pitch, similar to the ark where Moses was found. Mr. Layard found these kinds of boats still in use on the Tigris; they were made of twisted reeds sealed with bitumen and were often large enough for four or five people. Pliny mentions that in his time, “Even now in British waters, boats made of vine twigs wrapped in leather are still used.” The italicized words would be appropriate if Pliny were writing today. Basket-like coracles, covered with leather or flannel, can still be found in some parts of [pg 259]Wales, where they are used for crossing streams or fishing. After that came wooden canoes or boats, either hollowed from a single log or assembled from multiple parts. The paintings and sculptures from Upper and Lower Egypt show well-constructed boats made of cut timber planks, operated by several rowers, and equipped with sails. The Egyptians generally avoided activities related to the sea, as they engaged in extensive overland trade with neighboring regions.
The Phœnicians were, past all cavil, the most distinguished navigators of the ancient world, their capital, Tyre, being for centuries the centre of commerce, the “mart of nations.” Strange to say, this country, whose inhabitants were the rulers of the sea in those times, was a mere strip of land, whose average breadth never exceeded twelve miles, while its length was only 225 miles from Aradus in the north to Joppa in the south. Forced by the unproductiveness of the territory, and blessed with one or two excellent harbours, and an abundant supply of wood from the mountains of Lebanon, the Phœnicians soon possessed a numerous fleet, which not only monopolised the trade of the Mediterranean, but navigated Solomon’s fleets to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, establishing colonies wherever they went. Herodotus states that a Phœnician fleet, which was fitted out by Necho, King of Egypt, even circumnavigated Africa, and gives details which seem to place it within the category of the very greatest voyages. Starting from the Red Sea, they are stated to have passed Ophir, generally supposed to mean part of the east coast of Africa, to have rounded the continent, and, entering the Mediterranean by the Pillars of Hercules, our old friends the Rocks of Gibraltar and Ceuta, to have reached Egypt in the third year of their voyage. Solomon, too, dispatched a fleet of ships from the Red Sea to fetch gold from Ophir. Diodorus gives at great length an account of the fleet said to be built by this people for the great Queen Semiramis, with which she invaded India. Semiramis was long believed by many to be a mythical personage; but Sir Henry Rawlinson’s interpretations of the Assyrian inscriptions have placed the existence of this queen beyond all doubt. In the Assyrian hall of the British Museum are two statues of the god Nebo, each of which bears a cuneiform inscription saying that they were made for Queen Semiramis by a sculptor of Nineveh. The commerce of Phœnicia must have been at its height when Nebuchadnezzar made his attack on Tyre. Ezekiel gives a description of her power about the year B.C. 588, when ruin was hovering around her. “Tyre,” says the prophet, “was a merchant of the people for many isles.” He states that her ship-boards were made of fir-trees of Senir; her masts of cedars from Lebanon; her oars of the oaks of Bashan; and the benches of her galleys of ivory, brought out of the isles of Chittim.
The Phoenicians were undoubtedly the most accomplished sailors of the ancient world, with their capital, Tyre, serving for centuries as the hub of trade, the “market of nations.” Interestingly, this region, whose people ruled the seas in that era, was just a narrow strip of land, averaging no more than twelve miles wide and only 225 miles long from Aradus in the north to Joppa in the south. Driven by the unfruitfulness of their land and blessed with a couple of great harbors and plenty of timber from the Lebanon mountains, the Phoenicians quickly built a large fleet that not only dominated Mediterranean trade but also carried Solomon’s fleets to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, setting up colonies wherever they traveled. Herodotus mentions that a Phoenician fleet, outfitted by Necho, the King of Egypt, even sailed around Africa, and provides details that place it among the greatest voyages ever. Starting from the Red Sea, they reportedly passed Ophir, usually thought to refer to part of the east coast of Africa, navigated around the continent, and entered the Mediterranean through the Pillars of Hercules, our familiar friends the Rock of Gibraltar and Ceuta, reaching Egypt in the third year of their journey. Solomon also sent a fleet of ships from the Red Sea to obtain gold from Ophir. Diodorus gives a detailed account of a fleet said to be constructed by this people for the great Queen Semiramis, with which she invaded India. For a long time, many believed Semiramis to be a mythical figure; however, Sir Henry Rawlinson’s interpretations of Assyrian inscriptions have confirmed her existence beyond doubt. In the Assyrian gallery of the British Museum, there are two statues of the god Nebo, each inscribed in cuneiform to say they were made for Queen Semiramis by a sculptor from Nineveh. Phoenician trade must have been at its peak when Nebuchadnezzar attacked Tyre. Ezekiel provides a description of her power around the year B.C. 588, when destruction loomed nearby. "Tire," the prophet states, "was a merchant for the people across many islands." He notes that her ship-boards were made of fir from Senir; her masts were made of cedars from Lebanon; her oars were crafted from oaks of Bashan; and the seats of her galleys were made of ivory sourced from the isles of Chittim.
To the Tyrians also is due the colonisation of other countries, which, following the example of the mother-country, soon rivalled her in wealth and enterprise. The principal of these was Carthage, which in its turn founded colonies of her own, one of the first of which was Gades (Cadiz). From that port Hanno made his celebrated voyage to the west coast of Africa, starting with sixty ships or galleys, of fifty oars each. He is said to have founded six trading-posts or colonies. About the same time Hamilco went on a voyage of discovery to the north-western shores of Europe, where, according to a poem of Festus Avienus,129 he formed settlements in Britain and [pg 260]Ireland, and found tin and lead, and people who used boats of skin or leather. Aristotle tells us that the Carthaginians were the first to increase the size of their galleys from three to four banks of oars.
To the Tyrians is also credited the colonization of other countries, which, inspired by the motherland, quickly matched her in wealth and ambition. The most important of these was Carthage, which in turn established its own colonies, one of the first being Gades (Cadiz). From that port, Hanno embarked on his famous journey to the west coast of Africa, starting with sixty ships or galleys, each equipped with fifty oars. He is said to have founded six trading posts or colonies. Around the same time, Hamilco set out on a voyage of discovery to the northwestern shores of Europe, where, according to a poem by Festus Avienus, he established settlements in Britain and Ireland, discovering tin and lead, and encountering people who used boats made of skin or leather. Aristotle mentions that the Carthaginians were the first to increase the size of their galleys from three to four levels of oars.
Under the dynasty of the Ptolemies the maritime commerce of Egypt rapidly improved. The first of these kings caused the erection of the celebrated Pharos or lighthouse at Alexandria, in the upper storey of which were windows looking seaward, and inside which fires were lighted by night to guide mariners to the harbour. Upon its front was inscribed, “King Ptolemy to God the Saviour, for the benefit of sailors.” His successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, attempted to cut a canal a hundred cubits in width between Arsinoe, on the Red Sea, not far from Suez, to the eastern branch of the Nile. Enormous vessels were constructed at this time and during the succeeding reigns. Ptolemy, the son of Lagos, is said to have owned five hundred galleys and two thousand smaller vessels. Lucian speaks of a vessel that he saw in Egypt that was one hundred and twenty cubits long. Another, constructed by Ptolemy Philopator, is described by Calixenus, an Alexandrian historian, as two hundred and eighty cubits, say 420 feet, in length. She is said to have had four rudders, two heads, and two sterns, and to have been manned by 4,000 sailors (meaning principally oarsmen) and 3,000 fighting-men. Calixenus also describes another built during the dynasty of the Ptolemies, called the Thalamegus, or “carrier of the bed-chamber.” This leviathan was 300 feet in length, and fitted up with every conceivable kind of luxury and magnificence—with colonnades, marble staircases, and gardens; from all which it is easy to infer that she was not intended for sea-going purposes, but was probably an immense barge, forming a kind of summer palace, moored on the Nile. Plutarch in speaking of her says that she was a mere matter of curiosity, for she differed very little from an immovable building, and was calculated mainly for show, as she could not be put in motion without great difficulty and danger.
Under the Ptolemaic dynasty, Egypt's maritime trade quickly flourished. The first of these kings oversaw the construction of the famous Pharos, or lighthouse, at Alexandria, which had windows facing the sea on its upper level, and where fires were lit at night to help guide sailors to the harbor. On its front, it was inscribed, "King Ptolemy to God the Savior, for the benefit of sailors." His successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, tried to dig a canal a hundred cubits wide connecting Arsinoe on the Red Sea, near Suez, to the eastern branch of the Nile. During this time and the following reigns, massive ships were built. Ptolemy, son of Lagos, reportedly owned five hundred galleys and two thousand smaller vessels. Lucian mentions seeing a ship in Egypt that was one hundred and twenty cubits long. Another ship, made by Ptolemy Philopator, was described by Calixenus, an Alexandrian historian, as being two hundred and eighty cubits, or about 420 feet, long. It was reportedly equipped with four rudders, two bows, and two sterns, staffed by 4,000 sailors (mostly oarsmen) and 3,000 soldiers. Calixenus also describes another vessel built during the Ptolemaic dynasty called the Thalamegus, or “bed-chamber attendant.” This giant ship was 300 feet long and adorned with every kind of luxury and splendor—complete with colonnades, marble staircases, and gardens. It's clear that she was not meant for sailing but was likely a huge barge serving as a sort of summer palace, moored on the Nile. Plutarch notes that she was more of a curiosity, as she resembled an immobile structure and was mainly for show, being difficult and dangerous to move.
But the most prodigious vessel on the records of the ancients was built by order of Hiero, the second Tyrant of Syracuse, under the superintendence of Archimedes, about 230 years before Christ, the description of which would fill a small volume. Athenæus has left a description of this vast floating fabric. There was, he states, as much timber employed in her as would have served for the construction of fifty galleys. It had all the varieties of apartments and conveniences necessary to a palace—such as banqueting-rooms, baths, a library, a temple of Venus, gardens, fish-ponds, mills, and a spacious gymnasium. The inlaying of the floors of the middle apartment represented in various colours the stories of Homer’s “Iliad;” there were everywhere the most beautiful paintings, and every embellishment and ornament that art could furnish were bestowed on the ceilings, windows, and every part. The inside of the temple was inlaid with cypress-wood, the statues were of ivory, and the floor was studded with precious stones. This vessel had twenty benches of oars, and was encompassed by an iron rampart or battery; it had also eight towers with walls and bulwarks, which were furnished with machines of war, one of which was capable of throwing a stone of 300 pounds weight, or a dart of twelve cubits long, to the distance of half a mile. To launch her, Archimedes invented a screw of great power. She had four wooden and eight iron anchors; her mainmast, [pg 261]composed of a single tree, was procured after much trouble from distant inland mountains. Hiero finding that he had no harbours in Sicily capable of containing her, and learning that there was famine in Egypt, sent her loaded with corn to Alexandria. She bore an inscription of which the following is part:—“Hiero, the son of Hierocles, the Dorian, who wields the sceptre of Sicily, sends this vessel bearing in her the fruits of the earth. Do thou, O Neptune, preserve in safety this ship over the blue waves.”
But the most impressive ship in ancient records was built on the orders of Hiero, the second Tyrant of Syracuse, under the oversight of Archimedes, around 230 years before Christ. Describing it would take a small book. Athenæus wrote about this enormous floating structure. He mentioned that as much wood was used for it as would have been needed to build fifty galleys. It had all the different types of rooms and amenities found in a palace—including banquet halls, baths, a library, a temple to Venus, gardens, fish ponds, mills, and a large gym. The floors in the main area displayed colorful inlays depicting stories from Homer's “Iliad” beautiful paintings adorned every space, with every kind of decoration and ornament that art could provide applied to the ceilings, windows, and all parts of the ship. The inside of the temple was inlaid with cypress wood, the statues were made of ivory, and the floor was dotted with precious stones. This vessel had twenty rows of oars and was surrounded by an iron rampart or battery. It also featured eight towers with walls and defenses, equipped with war machines, one of which could launch a stone weighing 300 pounds or a dart twelve cubits long over a distance of half a mile. To launch her, Archimedes designed a powerful screw. She had four wooden and eight iron anchors; her mainmast, [pg 261]made from a single tree, was sourced after significant effort from distant inland mountains. Hiero, realizing there were no harbors in Sicily big enough for her, and learning that there was a famine in Egypt, sent her loaded with grain to Alexandria. She carried an inscription that read in part:—“Hiero, the son of Hierocles, a Dorian who rules over Sicily, sends this ship loaded with the gifts of the earth. May you, O Neptune, keep this vessel safe as it sails across the blue waves.”
Among the Grecian states Corinth stood high in naval matters. Her people were expert ship-builders, and claimed the invention of the trireme, or galley with three tiers of oars. Athens, with its three ports, also carried on for a long period a large trade with Egypt, Palestine, and the countries bordering the Black Sea. The Romans had little inclination at first for seamanship, but were forced into it by their rivals of Carthage. It was as late as B.C. 261 before they determined to build a war-fleet, and had not a Carthaginian galley, grounded on the coast of Italy, been seized by them, they would not have understood the proper construction of one. Previously they had nothing much above large boats rudely built of planks. The noble Romans affected to despise commerce at this period, and trusted to the Greek and other traders to supply their wants. Quintus Claudius introduced a law, which passed, that no senator or father of one should [pg 262]own a vessel of a greater capacity than just sufficient to carry the produce of their own lands to market. Hear the enlightened Cicero on the subject of commerce. He observes that, “Trade is mean if it has only a small profit for its object; but it is otherwise if it has large dealings, bringing many sorts of merchandise from foreign parts, and distributing them to the public without deceit; and if after a reasonable profit such merchants are contented with the riches they have acquired, and purchasing land with them retire into the country, and apply themselves to agriculture, I cannot perceive wherein is the dishonour of that function.” Mariners were not esteemed by the Romans until after the great battle of Actium, which threw the monopoly of the lucrative Indian trade into their hands. Claudius, A.D. 41, deepened the Tiber, and built the port of Ostia; and about fifty years later Trajan constructed the ports of Civita Vecchia and Ancona, where commerce flourished. The Roman fleets were often a source of trouble to them. Carausius, who was really a Dutch soldier of fortune, about the year 280, seized upon the fleet he commanded, and crossed from Gessoriacum (Boulogne) to Britain, where he proclaimed himself emperor. He held the reins of government for seven years, and was at length murdered by his lieutenant. He was really the first to create a British manned fleet. In the reign of Diocletian, the Veneti, on the coast of Gaul, threw off the Roman yoke, and claimed tribute from all who appeared in their seas. The same emperor founded Constantinople, erected later, under Constantine, into the seat of government. This city seemed to be destined by nature as a great commercial centre; caravans placed it in direct communication with the East, and it was really the entrepôt of the world till its capture by the Venetians, in 1204. That independent republic had been then in a flourishing condition for over two hundred years, and for more than as many after, its people were the greatest traders of the world. It was at Venice in 1202 that some of the leading pilgrims assembled to negotiate for a fleet to be used in the fourth crusade. The crusaders agreed to pay the Venetians before sailing eighty-four thousand marks of silver, and to share with them all the booty taken by land or sea. The republic undertook to supply flat-bottomed vessels enough to convey four thousand five hundred knights, and twenty thousand soldiers, provisions for nine months, and a fleet of galleys.
Among the Greek states, Corinth was a key player in naval affairs. Its people were skilled shipbuilders and claimed to have invented the trireme, a galley with three tiers of oars. Athens, with its three ports, engaged in extensive trade with Egypt, Palestine, and the countries around the Black Sea for a long time. The Romans initially had little interest in seamanship but were compelled to develop this skill due to their rivals in Carthage. It wasn't until BCE 261 that they decided to build a war fleet. If they hadn't captured a Carthaginian galley stranded on the coast of Italy, they wouldn't have grasped the proper design of one. Before that, they mainly had large boats that were crudely constructed from planks. At that time, the proud Romans looked down on trade and relied on Greek and other merchants to meet their needs. Quintus Claudius introduced a law that passed ensuring that no senator or their father could own a vessel larger than what was necessary to transport their own agricultural produce to market. Listen to the enlightened Cicero discuss commerce. He notes, "Trade is unworthy if it only seeks small gains; but if it involves substantial transactions, importing different goods from other countries and distributing them fairly, and if those merchants are content with a reasonable profit and then purchase land to retire to the countryside and farm, I don’t see any disgrace in that profession." Mariners weren't respected by the Romans until after the pivotal battle of Actium, which gave them control over the lucrative Indian trade. In A.D. 41, Claudius deepened the Tiber River and built the port of Ostia; about fifty years later, Trajan constructed the ports of Civita Vecchia and Ancona, where trade flourished. The Roman fleets often created problems for them. Carausius, a Dutch soldier of fortune, around the year 280, took command of the fleet he led and sailed from Gessoriacum (Boulogne) to Britain, where he declared himself emperor. He governed for seven years before being assassinated by his lieutenant and was the first to establish a British manned fleet. During Diocletian's reign, the Veneti along the coast of Gaul rebelled against Roman control and demanded tribute from anyone who entered their waters. The same emperor founded Constantinople, later established as the seat of government by Constantine. This city appeared destined to be a major commercial hub; caravans connected it directly to the East, making it the world’s entrepôt until it was captured by the Venetians in 1204. By then, that independent republic had thrived for over two hundred years, and for another two hundred, its citizens were the leading traders globally. In Venice in 1202, some prominent pilgrims gathered to arrange for a fleet to join the Fourth Crusade. The crusaders agreed to pay the Venetians eighty-four thousand marks of silver before setting sail and to share all booty taken by land or sea with them. The republic pledged to provide enough flat-bottomed vessels to transport four thousand five hundred knights, along with twenty thousand soldiers, provisions for nine months, and a fleet of galleys.
“Surrounded by the silver streak,” our hardy forefathers often crossed to Ireland and France, prior to the first invasion of Britain by Julius Cæsar, B.C. 55, when he sailed from Boulogne with eighty vessels and 8,000 men, and with eighteen transports to carry 800 horses for the cavalry. In the second invasion he employed a fleet of 600 boats and twenty-five war-galleys, having with him five legions of infantry and 2,000 cavalry, a formidable army for the poor islanders to contend against. But their intercourse with the Romans speedily brought about commercial relations of importance. The pearl fisheries were then most profitable, while the “native” oyster was greatly esteemed by the Roman epicures, of whom Juvenal speaks in his fourth satire. He says they
“Surrounded by the silver line,” our tough ancestors often traveled to Ireland and France before Julius Caesar's first invasion of Britain in B.C. 55, when he set sail from Boulogne with eighty ships and 8,000 men, along with eighteen transports carrying 800 horses for the cavalry. During the second invasion, he used a fleet of 600 boats and twenty-five war galleys, bringing five legions of infantry and 2,000 cavalry, making it a powerful army for the poor islanders to face. However, their interactions with the Romans quickly led to significant commercial ties. The pearl fisheries were highly profitable at the time, while the "local" oyster was greatly prized by Roman food lovers, as mentioned by Juvenal in his fourth satire. He states they
British oysters were exported to Rome, as American oysters are now-a-days to England. Martial also mentions another trade in one of his epigrams, that of basket-making—
British oysters were sent to Rome, just like American oysters are shipped to England today. Martial also talks about another trade in one of his poems, that of basket-making—
The smaller description of boats, other than galleys, employed by the Romans for transporting their troops and supplies, were the kiulæ, called by the Saxons ceol or ciol, which name has come down to us in the form of keel, and is still applied to a description of barge used in the north of England. Thus
The smaller boats, aside from galleys, used by the Romans to transport their troops and supplies were the kiulæ, known to the Saxons as music or ciol. This name has carried over to us as keel, which is still used to describe a type of barge in northern England. Thus
says the song, and on the “coaly Tyne,” a small barge carrying twenty-one tons four hundredweight is said to carry a “keel” of coals. The Romans must also have possessed large transport vessels, for within seventy or eighty years after they had gained a secure footing in this country, they received a reinforcement of 5,000 men in seventeen ships, or about 300 men, besides stores, to each vessel.
says the song, and on the “Coal-rich Tyne,” a small barge carrying twenty-one tons and four hundredweight is said to carry a “keel” of coal. The Romans must have had large transport ships as well, because within seventy or eighty years of establishing a solid presence in this country, they brought in a reinforcement of 5,000 men across seventeen ships, which is about 300 men, plus supplies, for each vessel.
Bede places the final departure of the Romans from Britain in A.D. 409, or just before the siege of Rome by Attila. Our ancestors were now rather worse off than before, for they were left a prey to the Vikings—those bold, hardy, unscrupulous Scandinavian seamen of the north, who began to make piratical visits for the sake of plunder to the coasts of Scotland and England. They found their way to the Mediterranean, and were known and feared in every port from Iceland to Constantinople. Their galleys were propelled mainly by means of oars, but they had also small square sails to get help from a stern wind, and as they often sailed straight across the stormy northern seas, it is probable that they had made considerable progress in the rigging and handling of their ships. A plank-built boat was discovered a few years since in Denmark, which the antiquaries assign to the fifth century. It is a row-boat, measuring seventy-seven feet from stem to stern, and proportionately broad in the middle. The construction shows that there was an abundance of material and skilled labour. It is alike at bow and stern, and the thirty rowlocks are reversible, so as to permit the boat to be navigated with either end forward. The vessel is built of heavy planks overlapping each other from the gunwale to the keel, and cut thick at the point of juncture, so that they may be mortised into the cross-beams and gunwale, instead of being merely nailed. Very similar boats, light, swift, and strong, are still used in the Shetlands and Norway.
Bede places the final departure of the Romans from Britain in CE 409, just before Attila laid siege to Rome. Our ancestors were now worse off than before, as they became easy targets for the Vikings—those bold, tough, and ruthless Scandinavian sailors from the north, who started making pirate raids for loot along the coasts of Scotland and England. They made their way to the Mediterranean and were known and feared in every port from Iceland to Constantinople. Their ships were mainly powered by oars, but they also had small square sails to catch the wind from behind, and since they often sailed across the stormy northern seas, it’s likely they made significant advancements in rigging and handling their vessels. A plank-built boat was found a few years ago in Denmark, which experts date to the fifth century. It’s a rowboat, measuring seventy-seven feet from end to end and wide in the middle. The design shows that there was plenty of material and skilled labor available. It has a symmetrical shape at both ends, and the thirty rowlocks can be switched, allowing the boat to be rowed from either direction. The vessel is made from heavy planks that overlap from the gunwale to the keel and are cut thick at the joints so they can be fitted into cross-beams and the gunwale, rather than just being nailed. Very similar boats, which are light, fast, and sturdy, are still used in the Shetlands and Norway.
Little is known of the state of England from the departure of the Romans to the eighth century. The doubtful and traditionary landing of Hengist and Horsa with 1,500 men, “in three long ships,” is hardly worth discussing here. The Venerable Bede, who wrote about A.D. 750, speaks of London as “the mart of many nations, resorting to it by sea and land;” and he continues that “King Ethelbert built the church of St. Paul in the city of London, where he and his successors should have their episcopal see.” But the history of this period generally is in a hopeless fog. Still we know that London was now a thriving port. Cæsar, in his “Commentaries” distinctly states that his reason [pg 264]for attempting the conquest of England was on account of the vast supplies which his Gaulish enemies received from us, in the way of trade. The exports were principally cattle, hides, corn, dogs, and slaves, the latter an important item. Strabo observes that “our internal parts at that time were on a level with the African slave coasts.” “Britons never shall be slaves” could not therefore have been said in those days. London, long prior to the invasion of England by the Romans, was an existing city, and vessels paid dues at Billingsgate long before the establishment of any custom-house. Pennant tells us, in his famous work on London, “As early as 979, all the reign of Ethelred, a small vessel was to pay ad Bilynggesgate one halfpenny as a toll; a greater, bearing sails, one penny; a keel or hulk (ceol vel hulcus), fourpence; a ship laden with wood, one piece for toll; and a boat with fish, one halfpenny; or a larger, one penny. We had even now trade with France for its wines, for mention is made of ships from Rouen, who came here and landed them, and freed them from toll—i.e., paid their duties. What they amounted to I cannot learn.”
Little is known about England from the time the Romans left until the eighth century. The uncertain and traditional story of Hengist and Horsa arriving with 1,500 men, “in three long boats,” isn't really worth discussing here. The Venerable Bede, who wrote around A.D. 750, describes London as "the market of various nations, drawing them in by both sea and land;" he adds that “King Ethelbert built St. Paul's Church in the city of London, where he and his successors would have their episcopal seat.” But the overall history of this period is quite murky. Still, we know that London was a bustling port by this time. Cæsar, in his “Commentaries” clearly states that the reason [pg 264]he attempted to conquer England was due to the large supplies his enemies in Gaul were getting from trade with us. The main exports were cattle, hides, grain, dogs, and enslaved people, the latter being a significant item. Strabo notes that "Our interior regions back then were similar to the African slave coasts." Saying "Britons will never be slaves." wouldn’t have made sense back then. London, long before the Romans invaded England, was already a city, and ships were paying dues at Billingsgate long before any customs house was established. Pennant tells us in his well-known work on London, As early as 979, during Ethelred's entire reign, a small vessel had to pay ad Bilynggesgate half a penny as a toll; a larger sailboat had to pay one penny; a keel or hulk (ceol vel hulcus) cost fourpence; a ship carrying wood was charged one toll item; and a boat with fish paid half a penny, or one penny if it was larger. Even back then, we were trading with France for its wines, as records mention ships from Rouen arriving here to unload and be exempt from toll—i.e., they settled their duties. I can't find out how much those duties totaled.
The Danes, having once a foot-hold, were never thoroughly expelled till the Norman conquest, and as a maritime race excelled all the nations of the north of Europe. They had two principal classes of vessels, the Drakers and Holkers, the former named from carrying a dragon on the bows, and bearing the Danish flag of the raven. The holker was at first a small boat, hollowed out of the trunk of a tree, but the word “hulk,” evidently derived from it, was used afterwards for vessels of larger dimensions. They had also another vessel called a Snekkar (serpent), strangely so named, for it was rather a short, stumpy kind of boat, not unlike the Dutch galliots of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Their piratical expeditions soon increased, and Wales and the island of Anglesey were frequently pillaged by them, while in Ireland they possessed the ports of Dublin, Waterford, and Cork, a Danish king reigning in the two first cities. But a king was to arise who would change all this—Alfred the Great and Good, the “Father of the British Navy.”
The Danes, once they established a presence, were never fully removed until the Norman conquest, and as a seafaring people, they outperformed all the nations in northern Europe. They had two main types of ships, the Drakers and Holkers, with the former named for carrying a dragon on the bows and flying the Danish flag featuring a raven. The holker initially started as a small boat carved from a tree trunk, but the term “Hulk” clearly derived from it, later referred to larger vessels. They also had another type of boat called a Snekkar (meaning serpent), oddly named since it was more of a short, stubby boat, resembling the Dutch galliots of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Their pirate raids quickly escalated, and they often pillaged Wales and the island of Anglesey, while in Ireland, they controlled the ports of Dublin, Waterford, and Cork, with a Danish king ruling in the first two cities. But a king was destined to change all this—Alfred the Great and Good, the "Father of the Royal Navy."
On the accession of Alfred the Great to the throne, he found England so over-run by the Danes, that he had, as every school-boy knows, to conceal himself with a few faithful followers in the forests. In his retirement he busied himself in devising schemes for ridding his country of the pirate marauders; and without much deliberation he saw that he must first have a maritime force of his own, and meet the enemies of England on the sea, which they considered their own especial element. He set himself busily to study the models of the Danish ships, and, aided by his hardy followers, stirred up a spirit of maritime ambition, which had not existed to any great extent before. At the end of four years of unremitting labour in the prosecution of his schemes, he possessed the nucleus of a fleet in six galleys, which were double the length of any possessed by his adversaries, and which carried sixty oars, and possessed ample space for the fighting men on board. With this fleet he put to sea, taking the command in person, and routed a marauding expedition of the Danes, then about to make a descent on the coast. The force was larger than his own; but he succeeded in capturing one and in driving off the rest. In the course of the next year or two he captured or sunk eighteen of the enemy’s galleys, and they found at last that they could not have it all their own way on the sea. About this [pg 265]time the cares of government occupied necessarily much of his time: his astute policy was to win over a number of the more friendly Danes to his cause, by giving them grants of land, and obliging them in return to assist in driving off aggressors. He was nearly the first native of England who made any efforts to extend the study of geography. According to the Saxon chronicler, Florence of Worcester, A.D. 897, he consulted Ohther, a learned Norwegian, and other authorities, from whom he obtained much information respecting the northern seas. Ohther had not only coasted along the shores of Norway, but had rounded the North Cape—it was a feat in those days, gentle reader, but now Cook’s tourists do it—and had reached the bay in which Archangel is situated. The ancient geographer gave Alfred vivid descriptions of the gigantic whales, and of the innumerable seals he had observed, not forgetting the terrible mäelstrom, the dangers of which he did not under-rate, and which it was generally believed in those days was caused by a horribly vicious old sea-dragon, who sucked the vessels under. He compared the natives to the Scythians of old, and was rather severe on them, as they brewed no ale, the poor drinking honey-mead in its stead, and the rich a liquor distilled from goats’ milk. Alfred not merely sent vessels to the north on voyages of discovery, but opened communication with the Mediterranean, his galleys penetrating to the extreme east of the Levant, whereby he was enabled to carry on a direct trade with India. William of [pg 266]Malmesbury mentions the silks, shawls, incense, spices, and aromatic gums which Alfred received from the Malabar coast in return for presents sent to the Nestorian Christians. Alfred constantly and steadily encouraged the science of navigation, and certainly earned the right of the proud title he has borne since of “Father of the British Navy.”
On the rise of Alfred the Great to the throne, he found England overwhelmed by the Danes, so much so that, as every schoolboy knows, he had to hide in the forests with a few loyal followers. During his time in hiding, he focused on creating plans to drive the pirate marauders from his country; he quickly realized that he first needed his own naval force to confront England's enemies at sea, which they considered their own territory. He diligently studied the designs of Danish ships and, with the support of his brave followers, ignited a spirit of maritime ambition that had not previously been significant. After four years of tireless work on his plans, he had the beginnings of a fleet with six galleys, each double the length of those owned by his foes, equipped with sixty oars and plenty of room for warriors on board. With this fleet, he went out to sea, taking command himself, and defeated a Danish raiding party that was about to land on the coast. Although their force was larger, he managed to capture one ship and drive off the rest. Over the next year or two, he captured or sank eighteen of the enemy's galleys, and they eventually realized they couldn't completely control the sea. Around this time, the responsibilities of governance consumed much of his time: his clever strategy was to win some of the more amicable Danes over to his side by granting them land, expecting them in return to help repel aggressors. He was one of the first native Englishmen to push for the study of geography. According to the Saxon chronicler Florence of Worcester, in A.D. 897, he consulted Ohther, a knowledgeable Norwegian, along with other experts, from whom he gained considerable knowledge about the northern seas. Ohther had not only sailed along the coasts of Norway but also rounded the North Cape—an impressive feat back then, though now it's something Cook's tourists do—and reached the bay where Archangel is located. The ancient geographer provided Alfred with vivid accounts of the massive whales and countless seals he had seen, not ignoring the fearsome maelstrom, the dangers of which he did not downplay, and which was widely believed to be caused by a vicious old sea-dragon that dragged ships under. He likened the locals to the ancient Scythians and criticized them somewhat for not brewing ale, with the poor drinking honey-mead instead, while the wealthy enjoyed a drink made from goats' milk. Alfred didn't just send ships north for exploration; he also established trade routes with the Mediterranean, with his galleys reaching the far east of the Levant, allowing him to engage in direct trade with India. William of Malmesbury mentions the silks, shawls, incense, spices, and aromatic gums that Alfred received from the Malabar coast in exchange for gifts sent to the Nestorian Christians. Alfred consistently promoted the science of navigation and rightfully earned the esteemed title he is known by today: “Father of the British Navy.”
Time passes and we come to Canute. On his accession to the throne as the son of a Danish conqueror, he practically put an end to the incursions and attacks of the northern pirates. The influence of his name was so great that he found it unnecessary to maintain more than forty ships at sea, and the number was subsequently reduced. So far from entertaining any fear of revolt from the English, or of any raid on his shores, he made frequent voyages to the Continent as well as to the north. He once proceeded as far as Rome, where he met the Emperor Conrad. II., from whom he obtained for all his subjects, whether merchants or pilgrims, complete exemption from the heavy tolls usually exacted on their former visits to that city. Canute was a cosmopolitan. By his conquest of Norway, not merely did he represent the English whom he had subjugated, and who had become attached to him, but the Danes, their constant and inveterate foes and rivals. He thus united under one sovereignty the principal maritime nations of the north.
Time moves on and we find ourselves with Canute. When he became king as the son of a Danish conqueror, he nearly ended the raids and attacks from northern pirates. His reputation was so powerful that he didn’t need to keep more than forty ships at sea, and that number was eventually decreased. Instead of worrying about uprisings from the English or threats to his shores, he took frequent trips to the Continent and the north. At one point, he traveled all the way to Rome, where he met Emperor Conrad II, from whom he secured a complete exemption for all his subjects, whether merchants or pilgrims, from the heavy fees that were typically charged during their visits to the city. Canute was very worldly. Through his conquest of Norway, he represented not only the English he had subdued, who had become loyal to him, but also the Danes, who were their longtime enemies and rivals. In doing so, he united the major maritime nations of the north under one rule.
And still the writer exerts the privilege conceded to all who wield the pen, of passing quickly over the pages of history. “The stories,” says a writer130 who made maritime subjects a peculiar study, “as to the number of vessels under the order of the Conqueror on his memorable expedition are very conflicting. Some writers have asserted that the total number amounted to no less than 3,000, of which six or seven hundred were of a superior order, the remainder consisting of boats temporarily built, and of the most fragile description. Others place the whole fleet at not more than 800 vessels of all sizes, and this number is more likely to be nearest the truth. There are now no means of ascertaining their size, but their form may be conjectured from the representation of these vessels on the rolls of the famous Bayeux tapestry. It is said that when William meditated his descent on England he ordered ‘large ships’ to be constructed for that purpose at his seaports, collecting, wherever these could be found, smaller vessels or boats, to accompany them. But even the largest must have been of little value, as the whole fleet were by his orders burned and destroyed, as soon as he landed with his army, so as to cut off all retreat, and to save the expense of their maintenance.” This would indicate that the sailors had to fight ashore, and may possibly have been intended to spur on his army to victory. Freeman states, in his “History of the Norman Conquest,” that he finds the largest number of ships in the Conqueror’s expedition, as compiled from the most reliable authorities, was 3,000, but some accounts put it as low as 693. Most of the ships were presents from the prelates or great barons. William FitzOsborn gave 60, the Count de Mortaine, 120; the Bishop of Bayeux, 100; and the finest of all, that in which William himself embarked, was presented to him by his own duchess, Matilda, and named the Mora. Norman writers of the time state that the vessels were not much to boast of, as they were all collected between the beginning of January and the end of August, 1066. [pg 267]Lindsay, who thoroughly investigated the subject, says that “The Norman merchant vessels or transports were in length about three times their breadth, and were sometimes propelled by oars, but generally by sails; their galleys appear to have been of two sorts—the larger, occasionally called galleons, carrying in some instances sixty men, well armed with iron armour, besides their oars. The smaller galleys, which are not specially described, doubtless resembled ships’ launches in size, but of a form enabling them to be propelled at a considerable rate of speed.” Boats covered with leather were even employed on the perilous Channel voyage.
And still the writer takes advantage of the privilege given to anyone who uses a pen, allowing them to quickly skim over the pages of history. "The stories," says a writer130 who made maritime subjects a special focus, The accounts of how many ships were under the Conqueror's command during his famous expedition vary widely. Some sources claim the total was as high as 3,000, with around six or seven hundred being of a higher quality, while the rest were makeshift, fragile boats. Others estimate the entire fleet at no more than 800 vessels of all kinds, which is likely closer to the truth. We currently can’t determine their size, but we can infer their shape from the depiction of these vessels on the famous Bayeux tapestry. It’s said that when William planned his invasion of England, he ordered ‘large ships’ to be built at his seaports and gathered smaller vessels wherever he could find them to join the fleet. However, even the largest ships probably weren’t very valuable, as he ordered the entire fleet to be burned and destroyed as soon as he landed with his army, to eliminate any chance of retreat and save on maintenance costs. This suggests that the sailors had to fight on land, and might have been intended to motivate his army towards victory. Freeman mentions in his “History of the Norman Invasion,” that based on the most reliable sources, the largest number of ships in the Conqueror’s expedition was 3,000, although some accounts list as few as 693. Most of the ships were gifts from bishops or prominent barons. William FitzOsborn contributed 60, the Count de Mortaine provided 120; the Bishop of Bayeux gave 100; and the finest ship of all, the one William himself boarded, was a gift from his own duchess, Matilda, and was named the Mora. Contemporary Norman writers stated that the ships were nothing to brag about, as they were all gathered between early January and late August of 1066. [pg 267]Lindsay, who thoroughly examined the subject, says that The Norman merchant ships or transports were roughly three times longer than they were wide and were often powered by both oars and sails; their galleys appeared in two types—the larger ones, sometimes referred to as galleons, could carry up to sixty armed men in iron armor, along with their oars. The smaller galleys, which aren't described in detail, probably looked like small ships but were designed for high speed. Boats covered with leather were even used for the perilous Channel crossing.
The Conqueror soon added to the security of the country by the establishment of the Cinque Ports, which, as their title denotes, were at first five, but were afterwards increased in number so as to include the following seaports:—Dover, Sandwich, Hythe, and Romsey, in Kent; and Rye, Winchelsea, Hastings, and Seaford, in Sussex. On their first establishment they were to provide fifty-two ships, with twenty-four men on each, for fifteen days each year, in case of emergency. In return they had many privileges, a part of which are enjoyed by them to-day. Their freemen were styled barons; each of the ports returned two members of Parliament. An officer was appointed over them, who was “Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports,” and also Constable of Dover Castle.
The Conqueror soon improved the country's security by creating the Cinque Ports, which, as the name suggests, originally started as five but later expanded to include the following seaports: Dover, Sandwich, Hythe, and Romsey in Kent; and Rye, Winchelsea, Hastings, and Seaford in Sussex. At their inception, they were required to provide fifty-two ships, each manned by twenty-four crew members, for fifteen days each year in case of an emergency. In exchange, they received numerous privileges, some of which they still enjoy today. Their freemen were called barons, and each port sent two representatives to Parliament. An officer was assigned to oversee them, known as the "Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports," who also served as the Constable of Dover Castle.
“For more than a hundred years after the Conquest,” says the writer just quoted, “England’s ships had rarely ventured beyond the Bay of Biscay on the one hand, and the entrance to the Baltic on the other; and there is no special record of long voyages by English ships until the time of the Crusades; which, whatever they might have done for the cause of the Cross, undoubtedly gave the first impetus to the shipping of the country. The number of rich and powerful princes and nobles who embarked their fortunes in these extraordinary expeditions offered the chance of lucrative employment to any nation which could supply the requisite amount of tonnage, and English shipowners very naturally made great exertions to reap a share of the gains.” One of the first English noblemen who fitted out an expedition to the Holy Land was the Earl of Essex; and twelve years afterwards, Richard Cœur de Lion, on ascending the throne, made vast levies on the people for the same object, joining Philip II. and other princes for the purpose of raising the Cross above the Crescent. Towards the close of 1189 two fleets had been collected, one at Dover, to convey Richard and his followers (among whom were the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of Salisbury, and the Lord Chief Justice of England) across the Channel, and a second and still larger fleet at Dartmouth, composed of numbers of vessels from Aquitaine, Brittany, Normandy, and Poitou, for the conveyance of the great bulk of the Crusaders, to join Richard at Marseilles, whither he had gone overland with the French king and his other allies. The Dartmouth fleet, under the command of Richard de Camville and Robert de Sabloil, set sail about the end of April, 1190. It had a disastrous voyage, but at length reached Lisbon, where the Crusaders behaved so badly, and committed so many outrages, that 700 were locked up. After some delay, they sailed up the Mediterranean, reaching Marseilles, where they had to stop some time to repair their unseaworthy ships, and then followed the king to the Straits of [pg 268]Messina, where the fleets combined. It was not till seven months later that the fleet got under weigh for the Holy Land. It numbered 100 ships of larger kind, and fourteen smaller vessels called “busses.” Each of the former carried, besides her crew of fifteen sailors, forty soldiers, forty horses, and provisions for a twelvemonth. Vinisauf, who makes the fleet much larger, mentions that it proceeded in the following order:—three large ships formed the van; the second line consisted of thirteen vessels, the lines expanding to the seventh, which consisted of sixty vessels, and immediately preceded the king and his ships. On their way they fell in with a very large ship belonging to the Saracens, manned by 1,500 men, and after a desperate engagement took her. Richard ordered that all but 200 of those not killed in the action should be thrown overboard, and thus 1,300 infidels were sacrificed at one blow. Off Etna, Sicily, they experienced a terrific gale, and the crew got “sea-sick and frightened;” and off the island of Cyprus they were assailed by another storm, in which three ships were lost, and the Vice-Chancellor of England was drowned, his body being washed ashore with the Great Seal of England hanging round his neck. Richard did not return to England till after the capture of Acre, and the truce with Saladin; he landed at Sandwich, as nearly as may be, four years from the date of his start. As this is neither a history of England, nor of the Crusades, excepting only as either are connected with the sea, we must pass on to a subject of some importance, which was the direct result of experience gained at this period.
“For over a hundred years after the Conquest,” says the writer just quoted, England’s ships rarely went beyond the Bay of Biscay on one side and the entrance to the Baltic on the other; and there are no specific records of long voyages by English ships until the Crusades. Regardless of their contributions to the cause of the Cross, they definitely ignited shipping activity in the country. The many wealthy and powerful princes and nobles who put their fortunes into these remarkable expeditions created an opportunity for profit for any nation that could provide the necessary number of ships, and English shipowners naturally worked hard to secure a share of those profits. One of the first English noblemen to organize an expedition to the Holy Land was the Earl of Essex; and twelve years later, when Richard Cœur de Lion became king, he heavily taxed the people for the same purpose, teaming up with Philip II and other princes to raise the Cross above the Crescent. By the end of 1189, two fleets had gathered, one at Dover to carry Richard and his followers (including the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of Salisbury, and the Lord Chief Justice of England) across the Channel, and a second, larger fleet at Dartmouth, made up of numerous vessels from Aquitaine, Brittany, Normandy, and Poitou, to transport the majority of the Crusaders to meet Richard in Marseilles, where he had traveled overland with the French king and his other allies. The Dartmouth fleet, led by Richard de Camville and Robert de Sabloil, set sail around the end of April 1190. It had a disastrous journey but eventually reached Lisbon, where the Crusaders behaved so poorly and committed so many outrages that 700 were imprisoned. After some delays, they sailed up the Mediterranean, reaching Marseilles, where they had to spend some time repairing their unseaworthy ships, and then followed the king to the Straits of [pg 268]Messina, where the fleets merged. It wasn’t until seven months later that the fleet finally set sail for the Holy Land. It included 100 larger ships and fourteen smaller vessels called “buses.” Each of the larger ships carried, in addition to a crew of fifteen sailors, forty soldiers, forty horses, and supplies for a year. Vinisauf, who claims the fleet was much larger, states that it proceeded in the following formation: three large ships formed the front; the second line had thirteen vessels, expanding to the seventh line, which composed of sixty vessels, that immediately preceded the king and his ships. On their way, they encountered a very large ship from the Saracens, manned by 1,500 men, and after a fierce battle, they conquered it. Richard ordered that all but 200 of those not killed in the fight be thrown overboard, sacrificing 1,300 infidels in one act. Off Etna, Sicily, they faced a fierce storm, causing the crew to become "seasick and scared;" and near the island of Cyprus, they encountered another storm, which resulted in the loss of three ships and the drowning of the Vice-Chancellor of England, whose body washed ashore with the Great Seal of England around his neck. Richard didn’t return to England until after the capture of Acre and the truce with Saladin; he landed at Sandwich nearly four years from the date of his departure. Since this is neither a history of England nor of the Crusades, except as they relate to the sea, we must move on to a subject of some importance that directly resulted from the experiences gained during this time.
The foundation of a maritime code, by an ordinance of Richard Cœur de Lion, a most important step in the history of merchant shipping, was due to the knowledge acquired by English pilgrims, traders, and seamen at the time of the Crusades. The first code was founded on a similar set of rules then existing in France, known as the Rôles d’Oleron, and some of the articles show how loose had been the conditions of the sailor’s life previously. The first article gave a master power to pledge the tackle of a ship, if in want of provisions for the crew, but forbad the sale of the hull without the owner’s permission. The captain’s position, as lord paramount on board, was defined; no one, not even part-owners or super-cargoes, must interfere; he was expected to understand thoroughly the art of navigation. The second article declared that if a vessel was held in port through failure of wind or stress of weather, the ship’s company should be guided [pg 270]as to the best course to adopt by the opinion of the majority. Two succeeding articles related to wrecks and salvage. The fifth article provided that no sailor in port should leave the vessel without the master’s consent; if he did so, and any harm resulted to the ship or cargo, he should be punished with a year’s imprisonment, on bread and water. He might also be flogged. If he deserted altogether and was retaken, he might be branded on the face with a red-hot iron, although allowance was made for such as ran away from their ships through ill-usage. Sailors could also be compensated for unjust discharge without cause. Succeeding clauses refer to the moral conduct of the sailor, forbidding drunkenness, fighting, &c. Article 12 provided that if any mariner should give the lie to another at a table where there was wine and bread, he should be fined four deniers; and the master himself offending in the same way should be liable to a double fine. If any sailor should impudently contradict the mate, he might be fined eight deniers; and if the master struck him with his fist or open hand he was required to bear the stroke, but if struck more than once he was entitled to defend himself. If the sailor committed the first assault he was to be fined 100 sous, or else his hand was to be chopped off. The master was required by another rule not to give his crew cause for mutiny, nor call them names, nor wrong them, nor “keep anything from them that is theirs, but to use them well, and pay them honestly what is their due.” Another clause provided that the sailor might always have the option of going on shares or wages, and the master was to put the matter fairly before them. The 17th clause related to food. The hardy sailors of Brittany were to have only one meal a day from the kitchen, while the lucky ones of Normandy were to have two. When the ship arrived at a wine country the master was bound to provide the crew with wine. Sailors were elsewhere forbidden to take “royal” fish, such as the sturgeon, salmon, turbot, and sea-barbel, or to take on their own account fish which yield oil. These are a part only of the clauses; many others referring to matters connected with rigging, masts, anchorages, pilotage, and other technical points. In bad pilotage the navigator who brought mishap on the ship was liable to lose his head. The general tenor of the first code is excellent, and the rules were laid down with an evident spirit of fairness alike to the owner and sailor.
The foundation of a maritime code, established by an ordinance from Richard the Lionheart, was a crucial milestone in the history of merchant shipping. This development was influenced by the knowledge gained by English pilgrims, traders, and sailors during the Crusades. The initial code was based on an existing set of rules in France, known as the Roles of Oléron, and some provisions highlighted how rough conditions had been for sailors before this. The first article empowered a ship's master to use the ship’s gear as collateral if they needed supplies for the crew but prohibited the sale of the ship's hull without the owner’s approval. The captain’s authority on board was clearly defined; no one, not even co-owners or cargo supervisors, could interfere as he was expected to have a solid understanding of navigation. The second article stated that if a ship was stuck in port due to lack of wind or bad weather, the ship's crew should follow the majority's opinion on the best course of action. The next articles dealt with wrecks and salvage. The fifth article stated that no sailor should leave the ship in port without the master’s consent; if a sailor did so and it caused harm to the ship or cargo, he could face a year in prison on bread and water and could also be flogged. If he deserted and was caught, he could be branded on the face with a hot iron, though there was leniency for those who fled because of mistreatment. Sailors could also receive compensation for unjust dismissal without cause. Subsequent clauses addressed the sailor's conduct, prohibiting drunkenness, fighting, etc. Article 12 stated that if any sailor insulted another at a table with wine and bread, he would be fined four deniers; the master, if found guilty of the same, would face a double fine. If a sailor boldly contradicted the mate, he could be fined eight deniers; if the master hit him, he had to take the first hit, but if struck more than once, he had the right to defend himself. If the sailor was the first to strike, he faced a fine of 100 sous, or had his hand chopped off. Another rule required the master not to provoke mutiny, insult the crew, or withhold what was rightfully theirs, but to treat them fairly and pay them what they were owed. Another provision allowed sailors to choose between a share in the profits or a wage, with the master responsible for presenting the options honestly. The 17th article dealt with food: the tough sailors from Brittany were to get only one meal per day from the kitchen, while those from Normandy were lucky enough to have two. When the ship docked in a wine region, the master had to provide the crew with wine. Elsewhere, sailors were prohibited from catching “royal” fish like sturgeon, salmon, turbot, and sea-barbel, or from independently fishing for oil-producing varieties. These points are just some of the clauses; many others pertained to rigging, masts, anchorages, piloting, and various technical aspects. In cases of poor navigation resulting in disaster, the navigator could lose his life. The overall tone of the first code is commendable, and the rules were clearly established with a sense of fairness for both owners and sailors.
The subject of “Letters of Marque” might occupy an entire volume, and will recur again in these pages; They were in reality nothing more than privileges granted for purposes of retaliation-legalised piracy. They were first issued by Edward I., and the very first related to an outrage committed by Portuguese on an English subject. A merchant of Bayonne, at the time a port belonging to England, in Gascony, had shipped a cargo of fruit from Malaga, which, on its voyage along the coast of Portugal, was seized and carried into Lisbon by an armed cruiser belonging to that country, then at peace with England. The King of Portugal, who had received one-tenth part of the cargo, declined to restore the ship or lading, whereupon the owner and his heirs received a licence, to remain in force five years, to seize the property of the Portuguese, and especially that of the inhabitants of Lisbon, to the extent of the loss sustained, the expenses of recovery being allowed. How far the merchant of Bayonne recouped himself, history sayeth not.
The topic of “Letter of Marque” could fill an entire book, and it will come up again in these pages; they were essentially just rights given for the purpose of retaliation—legalized piracy. They were first issued by Edward I, and the very first was connected to an incident where the Portuguese wronged an English citizen. A merchant from Bayonne, which was then an English port in Gascony, had shipped a load of fruit from Malaga. While sailing along the coast of Portugal, his cargo was seized and taken to Lisbon by an armed ship from Portugal, which was at peace with England at the time. The King of Portugal, who took one-tenth of the cargo, refused to return the ship or its cargo. As a result, the owner and his heirs were granted a license, valid for five years, to seize the property of the Portuguese, especially from the residents of Lisbon, up to the amount of their loss, with recovery costs covered. History doesn’t tell us how much the merchant from Bayonne managed to recover.
A little later a most important mercantile trade came into existence—that in coal. From archæological remains and discoveries it is certain that the Romans excavated coal [pg 271]during their reign on this island; but it was not till the reign of Edward III. that the first opening of the great Newcastle coal-fields took place, although as early as 1253 there was a lane at the back of Newgate called “Sea-coal Lane.” As in many other instances, even in our own days, the value of the discovery seems to have been more appreciated by foreigners than by the people of this country, and for a considerable time after it had been found, the combustion of coal was considered to be so unhealthy that a royal edict forbad its use in the city of London, while the queen resided there, in case it might prove “pernicious to her health.” At the same time, while England laid her veto on the use of that very article which has since made her, or helped to make her, the most famous commercial nation of the world, France sent her ships laden with corn to Newcastle, carrying back coal in return, her merchants being the first to supply this new great article of commerce to foreign countries. In the reign of Henry V. the trade had become of such importance that a special Act was passed providing for the admeasurement of ships and barges employed in the coal trade.
A little later, a very important trade emerged—coal. Archaeological evidence shows that the Romans mined coal during their time on this island, but it wasn't until the reign of Edward III that the major Newcastle coalfields were opened up. As early as 1253, there was a lane behind Newgate called “Sea-coal Lane.” In many cases, even in our time, it seems that the value of this discovery was recognized more by outsiders than by locals, and for a long time after it was discovered, coal was thought to be so unhealthy that a royal decree banned its use in London while the queen lived there, in case it might be "harmful to her health." Meanwhile, while England prohibited the use of the very resource that would later help make it the most renowned commercial nation in the world, France was sending ships loaded with grain to Newcastle, bringing coal back in return, with French merchants being the first to export this new significant commodity abroad. By the reign of Henry V, the coal trade had grown so important that a special law was enacted to regulate the measurement of ships and barges used in coal transport.
King John stoutly claimed for England the sovereignty of the sea—he was not always so firm and decided—and decreed that all foreign ships, the masters of which should refuse to strike their colours to the British flag, should be seized and deemed good and lawful prizes. This monarch is stated to have fitted out no less than 500 ships, under the Earl of Salisbury, in the year 1213, against a fleet of ships three times that number, organised by Philip of France, for the invasion of England. After a stubborn battle, the English were successful, taking 300 sail, and driving more than 100 ashore, Philip being under the necessity of destroying the remainder to prevent them falling into the hands of their enemies. Some notion may be gained of the kinds of ships of which these fleets were composed, by the account that is narrated of an action fought in the following reign with the French, who, with eighty “stout ships,” threatened the coast of Kent. This fleet being discovered by Hubert de Burgh, governor of Dover Castle, he put to sea with half the number of English vessels, and having got to the windward of the enemy, and run down many of the smaller ships, he closed with the rest, and threw on board them a quantity of quick-lime—a novel expedient in warfare—which so blinded the crews that their vessels were either captured or sunk. The dominion of the sea was bravely maintained by our Edwards and Henrys in many glorious sea-fights. The temper of the times is strongly exemplified by the following circumstance. In the reign of Edward I. an English sailor was killed in a Norman port, in consequence of which war was declared by England against France, and the two nations agreed to decide the dispute on a certain day, with the whole of their respective naval forces. The spot of battle was to be the middle of the Channel, marked out by anchoring there an empty ship. This strange duel of nations actually took place, for the two fleets met on April 14th, 1293, when the English obtained the victory, and carried off in triumph 250 vessels from the enemy. In an action off the harbour of Sluys with the French fleet, Edward III. is said to have slain 30,000 of the enemy, and to have taken 200 large ships, “in one of which only, there were 400 dead bodies.” The same monarch, at the siege of Calais, is stated to have blockaded that port with 730 sail, having on board 14,956 mariners. The size of the vessels employed must have been rapidly enlarging.
King John strongly insisted that England had sovereignty over the sea—though he wasn't always so confident—and declared that any foreign ships whose captains refused to lower their flags to the British flag would be seized and considered good and lawful prizes. This king reportedly outfitted no less than 500 ships, led by the Earl of Salisbury, in 1213, against a fleet of ships three times that number, organized by Philip of France, for the invasion of England. After a fierce battle, the English were victorious, capturing 300 ships and driving more than 100 ashore, with Philip forced to destroy the rest to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Some insight into the types of ships in these fleets can be gained from an account of a battle fought in the next reign against the French, who, with eighty “heavy ships,” threatened the coast of Kent. This fleet was spotted by Hubert de Burgh, the governor of Dover Castle, who set out to sea with half as many English vessels. Gaining the windward position over the enemy, he took down many of the smaller ships, then closed in on the rest and dropped a load of quicklime onto them—a new tactic in warfare—that blinded the crews, leading to their ships being either captured or sunk. The control of the sea was fiercely upheld by our Edwards and Henrys in many glorious naval battles. The spirit of the times is vividly illustrated by this incident: during the reign of Edward I, an English sailor was killed in a Norman port, prompting England to declare war on France. The two countries agreed to settle the matter on a specific day with all their naval forces. The battleground was to be the middle of the Channel, marked by anchoring an empty ship there. This unusual duel of nations did indeed take place, as the two fleets met on April 14th, 1293, where the English emerged victorious, triumphantly sailing away with 250 vessels from the enemy. In an engagement off the harbor of Sluys with the French fleet, Edward III is said to have killed 30,000 of the enemy and captured 200 large ships, “in only one of them, there were 400 dead bodies.” The same king, during the siege of Calais, reportedly blockaded the port with 730 ships, which carried 14,956 sailors. The size of the vessels used must have been rapidly increasing.
Chaucer gives us a graphic description of the British sailor of the fourteenth century in his Prologue to the “Canterbury Tales,” It runs as follows:—
Chaucer provides us with a vivid portrayal of the British sailor from the fourteenth century in his Prologue to the "Canterbury Tales," which goes like this:—
In the reign of Henry V., the most glorious period up to that time of the British Navy, the French lost nearly all their navy to us at various times; among other victories, Henry Page, Admiral of the Cinque Ports, captured 120 merchantmen forming the Rochelle fleet, and all richly laden. Towards the close of this reign, about the year 1416, England formally claimed the dominion of the sea, and a Parliamentary document recorded the fact. “It was never absolute,” says Sir Walter Raleigh, “until the time of Henry VIII.” That great voyager and statesman adds that, “Whoever commands the sea, commands the trade of the world; whosoever commands the trade, commands the riches of the world, and consequently the world itself.”
During the reign of Henry V., the most glorious period for the British Navy up to that time, the French lost almost their entire navy to us at different times; among other victories, Henry Page, Admiral of the Cinque Ports, captured 120 merchant ships from the Rochelle fleet, all heavily laden. Towards the end of this reign, around the year 1416, England officially claimed dominion over the sea, and a Parliamentary document recorded this fact. "It was never definite," says Sir Walter Raleigh, "until the time of Henry VIII." That great voyager and statesman adds that, "Whoever controls the sea controls global trade; whoever controls trade controls the world's wealth, and therefore, the world itself."
A curious poem is included in the first volume of Hakluyt’s famous collection of voyages, bearing reference to the navy of Henry. It is entitled, “The English Policie, exhorting all England to keep the Sea,” &c. It was written apparently about the year 1435. It is a long poem, and the following is an extract merely:—
A curious poem is included in the first volume of Hakluyt’s famous collection of voyages, referring to Henry's navy. It's titled, "The English Policy, urging all of England to defend the Sea," etc. It was apparently written around 1435. It's a lengthy poem, and the following is just an excerpt:—
When the king had determined, in 1415, to land an army in France, he hired ships from Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland, his own naval means not being sufficient for the transport; among his other preparations, “requisite for so high an enterprise,” boats covered with leather, for the passage of rivers, are mentioned. His fleet consisted of 1,000 sail, and it left Southampton on Sunday, the 11th of August, of the above-mentioned year. When the ships had passed the Isle of Wight, “swans were seen swimming in the midst of the fleet, which was hailed as a happy auspice.” Henry anchored on the following Tuesday at the mouth of the Seine, about three miles from Harfleur. A council [pg 274]of the captains was summoned, and an order issued that no one, under pain of death, should land before the king, but that all should be in readiness to go ashore the next morning. This was done, and the bulk of the army, stated to have comprised 24,000 archers, and 6,000 men of arms, was landed in small vessels, boats, and skiffs, taking up a position on the hill nearest to Harfleur. The moment Henry landed he fell on his knees and implored the Divine aid and protection to lead him on to victory, then conferring knighthood on many of his followers. At the entrance of the port a chain had been stretched between two large, well-armed towers, while it was farther protected by stakes and trunks of trees to prevent the vessels from approaching. During the siege, which lasted thirty-six days, the fleet blockaded the port, and at its conclusion Henry, flushed with a victory, which is said to have cost the English only 1,600 and the enemy 10,000 lives, determined to march his army through France to Calais. It was on this march that he won the glorious battle of Agincourt. On the 16th of November he embarked for Dover, reaching that port the same day. Here a magnificent ovation awaited him. The burgesses rushed into the sea and bore him ashore on their shoulders; the whole population was intoxicated with delight. One chronicler states that the passage across had been extremely boisterous, and that the French noblemen suffered so much from sea-sickness that they considered the trip worse than the very battles themselves in which they had been taken prisoners! When Henry arrived near London, a great concourse of people met him at Blackheath, and he, “as one remembering from whom all victories are sent,” would not allow his helmet to be carried before him, whereon the people might have seen the blows and dents that he had received; “neither would he suffer any ditties to be made and sung by minstrels of his glorious victory, for that he would have the praise and thanks altogether given to God.”
When the king decided, in 1415, to send an army to France, he hired ships from Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland because his own naval resources weren't enough for the transport. Among his other preparations, noted as "essential for such a significant venture," were leather-covered boats for crossing rivers. His fleet consisted of 1,000 ships and left Southampton on Sunday, August 11, of that year. After passing the Isle of Wight, "swans were seen swimming in the midst of the fleet, which was greeted as a good sign." Henry anchored the following Tuesday at the mouth of the Seine, about three miles from Harfleur. A council of the captains was called, and an order was issued that no one should land before the king, under penalty of death, but that everyone should be ready to go ashore the next morning. This was done, and the majority of the army, said to include 24,000 archers and 6,000 men-at-arms, landed in small vessels, boats, and skiffs, taking position on the nearest hill to Harfleur. The moment Henry landed, he dropped to his knees, praying for divine aid and protection to lead him to victory, then knighted many of his followers. At the entrance of the port, a chain had been stretched between two large, well-armed towers, further secured by stakes and tree trunks to keep ships from approaching. During the siege, which lasted thirty-six days, the fleet blockaded the port, and by the end, Henry, buoyed by a victory that reportedly cost the English only 1,600 lives and the enemy 10,000, decided to march his army through France to Calais. It was during this march that he achieved the famous victory at Agincourt. On November 16, he sailed for Dover, reaching the port the same day. A grand welcome awaited him. The townspeople rushed into the sea and carried him ashore on their shoulders; the entire population was overcome with joy. One chronicler recounts that the crossing had been extremely rough, and the French nobles were so stricken with sea sickness that they considered the journey worse than the battles they had fought and lost! When Henry got near London, a huge crowd met him at Blackheath, and he, "being mindful of where all victories come from," wouldn’t let anyone carry his helmet in front of him, which would have shown the blows and dents he had taken; "nor would he allow any songs or stories to be made and sung by minstrels about his glorious victory, for he wanted all the praise and thanks to go to God."
Next year the French attempted to retake Harfleur. Henry sent a fleet of 400 sail to the rescue, under his brother John, Duke of Bedford, the upshot being that almost the whole French fleet, to the number of 500 ships, hulks, carracks, and small vessels were taken or sunk. The English vessels remained becalmed in the roadstead for three weeks afterwards. Southey, who has collated all the best authorities in his admirable naval work,131 says:—“The bodies which had been thrown overboard in the action, or sunk in the enemies’ ships, rose and floated about them in great numbers; and the English may have deemed it a relief from the contemplation of that ghastly sight, to be kept upon the alert by some galleys, which taking advantage of the calm, ventured as near them as they dare by day and night, and endeavoured to burn the ships with wildfire.” He adds that the first mention of wildfire he had found is by Hardyng, one of the earliest of our poets, in the following passage referring to this event:—
Next year, the French tried to retake Harfleur. Henry sent a fleet of 400 ships to help, led by his brother John, Duke of Bedford. As a result, nearly the entire French fleet, consisting of 500 ships, hulks, carracks, and smaller vessels, was captured or sunk. The English ships stayed stuck in the harbor for three weeks afterward. Southey, who has compiled all the best sources in his excellent naval work, 131 says:—The bodies thrown overboard during the battle, or sunk with the enemy’s ships, surfaced and floated around them in large numbers. The English might have found some relief from that gruesome sight by staying alert because some galleys, taking advantage of the calm weather, boldly got as close to them as possible both day and night, trying to set their ships on fire with wildfire. He adds that the first mention of wildfire he found is by Hardyng, one of our earliest poets, in the following passage referring to this event:—
Next year we read of Henry preparing to again attack France. The enemy had increased their naval force by hiring a number of Genoese and other Italian vessels. The king sent a preliminary force against them under his kinsman, the Earl of Huntingdon, who, near the mouth of the Seine, succeeded in sinking three and capturing three of the great Genoese carracks, taking the Admiral Jacques, the Bastard of Bourbon, “and as much money as would have been half a year’s pay for the whole fleet.” These prizes were brought to Southampton, “from whence the king shortly set forth with a fleet of 1,500 ships, the sails of his own vessel being of purple silk, richly embroidered with gold.” The remainder of Henry’s brief reign—for he died the same year—is but the history of a series of successes over his enemies.
Next year we hear about Henry getting ready to attack France again. The enemy had boosted their naval power by hiring a number of Genoese and other Italian ships. The king sent a preliminary force against them led by his relative, the Earl of Huntingdon, who, near the mouth of the Seine, managed to sink three and capture three of the large Genoese carracks, taking Admiral Jacques, the Bastard of Bourbon, “and as much money as would equal half a year’s pay for the entire fleet.” These prizes were brought to Southampton, "From where the king quickly departed with a fleet of 1,500 ships, the sails of his own ship were made of purple silk, lavishly embroidered with gold." The rest of Henry’s short reign—since he died the same year—is just a record of a series of victories over his enemies.
It must never be forgotten that the navies of our early history were not permanently organised, but drawn from all sources. A noble, a city or port, voluntarily or otherwise, contributed according to the exigencies of the occasion. As we shall see, it is to Henry VIII. that we owe the establishment of a Royal Navy as a permanent institution. In 1546 King Henry’s vessels are classified according to their “quality,” thus: “ships,” “galleases,” “pynaces,” “roe-barges.” A list bearing date in 1612 exhibits the classes as follows:—“Shipps royal,” measuring downwards from 1,200 to 800 tons; “middling shipps,” from 800 to 600 tons; “small shipps,” 350 tons; and pinnaces, from 200 to 80 tons. According to the old definition, a ship was defined to be a “large hollow building, made to pass over the seas with sails,” without reference to size or quality. Before the days of the Great Harry, few, if any, English ships had more than one mast or one sail; that ship had three masts, and the Henri Grace de Dieu, which supplanted her, four. The galleas was probably a long, low, and sharp-built vessel, propelled by oars as well as by sails; the latter probably not fixed to the mast or any standing yard, but hoisted from the deck when required to be used, as in the lugger or felucca of modern days. The pinnace was a smaller description of galleas, while the row-barge is sufficiently explained by its title.
It should never be forgotten that the navies of our early history were not permanently organized but came from various sources. A noble, a city, or a port contributed according to the needs of the moment, whether voluntarily or not. As we will see, it is to Henry VIII that we owe the establishment of a Royal Navy as a permanent institution. In 1546, King Henry’s ships were classified based on their “quality” as follows: “boats,” “galleons,” “pinnaces,” "roe barges." A list from 1612 shows the classes as: "Royal ships," ranging from 1,200 to 800 tons; "average ships," from 800 to 600 tons; “small ships,” 350 tons; and pinnaces, from 200 to 80 tons. According to the old definition, a ship was described as a “big empty structure designed to travel across the seas with sails,” without regard to size or quality. Before the days of the Awesome Harry, few, if any, English ships had more than one mast or one sail; that ship had three masts, and the Henry Grace of God, which followed her, had four. The galleas was likely a long, low, and sharply built vessel, powered by both oars and sails; the sails were probably not fixed to the mast or any standing yard but raised from the deck when needed, similar to the lugger or felucca of today. The pinnace was a smaller type of galleas, while the row-barge is clearly defined by its name.
The history of the period following the reign of Henry V. has much to do with shipping interests of all kinds. The constant wars and turbulent times gave great opportunity for piracy in the Channel and on the high seas. Thus we read of Hannequin Leeuw, an outlaw from Ghent, who had so prospered in piratical enterprises that he got together a squadron of eight or ten vessels, well armed and stored. He not only infested the coast of Flanders, and Holland, and the English Channel, but scoured the coasts of Spain as far as Gibraltar, making impartial war on any or all nations, and styling himself the “Friend of God, and the enemy of all mankind.” This pirate escaped the vengeance of man, but at length was punished by the elements: the greater part of his people perished in a storm, and Hannequin Leeuw disappeared from the scene. Shortly afterwards we find the Hollanders and Zeelanders uniting their forces against the Easterling pirates, then infesting the seas, and taking twenty of their ships. “This action,” says Southey, “was more important in its consequences than in itself; it made the two provinces sensible, for the first time, of their maritime strength, and gave a new impulse to that spirit of maritime adventure which they had recently begun to manifest.” Previously a voyage to Spain had been regarded as so perilous, that “whoever undertook it settled his [pg 276]worldly and his spiritual affairs as if preparing for death, before he set forth,” while now they opened up a brisk trade with that country and Portugal. Till now they had been compelled to bear the insults and injuries of the Easterlings without combined attempt at defence; now they retaliated, captured one of their admirals on the coast of Norway, and hoisted a besom at the mast-head in token that they had swept the seas clean from their pirate enemies.
The history of the period after Henry V's reign is closely tied to various shipping interests. The ongoing wars and chaotic times provided plenty of chances for piracy in the Channel and on the high seas. For example, there was Hannequin Leeuw, an outlaw from Ghent, who became so successful in pirate ventures that he assembled a fleet of eight or ten well-armed ships. He didn't just terrorize the coasts of Flanders, Holland, and the English Channel, but also raided the shores of Spain as far as Gibraltar, waging indiscriminate war on any nation and calling himself the “Friend of God and an enemy to all of humanity.” This pirate evaded human punishment but was eventually punished by nature: most of his crew perished in a storm, and Hannequin Leeuw vanished from history. Soon after, the Dutch and Zeelanders combined forces against the Easterling pirates, who were then active in the seas, and captured twenty of their ships. "This move," says Southey, "was more significant for its impact than for its inherent value; it made the two provinces realize, for the first time, their maritime strength and gave a renewed excitement to the spirit of maritime adventure that they had recently begun to demonstrate." Before this, a trip to Spain was seen as so dangerous that "Whoever took on this task arranged their worldly and spiritual matters as if getting ready for death, before they embarked." but now they opened up a lively trade with Spain and Portugal. Until then, they had endured the insults and injuries of the Easterlings without a united defense; now they struck back, captured one of their admirals off the coast of Norway, and flew a broom at their masthead to signify that they had cleared the seas of their pirate foes.
And now, in turn, some of them became pirates themselves, more particularly Hendrick van Borselen, Lord of Veere, who assembled all the outlaws he could gather, and committed such depredations, that he was enabled to add greatly to his possessions in Walcheren, by the purchase of confiscated estates. He received others as grants from his own duke, who feared him, and thought it prudent at any cost to retain, at least in nominal obedience, one who might render himself so obnoxious an enemy. “This did not prevent the admiral—for he held that rank under the duke—from infesting the coast of Flanders, carrying off cattle from Cadsant, and selling them publicly in Zeeland. His excuse was that the terrible character of his men compelled him to act as he did; and the duke admitted the exculpation, being fain to overlook outrages which he could neither prevent nor punish.” A statute of the reign of Henry VI. sets forth the robberies committed upon the poor merchants of this realm, not merely on the sea, but even in the rivers and ports of Britain, and how not merely they lost their goods, but their persons also were taken and imprisoned. Nor was this all, for “the king’s poor subjects dwelling nigh the sea-coasts were taken out of their own houses, with their chattels and children, and carried by the enemies where it pleased them.” In consequence, the Commons begged that an armament might be provided and maintained on the sea, which was conceded, and for a time piracy on English subjects was partially quashed.
And now, in turn, some of them became pirates themselves, especially Hendrick van Borselen, Lord of Veere, who gathered all the outlaws he could find and committed such destructive acts that he was able to significantly increase his possessions in Walcheren by buying confiscated lands. He received others as grants from his own duke, who feared him and thought it wise to keep him at least nominally obedient, as he could become a dangerous enemy. "The admiral, who held that title under the duke, didn't let this stop him from raiding the coast of Flanders, stealing cattle from Cadsant, and openly selling them in Zeeland. He claimed that the intimidating nature of his crew compelled him to act this way, and the duke accepted this excuse, eager to ignore the crimes he couldn't stop or punish." A law from the reign of Henry VI describes the robberies carried out against the poor merchants of this country, not just at sea, but also in the rivers and ports of Britain, detailing how they not only lost their goods but also their lives were taken and imprisoned. Moreover, "The king's unfortunate subjects living along the coast were taken from their homes, along with their belongings and children, and carried off by the enemy at will." As a result, the Commons requested that a naval force be established and maintained, which was granted, and for a while, piracy against English subjects was somewhat reduced.
Meantime, we had pirates of our own. Warwick, the king-maker, was unscrupulous in all points, and cared nothing for the lawfulness of the captures which he could make on the high seas. For example, when he left England for the purpose of securing Calais (then belonging to England) and the fleet for the House of York, he having fourteen well-appointed vessels, fell in with a fleet of Spaniards and Genoese. “There was a very sore and long continued battle fought betwixt them,” lasting almost two days. The English lost a hundred men; one account speaks of the Spanish and Genoese loss at 1,000 men killed, and another of six-and-twenty vessels sunk or put to flight. It is certain that three of the largest vessels were taken into Calais, laden with wine, oil, iron, wax, cloth of gold, and other riches, in all amounting in value to no less than £10,000. The earl was a favourite with the sailors, probably for the license he gave them; when the Duke of Somerset was appointed by the king’s party to the command of Calais, from which he was effectually shut out by Warwick, they carried off some of his ships and deserted with them to the latter. Not long after, when reinforcements were lying at Sandwich waiting to cross the Channel to Somerset’s aid, March and Warwick borrowed £18,000 from merchants, and dispatched John Dynham on a piratical expedition. He landed at Sandwich, surprised the town, took Lord Rivers and his son in their beds, robbed houses, took the principal ships of the king’s navy, and carried them off, well furnished as they were with ordnance and artillery. For a time Warwick carried all before him, but not a few [pg 277]of his actions were most unmitigated specimens of piracy, on nations little concerned with the Houses of York and Lancaster, their quarrels or wars.
In the meantime, we had our own pirates. Warwick, the king-maker, was ruthless in every way and didn't care about the legality of the captures he made on the high seas. For example, when he left England to secure Calais (which was then part of England) and the fleet for the House of York, he had fourteen well-equipped ships and encountered a fleet of Spaniards and Genoese. "There was a very intense and extended battle fought between them," lasting almost two days. The English lost a hundred men; one account states the Spanish and Genoese loss was 1,000 men killed, while another mentions twenty-six ships sunk or chased away. It’s confirmed that three of the largest ships were brought into Calais, loaded with wine, oil, iron, wax, cloth of gold, and other treasures, totaling at least £10,000 in value. The earl was popular with the sailors, likely due to the freedom he allowed them; when the Duke of Somerset was appointed by the king’s party to command Calais, from which he was completely blocked by Warwick, the sailors took some of his ships and joined Warwick instead. Shortly after, when reinforcements were waiting at Sandwich to cross the Channel to aid Somerset, March and Warwick borrowed £18,000 from merchants and sent John Dynham on a piratical mission. He landed at Sandwich, took the town by surprise, captured Lord Rivers and his son in their beds, looted homes, seized the main ships of the king’s navy, and carried them away, fully equipped with weapons and artillery. For a time, Warwick dominated everything, but many of [pg 277]his actions were blatant examples of piracy against nations that had little to do with the conflicts of the Houses of York and Lancaster.
But as this is not intended to be even a sketch of the history of England, let us pass to the commencement of the reign of Henry VII., when the “great minishment and decay of the navy, and the idleness of the mariners,” were represented to his first Parliament, and led to certain enactments in regard to the use of foreign bottoms. The wines of Southern France were forbidden to be imported hither in any but English, Irish, or Welsh ships, manned by English, Irish, or Welsh sailors. This Act was repeated in the fourth year of Henry’s reign, and made to include other articles, while it was then forbidden to freight an alien ship from or to England with “any manner of merchandise,” if sufficient freight were to be had in English vessels, on pain of forfeiture, one-half to the king, the other to the seizers. “Henry,” says Lord Bacon, “being a king that loved wealth, and treasure, he could not endure to have trade sick, nor any obstruction to continue in the gate-vein which disperseth that blood.” How well he loved riches is proved by the fact that when a speedy and not altogether creditable peace was established between England and France, and the indemnity had been paid by the latter, the money went into the king’s private coffers; those who had impoverished themselves in his service, or had contributed to the general outfit by the forced “benevolence,” were left out in the cold. From Calais Henry [pg 278]wrote letters to the Lord Mayor and aldermen (“which was a courtesy,” says Lord Bacon, “that he sometimes used), half bragging what great sums he had obtained for the peace, as knowing well that it was ever good news in London that the king’s coffers were full; better news it would have been if their benevolence had been but a loan.”
But since this isn’t meant to be even a brief overview of England's history, let’s move on to the beginning of Henry VII's reign, when the “serious decline and deterioration of the navy, along with the inactivity of the sailors,” were brought up in his first Parliament, leading to certain laws about the use of foreign ships. It was decided that wines from Southern France could only be imported here on English, Irish, or Welsh ships, crewed by English, Irish, or Welsh sailors. This law was repeated in the fourth year of Henry’s reign, and expanded to include other goods, while it became illegal to hire a foreign ship to or from England with “any type of merchandise,” if there was enough freight available on English vessels, under penalty of confiscation, half going to the king and the other half to the enforcers. "Henry," says Lord Bacon, "As a king who loved wealth and treasure, he couldn't bear to witness trade struggling or any barriers in the flow of commerce." His love for riches is evidenced by the fact that when a quick and not entirely honorable peace was reached between England and France, and France had paid indemnity, the money went straight into the king’s private treasury; those who had drained their resources in his service, or had contributed to the overall expenses through the forced “kindness,” were left out in the cold. From Calais, Henry [pg 278]wrote letters to the Lord Mayor and aldermen (“which was a favor,” says Lord Bacon, “that he occasionally practiced), partly bragging about the large amounts he obtained for the peace, fully aware that it was always good news in London when the king’s treasury was full; it would’ve been even better news if their generosity had just been a loan.”
Scotch historians tell us that Sir Andrew Wood, of Largo, Scotland, had with his two vessels, the Flower and Yellow Carvel, captured five chosen vessels of the royal navy, which had infested the Firth of Forth, and had taken many prizes from the Scotch previously, during this reign. Henry VII. was greatly mortified by this defeat, and offered to put any means at the disposal of the officer who would undertake this service, and great rewards if Wood were brought to him alive or dead. All hesitated, such was the renown of Wood, and his strength in men and artillery, and maritime and military skill. At length, Sir Stephen Bull, a man of distinguished prowess, offered himself, and three ships were placed under his command, with which he sailed for the Forth, and anchored behind the Isle of May, waiting Wood’s return from a foreign voyage. Some fishermen were captured and detained, in order that they should point out Sir Andrew’s ships when they arrived. “It was early in the morning when the action began; the Scots, by their skilful manœuvring, obtained the weather-gage, and the battle continued in sight of innumerable spectators who thronged the coast, till darkness suspended it. It was renewed at day-break; the ships grappled; and both parties were so intent upon the struggle, that the tide carried them into the mouth of the Tay, into such shoal water that the English, seeing no means of extricating themselves, surrendered. Sir Andrew brought his prizes to Dundee; the wounded were carefully attended there; and James, with royal magnanimity is said to have sent both prisoners and ships to Henry, praising the courage which they had displayed, and saying that the contest was for honour, not for booty.”
Scotch historians tell us that Sir Andrew Wood, from Largo, Scotland, captured five chosen vessels of the royal navy with his two ships, the Flower and Yellow Carvel. These royal navy ships had been patrolling the Firth of Forth and had previously taken many prizes from the Scots during this reign. Henry VII was greatly embarrassed by this defeat and offered to provide any resources to the officer willing to take on this mission, promising great rewards if Wood was brought to him alive or dead. Everyone hesitated, given Wood's reputation and his strength in men, artillery, maritime, and military skills. Eventually, Sir Stephen Bull, a man of notable bravery, volunteered himself, and three ships were placed under his command. He sailed for the Forth and anchored behind the Isle of May, waiting for Wood's return from a foreign voyage. Some fishermen were captured and held to identify Sir Andrew’s ships when they arrived. It was early in the morning when the fight began; the Scots, using their skilled tactics, took advantage of the wind, and the battle went on in front of countless spectators who had gathered on the coast until darkness put a halt to it. It started up again at dawn; the ships were locked together; and both sides were so focused on the fight that the tide carried them into the mouth of the Tay, into such shallow water that the English, unable to escape, surrendered. Sir Andrew took his captives to Dundee; the wounded received good care there; and James, showing royal generosity, reportedly sent both prisoners and ships to Henry, praising their bravery and stating that the contest was for honor, not for plunder.
Few naval incidents occurred under the reign of Henry VII., but it belongs, nevertheless, to the most important age of maritime discovery. Henry had really assented to the propositions of Columbus after Portugal had refused them; had not the latter’s brother, Bartholomew, been captured by pirates on his way to England, and detained as a slave at the oar, the Spaniards would not have had the honour of discovering the New World. This, and the grand discoveries of Cabot (directly encouraged by Henry), who reached Newfoundland and Florida; the various expeditions down the African coast instituted by Dom John; the discovery of the Cape and new route to India by Diaz and Vasco de Gama; the discovery of the Pacific by Balboa, and Cape Horn and the Straits by Magellan, will be detailed in another section of this work. They belong to this and immediately succeeding reigns, and mark the grandest epoch in the history of geographical discovery.
Few naval incidents occurred during Henry VII's reign, but it was still one of the most important times for maritime exploration. Henry had actually agreed to Columbus's proposals after Portugal turned them down; if Bartholomew, Columbus's brother, hadn't been captured by pirates on his way to England and forced to work as a slave, the Spaniards might not have claimed the discovery of the New World. This, along with the significant discoveries made by Cabot (who was directly encouraged by Henry), who reached Newfoundland and Florida; the various expeditions along the African coast initiated by Dom John; the discovery of the Cape and new route to India by Diaz and Vasco de Gama; the discovery of the Pacific by Balboa, and Cape Horn and the Straits by Magellan, will be detailed in another section of this work. These events belong to this and the immediately following reigns and represent the greatest period in the history of geographical discovery.
“The use of fire-arms,” says Southey, “without which the conquests of the Spaniards in the New World must have been impossible, changed the character of naval war sooner than it did the system of naval tactics, though they were employed earlier by land than by sea.” It is doubtful when cannon was first employed at sea; one authority132 says that it was by the Venetians against the Genoese, before 1330. Their use necessitated [pg 279]very material alterations in the structure of war-ships. The first port-holes are believed to have been contrived by a ship-builder at Brest, named Descharges, and their introduction took place in 1499. They were “circular holes, cut through the sides of the vessel, and so small as scarcely to admit of the guns being traversed in the smallest degree, or fired otherwise than straightforward.” Hitherto there had been no distinctions between the vessels used in commerce and in the king’s service; the former being constantly employed for the latter; but now we find the addition of another tier, and a general enlargement of the war-vessels. Still, when any emergency required, merchant vessels, not merely English, but Genoese, Venetian, and from the Hanse Towns, were constantly hired for warfare. So during peace the king’s ships were sometimes employed in trade, or freighted to merchants. Henry was very desirous of increasing and maintaining commercial relations with other countries. In the commission to one of his ambassadors, he says, “The earth being the common mother of all mankind, what can be more pleasant or more humane than to communicate a portion of all her productions to all her children by commerce?” Many special commercial treaties were made by him, and one concluded with the Archduke Philip after a dispute with him, which had put a stop to the trade with the Low Countries, was called the great commercial treaty (intercursus magnus). “It was framed with the greatest care to render the intercourse between the two countries permanent, and profitable to both.”
"Using guns," says Southey, "without which the conquests of the Spaniards in the New World would have been impossible, changed the nature of naval warfare faster than it changed naval tactics, even though they were used on land before being used at sea." It's unclear when cannons were first used at sea; one source132 claims it was by the Venetians against the Genoese, before 1330. Their use required [pg 279]significant changes in the design of warships. The first port-holes are thought to have been created by a shipbuilder in Brest named Descharges, and they were introduced in 1499. They were “circular holes, cut into the sides of the vessel, and so small that they barely let the guns move at all or fire in any direction other than straight ahead.” Until then, there had been no distinction between the vessels used for trade and those used by the crown; the former were often used for the latter, but now we see the addition of another layer and a general enlargement of warships. Still, when needed, merchant ships—not just English, but also Genoese, Venetian, and from the Hanse Towns—were regularly hired for warfare. During peacetime, the king’s ships were sometimes used for trade or leased to merchants. Henry was very eager to expand and maintain trade relations with other countries. In a commission to one of his ambassadors, he states, "Since the Earth is the common mother of all humanity, what could be more enjoyable or compassionate than sharing some of her resources with all her children through trade?" He established many specific trade treaties, including one with Archduke Philip after a conflict that had halted trade with the Low Countries, known as the great commercial treaty (intercursus magnus). “It was carefully designed to make sure the relationship between the two countries would be lasting and beneficial for both.”
The first incident in the naval history of the next reign, that of Henry VIII., grew out of an event which had occurred long before. A Portuguese squadron had, in the year 1476, seized a Scottish ship, laden with a rich cargo, and commanded by John Barton. Letters of marque were granted him, which he had not, apparently, used to any great advantage, for they were renewed to his three sons thirty years afterwards. The Bartons were not content with repaying themselves for their loss, but found the Portuguese captures so profitable that they became confirmed pirates, “and when they felt their own strength, they seem, with little scruple, to have considered ships of any nation as their fair prize.” Complaints were lodged before Henry, but were almost ignored, “till the Earl of Surrey, then Treasurer and Marshal of England, declared at the council board, that while he had an estate that could furnish out a ship, or a son that was capable of commanding one, the narrow seas should not be so infested.” Two ships, commanded by his two sons, Sir Thomas and Sir Edward Howard, were made ready, with the king’s knowledge and consent. The two brothers put to sea, but were separated by stress of weather; the same happened to the two pirate ships—the Lion, under Sir Andrew Barton’s own command, and the Jenny Perwin, or Bark of Scotland. The strength of one of them is thus described in an old ballad, by a merchant, one of Sir Andrew’s victims, who is supposed to relate his tale to Sir Thomas Howard:—
The first incident in the naval history of the next reign, that of Henry VIII., came from an event that happened long before. A Portuguese squadron had, in 1476, captured a Scottish ship carrying a valuable cargo, led by John Barton. He was granted letters of marque, which he didn't seem to utilize effectively since they were renewed for his three sons thirty years later. The Bartons weren’t satisfied with just getting back what they lost; they found the Portuguese captures so lucrative that they became full-fledged pirates, “and when they recognized their own strength, they appeared to have no qualms about regarding ships from any nation as their rightful targets.” Complaints were made to Henry, but were largely overlooked, "until the Earl of Surrey, who was then Treasurer and Marshal of England, stated at the council meeting that as long as he had enough resources to equip a ship or a son who could command one, the narrow seas wouldn't be overrun." Two ships, commanded by his two sons, Sir Thomas and Sir Edward Howard, were prepared with the king’s knowledge and consent. The two brothers set out to sea, but bad weather separated them; the same happened to the two pirate ships—the Lion, under Sir Andrew Barton’s command, and the Jenny Perwin, or Scotland's Bark. The strength of one of them is described in an old ballad, by a merchant, one of Sir Andrew’s victims, who is supposed to share his story with Sir Thomas Howard:—
But it was not so to be. Sir Thomas Howard, as he lay in the Downs, descried the former making for Scotland, and immediately gave chase, “and there was a sore battle. The Englishmen were fierce, and the Scots defended themselves manfully, and ever Andrew blew his whistle to encourage his men. Yet, for all that, Lord Howard and his men, by clean force, entered the main deck. There the English entered on all sides, and the Scots fought sore on the hatches; but, in conclusion, Andrew was taken, being so sore wounded that he died there, and then the remnant of the Scots were taken, with their ship.” Meantime Sir Edward Howard had encountered the other piratical ship, and though the Scots defended themselves like “hardy and well-stomached men,” succeeded in boarding it. The prizes were taken to Blackwall, and the prisoners, 150 in number, being all left alive, “so bloody had the action been,” were tried at Whitehall, before the [pg 281]Bishop of Winchester and a council. The bishop reminded them that “though there was peace between England and Scotland, they, contrary to that, as thieves and pirates, had robbed the king’s subjects within his streams, wherefore they had deserved to die by the law, and to be hanged at the low-water mark. Then, said the Scots, ‘We acknowledge our offence, and ask mercy, and not the law,’ and a priest, who was also a prisoner, said, ‘My lord, we appeal from the king’s justice to his mercy.’ Then the bishop asked if he were authorised by them to say thus, and they all cried, ‘Yea, yea!’ ‘Well, then,’ said the bishop, ‘you shall find the king’s mercy above his justice; for, where you were dead by the law, yet by his mercy he will revive you. You shall depart out of this realm within twenty days, on pain of death if ye be found after the twentieth day; and pray for the king.’ ” James subsequently required restitution from Henry, who answered “with brotherly salutation” that “it became not a prince to charge his confederate with breach of peace for doing justice upon a pirate and thief.” But there is no doubt that it was regarded as a national affair in Scotland, and helped to precipitate the war which speedily ensued.
But it was not meant to be. Sir Thomas Howard, while lying in the Downs, spotted the former heading for Scotland and immediately gave chase, "and there was a fierce battle. The English were tough, and the Scots defended themselves bravely, while Andrew kept blowing his whistle to motivate his men. Yet, despite this, Lord Howard and his men forcefully boarded the main deck. The English came in from all sides, and the Scots fought hard on the deck; however, in the end, Andrew was captured, severely wounded that he died there, and then the remaining Scots were captured along with their ship." Meanwhile, Sir Edward Howard had encountered the other pirate ship, and though the Scots defended themselves like "strong and resilient men," they succeeded in boarding it. The prizes were taken to Blackwall, and the 150 prisoners, all left alive, "it had been so incredibly bloody," were tried at Whitehall, before the [pg 281]Bishop of Winchester and a council. The bishop reminded them that Even though there was peace between England and Scotland, they had, against that peace, acted like thieves and pirates by robbing the king’s subjects in his waters. For this, they deserved to be punished by law and hanged at low tide. Then, the Scots said, ‘We acknowledge our offense and ask for mercy, not punishment,’ and a priest, who was also a prisoner, said, ‘My lord, we appeal from the king’s justice to his mercy.’ The bishop then asked if he was authorized to speak for them, and they all shouted, ‘Yes, yes!’ ‘Well then,’ said the bishop, ‘you will find the king’s mercy greater than his justice; for, although you would have been sentenced to death by the law, his mercy will spare you. You must leave this kingdom within twenty days, under threat of death if you are found here after the twentieth day; and pray for the king.’ James later sought restitution from Henry, who replied "with a brotherly greeting" that "It’s not appropriate for a prince to blame his ally for disrupting peace when they are trying to bring a pirate and thief to justice." However, there’s no doubt it was viewed as a national issue in Scotland, which contributed to the war that quickly followed.
Some of the edicts of the period seem strange enough to modern ears. The Scotch Parliament had passed an Act forbidding any ship freighted with staple goods to put to sea during the three winter months, under a penalty of five pounds. In 1493, a generation after the Act was passed, another provided that all burghs and towns should provide ships and busses, the least to be of twenty tons, fitted according to the means of the said places, provided with mariners, nets, and all necessary gear for taking “great fish and small.” The officers in every burgh were to make all the “stark idle men” within their bounds go on board these vessels, and serve them there for their wages, or, in case of refusal, banish them from their burgh. This was done with the idea of training a maritime force, but seems to have produced little effect. James IV. built a ship, however, which was, according to Scottish writers, larger and more powerfully armed than any then built in England or France. She was called the Great Michael, and “was of so great stature that she wasted all the oak forests of Fife, Falkland only excepted.” Southey reminds us that the Scots, like the Irish of the time, were constantly in feud with each other, and consequently destroyed their forests, to prevent the danger of ambuscades, and also to cut off the means of escape. Timber for this ship was brought from Norway, and though all the shipwrights in Scotland and many others from foreign countries were busily employed upon her, she took a year and a day to complete. The vessel is described as twelve score feet in length, and thirty-six in breadth of beam, within the walls, which were ten feet each thick, so that no cannon-ball could go through them. She had 300 mariners on board, six score gunners, and 1,000 men-of-war, including officers, “captains, skippers, and quarter-masters.” Sir Andrew Wood and Robert Barton were two of the chief officers. “This great ship cumbered Scotland to get her to sea. From the time that she was afloat, and her masts and sails complete, with anchors offering thereto, she was counted to the king to be thirty thousand pounds expense, by her artillery, which was very costly.” The Great Michael never did enough to have a single exploit recorded, nor was she unfortunate enough to meet a tragic ending.
Some of the rules from that time sound pretty strange to us today. The Scottish Parliament passed a law that banned any ship carrying staple goods from going out to sea during the three winter months, with a penalty of five pounds. In 1493, a generation after this law was enacted, another one stated that all towns and cities had to supply ships and boats, at least twenty tons in size, equipped according to the resources of those places, complete with sailors, nets, and all the gear needed for catching “big fish and small fish.” The officials in each town were required to make sure that all the "totally idle men" within their areas boarded these vessels and worked for wages, or else they would be banished from their town if they refused. This was intended to create a naval force but seems to have had little effect. James IV did build a ship that, according to Scottish sources, was larger and more heavily armed than any ship constructed in England or France at the time. It was named Awesome Michael, and “was so tall that she exhausted all the oak forests of Fife, except for Falkland.” Southey points out that the Scots, like the Irish back then, were in constant conflict with each other, which led them to destroy their forests to prevent ambushes and cut off escape routes. The timber for this ship came from Norway, and despite all the shipbuilders in Scotland, along with many from abroad, working on her, it took a full year and a day to finish. The ship is described as being twelve score feet long and thirty-six feet wide, with walls ten feet thick, so no cannonball could penetrate them. She carried 300 sailors, 120 gunners, and 1,000 warriors, including officers, “captains, skippers, and quartermasters.” Sir Andrew Wood and Robert Barton were two of the main officers. "This large ship burdened Scotland to set her out to sea. From the moment she was launched and her masts and sails were ready, with anchors provided, she was estimated to cost the king thirty thousand pounds, due to her expensive artillery." The Great Michael never had a single adventure recorded, nor was she unfortunate enough to meet a tragic end.
In 1511 war was declared against France, and Henry caused many new ships to be [pg 282]made, repairing and rigging the old. After an action on the coast of Brittany, where both claimed the advantage, and where two of the largest vessels—the Cordelier, with 900 Frenchmen, and the Regent, with 700 Englishmen, were burned—nearly all on board perishing, Henry advised “a great ship to be made, such as was never before seen in England,” and which was named the Henri Grace de Dieu, or popularly the Great Harry.133 There are many ancient representations of this vessel, which is said to have cost £11,000, and to have taken 400 men four whole days to work from Erith, where she was built, to Barking Creek. “The masts,” says a well-known authority, “were five in number,” but he goes on clearly to show that the fifth was simply the bowsprit; they were in one piece, as had been the usual mode in all previous times, although soon to be altered by the introduction of several joints or top-masts, which could be lowered in time of need. The rigging was simple to the last degree, but there was a considerable amount of ornamentation on the hull, and small flags were disposed almost at random on different parts of the deck and gunwale, and one at the head of each mast. The standard of England was hoisted on the principal mast; enormous pendants, or streamers, were added, though ornaments which must have been often inconvenient. The Great Harry was of 1,000 tons, and in—so far as the writer can discover—the only skirmish she was concerned in the Channel, for it could not be dignified by the name of an engagement, carried 700 men. She was burned at Woolwich, at the opening of Mary’s reign, through the carelessness of the sailors.
In 1511, war was declared against France, and Henry had many new ships built while also repairing and rigging the old ones. After a skirmish on the coast of Brittany, where both sides claimed victory, two of the largest vessels—the Cordelier, carrying 900 Frenchmen, and the Regent, with 700 Englishmen—were burned, almost all on board perishing. Henry then suggested that “a great ship be made, such as had never before been seen in England,” which was named the Henry Grace of God, commonly known as the Great Harry.133 There are many old depictions of this vessel, which reportedly cost £11,000 and took 400 men four whole days to transport from Erith, where it was built, to Barking Creek. “The masts,” says a well-known authority, “were five in number,” but he makes it clear that the fifth was merely the bowsprit; they were all one piece, as had been the standard practice until then, though soon this would change with the addition of several joints or top-masts that could be lowered when needed. The rigging was extremely simple, but there was a fair amount of decoration on the hull, and small flags were placed almost at random on different parts of the deck and gunwale, with one at the top of each mast. The standard of England was raised on the main mast; large pendants, or streamers, were also added, although these decorations could often be inconvenient. The Awesome Harry was 1,000 tons and, as far as the writer can ascertain, was only involved in one skirmish in the Channel, which hardly qualified as an engagement, carrying 700 men. She was burned at Woolwich at the start of Mary’s reign due to the sailors' negligence.
In the reign of Henry VIII. a navy office was first formed, and regular arsenals were established at Portsmouth, Woolwich, and Deptford. The change in maritime warfare consequent on the use of gunpowder rendered ships of a new construction necessary, and more was done for the improvement of the navy in this reign than in any former one. Italian shipwrights, then the most expert, were engaged, and at the conclusion of Henry’s reign the Royal Navy consisted of seventy-one vessels, thirty of which were ships of respectable burden, aggregating 10,550 tons. Five years later, it had dwindled to less than one-half. Six years after Henry’s death, England lost Calais, a fort and town which had cost Edward III., in the height of his power, an obstinate siege of eleven months. But on Elizabeth’s accession to the throne, the star of England was once more in the ascendant.
In the time of Henry VIII, a navy office was established for the first time, and regular arsenals were set up in Portsmouth, Woolwich, and Deptford. The shift in naval warfare due to the use of gunpowder made new ship designs necessary, and more progress was made to improve the navy during this reign than in any previous one. Italian shipbuilders, the most skilled at the time, were hired, and by the end of Henry’s reign, the Royal Navy had seventy-one ships, thirty of which were large vessels with a total capacity of 10,550 tons. Just five years later, the number had dropped to less than half. Six years after Henry died, England lost Calais, a fortified town that Edward III had defended after an intense eleven-month siege. However, when Elizabeth took the throne, England's fortunes began to rise again.
Elizabeth commenced her reign by providing in all points for war, that she “might the more quietly enjoy peace.” Arms and weapons were imported from Germany, at considerable cost, but in such quantities that the land had never before been so amply stored with “all kinds of convenient armour and weapons.” And she, also, was the first to cause the manufacture of gunpowder in England, that she “might not both pray and pay for it too to her neighbours.” She allowed the free exportation of herrings and all other sea-fish in English bottoms, and a partial exemption from impressment was granted to all fishermen; while to encourage their work, Wednesday and Saturday were made “fish-days;” this, it was stated, “was meant politicly, not for any superstition to be maintained in the choice of meats.” The navy became her great care, so much that [pg 283]“foreigners named her the restorer of the glory of shipping, and the Queen of the North Sea.” She raised the pay of sailors. “The wealthier inhabitants of the sea-coast,” says Camden, “in imitation of their princess, built ships of war, striving who should exceed, insomuch that the Queen’s Navy, joined with her subjects’ shipping, was, in short time, so puissant that it was able to bring forth 20,000 fighting men for sea service.”
Elizabeth started her reign by preparing for war so that she “could enjoy peace more quietly.” Arms and weapons were brought in from Germany at a high cost, but in such large quantities that the country had never before been stocked with “all sorts of useful armor and weapons.” She was also the first to initiate the production of gunpowder in England, so that she "wouldn't have to pray and pay for it to her neighbors." She allowed the free export of herrings and all other sea fish on English ships, and fishermen were granted partial exemption from impressment; to promote their work, Wednesday and Saturday were designated as "fish days;" this, it was said, "was driven by political motives, not by any superstitions about food choices." The navy became her main concern, so much so that [pg 283]"Foreigners referred to her as the restorer of shipping glory and the Queen of the North Sea." She increased sailors’ pay. "The richer residents of the coast," according to Camden, "Imitating their queen, they started building warships and competing to see who could surpass the others, to the extent that the Queen’s Navy, along with her subjects' ships, quickly became so powerful that it could deploy 20,000 fighting men for naval service."
The greatest and most glorious event of her reign was, without cavil, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, at one time deemed and called “The Invincible.” With the political complications which preceded the invasion, we have nought to do: it was largely a religious war, inasmuch as Popish machinations were at the bottom of all. When the contest became inevitable, the Spanish Government threw off dissimulation, and showed “a disdainful disregard of secrecy as to its intentions, or rather a proud manifestation of them, which,” says Southey, “if they had been successful, might have been called magnanimous.” Philip had determined on putting forth his might, and accounts which were ostentatiously published in advance termed it “The most fortunate and invincible Armada.” The fleet consisted of 130 ships and twenty caravels, having on board nearly 20,000 soldiers, 8,450 marines, 2,088 galley-slaves, with 2,630 great pieces of brass artillery. The names of all the saints appeared in the nomenclature of the ships, “while,” says Southey, “holier appellations, which ought never to be thus applied, were strangely associated with the Great Griffin and the Sea Dog, the Cat and the White Falcon.” Every noble house in Spain was represented, and there were 180 friars and Jesuits, with Cardinal Allen at their head, a prelate who had not long before published at Antwerp a gross libel on Elizabeth, calling her “heretic, rebel, and usurper, an incestuous bastard, the bane of Christendom, and firebrand of all mischief.” These priests were to bring England back to the true Church the moment they landed. The galleons being above sixty in number were, “exceeding great, fair, and strong, and built high above the water, like castles, easy to be fought withal, but not so easy to board as the English and the Netherland ships; their upper decks were musket-proof, and beneath they were four or five feet thick, so that no bullet could pass them. Their masts were bound about with oakum, or pieces of fazeled ropes, and armed against all shot. The galleases were goodly great vessels, furnished with chambers, chapels, towers, pulpits, and such-like; they rowed like galleys, with exceeding great oars, each having 300 slaves, and were able to do much harm with their great ordnance.” Most severe discipline was to be preserved; blasphemy and oaths were to be punished rigidly; gaming, as provocative of these, and quarrelling, were forbidden; no one might wear a dagger; religious exercises, including the use of a special litany, in which all archangels, angels, and saints, were invoked to assist with their prayers against the English heretics and enemies of the faith, were enjoined. “No man,” says Southey, “ever set forth upon a bad cause with better will, nor under a stronger delusion of perverted faith.” The gunners were instructed to have half butts filled with water and vinegar, wet clothes, old sails, &c., ready to extinguish fire, and what seems strange now-a-days, in addition to the regular artillery, every ship was to carry two boats’-loads of large stones, to throw on the enemy’s decks, forecastles, &c., during an encounter.
The greatest and most glorious event of her reign was undoubtedly the defeat of the Spanish Armada, which was once called “The Invincible.” The political issues that led up to the invasion aren't our focus here; it was primarily a religious conflict, as Popish schemes were at the heart of everything. When the battle became unavoidable, the Spanish Government dropped all pretenses and openly declared its intentions. Southey describes this as “a disdainful disregard of secrecy as to its intentions, or rather a proud manifestation of them, which, if they had been successful, might have been called magnanimous.” Philip was determined to show his strength, and reports that were widely circulated called it “The most fortunate and invincible Armada.” The fleet included 130 ships and twenty caravels, carrying nearly 20,000 soldiers, 8,450 marines, 2,088 galley-slaves, and 2,630 large pieces of brass artillery. The names of all the saints were used for the ships, while, as Southey notes, “holier appellations, which ought never to be thus applied, were strangely associated with the Great Griffin and the Sea Dog, the Cat and the White Falcon.” Every noble family in Spain was represented, along with 180 friars and Jesuits, led by Cardinal Allen, a prelate who had recently published a defamatory piece in Antwerp, labeling Elizabeth as “heretic, rebel, and usurper, an incestuous bastard, the bane of Christendom, and firebrand of all mischief.” These priests aimed to bring England back to the true Church as soon as they landed. The galleons, numbering over sixty, were “exceedingly great, fair, and strong, and built high above the water, like castles, easy to fight but not easy to board like the English and Dutch ships; their upper decks were musket-proof, and below they were four or five feet thick, so that no bullet could penetrate them. Their masts were wrapped in oakum or pieces of frayed ropes and fortified against all fire. The galleasses were large, well-equipped vessels, complete with chambers, chapels, towers, pulpits, and similar structures; they rowed like galleys, with very large oars, each having 300 slaves, and could cause significant damage with their heavy artillery.” Strict discipline was enforced; blasphemy and swearing were harshly punished, and gambling, which could lead to these offenses, as well as fighting, were banned; no one was allowed to carry a dagger. Religious activities, including a specific litany invoking all archangels, angels, and saints to help pray against the English heretics and enemies of the faith, were required. “No man,” says Southey, “ever set forth upon a bad cause with better will, nor under a stronger delusion of perverted faith.” The gunners were instructed to keep half barrels filled with water and vinegar, wet rags, old sails, and so forth, ready to extinguish fires, and what seems strange today, in addition to the regular artillery, every ship was to carry two boatloads of large stones to throw onto the enemy's decks and forecastles during a fight.
Meantime Elizabeth and her ministers were fully aware of the danger, and the appeals made to the Lords, and through the lord-lieutenants of counties were answered [pg 284]nobly. The first to present himself before the queen was a Roman Catholic peer, the Viscount Montague, who brought 200 horsemen led by his own sons, and professed the resolution that “though he was very sickly, and in age, to live and die in defence of the queen and of his country, against all invaders, whether it were Pope, king, or potentate whatsoever.” The city of London, when 5,000 men and fifteen ships were required, prayed the queen to accept twice the number. “In a very short time all her whole realm, and every corner, were furnished with armed men, on horseback and on foot; and those continually trained, exercised, and put into bands in warlike manner, as in no age ever was before in this realm. There was no sparing of money to provide horse, armour, weapons, powder, and all necessaries.” Thousands volunteered their services personally without wages; others money for armour and weapons, and wages for soldiers. The country was never in better condition for defence.
In the meantime, Elizabeth and her advisors were fully aware of the danger, and the appeals made to the Lords and through the county lord-lieutenants were answered nobly. The first to present himself before the queen was a Roman Catholic peer, the Viscount Montague, who brought 200 horsemen led by his own sons and declared his intent that “though he was very sickly and old, he would live and die in defense of the queen and his country against all invaders, whether it was the Pope, a king, or any powerful individual.” The city of London, when 5,000 men and fifteen ships were needed, asked the queen to accept twice that number. “In no time at all, her entire realm and every corner were filled with armed men, both on horseback and on foot; and they were continually trained, exercised, and organized in a warlike manner, unlike any other time in this realm's history. There was no hesitation in spending money to provide horses, armor, weapons, gunpowder, and all necessary supplies.” Thousands volunteered their services without pay; others contributed money for armor and weapons, as well as wages for soldiers. The country was never in better shape for defense.
Some urged the queen to place no reliance on maritime defence, but to receive the enemy only on shore. Elizabeth thought otherwise, and determined that the enemy should reap no more advantage on the sea than on land. She gave the command of the whole fleet to Charles Lord Howard of Effingham; Drake being vice-admiral, and Hawkins and Frobisher—all grand names in naval history—being in the western division. Lord Henry Seymour was to lie off the coast of Flanders with forty ships, Dutch and English, and prevent the Prince of Parma from forming a junction with the Armada. The whole number of ships collected for the defence of the country was 191, and the number of seamen 17,472. There was one ship in the fleet (the Triumph) of 1,100 tons, one of 1,000, one of 900, and two of 800 tons each, but the larger part of the vessels were very small, and the aggregate tonnage amounted to only about half that of the Armada. For the land defence over 100,000 men were called out, regimented, and armed, but only half of them were trained. This was exclusive of the Border and Yorkshire forces.
Some advised the queen not to depend on naval defense and to engage the enemy only on land. Elizabeth disagreed and decided that the enemy should gain no more advantage at sea than on land. She put Charles Lord Howard of Effingham in charge of the entire fleet, with Drake as vice-admiral, and Hawkins and Frobisher—famous names in naval history—leading the western division. Lord Henry Seymour was assigned to stay off the coast of Flanders with forty ships, both Dutch and English, to stop the Prince of Parma from joining forces with the Armada. A total of 191 ships were gathered for the country’s defense, with 17,472 sailors. The fleet included one ship (the Victory) weighing 1,100 tons, one of 1,000 tons, one of 900 tons, and two ships of 800 tons each, but most of the vessels were quite small, and the total tonnage was only about half that of the Armada. For land defense, over 100,000 men were called up, organized, and armed, but only half of them were trained. This number did not include the forces from the Border and Yorkshire.
The Armada left the Tagus in the latter end of May, 1588, for Corunna, there to embark the remainder of the forces and stores. On the 30th of the same month, the Lord Admiral and Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth. A serious storm was encountered, which dismasted some and dispersed others of the enemy’s fleet, and occasioned the loss of four Portuguese galleys. One David Gwynne, a Welshman, who had been a galley-slave for eleven years, took the opportunity this storm afforded, and regained his liberty. He made himself master of one galley, captured a second, and was joined by a third, in which the wretched slaves were encouraged to rise by his example, and successfully carried the three into a French port. After this disastrous commencement, the Armada put back to Corunna, and was pursued thither by Effingham; but as he approached the coast of Spain, the wind changed, and as he was afraid the enemy might effect the passage to the Channel unperceived, he returned to its entrance, whence the ships were withdrawn, some to the coast of Ireland, and the larger part to Plymouth, where the men were allowed to come ashore, and the officers made merry with revels, dancing, and bowling. The enemy was so long in making an appearance, that even Elizabeth was persuaded the invasion would not occur that year; and with this idea, Secretary Walsingham wrote to the admiral to send back four of his largest ships. “Happily for England, and most honourably for himself, the Lord Effingham, though he had relaxed his vigilance, [pg 285]saw how perilous it was to act as if all were safe. He humbly entreated that nothing might be lightly credited in so weighty a matter, and that he might retain these ships, though it should be at his own cost. This was no empty show of disinterested zeal; for if the services of those ships had not been called for, there can be little doubt, that in the rigid parsimony of Elizabeth’s government, he would have been called upon to pay the costs.”
The Armada left the Tagus at the end of May, 1588, headed for Corunna to load the rest of the forces and supplies. On the 30th of that month, Lord Admiral and Sir Francis Drake set sail from Plymouth. They encountered a serious storm that damaged some ships and scattered others of the enemy’s fleet, resulting in the loss of four Portuguese galleys. A Welshman named David Gwynne, who had been a galley slave for eleven years, took advantage of this storm to gain his freedom. He took control of one galley, captured a second, and was joined by a third, where the miserable slaves were inspired by his example and successfully brought all three into a French port. After this disastrous start, the Armada returned to Corunna, pursued by Effingham; however, as he neared the Spanish coast, the wind shifted. Worried that the enemy might slip into the Channel unnoticed, he went back to its entrance, where some ships were sent to the coast of Ireland and the majority returned to Plymouth. The crew were allowed to go ashore, and the officers celebrated with revelry, dancing, and bowling. The enemy took so long to appear that even Elizabeth was convinced the invasion wouldn’t happen that year; based on this notion, Secretary Walsingham wrote to the admiral requesting the return of four of his largest ships. Luckily for England and honorably for himself, Lord Effingham, despite having let his guard down, realized it was risky to act as if everything was fine. He strongly urged that nothing be taken lightly in such an important matter and that he be allowed to keep these ships, even at his own expense. This wasn’t just a display of selfless commitment; if those ships hadn’t been necessary, it’s very likely that, in the strict frugality of Elizabeth’s government, he would have been asked to pay for them.
The Armada, now completely refitted, sailed from Corunna on July 12th, and when off the Lizard were sighted by a pirate, one Thomas Fleming, who hastened to Plymouth with the news, and not merely obtained pardon for his offences, but was awarded a pension for life. At that time the wind “blew stiffly into the harbour,” but all hands were got on board, and the ships were warped out, the Lord Admiral encouraging the men, and hauling [pg 286]at the ropes himself. By the following day thirty of the smaller vessels were out, and next day the Armada was descried “with lofty turrets like castles, in front like a half-moon; the wings thereof speading out about the length of seven miles, sailing very slowly though with full sails; the wind,” says Camden, “being as it were weary with wafting them, and the ocean groaning under their weight.” The Spaniards gave up the idea of attacking Plymouth, and the English let them pass, that they might chase them in the rear. Next day the Lord Admiral sent the Defiance pinnace forward, and opened the attack by discharging her ordnance, and later his own ship, the Ark Royal, “thundered thick and furiously” into the Spanish vice-admiral’s ship, and soon after, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, gave the Admiral Recalde a very thorough peppering. That officer’s ship was rendered nearly unserviceable, and he was obliged to crowd on sail to catch up with the others, who showed little disposition for fighting. After a smart action in which he had injured the enemy much, and suffered little hurt himself, Effingham gave over, because forty of his ships had not yet come up from Plymouth. During the night the Spaniards lost one of their ships, which was set on fire, it was believed, by a Flemish gunner, whose wife and self had been ill-treated by the officer of the troops on board. The fire was quenched, after all her upper works had been consumed; but when the Spaniards left the hulk, they abandoned fifty of their countrymen, “miserably hurt.” This night was remarkable for a series of disasters and contretemps. A galleon, under the command of one Valdez, ran foul of another ship, broke her foremast, and was left behind. Effingham, supposing that the men had been taken out, without tarrying to take possession of the prize, passed on with two other vessels, that he might not lose sight of the enemy. “He thought that he was following Drake’s ship, which ought to have carried the lanthorn that night; it proved to be a Spanish light, and in the morning he found himself in the midst of the enemy’s fleet;” but he managed to get away unobserved, or at all events unpursued. Drake, meantime, was mistakably following in the dark and stormy night a phantom enemy, in the shape of five Easterling vessels. Meantime, the English fleet not seeing the expected light on Drake’s ship, lay-to during the night. Drake, next morning, had the good fortune to fall in with Valdez, who, after a brief parley, surrendered, and the prize was sent into Plymouth. Drake and his men divided 55,000 golden ducats among them, as part of the spoil on board. The hulk of the galleon was taken to Weymouth, and although burned almost to the water’s edge, the gunpowder in the hold remained intact and had not taken fire. The next day there was considerable manœuvring and skirmishing, but with no very memorable loss on either side. A great Venetian ship and some smaller ones were taken from the enemy, while on our side Captain Cook died with honour in the midst of the Spanish ships, in a little vessel of his own. Both sides were wary; Effingham did not think good to grapple with them, because they had an army in the fleet, while he had none; our army awaited their landing. The Spaniards meant as much as possible to avoid fighting, and hold on till they could effect a junction with the Prince of Parma. Next morning there was little wind, and only the four great galleases were engaged, these having the advantage on account of their oars, while the English were becalmed; the latter, however, did considerable execution with chain-shot, cutting asunder their tacklings and cordage. But they were now constrained to send ashore for gunpowder, [pg 287]with which they were either badly supplied, or had expended too freely. Off the Isle of Wight, the English battered the Spanish admiral with their great ordnance, and shot away his mainmast; but other ships came to his assistance, beat them off, and set upon the English admiral, who only escaped by favour of a breeze which sprung up at the right moment. Camden relates how the English shot away the lantern from one of the Spanish ships, and the beak-head from a second, and that Frobisher escaped by the skin of his teeth from a situation of great danger. Still this was little more than skirmishing. “The Spaniards say that from that time they gave over what they call the pursuit of their enemy; and they dispatched a fresh messenger to the Prince of Parma, urging him to effect his junction with them as soon as possible, and withal to send them some great shot, for they had expended theirs with more prodigality than effect.” On the other hand the English determined to wait till they could attack the enemy in the Straits of Dover, where they expected to be joined by the squadrons under Lord Seymour and Sir William Winter. Meantime Effingham’s forces were being considerably increased by volunteers; “For the gentlemen of England hired ships from all parts at their own charge, and with one accord came flocking thither as to a set field.” Among the volunteers were Sir Walter Raleigh, the Earls of Oxford, Northumberland, and Cumberland. On the evening of the 27th the Spaniards came to anchor off Calais, and the English ships, now 140 in number, “all of them ships fit for fight, good sailors, nimble and tight for tacking about which way they would, anchored within cannon-shot.” A squadron of about thirty ships belonging to the States, acting in conjunction with the Admiral of Zeeland and his squadron, effectually blockaded Dunkirk, and the poor Prince of Parma, with his pressed men constantly deserting, his flat-bottomed boats leaky, and his provisions not ready, could do nothing.
The Armada, now fully refitted, set sail from Corunna on July 12th. While passing the Lizard, they were spotted by a pirate named Thomas Fleming, who rushed to Plymouth with the news and not only gained forgiveness for his crimes but was also given a lifelong pension. At that time, the wind “blew strongly into the harbor,” but everyone was loaded on board, and the ships were pulled out, with the Lord Admiral motivating the crew and pulling [pg 286]at the ropes himself. By the next day, thirty of the smaller vessels were out, and soon the Armada was seen "with tall towers like castles, and a front shaped like a half-moon; its wings spread out about seven miles long, moving very slowly despite having full sails; the wind," as Camden noted, "being tired of carrying them, and the ocean struggling beneath their weight." The Spaniards abandoned their plan to attack Plymouth, and the English let them pass so they could pursue from behind. The next day, the Lord Admiral sent the Defiance pinnace ahead, beginning the attack by firing its cannons, followed by his own ship, the Ark Royal, which "thundered loudly and fiercely" into the Spanish vice-admiral’s ship. Soon after, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher got a solid hit on Admiral Recalde. That officer's ship was nearly rendered useless, forcing him to sail away to catch up with the others, who showed little interest in fighting. After a sharp encounter where he inflicted significant damage with little loss to himself, Effingham called it off since forty of his ships hadn’t yet arrived from Plymouth. That night, the Spaniards lost one of their ships, which was believed to be set on fire by a Flemish gunner whose wife had been mistreated by a military officer aboard. The fire was extinguished after destroying all of her upper works, but when the Spaniards left the hulk, they abandoned fifty of their compatriots, “in pain.” This night was notable for a string of disasters and dispute. A galleon commanded by one Valdez collided with another ship, broke her foremast, and was left behind. Effingham, assuming that the crew had been rescued, didn’t linger to claim the prize and continued with two other vessels to not lose sight of the enemy. "He believed he was following Drake's ship, which was supposed to have the lantern that night; it turned out to be a Spanish light, and by morning he found himself surrounded by the enemy's fleet." but he managed to slip away unnoticed, or at least unpursued. Meanwhile, Drake mistakenly chased a phantom enemy in the form of five Easterling vessels on a dark, stormy night. The English fleet, not seeing the expected light on Drake’s ship, held back during the night. The next morning, Drake was fortunate to encounter Valdez, who surrendered after a brief conversation, and the ship was sent to Plymouth. Drake and his crew divided 55,000 golden ducats as part of the loot onboard. The hulk of the galleon was brought to Weymouth, and although it was burned almost to the waterline, the gunpowder in the hold remained intact and did not ignite. The following day saw significant maneuvering and skirmishing, but neither side suffered any major losses. A large Venetian ship and some smaller ones were captured from the enemy, while on our side, Captain Cook died honorably amidst the Spanish ships, in a small vessel of his own. Both sides were cautious; Effingham did not want to engage them because they had an army in their fleet while he didn’t; our army was waiting for their landing. The Spaniards were keen to avoid fighting and maintain their position until they could join forces with the Prince of Parma. The next morning there was little wind, and only the four big galleons engaged, which had the advantage due to their oars, while the English were stuck without wind; however, they managed to inflict significant damage with chain-shot, severing their rigging and ropes. They were now forced to send ashore for gunpowder, [pg 287]which they either had insufficient amounts of or had wasted too much. Off the Isle of Wight, the English battered the Spanish admiral with their large cannons, shooting away his mainmast; but other ships came to his aid and attacked the English admiral, who only narrowly escaped thanks to a breeze that picked up just in time. Camden recounts how the English shot away the lantern from one of the Spanish ships, and the bow from another, and that Frobisher narrowly escaped a dangerous situation. Still, this was mostly just minor skirmishing. “The Spaniards say that since then they stopped what they refer to as the pursuit of their enemy; and they sent a new messenger to the Prince of Parma, urging him to join them as soon as possible and to send them some big shots, as they had used theirs too liberally and with little success.” On the other hand, the English decided to wait until they could attack the enemy in the Straits of Dover, where they expected to be joined by the squadrons commanded by Lord Seymour and Sir William Winter. Meanwhile, Effingham's forces were significantly bolstered by volunteers; “The gentlemen of England rented ships from all over at their own expense and gathered there together as if heading to a familiar battlefield.” Among the volunteers were Sir Walter Raleigh, the Earls of Oxford, Northumberland, and Cumberland. On the evening of the 27th, the Spaniards anchored off Calais, and the English ships, now numbering 140, "All of those ships were ready for battle, with skilled sailors, agile and well-suited for maneuvering in any direction, anchored within cannon range." A squadron of about thirty ships belonging to the States, working together with the Admiral of Zeeland and his squadron, effectively blockaded Dunkirk, and the unfortunate Prince of Parma, with his pressed men constantly deserting, leaky flat-bottomed boats, and unprepared supplies, was completely at a standstill.
The Spanish ships were almost invulnerable to the shot and ordnance of the day, and “their height was such that our bravest seamen were against any attempt at boarding them.” These facts were well understood by Elizabeth’s ministers, and the Lord Admiral was instructed to convert eight of his worst vessels into fire-ships. The orders arrived so à propos of the occasion, and were so swiftly executed, that within thirty hours after the enemy had cast anchor off Calais, the ships were unloaded and dismantled, filled with combustibles and all their ordnance charged, and their sides being smeared with pitch, rosin, and wildfire, were sent, in the dead of the night, with wind and tide, against the Spanish fleet. When the Spaniards saw the whole sea glittering and shining with the reflection of the flames, the guns exploding as the fire reached them, and a heavy canopy of dense smoke overhead obscuring the heavens, they remembered those terrible fire-ships which had been used so effectively in the Scheldt, and the cry resounded through the fleet, “The fire of Antwerp!” Some of the Spanish captains let their hawsers slip, some cut their cables, and in terror and confusion put to sea; “happiest they who could first be gone, though few or none could tell which course to take.” In the midst of all this fearful excitement one of the largest of the galleases, commanded by D. Hugo de Moncada, ran foul of another ship, lost her rudder, floated about at the mercy of the tide, and at length ran upon Calais sands. Here she was assailed by the English small craft, who battered her with their guns, but dared not attempt boarding till the admiral sent [pg 288]a hundred men in his boats, under Sir Amias Preston. The Spaniards fought bravely, but at length Moncada was shot through the head, and the galleas was carried by boarding. Most of the Spanish soldiers, 400 in number, jumped overboard and were drowned; the 300 galley-slaves were freed from their fetters. The vessel had 50,000 ducats on board, “a booty,” says Speed, “well fitting the English soldiers’ affections.” The English were about to set the galleas on fire, but the governor of Calais prevented this by firing upon the captors, and the ship became his prize.
The Spanish ships were almost immune to the firepower of the time, and "Their height was so impressive that our bravest sailors were against any attempt to board them." Elizabeth’s ministers were well aware of this, and the Lord Admiral was ordered to convert eight of his worst ships into fire-ships. The orders came just in due time for the situation and were executed so quickly that within thirty hours after the enemy anchored off Calais, the ships were unloaded and dismantled, filled with combustibles, all their weapons loaded, and their sides covered with pitch, rosin, and wildfire, were sent, in the dead of night, with the wind and tide, toward the Spanish fleet. When the Spaniards saw the entire sea sparkling and glowing with the flames' reflection, the guns exploding as the fire reached them, and a heavy cloud of thick smoke above blocking out the sky, they recalled the terrifying fire-ships used so effectively in the Scheldt, and the cry spread through the fleet, “Antwerp’s fire!” Some of the Spanish captains let their ropes slip, some cut their cables, and in fear and confusion set out to sea; "The luckiest ones were those who could leave first, even though only a few knew which direction to take." Amid all this chaos, one of the largest galleasses, commanded by D. Hugo de Moncada, collided with another ship, lost her rudder, drifted at the mercy of the tide, and eventually ran aground on Calais sands. Here, she was attacked by the English small craft, which bombarded her with their guns but did not dare to board until the admiral sent [pg 288]a hundred men in his boats, under Sir Amias Preston. The Spaniards fought bravely, but eventually, Moncada was shot in the head, and the galleas was taken by boarding. Most of the Spanish soldiers, numbering 400, jumped overboard and drowned; the 300 galley-slaves were freed from their chains. The vessel had 50,000 ducats on board, "a reward," says Speed, "well suited to the preferences of English soldiers." The English were about to set the galleas on fire, but the governor of Calais stopped this by firing upon the captors, and the ship became his prize.
The Duke of Medina Sidonia, admiral of the Spanish Armada, had ordered the whole fleet to weigh anchor and stand out to sea when he perceived the approaching fire-ships; his vessels were to return to their former stations when the danger should be over. When he fired a signal for the others to follow his example, few of them heard it, “because they were scattered all about, and driven by fear, some of them in the wide sea, and driven among the shoals of Flanders.” When they had once more congregated, they ranged themselves in order off Gravelines, where the final action was fought. Drake and Fenner were the first to assail them, followed by many brave captains, and lastly the [pg 289]admiral came up with Lord Thomas Howard and Lord Sheffield. There were scarcely two or three and twenty among their ships which matched ninety of the Spanish vessels in size, but the smaller vessels were more easily handled and manœuvred. “Wherefore,” says Hakluyt, “using their prerogative of nimble steerage, whereby they could turn and wield themselves with the wind which way they listed, they came oftentimes very near upon the Spaniards, and charged them so sore, that now and then they were but a pike’s length asunder; and so continually giving them one broadside after another, they discharged all their shot, both great and small, upon them, spending a whole day, from morning till night, in that violent kind of conflict.” During this action many of the Spanish vessels were pierced through and through between wind and water; one was sunk, and it was learnt that one of her officers, having proposed to strike, was put to death by another; the brother of the slain man instantly avenged his death, and then the ship went down. Others are believed to have sunk, and many were terribly shattered. One, which leaked so fast that fifty men were employed at the pumps, tried to run aground on the Flemish coast, where her captain had to strike to a Dutch commander. Our ships at last desisted from the contest, from sheer want of ammunition; and the Armada made an effort to reach the Straits. Here a great engagement was expected, but the fighting was over, and that which the hand of man barely commenced the [pg 290]hand of God completed. The Spaniards “were now experimentally convinced that the English excelled them in naval strength. Several of their largest ships had been lost, others were greatly damaged; there was no port to which they could repair; and to force their way through the victorious English fleet, then in sight, and amounting to 140 sail, was plainly and confessedly impossible.” They resolved upon returning to Spain by a northern route, and “having gotten more sea room for their huge-bodied bulks, spread their mainsails, and made away as fast as wind and water would give them leave.” Effingham, leaving Seymour to blockade the Prince of Parma’s force, followed what our chroniclers now termed the Vincible Armada, and pursued them to Scotland, where they did not attempt to land, but made for Norway, “where the English,” says Drake, “thought it best to leave them to those boisterous and uncouth northern seas.”
The Duke of Medina Sidonia, admiral of the Spanish Armada, had ordered the entire fleet to lift anchor and head out to sea when he noticed the incoming fire-ships; his ships were to return to their previous positions once the threat had passed. When he signaled for the others to follow his lead, not many heard it, “because they were scattered everywhere and driven by fear, some of them across the open sea and pushed among the shallows of Flanders.” Once they regrouped, they arranged themselves off Gravelines, where the final battle took place. Drake and Fenner were the first to attack them, followed by many brave captains, and lastly, the [pg 289]admiral joined Lord Thomas Howard and Lord Sheffield. There were barely two or three dozen among their ships that matched ninety of the Spanish vessels in size, but the smaller ships were easier to handle and maneuver. "Thus," says Hakluyt, "Taking advantage of their quick steering, they were able to turn and maneuver with the wind however they wanted. They often got very close to the Spaniards and attacked so fiercely that sometimes they were only a pike's length away. Continuously delivering one broadside after another, they fired all their shots, both large and small, spending the entire day, from morning till night, in that intense kind of battle." During this combat, many of the Spanish ships were pierced through by cannon fire; one was sunk, and it was reported that one of her officers, who suggested surrendering, was killed by another; the brother of the slain man immediately avenged his death, and then the ship sank. Others are believed to have sunk, and many were severely damaged. One, which was leaking so badly that fifty men were working the pumps, tried to run aground on the Flemish coast, where her captain had to surrender to a Dutch commander. Our ships eventually stopped fighting because they simply ran out of ammunition; and the Armada attempted to reach the Straits. A major battle was anticipated there, but the fighting had ended, and what had been started by human hands was completed by the hand of God. The Spaniards "were now experimentally convinced that the English were superior to them in naval strength. Several of their largest ships had been sunk, and others were severely damaged; there was no port to which they could escape; and breaking through the victorious English fleet, which was visible and consisted of 140 ships, was clearly and undeniably impossible." They decided to return to Spain via a northern route, and "After getting more space for their big ships, they unfurled their mainsails and sailed away as quickly as the wind and water would allow." Effingham, leaving Seymour to blockade the force of the Prince of Parma, followed what our historians now call the Invincible Armada and pursued them to Scotland, where they did not attempt to land, but headed for Norway, “where the Brits,” says Drake, "I thought it was better to leave them to those wild and rugged northern seas."
Meantime, it was still expected ashore that the Prince of Parma might effect a landing, and it was at this time that Elizabeth, who declared her intention to be present wherever the battle might be fought, rode through the soldiers’ ranks at Tilbury, and made her now historical speech. “Incredible it is,” says Camden, “how much she encouraged the hearts of her captains and soldiers by her presence and her words.” When a false report was brought that the prince had landed, the news was immediately published throughout the camp, “and assuredly,” says Southey, “if the enemy had set foot upon our shores they would have sped no better than they had done at sea, such was the spirit of the nation.” Some time elapsed before the fate of the Armada was known. It was affirmed on the Continent that the greater part of the English fleet had been taken, and a large proportion sunk, the poor remainder having been driven into the Thames “all rent and torn.” It was believed at Rome that Elizabeth was taken and England conquered! Meantime, the wretched Armada was being blown hither and thither by contending winds. The mules and horses had to be thrown overboard lest the water should fail. When they had reached a northern latitude, some 200 miles from the Scottish isles, the duke ordered them each to take the best course they could for Spain, and he himself with some five-and-twenty of his best provided ships reached it in safety. The others made for Cape Clear, hoping to water there, but a terrible storm arose, in which it is believed more than thirty of the vessels perished off the coast of Ireland. About 200 of the poor Spaniards were driven from their hiding-places and beheaded, through the inhumanity of Sir William Fitzwilliam. “Terrified at this, the other Spaniards, sick and starved as they were, committed themselves to the sea in their shattered vessels, and very many of them were swallowed up by the waves.” Two of their ships were wrecked on the coasts of Norway. Some few got into the English seas; two were taken by cruisers off Rochelle. About 700 men were cast ashore in Scotland, were humanely treated, and subsequently sent, by request of the Prince of Parma, to the Netherlands. Of the whole Armada only fifty-three vessels returned to Spain; eighty-one were lost. The enormous number of 14,000 men, of whom only 2,000 were prisoners, were missing. By far the larger proportion were lost by shipwreck.
Meantime, it was still expected on land that the Prince of Parma might manage a landing, and it was at this time that Elizabeth, who declared her intention to be present wherever the battle might take place, rode through the soldiers’ ranks at Tilbury and delivered her now-famous speech. “It's amazing,” says Camden, "how much she inspired her captains and soldiers with her presence and her words." When a false report arrived that the prince had landed, the news was immediately spread throughout the camp, "and for sure," says Southey, "If the enemy had landed on our shores, they wouldn't have done any better than they did at sea, given the spirit of the nation." Some time passed before the fate of the Armada was known. It was claimed on the Continent that most of the English fleet had been captured, and a large number sunk, with the poor remainder having been driven into the Thames “all worn and torn.” It was believed in Rome that Elizabeth was captured and England conquered! Meanwhile, the wretched Armada was being tossed around by conflicting winds. The mules and horses had to be thrown overboard to prevent running out of water. When they had moved into northern waters, about 200 miles from the Scottish islands, the duke ordered everyone to find the best route to Spain, and he himself, with about twenty-five of his best-equipped ships, reached it safely. The others headed for Cape Clear, hoping to refuel there, but a terrible storm struck, during which it is believed more than thirty vessels were lost off the coast of Ireland. About 200 unfortunate Spaniards were forced out of their hiding spots and beheaded due to the cruelty of Sir William Fitzwilliam. Frightened by this, the other Spaniards, weak and starving, set out to sea in their damaged boats, and many of them were engulfed by the waves. Two of their ships were wrecked along the coasts of Norway. A few managed to enter the English seas; two were captured by cruisers off Rochelle. About 700 men were cast ashore in Scotland, treated humanely, and later sent, at the request of the Prince of Parma, to the Netherlands. Of the entire Armada, only fifty-three vessels returned to Spain; eighty-one were lost. A staggering 14,000 men were missing, of whom only 2,000 were captured. By far the majority were lost to shipwreck.
“Philip’s behaviour,” says Southey, “when the whole of this great calamity was known, should always be recorded to his honour. He received it as a dispensation of Providence, and gave, and commanded to be given, throughout Spain, thanks to God and the saints [pg 291]that it was no greater.” In England, a solemn thanksgiving was celebrated at St. Paul’s, where the Spanish ensigns which had been taken were displayed, and the same flags were shown on London Bridge the following day, it being Southwark Fair. Many of the arms and instruments of torture taken are still to be seen in the Tower. Another great thanksgiving-day was celebrated on the anniversary of the queen’s accession, and one of great solemnity, two days later, throughout the realm. On the Sunday following, the queen went “as in public, but Christian triumph,” to St. Paul’s, in a chariot “made in the form of a throne with four pillars,” and drawn by four white horses; alighting from which at the west door, she knelt and “audibly praised God, acknowledging Him her only Defender, who had thus delivered the land from the rage of the enemy.” Her Privy Council, the nobility, the French ambassador, the judges, and the heralds, accompanied her. The streets were hung with blue cloth and flags, “the several companies, in their liveries, being drawn up both sides of the way, with their banners in becoming and gallant order.” Thus ended this most serious attempt at the invasion of England.
“Philip's actions,” says Southey, "When the news of this major disaster broke, he should always be remembered for his honor. He took it as a sign from Providence and gave thanks to God and the saints [pg 291] for it not being worse. He also ordered everyone in Spain to do the same." In England, a solemn day of thanksgiving was held at St. Paul’s, where the captured Spanish flags were displayed, and those same flags were shown on London Bridge the next day during Southwark Fair. Many of the weapons and torture devices taken are still on view in the Tower. Another major day of thanksgiving took place on the anniversary of the queen’s accession, followed by a significant day of observance two days later, across the kingdom. On the Sunday after, the queen went “in public, but as a victory for Christianity,” to St. Paul’s, in a chariot “crafted to resemble a throne supported by four pillars,” pulled by four white horses; upon arriving at the west door, she got down and “silently thanked God, recognizing Him as her only Protector, who had saved the country from the enemy's wrath.” Her Privy Council, the nobility, the French ambassador, the judges, and the heralds accompanied her. The streets were decorated with blue cloth and flags, "Different companies, in their uniforms, lined up on both sides of the street, proudly displaying their banners." Thus concluded this serious attempt to invade England.
CHAPTER 16.
The History of Ships and Shipping Interests Below is a short piece of text (5 words or fewer). Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links.continued).
Noble Adventurers—The Earl of Cumberland as a Pirate—Rich Prizes—Action with the Madre de Dios—Capture of the Great Carrack—A Cargo worth £150,000—Burning of the Cinco Chagas—But Fifteen saved out of Eleven Hundred Souls—The Scourge of Malice—Establishment of the Slave Trade—Sir John Hawkins’ Ventures—High-handed Proceedings—The Spaniards forced to Purchase—A Fleet of Slavers—Hawkins sanctioned by “Good Queen Bess”—Joins in a Negro War—A Disastrous Voyage—Sir Francis Drake—His First Loss—The Treasure at Nombre de Dios—Drake’s First Sight of the Pacific—Tons of Silver Captured—John Oxenham’s Voyage—The First Englishman on the Pacific—His Disasters and Death—Drake’s Voyage Round the World—Blood-letting at the Equator—Arrival at Port Julian—Trouble with the Natives—Execution of a Mutineer—Passage of the Straits of Magellan—Vessels separated in a Gale—Loss of the Marigold—Tragic Fate of Eight Men—Drake Driven to Cape Horn—Proceedings at Valparaiso—Prizes taken—Capture of the great Treasure Ship—Drake’s Resolve to change his Course Home—Vessel refitted at Nicaragua—Stay in the Bay of San Francisco—The Natives worship the English—Grand Reception at Ternate—Drake’s Ship nearly wrecked—Return to England—Honours accorded Drake—His Character and Influence—Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s Disasters and Death—Raleigh’s Virginia Settlements.
Noble Adventurers—The Earl of Cumberland as a Pirate—Valuable Treasures—Conflict with the Mother of God—Capture of the Great Carrack—A Cargo valued at £150,000—Burning of the Five Chagas—But Fifteen saved out of Eleven Hundred Souls—The Terror of Evil—Establishment of the Slave Trade—Sir John Hawkins’ Ventures—Overbearing Actions—The Spaniards Compelled to Purchase—A Fleet of Slavers—Hawkins Supported by "Good Queen Bess"—Involved in an African War—A Catastrophic Journey—Sir Francis Drake—His Initial Defeat—The Treasure at Nombre de Dios—Drake’s First Glimpse of the Pacific—Tons of Silver Seized—John Oxenham’s Expedition—The First Englishman to Reach the Pacific—His Troubles and Demise—Drake’s Circumnavigation—Violence at the Equator—Arrival at Port Julian—Conflicts with the Natives—Execution of a Mutineer—Sailing Through the Straits of Magellan—Ships Separated in a Storm—Loss of the __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Marigold—Tragic Fate of Eight Men—Drake Forced to Cape Horn—Events at Valparaiso—Prizes Captured—Seizure of the Great Treasure Ship—Drake’s Decision to Change His Course Home—Vessel Repaired in Nicaragua—Stay in the Bay of San Francisco—The Natives Worship the English—Warm Welcome at Ternate—Drake’s Ship Nearly Wrecked—Return to England—Honors Awarded to Drake—His Character and Impact—Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s Disasters and Death—Raleigh’s Virginia Settlements.
The spirit of adventure, fostered by the grand discoveries which were constantly being made, the rich returns derived from trading expeditions, and from the pillage of our enemies, was at its zenith in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Nor was it confined to mere soldiers of fortune, for we find distinguished noblemen of ample fortunes taking to the seas as though their daily bread depended thereupon. Among these naval adventurers “there was no one,” says Southey, “who took to the seas so much in the spirit of a northern sea king as the Earl of Cumberland.” He had borne his part in the defeat of the Armada, while still a young man, and the queen was so well satisfied with him, that she gave him a commission to go the same year to the Spanish coast as general, lending him the Golden Lion, one of the ships royal, he victualling and furnishing it at his own expense. After some fighting he took a prize, but soon after had to cut away his mainmast in a storm, and return to England. “His spirit remaining, nevertheless, higher than the winds, and more resolutely by storms compact and united in itself,” we find him [pg 292]shortly afterwards again on the high seas with the Victory, one of the queen’s ships, and three smaller vessels. The earl was not very scrupulous as regards prize-taking, and captured two French ships, which belonged to the party of the League. A little later he fell in with eleven ships from Hamburg and the Baltic, and fired on them till the captains came on board and showed their passports; these were respected, but not so the property of a Lisbon Jew, which they confessed to have on their ships, and which was valued at £4,500. Off the Azores, he hoisted Spanish colours, and succeeded in robbing some Spanish vessels. The homeward-bound Portuguese fleet from the East Indies narrowly escaped him; when near Tercera some English prisoners stole out in a small boat, having no other yard for their mainsail than two pipe-staves, and informed him that the Portuguese ships had left the island a week before. This induced him to return to Fayal, and the terror inspired by the English name in those days is indicated by the fact that the town of about 500 houses was found to be completely empty; the inhabitants had abandoned it. He set a guard over the churches and monasteries, and then calmly waited till a ransom of 2,000 ducats was brought him. He helped himself to fifty-eight pieces of iron ordnance, and the Governor of Graciosa, to keep on good terms with the earl, sent him sixty butts of wine. While there a Weymouth privateer came in with a Spanish prize worth £16,000. Next we find the earl at St. Mary’s, where he captured a Brazilian sugar ship. In bringing out their prize they were detained on the harbour bar, exposed to the enemy. Eighty of Cumberland’s men were killed, and he himself was wounded; “his head also was broken with stones, so that the blood covered his face,” and both his face and legs were burnt with fire-balls. The prize, however, was secured and forwarded to England.
The spirit of adventure, fueled by the major discoveries happening all the time, the wealth gained from trade voyages, and from raiding our enemies, peaked during Queen Elizabeth's reign. This ambition wasn’t just for mercenaries; even prominent noblemen with significant wealth were taking to the seas as if their livelihoods depended on it. Among these naval adventurers, “there was no one,” says Southey, “who took to the seas with the spirit of a northern sea king quite like the Earl of Cumberland.” He had played a role in defeating the Armada while still young, and the queen was so pleased with him that she awarded him a commission that same year to lead a mission to the Spanish coast, providing him with the Golden Lion, one of the royal ships, which he equipped and supplied at his own cost. After some fighting, he captured a prize, but soon after, he had to cut his mainmast during a storm and return to England. “His spirit remained, nevertheless, higher than the winds, and more resolutely by storms compact and united in itself,” and shortly afterwards, he was back on the high seas with the Win, one of the queen’s ships, and three smaller vessels. The earl wasn’t particularly cautious about taking prizes, capturing two French ships affiliated with the League. A little later, he encountered eleven ships from Hamburg and the Baltic, firing on them until the captains came aboard and showed their passports; those were respected, but not the property of a Lisbon Jew, which they admitted having on their ships, valued at £4,500. Off the Azores, he raised Spanish colors and managed to loot some Spanish vessels. The Portuguese fleet returning from the East Indies barely escaped him; when near Tercera, some English prisoners managed to escape in a small boat, using two pipe-staves as a yard for their mainsail, and informed him that the Portuguese ships had left the island a week earlier. He decided to return to Fayal, and the fear of the English was so strong at the time that the town of around 500 houses was found completely deserted; the inhabitants had fled. He set a guard over the churches and monasteries and then calmly waited until a ransom of 2,000 ducats was brought to him. He seized fifty-eight pieces of iron ordnance, and to maintain good relations with the earl, the Governor of Graciosa sent him sixty butts of wine. While there, a Weymouth privateer arrived with a Spanish prize worth £16,000. Next, the earl was at St. Mary’s, where he captured a Brazilian sugar ship. While trying to bring their prize out, they were trapped on the harbor bar, vulnerable to the enemy. Eighty of Cumberland’s men were killed, and he was wounded; “his head also was broken with stones, so that the blood covered his face,” and both his face and legs were burned with fireballs. The prize, however, was secured and sent back to England.
Cumberland himself held on his course to Spain, and soon fell in with a ship of 400 tons, from Mexico, laden with hides, cochineal, sugar, and silver, “and the captain had with him a venture to the amount of 25,000 ducats,” which was taken. They now resolved to return home, but “sea fortunes are variable, having two inconstant parents, air and water,” and as one of the adventurers134 concisely put it, “these summer services and ships of sugar proved not so sweet and pleasant as the winter was afterwards sharp and painful.” Lister, the earl’s captain, was sent in the Mexican prize for England, and was wrecked off Cornwall, everything being lost in her, and all the crew, save five or six men. On the earl’s ship, contrary winds and gales delayed them so greatly that their water failed; they were reduced to three spoonfuls of vinegar apiece at each meal; this state of affairs lasting fourteen days, except what water they could collect from rain and hail-storms. “Yet was that rain so intermingled with the spray of the foaming sea, in that extreme storm, that it could not be healthful: yea, some in their extremity of thirst drank themselves to death with their cans of salt water in their hands.” Some ten or twelve perished on each of as many consecutive nights, and the storm was at one time so violent that the ship was almost torn to pieces; “his lordship’s cabin, the dining-room, and the half deck became all one,” and he was obliged to seek a lodging in the hold. The earl, however, constantly encouraged the men, and the small stock of provisions was distributed with the greatest [pg 293]equality; so at last they reached a haven on the west coast of Ireland, where their sufferings ended. On this voyage they had taken thirteen prizes. The Mexican prize which had been wrecked would have added £100,000 to the profits of the venture, but even with this great deduction, the earl had been doubly repaid for his outlay.
Cumberland continued his journey to Spain and soon came across a 400-ton ship from Mexico, loaded with hides, cochineal, sugar, and silver, “and the captain had a venture of 25,000 ducats with him,” which was captured. They decided to head back home, but "Sea fortunes are unpredictable, with two unstable parents: air and water." and as one of the adventurers succinctly put it, "These summer trips and sugar ships ended up being not as fun and pleasant as the tough winter that came after." Lister, the earl’s captain, was sent back to England with the Mexican prize but was wrecked off Cornwall, losing everything and most of the crew, except for five or six men. On the earl’s ship, contrary winds and storms delayed them significantly, leading to a shortage of water; they were down to three spoonfuls of vinegar each at every meal for fourteen days, except for the rain and hailwater they managed to collect. "However, the rain was so mixed with the spray from the turbulent sea during that severe storm that it wasn't safe: in fact, some people, in their desperation for water, drank themselves to death while holding cans of salt water." About ten or twelve died on each of several consecutive nights, and at one point the storm was so severe that the ship was nearly torn apart; “his lordship’s cabin, the dining room, and the half deck all merged into one,” forcing him to find shelter in the hold. Despite this, the earl continually encouraged the men, and the limited provisions were shared as equally as possible; eventually, they reached a safe harbor on the west coast of Ireland, where their hardships ended. During this voyage, they captured thirteen ships. The wrecked Mexican prize would have added £100,000 to the venture’s profits, but even with this significant loss, the earl had received double for his investment.
The earl’s third expedition was a failure, but the fourth resulted in the capture of the Madre de Dios, one of the largest carracks belonging to the Portuguese crown. In this, however, some of Raleigh’s and Hawkins’ ships had a share. Captain Thomson, who came up with her first, “again and again delivered his peals as fast as he could fire and fall astern to load again, thus hindering her way, though somewhat to his own cost, till the others could come up.” Several others worried the carrack, until the earl’s ships came up about eleven at night. Captain Norton had no intention of boarding the enemy till daylight, if there had not been a cry from one of the ships royal, then in danger, “An you be men, save the queen’s ship!” Upon this the carrack was boarded on both sides. A desperate struggle ensued, and it took an hour and a half before the attacking parties succeeded in getting possession of the high forecastle, “so brave a booty making the men fight like dragons.” The ship won, the boarders turned to pillage, and while searching about with candles, managed to set fire to a cabin containing some hundreds of cartridges, very nearly blowing up the ship. The hotness of the action was evidenced by the number of dead and dying who strewed the carrack’s decks, “especially,” says the chronicler, “about the helm; for the greatness of the steerage requiring the labour of twelve or fourteen men at once, and some of our ships beating her in at the stern with their ordnance, oftentimes with one shot slew four or five labouring on either side of the helm; whose room being still furnished with fresh supplies, and our artillery still playing upon them with continual volleys, it could not be but that much blood should be shed in that place.” For the times, the prisoners were treated with great humanity, and surgeons were sent on board to dress their wounds. The captain, Don Fernando de Mendoza, was [pg 294]“a gentleman of noble birth, well stricken in years, well spoken, of comely personage, of good stature, but of hard fortune. Twice he had been taken prisoner by the Moors and ransomed by the king; and he had been wrecked on the coast of Sofala, in a carrack which he commanded, and having escaped the sea danger, fell into the hands of infidels ashore, who kept him under long and grievous servitude.” The prisoners were allowed to carry off their own valuables, put on board one of Cumberland’s ships, and sent to their own country. Unfortunately for them, they again fell in with other English cruisers, who robbed them without mercy, taking from them 900 diamonds and other valuable things. About 800 negroes on board were landed on the island of Corvo. Her cargo consisted of jewels, spices, drugs, silks, calicoes, carpets, canopies, ivory, porcelain, and innumerable curiosities; it was estimated to amount to £150,000 in value, and there was considerable haggling over its division, and no little embezzlement; the queen had a large share of it, and Cumberland netted £36,000. The carrack created great astonishment at Dartmouth by her dimensions, which for those days were enormous. She was of about 1,600 tons burden, and 165 feet long; she was of “seven several stories, one main orlop, three close decks, one forecastle (of great height) and a spar deck of two floors apiece.” Her mainmast was 125 feet in height, and her main-yard 105 feet long. “Being so huge and unwieldly a ship,” says Purchas, “she was never removed from Dartmouth, but there laid up her bones.”
The earl’s third expedition was a failure, but the fourth resulted in the capture of the Mother of God, one of the largest carracks owned by the Portuguese crown. Some of Raleigh’s and Hawkins’ ships were involved in this capture. Captain Thomson, who was the first to reach her, "kept firing his cannon as fast as he could load and step back to reload, which slowed her down, even at his own cost, until the others could join him." Several other ships harassed the carrack until the earl’s ships arrived around eleven at night. Captain Norton planned to wait until dawn to board the enemy, but then he heard a cry from one of the royal ships that was in trouble, “If you’re men, save the queen’s ship!” So, they boarded the carrack from both sides. A fierce fight broke out, and it took an hour and a half for the attackers to gain control of the high forecastle, "making the men battle fiercely over such a valuable prize." After taking the ship, the boarders began to loot, and while searching with candles, they accidentally set fire to a cabin filled with hundreds of cartridges, nearly blowing up the ship. The intensity of the battle was evident by the number of dead and wounded littering the carrack’s decks, "especially," as the chronicler noted, “around the helm; because the large wheel needed the strength of twelve or fourteen men at the same time, and some of our ships firing at her from the back often killed four or five men working on either side of the helm with just one shot; since that area was still filled with new crew members, and our cannons were firing at them constantly, a lot of bloodshed there was unavoidable.” For the time, the prisoners were treated with great kindness, and surgeons were sent on board to tend to their wounds. The captain, Don Fernando de Mendoza, was [pg 294]“a man of noble birth, older in age, articulate, with a pleasant appearance, of tall stature, but unfortunate in his fate. He had been captured twice by the Moors and ransomed by the king; he had been shipwrecked on the coast of Sofala while leading a carrack, and after surviving the dangers at sea, he fell into the hands of non-believers on land, who kept him in long and brutal servitude.” The prisoners were allowed to take their own valuables, loaded onto one of Cumberland’s ships, and sent back to their country. Unfortunately for them, they encountered other English cruisers who robbed them mercilessly, taking 900 diamonds and other valuables. About 800 slaves on board were brought to the island of Corvo. The ship was laden with jewels, spices, medicines, silks, calicoes, carpets, canopies, ivory, porcelain, and countless curiosities; it was estimated to be worth £150,000, and there was considerable quarrelling over its division, with some significant embezzlement; the queen received a large share, and Cumberland made £36,000. The carrack amazed everyone at Dartmouth with her size, which was enormous for those times. She weighed about 1,600 tons and was 165 feet long; she had "Seven decks in total, one main hold, three enclosed decks, a high forecastle, and a spar deck with two levels." Her mainmast stood 125 feet tall, and her main yard was 105 feet in length. "Since it’s such a large and cumbersome ship," Purchas noted, "She was never moved from Dartmouth and stayed there as a wreck."
In 1594 the earl set forth on his eighth voyage, with three ships, a caravel, and a pinnace, furnished at his own expense, with the help of some adventurers. Early in the voyage they descried a great Indian ship, whose burden they estimated at 2,000 tons. Her name was the Cinco Chagas (the Five Wounds), and her fate was as tragical as her name. She had on board a number of persons who had been shipwrecked in three vessels, which, like herself, had been returning from the Indies. When she left Mozambique for Europe, she had on board 1,400 persons, an enormous number for those days; on the voyage she had encountered terrible gales, and after putting in at Loanda for water and supplies, and shipping many slaves, a fatal pestilence known by the name of the “mal de Loanda,” carried off about half the crew. The captain wished to avoid the Azores, but a mutiny had arisen among the soldiers on board, and he was forced to stand by them, and by this means came into contact with the Earl of Cumberland’s squadron off Fayal. The Portuguese had pledged themselves to the ship at all hazards, and to perish with her in the sea, or in the flames, rather than yield so rich a prize to the heretics. Cumberland’s ships, after harassing the carrack on all sides, ranged up against her; twice was she boarded, and twice were the assailants driven out. A third time the privateers boarded her, one of them bearing a white flag; he was the first of the party killed, and when a second hoisted another flag at the poop it was immediately thrown overboard. The English suffered considerably, more especially among the officers. Cumberland’s vice-admiral, Antony, was killed; Downton, the rear-admiral, crippled for life; and Cave, who commanded the earl’s ship, mortally wounded. The privateers seem, in the heat of action, almost to have forgotten the valuable cargo on board, and to have aimed only at destroying her. “After many bickerings,” says the chronicler, “fireworks flew about interchangeably; at last the vice-admiral, with a culverin shot at hand, fired the carrack in her stern, and the rear-admiral [pg 295]her forecastle, * * * * then flying and maintaining their fires so well with their small shot that many which came to quench them were slain.” The fire made rapid headway, and P. Frey Antonio, a Franciscan, was seen with a crucifix in his hand, encouraging the poor sailors to commit themselves to the waves and to God’s mercy, rather than perish in the flames. A large number threw themselves overboard, clinging to such things as were cast into the sea. It is said that the English boats, with one honourable exception, made no efforts to save any of them; it is even stated that they butchered many in the water. According to the English account there were more than 1,100 on board the carrack, when she left Loanda, of whom only fifteen were saved! Two ladies of high rank, mother and daughter—the latter of whom was going home to Spain to take possession of some entailed property—when they saw there was no help to be expected from the privateers, fastened themselves together with a cord, and committed themselves to the waves; their bodies were afterwards cast ashore on Fayal, still united, though in the bonds of death.
In 1594, the earl set out on his eighth voyage with three ships: a caravel and a pinnace, financed by himself with some help from adventurers. Early in the journey, they spotted a large Indian ship, estimated to weigh around 2,000 tons. Its name was the Five Chagas (the Five Wounds), and its fate was as tragic as its name. Onboard were many people who had survived shipwrecks from three other vessels that, like hers, were returning from the Indies. When she left Mozambique for Europe, there were 1,400 people onboard, a huge number for that time; during the voyage, she faced severe storms. After stopping at Loanda for water and supplies and taking on many slaves, a deadly disease known as "Loanda Syndrome," killed about half the crew. The captain wanted to avoid the Azores, but a mutiny broke out among the soldiers, forcing him to comply, which led to an encounter with the Earl of Cumberland’s squadron off Fayal. The Portuguese crew had vowed to protect the ship at all costs, preferring to die at sea or in flames rather than surrender such a valuable prize to the heretics. Cumberland's ships harassed the carrack from all sides and approached it; they boarded her twice, but each time were driven back. A third attempt was made, with one boarder raising a white flag; he was the first to be killed, and when another flag was raised at the stern, it was quickly thrown overboard. The English suffered heavy losses, especially among their officers. Cumberland’s vice-admiral, Antony, was killed; Downton, the rear-admiral, was left crippled for life; and Cave, who commanded the earl’s ship, was mortally wounded. The privateers seemed, in the heat of battle, to have forgotten the valuable cargo onboard, focusing solely on destroying the ship. "After many arguments," the chronicler notes, "Fireworks were going off everywhere; finally, the vice-admiral fired a shot from a culverin at the back of the carrack, while the rear-admiral targeted her forecastle. They managed their fire so effectively with their smaller shots that many who tried to extinguish the flames were killed." The fire spread quickly, and P. Frey Antonio, a Franciscan, was seen holding a crucifix, encouraging the sailors to jump into the waves and trust in God’s mercy instead of burning to death. Many of them jumped overboard, clinging to whatever they could find floating. It's said that the English boats, with one notable exception, did not attempt to rescue anyone; in fact, they allegedly killed many in the water. According to the English account, there were more than 1,100 onboard when the carrack left Loanda, and only fifteen survived! Two highborn ladies, a mother and daughter—the latter was on her way back to Spain to claim some inherited property—when they realized there was no chance of rescue from the privateers, tied themselves together with a cord and threw themselves into the waves; their bodies later washed ashore in Fayal, still bound together in death.
The earl afterwards built the Scourge of Malice, a ship of 800 tons, and the largest yet constructed by an English subject, and in 1597 obtained letters patent authorising him to levy sea and land forces. Without royal assistance, he gathered eighteen sail. This expedition, although it worried and impoverished the Spaniards, was not particularly profitable to the earl. He took Puerto Rico, and then abandoned it, and did not, as he expected, intercept either the outward-bound East Indiamen, who, indeed, were too frightened to venture out of the Tagus that year, or the homeward-bound Mexican fleet. This was Cumberland’s last expedition, and no other subject ever undertook so many at his own cost.
The earl later built the Evil's Curse, an 800-ton ship, which was the largest ever built by an English subject at that time. In 1597, he received letters patent allowing him to raise sea and land forces. Without royal backing, he managed to gather eighteen ships. This expedition, while it caused trouble and hardship for the Spaniards, wasn’t particularly profitable for the earl. He captured Puerto Rico but then abandoned it and did not, as he had hoped, intercept the East Indiamen heading out, who were too scared to leave the Tagus that year, nor the Mexican fleet returning home. This was Cumberland’s last expedition, and no one else ever undertook so many at his own expense.
The Elizabethan age was otherwise so glorious that it is painful to have to record the establishment of the slave-trade—a serious blot on the reign—one which no Englishman of to-day would defend, but which was then looked upon as perfectly legitimate. John Hawkins (afterwards Sir John) was born at Plymouth, and his father had long been a well-esteemed sea-captain, the first Englishman, it is believed, who ever traded to the Brazils. The young man had gained much renown by trips to Spain, Portugal, and the Canaries, and having “grown in love and favour” with the Canarians, by good and upright dealing, began to think of more extended enterprises. Learning that “negroes were very good merchandise in Hispaniola, and that store of them might easily be had upon the coast of Guinea,” he communicated with several London ship-owners, who liked his schemes, and provided him in large part with the necessary outfit. Three small vessels were provided—the Solomon, of 120 tons, the Swallow, of 100, and the Jonas, of forty. Hawkins left England in October, 1562, and proceeding to Sierra Leone, “got into his possession, partly by the sword and partly by other means, to the number of 300 negroes at the least, besides other merchandise which that country yieldeth.” At the port of Isabella, Puerto de Plata, and Monte Christo, he made sale of the slaves to the Spaniards, trusting them “no farther than by his own strength he was able to master them.” He received in exchange, pearls, ginger, sugar, and hides enough, not merely to freight his own vessels, but two other hulks, and thus “with prosperous success, and much gain to himself and the aforesaid adventurers, he came home, and arrived in September, 1563.”
The Elizabethan age was otherwise so glorious that it's painful to record the start of the slave trade—a serious stain on the reign—one that no Englishman today would defend, but that was then seen as perfectly legitimate. John Hawkins (later Sir John) was born in Plymouth, and his father had long been a respected sea captain, believed to be the first Englishman to ever trade with the Brazils. The young man gained much fame through trips to Spain, Portugal, and the Canaries, and after establishing a good reputation with the Canarians through fair dealings, he began to consider more extensive ventures. Discovering that “negroes were very good merchandise in Hispaniola, and that a large supply could easily be obtained along the coast of Guinea,” he reached out to several London shipowners, who liked his plans and helped equip him significantly. Three small vessels were provided—the Solomon, weighing 120 tons, the Swallow, at 100 tons, and the Jonas, at 40 tons. Hawkins left England in October 1562 and, going to Sierra Leone, “acquired at least 300 negroes, partly through force and partly through other means, along with other goods that the country produces.” At the ports of Isabella, Puerto de Plata, and Monte Christo, he sold the slaves to the Spaniards, trusting them “only as far as he could control them by his own strength.” In return, he received pearls, ginger, sugar, and enough hides not just to load his own ships but also two additional hulks, and thus “with successful outcomes and significant profits for himself and the other investors, he returned home, arriving in September 1563.”
The second expedition was on a larger scale, and included a queen’s ship of 700 tons. Hawkins arriving off the Rio Grande, could not enter it for want of a pilot, but he proceeded to Sambula, one of the islands near its mouth, where he “went every day on shore to take the inhabitants, with burning and spoiling their towns,” and got a number of slaves. Flushed with easy success, Hawkins was persuaded by some Portuguese to attack a negro town called Bymeba, where he was informed there was much gold. Forty of his men were landed, and they dispersing, to secure what booty they could for themselves, became an easy prey to the negroes, who killed seven, including one of the captains, and wounded twenty-seven. After a visit to Sierra Leone, which he left quickly on account of the illness and death of some of his men, he proceeded to the West Indies, where he carried matters with a high hand at the small Spanish settlements, at which very generally the poor inhabitants had been forbidden to trade with him by the viceroy, then stationed at St. Domingo. To this he replied at Borburata, that he was in need of refreshment and money also, “without which he could not depart. Their princes were in amity one with another; the English had free traffic in Spain and Flanders; and he knew no reason why they should not have the like in the King of Spain’s dominions. Upon this the Spaniards said they would send to their governor, who was three-score leagues off; ten days must elapse before his determination could arrive; meantime he might bring his ships into the harbour, and they would supply him with any victuals he might require.” The ships sailed in and were supplied, but Hawkins, “advising himself that to remain there ten days idle, spending victuals and men’s wages, and perhaps, in the end, receive no good answer from the governor, it were mere folly,” requested licence to sell certain lean and sick negroes, for whom he had little or no food, but who would recover with proper treatment ashore. This request, he said, he was forced to make, as he had not otherwise wherewith to pay for necessaries supplied to him. He received a licence to sell thirty slaves, but now few showed a disposition to buy, and where they did, came to haggle and cheapen. Hawkins made a feint to go, when the Spaniards bought some of his poorer negroes, “but when the purchasers paid the duty and required the customary receipt, the officer refused to give it, and instead of carrying the money to the king’s account, distributed it to the poor ‘for the love of God.’ ” The purchasers feared that they might have to pay the duty a second time, and the trade was suspended till the governor arrived, on the fourteenth day. To him Hawkins told a long-winded story, concluding by saying that, “it would be taken well at the governor’s hand if he granted a licence in this case, seeing that there was a great amity between their princes, and that the thing pertained to our queen’s highness.” The petition was taken under consideration in council, and at last granted. The licence of thirty ducats demanded for each slave sold did not, however, meet Hawkins’ views, and he therefore landed 100 men well armed, and marched toward the town. The poor townspeople sent out messengers to know his demands, and he requested that the duty should be 7½ per cent., and mildly threatened that if they would not accede to this “he would displease them.” Everything was conceded, and Hawkins obtained the prices he wanted. Fancy a modern merchant standing with an armed guard, pistol in hand, over his customers, insisting that he would sell what he liked and at his own price!
The second expedition was on a larger scale and included a queen’s ship of 700 tons. When Hawkins arrived near the Rio Grande, he couldn’t enter because he didn’t have a pilot, so he went to Sambula, one of the islands near the mouth of the river, where he “went ashore every day to take the inhabitants, burning and ruining their towns,” and captured a number of slaves. Feeling confident from his easy success, Hawkins was convinced by some Portuguese to attack a Black town called Bymeba, where they told him there was a lot of gold. He sent forty of his men ashore, but they scattered to grab what loot they could for themselves, becoming easy targets for the locals, who killed seven, including one of the captains, and wounded twenty-seven. After a quick stop at Sierra Leone, which he left hurriedly due to the sickness and death of some of his men, he continued to the West Indies, where he acted boldly against the minor Spanish settlements, at which the poor locals had been generally forbidden to trade with him by the viceroy stationed at St. Domingo. When he arrived in Borburata, he insisted that he needed food and money, “without which he could not depart. Their princes were at peace with one another; the English had free trade in Spain and Flanders; and he saw no reason why they shouldn’t have the same in the King of Spain’s territories.” The Spaniards replied that they would send word to their governor, who was sixty leagues away; it would take ten days for his response to arrive. In the meantime, he could bring his ships into the harbor, and they would provide any food he needed.” The ships came in and were supplied, but Hawkins, “realizing that staying there for ten days doing nothing, wasting food and men’s wages, and perhaps, in the end, getting no good answer from the governor, would be pure folly,” asked for permission to sell some sick and underweight Black people, who he had little food for, but who could recover with proper care on land. He explained that he needed to do this because he had no other way to pay for the necessities he had received. He was granted permission to sell thirty slaves, but soon found that few people wanted to buy, and those who did wanted to negotiate the price. When Hawkins pretended to leave, the Spaniards bought some of his weaker Black people, “but when the buyers paid the tax and asked for the customary receipt, the officer refused to give it, and instead of depositing the money into the king’s account, gave it to the poor ‘for the love of God.’” The buyers worried they might have to pay the tax again, and the trade was put on hold until the governor arrived on the fourteenth day. To him, Hawkins spun a long tale, concluding with, “it would be appreciated by the governor if he approved a license in this situation, considering the strong friendship between their princes and that this matter related to our queen’s highness.” The request was discussed in council and eventually approved. However, the thirty ducats asked for each slave did not satisfy Hawkins, so he landed 100 well-armed men and marched toward the town. The frightened townspeople sent out messengers to learn his demands, and he asked for the tax to be 7.5 percent, vaguely threatening that if they didn’t agree, “he would upset them.” They conceded everything, and Hawkins got the prices he wanted. Imagine a modern merchant standing with an armed guard, a gun in hand, over his customers, demanding that he would sell what he wanted and at his own price!
But all this is nothing to what happened at Rio de la Hacha. There he spoke of his quiet traffic (!) at Borburata, and requested permission to trade there in the same manner. He was told that the viceroy had forbidden it, whereupon he threatened them that he must either have the licence or they “stand to their own defence.” The licence was granted, but they offered half the prices which he had obtained at Borburata, whereupon he told them, insultingly, that “seeing they had sent him this to his supper, he would in the morning bring them as good a breakfast.”135 Accordingly, early next day he fired off a culverin, and prepared to land with 100 men, “having light ordnance in his great boat, and in the other boats double bases in their noses.” The townsmen marched out in battle array, but when the guns were fired fell flat on their faces, and soon dispersed. Still, about thirty horsemen made a show of resistance, their white leather targets in one hand and their javelins in the other, but as soon as Hawkins marched towards them they sent a flag of truce, and the treasurer, “in a cautious interview with this ugly merchant,” granted all he asked, and the trade proceeded. They parted with a show of friendship, and saluted each other with their guns, the townspeople “glad to be sped of such traders.”
But all of this is nothing compared to what happened at Rio de la Hacha. There, he talked about his calm dealings at Borburata and asked for permission to trade there in the same way. He was told that the viceroy had banned it, and then he threatened them, saying he must either get the license or they would “stand to their own defense.” The license was granted, but they offered half the prices he had gotten at Borburata. He insultingly told them that “since they had sent him this to his supper, he would bring them as good a breakfast in the morning.” Accordingly, early the next day he fired a cannon and got ready to land with 100 men, “having light ordnance in his large boat, and in the other boats double bases in their bows.” The townsfolk came out prepared for battle, but when the guns were fired, they fell flat on their faces and quickly scattered. However, around thirty horsemen attempted to resist, holding their white leather shields in one hand and their javelins in the other. But as soon as Hawkins marched toward them, they sent a flag of truce, and the treasurer, “in a cautious meeting with this ugly merchant,” granted him everything he asked for, and the trade went ahead. They parted with an appearance of friendship and saluted each other with their guns, the townspeople “glad to be rid of such traders.”
On the return voyage, contrary winds prevailed, “till victuals scanted, so that they were in despair of ever reaching home, had not God provided for them better than their deserving.” They arrived at Padstow, in Cornwall, “with the loss,” says the narrative printed in Hakluyt’s collection, “of twenty persons in all the voyage, and with great profit to the venturers, as also to the whole realm, in bringing home both gold, [pg 298]silver, pearls, and other jewels in great store. His name, therefore, be praised for evermore. Amen!” They did not consider that they had been engaged in a most iniquitous traffic, nor was it, indeed, the opinion of the times. “Hawkins,” says Southey, “then, is not individually to be condemned, if he looked upon dealing in negroes to be as lawful as any other trade, and thought that force or artifice might be employed for taking them with as little compunction as in hunting, fishing, or fowling.” He had a coat of arms and crest bestowed upon him and his posterity. Among other devices it bore “a demi-Moor, in his proper colour, bound and captive, with annulets on his arms,” &c.
On the return voyage, strong winds made things difficult, “until their food ran low, and they lost hope of ever getting home, didn’t God provide for them better than they deserved?” They arrived at Padstow, in Cornwall, “with the loss,” as noted in the narrative printed in Hakluyt’s collection, "Of twenty people during the journey, and with significant profit for the investors and the entire kingdom, by returning with gold, [pg 298]silver, pearls, and other gems in great amounts. His name shall be praised forever. Amen!" They didn’t realize they had been involved in a highly unethical trade, nor was that the common view of the time. “Hawkins,” says Southey, “should not be judged harshly on his own if he saw trading in enslaved people as just another business, and thought that using force or deceit to capture them was as easy as hunting, fishing, or bird-catching.” He was granted a coat of arms and crest for himself and his descendants. Among other symbols, it featured "a half-Moor, in his natural skin tone, tied up and held captive, with rings on his arms," etc.
On his next expedition for slaving purposes he had six vessels. Herrera136 says that two Portuguese had offered to conduct this fleet to a place where they might load their vessels with gold and other riches, and that the queen had been so taken with the idea that she had supplied Hawkins with two ships, he and his brother fitting out four others and a pinnace. The force on board amounted to 1,500 soldiers and sailors, who were to receive a third of the profits. When the expedition was ready, the Portuguese deserted from Plymouth, and went to France, but as the cost of the outfit had been incurred, it was thought proper to proceed. Hawkins obtained, after a great deal of trouble, less than 150 slaves between the Rio Grande and Sierra Leone. At this juncture a negro king, just going to war with a neighbouring tribe, sent to the commander asking his aid, promising him all the prisoners who should be taken. This was a tempting bait, and 120 men were sent to assist the coloured warrior. They assaulted a town containing 8,000 inhabitants, strongly paled and well defended, and the English losing six men, and having a fourth of their number wounded, sent for more help; “whereupon,” says Hawkins, “considering that the good success of this enterprise might highly further the commodity of our voyage, I went myself; and with the help of the king of our side, assaulted the town both by land and sea, and very hardly, with fire (their houses being covered with dry palm-leaves), obtained the town, and put the inhabitants to flight, where we took 250 persons, men, women, and children. And by our friend, the king of our side, there were taken 600 prisoners, whereof we hoped to have had our choice; but the negro (in which nation is seldom or never found truth) meant nothing less, for that night he removed his camp and prisoners, so that we were fain to content us with those few that we had gotten ourselves.” They had obtained between 400 and 500, a part of which were speedily sold as soon as he reached the West Indies. At Rio de la Hacha, “from whence came all the pearls,” the treasurer would by no means allow them to trade, or even to water the ships, and had fortified the town with additional bulwarks, well manned by harquebusiers. Hawkins again enforced trade, by landing 200 men, who stormed their fortifications, at which the Spaniards fled. “Thus having the town,” says Hawkins, “with some circumstance, as partly by the Spaniards’ desire of negroes, and partly by friendship of the treasurer, we obtained a secret trade, whereupon the Spaniards resorted to us by night, and bought of us to the number of 200 negroes.”
On his next expedition for slave trading, he had six ships. Herrera136 says that two Portuguese offered to guide this fleet to a place where they could load their ships with gold and other treasures, and the queen was so impressed with the idea that she provided Hawkins with two ships, while he and his brother outfitted four others and a small boat. The crew totaled 1,500 soldiers and sailors, who would receive a third of the profits. When the expedition was prepared, the Portuguese deserted in Plymouth and went to France, but since the costs had already been incurred, it was deemed appropriate to continue. After much effort, Hawkins obtained less than 150 slaves between the Rio Grande and Sierra Leone. At this point, a Black king, who was about to go to war with a neighboring tribe, sought help from the commander, promising him all the prisoners taken. This was a tempting offer, and 120 men were sent to support the king. They attacked a town with 8,000 residents, which was heavily fortified and well defended. The English lost six men and had a quarter of their group wounded, leading them to call for more assistance; "then," says Hawkins, "Since the success of this mission could greatly benefit our journey, I went personally; and with the support of our allied king, we attacked the town both by land and sea. It was quite challenging, but we used fire (as their houses were covered with dry palm leaves) to take the town and drive the inhabitants away, capturing 250 people—men, women, and children. Additionally, with the help of our supporting king, we captured 600 prisoners, from whom we hoped to make selections. However, the Black king (who is rarely honest) had other plans, as that night he moved his camp and prisoners, leaving us to settle for the few we had captured ourselves." They had acquired between 400 and 500, a portion of which were quickly sold as soon as he reached the West Indies. At Rio de la Hacha, “where all the pearls came from,” the treasury official would not allow them to trade or even to replenish their ships’ water, having fortified the town with additional defenses, manned by soldiers. Hawkins pushed for a trade by landing 200 men who stormed their fortifications, causing the Spaniards to flee. "Now owning the town," says Hawkins, "Because of the Spaniards' need for slaves and the treasurer's connections, we set up a secret trade, making the Spaniards come to us at night to buy a total of 200 slaves."
This voyage ended most disastrously. Passing by the west end of Cuba, they [pg 299]encountered a terrific storm, which lasted four days, and they had to cut down all the “higher buildings” of the Jesus, their largest ship; her rudder, too, was nearly disabled, and she leaked badly. They made for the coast of Florida, but could find no suitable haven. “Thus, being in great despair, and taken with a new storm, which continued other three days,” Hawkins made for St. Juan de Ulloa, a port of the city of Mexico. They took on their way three ships, having on board 100 passengers, and soon reached the harbour. The Spaniards mistook them for a fleet from Spain, which was expected about that time, and the chief officers came aboard to receive the despatches. “Being deceived of their expectation,” they were somewhat alarmed, but finding that Hawkins wanted nothing but provisions, “were recomforted.” “I found in the same port,” says Hawkins, “twelve ships, which had in them, by report, £200,000 in gold and silver; all of which being in my possession, with the king’s island, as also the passengers before in my way thitherward stayed, I set at liberty, without the taking from them the weight of a groat.” This savours rather of impudent presumption, for he was certainly not in good condition to fight at that period. Next day the Spanish fleet arrived outside, when Hawkins again rode the high horse, by giving notice to the general that he would not suffer them to enter the port until conditions had been made for their safe-being, and for the maintenance of peace. The fleet had on board a new viceroy, who answered amicably, and desired him to propose his conditions. Hawkins required not merely victuals and trade, and hostages to be given on both sides, but that the island should be in his possession during his stay, with such ordnance as was planted there, and that no Spaniard might land on the island with any kind of weapon. These terms the viceroy “somewhat disliked” at first, nor is it very surprising that he did; but at length he pretended to consent, and the Spanish ships entered the port. In a few days it became evident that treachery was intended, as men and weapons in quantities were being transferred from and to the Spanish ships, and new ordnance landed on the island. Hawkins sent to inquire what was meant, and was answered with fair words; still unsatisfied, he sent the master of the Jesus, who spoke Spanish, to the viceroy, and “required to be satisfied if any such thing were or not.” The viceroy, now seeing that the treason must be discovered, retained the master, blew his trumpet, and it became evident that a general attack was intended. A number of the English crews ashore were immediately massacred. They attempted to board the Minion and Jesus, but were kept out, with great loss on both sides. “Now,” says Hawkins, “when the Jesus and the Minion were gotten about two ships’ lengths from the Spanish fleet, the fight began so hot on all sides, that, within one hour, the admiral of the Spaniards was supposed to be sunk, their vice-admiral burnt, and one other of their principal ships supposed to be sunk. The Spaniards used their shore artillery to such effect that it cut all the masts and yards of the Jesus, and sunk Hawkins’ smaller ships, the Judith only excepted.” It had been determined, as there was little hope to get the Jesus away, that she should be placed as a target or defence for the Minion till night, when they would remove such of the stores and valuables as was possible, and then abandon her. “As we were thus determining,” says Hawkins, “and had placed the Minion from the shot of the land, suddenly the Spaniards fired two great ships which were coming directly with us; and having no means to avoid the fire, it bred among the men a [pg 300]marvellous fear, so that some said, ‘Let us depart with the Minion;’ others said, ‘Let us see whether the wind will carry the fire from us.’ But, to be short, the Minion’s men, which had always their sails in readiness, thought to make sure work, and so, without either consent of the captain or master, cut their sail.” Hawkins was “very hardly” received on board, and many of the men of the Jesus were left to their fate and the mercy of the Spaniards, “which,” he says, “I doubt was very little.” Only the Minion and the Judith escaped, and the latter deserted that same night. Beaten about in unknown seas for the next fourteen days, hunger at last enforced them to seek the land; “for hides were thought very good meat; rats, cats, mice, and dogs, none escaped that might be gotten; parrots and monkeys, that were had in great price, were thought then very profitable if they served the turn of one dinner.” So starved and worn out were they, [pg 302]that about a hundred of his people desired to be left on the coast of Tabasco, and Hawkins determined to water there, and then, “with his little remain of victuals,” to attempt the voyage home. During this time, while on shore with fifty of his men, a gale arose, which prevented them regaining the ship; indeed, they expected to see it wrecked before their eyes. At last the storm abated, and they sailed for England, the men dying off daily from sheer exhaustion, the pitiful remainder being scarcely able to work the ship. They at last reached the coast of Galicia, where they obtained fresh meat, and putting into Vigo, were assisted by some English ships lying there. Hawkins concludes his narrative as follows:—“If all the miseries and troublesome affairs of this sorrowful voyage should be perfectly and thoroughly written, there should need a painful man with his pen, and as great a time as he had that wrote the lives and deaths of the martyrs.”
This voyage ended most disastrously. Passing by the west end of Cuba, they [pg 299]encountered a terrible storm that lasted four days, forcing them to cut down all the “taller buildings” of the Jesus, their largest ship; her rudder was nearly disabled, and she leaked badly. They headed for the coast of Florida but could find no suitable harbor. "So, being in deep despair, and caught in a new storm that lasted for another three days," Hawkins made for St. Juan de Ulloa, a port of Mexico City. On the way, they captured three ships, which had 100 passengers onboard, and soon reached the harbor. The Spaniards mistook them for a fleet from Spain, which was expected around that time, and the chief officers board to receive the dispatches. “Being misled about their expectation,” they were somewhat alarmed, but when they found Hawkins just wanted provisions, “were reassured.” "I discovered in the same port," says Hawkins, “Twelve ships, which reportedly carried £200,000 in gold and silver; all of which I had in my possession, along with the king’s island, and the passengers who had previously delayed my journey there, I freed without taking anything from them.” This sounds more like bold arrogance, as he was clearly not in a good position to fight at that time. The next day, the Spanish fleet arrived outside, where Hawkins took the high ground again by informing the general that he would not allow them to enter the port until conditions had been negotiated for their safety and for maintaining peace. The fleet had a new viceroy onboard, who responded amicably and asked him to propose his conditions. Hawkins required not just food and trade, and hostages to be exchanged on both sides, but that the island should be under his control during his stay, with all the ordnance that was stationed there, and that no Spaniard should land on the island with any kind of weapon. The viceroy "somewhat unpopular" this at first, which isn’t surprising, but eventually pretended to agree, and the Spanish ships entered the port. Within a few days, it became clear that treachery was intended, as men and weapons were being transferred in bulk from the Spanish ships, and new ordnance was unloaded on the island. Hawkins sent to inquire what this meant, and received polite responses; still unsatisfied, he sent the captain of the Jesus, who spoke Spanish, to the viceroy, "needing to be confirmed whether such a thing exists or not." The viceroy, now realizing that the betrayal must be exposed, detained the captain, blew his trumpet, and it became clear that a general attack was planned. Several English crew members ashore were immediately killed. They attempted to board the Minion and Jesus, but were held off, with heavy losses on both sides. “Now,” says Hawkins, "When the Jesus and the Minion were about two ship lengths away from the Spanish fleet, the battle started so fiercely on all sides that, within an hour, the Spanish admiral was thought to be sunk, their vice-admiral was burned, and one of their main ships was believed to be down. The Spaniards used their shore artillery so effectively that it took out all the masts and yards of the Jesus and sank Hawkins’ smaller ships, except for the Judith." It was decided, as there was little hope of getting the Jesus away, to use her as a target or defense for the Minion until night, when they would remove whatever supplies and valuables were feasible, then abandon her. “As we were deciding,” says Hawkins, “Once we had moved the Minion away from the shore, the Spaniards suddenly fired two large ships heading straight for us. With no way to avoid the attack, the men were filled with incredible fear, leading some to say, ‘Let’s leave with the Minion;’ while others suggested, ‘Let’s see if the wind will blow the fire away from us.’ To make a long story short, the crew of the Minion, who were always ready to sail, decided to take action and, without the captain’s or master’s permission, cut their sails.” Hawkins was “very rarely” received on board, and many of the Jesus crew were left to their fate and the mercy of the Spaniards, "which," he says, “I doubt there was very little.” Only the Sidekick and the Judith escaped, with the latter abandoning ship that very night. Tossed around in unknown seas for the next fourteen days, hunger eventually forced them to seek land; "Animal skins were considered very good food; no rats, cats, mice, or dogs were spared if they could be caught. Parrots and monkeys, which were highly valued, were seen as very worthwhile if they could contribute to just one meal." So starved and worn out were they, [pg 302]that about a hundred of their crew wanted to be left on the coast of Tabasco, and Hawkins decided to get water there, and then, “with his remaining supplies,” to attempt the voyage home. During this time, while on shore with fifty of his men, a storm arose that prevented them from returning to the ship; in fact, they feared they would see it wrecked before their eyes. Finally, the storm calmed down, and they sailed for England, with men dying daily from sheer exhaustion, the pitiful remainder barely able to operate the ship. They eventually reached the coast of Galicia, where they obtained fresh meat, and stopped in Vigo, where they were assisted by some English ships that were there. Hawkins finishes his narrative as follows:—“If all the hardships and problems of this sorrowful journey were to be fully and completely written down, it would require a diligent person with a pen, and as much time as the one who wrote the lives and deaths of the martyrs.”
The Judith, which made one of Hawkins’s last fleet, was commanded by Francis Drake, a name that was destined to become one of the most famous of the day, and very terrible to the Spaniards. In this last venture he lost all that he had accumulated by earlier voyages, “but a divine, belonging to the fleet, comforted him with the assurance, that having been so treacherously used by the Spaniards, he might lawfully recover in value of the King of Spain, and repair his losses upon him wherever he could.” This comfortable doctrine consoled him. “The case,” says Fuller, “was clear in sea divinity.” Two or three minor voyages he made to gain knowledge of the field of operation, and in the West Indies made some little money “by playing the seaman and the pirate.” On May 24th, 1572, he sailed from Plymouth, in the Pascha, of seventy tons, his brother accompanying him in the Swan, of only twenty-five tons; they had three pinnaces on board, taken to pieces and stowed away. The force with which he was to revenge himself on the Spanish monarch, numbered seventy-three men and boys, all told. In the Indies he was joined by Captain Rowse, of an Isle of Wight bark, with thirty-eight men on board. Let us see how they sped.
The Judith, which was one of Hawkins’s last fleet, was commanded by Francis Drake, a name that would become one of the most famous of the time and quite feared by the Spaniards. In this final attempt, he lost everything he had gained from previous voyages, "However, a divine figure from the fleet reassured him that after being so deceitfully treated by the Spaniards, he could rightfully seek compensation from the King of Spain and reclaim his losses from him wherever possible." This reassuring idea comforted him. "The situation," says Fuller, “was obvious in sea divinity.” He made a couple of smaller trips to familiarize himself with the area and managed to earn a bit of money in the West Indies “by serving as both a sailor and a pirate.” On May 24th, 1572, he set sail from Plymouth on the Easter, which weighed seventy tons, while his brother accompanied him on the Swan, which was only twenty-five tons; they had three pinnaces on board, taken apart and stored away. The crew he assembled to take revenge on the Spanish monarch comprised a total of seventy-three men and boys. In the Indies, he was joined by Captain Rowse, who had a bark from the Isle of Wight with thirty-eight men aboard. Let’s see how they fared.
It was known that there was great treasure at Nombre de Dios, and thither the little squadron shaped its course. The town was unwalled, and they entered without difficulty, but the Spaniards received them in the market-place with a volley of shot. Drake returned the greeting with a flight of arrows, “the best ancient English complement,” but in the attack received a wound in his leg, which he dissembled, “knowing that if the general’s heart stoop, the men’s will fall.” He arrived at the treasury-house, which was full of silver bars, and while in the act of ordering his men to break it open, fainted from the loss of blood, and his men, binding up the wound, forcibly took him to his pinnace. It was time, for the Spaniards had discovered their weakness, and could have overcome them. Rather disappointed here, Drake made for Carthagena, and took several vessels on his way. He learned from some escaped negro slaves, settled on the isthmus of Darien, that the treasure was brought from Panama to Nombre de Dios upon mules, a party of which he might intercept. Drake’s leg having healed, he was led to an eminence on that isthmus, where, from a great tree, both the Pacific and Atlantic might be seen. Steps had been cut in the trunk of this huge tree, and at the top “a convenient arbour had been made, wherein twelve men might sit.” Drake saw from its summit that great Southern Ocean (the Pacific Ocean) of which he had heard something already, and “being inflamed with [pg 303]ambition of glory and hopes of wealth, was so vehemently transported with desire to navigate that sea, that falling down there upon his knees, he implored the divine assistance, that he might at some time or other sail thither, and make a perfect discovery of the same.”137 Drake was the first Englishman to gaze on its waters.
It was well-known that there was great treasure at Nombre de Dios, and the small squadron headed that way. The town had no walls, so they entered easily, but the Spaniards greeted them in the marketplace with a volley of gunfire. Drake responded with a shower of arrows, “the best ancient English complement,” but during the attack, he was wounded in the leg, which he concealed, “knowing that if the general’s spirit falters, the men’s will too.” He reached the treasury house, which was filled with silver bars, and while he was giving orders to break it open, he fainted from blood loss. His men bandaged his wound and forcibly took him to his small boat. It was a good thing too, as the Spaniards had figured out their weakness and could have overpowered them. Feeling let down by this turn of events, Drake headed for Cartagena, capturing several vessels along the way. He discovered from some escaped enslaved people settled on the isthmus of Darien that the treasure was transported from Panama to Nombre de Dios on mules, and he might intercept a party of them. Once Drake's leg healed, he was taken to a high point on that isthmus, where from a large tree, both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans were visible. Steps had been carved into the trunk of this massive tree, and at the top “a comfortable shelter had been made, where twelve men could sit.” From its summit, Drake saw the vast Southern Ocean (the Pacific Ocean) that he had heard about, and “being filled with ambition for glory and hopes for wealth, he was so driven by the desire to navigate that sea that falling to his knees, he begged for divine assistance, hoping that one day he could sail there and make a complete discovery of it.” Drake was the first Englishman to look upon its waters.
On the isthmus, Drake encountered an armed party of Spaniards, but put them to flight, and destroyed merchandise to the value of 200,000 ducats. Soon after he heard “the sweet music of the mules coming with a great noise of bells,” and when the trains came up, he found they had no one but the muleteers to protect them. It was easy work to take as much silver as they would, but more difficult to transport it to the coast. They, in consequence, buried several tons, but one of his men, who fell into the hands of the Spaniards, was compelled by torture to reveal the place, and when Drake’s people returned for a second load it was nearly all gone. When they returned to the coast where the pinnaces should have met them, they were not to be seen, but in place, seven Spanish pinnaces which had been searching the coast. Drake escaped their notice, and constructing a raft of the trees which the river brought down, mounted a biscuit sack for sail, and steered it with an oar made from a sapling, out to sea, where they were constantly up to their waists in water. At last they caught sight of their own pinnaces, ran the raft ashore, and travelled by land round to the point off which they were laying. They then embarked their comrades with the treasure, and rejoined the ship. One of their negro allies took a great fancy to Drake’s sword, and when it was presented to him, desired the commander to accept four wedges of gold. “Drake accepted them as courteously as they were proffered, but threw them into the common stock, saying, it was just that they who bore part of the charge in setting him to sea, should enjoy their full proportion of the advantage at his return.” Drake made the passage home to the Scilly Isles in the wonderfully short period of twenty-three days. Arriving at Plymouth on a Sunday, the news was carried into the church during sermon time, and “there remained few or no people with the preacher,” for Drake was already a great man and a hero in the eyes of all Devon.
On the isthmus, Drake came across a group of armed Spaniards, but he managed to scare them off and destroyed merchandise worth 200,000 ducats. Shortly after, he heard "the pleasant sound of the mules arriving with a loud clanging of bells," and when the trains arrived, he found they only had the muleteers to guard them. It was easy to take as much silver as they wanted, but getting it to the coast was trickier. They ended up burying several tons, but one of his men was captured by the Spaniards and tortured into revealing the location. When Drake's team returned for a second load, most of it was gone. When they arrived back at the coast where the pinnaces were supposed to meet them, they weren’t there; instead, they found seven Spanish pinnaces that had been patrolling the coast. Drake evaded them and built a raft from the trees carried by the river, mounted a biscuit sack as a sail, and steered it with an oar made from a sapling, heading out to sea, where they were often up to their waists in water. Eventually, they spotted their own pinnaces, ran the raft ashore, and traveled by land to the point where they were waiting. They then loaded their comrades and the treasure onto the ship. One of their African allies took a liking to Drake’s sword, and when it was given to him, he asked the commander to accept four gold wedges. Drake accepted them as politely as they were offered but added them to the shared resources, stating that those who contributed to his expenses for going to sea should benefit equally when he returned. Drake made the journey home to the Scilly Isles in an impressively short time of twenty-three days. Arriving in Plymouth on a Sunday, news spread into the church during the sermon, and "there were few or no people left with the preacher," for Drake was already a big name and a hero in the eyes of everyone in Devon.
John Oxenham, who had served with Drake in the varied capacities of soldier, sailor, and cook, was very much in the latter’s confidence. Drake had particularly spoken of his desire to explore the Pacific, and Oxenham in reply, had protested that “he would follow him by God’s grace.” The latter, who “had gotten among the seamen the name of captain for his valour, and had privily scraped together good store of money,” becoming impatient, determined to attempt the enterprise his late master had projected. He reached the isthmus to find that the mule trains conveying the silver were now protected by a convoy of soldiers, and he determined on a bold and novel adventure. “He drew his ship aground in a retired and woody creek, covered it up with boughs, buried his provisions and his great guns, and taking with him two small pieces of ordnance, went with all his men and six Maroon guides about twelve leagues into the interior, to a river which discharges itself into the South Sea. There he cut wood and built a pinnace, ‘which was five-and-forty feet by the keel;’ ” embarked in it, and secured for himself the honour of [pg 304]having been the first Englishman to sail over the waters of the blue Pacific. In this pinnace he went to the Pearl Islands, and lay in wait for vessels. He was successful in capturing a small bark, bringing gold from Quito, and scarcely a week later, another with silver from Lima. He also obtained a few pearls on the islands.
John Oxenham, who had served with Drake as a soldier, sailor, and cook, was very much trusted by him. Drake had specifically expressed his wish to explore the Pacific, and in response, Oxenham insisted that "he would follow him by God's grace." Oxenham, who "had earned the title of captain among the sailors for his bravery and had secretly saved up a good amount of money," grew impatient and decided to undertake the mission his former master had planned. He arrived at the isthmus only to find that the mule trains carrying silver were now guarded by a military convoy, leading him to devise a bold and innovative plan. "He beached his ship in a quiet, wooded creek, covered it with branches, buried his supplies and heavy artillery, and took two small cannons with him. He went with his entire crew and six Maroon guides about twelve leagues into the interior, to a river that flows into the South Sea. There, he chopped wood and built a small boat, ‘which was forty-five feet long;’" got on board, and secured the distinction of [pg 304]being the first Englishman to sail across the blue Pacific waters. In this pinnace, he traveled to the Pearl Islands and waited for ships. He successfully captured a small boat bringing gold from Quito, and less than a week later, another carrying silver from Lima. He also collected a few pearls from the islands.
So far, fortune had followed Oxenham, and to his own want of caution is due the fact that this prosperous state of affairs was soon reversed. He had dismissed his prizes when near the mouth of the river, and had allowed them to perceive where he was entering. The alarm was soon given; first, indeed, by some negroes who hastened to Panama. Juan de Ortega was immediately dispatched with 100 men, besides negro rowers, in four barks. After entering the river, a four days’ search rewarded him by the discovery of the pinnace with six Englishmen on board, who leaped ashore and ran for dear life; one only was killed at this juncture. Ortega discovered in the woods the hut in which Oxenham had concealed the treasure, and removed it to his barks. Meantime, Oxenham, whose men had been disputing over the division of spoils, had been to a distance for the purpose of inducing some of the Maroon negroes to act as carriers, and returning with them, met the men who had escaped from the pinnace, and those who were fleeing from the hut. “The loss of their booty at once completed their reconcilement; he promised larger shares if they [pg 305]should succeed in re-capturing it; and marched resolutely in quest of the Spaniards, relying upon the Maroons as well as upon his own people.” But Ortega and his men were experienced in bush-fighting, and they succeeded in killing eleven Englishmen, and five negroes, and took seven of Oxenham’s party prisoners. He, with the remnant of his party, went back to search for his hidden ship; it had been removed by the Spaniards. And now the latter sent 150 men to hunt the Englishmen out, while those whom they failed to take were delivered up by the natives. Oxenham and two of his officers were taken to Lima and executed; the remainder suffered death at Panama.
So far, luck had been on Oxenham's side, but his lack of caution soon turned that good fortune around. He had let go of his captured ships near the river’s mouth and had unintentionally shown them where he was heading. The alarm was raised quickly, first by some locals who rushed to Panama. Juan de Ortega was sent out with 100 men, along with some local rowers, in four small boats. After entering the river, a four-day search led him to find the small ship with six Englishmen on board, who jumped ashore and ran for their lives; only one was killed during this incident. Ortega then found the hut in the woods where Oxenham had hidden the treasure and took it to his boats. Meanwhile, Oxenham, whose men had been arguing over how to divide the spoils, had gone a distance to convince some Maroon locals to help carry supplies. On his way back, he encountered the men who had escaped from the small ship and those fleeing from the hut. The loss of their loot quickly united them again; he promised bigger shares if they [pg 305]could get it back, and he went out confidently to find the Spaniards, relying on both the Maroons and his own team. But Ortega and his crew were skilled at fighting in the bush, and they managed to kill eleven Englishmen and five locals, and captured seven of Oxenham’s men. He, along with the remaining members of his party, went back to look for his hidden ship, but it had already been taken by the Spaniards. Now the Spaniards sent 150 men to hunt down the English, while those they couldn’t capture were handed over by the locals. Oxenham and two of his officers were taken to Lima and executed; the others were executed in Panama.
The greatest semi-commercial and piratical voyage of this epoch is undoubtedly that of Drake, who reached the South Seas138 viâ the Straits of Magellan—the third recorded attempt, and the first made by an Englishman—and was the first English subject to circumnavigate the globe. Elizabeth gave it her secret sanction, and when Drake was introduced to her court by Sir Christopher Hatton, presented him a sword, with this remarkable speech: “We do account that he which striketh at thee, Drake, striketh at us!” The expedition, fitted at his own cost, and that of various adventurers, comprised five vessels; the largest, his own ship, the Pelican, being only 100 tons. His whole force consisted of “164 men, gentlemen, and sailors; and was furnished with such plentiful provision of all things necessary as so long and dangerous a voyage seemed to require.” The frames of four pinnaces were taken, to be put together as occasion might require. “Neither did he omit, it is said, to make provision for ornament and delight; carrying to this purpose with him expert musicians, rich furniture (all the vessels for his table, yea, many belonging to the cook-room, being of pure silver) with divers shows of all sorts of curious workmanship, whereby the civility and magnificence of his native country might, among all nations whither he should come, be the more admired.”139 Few of his companions knew at the outset the destination of his voyage; it was given out that they were bound merely for Alexandria.
The biggest semi-commercial and piratical voyage of this time is definitely Drake's, who reached the South Seas via the Straits of Magellan—the third recorded attempt and the first by an Englishman—and was the first English subject to sail around the world. Elizabeth secretly approved it, and when Drake was introduced to her court by Sir Christopher Hatton, she presented him with a sword, making a notable statement: “We do account that he which striketh at thee, Drake, striketh at us!” The expedition, funded by himself and various adventurers, included five ships; the largest, his own vessel, the *Pelican*, was only 100 tons. His entire crew consisted of “164 men, gentlemen, and sailors; and was furnished with such abundant supplies of everything necessary for such a long and dangerous voyage.” The frames for four small boats were taken to be assembled as needed. “Neither did he forget, it is said, to prepare for pleasure and enjoyment; he brought along skilled musicians, luxurious furnishings (all the tableware, and even many items from the kitchen, were made of pure silver), along with various displays of intricate craftsmanship, so that the culture and splendor of his homeland would be admired by all nations he visited.” Few of his companions knew at the beginning where they were actually headed; it was announced that they were only going to Alexandria.
The expedition sailed on November 15th, 1577, from Plymouth, and immediately encountered a storm so severe that the vessels came near shipwreck, and were obliged to put back and refit. When they had again started under fairer auspices, Drake gave his people some little information as to his proposed voyage, and appointed an island off the coast of Barbary as a rendezvous in case of separation at sea, and subsequently Cape Blanco, where he mustered his men ashore and put them through drills and warlike exercises. Already, early in January, he had taken some minor Spanish prizes, and a little later, off the island of Santiago, chased a Portuguese ship, bound for Brazil, “with many passengers, and among other commodities, good store of wine.” Drake captured and set the people on one of his smaller pinnaces, giving them their clothes, some provisions, and one butt of wine, letting them all go except their pilot. The provisions and wine on board the prize proved invaluable to the expedition. From the Cape de Verde Islands they were nine weeks out of sight of land, and before they reached the coast of Brazil, when near the equator, “Drake, being very careful of his men’s health, let every one of them blood with [pg 306]his own hands.” On nearing the Brazilian coast, the inhabitants “made great fires for a sacrifice to the devils, about which they use conjurations (making heaps of sand and other ceremonies), that when any ships shall go about to stay upon their coast, not only sands may be gathered together in shoals in every place, but also that storms and tempests may arise, to the casting away of ships and men.” Near the Plata they slaughtered large numbers of seals, thinking them “good and acceptable meat both as food for the present, and as a supply of provisions for the future.” Further south, they found stages constructed on the rocks by the natives for drying the flesh of ostriches; their thighs were as large as “reasonable legs of mutton.” At a spot which Drake named Seal Bay, they remained over a fortnight. Here they “made new provisions of seals, whereof they slew to the number of from 200 to 300 in the space of an hour.” Some little traffic ensued with the natives, all of whom were highly painted, some of them having the whole of one side, from crown to heel, painted black, and the other white. “They fed on seals and other flesh, which they ate nearly raw, casting pieces of four or six pounds’ weight into the fire, till it was a little scorched, and then tearing it in pieces with their teeth like lions.” At the sound of Drake’s band of trumpeters they showed great delight, dancing on the beach with the sailors. They were described as of large stature. “One of these giants,” said the chaplain of the expedition, “standing with our men when they were taking their morning draughts, showed himself so familiar that he also would do as they did; and taking a glass in his hand (being strong canary wine), it came no sooner to his lips, than it took him by the nose, and so suddenly entered his head, that he was so drunk, or at least so overcome, that he fell right down, not able to stand; yet he held the glass fast in his hand, without spilling any of the wine; and when he came to himself, he tried again, and tasting, by degrees got to the bottom. From which time he took such a liking to the wine, that having learnt the name, he would every morning come down from the mountains with a mighty cry of ‘Wine! wine! wine!’ continuing the same until he arrived at the tent.”140
The expedition sailed on November 15th, 1577, from Plymouth and quickly ran into a storm so intense that the ships almost capsized, forcing them to return and make repairs. Once they set off again under better conditions, Drake shared a bit about his planned voyage with his crew. He designated an island off the Barbary coast as a meeting point in case they got separated at sea, later naming Cape Blanco, where he gathered his men onshore and put them through drills and military exercises. By early January, he had already captured some smaller Spanish ships, and shortly after, near the island of Santiago, he chased a Portuguese vessel headed for Brazil with “many passengers, and among other commodities, good store of wine.” Drake captured the ship and transferred the passengers onto one of his smaller boats, giving them their clothes, some supplies, and one barrel of wine while letting everyone go except their pilot. The supplies and wine from the captured ship turned out to be crucial for the expedition. After leaving the Cape Verde Islands, they went nine weeks without seeing land. Before reaching the Brazilian coast, close to the equator, “Drake, being very careful of his men’s health, let every one of them blood with his own hands.” As they approached Brazil, the local people “made great fires for a sacrifice to the devils, about which they use conjurations (making heaps of sand and other ceremonies), so that when any ships try to come ashore on their coast, not only will sands gather in shoals everywhere, but storms and tempests may arise, causing the sinking of ships and men.” Near the Plata, they killed a lot of seals, thinking them “good and acceptable meat both as food for the present and as a supply of provisions for the future.” Further south, they found staging areas on the rocks made by the locals for drying ostrich meat; the thighs were as big as “reasonable legs of mutton.” At a place Drake called Seal Bay, they stayed for over two weeks. There, they “made new provisions of seals, where they killed between 200 to 300 in about an hour.” Some trading took place with the natives, who were all heavily painted, with some having one side of their bodies painted entirely black and the other white. “They fed on seals and other flesh, which they ate nearly raw, throwing pieces weighing four or six pounds into the fire until they were slightly scorched and then tearing them apart with their teeth like lions.” At the sound of Drake’s trumpeters, the natives showed great joy, dancing on the beach alongside the sailors. They were described as tall. “One of these giants,” said the expedition's chaplain, “stood with our men while they were having their morning drinks, showing such familiarity that he also wanted to join them; and taking a glass of strong canary wine in his hand, it reached his lips and hit him in the nose, getting into his head so suddenly that he became so drunk, or at least so overwhelmed, that he fell straight down, unable to stand; yet he kept hold of the glass without spilling any wine; and when he regained his composure, he tried again and gradually drank it all. From that moment, he took such a liking to the wine that once he learned its name, he would come down from the mountains every morning shouting ‘Wine! wine! wine!’ and kept it up until he reached the tent.”
After some trouble caused by the separation of the vessels, the whole fleet arrived safely at the “good harborough called by Magellan Port Julian,” where nearly the first sight they met was a gibbet, on which the Portuguese navigator had executed several mutinous members of his company, some of the bones of whom yet remained. Drake himself was to have trouble here. At the outset the natives appeared friendly, and a trial of skill in shooting arrows resulted in an English gunner exceeding their efforts, at which they appeared pleased by the skill shown. A little while after another Indian came, “but of a sourer sort,” and one Winter, prepared for another display of archery, unfortunately broke the bow-string when he drew it to its full length. This disabused the natives, to some extent, of the superior skill of the English, and an attack was made, apparently incited by the Indian just mentioned. Poor Winter received two wounds, and the gunner coming to the rescue with his gun missed fire, and was immediately shot “through the breast and out at back, so that he fell down stark dead.” Drake assembled his men, ordering them to cover themselves with their targets, and march on the assailants, [pg 307]instructing them to break the arrows shot at them, noting that the savages had but a small store. “At the same time he took the piece which had so unhappily missed fire, aimed at the Indian who had killed the gunner, and who was the man who had begun the fray, and shot him in the belly. An arrow wound, however severe, the savage would have borne without betraying any indication of pain; but his cries, upon being thus wounded, were so loud and hideous, that his companions were terrified and fled, though many were then hastening to their assistance. Drake did not pursue them, but hastened to convey Winter to the ship for speedy help; no help, however, availed, and he died on the second day. The gunner’s body, which had been left on shore, was sent for the next day; the savages, meantime, had stripped it, as if for the sake of curiously inspecting it; the clothes they had laid under the head, and stuck an English arrow in the right eye for mockery. Both bodies were buried in a little island in the harbour.”141 No farther attempt was made to injure the English, who remained two months in the harbour, but friendly relations were not established. A more serious event was to follow.
After some trouble caused by the ships separating, the whole fleet arrived safely at the “a good harbor named Port Julian by Magellan,” where the first thing they saw was a gibbet, where the Portuguese navigator had executed several mutinous crew members, some of whose bones still remained. Drake himself was about to face trouble here. At first, the natives seemed friendly, and during a contest of arrow-shooting, an English gunner outperformed them, which seemed to please the natives who appreciated the display of skill. A little while later, another Indian arrived, "but of a more bitter kind," and one Winter, preparing for another archery display, unfortunately broke his bowstring when he pulled it fully back. This made the natives start questioning the superior skill of the English, and an attack was launched, apparently encouraged by the previously mentioned Indian. Poor Winter sustained two wounds, and when the gunner came to help with his gun, it misfired, and he was shot "through the chest and out the back, causing him to collapse completely dead." Drake gathered his men, telling them to shield themselves with their targets and move against the attackers, [pg 307]instructing them to deflect the arrows aimed at them, noting that the savages had only a limited supply. At the same time, he took the piece that had unfortunately misfired, aimed it at the Indian who killed the gunner—who had started the fight—and shot him in the belly. No matter how severe, the savage would have endured an arrow wound without showing any pain; however, his screams when he was hit were so loud and horrific that his companions were frightened and ran away, even though many were rushing to help him. Drake didn’t chase them but hurried to bring Winter back to the ship for urgent assistance; unfortunately, no treatment worked, and he died the next day. The gunner’s body, which had been left on the shore, was requested the following day; in the meantime, the savages had stripped it as if they were curiously examining it; they had placed the clothes under the head and stuck an English arrow in the right eye out of mockery. Both bodies were buried on a small island in the harbor.141 No further attempts were made to harm the English, who stayed in the harbor for two months, but friendly relations were not established. A more serious event was yet to come.
One Master Doughtie was suspected and accused of something worse than ordinary mutiny or insubordination. It is affirmed in a history of the voyage published under the name of Drake’s nephew, that Doughtie had embarked on the expedition for the distinct purpose of overthrowing it for his own aggrandisement, to accomplish which he intended to raise a mutiny, and murder the admiral and his most attached followers. Further, it is stated, that Drake was informed of this before he left Plymouth; but that he would not credit “that a person whom he so dearly loved would conceive such evil purposes against him.” Doughtie had been put in possession of the Portuguese prize, but had been removed on a charge of peculation, and it is likely that “resentment, whether for the wrongful charge, or the rightful removal, might be rankling in him;” at all events, his later conduct, and mutinous words, left no alternative to Drake but to examine him before a properly constituted court, and he seems to have most reluctantly gone even to this length.142 He was “found guilty by twelve men after the English manner, and suffered accordingly.” “The most indifferent persons in the fleet,” says Southey, “were of opinion that he had acted seditiously, and that Drake cut him off because of his emulous designs. The question is, how far those designs extended? He could not aspire to the credit of the voyage without devising how to obtain for himself some more conspicuous station in it than that of a gentleman volunteer; if he regarded Drake as a rival, he must have hoped to supplant, or at least to vie with him; and in no other way could he have vied with him but by making off with one of the ships, and trying his own fortune” (which was afterwards actually accomplished by others). Doughtie was condemned to death. “And he,” says a writer, quoted by Hakluyt, “seeing no remedy but patience for himself, desired before his death to receive the communion; which he did at the hands of Master Fletcher, our minister, and our general himself accompanied him in that holy action; [pg 308]which being done, and the place of execution made ready, he, having embraced our general, and taken his leave of all the company, with prayer for the queen’s majesty and our realm, in quiet sort laid his head to the block, where he ended his life.” One account says that after partaking of the communion, Drake and Doughtie dined at the same table together, “as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done; and taking their leave by drinking to each other, as if some short journey only had been in hand.” A provost marshal had made all things ready, and after drinking this funereal stirrup-cup, Doughtie went to the block. Drake subsequently addressed the whole company, exhorting them to unity and subordination, asking them to prepare reverently for a special celebration of the holy communion on the following Sunday.
One Master Doughtie was suspected and accused of something worse than ordinary mutiny or insubordination. A history of the voyage published under Drake’s nephew claims that Doughtie joined the expedition specifically to undermine it for his own gain, planning to incite a mutiny and assassinate the admiral and his closest followers. Furthermore, it’s said that Drake was warned about this before he left Plymouth but couldn’t believe "that someone he cared for so much could have such cruel intentions toward him." Doughtie had been given control of a Portuguese prize but was removed due to a charge of embezzlement, and it’s likely that "Resentment, whether from the unjust accusation or the justified firing, may have been building up inside him;" at any rate, his later behavior and rebellious comments left Drake no choice but to bring him before a properly established court, and he seems to have reluctantly agreed to this step.142 He was “found guilty by twelve men in the traditional English way and faced the consequences.” "The most apathetic people in the fleet," says Southey, "He thought he had acted defiantly, and that Drake had him executed because of his ambition to compete. The question is, how far did those ambitions extend? He couldn’t expect to gain recognition for the voyage without finding a way to secure a more significant role than just that of a gentleman volunteer; if he saw Drake as a rival, he must have planned to take his place or at least compete against him; and the only way to truly compete would have been to seize one of the ships and try his own luck." (which was eventually done by others). Doughtie was sentenced to death. “And he,” says a writer quoted by Hakluyt, "Seeing no way out except through patience, he requested to receive communion before his death. He received it from Master Fletcher, our minister, and our general joined him in that sacred act. Once that was completed and the execution site was ready, he embraced our general and said farewell to everyone. After offering a prayer for the queen and our kingdom, he quietly laid his head on the block, where he ended his life." One account states that after taking communion, Drake and Doughtie dined together, "as cheerfully and seriously as they ever had in their lives; and saying goodbye by toasting each other, as if only a short trip were ahead." A provost marshal had prepared everything, and after sharing this funeral toast, Doughtie approached the block. Drake then spoke to the entire group, urging them to maintain unity and discipline, asking them to prepare reverently for a special celebration of the holy communion the following Sunday.
And now, having broken up the Portuguese prize on account of its unseaworthiness, and rechristened his own ship, the Pelican, into the Golden Hinde, Drake entered the Straits now named after Magellan, though that navigator termed them the Patagonian Straits, because he had found the natives wearing clumsy shoes or sandals: patagon signifying in Portuguese a large, ill-shaped foot. The land surrounding the straits is high and mountainous, and the water generally deep close to the cliffs. “We found the strait,” says the first narrator, “to have many turnings, and as it were, shuttings up, as if there were no passage at all.” Drake passed through the tortuous strait in seventeen days. Clift, one of the historians of the expedition, whose narrative is preserved in Hakluyt’s collection of “Voyages,” says of the penguins there, three thousand of which were killed in less than a day, “We victualled ourselves with a kind of fowl which is plentiful on that isle (St. George’s in the Straits), and whose flesh is not unlike a fat goose here in England. They have no wings, but short pinions, which serve their turn in swimming; their colour is somewhat black, mixed with white spots under their belly, and about their necks. They wall so upright that, afar off, a man would take them to be little children. If a man approach anything near them, they run into holes in the ground (which be not very deep) whereof the island is full, so that to take them we had staves with hooks fast to the end, wherewith some of our men pulled them out, and others being ready with cudgels did knock them on the head, for they bite so cruelly with their crooked bills, that none of us were able to handle them alive.”
And now, after breaking up the Portuguese prize because it was unseaworthy, and renaming his own ship, the Pelican, to the Golden Hind, Drake entered the straits now named after Magellan, although that navigator called them the Patagonian Straits because he found the locals wearing clumsy shoes or sandals: patagon means a large, misshapen foot in Portuguese. The land around the straits is high and mountainous, and the water is usually deep next to the cliffs. "We found the channel," says the first narrator, "to have many twists and turns, almost like being completely closed off, as if there’s no way through." Drake made it through the winding strait in seventeen days. Clift, one of the historians of the expedition, whose account is included in Hakluyt’s collection of “Journeys,” mentions the penguins there, three thousand of which were killed in less than a day, saying, “We fed ourselves with a type of bird that is plentiful on that island (St. George’s in the Straits), and its meat is similar to that of a fat goose here in England. They don’t have wings but have short flippers that help them swim; their color is mostly black with white spots under their bellies and around their necks. They stand so upright that, from a distance, someone might mistake them for little kids. If a person gets too close, they run into shallow holes in the ground, which are scattered all over the island, so to catch them we used staffs with hooks on the ends. Some of our men pulled them out while others stood ready with clubs to knock them out because they bite fiercely with their sharp beaks, and none of us could handle them alive.”
Drake’s vessels, separated by a gale, were driven hither and thither. One of them, the Marigold, must have foundered, as she was never again heard of. The two remaining ships sought shelter in a dangerous rocky bay, from which the Golden Hinde was driven to sea, her cable having parted. The other vessel, under Captain Winter’s command, regained the straits, and “anchoring there in an open bay, made great fires on the shore, that if Drake should put into the strait also, he might discover them.” Winter proceeded later up the straits, and anchored in a sound, which he named the Port of Health, because his men, who had been “very sick with long watching, wet, cold, and evil diet,” soon recovered on the nourishing shell-fish found there. He, after waiting some time, and despairing of regaining Drake’s company, gave over the voyage, and set sail for England, “where he arrived with the reproach of having abandoned his commander.”
Drake's ships, caught in a storm, were tossed around. One of them, the Marigold, likely sank, as it was never heard from again. The two remaining ships sought refuge in a dangerous rocky bay, but the Golden Hind was driven out to sea when its anchor broke. The other ship, under Captain Winter's command, made it back to the straits and "Anchoring in an open bay, they made huge fires on the shore so that if Drake entered the strait as well, he could see them." Winter then went further up the straits and anchored in a sound, which he named the Port of Health, because his crew, who had been "very ill from prolonged exposure, damp conditions, cold weather, and a poor diet," quickly recovered on the nourishing shellfish found there. After waiting for some time and losing hope of reuniting with Drake, he abandoned the voyage and set sail for England, "where he arrived with the criticism of having left his commander behind."
Drake was now reduced to his own vessel, the Golden Hinde, which was obliged [pg 309]to seek shelter on the coast of Terra del Fuego. The winds again forced him from his anchorage, and his shallop, with eight men on board, and provisions for only one day, was separated from him. The fate of these poor fellows was tragical. They regained the straits, where they caught and salted a quantity of penguins, and then coasted up South America to the Plata. Six of them landed, and while searching for food in the forests, encountered a party of Indians, who wounded all of them with their arrows, and secured four, pursuing the others to the boat. These latter reached the two men in charge, but before they could put off, all were wounded by the natives. They, however, succeeded in reaching an island some distance from the mainland, where two of them died from the injuries received, and the boat was wrecked and beaten to pieces on the rocks. The remaining two stopped on the island eight weeks, living on shell-fish and a fruit resembling an orange, but could find no water. They at length ventured to the mainland on a large plank some ten feet in length, which they propelled with paddles; the passage occupied three days. “On coming to land,” says Carter, the only survivor, “we found a rivulet of sweet water; when William Pitcher, my only comfort and companion (although I endeavoured to dissuade him) overdrank himself, and to my unspeakable grief, died within half an hour.” Carter himself fell into the hands of some Indians, who took pity on him, and conducted him to a Portuguese settlement. Nine years elapsed before he was able to regain his own country.
Drake was now stuck with his ship, the Golden Hind, which had to find shelter on the coast of Terra del Fuego. The winds forced him from his anchorage again, and his small boat with eight men on board, carrying enough supplies for just one day, got separated from him. The fate of these poor men was tragic. They made it back to the straits, where they caught and salted some penguins, then traveled up South America to the Plata. Six of them landed, and while searching for food in the forests, they encountered a group of Indians, who shot arrows and injured them all, capturing four and chasing the others back to the boat. The latter group reached the two men left in charge, but before they could set off, all were wounded by the natives. They did manage to get to an island some distance from the mainland, where two of them died from their injuries, and the boat was wrecked and smashed against the rocks. The two survivors stayed on the island for eight weeks, living on shellfish and a fruit that looked like an orange, but they couldn’t find any water. Eventually, they decided to paddle to the mainland on a large plank about ten feet long, which took them three days to cross. "When we finally got to shore," says Carter, the only survivor, "We discovered a fresh water stream; William Pitcher, my only source of comfort and companionship (even though I tried to dissuade him), drank too much and, to my indescribable grief, died within thirty minutes." Carter himself was captured by a group of Indians who showed him kindness and took him to a Portuguese settlement. It took him nine years to finally return to his own country.
Meantime Drake was driven so far to the southward, that at length he “fell in with the uttermost part of the land towards the South Pole,” or in other words, reached Cape Horn. The storm had lasted with little intermission for over seven weeks. “Drake went ashore, and, sailor-like, leaning over a promontory, as far as he safely could, came back [pg 310]and told his people how that he had been farther south than any man living.” At last the wind was favourable, and he coasted northward, along the American shore, till he reached the island of Mocha, where the Indians appeared at first to be friendly, and brought off potatoes, roots, and two fat sheep, for which they received recompense. But on landing for the purpose of watering the ship, the natives shot at them, wounding every one of twelve men, and Drake himself under the right eye. In this case no attempt was made at retaliation. The Indians doubtless took them for Spaniards. Drake, continuing his voyage, fell in with an Indian fishing from a canoe, who was made to understand their want of provisions, and was sent ashore with presents. This brought off a number of natives with supplies of poultry, hogs, and fruits, while Felipe, one of them who spoke Spanish, informed Drake that they had passed the port of Valparaiso—then an insignificant settlement of less than a dozen Spanish families—where a large ship was lying at anchor. Felipe piloted them thither, and they soon discovered the ship, with a meagre crew of eight Spaniards and four negroes on board. So little was an enemy expected, that as Drake’s vessel approached, it was saluted with beat of drum, and a jar of Chili wine made ready for an hospitable reception. But Drake and his men wanted something more than bumpers of wine, and soon boarded the vessel, one of the men striking down the first Spaniard he met, and exclaiming, “Abaxo perro!” (Down, dog!) Another of the crew leaped overboard and swam ashore to give an alarm to the town; the rest were soon secured under hatches. The inhabitants of the town fled incontinently, but the spoils secured there were small. The chapel was rifled of its altar-cloth, silver chalice, and other articles, which were handed over to Drake’s chaplain; quantities of wine and other provisions were secured. The crew of the prize, with the exception of the Greek pilot, were set ashore, and Drake left with his new acquisition, which when examined at sea was found to contain one thousand seven hundred and seventy jars of wine, sixty thousand pieces of gold, some pearls, and other articles of value. The Indian who had guided them to this piece of good fortune, was liberally rewarded.
In the meantime, Drake had been pushed so far south that he finally "found the southernmost point of land," or in other words, reached Cape Horn. The storm had gone on with little break for over seven weeks. Drake went ashore and, like a sailor, leaned over a cliff as far as he safely could, then came back [pg 310]and told his crew he had been farther south than anyone else alive. Finally, the wind changed, and he sailed north along the American coast until he reached Mocha Island, where the locals initially seemed friendly and brought potatoes, roots, and two fat sheep, for which they were compensated. However, when Drake's crew landed to get water, the natives shot at them, wounding all twelve men, including Drake himself under his right eye. In this instance, they didn’t retaliate, likely thinking they were Spanish. Continuing his journey, Drake encountered an Indian fishing from a canoe, who was made to understand their need for food and was sent ashore with gifts. This resulted in a number of locals coming with supplies of poultry, pigs, and fruits. One of them, Felipe, who spoke Spanish, informed Drake that they had passed the port of Valparaiso—then a tiny settlement with fewer than a dozen Spanish families—where a large ship was anchored. Felipe guided them there, and they soon spotted the ship, which had only eight Spaniards and four Black crew members on board. So little was an enemy expected that as Drake’s ship approached, they were greeted with a drum salute and a jar of Chilean wine was prepared for a friendly welcome. But Drake and his men wanted more than just wine, and they quickly boarded the vessel, with one of the crew striking down the first Spaniard he encountered and shouting, “Down, dog!” (Down, dog!) Another crew member jumped overboard and swam ashore to sound the alarm in town; the rest were quickly secured below decks. The townspeople fled immediately, but the loot they left behind was minimal. The chapel was stripped of its altar cloth, silver chalice, and other items, which were handed over to Drake’s chaplain; a decent amount of wine and other supplies were gathered. The crew of the captured ship, except for the Greek pilot, were set ashore, and Drake kept his new prize, which, when searched at sea, was found to hold one thousand seven hundred and seventy jars of wine, sixty thousand pieces of gold, some pearls, and other valuable items. The Indian who had led them to this windfall was generously rewarded.
At a place called Tarapaca, whither they had gone to water the ship, they found a Spaniard lying asleep, and keeping very bad guard over thirteen bars of silver, worth four thousand ducats. Drake determined to take care of it for him. At a short distance off, they encountered another, who, with an Indian, was driving eight llamas, each carrying a hundredweight of silver. It is needless to say that the llamas were conveyed on board, plus the silver. At Arica two ships were found at anchor, one of which yielded forty bars of silver, and the other a considerable quantity of wine. But these were as trifles to that which followed.
At a place called Tarapaca, where they had gone to water the ship, they found a Spaniard lying asleep and doing a poor job of guarding thirteen bars of silver worth four thousand ducats. Drake decided to take care of it for him. Not far away, they came across another Spaniard who, along with an Indian, was driving eight llamas, each carrying a hundredweight of silver. It goes without saying that the llamas, along with the silver, were brought on board. At Arica, they found two ships anchored, one of which had forty bars of silver, and the other had a significant amount of wine. But these were nothing compared to what came next.
Drake had pursued a leisurely course, but in spite of this fact, no intelligence of the pirate’s approach had reached Lima. The term “pirate” is used advisedly, for whatever the gain to geographical science afforded by his voyages, their chief aim was spoil, and it mattered nothing whether England was at war with the victims of his prowess or not. A few leagues off Callao harbour (the port of Lima), Drake boarded a Portuguese vessel: the owner agreed to pilot him into Callao, provided his cargo was left him. They arrived at nightfall, “sailing in between all the ships that lay there, seventeen in number,” most of which had their sails ashore, for the Spaniards had had, as yet, no [pg 311]enemies in those waters. They rifled the ships of their valuables, and these included a large quantity of silk and linen, and one chest of silver reales. But they heard that which made their ears tingle, and inflamed their desires for gain; the Cacafuego, a great treasure ship, had sailed only a few days before for a neighbouring port. Drake immediately cut the cables of the ships at Lima, and let them drive, that they might not pursue him. “While he was thus employed, a vessel from Panama, laden with Spanish goods, entered the harbour, and anchored close by the Golden Hinde. A boat came from the shore to search it; but because it was night, they deferred the search till the morning, and only sent a man on board. The boat then came alongside Drake’s vessel, and asked what ship it was. A Spanish prisoner answered, as he was ordered, that it was Miguel Angel’s, from Chili. Satisfied with this, the officer in the boat sent a man to board it; but he, when on the point of entering, perceived one of the large guns, and retreated in the boat with all celerity, because no vessels that frequented that port, and navigated those seas, carried great shot.” The crew of the Panama ship took alarm when they observed the rapid flight of the man, and put to sea. The Hinde followed her, and the Spanish crew abandoned their ship, and escaped ashore in their boat. The alarm had now been given in Lima, and the viceroy dispatched two vessels in pursuit, each having two hundred men on board, but no artillery. The Spanish commander, however, showed no desire to tackle Drake, and he escaped, taking shortly afterwards three tolerable prizes, one of which yielded forty bars of silver, eighty pounds’ weight of gold, and a golden crucifix, “set with goodly great emeralds.” One of the men having secreted two plates of gold from this prize, and denied the theft, was immediately hanged.
Drake had followed a relaxed course, yet despite this, no news of the pirate’s approach had reached Lima. The term “pirate” is used intentionally, because while his voyages contributed to geographical knowledge, their main goal was looting, regardless of whether England was at war with his victims. A few leagues off Callao harbor (the port of Lima), Drake boarded a Portuguese ship: the owner agreed to guide him into Callao, as long as his cargo was left untouched. They arrived at nightfall, "sailing among all the ships that were there, a total of seventeen," most of which had their sails onshore, as the Spaniards had not yet faced any [pg 311]enemies in those waters. They plundered the ships of their valuables, which included a large quantity of silk and linen, as well as one chest of silver reales. But they soon heard something that made their ears perk up and fueled their greed; the Cacafuego, a huge treasure ship, had set sail only a few days before for a nearby port. Drake immediately cut the cables of the ships at Lima and let them drift so they couldn’t follow him. While he was busy, a ship from Panama, loaded with Spanish goods, entered the harbor and anchored near the Golden Hinde. A boat came from the shore to inspect it, but since it was nighttime, they decided to wait until morning for the search and only sent one man aboard. The boat then approached Drake’s ship and asked what it was called. A Spanish prisoner replied, as instructed, that it belonged to Miguel Angel from Chili. Satisfied with this, the officer in the boat sent a man to board it; however, just as he was about to enter, he noticed one of the large cannons and quickly retreated in the boat, because no ships that frequented that port and sailed those waters carried heavy artillery. The crew of the Panama ship got scared when they noticed the man’s hasty retreat and set sail. The Hinde pursued her, and the Spanish crew abandoned their ship and escaped to shore in their boat. The alarm had now been raised in Lima, and the viceroy sent out two vessels in pursuit, each carrying two hundred men on board, but no artillery. However, the Spanish commander showed no interest in confronting Drake, who managed to escape and soon after captured three decent prizes, one of which yielded forty bars of silver, eighty pounds of gold, and a golden crucifix, "set with beautiful great emeralds." One of the crew members secretly kept two gold plates from this prize and denied the theft, but he was quickly hanged.
But it was the Cacafuego that Drake wanted, and after crossing the line he promised to give his own chain of gold to the first man who should descry her. On St. David’s Day, the coveted prize was discovered from the top, by a namesake of the commander, one John Drake. All sail was set, but an easy capture was before them; for the Spanish captain, not dreaming of enemies in those latitudes, slackened sail, in order to find out what ship she was. When they had approached near enough, Drake hailed them to strike, which being refused, “with a great piece he shot her mast overboard, and having wounded the master with an arrow, the ship yielded.” Having taken possession, the vessels sailed in company far out to sea, when they stopped and lay by. She proved a prize indeed: gold and silver in coin and bars, jewels and precious stones amounting to three hundred and sixty thousand pieces of gold were taken from her. The silver alone amounted to a value in our money of £212,000. It is stated that Drake called for the register of the treasure on board, and wrote a receipt for the amount! The ship was dismissed, and Drake gave the captain a letter of safe conduct, in case she should fall in with his consorts. This, as we know, was impossible.
But it was the Cacafuego that Drake wanted, and after crossing the line he promised to give his own gold chain to the first man who spotted her. On St. David’s Day, the sought-after prize was seen from above by a namesake of the commander, John Drake. They set all sails, but an easy capture was ahead of them; the Spanish captain, not expecting enemies in that area, loosened his sails to figure out what ship it was. When they got close enough, Drake called out to surrender, but when that was refused, "With a powerful shot, he knocked her mast overboard, and after wounding the captain with an arrow, the ship surrendered." After taking possession, the ships sailed together far out to sea, where they stopped and rested. She turned out to be quite a prize: gold and silver in coins and bars, jewels and precious stones worth three hundred and sixty thousand pieces of gold were taken from her. The silver alone was valued at £212,000 in today's money. It's reported that Drake asked for the treasure register on board, and wrote a receipt for the amount! The ship was let go, and Drake gave the captain a letter of safe conduct, in case she ran into his comrades. This, as we know, was impossible.
Drake’s plain course now was to make his way home, and he wisely argued that it would be unsafe to attempt the voyage by the route he had come, as the Spaniards would surely attack him in full force, the whole coast of Chili and Peru being aroused to action. He conceived the bold notion of rounding North America: in other words, he proposed to make that passage which has been the great dream of Arctic explorers, and which has only, as we shall hereafter see, been once made (and that in a very partial sense) by Franklin and [pg 312]M’Clure. His company agreed to his views: firstly to refit, water, and provision the ship in some convenient bay; “thenceforward,” says one of them, “to hasten on our intended journey for the discovery of the said passage, through which we might with joy return to our longed homes.” They sailed for Nicaragua, near the mainland of which they found a small island with a suitable bay, where they obtained wood, water, and fish. A small prize was taken while there, having on board a cargo of sarsaparilla, which they disdained, and butter and honey, which they appropriated. Drake now sailed northward, and most undoubtedly reached the grand bay of San Francisco. Californian authorities concede this. The “Drake’s Bay” of the charts is an open roadstead, and does not answer the descriptions given of the great navigator’s visit. He had peaceful interviews with the natives, and took possession, in the fashion of those days, of the country, setting up a monument of the queen’s “right and title to the same, namely, a plate nailed upon a fair great post, whereupon was engraven her Majesty’s name, the day and year of our arrival there, ... together with her highness’s picture and arms in a piece of sixpence (!) of current English money under the plate, where under also was written the name of our general.” History does not tell us the fate of that sixpence, but the title, New Albion, bestowed on the country by Drake, remained on the maps half way into this century, or just before the discovery of gold in California. The natives regarded the English with superstitious awe, [pg 313]and could not be prevented from offering them sacrifices, “with lamentable weeping, scratching, and tearing the flesh from their faces with their nails, whereof issued abundance of blood.” “But we used,” says the narrator quoted by Hakluyt, “signs to them of disliking this, and stayed their hands from force, and directed them upwards to the living God, whom only they ought to worship.” After remaining there five weeks, Drake took his departure, and the natives watched the ships sadly as they sailed, and kept fires burning on the hill-tops as long as they continued in sight. “Good store of seals and birds” were taken from the Farralone Islands. Many an egg has the writer eaten, laid by the descendants of those very birds: they are supplied in quantities to the San Francisco markets. Drake’s attempt at the northern passage was now abandoned.
Drake's straightforward plan was to head home, and he wisely figured it would be dangerous to take the same route back, as the Spaniards would likely attack him with full force, with the entire coasts of Chile and Peru ready for action. He came up with the daring idea of going around North America: in other words, he intended to navigate the passage that had long been the dream of Arctic explorers, which, as we'll see later, had only been partially accomplished by Franklin and M’Clure. His crew agreed with his thoughts: first, they would repair, refuel, and restock the ship in a nearby bay; “from then on,” one of them stated, “to hurry on our intended journey to discover that passage, through which we might joyfully return to our longed-for homes.” They set sail for Nicaragua, where they found a small island near the mainland with a suitable bay, where they acquired wood, water, and fish. While there, they captured a small prize ship carrying sarsaparilla, which they disregarded, and butter and honey, which they took for themselves. Drake then sailed north and most certainly reached the grand bay of San Francisco, an acknowledgment granted by Californian authorities. The “Drake’s Bay” marked on maps is an open harbor and does not match the descriptions of the great navigator's visit. He had peaceful encounters with the natives and claimed the land in the way of that time, erecting a monument to the queen’s “right and title to the same, namely, a plate nailed to a large post, with her Majesty’s name, the date of our arrival, ... along with her highness’s picture and coat of arms in a piece of sixpence (!) of current English currency beneath the plate, where beneath was also inscribed the name of our general.” History does not reveal what happened to that sixpence, but the name New Albion, given to the land by Drake, remained on maps until halfway through this century or just before gold was discovered in California. The natives viewed the English with superstitious reverence and couldn’t stop themselves from offering sacrifices, “with lamentable weeping, scratching, and tearing the flesh from their faces with their nails, leading to an abundance of blood.” “But we showed,” says the narrator quoted by Hakluyt, “signs of disapproval, stopped their hands from acting violently, and directed them towards the living God, whom only they should worship.” After spending five weeks there, Drake left, and the natives watched the ships sadly as they sailed away, keeping fires burning on the hilltops for as long as they were visible. “A good number of seals and birds” were taken from the Farralone Islands. The writer has eaten many eggs laid by the descendants of those same birds: they are supplied in abundance to the San Francisco markets. Drake’s quest for the northern passage was now abandoned.
Sixty-eight days was Drake’s ship—containing one of the most valuable freights ever held in one bottom—in the open sea, during which time no land was sighted; at the end of this period the Pelew, Philippine, and Molucca Islands were successively reached. At Ternate, Drake sent a velvet cloak as a present to the king, requesting provisions, and that he might be allowed to trade for spices. The king was amiable and well disposed; he sent before him “four great and large canoes, in every one whereof were certain of his greatest states that were about him, attired in white lawn of cloth of Calicut, having over their heads, from the one end of the canoe to the other, a covering of thin perfumed mats, borne up with a frame made of reeds for the same use, under which every one did sit in his order, according to his dignity, to keep him from the heat of the sun. * * * The rest were soldiers which stood in comely order, round about on both sides; without whom sat the rowers in certain galleries, which being three on a side all along the canoes, did lie off from the side thereof three or four yards, one being orderly builded lower than another, in every of which galleries were fourscore rowers. These canoes were furnished with warlike munitions, every man, for the most part, having his sword and target, with his dagger, besides other weapons, as lances, calivers, darts, bows and arrows; also every canoe had a small cast-base (or cannon) mounted at the least one full yard upon a stock set upright.” These canoes or galleys were rowed about the ship, those on board doing homage as they passed. The king soon arrived in state, and was received “with a salute of great guns, with trumpets sounding, and such politic display of state and strength as Drake knew it was advisable to exhibit.” Many presents were made to the king, who in return sent off provisions of rice, fowls, fruits, sugar-cane, and “imperfect and liquid sugar” (presumably molasses). Next day there was a grand reception ashore; the king, covered with gold and jewels, under a rich canopy embossed with gold, professing great friendship. The fact was that his own father had been assassinated by the Portuguese, and he himself had besieged and taken their Fort St. Paul’s, and compelled them to leave it. He was, doubtless, anxious for some alliance which might strengthen his hands against the Portuguese. Drake, however, had no commission, nor desire at that time to engage his country to any such treaty; his principal object now was to get home safely with his treasure. He, however, successfully traded for a quantity of cloves and provisions.
Sixty-eight days was Drake’s ship—carrying one of the most valuable cargoes ever held on a single vessel—in the open sea, during which time no land was spotted. At the end of this period, the Pelew, Philippine, and Molucca Islands were reached one after the other. In Ternate, Drake sent a velvet cloak as a gift to the king, asking for supplies and permission to trade for spices. The king was friendly and welcoming; he sent ahead “four large canoes, each carrying some of his top officials, dressed in fine white cloth from Calicut, with a cover of thin, fragrant mats stretched across them, supported by a reed frame. Each person sat in their rightful place to shield themselves from the sun. * * * The rest were soldiers standing in neat formation on both sides; behind them sat the rowers in specific sections, with three sections on each side extending three or four yards off the side of the canoes, each section carefully built at different heights, with eighty rowers in each section. These canoes were equipped with weapons, with most men carrying a sword and shield, a dagger, alongside other arms like lances, guns, darts, bows, and arrows; each canoe also had a small cannon mounted at least a yard upright.” These canoes or galleys were rowed around the ship, with those on board showing respect as they passed. The king soon arrived with pomp and was greeted “with a salute of cannon fire, trumpets sounding, and such a display of state and strength as Drake believed it was wise to show.” Many gifts were given to the king, who in return sent supplies of rice, chickens, fruits, sugarcane, and “imperfect and liquid sugar” (presumably molasses). The next day, there was a grand reception ashore; the king, adorned with gold and jewels, sat under a luxurious gold-embossed canopy, expressing great friendship. The truth was that his father had been killed by the Portuguese, and he had besieged and captured their Fort St. Paul’s, forcing them to abandon it. He was likely looking for an alliance to strengthen his position against the Portuguese. However, Drake had no authorization or desire at that moment to engage his country in any such treaty; his main goal was to return home safely with his treasure. He did manage to successfully trade for a amount of cloves and supplies.
Off Celebes, the Hinde became entangled among the shoals, and while running under full sail, suddenly struck on a rock, where she stuck fast. Boats were got out to see whether [pg 314]an anchor might not be employed to draw the ship off, but the water all round was very deep, no bottom being found. Three tons of cloves, eight guns, and certain stores were thrown overboard, but to no purpose. Fuller says quaintly, that they “threw overboard as much wealth as would break the heart of a miser to think on’t; with much sugar, and packs of spices, making a caudle of the sea round about. Then they betook themselves to their prayers, the best lever at such a dead lift indeed, and it pleased God that the wind, formerly their mortal enemy, became their friend.”143 To the joy of all, the Hinde glided off the rocks, and almost uninjured. On the way home they visited Barateva, Java, the Cape, and Sierra Leone, being singularly fortunate in avoiding the Portuguese and Spanish ships. The Hinde arrived safely at Plymouth on September 26th, 1580, having been nearly three years on her eventful voyage. Drake was received with great honour, and was knighted by the queen. She gave orders that his little ship should be laid up at Deptford, and there carefully preserved as a monument of the most remarkable voyage yet made. Elizabeth honoured Drake by banqueting on board, and his fame spread everywhere through the kingdom. The boys of Westminster School set up some Latin verses on the mainmast, of which Southey gives the following free translation—
Off the coast of Celebes, the Hinde got stuck among the shallow waters, and while sailing at full speed, it suddenly hit a rock and got stuck. They launched boats to see if an anchor could help pull the ship free, but the surrounding water was too deep to find any bottom. Three tons of cloves, eight cannons, and various supplies were tossed overboard, but it didn't help. Fuller amusingly remarked that they “threw overboard as much wealth as would break the heart of a miser to think about; along with plenty of sugar and bundles of spices, turning the sea around them into a rich cauldron. Then they turned to prayer, the best tool for such a tough situation, and it pleased God that the wind, which had been their enemy, became their ally.” 143 To everyone's relief, the Hinde floated off the rocks, nearly unharmed. On their way back, they stopped at Barateva, Java, the Cape, and Sierra Leone, managing to avoid Portuguese and Spanish ships. The Hinde arrived safely in Plymouth on September 26th, 1580, after nearly three years of an eventful journey. Drake was welcomed with great honor and was knighted by the queen. She ordered that his small ship be stored at Deptford and preserved as a monument to the most remarkable voyage ever made. Elizabeth honored Drake by hosting a banquet aboard, and his fame spread throughout the kingdom. The boys of Westminster School put up some Latin verses on the mainmast, of which Southey provides this free translation—
And again—
And once more—
Drake’s series of victories over the Spaniards, and the repulse which occurred just before his death are details of history which would fill a volume. He received a sailor’s funeral at Puerto Bello, his body being committed to the deep in a leaden coffin, with the solemn service of the English Church, rendered more impressive by volleys of musketry, and the booming of guns from all the fleet. A poet of the day says—
Drake's string of victories against the Spaniards and the setback that happened just before his death are historical events that could fill a whole book. He was given a sailor's funeral at Puerto Bello, where his body was laid to rest in a lead coffin, accompanied by the solemn service of the English Church, made even more moving by gunfire and the sound of cannons from the entire fleet. A poet of the time says—
No single name in naval history has ever attained the celebrity acquired by Drake. The Spaniards, who called him a dragon, believed that he had dealings with the devil; “that notion,” says Southey, “prevented them from feeling any mortification at his successes, * * * and it enhanced their exultation over the failure of his last expedition, which they considered as the triumph of their religion over heresy and magic.” The common people in England itself, more especially in the western counties, believed any quantity of fables concerning him, some of them verging on childishness. He had only to cast a chip in the water when it would become a fine vessel. “It was not by his skill as an engineer, and the munificent expenditure of the wealth which he had so daringly obtained, that Drake supplied Plymouth with fresh water; but by mounting his horse, [pg 315]riding about Dartmoor till he came to a spring sufficiently copious for his design, then wheeling round, pronouncing some magical words, and galloping back into the town, with the stream in full flow, and forming its own channel at the horse’s heels.” One of the popular stories regarding him is briefly as follows. When Sir Francis left on one of his long voyages, he told his wife that should he not return within a certain number of years she might conclude that he was dead, and might, if she so chose, wed again. One version places the time at seven, and another at ten years. During these long years the excellent lady remained true to her lord, but at the end of the term accepted an offer. “One of Drake’s ministering spirits, whose charge it was to convey to him any intelligence in which he was nearly concerned, brought him the tidings. Immediately he loaded one of his great guns, and fired it right through the globe on one side, and up on the other, with so true an aim that it made its way into the church, between the two parties most concerned, just as the marriage service was beginning. ‘It comes from Drake!’ cried the wife to the now unbrided bridegroom; ‘he is alive! and there must be neither troth nor ring between thee and me.’ ”
No single name in naval history has ever achieved the fame that Drake has. The Spaniards, who called him a dragon, thought he had made a deal with the devil; “that concept,” says Southey, “made them feel no shame about his victories, * * * and it increased their joy over the failure of his last expedition, which they viewed as a triumph of their faith over heresy and magic.” The common people in England, especially in the western counties, believed numerous tales about him, some quite childish. He could toss a piece of wood into the water and it would turn into a beautiful ship. It wasn't his engineering talent or the generous use of the wealth he managed to obtain that provided fresh water to Plymouth; it was getting on his horse, riding around Dartmoor until he found a spring big enough for his needs, then turning around, saying some magical words, and racing back to town with the stream flowing freely and carving its own path behind the horse. One popular story about him goes like this. When Sir Francis set off on one of his long journeys, he told his wife that if he didn't return within a certain number of years, she could assume he was dead and might, if she wished, remarry. One version says seven years, another says ten. During those long years, the devoted lady stayed loyal to her husband, but at the end of that time, she accepted an offer. "One of Drake’s guardian spirits, responsible for delivering important news, brought the message. He quickly loaded one of his large cannons and fired it straight through the globe from one side to the other, hitting the church exactly as the wedding ceremony was beginning, right between the two most affected parties. ‘It’s from Drake!’ shouted the wife at the now-single groom; ‘he is alive! and there must be no vow or ring between you and me.’"
Drake is described as of low stature, but well set, and of an admirable presence. His chest was broad, his hair nut-brown, his beard handsome and full, his head “remarkably round,” his eyes large and clear, his countenance fresh, cheerful and engaging. “It has been said of him that he was a willing hearer of every man’s opinion, but commonly a follower of his own,” which, as a rule, was really sure to be judicious. He had a quick temper, and once offended, was “hard to be reconciled,” but his friendships were firm; he was ambitious to the last degree, and “the vanity which usually accompanies that sin laid him open to flattery.” He was affable with his men, who idolised him as the grand commander and skilful seaman that he most undoubtedly was.
Drake is described as short in stature but well-built and having a striking presence. His chest was broad, his hair a nut-brown color, his beard handsome and full, his head “perfectly round,” his eyes large and clear, and his face fresh, cheerful, and engaging. "It has been said about him that he was open to hearing everyone's opinion, but usually followed his own." which, as a rule, was usually a sound choice. He had a quick temper, and once offended, was “hard to make amends” but his friendships were strong; he was extremely ambitious, and "The pride that often comes with that sin made him susceptible to flattery." He was friendly with his men, who idolized him as the great commander and skilled sailor that he undoubtedly was.
In spite of the rich prizes so often taken, a competent authority says: “The expeditions undertaken in Elizabeth’s reign against the Spaniards are said to have produced no advantage to England in any degree commensurate with the cost of money and expense of life with which they were performed.” But we must never forget the wonderful development of the navy which resulted; the splendid training acquired by our sailors, and the grand gains to geographical science.
In spite of the rich rewards often gained, a qualified expert states: "The expeditions conducted during Elizabeth's reign against the Spaniards are said to have provided no benefits to England that were even close to the financial costs and loss of life involved." However, we should never overlook the incredible growth of the navy that resulted; the excellent training our sailors received, and the significant advancements in geographical knowledge.
The opening of colonisation and trade with America—so far as England is concerned—is due to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and his step-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh. From their comparatively insignificant attempts at settling parts of that vast northern continent what grand results have accrued! The acorn has become a mighty, wide-spreading oak, sheltering the representatives of every nationality.
The start of colonization and trade with America—at least for England—can be credited to Sir Humphrey Gilbert and his half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh. From their relatively minor efforts to establish settlements in that vast northern land, amazing outcomes have emerged! The acorn has grown into a powerful, broad-reaching oak, providing shelter for people from every nationality.
When Sir Humphrey Gilbert proposed to Queen Elizabeth the settlement of a colony in the New World, she immediately assented, and granted him letters patent as comprehensive and wide-spreading as ever issued by papal sanction. She accorded free liberty to him, his heirs and assigns for ever, to discover and take possession of any heathen and savage lands not being actually possessed by any Christian prince or people; such countries, and all towns, castles or villages, to be holden by them of the crown, payment of a fifth of all the gold and silver ore discovered being required by the latter. The privileges seemed so great that “very many gentlemen of good estimation drew unto Sir [pg 316]Humphrey to associate with him in so commendable an enterprise.” But divisions and feuds arose, and Gilbert went to sea only to become involved in a “dangerous sea-fight, in which many of his company were slain, and his ships were battered and disabled.” He was compelled to put back “with the loss of a tall ship.” The records of this encounter are meagre, but the disaster retarded for the time his attempt at colonisation, besides impairing his estate.
When Sir Humphrey Gilbert proposed to Queen Elizabeth the creation of a colony in the New World, she quickly agreed and gave him letters patent as extensive and far-reaching as any issued under papal authority. She granted him, his heirs, and assigns the permanent right to explore and take possession of any unclaimed lands that were not occupied by any Christian ruler or people; those countries, along with all towns, castles, or villages, would be held by them under the crown, with a requirement to pay one-fifth of all gold and silver found. The privileges seemed so significant that “many reputable gentlemen were drawn to Sir Humphrey to join him in such a commendable venture.” However, conflicts and disputes arose, and Gilbert set sail only to get caught in a “dangerous sea-fight, in which many of his men were killed, and his ships were damaged and rendered unusable.” He had to return “with the loss of a tall ship.” The records of this encounter are sparse, but the disaster delayed his colonization efforts and also hurt his finances.
Sir Humphrey’s patent was only for six years, unless he succeeded in his project, and in 1583 he found means to equip a second expedition, to which Raleigh contributed a bark of 200 tons, named after him, the little fleet numbering in all five vessels. The queen had always favoured Gilbert, and before he departed on this voyage, sent him a golden anchor with a large pearl on it, by the hands of Raleigh. In the letter accompanying it, Raleigh wrote, “Brother, I have sent you a token from her Majesty—an anchor guided by a lady, as you see. And, further, her highness willed me to send you word, that she wished you as great a good hap and safety to your ship, as if she herself were there in person, desiring you to have care of yourself as of that which she tendereth; and, therefore, for her sake you must provide for it accordingly. Further she commandeth that you leave your picture with me.” Elizabeth’s direct interest in the rapidly increasing maritime and commercial interests of the day was very apparent in all her actions.
Sir Humphrey’s patent was only valid for six years, unless he succeeded in his project. In 1583, he managed to get a second expedition together, with Raleigh contributing a 200-ton ship named after him, making the little fleet consist of five vessels in total. The queen had always supported Gilbert, and before he left on this voyage, she sent him a golden anchor with a large pearl on it, delivered by Raleigh. In the accompanying letter, Raleigh wrote, "Brother, I've sent you a gift from her Majesty—an anchor led by a lady, as you can see. Also, her highness wanted me to let you know that she wishes you as much good fortune and safety for your ship as if she were there herself, and she asks you to take care of yourself as she cares for you; so, for her sake, you need to plan for it properly. Additionally, she commands that you leave your picture with me." Elizabeth’s direct interest in the rapidly growing maritime and commercial activities of the time was very clear in all her actions.
Bark Raleigh was the largest vessel of the expedition, two of the others being of forty, and one of twenty tons only. The number of those who embarked was about 260, and the list included carpenters, shipwrights, masons, and smiths; also “mineral men and refiners.” It is admitted that among them there were many “who had been taken as pirates in the narrow seas, instead of being hanged according to their deserts.” “For solace of our people,” says one of the captains under Gilbert, “and allurement of the savages, we were provided of music in good variety, not omitting the least toys, as morris-dancers, hobby-horse, and May-like conceits to delight the savage people, whom we intended to win by all fair means possible.” The period of starting being somewhat late in the season, it was determined to sail first for Newfoundland instead of Cape Florida, as at the former Gilbert knew that he could obtain abundant supplies from the numerous ships employed in the abundant cod-fisheries. The voyage was to commence in disaster. They sailed on June 11th, and two days later the men of the Bark Raleigh hailed their companions with the information that their captain and many on board were grievously sick. She left them that night and put back to Plymouth, where, it is stated, she arrived with a number of the crew prostrated by a contagious disease. Some mystery attaches to this defection; “the others proceeded on their way, not a little grieved with the loss of the most puissant ship in their fleet.” Two of the fleet parted company in a fog; one of them was found in the Bay of Conception, her men in new apparel and particularly well provided, the secret being that they had boarded an unfortunate Newfoundland ship on the way, and had pretty well rifled it, not even stopping at torture where the wretched sailors had objected to be stripped of their possessions. The other vessel was found lying off the harbour of St. John’s, where at first the English merchants objected to Gilbert’s entry, till he assured them that he came with a commission from her Majesty, and had no ill-intent. On the way in, his vessel struck on a rock, whereupon the other captains sent to the rescue, [pg 318]saved the ship, and fired a salute in his honour. His first act was to tax all the ships for his own supply; the Portuguese, in particular, contributed liberally, so that the crews were “presented, above their allowances, with wines, marmalades, most fine rusk or biscuit, sweet oil, and sundry delicacies.” Then the merchants and masters were assembled to hear his commission read, and possession of the harbour and country for 200 leagues every way was taken in the name of the queen. A wooden pillar was erected on the spot, and the arms of England, engraved on lead, were affixed. The lands lying by the water side were granted to certain of the adventurers and merchants, they covenanting to pay rent and service to Gilbert, his heirs and assigns for ever.
Bark Raleigh was the largest ship of the expedition, with two of the others weighing forty tons each and one only weighing twenty tons. About 260 people boarded, including carpenters, shipwrights, masons, and blacksmiths; there were also "mineral workers and refiners." It’s recognized that among them were many “who had been captured as pirates in the narrow seas, instead of being executed as they deserved.” "For the comfort of our community," says one of the captains under Gilbert, "To attract the locals, we offered a variety of music and entertaining attractions like morris dancers, hobby horses, and May-like celebrations to appeal to the native people, whom we aimed to win over by all possible fair means." Since the departure was rather late in the season, it was decided to sail first for Newfoundland instead of Cape Florida, as Gilbert knew he could secure plenty of supplies from the many ships engaged in the plentiful cod-fisheries. Unfortunately, the voyage began on a disastrous note. They set sail on June 11th, and two days later, the crew of the Bark Raleigh called out to their companions with the news that their captain and many onboard were seriously ill. They left that night and returned to Plymouth, where, it’s reported, they arrived with several crew members struck down by a contagious disease. Some mystery surrounds this retreat; "The others carried on, feeling deeply saddened by the loss of the most powerful ship in their fleet." Two of the fleet got separated in a fog; one of them was found in the Bay of Conception, her crew now in new clothes and particularly well supplied, the secret being that they had boarded an unfortunate Newfoundland ship along the way and had effectively raided it, not even hesitating to torture the wretched sailors who objected to being stripped of their belongings. The other vessel was discovered anchored off the harbor of St. John’s, where at first the English merchants resisted Gilbert’s entry, until he assured them he came with a commission from her Majesty and had no harmful intentions. As he entered, his ship hit a rock, prompting the other captains to send help, [pg 318]rescuing the ship and firing a salute in his honor. His first act was to tax all the ships for his own provisions; the Portuguese, in particular, contributed generously, so that the crews were "given, beyond their allowances, wines, marmalades, fine rusks or biscuits, olive oil, and various treats." Then the merchants and masters were gathered to hear his commission read, and he took possession of the harbor and land for 200 leagues in every direction in the name of the queen. A wooden pillar was erected at the spot, with the arms of England engraved on lead affixed to it. The lands along the waterfront were granted to certain adventurers and merchants, who agreed to pay rent and service to Gilbert, his heirs, and assigns forever.
Some of the before-mentioned pirates of the expedition gave Sir Humphrey a considerable amount of trouble while at St. John’s, some deserting, and others plotting to steal away the shipping by night. A number of them stole a ship laden with fish, setting the crew on shore. When ready to sail, he found that there were not sufficient hands for all his vessels, and the Swallow was left for the purpose of transporting home a number of the sick. He selected for himself the smallest of his fleet, the Squirrel, described as a “frigate” of ten tons, as most suitable for exploring the coasts. But that which made him of good heart was a sample of silver ore which one of his miners had discovered; “he doubted not to borrow £10,000 of the queen, for his next voyage, upon the credit of this mine.”
Some of the pirates mentioned earlier in the expedition caused Sir Humphrey a lot of trouble while at St. John's. Some deserted, while others planned to steal the ships at night. A group of them took a ship loaded with fish and left the crew on shore. When it was time to set sail, he realized there weren't enough crew members for all his vessels, so the Swallow was kept to transport some of the sick back home. He chose the smallest ship in his fleet, the Squirrel, which was described as a “frigate” of ten tons, as the most suitable for exploring the coasts. What gave him hope was a sample of silver ore discovered by one of his miners; "he had no doubt about borrowing £10,000 from the queen for his next voyage, based on the credit of this mine."
For eight days they followed the coast towards Cape Breton, at the end of which time the wind rose, bringing thick fog and rain, so that they could not see a cable’s length before them. They were driven among shoals and breakers, and their largest ship was wrecked in a moment. “They in the other vessel,” says Hayes,144 “saw her strike, and her stern presently beaten to pieces; whereupon the frigate in which was the general, and the Golden Hinde cast about, even for our lives, into the wind’s eye, because that way carried us to the seaward. Making out from this danger, we sounded one while seven fathoms, then five, then four, and less; again deeper, immediately four fathom, then but three, the sea going mightily and high. At last we recovered (God be thanked!) in some despair to sea room enough. All that day, and part of the night, we beat up and down as near unto the wreck as was possible, but all in vain. This was a heavy and grievous event to lose our chief ship, freighted with great provision; but worse was the loss of our men, to the number of almost a hundred souls; amongst whom was drowned a learned man, an Hungarian, born in the city of Buda, called thereof Budæus, who out of piety and zeal to good attempts, adventured in this action, minding to record in the Latin tongue, the gests and things worthy of remembrance happening in this discovery to the honour of our nation. Here, also, perished our Saxon refiner, and discoverer of inestimable riches. Maurice Brown, the captain, when advised to shift for his life in the pinnace, refused to quit the ship, lest it should be thought to have been lost through his default. With this mind he mounted upon the highest deck, where he attended imminent death and unavoidable,—how long, I leave it to God, who withdraweth not his comfort from his servants at such a time.” Of the company only ten were saved in a small pinnace which was piloted to Newfoundland.
For eight days, they followed the coast toward Cape Breton. At the end of that time, the wind picked up, bringing thick fog and rain, so dense that they could barely see a cable's length ahead. They were pushed among shoals and rough waters, and their largest ship was quickly wrecked. “Those in the other boat,” says Hayes,144 “saw her hit the rocks, and her stern was soon smashed to pieces. The frigate with the general on board and the Golden Hinde turned to save our lives, facing into the wind since that direction led us to deeper waters. After managing to escape that danger, we took soundings and found seven fathoms at one point, then five, then four, and even less; then again deeper, finally finding four fathoms, then just three, as the sea grew rougher and higher. In the end, we managed to find (thank God!) enough room to sea. All day and part of the night, we drifted as close to the wreck as we could, but it was all in vain. Losing our main ship, loaded with valuable supplies, was a heavy blow; but the greater loss was our men, nearly a hundred souls, among them a learned man from Hungary, born in Buda, known as Budæus. Out of piety and a passion for good works, he joined this mission, intending to document in Latin the worthy events and achievements of this discovery for the honor of our nation. Also lost was our Saxon refiner and discoverer of immense wealth. Captain Maurice Brown, when advised to escape in the small boat, refused to leave the ship, fearing it would be seen as his fault that it had been lost. With that mindset, he went to the highest deck, where he awaited inevitable death—how long, I leave to God, who does not withhold his comfort from his servants in such times.” Only ten members of the crew were saved in a small boat that made it to Newfoundland.
Meantime, on board the remaining vessels, there was much suffering, and Sir Humphrey was obliged to yield to the general desire, and sail for England, having “compassion upon his poor men, in whom he saw no lack of good will, but of means fit to perform the action they came for.” He promised his subordinate officers to set them forth “royally the next spring,” if God should spare them. But it was not so to be.
Meantime, on board the remaining ships, there was a lot of suffering, and Sir Humphrey had to give in to the general wish and head back to England, having “compassion for his struggling men, who he saw had plenty of good intentions but lacked the resources to achieve the mission they were on.” He promised his subordinate officers to send them out "with style next spring," if God saw fit. But that wasn’t meant to be.
Sir Humphrey Gilbert was entreated, when one day he had come on board the Hinde, to remain there, instead of risking himself “in the frigate, which was overcharged with nettage, and small artillery,” to which he answered, “I will not forsake my little company going homewards, with whom I have passed so many storms and perils.” A short time afterwards, while experiencing “foul weather and terrible seas, breaking short and high, pyramidwise, men which all their life had occupied the sea never saw it more outrageous,” the frigate was nearly engulfed, but recovered. Gilbert, sitting abaft with a book in his hand, cried out to the crew of the Hinde in the following noble words, so often since recorded in poetry and prose: “Courage, my lads! We are as near to heaven by sea as by land!” That same night the lights of the little vessel were suddenly missed, and Gilbert and his gallant men were engulfed in the depths for ever. Of such men we may appropriately say with the poet Campbell—
Sir Humphrey Gilbert was urged, one day when he was on board the Hinde, to stay there instead of risking himself “in the frigate, which was packed with cargo and light artillery,” to which he replied, “I won't leave my little crew heading home, with whom I've faced so many storms and dangers.” A short time later, while dealing with “rough weather and terrible seas, breaking short and high, like pyramids, that even men who had spent their lives at sea had never seen more violent,” the frigate almost went under but managed to recover. Gilbert, sitting at the back with a book in his hand, shouted to the crew of the Hinde these noble words, which have been recorded in poetry and prose: “Courage, guys! We're just as close to heaven by sea as we are by land!” That same night, the lights of the small vessel were suddenly missing, and Gilbert and his brave men were lost to the depths forever. Of such men, we might appropriately say with the poet Campbell—
The Hinde reached Falmouth in safety, though sadly shattered and torn.
The Hinde arrived in Falmouth safely, but it was sadly damaged and battered.
But the spirit of enterprise then prevailing was not to be easily quashed, and only a few months after the failure of poor Gilbert’s enterprise, we find Sir Walter Raleigh in the field. He obtained letters of patent similar to those before mentioned, and was aided by several persons of wealth, particularly Sir Richard Greenville and Mr. William Saunderson. Two barks, under Captains Amadas and Barlow, were sent to a part of the American continent north of the Gulf of Florida, and after skirting the coast for one hundred and twenty miles, a suitable haven was found, the land round which was immediately taken for the queen with the usual formalities. After sundry minor explorations they returned to England, where they gave a glowing account of the country. It was “so full of grapes that the very beating and surge of the sea overflowed them.” The vegetation was so rich and abundant that one of the captains thought that “in all the world the like abundance is not to be found,” while the woods were full of deer and smaller game. The cedars were “the highest and reddest in the world,” while among smaller trees was that bearing “the rind of black cinnamon.” The inhabitants were kind and gentle, and void of treason, “handsome and goodly people in their behaviour, as mannerly and civil as any of Europe.” It is true that “they had a mortal malice against a certain neighbouring nation; that their wars were very cruel and bloody, and that by reason thereof, and of civil dissensions which had happened of late years amongst them, the people were marvellously wasted, and in some places the country left desolate.” These little discrepancies were passed over, and Elizabeth was so well pleased with the accounts brought home, that she named the country Virginia; not merely because it was discovered in the reign of a virgin queen, but “because it did still seem to retain the virgin purity and plenty [pg 320]of the first creation, and the people their primitive innocence.” These happy natives were described as living after the manner of the golden age; as free from toil, spending their time in fishing, fowling, and hunting, and gathering the fruits of the earth, which ripened without their care. They had no boundaries to their lands, nor individual property in cattle, but shared and shared alike. All this, which was rather too good to be absolutely true, seems to have been implicitly believed. The letters of patent, however, granted to poor Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and subsequently to Sir Walter Raleigh, mark a most important epoch in the world’s history, for from those small starting-points date the English efforts at colonising America—the great New World of the past, the present, and the future. Where then a few naked savages lurked and lazed, fished and hunted, forty millions of English-speaking people now dwell, whose interests on and about the sea, rising in importance every day, are scarcely excelled by those of any nation on the globe, except our own. Some points in connection with this colonisation, bearing as they do on the history of the sea and maritime affairs, will be treated in the succeeding volume.
But the spirit of entrepreneurship at that time was not easily dampened, and just a few months after the failure of poor Gilbert’s venture, Sir Walter Raleigh came into play. He received letters of patent similar to those mentioned earlier and was supported by several wealthy individuals, particularly Sir Richard Greenville and Mr. William Saunderson. Two ships, led by Captains Amadas and Barlow, were sent to an area of the American continent north of the Gulf of Florida. After exploring the coast for one hundred and twenty miles, a suitable harbor was found, and the land around it was claimed for the queen with the usual formalities. After some minor explorations, they returned to England, where they provided an enthusiastic report about the country. It was "so full of grapes that the waves of the sea spilled over them." The vegetation was so rich and plentiful that one captain remarked that "Nowhere else in the world can you find such abundance." while the forests teemed with deer and smaller game. The cedars were "the tallest and reddest in the world," and among the smaller trees, there was one that produced “the peel of black cinnamon.” The natives were kind and gentle, and free of betrayal, "handsome and well-behaved people, as polite and courteous as anyone in Europe." It is true that "They had a deep hatred for a neighboring nation; their wars were extremely brutal and bloody, and because of this, along with recent civil conflicts among themselves, the people were severely depleted, and in some areas, the land was left abandoned." These minor shortcomings were overlooked, and Elizabeth was so pleased with the reports brought back that she named the country Virginia; not just because it was discovered during the reign of a virgin queen, but "because it still seemed to hold the untouched purity and abundance [pg 320] of the original creation, and the people their original innocence." These fortunate natives were described as living in a golden age; free from hard work, spending their days fishing, hunting, and gathering fruits from the earth, which ripened without any effort on their part. They had no boundaries to their lands, nor individual ownership of livestock, but shared everything equally. All of this, which seemed almost too good to be completely true, was largely believed. The letters of patent granted to poor Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and later to Sir Walter Raleigh, mark a very significant moment in world history, as those small beginnings led to English attempts at colonizing America—the great New World of the past, present, and future. Where once a few naked natives roamed, fished, and hunted, now lay the homes of forty million English-speaking people, whose interests on and around the sea, growing in importance every day, are rivaled only by those of our own nation. Some aspects related to this colonization, which intersect with the history of the sea and maritime issues, will be discussed in the following volume.
The reader, who while living “at home in ease,” has voyaged in spirit with the writer over so much of the globe’s watery surface, visiting its most distant shores, will not be one of those who under-rate
The reader, who while living "at home in comfort," has traveled in spirit with the writer across much of the globe’s waters, exploring its most remote shores, will not be one of those who underestimate
Nor will current events allow us to forget them. “The many voices” of ocean—as Michelet puts it—its murmur and its menace, its thunder and its roar, its wail, its sigh, rise from the watery graves of six hundred brave men, who but a few weeks ago formed the bulk of two crews, the one of a noble English frigate, the other a splendid German ironclad, both lost within sight of our own shores. Early in this volume wooden walls were compared with armoured vessels, and we are painfully reminded by the loss of both the Eurydice and Grosser Kurfüst how unsettled is the question in its practical bearings. Its discussion must also be resumed as a part of the history of ships and shipping in the ensuing volume. Till then, kind reader, adieu!
Nor will current events let us forget them. “The numerous voices” of the ocean—as Michelet puts it—its murmur and its threat, its thunder and its roar, its wail, its sigh, rise from the watery graves of six hundred brave men, who just weeks ago made up the majority of two crews, one from a noble English frigate and the other from a magnificent German ironclad, both lost just off our own shores. Earlier in this volume, wooden ships were compared to armored vessels, and we are painfully reminded by the loss of both the Eurydice and Elector of Brandenburg how unsettled this question is in practical terms. Its discussion will need to continue as part of the history of ships and shipping in the next volume. Until then, dear reader, farewell!
END OF VOLUME I.
END OF VOLUME I.
Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co., Belle Sauvage Works, London, E.C.
Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co., Belle Sauvage Works, London, E.C.
Footnotes
- 1.
- Milton.
- 2.
- Pindar.
- 3.
- “Lamer.” There is much truth in Michelet’s charming work, but often, as above, presented in an exaggerated form. Animals, in reality, soon become accustomed to the sea. They show generally, however, a considerable amount of indisposition to go on board a vessel.
- 4.
- W. S. Lindsay, “History of Shipping,” &c.
- 5.
- Southey, in his “Nelson's Life,” says nine.
- 6.
- “Songs for Sailors.”
- 7.
- Southey’s "Nelson's Life."
- 8.
- "Annals of the Wars of the Nineteenth Century," by the Hon. Sir Edward Cust, D.C.L., &c.
- 9.
- Brialmont, "Study on the Defense of States and on Fortification."
- 10.
- The Turks had at Sinope seven frigates, one sloop, two corvettes, and two transports. The Russians were stronger, but this did not determine the battle; their success was won because they were well supplied with large shells and shell-guns, while the Turks had nothing more effective than 24-pounders. Their wooden vessels were speedily on fire, and the Russians won an easy success. Shells were no novelty, yet a great sea-fight had never before been, as it was then, won by their exclusive agency.
- 11.
- The Hon. S. J. G. Calthorpe, "Messages from Headquarters."
- 12.
- The seven Russian ships sunk at the entrance of the harbour of Sebastopol were of no small size or value, and they were scuttled in a hurry so great that they had all their guns, ammunition, and stores on board, and their rigging standing. They comprised five line-of-battle ships, two of them eighty, two eighty-four, and one 120 guns, and two frigates of forty guns; a total of 528 guns. Afterwards it became a common report that vessels had been disabled and sunk in the harbour. On the night of the 5th of September, just before the evacuation of the town, two large Russian men-of-war caught fire and burned fiercely, illumining the harbour and town, and causing great excitement, as an omen of coming doom. The night of the memorable 8th, when the Russians gave up all further idea of resistance, and left the town to take care of itself, witnessed the sinking of the remainder of the Black Sea fleet. So far, therefore, the presence of our fleet had a pronounced moral effect, without involving further loss of life.
- 13.
- Cust, "Records of the Eighteenth Century Wars."
- 14.
- Drinkwater, “Gibraltar Siege.”
- 15.
- Some have even gone so far as to consider Louis Napoleon the inventor of iron-plated and armoured vessels. This is absurd. The ancients knew the use of plates of iron or brass for covering ships of war and battering-rams. One of Hiero’s greatest galleys was covered that way. That it must come to this sooner or later was the published idea of many, both in this country and in France. The Emperor’s sagacity, however, was always fully alive to questions of the kind.
- 16.
- The report of the Chief Engineer and Naval Constructor of the Confederate Service, in regard to the conversion of the Merrimac into an armoured vessel, distinctly stated that from the effects of fire she was "not useful for any other purpose without having to spend a lot of money on reconstruction."
- 17.
- The official reports state that she was plated, many popular accounts averring that she was only covered with “railroad tracks.” The information presented here is drawn from the following sources:—“The Rebellion Record,” a voluminous work, edited by Frank Moore, of New York, and which contains all the leading official war-documents, both of the Federals and Confederates; the statement of Mr. A. B. Smith, pilot of the Cumberland, one of the survivors of the fight; the Baltimore American, and the Norfolk *Daily Journal*, both newspapers published near the scene of action. There is great unanimity in the accounts published on both sides.
- 18.
- The pilot of the Cumberland.
- 19.
- “Finally, after about fifty minutes of intense fighting, our ship sank, the Stars and Stripes still flying. That flag was eventually submerged; however, after the hull settled on the sand, fifty-four feet below the water's surface, our pennant was still waving from the top mast above the waves.” (The Pilot of the Cumberland’s Narrative.)
- 20.
- The original Track, from which that class of vessel took its name.
- 21.
- Account of eyewitnesses furnished to the Baltimore American.
- 22.
- See the Days, 17th July, 1877.
- 23.
- Berlin correspondence of the News, 31st July, 1877.
- 24.
- The full official account has not yet been issued. The brief narrative presented here is derived principally from the lively and interesting series of letters from the pen of Lord George Campbell; from “The Cruise of H.M.S. Challenger,” by W. J. J. Spry, R.N., one of the engineers of the vessel; and the Nautical and other scientific and technical magazines.
- 25.
- The Austrian frigate Novara made, in 1857-8-9, a voyage round "and about" the world of 51,686 miles. As it was a sailing vessel, no reliable results could be expected from their deep-sea soundings, and, in fact, on the only two occasions when they attempted anything very deep, their lines broke.
- 26.
- This is an apparatus consisting of a number of india-rubber bands suspended from the mast-head, during dredging operations, which indicates, by its expansion and contraction, how the dredge is passing over the inequalities of the bottom.
- 27.
- The weights were usually allowed at the rate of 112 lb. for each 1,000 fathoms.
- 28.
- Most of the recorded examples of earlier deep-sea soundings have little scientific value. Unless the sounding-line sinks perpendicularly, and the vessel remains stationary—to do which she may have to steam against wind and tide or current—it must be evident that the data obtained are not reliable. From a sailing vessel it is impossible to obtain absolutely reliable soundings except in, say, a tideless lake, unruffled by wind. It is very evident that if the sounding line drags after or in any direction from the vessel, the depth indicated may be greatly in excess of the true depth; indeed, it may be double or treble in some cases. There is one recorded example of a depth of 7,706 fathoms having been obtained, which too evidently comes under this category. After several years’ soundings on the part of the Challenger and the United States vessel Tuscarora, it has become probable that no part of the ocean has a depth much greater than 4,500 fathoms. But even this is upwards of five miles!
- 29.
- In their popular works on the sea, “Ocean World,” and "The Ocean World."
- 30.
- “Log Letters from the Challenger.”
- 31.
- All readers will remember Peter Simple, and how he tells us that “It has long been a pagan custom to sacrifice the biggest fool in the family for the prosperity and naval dominance of the country,” and that he personally “was chosen by popular vote!” Marryat knew very well, however, that it was "younger siblings," and not by any means necessarily the greatest fools of the family who went to sea.
- 32.
- William Pitt, long Master-Attendant at Jamaica Dockyard, who died at Malta, in 1840. The song is often wrongly attributed to Dibdin, or Tom Hood the elder.
- 33.
- Alphonse Esquiros, "English Sailors and Divers."
- 34.
- “Westward Ho!”
- 35.
- Robert Mindry, "Notes from the Journal of a Weathered Sailor."
- 36.
- The conditions for entering a Government training-ship for the service involve, 1st, the consent of parents or proper guardians; 2nd, the candidate must sign to serve ten years commencing from the age of eighteen. A bounty of £6 is paid to provide outfit, and he receives sixpence a day. At the age of eighteen he receives one shilling and a penny per day—the same as an ordinary seaman. Each candidate passes a medical examination, and must be from fifteen to sixteen and a half years of age. The standard height is five feet for sixteen years old—rather a low average.
- 37.
- In “Singleton Fontenoy, RN.”
- 38.
- See "The Queen's Regulations and the Admiralty Instructions for the Management of Her Majesty’s Naval Service;" also Glascock’s "Naval Officer's Guide."
- 39.
- “A Sailor-Boy's Logbook from Portsmouth to the Peiho,” edited by Walter White.
- 40.
- A naval friend kindly informs me that the Malta holystones are excellent, natural lava being abundant.
- 41.
- See Dana’s “Seafarer’s Guide.”
- 42.
- A form of heavy pile silk.
- 43.
- “Medical Life in the Navy,” by W. Stables, M.D., &c.
- 44.
- Portsmouth, Devonport, Plymouth, and some Cornish seaport towns and villages were the chief sufferers. Plymouth had furnished more than one-third of the crew.
- 45.
- None of the survivors appeared to know whether the Captain's screw was revolving at the time. Her steam was partially up. Had she steamed, there is every probability that the catastrophe would not have occurred.
- 46.
- One man testified that he had heard Captain Burgoyne’s inquiries as to how much the ship was heeling over, the answers given being respectively, "18" “23” "25°C." The movement was never checked, and almost the moment after she had reached 25 degrees, she was keel-uppermost, and about to make that terrific plunge to the bottom.
- 47.
- Mr. May’s statement at the court-martial was in part as follows:—Shortly after 12:15 a.m. on the 7th, I was in my cabin on the starboard side of the ship when I was awoken by the noise of some marines. Feeling the ship was unstable, I got dressed and took a lantern to check the guns in the turrets. It was just a short time—between fifteen to twenty minutes—after midnight. I then went to the after turret. The guns seemed fine. As soon as I got inside the turret, I felt the ship tilt more and more, and a heavy wave hit us on the windward side. The water poured into the turret as I crawled through the pointing hole on top, and I found myself in the water. I started swimming and managed to reach the steam pinnace, which was upside down, with Captain Burgoyne and about five or six others on it. I watched the ship turn over and sink stern first; the last thing I saw was her bow. The whole process from turning over to sinking took only about five to ten minutes, if that. Shortly after, I saw the launch drifting close to us on the pinnace; it was just a few yards away. I called out, “Jump, men—it’s your last chance!” I jumped and, along with three others, made it to the launch. I’m not sure if Captain Burgoyne jumped or not. I thought he did, but the others in the launch don’t believe so. In any case, he never made it. While we were on the pinnace, a large ship, which I think was the Inconstant, passed us about fifty yards away. We all called out to her, but I guess the howling wind and sea made it impossible for them to hear us.
- 48.
- The late Admiral Sherard Osborn, in a letter to the News Sources, said, "The Admiralty's wish to have all their warships sail with both sails and steam led poor Captain Coles to take it a step further and design a sailing ship with a low freeboard." This was against his judgment, however.
- 49.
- Admiral Milne, in his despatch dated from H.M.S. Warden, off Finisterre, September 7th, 1870, stated that, at a little before 1 a.m., the Captain was astern of his ship, “apparently closing under steam. The signal ‘open order’ was given, and immediately responded to; and at 1:15 a.m., she was on the Lord Warden’s (the flagship’s) lee quarter, about six points behind the beam. From that moment until around 1:30 a.m., I kept a close watch on the ship.... She was leaning quite a bit to starboard,” &c. We have seen that she went down shortly after the midnight watch had been called.
- 50.
- A "Narrative of the Loss of the Royal George," published at Portsea, and written by a gentleman who was on the island at the time.
- 51.
- The exact number was never known. There were 250 women on board, a large proportion of whom were the wives and relatives of the sailors; and there were also a number of children, most of whom belonged to Portsmouth. Besides these, there were a number of Jew and other traders on board.
- 52.
- Mr. Ingram, whose narrative, printed in the little work before quoted, bears all the impress of truth.
- 53.
- The sentence of the court-martial blamed Captain Dawkins, his navigating-lieutenant, and the ship’s carpenter, for not endeavouring to stop "the breach from the outside using the resources available to them, like hammocks and sails;" for not having “ordered Captain Hickley of H.M.S. Iron Duke to tow H.M.S. Vanguard into shallow water,” such being available at a short distance; the chief-engineer for not "using the resources available to him to remove the water from the ship;" the navigating-lieutenant "for failing to alert his captain that there was shallower water nearby;" and the carpenter in "not taking immediate action to check the compartments and regularly reporting on the water level's progress." A lamentable showing, truly, if all these points were neglected! So far as the commander is concerned, his successful efforts to save the lives of all on board (not knowing when his ship might go down, and with the remembrance of the sudden loss of the Captain full in view) speak much in his favour, and in extenuation of much that would otherwise appear culpable neglect.
- 54.
- Nineteen fathoms, or 114 feet. Her main-topmast-head was afterwards twenty-four feet out of water.
- 55.
- The total estimated loss was £550,000.
- 56.
- Mr. Ward Hunt said publicly that, "If the Iron Duke had sunk an enemy ship, we would have called it one of the most powerful warships in the world. All she's done is really what she was meant to do, except, of course, that the ship she hit was unfortunately our own and not the enemy's."
- 57.
- Mr. Reed wrote to the News to the effect that there would, undoubtedly, be a “a higher level of safety during a naval battle than in everyday situations,” and explained that “The main goal with these ships has been to divide them into compartments so that when all the watertight doors and valves are set up as they would be in battle, a breach caused by a ram in just one compartment shouldn't be enough to sink the ship.”
- 58.
- Sir Henry James, Attorney-General to the previous Government, spoke publicly on the subject in the plainest terms. He said:—"One would think that if there were a court-martial on the ship that sank, the officers of the ship responsible for that loss wouldn't escape unpunished." The Admiralty was blamed for not having sent the decision of the Court back to it for reconsideration, instead of which they broke a rule of naval etiquette, and seemed anxious to quash inquiry.
- 59.
- "The loss of the Kent, East Indiaman," by Lieut.-General Sir Duncan MacGregor, K.C.B.
- 60.
- The raft is described in the original work on the shipwreck of the Medusa substantially as follows:—It was composed of topmasts, yards, planks, the boom, &c., lashed strongly together; two topmasts formed the sides, and four other masts, of the same length as the former, were placed in the centre, planks being nailed on them. Long timbers were placed across the raft, adding considerably to its strength; these projected about ten feet on each side. There was a rail along the sides, to keep those on board from falling into the sea. Its height being only about a foot and a half, it was constantly under water, though this could easily have been remedied, by raising a second floor a foot or two above it. Two of the ship’s yards, joined to the extremities of the sides, at one end met in front and formed a bow. Its length was sixty feet, and breadth about twenty.
- 61.
- Later it took with many of them still stranger forms. One M. Savigny had the most agreeable visions; he fancied himself in a rich and highly-cultivated country, surrounded by happy companions. Some desired their companions not to fear, that they were going to look for succour, and would soon return; they then plunged into the sea. Others became furious, and rushed on their companions with drawn swords, asking for the wing of a chicken, or some bread. Some, thinking themselves still aboard the frigate, asked for their hammock, that they might go below to sleep. Others imagined that they saw ships, or a harbour, behind which was a noble city. M. Correard believed he was in Italy, enjoying all the delights of that beautiful country. One of the officers said to him, "I remember that we've been left behind by the boats, but don't worry; I've just written to the governor, and in a few hours, we'll be safe." These illusions did not last for any length of time, but were constantly broken by the war of the elements, and the fitful revolts which constantly disgraced the company.
- 62.
- The writer, during a long voyage (England to Vancouver Island, via Cape Horn), made in 1862, saw flying-fish constantly falling on the deck, where they remained quivering and glittering in the sunlight. To accomplish this, they had to fly over a height of about fifteen or sixteen feet, the top of the bulwarks, or walls of the steamship, being at least that distance above the water.
- 63.
- Large merchant-vessels have been constructed of steel, which is stronger than iron, weight for weight; and consequently, in building vessels of equal strength, a less weight and thickness is required. It is said, that if the large Atlantic steamers of 3,500 tons and upwards were built of steel, instead of iron, their displacement in the water would be one-sixth less, and their carrying capacity double. A steel troop-ship, accommodating about 1,000 persons and drawing only two feet and a quarter of water, was constructed, in 1861, for use on the Lower Indus. She was taken out in pieces and put together in India, the total weight of the steel employed being only 270 tons, although she was 375 feet long, with a beam of 46 feet.
- 64.
- “The Fleet of the Future: Iron or Wood,” by J. Scott Russell, F.R.S., &c.
- 65.
- Letter to the Times, Sept. 6th, 1875 (after the loss of the Vanguard).
- 66.
- Parliamentary Paper, 1872. Reports of the Committee on Designs for Ships of War &c.
- 67.
- Same source.
- 68.
- "Our Ironclad Ships."
- 69.
- Vide “The Med,” by Rear-Admiral Smyth. This is a standard work on all scientific points connected with the Mediterranean.
- 70.
- One of the earliest of the Moorish conquerors of Spain, who first fortified the Rock.
- 71.
- See page 16.
- 72.
- “History of Gibraltar and its Sieges,” by F. G. Stephens, with photographic illustrations by J. H. Mann. The writer is much indebted to this valuable work for information embodied in these pages.
- 73.
- On more than one occasion such wrecks have happened, as, for example, when a Danish vessel, laden with lemons, fell into the hands of General Elliott’s garrison, then suffering fearfully with scurvy, October 11th, 1780. A year before a storm cast a quantity of drift-wood under the walls. "Since fuel had been in short supply for a long time, this supply was seen as a miraculous intervention from Providence in our favor." (See Drinkwater’s “Gibraltar.”)
- 74.
- The Romans, however, sometimes employed red-hot bolts, which were ejected from catapults.
- 75.
- Lopez de Ayala, “History of Gibraltar.”
- 76.
- “Memoirs of Sully,” bk. xx.
- 77.
- In a memorial presented to Philip V. after the capture, it was stated that the garrison comprised "fewer than 300 men; a small number of poor and inexperienced peasants." Other accounts range from 150 to 500.
- 78.
- "Journal of an Officer During the Siege."
- 79.
- See before, page 16.
- 80.
- Sayer’s “Gibraltar's History.”
- 81.
- Barrow’s “Life of Lord Howe.”
- 82.
- See "Malta Sixty Years Ago," by Admiral Shaw.
- 83.
- “The Crescent and the Cross.”
- 84.
- "Malta under the Phoenicians, Knights, and English," by W. Tallack.
- 85.
- In contradistinction to the Red Cross Knights, or Templars, who, though Crusaders, formed a purely military order.
- 86.
- The Order of the Knights of St. John exists now as a religious and benevolent body—a shadow of its former self. There was a period when the revenues of the Order were over £3,000,000 sterling. It still exists, however, the head-quarters being at Ferrara in Italy. Recent organisations, countenanced and supported by distinguished noblemen and gentlemen for the relief of sufferers by war, and convalescents in hospital in many parts of England, are in some sense under its banner; H.R.H. the Prince of Wales is President of one of them—the National Society for the Sick and Wounded in War. It had been recommended by one writer, that gentlemen of the present day should become members, and wear at evening entertainments a special dress and decoration, and that there should also be women's signet rings, with decorations also. He believes, of course, that this would greatly aid the funds for those benevolent purposes.
- 87.
- For an elaborate, exhaustive disquisition on this subject, see “The Journey and Shipwreck of St. Paul,” by James Smith.
- 88.
- The Suez Canal, and all appertaining thereto, is well described in the following works:—“The Suez Canal,” by F. M. de Lesseps; "The History of the Suez Canal," by F. M. de Lesseps, translated by Sir H. D. Wolff; “My Trip to the Suez Canal,” &c.
- 89.
- M. de Lesseps acknowledges frankly that the English people were always with him, and cites example after example—as in the case of the then Mayor of Liverpool, who would not allow him to pay the ordinary expenses of a meeting. He says: "While I found support among the business and educated classes, I encountered cluelessness among the politicians." There were, however, many who supported him in all his ideas, prominently among whom the present writer must place Richard Cobden.
- 90.
- O. Ritt, "Suez Canal History."
- 91.
- Exodus xiv. 21, and following
- 92.
- "Life in China," by William C. Milne, M.A.
- 93.
- The reader may have heard of mummies manufactured in Cairo for the English market. The idol trade of Birmingham has often been stated as a fact.
- 94.
- Readers who have seen Mr. Edouin’s impersonations of a Chinaman may be assured that they are true to nature, and not burlesques. That gentleman carefully studied the Chinese while engaged professionally in San Francisco.
- 95.
- The Tycoon is nominated out of the members of three families having hereditary rights. The princes or Daimios number three or four hundred, many having enormous incomes and armies of retainers. The Prince of Kangâ, for example, has £760,000 a year; the Prince of Satsuma £487,000; and the Prince of Owari £402,900.
- 96.
- For further details concerning this most interesting people, see Dr. Robert Brown’s "Human Races."
- 97.
- See "Nautical Magazine," October, 1855.
- 98.
- Captain Scammon, detailed from the United States Revenue Service, to take the post of Chief of Marine in the telegraph expedition on which the writer served, made a series of soundings. For nearly two degrees (between latitudes 64° and 66° N.) the average depth is under 19½ fathoms.
- 99.
- See Washington Irving’s “Astoria” also, Sir Edward Belcher’s “Journey of the Sulphur.”
- 100.
- "Our Tropical Possessions in Malayan India," by John Cameron, Esq.
- 101.
- J. Thomson, "The Straits of Malacca, Indo-China, and China."
- 102.
- It is stated that an old man, named Macgregor, had long before been in the habit of bringing once a year to Sydney small pieces of gold, which he always sold to a jeweller there, and also that a convict had been whipped for having lumps of gold in his possession prior to the above. Hargreaves’ claim rests both on the actual amount discovered, and on his publishing the fact at once.
- 103.
- “The Australian Colonies: Their Origin and Current State.”
- 104.
- In his work "Train West" which contains a most reliable account of California, its history and progress.
- 105.
- At the Cariboo mines, British Columbia, in 1863, there were 7,000 men on the various streams. There were not over a dozen women there!
- 106.
- Excepting at San Francisco, the only docks worthy of the name on the whole Pacific coasts of America are those of England’s naval station at Esquimalt.
- 107.
- Douglas pines have been measured in British Columbia which were 48 feet in circumference at their base, and therefore about sixteen feet through. These magnificent trees are only second in size to the “Tall Trees” of California.
- 108.
- On many parts of the North-west Pacific coasts of America, from Oregon northwards to Bering Straits, the salmon, in their season, swarm so that a boat can hardly make a way through their “schools”
- 109.
- Harper's Magazine (New York), April, 1869.
- 110.
- "Excerpts from a journal written on the coasts of Chile, Peru, Mexico, etc."
- 111.
- "The West Indies and the Spanish Main."
- 112.
- “At Last: A Christmas in the West Indies.”
- 113.
- "Naval Chronicles," vol. xii.
- 114.
- Other islands of the West Indies, as St. Thomas’s, which is a kind of leading "intersection" for mail steamers, and St. Domingo—so intimately connected with the voyages of Columbus—will be mentioned hereafter.
- 115.
- "Lands of the Slave and the Free," by the Hon. Henry A. Murray.
- 116.
- "Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia," by Judge Haliburton.
- 117.
- “To the Cape for Diamonds.” By Frederick Boyle.
- 118.
- “The Cruise of H.M.S. Galatea.” By the Rev. John Milner, B.A., Chaplain, and Oswald W. Brierly.
- 119.
- Alluding to the previous visit of Prince Alfred when a midshipman.
- 120.
- "The Settler's Guide to the Cape of Good Hope," &c., by Mr. Irons.
- 121.
- “The Autobiography of a Sailor.” By Thomas, tenth Earl of Dundonald, G.C.B., Admiral of the Red, &c. &c.
- 122.
- “Medical Naval Life.”
- 123.
- *The Naval Chronicle*, vol. xiii. (1806).
- 124.
- Her tonnage being no doubt calculated by what is known as O. M. (old measurement), and which was used up to a late date in England, her actual capacity must have been considerably greater.
- 125.
- "The Exciting History of the Mutiny and Pirate Takeover of H.M.S. Bounty: Its Reasons and Effects."
- 126.
- "Round the World Trip," by G. Hamilton.
- 127.
- "A Missionary Voyage to the Southern Pacific"
- 128.
- The Annual Register, 1789. The account above presented is derived from that source, and from the standard works of Yonge and James.
- 129.
- The curious in such matters will find this poem translated by Heeren in his work entitled “Asian Nations.”
- 130.
- (The late) W. S. Lindsay, M.P., &c., “History of Merchant Shipping.”
- 131.
- “The British Admirals: An Introductory Overview of England's Naval History.”
- 132.
- Charnock: “History of Marine Architecture.”
- 133.
- It has been clearly shown that a large vessel which had been built by Henry VII. bore the same name. The above was a successor, probably built after the first had become unfit for service.
- 134.
- Sir William Monson: Churchill’s "Voyage Collection."
- 135.
- Hakluyt.
- 136.
- "General History."
- 137.
- Camden. Balboa, the discoverer of the Pacific, had expressed the same feelings in almost the same locality.
- 138.
- Whenever the South Seas are mentioned in these early records, they must he understood to mean the South Pacific, and, indeed, sometimes portions of the North Pacific. The title still clings to the Polynesian Islands.
- 139.
- Burney’s “Journeys.”
- 140.
- Narrative of Chaplain Fletcher, quoted by Burney.
- 141.
- Various authorities cited by Southey.
- 142.
- The various slanders thrown on Drake’s name in connection with this occurrence seem to have had no foundation in fact. Some of his enemies averred that he sailed from England with instructions from the Earl of Leicester to get rid of Doughtie at the first opportunity, because the latter had reported that Essex had been poisoned by the former’s means. But Drake appears to have been really attached to him.
- 143.
- Fuller’s “Holy State.”
- 144.
- Narrative of Captain Hayes (owner of the Golden Hinde) printed in Hakluyt’s "Collection."
Transcription Note
The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up paragraphs and are near the text they illustrate, thus the page number of the illustration might not match the page number in the List of Illustrations.
The illustrations have been repositioned so they don't interrupt paragraphs and are closer to the text they depict, so the page number of the illustration might not match the page number in the List of Illustrations.
Pages which contain only an image have been left out in the pagination on the margin.
Pages that only contain an image have been excluded from the pagination on the margin.
Several illustrations which were missing from the List of Illustrations have been added to it. They can be identified by the missing page numbers in the list.
Several illustrations that were missing from the List of Illustrations have been added. You can identify them by the missing page numbers in the list.
The following changes have been made to the text:
The following changes have been made to the text:
| page 10, period and quote mark added after "arrived" | |
| page 13, "exist" added before “cool” | |
| page 42, “Shakespeare” changed to "Shakespeare" | |
| page 44, quote mark added before “staffed” | |
| page 50, quote mark added after "right away." | |
| page 59, quote mark removed after "steam." | |
| page 60, period changed to comma after "survivors" | |
| page 63, quote mark added after “water” | |
| page 101, “It” changed to Its | |
| page 117, comma changed to colon after “Disadvantages” | |
| page 119, period added after “O” | |
| page 123, “It” changed to "Its" | |
| page 129, “Portuguese” changed to “Portuguese” | |
| page 136, "through" changed to "via" | |
| page 146, quote mark removed after "somewhere else." | |
| page 147, "intersperse" changed to “mixed in” | |
| page 155, comma changed to closing parenthesis after “Aus” | |
| page 159, comma changed to period after streams | |
| page 175, colon added after “Bermuda” | |
| page 181, sweets changed to candies | |
| page 189, comma added after also | |
| page 219, period added after "loads" | |
| page 236, wide changed to "board" | |
| page 277, quote mark added after kindness | |
| page 282, quote mark added after “England” | |
| page 293, period added after "up" | |
| page 302, quote mark added after "complement" | |
| page 313, quote mark added after "blood." | |
| page 317, quote mark removed before "2" |
Differences between the table of contents and the chapter summaries have not been corrected. Neither have variations in hyphenation been normalized.
Differences between the table of contents and the chapter summaries haven't been corrected. Variations in hyphenation haven't been standardized either.
Download ePUB
If you like this ebook, consider a donation!