This is a modern-English version of History of the Reformation in the Sixteenth Century, Volume 2, originally written by Merle d'Aubigné, J. H. (Jean Henri).
It has been thoroughly updated, including changes to sentence structure, words, spelling,
and grammar—to ensure clarity for contemporary readers, while preserving the original spirit and nuance. If
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HISTORY
OF
THE REFORMATION
IN THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
BY
J. H. MERLE D'AUBIGNE, D.D.
J'appelle accessoire, l'estat des affaires de ceste vie caduque et transitoire. J'appelle principal le gouvernement spirituel auquel reluit souverainement la providence de Dieu.—Theodore De Beze.
J'appelle accessoire, l'état des affaires de cette vie éphémère et changeante. J'appelle principal le gouvernement spirituel auquel brille souverainement la providence de Dieu.—Theodore de Bèze.
By accessory I mean the state of affairs in this fading and transitory life. By principal I mean the spiritual government in which the providence of God is sovereignly displayed.
By accessory I mean the situation in this temporary and fleeting life. By principal I mean the spiritual governance where God's providence is clearly shown.
A NEW TRANSLATION:
(CONTAINING THE AUTHOR'S LATEST IMPROVEMENTS,)
BY HENRY BEVERIDGE, ESQ., ADVOCATE.
VOLUME SECOND.
PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM COLLINS,
SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, GLASGOW.
PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
1846.
A NEW TRANSLATION:
(FEATURING THE AUTHOR'S LATEST UPDATES,)
BY HENRY BEVERIDGE, ESQ., ATTORNEY.
VOLUME TWO.
PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM COLLINS,
SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, GLASGOW.
PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
1846.
GLASGOW:
WILLIAM COLLINS AND CO.
PRINTERS.
GLASGOW:
WILLIAM COLLINS & CO.
PRINTERS.
CONTENTS.
| BOOK FIFTH. | |
| CHAP. I. | |
| THE DISCUSSION OF LEIPSIC, 1519. | |
| PAGE | |
Luther's Dangers—God saves Luther—The Pope sends a Chamberlain—The Chamberlain—Legate's Journey—Briefs of Rome—Circumstances favourable to the Reformation—Miltitz with Spalatin—Tezel's Terror—Caresses of Miltitz—A Recantation demanded—Luther refuses, but offers to be silent—Agreement between Luther and the Nuncio—The Legate's Embrace—Tezel overwhelmed by the Legate—Luther to the Pope—Nature of the Reformation—Luther against Separation—De Vio and Miltitz at Treves—Luther's Cause extends in different Countries—Luther's Writings the commencement of the Reformation. Luther's Dangers—God saves Luther—The Pope sends a Chamberlain—The Chamberlain—Legate's Journey—Briefs from Rome—Circumstances are favorable to the Reformation—Miltitz with Spalatin—Tezel's Fear—Miltitz's Flattery—A Recantation requested—Luther refuses but offers to remain silent—Agreement between Luther and the Nuncio—The Legate's Embrace—Tezel overwhelmed by the Legate—Luther to the Pope—Nature of the Reformation—Luther against Separation—De Vio and Miltitz at Treves—Luther's Cause spreads to different Countries—Luther's Writings mark the beginning of the Reformation. | 1 |
| CHAP. II. | |
The War seems ended in Germany—Eck Revives the Contest—Debate between Eck and Carlstadt—The Question of the Pope—Luther Replies—Alarm of Luther's Friends—Luther's Courage—Truth triumphs single-handed—Refusal of Duke Georges—Delight of Mosellanus and Fears of Erasmus. The war appears to be over in Germany—Eck reignites the conflict—Debate between Eck and Carlstadt—The issue of the Pope—Luther responds—Concern from Luther's supporters—Luther's bravery—Truth stands strong alone—Duke Georges' refusal—Joy of Mosellanus and worries of Erasmus. | 13 |
| CHAP. III. | |
Arrival of Eck and the Wittembergers—Amsdorff—The Students—Carlstadt's Accident—Placard—Eck and Luther—Pleissenburg—Shall Judges be appointed?—Luther objects. Arrival of Eck and the Wittenbergers—Amsdorff—The Students—Carlstadt's Accident—Notice—Eck and Luther—Pleissenburg—Should Judges be appointed?—Luther disagrees. | 19 |
| CHAP. IV. | |
The Procession—Mass—Mosellanus—Veni, Sancte Spiritus!—Portraits of Luther and Carlstadt—Doctor Eck—Carlstadt's Books—Merit of Congruity—Natural Powers—Scholastic Distinction—Point where Rome and the Reformation Separate—Grace gives Man freedom—Carlstadt's Note-Book—Commotion in the Auditory—Melancthon during the Debate—Manœuvres of Eck—Luther Preaches—The Citizens of Leipsic—Quarrels of Students and Quarrels of Teachers. The Procession—Mass—Mosellanus—Come, Holy Spirit!—Portraits of Luther and Carlstadt—Doctor Eck—Carlstadt's Books—Merit of Congruity—Natural Powers—Scholastic Distinction—The Point where Rome and the Reformation Divide—Grace grants Man freedom—Carlstadt's Note-Book—Commotion in the Audience—Melancthon during the Debate—Eck's Maneuvers—Luther Preaches—The Citizens of Leipzig—Student Fights and Teacher Conflicts. | 24 |
| CHAP. V. | |
Hierarchy and Rationalism—Two Peasants' Sons—Eck and Luther begin—The Head of the Church—The Primacy of Rome—Equality of Bishops—Peter the Foundation—Christ the Foundation—Eck insinuates that Luther is a Hussite—Luther on the Doctrine of Huss—Agitation in the Audience—Pleasantry of Dr. Eck—The Word alone—The Court Fool—Luther at Mass—Saying of the Duke—Purgatory—Close of the Discussion. Hierarchy and Rationalism—Two Peasants' Sons—Eck and Luther start—The Leader of the Church—The Dominance of Rome—Equality Among Bishops—Peter as the Foundation—Christ as the Foundation—Eck suggests that Luther is a Hussite—Luther's view on Huss's Teachings—Tension in the Audience—Dr. Eck's Humor—Scripture Alone—The Court Jester—Luther at Mass—The Duke's Statement—Purgatory—End of the Discussion. | 33 |
| CHAP. VI. | |
Interest felt by the Laity—Luther's Opinion—Admissions and Boastings of Dr. Eck—Effects of the Discussion—Poliander—Cellarius—The Young Prince of Anhalt—The Students of Leipsic—Cruciger—Calling of Melancthon—Emancipation of Luther. Interest shown by the Laity—Luther's View—Dr. Eck's Claims and Bragging—Impact of the Debate—Poliander—Cellarius—The Young Prince of Anhalt—The Students of Leipzig—Cruciger—The Invitation to Melancthon—Luther's Liberation. | 42 |
| CHAP. VII. | |
Eck attacks Melancthon—Melancthon's Defence—Interpretation of Scripture—Luther's Firmness—The Bohemian Brethren—Emser—Staupitz. Eck criticizes Melancthon—Melancthon's Response—Understanding Scripture—Luther's Sturdiness—The Bohemian Brethren—Emser—Staupitz. | 47 |
| CHAP. VIII. | |
Epistle to the Galatians—Christ for us—Blindness of Luther's Adversaries—First Ideas on the Supper—Is the Sacrament Sufficient without Faith?—Luther a Bohemian—Eck Attacked—Eck sets out for Rome. Epistle to the Galatians—Christ for us—Blindness of Luther's Opponents—Initial Thoughts on the Supper—Is the Sacrament Enough without Faith?—Luther a Bohemian—Eck Under Fire—Eck Heads to Rome. | 50 |
| BOOK SIXTH. | |
| THE BULL OF ROME. | |
| 1520. | |
| CHAP. I. | |
Character of Maximilian—The Competitors for the Empire—Charles—Francis I—Inclination of the Germans—The Crown offered to Frederick—Charles is Elected. Character of Maximilian—The Competitors for the Empire—Charles—Francis I—Inclination of the Germans—The Crown offered to Frederick—Charles is Elected. | 55 |
| CHAP. II. | |
Luther writes to the Emperor—Luther's Dangers—Instructions of Frederick to the Court of Rome—Luther's Sentiments—Melancthon's Fears—The German Nobles favourable to the Reformation—Schaumburg—Seckingen—Ulric de Hutten—Luther's Confidence—Luther's Greater Freedom—Faith the Source of Works—What Faith gives—Luther Judging his own Writings. Luther writes to the Emperor—Luther's Risks—Frederick's Instructions to the Court of Rome—Luther's Views—Melancthon's Concerns—The German Nobles Supportive of the Reformation—Schaumburg—Seckingen—Ulric de Hutten—Luther's Assurance—Luther's Increased Freedom—Faith as the Foundation of Actions—What Faith Provides—Luther Evaluating his Own Writings. | 59 |
| CHAP. III. | |
The Papacy Attacked—Appeal to the Nobility—The Three Walls—All Christians are Priests—The Magistrate's duty to Correct the Clergy—Abuses of Rome—Ruin of Italy—Dangers of Germany—The Pope—The Legates—The Monks—The Marriage of Priests—Celibacy—Festivals—The Bohemians—Charity—The Universities—The Empire—The Emperor must retake Rome—A Book not Published—Luther's Modesty—Success of the Address. The Papacy Under Fire—A Call to the Nobility—The Three Walls—All Christians as Priests—The Magistrate’s Role in Correcting the Clergy—Rome’s Abuses—Italy’s Downfall—Germany’s Threats—The Pope—The Legates—The Monks—Priests Marrying—Celibacy—Festivals—The Bohemians—Charity—The Universities—The Empire—The Emperor Needs to Reclaim Rome—An Unpublished Book—Luther’s Humility—The Impact of the Address. | 65 |
| CHAP. IV. | |
Preparations at Rome—Motives to resist the Papacy—Eck at Rome—Eck gains the Day—The Pope is the World—God produces the Separation—A Swiss Priest pleads for Luther—The Roman Consistory—Preamble of the Bull—Condemnation of Luther. Preparations in Rome—Reasons to oppose the Papacy—Eck in Rome—Eck wins the argument—The Pope represents the world—God causes the split—A Swiss Priest advocates for Luther—The Roman Consistory—Introduction to the Bull—Luther’s condemnation. | 74 |
| CHAP. V. | |
Wittemberg—Melancthon—His Marriage—Catharine—Domestic Life—Beneficence—Good Humour—Christ and Antiquity—Labour—Love of Letters—His Mother—Outbreak among the Students. Wittenberg—Melanchthon—His Marriage—Catherine—Home Life—Charity—Sense of Humor—Christ and the Classics—Work—Passion for Learning—His Mother—Disruptions among the Students. | 80 |
| CHAP. VI. | |
The Gospel in Italy—Discourse on the Mass—The Babylonish Captivity of the Church—Baptism—Abolition of Vows—Progress of the Reformation. The Gospel in Italy—Talk on the Mass—The Babylonish Captivity of the Church—Baptism—Ending of Vows—Advancement of the Reformation. | 84 |
| CHAP. VII. | |
New Negotiations—Miltitz and the Augustins of Eisleben—Deputation to Luther—Miltitz and the Elector—Conference at Lichtemberg—Luther's Letter to the Pope—Book presented to the Pope—Union of the Believer with Christ—Freedom and Bondage. New Negotiations—Miltitz and the Augustins of Eisleben—Delegation to Luther—Miltitz and the Elector—Meeting at Lichtemberg—Luther's Letter to the Pope—Book given to the Pope—Union of the Believer with Christ—Freedom and Bondage. | 88 |
| CHAP. VIII. | |
The Bull in Germany—Eck's Reception—The Bull at Wittemberg—Interposition of Zuinglius. The Bull in Germany—Eck's Welcome—The Bull at Wittenberg—Zwingli's Intervention. | 95 |
| CHAP. IX. | |
Luther Examines himself in the presence of God—Luther's opinion of the Bull—A Neutral Family—Luther on the Bull, and against the Bull of Antichrist—The Pope prohibits Faith—Effects of the Bull—The Faggot Pile of Louvain. Luther examines himself before God—Luther's view on the Bull—An Unbiased Family—Luther on the Bull, and against the Antichrist's Bull—The Pope forbids Faith—Impact of the Bull—The Faggot Pile of Louvain. | 99 |
| CHAP. X. | |
Decisive steps by the Reformer—Luther's Appeal to a General Council—Struggle at close quarters—The Bull burned by Luther—Meaning of this bold act—Luther in the Academic Chair—Luther against the Pope—New Work by Melancthon—How Luther encourages his Friends—Progress of the Contest—Melancthon's Opinion of the timid—Luther's work on the Bible—Doctrine of Grace—Luther's Recantation. Decisive actions by the Reformer—Luther's request for a General Council—Intense conflict—The Bull set ablaze by Luther—Significance of this daring move—Luther in the Academic Chair—Luther opposing the Pope—New work by Melancthon—How Luther motivates his friends—Advancement of the struggle—Melancthon's views on the timid—Luther's work on the Bible—Doctrine of Grace—Luther's recantation. | 104 |
| CHAP. XI. | |
Coronation of Charles V—The Nuncio Aleander—Will Luther's Books be burnt?—Aleander and the Emperor—The Nuncios and the Elector—The Son of Duke John pleads for Luther—Luther's Calmness—The Elector protects Luther—Reply of the Nuncios—Erasmus at Cologne—Erasmus With the Elector—Declaration of Erasmus—Advice of Erasmus—System of Charles V. Coronation of Charles V—The Nuncio Aleander—Will Luther's Books be burned?—Aleander and the Emperor—The Nuncios and the Elector—The Son of Duke John advocates for Luther—Luther's Composure—The Elector defends Luther—Response from the Nuncios—Erasmus in Cologne—Erasmus with the Elector—Erasmus's Statement—Erasmus's Advice—Charles V's Approach. | 112 |
| CHAP. XII. | |
Luther on Confession—True Absolution—Antichrist—Rally around Luther—Satires—Ulric von Hutten—Lucas Cranach—The Carnival at Wittemberg—Staupitz Intimidated—Luther's Labours—Luther's Humility—Progress of the Reformation. Luther on Confession—True Forgiveness—Antichrist—Unite around Luther—Satirical Works—Ulric von Hutten—Lucas Cranach—The Carnival in Wittenberg—Staupitz Intimidated—Luther's Efforts—Luther's Humility—Advancement of the Reformation. | 120 |
| BOOK SEVENTH. | |
| THE DIET OF WORMS. | |
| 1521. (January-May.) | |
| CHAP. I. | |
Conquest by the Word of God—The Diet of Worms—Difficulties—Charles demands Luther—The Elector to Charles—State of Men's Minds—Aleander's Alarm—The Elector sets out without Luther—Aleander awakens Rome—Excommunication of the Pope, and Communion with Christ—Fulmination of the Bull—Luther's Motives in the Reformation. Conquest by the Word of God—The Diet of Worms—Challenges—Charles demands Luther—The Elector to Charles—State of Public Opinion—Aleander's Worry—The Elector leaves without Luther—Aleander alerts Rome—Excommunication from the Pope and Connection with Christ—Issuance of the Bull—Luther's Reasons for the Reformation. | 128 |
| CHAP. II. | |
A Foreign Prince—Advice of Politicians—Conference between the Confessor and the Elector's Chancellor—Uselessness of these Manœuvres—Aleander's Activity—Luther's Sayings—Charles gives in to the Pope. A Foreign Prince—Advice from Politicians—Meeting between the Confessor and the Elector's Chancellor—Pointlessness of these Maneuvers—Aleander's Efforts—Luther's Statements—Charles yields to the Pope. | 135 |
| CHAP. III. | |
Aleander admitted to the Diet—Aleander's Address—Luther accused—Rome defended—Appeal to Charles against Luther—Effect of the Nuncio's Address. Aleander spoke at the Diet—Aleander's Speech—Luther was accused—Rome was defended—Appeal to Charles against Luther—Impact of the Nuncio's Speech. | 141 |
| CHAP. IV. | |
Sentiments of the Princes—Speech of Duke George—Character of the Reformation—A Hundred and one Grievances—Charles Yields—Tactics of Aleander—The Grandees of Spain—Luther's Peace—Death and not Retractation. Sentiments of the Princes—Speech of Duke George—Character of the Reformation—A Hundred and one Grievances—Charles Agrees—Tactics of Aleander—The Nobles of Spain—Luther's Peace—Death and not Retractation. | 145 |
| CHAP. V. | |
Will a Safe-conduct be given?—Safe-conduct—Will Luther go?—Holy Thursday at Rome—The Pope and Luther. Will a safe conduct be issued?—Safe conduct—Will Luther go?—Holy Thursday in Rome—The Pope and Luther. | 151 |
| CHAP. VI. | |
Luther's courage—Bugenhagen at Wittemberg—Persecutions in Pomerania—Melancthon wishes to set out with Luther—Amsdorff—Schurff—Suaven—Hutten to Charles V. Luther's bravery—Bugenhagen in Wittenberg—Persecutions in Pomerania—Melanchthon wants to leave with Luther—Amsdorff—Schurff—Suaven—Hutten to Charles V. | 156 |
| CHAP. VII. | |
Departure for the Diet of Worms—Luther's Adieu—His Condemnation Published—Cavalcade near Erfurt—Meeting of Jonas and Luther—Luther in his old Convent—Luther Preaches at Erfurt—Incident—Faith and Works—Concourse of People—Luther's Courage—Luther to Spalatin—Halt at Frankfort—Fears at Worms—Plan of the Imperialists—Luther's Firmness. Departure for the Diet of Worms—Luther's Farewell—His Condemnation Released—Procession near Erfurt—Meeting of Jonas and Luther—Luther in his former Convent—Luther Preaches at Erfurt—Event—Faith and Actions—Crowd of People—Luther's Bravery—Luther to Spalatin—Stop at Frankfurt—Concerns at Worms—Strategy of the Imperialists—Luther's Resoluteness. | 160 |
| CHAP. VIII. | |
Entry into Worms—Chant for the Dead—Council held by Charles V—Capito and the Temporisers—Concourse around Luther—Citation—Hutten to Luther—Proceeds to the Diet—Saying of Freundsberg—Imposing Assembly—The Chancellor's Address—Luther's Reply—His Wisdom—Saying of Charles V—Alarm—Triumph—Luther's Firmness—Insults from the Spaniards—Council—Luther's Trouble and Prayer—Might of the Reformation—Luther's Oath to Scripture—The Court of the Diet—Luther's Address—Three kinds of Writings—He demands Proof of his Error—Solemn Warnings—He Repeats his Address in Latin—Here I am: I can't do otherwise—The "weakness" of God—New Attempt. Entry into Worms—Chant for the Dead—Council held by Charles V—Capito and the Temporisers—Gathering around Luther—Citation—Hutten to Luther—Moves to the Diet—Saying of Freundsberg—Impressive Assembly—The Chancellor's Address—Luther's Response—His Wisdom—Saying of Charles V—Concern—Victory—Luther's Resolve—Insults from the Spaniards—Council—Luther's Distress and Prayer—Strength of the Reformation—Luther's Oath to Scripture—The Court of the Diet—Luther's Address—Three types of Writings—He demands Evidence of his Mistake—Serious Warnings—He Repeats his Address in Latin—Here I am: I can't do otherwise—The "weakness" of God—New Attempt. | 168 |
| CHAP. IX. | |
Victory—Tumult and Calm—Duke Errick's Glass of Beer—The Elector and Spalatin—Message from the Emperor—Wish to violate the Safe-conduct—Strong Opposition—Enthusiasm for Luther—Voice for Conciliation—The Elector's Fear—Assemblage at Luther's Lodgings—Philip of Hesse. Victory—Chaos and Peace—Duke Errick's Beer—The Elector and Spalatin—Message from the Emperor—Desire to break the Safe-conduct—Strong Resistance—Support for Luther—Call for Compromise—The Elector's Worry—Gathering at Luther's Place—Philip of Hesse. | 184 |
| CHAP. X. | |
Conference with the Archbishop of Treves—Wehe's Advice to Luther—Luther's Replies—Private Conversation—Visit of Cochlœus—Supper at the Archbishop's—Attempt on the Hotel of Rhodes—A Council proposed—Last Interview between Luther and the Archbishop—Visit to a sick Friend—Luther ordered to quit Worms. Conference with the Archbishop of Treves—Wehe's Advice to Luther—Luther's Replies—Private Conversation—Visit of Cochlœus—Dinner at the Archbishop's—Attempt on the Hotel of Rhodes—A Council proposed—Last Meeting between Luther and the Archbishop—Visit to a Sick Friend—Luther ordered to leave Worms. | 190 |
| CHAP. XI. | |
Luther's Departure—Journey from Worms—Luther to Cranach—Luther to Charles V—Luther with the Abbot of Hirschfeld—The Curate of Eisenach—Several Princes leave the Diet—Charles signs Luther's Condemnation—The Edict of Worms—Luther with his Parents—Luther attacked and carried off—The ways of God—Wartburg—Luther a Prisoner. Luther's Departure—Journey from Worms—Luther to Cranach—Luther to Charles V—Luther with the Abbot of Hirschfeld—The Curate of Eisenach—Several Princes leave the Diet—Charles signs Luther's Condemnation—The Edict of Worms—Luther with his Parents—Luther attacked and taken away—The ways of God—Wartburg—Luther a Prisoner. | 198 |
| BOOK EIGHTH. | |
| THE SWISS. | |
| 1484-1522. | |
| CHAP. I. | |
Movements in Switzerland—Source of the Reformation—Democratic Character—Foreign Service—Morality—The Tockenburg—An Alpine Hut—A Pastoral Family. Movements in Switzerland—Source of the Reformation—Democratic Nature—Foreign Service—Ethics—The Tockenburg—An Alpine Cabin—A Pastoral Family. | 206 |
| CHAP. II. | |
Young Ulric at Wesen—At Bale—At Berne—The Dominican Convent—Jetzer—The Apparitions—The Passion of the Lay Brother—The Imposture—Discovery and Punishment—Zuinglius at Vienna—At Bale—Music at Bale—Wittembach teaches the Gospel—Leo Juda—The Curate of Glaris. Young Ulric at Wesen—At Bale—At Berne—The Dominican Convent—Jetzer—The Apparitions—The Passion of the Lay Brother—The Hoax—Discovery and Punishment—Zuinglius at Vienna—At Bale—Music at Bale—Wittembach teaches the Gospel—Leo Juda—The Curate of Glaris. | 211 |
| CHAP. III. | |
Love of War—Schinner—Pension from the Pope—The Labyrinth—Zuinglius in Italy—Principle of Reform—Zuinglius and Luther—Zuinglius and Erasmus—Zuinglius and the Elders—Paris and Glaris. Love of War—Schinner—Pension from the Pope—The Labyrinth—Zuinglius in Italy—Principle of Reform—Zuinglius and Luther—Zuinglius and Erasmus—Zuinglius and the Elders—Paris and Glaris. | 217 |
| CHAP. IV. | |
Zuinglius in regard to Erasmus—Oswald Myconius—The Vagrants—Œcolampadius—Zuinglius at Marignan—Zuinglius and Italy—Method of Zuinglius—Commencement of Reform—Discovery. Zuinglius concerning Erasmus—Oswald Myconius—The Vagrants—Œcolampadius—Zuinglius at Marignan—Zuinglius and Italy—Zuinglius’ approach—Beginning of Reform—Discovery. | 223 |
| CHAP. V. | |
Meinrad of Hohenzollern—Our Lady of Einsidlen—Calling of Zuinglius—The Abbot—Geroldsek—Companionship in Study—The Bible Copied—Zuinglius and Superstition—First Opposition to Error—Sensation—Hedio—Zuinglius and the Legates—The Honours of Rome—The Bishop of Constance—Samson and Indulgences—Stapfer—Charity of Zuinglius—His Friends. Meinrad of Hohenzollern—Our Lady of Einsidlen—Calling of Zwingli—The Abbot—Geroldsek—Companionship in Study—The Bible Copied—Zwingli and Superstition—First Opposition to Error—Sensation—Hedio—Zwingli and the Legates—The Honours of Rome—The Bishop of Constance—Samson and Indulgences—Stapfer—Charity of Zwingli—His Friends. | 229 |
| CHAP. VI. | |
Zurich—The College of Canons—Election to the Cathedral—Fable's Accusations—Confession of Zuinglius—The Designs of God Unfolded—Farewell to Einsidlen—Arrival at Zurich—Courageous Declaration of Zuinglius—First Sermons—Effects—Opposition—Character of Zuinglius—Taste for Music—Arrangement of the Day—Circulation by Hawkers. Zurich—The College of Canons—Election to the Cathedral—Fable's Accusations—Confession of Zuinglius—The Plans of God Revealed—Goodbye to Einsidlen—Arrival in Zurich—Bold Statement from Zuinglius—First Sermons—Impact—Opposition—Zuinglius’s Character—Love for Music—Daily Schedule—Distributed by Hawkers. | 237 |
| CHAP. VII. | |
Indulgences—Samson at Berne—Samson at Baden—The Dean of Bremgarten—Young Henry Bullinger—Samson and the Dean—Internal Struggles of Zuinglius—Zuinglius against Indulgences—Samson Dismissed. Indulgences—Samson in Bern—Samson in Baden—The Dean of Bremgarten—Young Henry Bullinger—Samson and the Dean—Internal Conflicts of Zwingli—Zwingli against Indulgences—Samson Dismissed. | 246 |
| CHAP. VIII. | |
The Labours of Zuinglius—The Baths of Pfeffers—God's time—The Great Death—Zuinglius seized with the Plague—His Enemies—His Friends—Convalescence—General Joy—Effect of the Plague—Myconius at Lucerne—Oswald encourages Zuinglius—Zuinglius at Bale—Capito called to Mentz—Hedio at Bale—An Unnatural Son—Preparation for Battle. The Labors of Zuinglius—The Baths of Pfeffers—God's timing—The Great Death—Zuinglius struck by the Plague—His enemies—His friends—Recovery—General happiness—Impact of the Plague—Myconius in Lucerne—Oswald supports Zuinglius—Zuinglius in Basel—Capito invited to Mainz—Hedio in Basel—An unnatural son—Getting ready for battle. | 251 |
| CHAP. IX. | |
The Two Reformers—The Fall of Man—Expiation of the God-Man—No Merit in Works—Objections refuted—Power of Love to Christ—Election—Christ alone Master—Effects of this Preaching—Despondency and Courage—First Act of the Magistrate—Church and State—Attacks—Galster. The Two Reformers—The Fall of Man—Expiation of the God-Man—No Merit in Works—Objections refuted—Power of Love to Christ—Election—Christ alone Master—Effects of this Preaching—Despondency and Courage—First Act of the Magistrate—Church and State—Attacks—Galster. | 260 |
| CHAP. X. | |
A new Combatant—The Reformer of Berne—Zuinglius encourages Haller—The Gospel at Lucerne—Oswald Persecuted—Preaching of Zuinglius—Henry Bullinger and Gerold of Knonau—Rubli at Bale—The Chaplain of the Hospital—War in Italy—Zuinglius—Foreign Service. A new Fighter—The Reformer of Berne—Zuinglius motivates Haller—The Gospel in Lucerne—Oswald Persecuted—Zuinglius’ Preaching—Henry Bullinger and Gerold of Knonau—Rubli in Basel—The Hospital Chaplain—War in Italy—Zuinglius—Foreign Service. | 267 |
| CHAP. XI. | |
Zuinglius against the Precepts of Man—Fermentation during Lent—Truth advances during Combat—The Deputies of the Bishops—Accusation before the Clergy and Council—Appeal to the Great Council—The Coadjutor and Zuinglius—Decree of the Grand Council—State of Matters—Attack by Hoffman. Zuinglius against the Rules of Men—Fermentation during Lent—Truth progresses during Conflict—The Representatives of the Bishops—Charges before the Clergy and Council—Appeal to the Grand Council—The Coadjutor and Zuinglius—Decision of the Grand Council—Current Situation—Assault by Hoffman. | 273 |
| CHAP. XII. | |
Grief and Joy in Germany—Ambush against Zuinglius—Mandate of the Bishop—Archeteles—The Bishop addresses the Diet—Prohibition to attack the Monks—Declaration of Zuinglius—The Nuns of Œtenbach—Zuinglius' Address to Schwitz. Grief and Joy in Germany—Ambush against Zuinglius—Mandate of the Bishop—Archeteles—The Bishop addresses the Diet—Prohibition to attack the Monks—Declaration of Zuinglius—The Nuns of Œtenbach—Zuinglius' Address to Schwitz. | 279 |
| CHAP. XIII. | |
A French Monk—He Teaches in Switzerland—Dispute between the Monk and Zuinglius—Discourse of the Leader of the Johannites—The Carnival at Berne—The Eaters of the Dead—The Skull of St. Anne—Appenzel—The Grisons—Murder and Adultery—Marriage of Zuinglius. A French monk—He teaches in Switzerland—A conflict between the monk and Zwingli—Talk by the leader of the Johannites—The carnival in Bern—The flesh eaters—The skull of St. Anne—Appenzell—The Grisons—Murder and adultery—Zwingli's marriage. | 284 |
| CHAP. XIV. | |
How Truth Triumphs—Society at Einsidlen—Request to the Bishops—To the Confederates—The Men of Einsidlen Separate—A Scene in a Convent—A Dinner by Myconius—The Strength of the Reformers—Effect of the Petitions to Lucerne—The Council of the Diet—Haller at the Town-House—Friburg—Destitution of Oswald—Zuinglius comforts him—Oswald quits Lucerne—First Severity of the Diet—Consternation of the Brothers of Zuinglius—His Resolution—The Future—The Prayer of Zuinglius. How Truth Wins—Community at Einsidlen—Appeal to the Bishops—To the Confederates—The People of Einsidlen Part Ways—A Moment in a Convent—A Meal with Myconius—The Power of the Reformers—Impact of the Petitions to Lucerne—The Council of the Diet—Haller at the Town Hall—Friburg—Oswald's Hardship—Zuinglius Offers Support—Oswald Leaves Lucerne—Initial Strictness of the Diet—Shock of Zuinglius's Brothers—His Decision—What Lies Ahead—Zuinglius's Prayer. | 293 |
HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION
History of the Reformation
OF THE
OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
16TH CENTURY.
Book 5.
CHAP. I.
THE DISCUSSION OF LEIPSIC, 1519.
THE DISCUSSION OF LEIPZIG, 1519.
Luther's Dangers—God saves Luther—The Pope sends a Chamberlain—The Legate's Journey—Briefs of Rome—Circumstances favourable to the Reformation—Miltitz with Spalatin—Tezel's Terror—Caresses of Miltitz—A Recantation demanded—Luther refuses, but offers to be silent—Agreement between Luther and the Nuncio—The Legate's Embrace—Tezel overwhelmed by the Legate—Luther to the Pope—Nature of the Reformation—Luther against Separation—De Vie and Miltitz at Trèves—Luther's cause extends in different countries—Luther's writings the commencement of the Reformation.
Luther's Challenges—God protects Luther—The Pope sends a Chamberlain—The Legate's Trip—Briefs from Rome—Circumstances favoring the Reformation—Miltitz with Spalatin—Tezel's Fear—Miltitz's Flattery—A Recantation requested—Luther declines but agrees to stay silent—Agreement between Luther and the Nuncio—The Legate's Embrace—Tezel overshadowed by the Legate—Luther to the Pope—Nature of the Reformation—Luther against Division—De Vie and Miltitz in Trèves—Luther's cause spreads to other countries—Luther's writings mark the beginning of the Reformation.
Dangers had gathered round Luther and the Reformation. The doctor of Wittemberg's appeal to a General Council was a new attack on papal authority. By a bull of Pius II, the greater excommunication had been denounced even against emperors who should dare to incur the guilt of such a revolt. Frederick of Saxony, as yet imperfectly confirmed in evangelical doctrine, was prepared to send Luther away from his states;[1] and hence a new message from Leo might have thrown the Reformer among strangers, who would be afraid to compromise themselves by receiving a monk whom Rome had anathematised. And even should the sword of some noble be drawn in his defence, mere knights, unable to cope with the powerful princes of Germany, must soon have succumbed in the perilous enterprise.
Dangers had gathered around Luther and the Reformation. The scholar from Wittenberg's appeal to a General Council was a new challenge to papal authority. By a papal bull from Pius II, a major excommunication had been declared even against emperors who dared to take on the guilt of such a rebellion. Frederick of Saxony, still not fully committed to evangelical beliefs, was ready to send Luther away from his territories;[1] and thus, a new message from Leo could have forced the Reformer into exile, where he would be among people hesitant to support a monk whom Rome had condemned. And even if some noble rose to defend him, regular knights, unable to stand up to the powerful princes of Germany, would quickly fall in such a risky endeavor.
But at the moment when all the courtiers of Leo X were urging him to rigorous measures, and when one blow more might have placed his adversary in his hands, the pope suddenly changed his course to one of conciliation and apparent mildness.[2] It may be said, no doubt, that he was under a delusion as to the Elector's feelings, and deemed them more decided in Luther's favour than they really were. It may also be admitted that the public voice and the spirit of the age, powers which at this time were altogether new, seemed to throw an impregnable barrier around the Reformer. It may even be supposed, with one of Leo's biographers,[3] that he followed the promptings of his mind and heart which inclined to gentleness and moderation. Still this new mode of action on the part of Rome, at such a moment, is so extraordinary that it is impossible not to recognise in it a higher and mightier hand.
But at the moment when all the courtiers of Leo X were pushing him for strict actions, and when one more blow could have put his opponent right in his grasp, the pope suddenly shifted to a more conciliatory and seemingly gentle approach.[2] It can be argued, certainly, that he was mistaken about the Elector's feelings, thinking they were more strongly in favor of Luther than they actually were. It's also true that the public opinion and the spirit of the times, forces that were completely new at this point, seemed to create an unbreakable barrier around the Reformer. It might even be suggested, as one of Leo's biographers asserts,[3] that he followed his own instincts toward kindness and moderation. Still, this new approach from Rome at such a critical time is so surprising that it’s impossible not to see a greater and more powerful influence at play.
There was then at the Court of Rome a Saxon noble who was chamberlain to the pope and canon of Mentz, Trèves, and Meissen. He had turned his talents to advantage. As he boasted of being, in some degree, allied to the Saxon princes, the Roman courtiers sometimes designated him by the title of Duke of Saxony. In Italy he made an absurd display of his German nobility, while in Germany he aped the manners and polish of the Italians. He was given to wine[4]—a vice which his residence at the Court of Rome had increased. Still the Roman courtiers hoped great things from him. His German extraction—his insinuating address—and his ability in negotiation—all led them to expect that Charles de Miltitz (this was his name) would, by his prudence, succeed in arresting the mighty revolution which was threatening to shake the world.
There was a Saxon noble at the Court of Rome who served as the pope's chamberlain and was a canon of Mentz, Trèves, and Meissen. He had leveraged his talents well. He claimed to be somewhat related to the Saxon princes, so the Roman courtiers sometimes referred to him as the Duke of Saxony. In Italy, he made an outrageous show of his German nobility, while in Germany, he mimicked the style and elegance of the Italians. He had a penchant for wine—a habit that his time at the Court of Rome had only worsened. Despite this, the Roman courtiers had high hopes for him. His German background, charming demeanor, and skill in negotiation led them to believe that Charles de Miltitz (that was his name) would use his intelligence to halt the major revolution that was about to shake the world.
It was of importance to conceal the true object of the chamberlain's mission, and in this there was no difficulty. Four years before, the pious Elector had applied to the pope for the golden rose. This rose, the fairest of flowers, was emblematic of the body of Jesus Christ, and being annually consecrated by the sovereign pontiff, was presented to one of the first princes in Europe. On this occasion it was resolved to send it to the Elector. Miltitz set out with a commission to examine into the state of affairs, and to gain over the Elector's counsellors, Spalatin and Pfeffinger, for whom he had special letters. Rome hoped that, by securing the favour of the persons about the prince, she would soon become mistress of her formidable adversary.
It was important to hide the true purpose of the chamberlain's mission, and this was not difficult. Four years earlier, the devout Elector had asked the pope for the golden rose. This rose, the most beautiful of flowers, symbolized the body of Jesus Christ and was consecrated each year by the pope before being presented to one of the top princes in Europe. This time, it was decided to send it to the Elector. Miltitz set out with a mission to assess the situation and to win over the Elector's advisers, Spalatin and Pfeffinger, for whom he had special letters. Rome hoped that by gaining the favor of those close to the prince, she would soon have control over her powerful adversary.
The new legate, who arrived in Germany in December 1518, was careful as he came along to ascertain the state of public opinion. To his great astonishment he observed, at every place where he stopped, that the majority of the inhabitants were friendly to the Reformation,[5] and spoke of Luther with enthusiasm. For one person favourable to the pope, there were three favourable to the Reformer.[6] Luther has preserved an anecdote of the journey—"What think you of the see (seat) of Rome?" frequently asked the legate at the mistresses of the inns and their maidservants. One day, one of these poor women, with great simplicity, replied—"How can we know what kind of seats you have at Rome, and whether they are of wood or stone?"[7]
The new legate, who arrived in Germany in December 1518, was careful as he traveled to assess public opinion. To his surprise, he noticed at every stop that most people were supportive of the Reformation,[5] and spoke of Luther with enthusiasm. For every person in favor of the pope, there were three who supported the Reformer.[6] Luther recorded an anecdote from the journey—"What do you think of the see (seat) of Rome?" the legate often asked the innkeepers and their maidservants. One day, one of these women, with great innocence, replied—"How can we know what kind of seats you have in Rome, and whether they are made of wood or stone?"[7]
The mere rumour of the new legate's arrival filled the Elector's court, the university, the town of Wittemberg, and all Saxony, with suspicion and distrust. "Thank God," wrote Melancthon, in alarm,[8] "Martin still breathes." It was confidently stated that the Roman chamberlain had received orders to possess himself of Luther's person, by force or fraud; and the doctor was advised, on all hands, to be on his guard against the stratagems of Miltitz. "His object in coming," said they, "is to seize you and give you up to the pope. Persons worthy of credit have seen the briefs of which he is the bearer." "I await the will of God," replied Luther.[9]
The mere rumor of the new legate's arrival filled the Elector's court, the university, the town of Wittenberg, and all of Saxony with suspicion and distrust. "Thank God," wrote Melancthon in alarm,[8] "Martin is still alive." It was confidently stated that the Roman chamberlain had received orders to capture Luther, by force or deception; and the doctor was advised from all sides to be on his guard against Miltitz's tricks. "His goal in coming," they said, "is to seize you and hand you over to the pope. Credible sources have seen the briefs he carries." "I await the will of God," replied Luther.[9]
In fact, Miltitz brought letters addressed to the Elector and his counsellors, to the bishops and to the burgomaster of Wittemberg. He was also provided with seventy apostolic briefs. Should the flattery and the favours of Rome attain their object, and Frederick deliver Luther into her hands, these seventy briefs were to serve as a kind of passports. He was to produce and post up one of them in each of the towns through which he had to pass, and hoped he might thus succeed in dragging his prisoner, without opposition, all the way to Rome.[10]
In fact, Miltitz brought letters addressed to the Elector and his advisors, to the bishops, and to the mayor of Wittenberg. He was also given seventy apostolic briefs. If the flattery and favors from Rome worked, and Frederick handed Luther over, these seventy briefs were meant to act as passports. He was to show and post one of them in each town he passed through, hoping that this way he could take his prisoner to Rome without any resistance.[10]
The pope seemed to have taken every precaution. The electoral court knew not well what course to take. Violence would have been resisted, but the difficulty was to oppose the chief of Christianity, when speaking with so much mildness, and apparently with so much reason. Would it not be the best plan, it was said, to place Luther somewhere in concealment until the storm was over?... An unexpected event relieved Luther, the Elector, and the Reformation, from this difficult situation. The aspect of affairs suddenly changed.
The pope seemed to have taken every precaution. The electoral court wasn’t sure what to do. They could have fought back against violence, but it was hard to oppose the leader of Christianity when he spoke so gently and seemed so reasonable. Wouldn’t it be better, they suggested, to hide Luther until the storm passed?... An unexpected event freed Luther, the Elector, and the Reformation from this tough situation. Suddenly, the situation changed.
On the 12th of January, 1519, Maximilian, the Emperor of Germany, died, and Frederick of Saxony, agreeably to the Germanic constitution, became regent of the empire. From this time the Elector feared not the schemes of nuncios, while new interests began to engross the court of Rome—interests which, obliging her to be chary of giving offence to Frederick, arrested the blow which Miltitz and De Vio were undoubtedly meditating.
On January 12, 1519, Maximilian, the Emperor of Germany, died, and Frederick of Saxony became the regent of the empire according to the Germanic constitution. From then on, the Elector was no longer afraid of the plans of nuncios, as new interests started to capture the attention of the court of Rome—interests that forced her to be careful not to offend Frederick, preventing the attack that Miltitz and De Vio were clearly planning.
The pope earnestly desired to prevent Charles of Austria, already King of Naples, from ascending the imperial throne. A neighbouring king appeared to him more formidable than a German monk; and in his anxiety to secure the Elector, who might be of essential service to him in the matter, he resolved to give some respite to the monk that he might be the better able to oppose the king. Both, however, advanced in spite of him.
The pope was seriously worried about stopping Charles of Austria, who was already the King of Naples, from becoming emperor. He saw a neighboring king as more of a threat than a German monk; and in his concern to secure the Elector, who could be really helpful in this situation, he decided to give the monk some time to regroup so he could better oppose the king. However, both of them moved forward despite his efforts.
In addition to the change thus produced in Leo, there was another circumstance which tended to avert the storm impending over the Reformation. The death of the emperor was immediately followed by political commotions. In the south of the empire the Swabian confederation sought to punish Ulric of Wurtemberg, for his infidelity to it, while in the south, the Bishop of Hildesheim proceeded, sword in hand, to invade the bishopric of Minden, and the territories of the Duke of Brunswick. How could men in power, amid such disturbances, attach any importance to a dispute relating to the remission of sins? But, above all, the reputation for wisdom enjoyed by the Elector, now regent of the empire, and the protection which he gave to the new teachers, were made subservient by Providence to the progress of the Reformation. "The tempest," says Luther, "intermitted its fury, and papal excommunication began to fall into contempt. The gospel, under the shade of the Elector's regency, spread far and wide, and in this way great damage was sustained by the papacy."[11]
In addition to the change in Leo, there was another factor that helped prevent the looming crisis for the Reformation. The death of the emperor was quickly followed by political turmoil. In the southern part of the empire, the Swabian confederation aimed to punish Ulric of Wurtemberg for betraying them, while to the south, the Bishop of Hildesheim invaded the bishopric of Minden and the territories of the Duke of Brunswick, sword in hand. How could those in power pay attention to a dispute over forgiveness of sins during such chaos? But above all, the wisdom the Elector, now the regent of the empire, was known for, along with the support he gave to the new reformers, was used by Providence to advance the Reformation. "The storm," Luther said, "calmed down, and papal excommunication started to lose its power. The gospel, thanks to the Elector's protection, spread far and wide, causing significant damage to the papacy."[11]
Moreover, the severest prohibitions were naturally mitigated during an interregnum. In every thing there was more freedom and greater facility of action. Liberty which began to shed its rays on the infant Reformation, rapidly developed the still tender plant, and any one might have been able to predict how favourable political freedom would prove to the progress of evangelical Christianity.
Moreover, the strictest prohibitions were naturally relaxed during a transition period. In everything, there was more freedom and greater ease of action. The liberty that started to illuminate the early Reformation quickly helped the still delicate movement grow, and anyone could have predicted how beneficial political freedom would be for the advancement of evangelical Christianity.
Miltitz, having arrived in Saxony before the death of Maximilian, lost no time in visiting his old friend Spalatin; but no sooner did he begin his complaint against Luther than the chaplain made an attack upon Tezel, acquainting the nuncio with the lies and blasphemies of the vender of indulgences, and assuring him that all Germany blamed the Dominican for the division which was rending the Church.
Miltitz, having reached Saxony before Maximilian died, quickly sought out his old friend Spalatin. However, as soon as he started to voice his complaints about Luther, the chaplain launched into a criticism of Tezel, informing the nuncio about the lies and blasphemies of the indulgence seller, and assuring him that all of Germany held the Dominican responsible for the division tearing the Church apart.
Miltitz was taken by surprise. Instead of accuser he had become the accused. Turning all his wrath upon Tezel, he summoned him to appear at Altenburg and give an account of his conduct.
Miltitz was caught off guard. Instead of being the accuser, he had become the accused. Directing all his anger at Tezel, he called for him to come to Altenburg and explain his actions.
The Dominican, as great a coward as a bully, and afraid of the people whom he had provoked by his impostures, had ceased his peregrinations over town and country, and was living in retirement in the college of St. Paul. He grew pale on receiving the letter of Miltitz. Even Rome is abandoning, threatening, and condemning him—is insisting on dragging him from the only asylum in which he feels himself in safety, and exposing him to the fury of his enemies.... Tezel refused to obey the nuncio's summons. "Assuredly," wrote he to Miltitz, on the 31st of December, 1518, "I would not regard the fatigues of the journey if I could leave Leipsic without endangering my life; but the Augustin, Martin Luther, has so stirred up men in power, and incensed them against me that I am not in safety any where. A great number of Luther's partizans have conspired my death, and therefore I cannot possibly come to you."[12] There was a striking contrast between the two men, the one of whom was then living in the college of St. Paul at Leipsic, and the other in the cloister of the Augustins at Wittemberg. In presence of danger the servant of God displayed intrepid courage—the servant of men despicable cowardice.
The Dominican, as much a coward as he was a bully, and terrified of the people he had angered with his lies, had stopped his travels across town and country and was now living in seclusion at the college of St. Paul. He turned pale upon receiving the letter from Miltitz. Even Rome is abandoning him, threatening and condemning him—insisting on dragging him from the only safe place he feels he has, exposing him to the wrath of his enemies... Tezel refused to respond to the nuncio's request. "Honestly," he wrote to Miltitz on December 31, 1518, "I wouldn't mind the trouble of the journey if I could leave Leipsic without risking my life; but the Augustine, Martin Luther, has stirred up those in power against me so much that I am not safe anywhere. A large number of Luther's supporters have plotted my death, so I cannot possibly come to you."[12] There was a stark contrast between the two men: one living at the college of St. Paul in Leipsic and the other in the Augustine cloister at Wittenberg. In the face of danger, the servant of God showed fearless courage—the servant of men displayed shameful cowardice.
Miltitz had orders, in the first instance, to employ the arms of persuasion; and it was only in the event of failure that he was to produce his seventy briefs, and at the same time endeavour, by all the favours of Rome, to induce the Elector to put down Luther. He accordingly expressed a desire to have an interview with the Reformer. Their common friend, Spalatin, offered his house for this purpose, and Luther left Wittemberg on the 2nd or 3rd of January to repair to Altenburg.
Miltitz was initially instructed to use persuasion; only if that didn't work was he to present his seventy briefs and try, through all the favors from Rome, to convince the Elector to silence Luther. So, he indicated that he wanted to have a meeting with the Reformer. Their mutual friend, Spalatin, offered his home for this meeting, and Luther left Wittenberg on January 2nd or 3rd to go to Altenburg.
At this interview Miltitz exhausted all the address of a diplomatist and a Roman courtier. The moment Luther arrived the nuncio approached him with great demonstrations of friendship. "O," thought Luther, "how completely his violence is turned into gentleness! This new Saul came into Germany provided with more than seventy apostolic briefs to carry me alive and in chains to murderous Rome, but the Lord has cast him down on the way."[13]
At this interview, Miltitz used all the skills of a diplomat and a Roman courtier. The moment Luther arrived, the nuncio approached him with lots of friendly gestures. "Oh," thought Luther, "how completely his aggression has turned into kindness! This new Saul came to Germany armed with more than seventy apostolic briefs to take me alive and in chains to a deadly Rome, but the Lord has stopped him along the way."[13]
"Dear Martin," said the pope's chamberlain to him in a coaxing tone, "I thought you were an old theologian sitting quietly behind your stove, and stuffed with theological crotchets; but I see that you are still young, and in the full vigour of life.[14] Do you know," continued he in a more serious tone, "that you have stirred up the whole world against the pope and attached it to yourself?"[15] Miltitz was aware that to flatter men's pride is the most effectual mode of seducing them; but he knew not the man with whom he had to do. "Had I an army of twenty-five thousand men," added he, "assuredly I would not undertake to seize you and carry you off to Rome."[16] Rome, notwithstanding of her power, felt herself feeble in presence of a poor monk, and the monk felt strong in presence of Rome. "God," said Luther, "arrests the billows of the ocean at the shore, and arrests them ... by the sand."[17]
"Dear Martin," the pope's chamberlain said to him in a soothing tone, "I thought you were just an old theologian quietly sitting by your stove, filled with theological quirks; but I see that you are still young and full of life.[14] Do you know," he continued more seriously, "that you have roused the whole world against the pope and won it over to your side?"[15] Miltitz knew that flattering people's pride is the most effective way to manipulate them; but he didn't understand the man he was dealing with. "If I had an army of twenty-five thousand men," he added, "I definitely wouldn’t try to seize you and take you to Rome."[16] Rome, despite its power, felt weak in the presence of a poor monk, while the monk felt strong in front of Rome. "God," Luther said, "stops the ocean's waves at the shore, and he does it ... with the sand."[17]
The nuncio, thinking he had thus prepared the mind of his opponent, continued as follows: "Do you yourself bind up the wound which you have inflicted on the Church, and which you alone can cure." "Beware," added he, letting a few tears fall, "beware of raising a tempest, which would bring ruin on Christendom."[18] He then began gradually to insinuate that a recantation was the only remedy for the evil; but he at the same time softened the offensiveness of the term by giving Luther to understand that he had the highest esteem for him, and by expressing his indignation at Tezel. The net was laid by a skilful hand, and how was it possible to avoid being taken in it? "Had the Archbishop of Mentz spoken thus to me at the outset," said the Reformer afterwards, "this affair would not have made so much noise."[19]
The nuncio, believing he had prepared his opponent's mind, continued: "You need to heal the wound you've caused to the Church, a wound only you can mend." "Be careful," he added, letting a few tears fall, "be cautious about stirring a storm that could bring disaster to Christendom."[18] He then slowly suggested that recantation was the only solution to the problem; however, he softened the harshness of the word by making it clear to Luther that he held him in high regard and expressed his anger at Tezel. The trap was set by a skilled hand, and how could one avoid being caught in it? "If the Archbishop of Mentz had spoken to me this way from the start," the Reformer later said, "this issue wouldn’t have caused such a commotion."[19]
Luther then replied. With calmness, but also with dignity and force, he stated the just grievances of the Church; expressed all the indignation he felt at the Archbishop of Mentz, and nobly complained of the unworthy treatment he had received from Rome, notwithstanding of the purity of his intentions. Miltitz, though he had not expected this firm language, was able, however, to conceal his wrath.
Luther then replied. With calmness, but also with dignity and strength, he stated the legitimate grievances of the Church; expressed all the anger he felt at the Archbishop of Mentz, and boldly complained about the unworthy treatment he had received from Rome, despite his good intentions. Miltitz, although he hadn't expected this strong response, was still able to hide his anger.
Luther resumed, "I offer to be silent in future as to these matters, and let the affair die out of itself,[20] provided my opponents also are silent; but if they continue to attack me, a petty quarrel will soon beget a serious combat. My armour is quite ready. I will do still more," added he, after a momentary pause, "I will write his Holiness, acknowledging that I have been somewhat too violent, and declaring that it was as a faithful child of the Church I combated harangues which subjected her to mockery and insult from the people. I even consent to publish a document in which I will request all who read my books not to see any thing in them adverse to the Roman Church, but to remain subject to her. Yes: I am disposed to do every thing and bear every thing; but as to retractation never expect it from me."
Luther continued, "I’m willing to stay silent about these issues going forward and let things settle down, [20] as long as my opponents stay silent too. But if they keep attacking me, a small argument will quickly turn into a serious conflict. My armor is all set. I'll go even further," he added after a brief pause, "I’ll write to the Pope, admitting that I may have been a bit too extreme, and stating that I fought against speeches that brought mockery and insult to the Church because I care about it as a faithful member. I’m even okay with publishing a statement asking everyone who reads my books not to see anything in them that opposes the Roman Church, but to remain loyal to her. Yes, I’m ready to do anything and endure anything; but regarding a retraction, don’t expect that from me."
Luther's decided tone convinced Miltitz that the wisest course was to appear satisfied with the promise which the Reformer had just made, and he merely proposed that an archbishop should be appointed arbiter to decide certain points which might come under discussion. "Be it so," said Luther, "but I am much afraid that the pope will not consent to have a judge. In that case no more will I accept the judgment of the pope, and then the strife will begin anew. The pope will give out the text, and I will make the commentary."
Luther's firm attitude made Miltitz realize that the best move was to seem content with the promise the Reformer had just made, and he simply suggested that an archbishop be appointed as a mediator to settle certain issues that might arise. "Alright," said Luther, "but I'm really worried that the pope won't agree to have a judge. If that happens, I won’t accept the pope's judgment anymore, and then the conflict will start all over again. The pope will provide the text, and I will write the commentary."
Thus terminated the first interview between Luther and Miltitz. They had a second, in which the truce, or rather peace, was signed. Luther immediately informed the Elector of what had passed. "Most serene prince and very gracious lord," wrote he, "I hasten very humbly to inform your Electoral Highness, that Charles de Miltitz and I have at length agreed, and have terminated the affair by means of the two following articles:—
Thus ended the first meeting between Luther and Miltitz. They had a second one, during which they signed the truce, or rather the peace agreement. Luther immediately updated the Elector about what had happened. "Most serene prince and very gracious lord," he wrote, "I am eager to humbly inform your Electoral Highness that Charles de Miltitz and I have finally reached an agreement and have resolved the matter with the following two articles:—
"1st, Both parties are forbidden to preach or write, or to do any thing further in reference to the dispute which has arisen.
"First, neither party is allowed to preach, write, or do anything else related to the ongoing dispute."
"2ndly, Miltitz will immediately acquaint the holy father with the state of matters. His holiness will order an enlightened bishop to enquire into the affair, and specify the erroneous articles which I am required to retract. If I am found to be in error, I will retract willingly, and never more do any thing that may be prejudicial to the honour or the authority of the holy Roman Church."[21]
"Second, Miltitz will promptly update the Pope about the situation. His Holiness will direct a knowledgeable bishop to look into the matter and pinpoint the incorrect statements I need to retract. If I am proven wrong, I will gladly retract them and will never again take any action that could damage the honor or authority of the Holy Roman Church."[21]
The agreement being thus made, Miltitz appeared quite delighted. "For a hundred years," exclaimed he, "no affair has given the cardinals and Roman courtiers more anxiety than this. They would have given ten thousand ducats sooner than consent to its longer continuance."[22]
The agreement being made, Miltitz seemed really pleased. "For a hundred years," he exclaimed, "nothing has caused the cardinals and Roman courtiers more concern than this. They would have paid ten thousand ducats rather than let it go on any longer."[22]
The chamberlain of the pope made a great show of feeling before the monk of Wittemberg. Sometimes he expressed joy, at other times shed tears. This display of sensibility made little impression on the Reformer, but he refrained from showing what he thought of it. "I looked as if I did not understand what was meant by these crocodile tears,"[23] said he. The crocodile is said to weep when it cannot seize its prey.
The pope's chamberlain put on quite a performance in front of the monk from Wittenberg. Sometimes he showed happiness, and other times he cried. This display of emotion hardly affected the Reformer, but he held back his true feelings. "I acted like I didn’t get what these fake tears were all about,"[23] he said. They say a crocodile cries when it can’t catch its prey.
Luther having accepted an invitation to supper from Miltitz, the host laid aside the stiffness attributed to his office, while Luther gave full scope to his natural gaiety. It was a joyous repast,[24] and when the parting hour arrived, the legate took the heretical doctor in his arms and kissed him.[25] "A Judas kiss," thought Luther, "I pretended," wrote he to Staupitz, "not to comprehend all these Italian manners."[26]
Luther accepted an invitation to dinner from Miltitz, who set aside the formality expected from his position, while Luther let his natural cheerfulness shine. It was a cheerful meal,[24] and when it was time to part ways, the legate embraced the controversial doctor and kissed him.[25] "A Judas kiss," Luther thought, "I acted as if," he wrote to Staupitz, "I didn’t fully understand all these Italian customs."[26]
Was this then to be in truth the kiss of reconciliation between Rome and the dawning Reformation? Miltitz hoped so, and rejoiced at it, for he had a nearer view than the courtiers of Rome of the fearful results which the Reformation might produce in regard to the papacy. If Luther and his opponents are silent, said he to himself, the dispute will be ended, and Rome by availing herself of favourable circumstances will regain all her ancient influence. It thus seemed that the debate was drawing to a close: Rome had stretched out her arms and Luther had apparently thrown himself into them; but the Reformation was the work not of man but of God. The error of Rome consisted in seeing the quarrel of a monk where she ought to have seen an awakening of the Church. The revival of Christendom was not to be arrested by the kisses of a pope's chamberlain.
Was this really going to be the kiss of reconciliation between Rome and the emerging Reformation? Miltitz hoped so and felt happy about it because he had a closer perspective than the courtiers of Rome on the frightening consequences that the Reformation could have for the papacy. If Luther and his opponents remain quiet, he thought to himself, the dispute will end, and Rome will regain all her former influence by taking advantage of favorable circumstances. It seemed that the debate was coming to an end: Rome had reached out her arms, and Luther had seemingly thrown himself into them; but the Reformation was the work not of man but of God. Rome's mistake was in viewing the conflict as just a monk's quarrel when she should have recognized it as a revival of the Church. The revival of Christianity wasn't going to be stopped by the kisses of a pope's chamberlain.
Miltitz, in fulfilment of the agreement which he had just concluded, proceeded from Altenburg to Leipsic, where Tezel was residing. There was no occasion to shut Tezel's mouth, for, sooner than speak, he would, if it had been possible, have hidden himself in the bowels of the earth; but the nuncio was determined to discharge his wrath upon him. Immediately on his arrival at Leipsic Miltitz summoned the unhappy Tezel before him, loaded him with reproaches, accused him of being the author of the whole mischief, and threatened him with the pope's displeasure.[27] Nor was this all: the agent of the house of Fugger, who was then at Leipsic, was confronted with him. Miltitz laid before the Dominican the accounts of that house, together with papers which he himself had signed, and proved that he had squandered or stolen considerable sums. The poor wretch, who had stickled at nothing in his day of glory, was overwhelmed by the justice of these accusations: despair seized him, his health gave way, and he knew not where to hide his shame. Luther heard of the miserable condition of his old enemy, and was the only person who felt for him. In a letter to Spalatin he says, "I pity Tezel."[28] Nor did he confine himself to such expressions. He had hated not the man but his misconduct, and, at the moment when Rome was pouring out her wrath upon him, wrote him in the most consolatory terms. But all was to no purpose. Tezel, stung by remorse, alarmed at the reproaches of his best friends, and dreading the anger of the pope, not long after died miserably, and as was supposed of a broken heart.[29]
Miltitz, fulfilling the agreement he had just made, traveled from Altenburg to Leipsic, where Tezel was living. There was no need to silence Tezel, as he would have preferred to disappear into the depths of the earth rather than speak; however, the nuncio was determined to unleash his anger on him. Upon arriving in Leipsic, Miltitz called the unfortunate Tezel before him, bombarded him with accusations, blamed him for all the trouble, and threatened him with the pope's wrath.[27] That wasn't all: the agent from the Fugger house, who was also in Leipsic at the time, was brought in to confront him. Miltitz presented the Dominican with the Fugger accounts and documents he had signed, proving that he had wasted or taken significant amounts of money. The poor man, who had stopped at nothing during his peak, was crushed by the validity of these accusations: despair overtook him, his health deteriorated, and he didn’t know where to hide his shame. Luther learned about the miserable state of his former enemy and was the only one who felt compassion for him. In a letter to Spalatin, he wrote, "I pity Tezel."[28] He didn't stop there, though. He didn't hate the man, only his actions, and at the moment when Rome was unleashing her fury on him, he wrote to him in the most comforting terms. But it was all in vain. Tezel, tormented by guilt, anxious about the criticism from his closest friends, and fearing the pope's anger, soon died a miserable death, believed to be from a broken heart.[29]
Luther, in fulfilment of his promises to Miltitz, on the 3rd of March wrote the following letter to the pope:—
Luther, keeping his promise to Miltitz, wrote the following letter to the pope on March 3rd:—
"Blessed Father! will your Blessedness deign to turn your paternal ears, which are like those of Christ himself, towards your poor sheep and kindly listen to its bleat. What shall I do, Most Holy Father! I am unable to bear the fierceness of your anger, and know not how to escape from it. I am asked to retract, and would hasten to do so could it lead to the end which is proposed by it. But, owing to the persecutions of my enemies, my writings have been circulated far and wide, and are too deeply engraven on men's hearts to be effaced. A recantation would only add to the dishonour of the Church of Rome, and raise an universal cry of accusation against her. Most Holy Father! I declare before God and all his creatures, that I have never wished, and do not now wish, either by force or guile, to attack the authority of the Roman Church or of your Holiness. I acknowledge that there is nothing in heaven or on the earth which ought to be put above this Church, unless it be Jesus Christ the Lord of all."[30]
"Blessed Father! Will you kindly lend your fatherly ears, like those of Christ, to your troubled sheep and hear its plea? What should I do, Most Holy Father? I can’t bear the weight of your anger and I don’t know how to escape it. I’m being asked to take back my words, and I would do so quickly if it could help resolve the situation. However, due to attacks from my enemies, my writings have spread far and are too deeply rooted in people’s hearts to erase. A retraction would only further dishonor the Church of Rome and provoke a widespread outcry against it. Most Holy Father! I declare before God and all His creatures that I have never wanted, and do not want now, through force or trickery, to challenge the authority of the Roman Church or your Holiness. I acknowledge that there is nothing in heaven or on earth that should be placed above this Church, except for Jesus Christ, the Lord of all." [30]
These words might seem strange and even reprehensible in the mouth of Luther, did we not reflect that the light did not break in upon him all at once, but by slow and progressive steps. They show, and this is very important, that the Reformation was not simply an opposition to the papacy. Its accomplishment was not effected by warring against this or that form, or by means of this or that negative tendency. Opposition to the pope was only one of its secondary features. Its creating principle was a new life, a positive doctrine—"Jesus Christ, the Lord of all and paramount to all—to Rome herself," as Luther says in the conclusion of his letter. To this principle the revolution of the 16th century is truly to be ascribed.
These words might sound strange and even objectionable coming from Luther, if we didn't recognize that the understanding didn't come to him all at once, but rather through slow and gradual progress. They indicate, and this is very important, that the Reformation wasn’t just about opposing the papacy. It wasn’t achieved by battling against this or that form, or through any negative attitudes. Opposition to the pope was only one of its secondary aspects. The core principle was a new way of life, a positive doctrine—“Jesus Christ, the Lord of all and above all—to Rome itself,” as Luther states at the end of his letter. This principle is what truly defines the revolution of the 16th century.
It is probable that at an earlier period a letter from the monk of Wittemberg, positively refusing to retract, would not have been allowed by the pope to pass without animadversion. But Maximilian was dead, the topic of engrossing interest was the election of his successor, and amid the political intrigues which then agitated the pontifical city, Luther's letter was overlooked.
It’s likely that earlier, a letter from the monk of Wittenberg, firmly refusing to take back his statements, wouldn’t have been allowed by the pope to go unchallenged. But Maximilian was dead, the main focus was on the election of his successor, and amidst the political maneuvering stirring in the papal city, Luther's letter was ignored.
The Reformer was employing his time to better purpose than his powerful antagonist. While Leo X, engrossed by his interests as a temporal prince, was straining every nerve to prevent a dreaded neighbour from reaching the Imperial throne, Luther was daily growing in knowledge and in faith. He studied the Decretals of the popes, and made discoveries which greatly modified his views. Writing Spalatin he says, "I am reading the Decretals of the popes, and, let me say it in your ear, I know not whether the pope is Antichrist himself or only his apostle;[31] to such a degree in these Decretals is Christ outraged and crucified."
The Reformer was making better use of his time than his powerful rival. While Leo X, focused on his role as a temporal prince, was doing everything he could to stop a feared neighbor from taking the Imperial throne, Luther was continually growing in knowledge and faith. He studied the Decretals of the popes and made discoveries that significantly changed his perspectives. Writing to Spalatin, he says, "I am reading the Decretals of the popes, and, let me whisper this to you, I’m not sure if the pope is Antichrist himself or just his apostle; to such an extent in these Decretals is Christ insulted and crucified."
Still he continued to respect the ancient Church of Rome, and had no thought of separating from her. "Let the Roman Church," said he in the explanation which he had promised Miltitz to publish, "be honoured of God above all others. On this point there cannot be a doubt. St. Peter, St. Paul, forty-six popes, and several hundred thousand martyrs, have shed their blood in her bosom, and there vanquished hell and the world, so that the eye of God specially rests upon her. Although every thing about her is now in a very sad condition that is no ground for separating from her. On the contrary the worse things are, the more firmly we should cling to her. Our separation is not the means by which she can be improved. We must not abandon God because there is a devil; nor the children of God who are still at Rome, because the majority are wicked. No sin, no wickedness, can justify us in destroying charity or violating unity; for charity can do all things, and nothing is difficult to unity."[32]
Still, he continued to respect the ancient Church of Rome and had no intention of separating from her. "Let the Roman Church," he said in the explanation he promised Miltitz to publish, "be honored by God above all others. There’s no doubt about this. St. Peter, St. Paul, forty-six popes, and several hundred thousand martyrs have shed their blood within her, conquering hell and the world, so God’s eye particularly rests upon her. Even though everything about her is now in a very sad state, that’s not a reason to separate from her. On the contrary, the worse things get, the more we should cling to her. Our separation won't lead to her improvement. We shouldn't abandon God just because there is a devil; nor should we turn our backs on the children of God who are still in Rome because the majority are wicked. No sin or wickedness can justify us in destroying charity or violating unity; because charity can accomplish all things, and nothing is difficult for unity." [32]
It was not Luther that separated from Rome, but Rome that separated from Luther, and by so doing rejected the ancient catholic faith of which he was then the representative. Nor was it Luther that deprived Rome of her power and compelled her bishop to descend from an usurped throne. The doctrines which he announced, the doctrine of the Apostles, again divinely proclaimed throughout the Church with great force and admirable purity, alone could prevail against a power by which the Church had for ages been enslaved.
It wasn't Luther who broke away from Rome; it was Rome that cut ties with Luther, thereby rejecting the ancient Catholic faith that he represented. And it wasn't Luther who stripped Rome of its power and forced its bishop to step down from an illegitimate throne. The teachings he brought forward, the teachings of the Apostles, reasserted with great strength and remarkable clarity throughout the Church, were the only ones capable of standing up to a power that had enslaved the Church for centuries.
These declarations, which Luther published at the end of February, did not fully satisfy Miltitz and De Vio. These two vultures, after both missing their prey, had retired within the ancient walls of Trèves. There, seconded by the Prince-archbishop, they hoped jointly to accomplish the object in which they had failed individually. The two nuncios were aware that nothing more was to be expected from Frederick, now invested with supreme power in the empire. They saw that Luther persisted in his refusal of retractation. The only plan, therefore, was to withdraw the heretical monk from the protection of the Elector, and entice him into their own neighbourhood. If the Reformer were once in Trèves, in a state subject to a prince of the Church, he would be dexterous indeed if he got away without giving full satisfaction to the sovereign pontiff. The scheme was immediately proceeded with. "Luther," said Miltitz to the Elector-archbishop of Trèves, "has accepted your Grace as arbiter; call him therefore before you." The Elector of Trèves accordingly (3rd May) wrote to the Elector of Saxony, and requested him to send Luther. De Vio, and afterwards Miltitz himself, also wrote, announcing that the rose of gold had arrived at Augsburg, at the house of Fugger. Now, thought they, is the moment to strike the decisive blow.
These statements, which Luther released at the end of February, didn’t completely satisfy Miltitz and De Vio. After both failing to catch their target, the two men had retreated within the ancient walls of Trèves. There, with the support of the Prince-Archbishop, they hoped to achieve what they couldn’t do alone. The two nuncios realized that they couldn’t expect anything more from Frederick, who now held supreme power in the empire. They noticed that Luther continued to refuse to retract his statements. The only plan left was to lure the heretical monk away from the protection of the Elector and draw him into their own territory. If the Reformer ended up in Trèves, under a prince of the Church, it would be quite a challenge for him to escape without fully satisfying the Pope. They immediately moved forward with the scheme. “Luther,” Miltitz said to the Elector-Archbishop of Trèves, “has accepted Your Grace as arbiter; summon him to appear before you.” The Elector of Trèves then wrote to the Elector of Saxony on May 3rd, asking him to send Luther. De Vio, and later Miltitz himself, also wrote to announce that the golden rose had arrived in Augsburg, at the Fugger residence. Now, they thought, is the time to deliver the final blow.
But things were changed, and neither Frederick nor Luther felt alarmed. The Elector, understanding his new position, had no longer any fear of the pope and far less of his servants. The Reformer, seeing Miltitz and De Vio in concert, had some idea of the fate which awaited him if he complied with their invitation. "Everywhere," says he, "on all hands, and in all ways, they seek my life."[33] Besides, he had requested the pope to decide; but the pope, engrossed with crowns and intrigues, had given no answer. Luther thus wrote to Miltitz: "How could I undertake the journey, without an order from Rome, amid the troubles which shake the empire? How could I face so many dangers and subject myself to so much expence, I who am the poorest of men?"
But things had changed, and neither Frederick nor Luther felt worried. The Elector, recognizing his new position, was no longer afraid of the pope and much less so of his attendants. The Reformer, seeing Miltitz and De Vio working together, had some idea of the fate that awaited him if he accepted their invitation. "Everywhere," he said, "on all sides, and in every way, they seek my life." [33] Besides, he had asked the pope to make a decision; but the pope, preoccupied with crowns and plots, had not responded. Luther then wrote to Miltitz: "How could I make the journey without an order from Rome, amidst the turmoil shaking the empire? How could I face so many dangers and subject myself to such high costs, being the poorest of men?"
The Elector of Trèves, a man of wisdom and moderation, and a friend of Frederick, was willing to meet his views. He had no desire, moreover, to involve himself in the affair without being positively called upon. He therefore agreed with the Elector of Saxony to defer the investigation till the next diet. Two years elapsed before this diet assembled at Worms.
The Elector of Trèves, a wise and moderate man, and a friend of Frederick, was open to his ideas. He also didn’t want to get involved in the matter unless he was explicitly asked to. So, he agreed with the Elector of Saxony to postpone the investigation until the next assembly. Two years passed before this assembly met at Worms.
While the hand of Providence successfully warded off all the dangers which threatened him, Luther was boldly advancing to a result of which he was not himself aware. His reputation was extending, the cause of truth was gaining strength, and the number of the students of Wittemberg, among whom were the most distinguished young men in Germany, rapidly increased. "Our town," wrote Luther, "can scarcely contain all who come to it;" and on another occasion, "The number of students increases out of measure, like a stream overflowing its banks."[34]
While the hand of Providence successfully kept all dangers at bay, Luther was confidently moving toward a conclusion he wasn't even aware of. His reputation was growing, the cause of truth was becoming stronger, and the number of students in Wittenberg, including many of the most distinguished young men in Germany, was rapidly rising. "Our town," Luther wrote, "can hardly hold all who come to it;" and at another time, he remarked, "The number of students is increasing beyond measure, like a stream overflowing its banks."[34]
But Germany was no longer the only country in which the voice of the Reformer was heard. It had passed the frontiers of the empire, and begun to shake the foundations of the Roman power in the different states of Christendom. Frobenius, the famous printer of Bâle, had published the collected Works of Luther, which were rapidly disposed of. At Bâle even the bishop applauded Luther; and the Cardinal of Sion, after reading his work, exclaimed somewhat ironically, and punning on his name, "O, Luther, thou art a true Luther!" (a true purifier, Lauterer.)
But Germany was no longer the only place where the voice of the Reformer was heard. It had crossed the borders of the empire and started to shake the foundations of Roman authority in the various states of Christendom. Frobenius, the famous printer from Basel, had published the collected Works of Luther, which sold out quickly. In Basel, even the bishop praised Luther; and the Cardinal of Sion, after reading his work, exclaimed somewhat ironically, playing on his name, "O, Luther, you are a true Luther!" (a true purifier, Lauterer.)
Erasmus was at Louvain when Luther's works arrived in the Netherlands. The prior of the Augustins of Antwerp, who had studied at Wittemberg, and according to the testimony of Erasmus, held true primitive Christianity, and many other Belgians besides, read them with avidity. "But," says the scholar of Rotterdam, "those who sought only their own interest, and entertained the people with old wives' fables, gave full vent to their grovelling fanaticism." "It is not in my power," says Erasmus, in a letter to Luther, "to describe the emotions, the truly tragic scenes, which your writings have produced."[35]
Erasmus was at Louvain when Luther's works arrived in the Netherlands. The prior of the Augustinians in Antwerp, who had studied at Wittenberg and, according to Erasmus, practiced true primitive Christianity, along with many other Belgians, read them eagerly. "But," says the scholar from Rotterdam, "those who were only looking out for themselves and entertained the masses with old wives' tales unleashed their petty fanaticism." "I cannot," says Erasmus in a letter to Luther, "put into words the emotions and the truly tragic scenes that your writings have stirred up."[35]
Frobenius sent six hundred copies of the works into France and Spain. They were publicly sold at Paris, and, as far as appears, the doctors of Sorbonne then read them with approbation. "It was time," said several of them, "that those engaged in the study of the Holy Scriptures should speak thus freely." In England the Works were received with still greater eagerness. Spanish merchants at Antwerp caused them to be translated into their native tongue, and sent them into Spain. "Assuredly," says Pallavicini, "these merchants were of Moorish blood."[36]
Frobenius sent six hundred copies of the works to France and Spain. They were publicly sold in Paris, and, it seems, the doctors at the Sorbonne read them with approval. "It was about time," said several of them, "that those studying the Holy Scriptures spoke so freely." In England, the works were received with even greater enthusiasm. Spanish merchants in Antwerp had them translated into their native language and sent them to Spain. "For sure," says Pallavicini, "these merchants were of Moorish descent."[36]
Calvi, a learned bookseller of Pavia, carried a great number of copies of the works into Italy, and circulated them in all the transalpine towns. This learned man was animated not by a love of gain but a desire to contribute to the revival of piety. The vigour with which Luther maintained the cause of godliness, filled him with joy. "All the learned of Italy," exclaimed he, "will concur with me, and we will see you celebrated in stanzas composed by our most distinguished poets."
Calvi, an educated bookseller from Pavia, brought many copies of the works into Italy and distributed them in towns across the Alps. This knowledgeable man was motivated not by a desire for profit but by a wish to help revive faith. The energy with which Luther championed righteousness filled him with happiness. "All the intellectuals of Italy," he declared, "will agree with me, and we will see you honored in verses crafted by our most prominent poets."
Frobenius, in transmitting a copy of the publication to Luther, told him all these gladdening news, and added, "I have disposed of all the copies except ten, and never had so good a return." Other letters also informed Luther of the joy produced by his works. "I am glad," says he, "that the truth gives so much pleasure, although she speaks with little learning, and in a style so barbarous."[37]
Frobenius, while sending a copy of the publication to Luther, shared all this uplifting news and added, "I’ve sold all the copies except ten, and I’ve never seen such a great return." Other letters also told Luther about the joy his works brought. "I’m glad," he said, "that the truth brings so much joy, even though it’s expressed with limited knowledge and in such a crude style."[37]
Such was the commencement of the revival in the different countries of Europe. In all countries, if we except Switzerland, and even France where the gospel had previously been heard, the arrival of Luther's writings forms the first page in the history of the Reformation. A printer of Bâle diffused these first germs of the truth. At the moment when the Roman pontiff entertained hopes of suppressing the work in Germany, it began in France, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, England, and Switzerland; and now, even should Rome hew down the original trunk, what would it avail? The seeds are already diffused over every soil.
This marked the beginning of the revival across different countries in Europe. In all countries, except Switzerland, and even in France where the gospel had already been shared, the publication of Luther's writings is the first chapter in the history of the Reformation. A printer in Bâle spread these initial seeds of truth. Just when the Roman pope thought he could silence the movement in Germany, it started to spread in France, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, England, and Switzerland. Now, even if Rome were to cut down the original source, what difference would it make? The seeds are already sown in every land.
CHAP. II.
The War seems ended in Germany—Eck Revives the Contest—Debate between Eck and Carlstadt—The Question of the Pope—Luther Replies—Alarm of Luther's Friends—Luther's courage—Truth triumphs single-handed—Refusal of Duke George—Delight of Mosellanus and Fears of Erasmus.
The war appears to be finished in Germany—Eck reignites the battle—Debate between Eck and Carlstadt—The question of the Pope—Luther's reply—Worries from Luther's friends—Luther's courage—Truth prevails on its own—Duke George's rejection—Joy of Mosellanus and concerns of Erasmus.
While the combat was only beginning beyond the limits of the empire it seemed to him almost ceased within it. The most blustering soldiers of Rome, the Franciscan monks of Jûterbock, after having imprudently attacked Luther, had, after a vigorous rejoinder from the Reformer, hastened to resume silence. The partisans of the pope were quiet; and Tezel was unfit for service. Luther's friends conjured him not to persist in the contest, and he had promised to comply. The theses were beginning to be forgotten. By this perfidious peace the eloquent tongue of the Reformer was completely paralysed; and the Reformation seemed to be arrested. "But," says Luther afterwards, when speaking of this period, "men were imagining vain things, for the Lord had arisen to judge the nations."[38] "God," says he in another place, "does not lead but urges and hurries me along. I am not my own master. I would fain be at rest, but am precipitated into the midst of tumult and revolution."[39]
While the fighting was just beginning outside the empire, it felt like it had almost stopped within it. The loudest soldiers of Rome, the Franciscan monks of Jûterbock, who had foolishly attacked Luther, quickly fell silent after a strong response from the Reformer. The pope's supporters were quiet, and Tezel was no longer able to act. Luther's friends urged him not to continue the fight, and he had agreed to do so. The theses were starting to be forgotten. This treacherous peace completely silenced the Reformer’s powerful voice, and the Reformation appeared to be stalled. "But," Luther later said when reflecting on this time, "people were imagining foolish things, for the Lord had risen to judge the nations." [38] "God," he stated in another instance, "does not lead but drives and pushes me forward. I am not in control of my own life. I would like to be at rest, but I am thrown into the chaos and upheaval." [39]
The person who renewed the contest was Eck the schoolman, Luther's old friend, and the author of the Obelisks. He was sincerely attached to the papacy, but seems to have been devoid of genuine religious sentiment, and to have belonged to a class of men, at all times too numerous, who value learning, and even theology and religion, merely as a means of gaining a name in the world. Vain glory lurks under the priest's cassock as well as the soldier's helmet. Eck had studied the art of disputation according to the scholastic rules, and was an acknowledged master in this species of warfare. While the knights of the middle ages, and the warriors at the period of the Reformation, sought glory in tournaments, the schoolmen sought it in the syllogistic disputations, which were often exhibited in universities. Eck, who was full of himself, stood high in his own opinion, and was proud of his talents, of the popularity of his cause, and the trophies which he had won in eight universities in Hungary, Lombardy, and Germany, eagerly longed for an opportunity of displaying his power and dexterity in debate with the Reformer. He had spared nothing to secure the reputation of being one of the most celebrated scholars of the age. He was ever seeking to stir up new discussions, to produce a sensation, and by means of his exploits procure access to all the enjoyments of life. A tour which he made in Italy had, by his own account, been only a series of triumphs. The most learned of the learned had been constrained to subscribe to his theses. A practised bravado, he fixed his eyes on a new field of battle, where he thought himself secure of victory. That little monk, who had grown up all at once into a giant, that Luther, whom no one had hitherto been able to vanquish, offended his pride, and excited his jealousy.[40] It might be that Eck, in seeking his own glory, might destroy Rome ... but scholastic vanity was not to be arrested by any such consideration. Theologians, as well as princes, have repeatedly sacrificed the general interest to their individual glory. Let us attend to the circumstances which gave the doctor of Ingolstadt an opportunity of entering the lists with his troublesome rival.
The person who reinstated the debate was Eck the schoolman, an old friend of Luther's and the author of the Obelisks. He had a strong attachment to the papacy but seemed to lack genuine religious feeling, belonging instead to a group of people, always too numerous, who see learning, theology, and religion merely as a way to gain recognition in the world. Vanity hides beneath the priest's cassock just as it does under the soldier's helmet. Eck had mastered the art of debate according to scholastic rules and was recognized as a leading expert in this form of intellectual combat. While the knights of the Middle Ages and the warriors during the Reformation sought glory in tournaments, the schoolmen pursued it through syllogistic debates, often showcased at universities. Eck, full of himself, held a high opinion of his abilities, took pride in his popularity, and the accolades he had achieved in eight universities across Hungary, Lombardy, and Germany. He was eager for the chance to showcase his skills in debate against the Reformer. He spared no effort in securing his reputation as one of the most renowned scholars of the time. He was always looking to spark new discussions, create a stir, and leverage his exploits to gain access to all of life's pleasures. According to him, his tour in Italy had been nothing but a series of victories. The most knowledgeable scholars had been compelled to endorse his theses. A seasoned show-off, he set his sights on a new battleground, convinced he would win. That little monk, who had suddenly transformed into a giant—Luther, who no one had been able to defeat—hurt his pride and stirred his jealousy.[40] Eck, in his quest for glory, might ruin Rome, but such scholarly vanity was not to be hindered by any such thought. Theologians, just like princes, have often sacrificed the common good for their own fame. Let’s look at the circumstances that gave the doctor of Ingolstadt a chance to confront his troublesome rival.
The zealous but too ardent Carlstadt was still of one mind with Luther—the special bond of union between them being their attachment to the doctrine of grace, and their admiration of St. Augustine. Carlstadt, who was of an enthusiastic temperament, and possessed little prudence, was not a man to be arrested by the address and policy of a Miltitz. In opposition to the Obelisks of Dr. Eck, he had published theses in which he defended Luther and their common faith. Eck had replied, and Carlstadt, determined not to leave him the last word, had rejoined. The combat grew warm. Eck, eager to avail himself of so favourable an opportunity, had thrown down the gauntlet; and the impetuous Carlstadt had taken it up. God employed the passions of these two men to accomplish his designs. Though Luther had taken no part in these debates, he was destined to be the hero of the fight. There are men whom the force of circumstances always brings upon the scene. Leipsic was fixed upon, and hence the origin of the celebrated discussion which bears its name.
The passionate but overeager Carlstadt was still aligned with Luther—their strong connection being their commitment to the doctrine of grace and their admiration for St. Augustine. Carlstadt, who had an enthusiastic nature and lacked foresight, was not someone who could be swayed by the tactics and strategies of a Miltitz. In response to the Obelisks of Dr. Eck, he published theses defending Luther and their shared beliefs. Eck had countered, and Carlstadt, determined not to let him have the last word, responded back. The debate heated up. Eck, eager to seize such a favorable opportunity, had thrown down the challenge, and the impulsive Carlstadt had accepted it. God used the passions of these two men to further his plans. Although Luther did not participate in these debates, he was meant to be the hero of the conflict. Some people are always brought into the spotlight by the force of circumstances. Leipzig was chosen as the location, paving the way for the famous discussion that bears its name.
Eck cared little about combating with Carlstadt, and even vanquishing him. Luther was the opponent whom he had in view. He accordingly employed every means to bring him into the field; and with this view published thirteen theses,[41] directed against the leading doctrines which had been espoused by the Reformer. The thirteenth was in these terms:—"We deny that the Roman Church was not superior to other Churches before the time of Pope Sylvester; and we acknowledge at all times, that he who has occupied the see of St. Peter and professed his faith,[42] is the successor of St. Peter and the vicar of Jesus Christ." Sylvester lived in the time of Constantine the Great; and hence Eck, in this thesis, denied that the primacy which Rome enjoyed was conferred on her by that emperor.
Eck didn't care much about fighting with Carlstadt, or even beating him. Luther was the real opponent he focused on. He used every tactic to draw Luther into the battle; to this end, he published thirteen theses,[41] targeting the key beliefs held by the Reformer. The thirteenth thesis stated: "We deny that the Roman Church was not superior to other Churches before the time of Pope Sylvester; and we always acknowledge that he who has occupied the see of St. Peter and professed his faith,[42] is the successor of St. Peter and the vicar of Jesus Christ." Sylvester was around during the time of Constantine the Great, which is why Eck, in this thesis, rejected the idea that the primacy of Rome was granted to her by that emperor.
Luther, whose consent to remain silent had not been given without reluctance, was strongly excited when he read these propositions. He saw that he was the person aimed at, and felt that he could not, with honour, evade the contest. "This man," said he, "names Carlstadt as his antagonist, and at the same time makes his assault upon me. But God reigns, and knows what result he designs to bring out of this tragedy.[43] The question is not between Dr. Eck and me. God's purpose will be accomplished. Thanks to Eck, this affair, which hitherto has been mere sport, will at length become serious, and give a fatal blow to the tyranny of Rome and the Roman Pontiff."
Luther, who hadn’t agreed to stay silent without hesitation, felt a surge of excitement when he read these propositions. He recognized he was the target and realized he couldn’t, with honor, avoid the fight. "This man," he said, "names Carlstadt as his opponent, but at the same time attacks me. But God is in control and knows what outcome He intends to bring from this situation.[43] The issue isn’t between Dr. Eck and me. God's will will be done. Thanks to Eck, this matter, which has so far been a triviality, will finally become serious and deliver a devastating blow to the tyranny of Rome and the Roman Pontiff."
Rome herself broke the agreement. She did more; when she renewed the signal for battle, she directed it to a point which Luther had not previously attacked. The subject which Dr. Eck singled out for his antagonists was the primacy of the pope. In thus following the dangerous example which Tezel had given,[44] Rome invited the blows of the champion; and if she left her mangled members on the arena, she had herself to blame for the punishment inflicted by his mighty arm.
Rome herself broke the agreement. She did even more; when she renewed the call for battle, she aimed it at a point Luther hadn't attacked before. The issue that Dr. Eck highlighted for his opponents was the primacy of the pope. By following the risky example set by Tezel,[44] Rome challenged the champion, and if she ended up battered in the arena, she had no one to blame but herself for the punishment dealt by his powerful arm.
The pontifical supremacy being once overthrown, the whole of the Roman platform fell to pieces. Hence the papacy was in imminent peril; and yet neither Miltitz nor Cajetan took any steps to prevent this new contest. Did they imagine that the Reformation would be vanquished, or were they smitten with that blindness by which the ruin of the mighty is accomplished?
The papal authority, once toppled, caused the entire Roman system to collapse. As a result, the papacy was in serious danger; yet neither Miltitz nor Cajetan took any action to prevent this new conflict. Did they think the Reformation would be defeated, or were they so blind that they didn’t see the downfall of the powerful coming?
Luther, who, by his long silence, had given an example of rare moderation, boldly met the challenge of his antagonist, whose theses he immediately opposed by counter theses. The last was in these terms:—"The primacy of the Church of Rome is defended by means of miserable decretals of the Roman pontiffs, composed within the last four hundred years; whereas this primacy is contradicted by the authentic history of eleven centuries, the declarations of Holy Scripture, and the canons of the Council of Nice, which is the purest of all Councils."[45]
Luther, who had shown remarkable restraint by staying silent for so long, confidently confronted his opponent's challenge, immediately countering his theses with his own. The last one stated: "The supremacy of the Church of Rome is supported by pathetic decrees from the Roman pontiffs, created within the last four hundred years; however, this supremacy is contradicted by the authentic history of eleven centuries, the teachings of the Holy Scriptures, and the canons of the Council of Nice, which is the most reliable of all Councils."[45]
At the same time Luther thus wrote to the Elector:—"God knows it was my firm determination to be silent; and I rejoiced to see the game at length brought to a close. So faithfully have I observed the paction concluded with the pope's commissioner, that I did not reply to Sylvester Prierias, notwithstanding of the taunts of adversaries and the counsels of friends. But now Dr. Eck attacks me, and not only me, but the whole University of Wittemberg besides. I cannot allow it to be thus covered with obloquy."[46]
At the same time, Luther wrote to the Elector:—"God knows I was determined to stay silent, and I was glad to see that the situation was finally coming to an end. I have faithfully kept the agreement made with the pope's commissioner, which is why I didn’t respond to Sylvester Prierias, despite the insults from opponents and the advice from friends. But now Dr. Eck is attacking me, and not just me, but the entire University of Wittenberg as well. I can't let that happen without defending it." [46]
At the same time Luther wrote to Carlstadt, "I am unwilling, excellent Andrew, that you should engage in this quarrel, since I am the person aimed at." "I will gladly lay aside my serious labours and enter into the sports of these flatterers of the Roman pontiff."[47] Then apostrophising his adversary with disdain, and calling from Wittemberg to Ingolstadt, he exclaims—"Now, then, my dear Eck, be courageous, and gird thy sword upon thy thigh, thou mighty man.[48] Having failed to please you as mediator, perhaps I will please you better as antagonist. Not that I have any thought of vanquishing you, but after all the trophies which you have gained in Hungary, Lombardy, and Bavaria, (at least if we are to take your account for it,) I will give you an opportunity of acquiring the name of the conqueror of Saxony and Misnia, so that you will be for ever saluted by the glorious title of Augustus."[49]
At the same time Luther wrote to Carlstadt, "I don't want you, dear Andrew, to get involved in this dispute since I’m the one being targeted." "I would happily set aside my serious work and join the games of these flatterers of the Roman pope."[47] Then, mocking his opponent with disdain, he shouts from Wittenberg to Ingolstadt, "Alright then, my dear Eck, be brave and strap your sword on, you mighty man.[48] Since I couldn't please you as a mediator, maybe I'll satisfy you better as an opponent. Not that I aim to defeat you, but after all the victories you've achieved in Hungary, Lombardy, and Bavaria, (at least if we take your word for it,) I'll give you a chance to earn the title of conqueror of Saxony and Meissen, so that you’ll forever be greeted with the glorious title of Augustus."[49]
All Luther's friends did not share his courage, for up to this hour none had been able to withstand the sophistry of Dr. Eck. But what alarmed them most was the subject of dispute—the primacy of the pope!... How does the poor monk of Wittemberg dare to encounter this giant who for ages has crushed all his enemies? The courtiers of the Elector begin to tremble. Spalatin the confidant of the prince, and intimate friend of the Reformer, is full of anxiety. Frederick, too, feels uneasy: even the sword of the Knight of the Holy Sepulchre, with which he had been armed at Jerusalem, would be unequal to this warfare. Luther alone feels no alarm. His thought is, "The Lord will deliver him into my hands." The faith with which he is animated enables him to strengthen his friends. "I beg of you, my dear Spalatin," said he, "not to give yourself up to fear; you know well that if Christ was not with me, all that I have done up to this hour must have been my ruin. Was it not lately written from Italy, to the chancellor of the Duke of Pomerania, that I had upset Rome, and that, not knowing how to appease the tumult, they were purposing to attack me not according to the forms of justice, but by Roman finesse, (the very words used,) that is, I presume, by poison, ambush, and assassination?"
All of Luther's friends didn't share his bravery, as until now none of them had been able to withstand Dr. Eck's arguments. But what scared them the most was the topic of debate—the authority of the pope!... How could this poor monk from Wittenberg dare to confront this giant who has crushed all his opponents for ages? The courtiers of the Elector are starting to shake. Spalatin, the confidant of the prince and close friend of the Reformer, is filled with anxiety. Frederick also feels uneasy: even the sword of the Knight of the Holy Sepulchre, with which he was armed in Jerusalem, would be no match for this battle. Only Luther remains unafraid. He thinks, "The Lord will hand him over to me." The faith that inspires him also strengthens his friends. "Please, my dear Spalatin," he said, "don't give in to fear; you know well that if Christ wasn’t with me, everything I’ve done so far would have been my downfall. Wasn’t it recently reported from Italy to the chancellor of the Duke of Pomerania that I had shaken Rome, and that, not knowing how to calm the chaos, they were planning to attack me not through legal means, but by Roman cunning (the exact words used), which I assume means poison, ambush, and assassination?"
"I restrain myself, and from love to the Elector, and the university, keep back many things which I would employ against Babylon, were I elsewhere. O! my poor Spalatin! it is impossible to speak of Scripture and of the Church without irritating the beast. Never, therefore, hope to see me at rest, at least, until I renounce theology. If this work is of God, it will not be terminated before all my friends have forsaken me, as Christ was forsaken by his disciples. Truth will endure single-handed, and triumph in virtue of its own prowess, not mine or yours, or any man's.[50] If I fall, the world will not perish with me. But, wretch that I am, I fear I am not worthy to die in such a cause." "Rome," he again wrote about this time, "Rome is burning with eagerness to destroy me, while I sit quiet and hold her in derision. I am informed that, in the field of Flora at Rome, one Martin Luther has been publicly burned in effigy, after being loaded with execrations. I abide their fury.[51] The whole world," continues he, "is in agitation, heaving to and fro. What will happen? God knows. For my part, I foresee wars and disasters. The Lord have mercy on us."[52]
"I hold myself back, and out of love for the Elector and the university, I refrain from saying many things I’d use against Babylon if I were elsewhere. Oh! my poor Spalatin! It’s impossible to talk about Scripture and the Church without provoking the beast. Therefore, don’t expect to see me at peace, at least until I give up theology. If this work is from God, it won’t be finished before all my friends abandon me, just like Christ was abandoned by his disciples. Truth will stand strong on its own and prevail because of its own power, not mine, yours, or anyone else's. If I fall, the world won’t end with me. But, what a miserable wretch I am, I fear I’m not worthy to die for such a cause." "Rome," he wrote again around this time, "is burning with the desire to destroy me while I sit calmly and mock her. I’ve been informed that, in the field of Flora in Rome, one Martin Luther has been publicly burned in effigy, after being subjected to curses. I await their rage. The whole world," he continues, "is in turmoil, moving back and forth. What will happen? God knows. As for me, I foresee wars and disasters. May the Lord have mercy on us."
Luther wrote letter after letter to Duke George,[53] in whose states Leipsic is, entreating permission to repair thither and take part in the debate, but received no answer. The grandson of the Bohemian king, Podiebrad, alarmed at Luther's proposition concerning the pope, and afraid of seeing Saxony involved in the wars of which Bohemia had so long been the theatre, was unwilling to grant the doctor's request. Luther, therefore, determined to publish explanations of his thirteenth Thesis. But this treatise, far from persuading Duke George, on the contrary, confirmed him in his resolution. Positively refusing to give the Reformer authority to debate, he merely allowed him to be present as a spectator.[54] This was a great disappointment to Luther. Nevertheless, as he had only one wish, and that was to obey God—he resolved to attend as a spectator, and await the result.
Luther wrote letter after letter to Duke George,[53] who governed the region where Leipsic is located, pleading for permission to come there and participate in the debate, but he got no response. The grandson of the Bohemian king, Podiebrad, worried about Luther's stance on the pope, and concerned about Saxony getting caught up in the long-standing conflicts in Bohemia, was reluctant to grant Luther's request. So, Luther decided to publish explanations for his thirteenth Thesis. However, this work did not persuade Duke George; instead, it strengthened his resolve. He flatly refused to let the Reformer debate, only allowing him to attend as a spectator.[54] This was a big disappointment for Luther. Still, since his only wish was to obey God, he resolved to attend as a spectator and wait for the outcome.
The prince at the same time did every thing in his power to forward the discussion between Eck and Carlstadt. Duke George was devoted to the ancient doctrine; but he was upright and sincere, and friendly to free enquiry, and did not think that an opinion was to be charged with heresy, merely because it displeased the court of Rome. The Elector, moreover, urged his cousin to permit the discussion; and the duke, confirmed by Frederick's statements, ordered it to take place.[55]
The prince did everything he could to support the discussion between Eck and Carlstadt. Duke George was committed to traditional beliefs; however, he was honest and genuine, promoting free inquiry, and didn't believe that an opinion should be labeled as heresy just because it upset the court of Rome. Additionally, the Elector encouraged his cousin to allow the discussion, and the duke, backed by Frederick's assertions, ordered it to happen.[55]
Bishop Adolphus of Merseburg, in whose diocese Leipsic is situated, was more alive than Miltitz and Cajetan, to the danger of trusting such important questions to the chances of single combat. Rome could not expose the fruit of the labours of so many ages to such hazard. All the theologians of Leipsic were equally alarmed, and implored their bishop to prevent the discussion. Adolphus accordingly presented most energetic remonstrances to Duke George, who replied with much good sense.[56] "I am surprised at seeing a bishop so terrified at the ancient and laudable custom of our fathers in examining doubtful questions as to matters of faith. If your theologians refuse to defend their doctrines, the money given to them would be far better employed in the maintenance of aged women and young children who would be able at least to spin and sing."
Bishop Adolphus of Merseburg, where Leipsic is located, was more aware than Miltitz and Cajetan of the risks involved in leaving such important issues up to a duel. Rome couldn’t put the results of so much hard work over the years at such risk. All the theologians in Leipsic were equally concerned and urged their bishop to stop the discussion. Adolphus, therefore, strongly protested to Duke George, who responded sensibly, "I’m surprised to see a bishop so frightened by the long-standing and respectable tradition of our ancestors in addressing uncertain questions about faith. If your theologians won’t defend their beliefs, the funds given to them would be better spent on supporting elderly women and young children who could at least spin and sing."
This letter had little effect on the bishop and his theologians. There is in error a secret consciousness which makes it dread enquiry even when making loud professions of being favourable to it. After an imprudent advance it makes a cowardly retreat. Truth did not give the challenge, but firmly stood its ground. Error gave it, and ran off. Moreover, the prosperity of the university of Wittemberg, excited the jealousy of that of Leipsic. The monks and priests inveighed from the pulpits of that city, urging the people to shun the new heretics, slandering Luther, and painting him, as well as his friends, in the blackest colours, in order to stir up the fanaticism of the populace against the Reformers.[57] Tezel, who was still alive, awoke to cry from the depth of his retreat,—"It is the devil that is forcing on this contest."[58]
This letter had little impact on the bishop and his theologians. There’s a hidden awareness in error that fears investigation, even while loudly claiming to support it. After making an imprudent move, it quickly retreats in fear. Truth didn’t issue the challenge but firmly maintained its position. Error was the one that challenged and then ran away. Additionally, the success of the University of Wittenberg stirred jealousy in Leipzig. Monks and priests preached from the pulpits in that city, urging people to avoid the new heretics, slandering Luther and portraying him and his friends in the worst possible light to incite the public's fanaticism against the Reformers.[57] Tezel, still alive, emerged from his retreat to shout, "It is the devil who is pushing this conflict."[58]
All the professors of Leipsic, however, did not participate in these apprehensions. Some belonged to the indifferent class, consisting of persons who are always ready to laugh at the faults of both parties. Of this class was the Greek professor Peter Mosellanus, who cared very little for John Eck, Carlstadt, and Martin Luther, but anticipated great amusement from the strife. Writing to his friend Erasmus, he says, "John Eck, who is the most illustrious of pen gladiators and rhapsodists, and like the Socrates of Aristophanes, contemns even the gods, is to have a turn in debate with Andrew Carlstadt. The battle will end in uproar, and there will be laughter in it for ten Democratuses."[59]
All the professors in Leipzig, however, didn't share these concerns. Some were indifferent, always ready to laugh at the mistakes of both sides. Among them was the Greek professor Peter Mosellanus, who didn’t care much about John Eck, Carlstadt, or Martin Luther but looked forward to the entertainment from the conflict. Writing to his friend Erasmus, he says, "John Eck, the most famous fighter with words and a master of rhetoric, who, like the Socrates of Aristophanes, even disdains the gods, is about to debate Andrew Carlstadt. The clash will end in chaos, and it will be entertaining for ten Democratuses."[59]
The timid Erasmus, on the contrary, was frightened at the idea of a combat, and his prudence, ever ready to take alarm, would fain have prevented this discussion. In a letter to Melancthon, he says, "If you will be advised by Erasmus, you will be more anxious to promote the advancement of sound literature than to attack the enemies of it.[60] My belief is that, in this way, our progress will be greater. Above all, while engaged in this struggle, let us not forget that victory must be obtained, not only by eloquence, but also by moderation and meekness." Neither the alarms of priests, nor the prudence of pacificators, could now prevent the combat. The parties made ready their weapons.
The timid Erasmus, on the other hand, was alarmed by the thought of a battle, and his caution, always quick to get anxious, wanted to avoid this debate. In a letter to Melancthon, he writes, "If you listen to Erasmus, you’ll be more focused on advancing sound literature than on attacking its enemies.[60] I believe that this way, we will make more progress. Above all, while we’re engaged in this conflict, let’s remember that victory must come not just from eloquence, but also from moderation and humility." Neither the warnings from priests nor the caution of peacemakers could stop the fight now. Both sides prepared their weapons.
CHAP. III.
Arrival of Eck and the Wittembergers—Amsdorf—The Students—Carlstadt's accident—Placard—Eck and Luther—Pleissenburg—Shall Judges be appointed?—Luther objects.
Eck and the people from Wittenberg arrive—Amsdorf—The Students—Carlstadt's incident—Notice—Eck and Luther—Pleissenburg—Should judges be appointed?—Luther disagrees.
At the time when the Electors met at Frankfort to give an emperor to Germany, (June, 1519,) theologians met at Leipsic for an act which, though unnoticed by the world, was destined to be not less important in its results.
At the time when the Electors gathered in Frankfurt to choose an emperor for Germany (June, 1519), theologians met in Leipzig for an event that, though overlooked by the world, was set to be equally significant in its outcomes.
Eck was the first who arrived at the place of rendezvous. On the 21st June he entered Leipsic in company with Poliander, a young man whom he had brought from Ingolstadt to report the debate. All kinds of honours were paid to the scholastic doctor, who, on the Fête Dieu, paraded the town in full canonicals, and at the head of a numerous procession. There was a general eagerness to see him. According to his own account, all the inhabitants were in his favour. "Nevertheless," adds he, "a rumour was current in the town that I was to be worsted in the encounter."
Eck was the first to arrive at the meeting place. On June 21st, he entered Leipzig with Poliander, a young man he had brought from Ingolstadt to report on the debate. The scholastic doctor received all kinds of honors, and on the Feast of Corpus Christi, he paraded through the town in full ceremonial dress at the front of a large procession. There was a strong eagerness to see him. According to his own account, all the locals were on his side. "However," he adds, "there was a rumor going around town that I would be defeated in the clash."
The day after the fête, viz., Friday, 24th June, (St. John's Day,) the Wittembergers arrived. Carlstadt, Eck's destined opponent, came first in a chariot by himself. Next, in an open carriage, came Duke Barnim of Pomerania, who was then studying at Wittemberg under the direction of a tutor, and had been elected rector of the University. On each side of him sat the two great theologians, the fathers of the Reformation, Melancthon and Luther. Melancthon had been unwilling to quit his friend. He had said to Spalatin, "Martin, the soldier of the Lord, has stirred up this fetid marsh.[61] I cannot think of the shameful conduct of the pope's theologians without indignation. Be firm, and adhere to us." Luther himself had expressed a desire that his Achates, as he has been called, should accompany him.
The day after the festival, which was Friday, June 24th (St. John's Day), the people from Wittenberg arrived. Carlstadt, Eck's intended opponent, came first in a chariot by himself. Next, in an open carriage, was Duke Barnim of Pomerania, who was studying at Wittenberg with a tutor and had been elected rector of the University. On either side of him sat the two great theologians, the founders of the Reformation, Melanchthon and Luther. Melanchthon had been reluctant to leave his friend. He told Spalatin, "Martin, the soldier of the Lord, has stirred up this disgusting swamp. I can’t think about the disgraceful actions of the pope's theologians without feeling angry. Stay strong and stick with us." Luther himself had expressed a wish that his Achates, as he has been called, should join him.
John Lange, vicar of the Augustins, some doctors in law, several masters of arts, two licentiates in theology, and other ecclesiastics, among whom Nicolas Amsdorf was conspicuous, closed the rear. Amsdorf, the member of a noble family in Saxony, disregarding the brilliant career which his birth might have opened to him, had devoted himself to theology. The theses on indulgences having brought him to the knowledge of the truth, he had forthwith made a bold profession of the faith.[62] Vigorous in intellect and vehement in temper, Amsdorf often pushed on Luther, by nature abundantly ardent, to acts which were perhaps imprudent. Born to high rank, he was not overawed by the great, and occasionally addressed them with a freedom bordering on rudeness. "The gospel of Jesus Christ," said he one day in an assembly of nobles, "belongs to the poor and afflicted, and not to you princes, lords, and courtiers, whose lives are passed in luxury and joy."[63]
John Lange, the vicar of the Augustinians, along with some law scholars, several master's degree holders, two theology graduates, and other church officials, among whom Nicolas Amsdorf stood out, filled out the group at the back. Amsdorf, hailing from a noble family in Saxony, chose to dedicate himself to theology despite the promising career that his background could have offered him. The theses on indulgences opened his eyes to the truth, prompting him to make a bold declaration of his faith. Vigorous in mind and strong in temperament, Amsdorf often pushed Luther, who was naturally passionate, to take actions that were possibly reckless. Born into privilege, he wasn’t intimidated by the powerful and sometimes spoke to them with a directness that could verge on rudeness. "The gospel of Jesus Christ," he declared one day in front of a gathering of nobles, "is meant for the poor and suffering, not for you princes, lords, and courtiers, whose lives are spent in luxury and pleasure."
But we have not yet mentioned the whole train from Wittemberg. A large body of students accompanied their teachers. Eck affirms that the number amounted to two hundred. Armed with pikes and halberds, they walked beside the carriages of the doctors ready to defend them, and proud of their cause.
But we haven’t mentioned the entire group from Wittenberg yet. A large number of students traveled with their teachers. Eck claims there were about two hundred of them. Armed with pikes and halberds, they walked alongside the doctors' carriages, ready to defend them and proud of their cause.
Such was the order in which the body of Reformers entered Leipsic. Just as they passed the Grimma gate, which is in front of St. Paul's cemetery, one of the wheels of Carlstadt's carriage broke down. The archdeacon, who, with great self-complacency, was enjoying the solemn entry, tumbled into the mire. He was not hurt, but was obliged to proceed to his lodgings on foot. Luther's chariot, which was immediately behind Carlstadt's, moved rapidly forward, and delivered the Reformer safe and sound. The inhabitants of Leipsic, who had assembled to witness the entry of the Wittemberg champions, considered the accident as a bad omen for Carlstadt; and the inference was soon current over the town, viz., that he would be defeated in the combat, but that Luther would come off victorious.[64]
Such was the order in which the Reformers entered Leipsic. Just as they passed the Grimma gate, in front of St. Paul's cemetery, one of the wheels of Carlstadt's carriage broke. The archdeacon, who was enjoying the solemn entry with great self-satisfaction, tumbled into the mud. He wasn't hurt but had to walk to his lodging. Luther's chariot, which followed closely behind Carlstadt's, moved ahead quickly and delivered the Reformer safely. The people of Leipsic, who had gathered to witness the arrival of the Wittenberg champions, viewed the accident as a bad sign for Carlstadt. It quickly spread around town that he would be defeated in the contest, but Luther would be the one to come out victorious.[64]
Adolphus of Merseberg did not remain idle. As soon as he learned the approach of Luther and Carlstadt, and even before they had lighted from their carriages, he caused a notice to be posted up on all the church-doors forbidding the discussion under pain of excommunication. Duke George, astonished at his presumption, ordered the town council to tear down the bishop's placard, and imprison the individual which had been employed to put it up.[65] The Duke George, who had come in person to Leipsic, attended by all his court—among others by Jerôme Emser, with whom Luther spent the famous evening at Dresden, sent the disputants the usual presents.[66] "The duke," boasted Eck, "presented me with a fine stag, and gave Carlstadt only a roebuck."[67]
Adolphus of Merseberg didn’t stay inactive. As soon as he heard that Luther and Carlstadt were on their way, and even before they had gotten out of their carriages, he had a notice posted on all the church doors banning any discussions under threat of excommunication. Duke George, shocked by his boldness, ordered the town council to take down the bishop’s notice and imprison the person who put it up.[65] Duke George, who personally came to Leipzig with his whole court— including Jerôme Emser, who had spent that famous evening with Luther in Dresden—sent the disputants the usual gifts.[66] "The duke," Eck proudly claimed, "gave me a fine stag, while Carlstadt only received a roebuck."[67]
Eck was no sooner informed of Luther's arrival than he called upon him—"What!" said he, "it is said that you refuse to debate with me."
Eck was barely informed of Luther's arrival when he visited him—"What!" he exclaimed, "I've heard that you refuse to debate with me."
Luther.—"How can I when the duke forbids me?"
Luther.—"How can I when the duke has banned me?"
Eck.—"If I cannot debate with you, I am not anxious to have any thing to do with Carlstadt. It was for you I came here." Then, after a short pause, he added—"If I obtain the dukes permission, will you take the field?"[68]
Eck.—"If I can't debate with you, I don’t want to be involved with Carlstadt. I came here for you." Then, after a brief pause, he added—"If I get the duke’s permission, will you join me in the field?"[68]
Luther (joyfully).—"Obtain it, and we shall debate."
Luther (cheerfully).—"Get it, and we’ll talk."
Eck forthwith repaired to the duke, and tried to dissipate his fears, representing to him that he was certain of victory, and that the authority of the pope, so far from suffering by the discussion, would come out of it more glorious. "We must strike at the head. If Luther stands erect, so do all his adherents—if he falls, they all fall." George granted permission.
Eck immediately went to see the duke and tried to ease his worries, telling him that he was confident of winning and that the pope's authority, instead of being harmed by the debate, would actually emerge even stronger. "We need to go for the source. If Luther is strong, so are all his followers—if he fails, they’ll all fail." George agreed.
The duke had caused a large hall to be prepared in his palace of Pleissenburg. Two desks had been erected opposite to each other, tables arranged for the notaries who were to take down the discussion in writing, and benches for the spectators. The desks and benches were covered with rich tapestry. At the doctor of Wittemberg's desk was suspended the portrait of St. Martin, after whom he was named; and at that of Dr. Eck, the portrait of the knight of St. George. "We shall see," said the arrogant Eck, with his eye on the emblem, "whether I do not, with my steed, trample down my enemies." Every thing bespoke the importance which was attached to the combat.
The duke had a large hall set up in his palace at Pleissenburg. Two desks faced each other, tables were arranged for the notaries who would record the discussion, and there were benches for spectators. The desks and benches were draped in rich tapestry. Hanging at the desk of the doctor from Wittemberg was a portrait of St. Martin, after whom he was named; and at Dr. Eck's desk, the portrait of the knight of St. George. "We'll see," said the arrogant Eck, eyeing the emblem, "if I don’t trample my enemies underfoot with my steed." Everything indicated the significance attached to this conflict.
On 25th June, the parties met in the castle to arrange the order of proceeding. Eck, who had more confidence in his declamation and gesture than in his arguments, exclaimed, "We will debate freely, off hand, and the notaries will not take down our words in writing."
On June 25th, the parties gathered in the castle to discuss the order of proceedings. Eck, who felt more confident about his speaking and gestures than his arguments, declared, "We'll debate freely, on the spot, and the notaries won't record what we say."
Carlstadt.—"The agreement was, that the discussion should be written down, published, and submitted to the judgment of all men."
Carlstadt.—"The agreement was that the discussion would be recorded, published, and presented for everyone to judge."
Eck.—"To write down every thing is to wear out the spirit of the disputants, and protract the battle. In that case there can be no hope of the vivacity requisite in an animated debate. Do not lay an arrest on the flow of eloquence."[69]
Eck.—"Writing everything down exhausts the spirit of those arguing and drags out the debate. In that scenario, there’s no chance for the energy needed in a lively discussion. Don't stifle the flow of eloquence."[69]
Dr. Eck's friends supported his proposal, but Carlstadt persisted in his objection, and Eck was obliged to yield.
Dr. Eck's friends backed his suggestion, but Carlstadt continued to object, and Eck had to give in.
Eck.—"Be it so, let there be writing; but, at all events, the debate, when taken down by the notaries, is not to be published before it has been submitted to the decision of judges."
Eck.—"Fine, let's get it in writing; however, the debate, once recorded by the notaries, shouldn't be made public until it's been reviewed by the judges."
Luther.—"The truth of Dr. Eck and the Eckians fears the light."
Luther.—"The truth about Dr. Eck and his followers is afraid of the light."
Eck.—"There must be judges."
Eck.—"There have to be judges."
Luther.—"And what judges?"
Luther.—"And which judges?"
Eck.—"After the debate is over we will agree upon them."
Eck.—"Once the debate is done, we'll come to an agreement about them."
The object of the partisans of Rome was evident. If the theologians of Wittemberg accepted judges, their cause was lost. It was obvious beforehand who the persons were whom their opponents would suggest; and yet the Reformers, if they refused them, would be covered with obloquy, as it would be circulated every where that they were afraid of submitting to impartial judges.
The goal of the supporters of Rome was clear. If the theologians of Wittenberg accepted judges, their case was doomed. It was obvious from the start who their opponents would propose; and yet, if the Reformers rejected them, they would be seen negatively, as it would be spread everywhere that they were afraid to submit to impartial judges.
The judges whom the Reformers desired were not individuals whose opinion was already declared, but the whole of Christendom. Their appeal was made to the general voice. It mattered little who condemned them, if, in pleading their cause in presence of the Christian world, they succeeded in bringing some individuals to the light. "Luther," says a Roman historian, "demanded all the faithful for judges—in other words, demanded a tribunal so numerous that there could be no urn large enough to hold its votes."[70]
The judges that the Reformers wanted weren't people who had already made up their minds; they wanted the entire Christian community to weigh in. Their appeal was directed at the collective opinion. It didn't matter who criticized them, as long as they could convince some people in front of the Christian world to see things differently. "Luther," according to a Roman historian, "called for all believers to be judges—in other words, he wanted a jury so large that no container could possibly hold all their votes."[70]
The meeting broke up. "See their stratagem," said Luther and his friends to each other. "They would to a certainty ask to have the pope or the universities for judges."
The meeting ended. "Look at their plan," said Luther and his friends to one another. "They would definitely ask to have the pope or the universities as judges."
In fact, the theologians of Rome, next morning, sent one of their party to Luther, with a proposal that the judge should be ... the pope!... "The pope!" said Luther, "how could I accept him?"
In fact, the theologians from Rome sent one of their group to Luther the next morning with a proposal that the judge should be ... the pope!... "The pope!" Luther exclaimed, "how could I accept him?"
"Beware," exclaimed all his friends, "of accepting conditions so unjust." Eck and his friends having consulted anew, gave up the pope, and proposed certain universities. "Don't take from us the liberty which you have already granted us," replied Luther. "We cannot yield this point," resumed Eck. "Then," exclaimed Luther, "I don't debate."[71]
"Be careful," shouted all his friends, "about accepting such unfair conditions." After discussing again, Eck and his friends decided to reject the pope and suggested some universities instead. "Don't take away the freedom you've already given us," Luther responded. "We can't give in on this," Eck insisted. "Then," Luther exclaimed, "I'm not going to debate."[71]
They again parted, and what had just passed was talked of over the whole town. The Romans kept crying every where, "Luther won't debate—he refuses to accept of any judge!" Commenting on, and torturing his words, they endeavoured to represent them in the most unfavourable light. "What! truly? he will not debate?" say the best friends of the Reformer, and hasten to him to express their alarm. "You decline the contest," exclaim they. "Your refusal will bring eternal disgrace on your university and your cause." This was to attack Luther in his most tender point. "Very well," replied he, his heart filled with indignation, "I accept the terms which are imposed on me; but I reserve a right of appeal, and I decline the Court of Rome."[72]
They parted ways again, and what had just happened was the talk of the whole town. The Romans kept shouting everywhere, "Luther won’t debate—he refuses to accept any authority!" They twisted his words and tried to portray them in the worst possible light. "What? Really? He won't debate?" exclaimed the Reformer’s closest friends, rushing to him to share their concern. "You’re backing out of the contest," they insisted. "Your refusal will bring eternal shame on your university and your cause." This hit Luther in a very sensitive spot. "Fine," he replied, his heart filled with anger, "I’ll accept the terms you’ve set for me; but I reserve the right to appeal, and I won’t accept the Court of Rome."[72]
CHAP. IV.
The Procession—Mass—Mosellanus—Veni, Sancte Spiritus!—Portraits of Luther and Carlstadt—Doctor Eck—Carlstadt's Books—Merit of Congruity—Natural Powers—Scholastic distinction—Point where Rome and the Reformation separate—Grace gives man freedom—Carlstadt's Note-Book—Commotion in the auditory—Melancthon during the debate—Manœuvres of Eck—Luther Preaches—The Citizens of Leipsic—Quarrels of Students and quarrels of Teachers.
The Procession—Mass—Mosellanus—Come, Holy Spirit!—Portraits of Luther and Carlstadt—Doctor Eck—Carlstadt's Books—Value of Agreement—Natural Abilities—Scholastic Differences—The Divergence Between Rome and the Reformation—Grace Provides Freedom to Man—Carlstadt's Notebook—Stirring in the Audience—Melancthon During the Debate—Eck's Strategies—Luther Preaches—The Citizens of Leipzig—Student Fights and Teacher Conflicts.
The 27th of June was the day fixed for the commencement of the discussion. In the morning the parties met in the hall of the university, and thereafter walked in procession to the Church of St. Thomas, where high mass was celebrated by the order and at the expence of the duke. After service, those present proceeded to the ducal castle. At their head walked Duke George, and the Duke of Pomerania; next came counts, abbots, knights, and other persons of distinction; and, lastly, the doctors of the two parties. A guard composed of seventy-six citizens, carrying halberds, accompanied the procession, with colours flying, and drums beating, and halted at the castle gate.
The 27th of June was the day set for the start of the discussion. In the morning, the groups gathered in the university hall and then walked in a procession to the Church of St. Thomas, where a high mass was celebrated at the order and expense of the duke. After the service, everyone moved on to the ducal castle. Leading the way were Duke George and the Duke of Pomerania, followed by counts, abbots, knights, and other distinguished individuals, with the doctors from both sides bringing up the rear. A guard of seventy-six citizens, carrying halberds, accompanied the procession, with flags waving and drums sounding, and they stopped at the castle gate.
On the arrival at the palace, each took his place in the hall where the debate was to take place—Duke George, the hereditary Prince John, Prince George of Anhalt, a boy of twelve, and the Duke of Pomerania, occupying the seats allotted to them.
On their arrival at the palace, everyone took their place in the hall where the debate was set to happen—Duke George, the hereditary Prince John, Prince George of Anhalt, a twelve-year-old boy, and the Duke of Pomerania, each sitting in their designated seats.
Mosellanus, by order of the duke, mounted a pulpit, to remind the theologians of the manner in which the discussion was to be carried on. "If you begin to quarrel," said the orator to them, "what difference will there be between a theological disputant and a swaggering duellist? What is victory here but just to recall a brother from his error?... Each, it would seem, should be more desirous to be conquered than to conquer."[73]
Mosellanus, at the duke's request, took the stage to remind the theologians how to conduct the discussion. "If you start arguing," he told them, "what's the difference between a theologian and a boastful duelist? What does victory mean here other than guiding a brother back from his mistake?... It seems each should actually want to be defeated more than to win." [73]
At the conclusion of the address, sacred music echoed along the aisles of the Pleissenberg, the whole assembly knelt down, and the ancient hymn of invocation to the Holy Spirit, "Veni, Sancte Spiritus," was sung. Solemn hour in the annals of the Reformation! The invocation was thrice repeated; and, while the solemn chant was pealing, the defenders of the ancient, and the champions of the new doctrines, the men of the Church of the middle ages, and those desirous of re-establishing the Church of the apostles, mingling together without distinction, in lowly attitude bent their faces to the ground. The ancient tie of one single communion still united all these different minds, and the same prayer still proceeded from all these lips as if a single heart had dictated it.
At the end of the speech, sacred music filled the aisles of the Pleissenberg, and the entire assembly knelt down to sing the ancient hymn to the Holy Spirit, "Veni, Sancte Spiritus." It was a significant moment in the history of the Reformation! The invocation was repeated three times, and as the solemn chant echoed, the defenders of the old ways and the supporters of the new doctrines, the men of the medieval Church and those wanting to restore the Church of the apostles, mixed together without distinction, bowing their heads to the ground. The ancient bond of one single communion still connected all these different minds, and the same prayer came from all these lips as if a single heart had inspired it.
These were the last moments of external lifeless unity for which a new spiritual living unity was about to be substituted. The Holy Spirit was invoked in behalf of the Church, and the Holy Spirit was about to answer by a revival of Christendom.
These were the final moments of external lifeless unity that was about to be replaced by a new spiritual living unity. The Holy Spirit was called upon for the Church, and the Holy Spirit was ready to respond with a revival of Christianity.
When the hymn and prayer were finished, the assembly rose up. The discussion should have now commenced; but, as the hour of noon had arrived, there was an adjournment of two hours.
When the hymn and prayer were done, the group stood up. The discussion was supposed to start now; however, since it was noon, there was a break for two hours.
The leading personages who proposed to attend the debate, having dined with the duke, returned with him after dinner to the castle hall, which was filled with spectators. Meetings of this description were the public assemblies in which the representatives of the age discussed questions of general and engrossing interest. The orators were soon at their post. That a better idea may be formed of them, we will give their portraits as drawn by one of the most impartial witnesses of the debate.
The main people who planned to join the debate, having had dinner with the duke, returned with him afterward to the castle hall, which was packed with spectators. Events like this were the public gatherings where the leaders of the time discussed important and captivating topics. The speakers quickly took their places. To give you a better idea of who they were, we will provide descriptions as portrayed by one of the most unbiased observers of the debate.
"Martin Luther is of middle size; and so emaciated by hard study that one might almost count his bones. He is in the vigour of life, and his voice is clear and sonorous. His learning and knowledge of the Holy Scriptures are beyond compare: he has the whole word of God at command.[74] In addition to this he has great store of arguments and ideas. It were perhaps to be wished that he had a little more judgment in arranging his materials. In conversation he is candid and courteous; there is nothing stoical or haughty about him; he has the art of accommodating himself to every individual. His address is pleasing, and replete with good humour. He displays firmness, and is never discomposed by the menaces of his adversaries, be they what they may. One is, in a manner, compelled to believe that, in the great things which he has done, God must have assisted him. He is blamed, however, for being more sarcastic in his rejoinders than becomes a theologian, especially when he announces new religious ideas.
"Martin Luther is of average height and so thin from intense study that you could almost count his bones. He is in the prime of his life, and his voice is clear and resonant. His knowledge of the Holy Scriptures is unmatched; he has the entire word of God at his fingertips.[74] Additionally, he has a wealth of arguments and ideas. It might be nice if he had a bit more judgment in organizing his thoughts. In conversation, he is open and polite; there’s nothing stoic or arrogant about him; he knows how to adapt to every person. His manner is engaging and filled with humor. He shows determination and never seems rattled by the threats of his opponents, no matter what they are. One feels, in a sense, that in the significant things he has accomplished, God must have played a role. However, he is criticized for being more sarcastic in his replies than is appropriate for a theologian, especially when he presents new religious ideas."
"Carlstadt is of smaller stature; his complexion is dark and sallow, his voice disagreeable, his memory less retentive, and his temper more easily ruffled than Luther's. Still however he possesses, though in an inferior degree, the same qualities which distinguish his friend.
"Carlstadt is shorter; he has a dark and sickly complexion, an unpleasant voice, a less reliable memory, and a temper that's more easily upset than Luther's. Still, he does have, albeit to a lesser extent, the same qualities that set his friend apart."
"Eck is tall and broad shouldered. He has a strong and truly German voice, and such excellent lungs that he would be well heard on the stage, or would make an admirable town-crier. His accent is rather coarse than elegant, and he has none of the gracefulness so much lauded by Cicero and Quintilian. His mouth, his eyes, and his whole features, suggest the idea of a soldier or a butcher, rather than a theologian.[75] His memory is excellent, and were his intellect equal to it he would be faultless. But he is slow of comprehension, and wants judgment, without which all other gifts are useless. Hence, when he debates, he piles up, without selection or discernment, passages from the Bible, quotations from the Fathers, and arguments of all descriptions. His assurance, moreover, is unbounded. When he finds himself in a difficulty he darts off from the matter in hand, and pounces upon another; sometimes, even, he adopts the view of his antagonist, and changing the form of expression, most dexterously charges him with the very absurdity which he himself was defending."
"Eck is tall and broad-shouldered. He has a strong, distinctly German voice, and such impressive lungs that he would be well heard on stage or make an excellent town crier. His accent is more rough than refined, and he lacks the elegance so often praised by Cicero and Quintilian. His mouth, eyes, and overall features give more the impression of a soldier or a butcher than a theologian.[75] His memory is outstanding, and if his intellect matched it, he would be flawless. However, he is slow to understand and lacks judgment, which makes all other talents pointless. Therefore, when he debates, he piles up, without any selection or discernment, quotes from the Bible, references from the Fathers, and arguments of all kinds. Additionally, his confidence knows no bounds. When he encounters a challenge, he quickly shifts from the topic at hand and jumps onto another; sometimes, he even adopts his opponent's viewpoint, and by changing the wording, cleverly accuses them of the very absurdity he was defending."
Such, according to Mosellanus, were the men who drew the eyes of the crowds who were then thronging into the great hall of Pleissenburg.
Such were the men, according to Mosellanus, who caught the attention of the crowds that were then pouring into the great hall of Pleissenburg.
The discussion was opened by Eck and Carlstadt.
The discussion was started by Eck and Carlstadt.
Eck, for some moments, fixed his eyes on the books which lay on the little table in front of his opponent's desk, and seemed to give him uneasiness: they were the Bible and the Fathers. "I decline the discussion," exclaimed he suddenly, "if you are allowed to bring books with you." A theologian have recourse to his books in discussion! The astonishment of Dr. Eck was still more astonishing. "It is merely a fig leaf which this Adam is employing to hide his shame," said Luther. "Did Augustine consult no books in combating the Manichees?"[76] No matter! Eck's partisans made a great noise. Carlstadt remonstrated. "The man is altogether devoid of memory," said Eck. At last it was decided, agreeably to the desire of the chancellor of Ingolstadt, that each disputant should have the use only of his memory and his tongue. "Thus then," said several, "the object in this debate will not be to discover truth, but to show off the eloquence and memory of the disputants."
Eck stared at the books on the small table in front of his opponent's desk for a moment, and they seemed to make him uneasy: they were the Bible and the Church Fathers. "I refuse to discuss this," he suddenly exclaimed, "if you’re allowed to bring books." A theologian consulting his books during a debate! Dr. Eck's shock was even more shocking. "It's just a cover-up this Adam is using to hide his shame," Luther said. "Did Augustine not refer to books while arguing against the Manichees?"[76] It didn’t matter! Eck's supporters made a huge fuss. Carlstadt protested. "This man has completely lost his memory," Eck said. In the end, it was decided, at the request of the chancellor of Ingolstadt, that each debater could only rely on their memory and their speech. "So then," several people said, "the goal of this debate won't be to find the truth, but to show off the speakers' eloquence and memory."
The discussion lasted seventeen days; but as it is impossible to give the whole of it, we must, as a historian says, imitate painters who, in representing a battle, place the most distinguished exploits in front, and leave the others in the back ground.[77]
The discussion went on for seventeen days, but since it's impossible to cover everything, we should, as a historian puts it, follow the example of painters who, when depicting a battle, showcase the most remarkable achievements in the foreground and leave the rest in the background.[77]
The subject of discussion between Eck and Carlstadt was important. "Before conversion," said Carlstadt, "the will of man is incapable of doing good; every good work comes entirely and exclusively from God, who gives first the will to do, and afterwards the ability to perform." This truth is proclaimed by the Scriptures, which say, "It is God which worketh in you, both to will and to do of his good pleasure,"[78] and by Augustine, who, in disputing with the Pelagians, delivers it in almost the very same terms. Every work in which there is neither love to God nor obedience to his will, is, in his sight, devoid of the only quality which could render it truly good, even should it be in other respects dictated by the most honourable human motives. Now there is in man a natural enmity to God—an enmity which he is utterly unable to suppress. He has not the power to do so—he even wants the will. If ever, therefore, it is to be suppressed, it must be by the power of God.
The topic of conversation between Eck and Carlstadt was significant. "Before conversion," Carlstadt said, "a person's will can't do good; every good deed comes entirely and solely from God, who first gives the will to act and then the ability to do so." This truth is stated in the Scriptures, which say, "It is God which worketh in you, both to will and to do of his good pleasure,"[78] and by Augustine, who, in arguing with the Pelagians, expresses it in almost the same words. Any act that lacks love for God or obedience to his will is, in God's eyes, missing the only quality that could make it truly good, even if it seems to be motivated by the most honorable human intentions. There is in humanity a natural hostility towards God—an hostility that a person cannot suppress. They lack the power to do so—they even lack the will. Therefore, if it is ever to be suppressed, it must be by God's power.
This is the doctrine of free will, so much declaimed against in the world, and yet so simple. It had been the doctrine of the church. But the schoolmen had explained it in a manner which caused it to be misunderstood. "No doubt," said they, "the natural will of man cannot do any thing which is truly pleasing to God; but it can do much to render man more capable and more worthy of receiving divine grace." These preparatives they termed merit of congruity;[79] "because," as St. Thomas expressed it, "it is congruous for God to bestow peculiar favour on those who make a good use of their will." In regard, again, to the conversion which man must undergo, it is no doubt true that, according to the schoolmen, the grace of God behoved to accomplish it, but still without excluding his natural powers. "These powers," said they, "have not been annihilated by sin; sin only puts an obstacle in the way of their development; but as soon as this obstacle is removed (and this, according to them, was what the grace of God had to do,) these powers begin again to act." To use one of their favourite comparisons—"the bird whose legs are tied does not thereby lose either its powers, or forget the art of flying, though it must be loosed by some other hand before it can be able again to use its wings." "The same," said they, "is the case with man."[80]
This is the concept of free will, often criticized in the world, yet it's quite straightforward. It was the belief of the church. However, scholars explained it in a way that led to misunderstandings. "Yes," they said, "the natural will of man can't do anything that truly pleases God; but it can do a lot to make man more capable and deserving of receiving divine grace." They called these preparations the merit of congruity; [79] "because," as St. Thomas put it, "it’s fitting for God to grant special favor to those who make good use of their will." Regarding the transformation that man needs to experience, it's certainly true that, according to the scholars, the grace of God must achieve this, but it doesn’t exclude man's natural abilities. "These abilities," they said, "haven't been destroyed by sin; sin merely creates an obstacle to their growth; but once this obstacle is removed (and according to them, that's what the grace of God had to do), these abilities start to function again." To use one of their common analogies—"the bird with tied legs doesn’t lose its abilities or forget how to fly, although it must be freed by another hand before it can use its wings again." "The same," they said, "applies to man." [80]
Such was the question discussed between Eck and Carlstadt. At first Eck seemed to deny Carlstadt's propositions out and out, but feeling the difficulty of maintaining his ground, said, "I grant that the will has not power to do a good work, but receives it from God." "Confess then," rejoined Carlstadt, overjoyed at obtaining such a concession, "that every good work comes entirely from God." "Every good work comes indeed from God," replied the schoolman subtlely, "but not entirely." "There," exclaimed Melancthon, "goes a discovery well worthy of theological science." "An apple," added Eck, "is all produced by the sun, but not altogether, and without the co-operation of the tree."[81] Assuredly no man ever thought of maintaining that an apple is all produced by the sun.
Such was the question discussed between Eck and Carlstadt. At first, Eck seemed to completely reject Carlstadt's ideas, but realizing the challenge of holding his position, he said, "I admit that the will doesn't have the power to perform a good action, but that it receives it from God." "Then confess," Carlstadt responded, thrilled by this concession, "that every good action comes entirely from God." "Every good action does indeed come from God," the scholar replied cleverly, "but not entirely." "There," exclaimed Melancthon, "is a discovery worthy of theological study." "An apple," Eck added, "is produced by the sun, but not entirely, and without the cooperation of the tree."[81] Surely no one has ever claimed that an apple is produced solely by the sun.
"Very well," said his opponents, going still deeper into this delicate question, so important in philosophy and in religion, "let us consider how God acts on man, and how man conducts himself when so acted on." "I acknowledge," said Eck, "that in conversion the first impulse comes from God, and that the human will is entirely passive."[82] So far the disputants were agreed. "I acknowledge," said Carlstadt, on his part, "that after this first action on the part of God, something must come from man, something which St. Paul calls the will, and which the fathers designate by consent." Here again both parties were agreed—but at this point the separation began. "This consent of man," said Eck, "comes partly from our natural will, and partly from the grace of God."[83] "No," said Carlstadt, "this will in man is entirely created by God."[84] Hereupon Eck began to express astonishment and indignation at words so well fitted to impress man with a sense of his utter nothingness. "Your doctrine," exclaims he, "makes man a stone or a block, incapable of any counter action...." "What," replied the Reformers, "does not the faculty of receiving the powers which God produces in him (a faculty which we admit that he possesses) sufficiently distinguish him from a stone and a block?" "But," resumed their antagonist, "by denying man all natural power, you contradict experience." "We deny not," was the reply, "that man possesses certain powers, and has in him a faculty of reflecting, meditating, and choosing. We only consider these powers and faculties as mere instruments, incapable of doing any thing that is good until the hand of God sets them in motion. They are like the saw in the hands of the sawyer."[85]
"Alright," said his opponents, delving even deeper into this sensitive issue, which is crucial in philosophy and religion, "let's examine how God influences humans and how humans respond when that happens." "I agree," said Eck, "that in conversion the initial impulse comes from God, and that the human will is completely passive."[82] So far, both sides were in agreement. "I also acknowledge," said Carlstadt, "that after this initial action from God, there has to be a response from man, which St. Paul refers to as the will, and which the church fathers call consent." Again, both parties found common ground—but that's where the disagreement started. "This consent of man," said Eck, "comes partly from our natural will, and partly from God's grace."[83] "No," Carlstadt countered, "this will in man is entirely created by God."[84] At this point, Eck expressed shock and anger at statements that could make a person feel completely insignificant. "Your doctrine," he exclaimed, "turns man into a stone or a block, incapable of any action...." "What," replied the Reformers, "doesn't the ability to receive the powers that God gives him (which we agree he has) distinguish him from a stone and a block?" "But," Eck continued, "by denying man any natural power, you go against real-life experience." "We do not deny," came the reply, "that man has certain abilities and has within him the capability to reflect, meditate, and choose. We simply see these abilities and faculties as mere tools, incapable of doing anything good until God moves them. They're like the saw in the hands of the carpenter."[85]
The great question of liberty was here debated, and it was easy to demonstrate that the doctrine of the Reformers did not divest man of the liberty of a moral agent or make him a passive machine. The liberty of a moral agent consists in the power of acting conformably to his choice. Every action done without external constraint, and in consequence of the determination of the mind itself, is a free action. The mind is determined by motives, but we constantly see that the same motives act differently on different minds. Many do not act conformably to the motives which their judgment approves. This inefficiency of motives is attributable to the obstacles which they meet with in the corruption of the understanding and the heart. Now, God, by giving a new heart and a new spirit, removes those obstacles, and thereby so far from depriving man of freedom, on the contrary, removes what prevented him from acting freely, and in obedience to the dictates of his conscience. In the language of the gospel it renders him "free indeed." (John, viii, 36.)
The important question of freedom was discussed here, and it was clear that the beliefs of the Reformers did not take away a person's freedom as a moral agent or turn them into a mindless machine. The freedom of a moral agent means having the ability to act according to their choices. Any action taken without outside pressure and as a result of one's own mind's decision is a free action. The mind is influenced by motives, but we often see that the same motives affect different people in different ways. Many do not act according to the motives their judgment agrees with. This lack of effectiveness of motives is due to the barriers created by the corruption of understanding and the heart. Now, God, by giving a new heart and a new spirit, removes those barriers, and instead of taking away a person's freedom, He actually removes what prevented them from acting freely and following their conscience. In the words of the gospel, it makes them "free indeed." (John, viii, 36.)
A slight incident for a short time interrupted the debate. Carlstadt (this is Eck's account[86]) had prepared different heads of argument; and, as is done by many of the orators of our day, read what he had written. Eck saw in this only a school boy's tactics, and objected. Carlstadt embarrassed, and fearing he might be taken at a disadvantage if deprived of his note-book, insisted on retaining it. "Ah!" said the scholastic doctor, quite proud of the advantage which he thought he had over him, "his memory is shorter than mine." The point having been submitted to arbiters, it was decided that quotations from the Fathers might be read, but that in other respects the discussion should be extempore.
A brief incident temporarily interrupted the debate. Carlstadt (according to Eck's account[86]) had prepared various points of argument and, like many modern speakers, read from what he had written. Eck saw this as merely a tactic of a schoolboy and objected. Carlstadt, feeling embarrassed and worried that he would be at a disadvantage without his notes, insisted on keeping them. "Ah!" said the scholarly doctor, quite proud of what he thought was his advantage, "his memory is shorter than mine." After the matter was referred to arbiters, it was decided that quotes from the Church Fathers could be read, but otherwise the discussion should be spontaneous.
This first part of the discussion often met with interruption from the audience. They ruffed and screamed. Any proposition offensive to the ears of the majority instantly aroused their clamour, and then, as in our day, it was necessary to call to order. The disputants also occasionally allowed themselves to be carried away in the heat of discussion.
This first part of the discussion was often interrupted by the audience. They booed and shouted. Any suggestion that offended the majority immediately sparked their uproar, and just like today, it became necessary to call everyone to order. The speakers also occasionally got caught up in the heat of the debate.
Melancthon sat near Luther, and attracted almost equal attention. He was of short stature, and would scarcely have been thought more than eighteen. Luther, who was a whole head taller, seemed to be united to him by the closest friendship; they came in, went out, and walked together. "To look at Melancthon," says a Swiss theologian,[87] who studied at Wittemberg, "one would think him a mere boy, but in judgment, learning, and talent he is a giant. It is difficult to comprehend how so much wisdom and genius can be contained within so puny a body." Between the sittings, Melancthon conferred with Carlstadt and Luther. He assisted them in preparing for the debate, and suggested arguments drawn from the stores of his vast erudition; but during the discussion he remained quietly seated among the spectators, giving close attention to every thing that was said by the theologians.[88] Occasionally, however, he came to the aid of Carlstadt.[89] When the latter was on the point of giving way under the powerful declamation of the chancellor of Ingolstadt, the young professor whispered a word in his ear, or slipt a paper to him on which he had noted down the answer. Eck on one occasion perceived this, and indignant that this grammarian, as he called him, should presume to intermeddle with the discussion, turned towards him, and haughtily said, "Be silent, Philip, keep to your own studies, and give me no disturbance." Perhaps Eck had already a presentiment of the formidable adversary he was afterwards to encounter in this young man. Luther was offended at the rude insult given to his friend; "The judgment of Philip," said he, "weighs more with me than that of a thousand doctor Ecks."
Melancthon sat near Luther and attracted almost as much attention. He was short and looked no older than eighteen. Luther, who was a full head taller, seemed to share a close friendship with him; they came in, went out, and walked together. "If you look at Melancthon," says a Swiss theologian,[87] who studied at Wittenberg, "you would think he’s just a boy, but in judgment, knowledge, and talent, he’s a giant. It’s hard to understand how so much wisdom and genius can fit into such a small body." During breaks, Melancthon talked with Carlstadt and Luther. He helped them prepare for the debate and suggested arguments from his vast knowledge; but during the discussion, he stayed quietly seated among the spectators, giving close attention to everything the theologians said.[88] Occasionally, he helped Carlstadt.[89] When Carlstadt was about to crack under the powerful speech of the chancellor of Ingolstadt, the young professor whispered something in his ear or slipped him a note with the answer. Eck noticed this once and, angered that this grammarian, as he referred to him, would dare to interfere, turned toward him and said haughtily, "Be quiet, Philip, stick to your own studies, and don’t disturb me." Perhaps Eck sensed the formidable opponent he would later face in this young man. Luther was outraged at the rude insult directed at his friend; "Philip’s judgment," he said, "matters more to me than that of a thousand Doctor Ecks."
The calm Melancthon easily discerned the weak points of this discussion. "We can only be surprised," says he with the wisdom and grace conspicuous in all his words, "when we think of the violence which was brought to the discussion of such subjects. How could any advantage be derived from it? The Spirit of God loves retreat and silence: there dwell those whose hearts he penetrates. The bride of Christ does not stand in streets and public places, but conducts the Bridegroom into her mother's house."[90]
The calm Melancthon easily spotted the weaknesses in this discussion. "We're only surprised," he says with the wisdom and grace evident in all his words, "when we consider the harshness that accompanied discussions on such topics. What benefit could come from that? The Spirit of God values retreat and silence; that's where He touches the hearts of those open to Him. The bride of Christ doesn't stand in the streets and public places but takes the Bridegroom into her mother's house."[90]
Both parties claimed the victory. Eck employed all his address to make it appear that he had gained it. As the points of divergence almost met, he often exclaimed that he had brought over his opponent to his opinion, or like a new Proteus, as Luther calls him, turning suddenly round, he stated Carlstadt's own opinion in different words, and then asked, with an air of triumph, if he did not feel constrained to yield. The unskilful, who were unable to detect the sophist's manœuvre, applauded and triumphed with him.... In several respects the match was unequal. Carlstadt was slow, and sometimes left his opponent's objections unanswered till next day. Eck, on the contrary, was master of his subject, and could lay his hand at once on whatever he required. He came forward with a haughty air, mounted his desk with a firm step, and when there, stamped with his foot, moved backwards and forwards, made the ceiling ring with his powerful voice, gave some sort of reply to every argument, and astonished the audience with his memory and adroitness. Still Eck, without perceiving it, conceded much more in the discussion than he had intended. His partizans shouted and laughed at each of his turns, "but," says Luther, "I strongly suspect they only made a show of laughing, and were exceedingly vexed at heart when they saw their chief, who had commenced with so much bravado, quit his standard, abandon his army, and become a shameless deserter."[91]
Both sides claimed victory. Eck did everything he could to make it seem like he had won. Since their differing points were almost aligned, he frequently declared that he had convinced his opponent to agree with him. Like a new Proteus, as Luther called him, he would suddenly flip his argument, rephrasing Carlstadt's own views, and then triumphantly ask if Carlstadt didn’t feel compelled to give in. Those who were not skilled enough to see through Eck's trickery cheered and celebrated with him.... The debate was unequal in several ways. Carlstadt was slow to respond and sometimes left Eck's objections unanswered until the next day. Eck, on the other hand, had a firm grasp of his material and could quickly reference whatever he needed. He approached the podium with arrogance, stepped up confidently, and once there, stomped his foot, moved back and forth, filled the room with his powerful voice, gave some sort of response to every argument, and impressed the audience with his memory and skill. Yet, without realizing it, Eck conceded far more in the discussion than he had intended. His supporters cheered and laughed at each of his moves, but, as Luther states, "I strongly suspect they only pretended to laugh and were deeply upset at heart when they saw their leader, who had started with such bravado, abandon his position, leave his followers, and become a shameless deserter."[91]
Three or four days after the discussion had commenced, it was interrupted by the feast of St. Peter and St. Paul.
Three or four days after the discussion started, it was interrupted by the feast of St. Peter and St. Paul.
The Duke of Pomerania requested Luther to preach before him, on the occasion, in his chapel. Luther gladly complied. The chapel was soon filled, and crowds still arriving, it became necessary to remove to the great hall of the castle, where the discussion was held. Luther preached from the text of the day, on the grace of God, and the power of Peter, and gave a popular exposition of the views which he was wont to maintain before a learned audience. Christianity causes the light of truth to penetrate alike into the highest and the humblest intellects, and is in this way distinguished from all other religions, and from all philosophical systems. The theologians of Leipsic, who had been present at the sermon, hastened to acquaint Eck with the expressions which had offended them. "These subtile errors," exclaimed they, "must be answered, must be publicly refuted." This was just what Eck wished. All the churches were open to him, and on four successive occasions he mounted the pulpit to declaim against Luther and his sermon. Luther's friends were indignant, and demanded that the theologian of Wittemberg should be heard in his turn. But they demanded in vain. The pulpits were open to the enemies of evangelical truth, but shut against those who proclaimed it. "I kept silence," says Luther, "and was obliged to submit to attacks, insults, and calumnies, without being able to exculpate and defend myself."[92]
The Duke of Pomerania asked Luther to preach for him in his chapel. Luther happily agreed. The chapel quickly filled up, and with more people arriving, they had to move to the castle's great hall for the discussion. Luther preached on the day's scripture about God's grace and Peter's power, providing a popular explanation of his views that he usually shared with learned audiences. Christianity allows the light of truth to reach both the highest and the lowest intellects, setting it apart from all other religions and philosophies. The theologians from Leipsic, who attended the sermon, hurried to inform Eck about what had offended them. "These subtle errors," they exclaimed, "must be addressed, must be publicly refuted." This was exactly what Eck wanted. All the churches were open to him, and he took to the pulpit four times in a row to speak out against Luther and his sermon. Luther's friends were outraged and insisted that the theologian from Wittenberg should also be given a chance to speak. But their demands were ignored. The pulpits were available for evangelical truth's opponents, but closed to those who proclaimed it. "I remained silent," says Luther, "and had to endure attacks, insults, and slander without being able to clear and defend myself."[92]
The ecclesiastics were not the only persons who displayed hostility to the evangelical doctrine: the citizens of Leipsic were in this respect of one mind with their clergy, and yielded themselves up with blind fanaticism to the falsehoods and animosities which were industriously propagated. The principal inhabitants did not visit either Luther or Carlstadt. They left them unnoticed when they met them in the street, and tried to prejudice the duke against them. On the other hand they visited and gave daily entertainments to the doctor of Ingolstadt, who enjoyed their good cheer, and learnedly discussed the comparative merits of Saxony and Bavarian beer. His manners, somewhat free, did not indicate a very strict morality.[93] The only thing offered to Luther was the customary present of wine to the disputants. Moreover, even those who wished him well were anxious that others should not know it; several Nicodemites visited him by night or in secret. There were only two who did themselves honour by publicly declaring their friendship. These were Dr. Auerback, whom we have already met at Augsburg, and Dr. Pistor, junior.
The church leaders weren’t the only ones who showed hostility toward the evangelical doctrine; the people of Leipzig were aligned with their clergy and blindly embraced the falsehoods and animosities that were actively spread. The prominent residents didn’t meet with either Luther or Carlstadt. When they saw them in the streets, they ignored them and tried to sway the duke against them. On the flip side, they regularly hosted the doctor from Ingolstadt, who enjoyed their hospitality and engaged in learned discussions comparing the merits of Saxony and Bavarian beer. His behavior, which was rather relaxed, didn’t suggest a very strict sense of morality.[93] The only thing Luther received was the usual offering of wine for the disputants. Furthermore, even those who supported him were wary of others knowing about it; several Nicodemites visited him at night or in secret. Only two individuals honored themselves by openly declaring their friendship: Dr. Auerback, whom we’ve already encountered in Augsburg, and Dr. Pistor, junior.
The greatest excitement prevailed in the town. The two parties formed, as it were, two hostile camps, and sometimes came to blows. In taverns, frequent quarrels took place between the students of Leipsic and Wittemberg. It was openly averred, even at meetings of the clergy, that Luther carried about with him a devil, confined in a little box. "Whether the devil is in a box, or only under his frock," said Eck, maliciously, "I know not; but most assuredly he is in one or other of them."
The town was buzzing with excitement. The two groups acted like rival camps and sometimes even got into fights. In taverns, students from Leipsic and Wittemberg often argued. It was openly claimed, even at clergy meetings, that Luther had a devil hidden in a small box. "Whether the devil is in a box or just under his robe," Eck said with a smirk, "I can't say; but he's definitely in one of them."
During the discussion several doctors of both parties lodged with the printer Herbipolis; and the dispute ran so high that the host was obliged to station a town-officer at the top of the table with a halbert to keep the peace, and prevent the guests from coming to blows. One day Baumgartner, a vender of indulgences, had a scuffle with a gentleman, a friend of Luther, and fell into such a rage that he dropt down dead. Fröschel, who gives the account, says, "I was one of those who carried him to the grave."[94] The general agitation which prevailed was thus manifested. Then, as now, the discourses of the desk were re-echoed in the drawing-room and in the streets.
During the discussion, several doctors from both sides argued with the printer Herbipolis; and the dispute escalated so much that the host had to place a town officer at the head of the table with a halberd to maintain order and prevent the guests from fighting. One day, Baumgartner, a seller of indulgences, got into a scuffle with a gentleman who was a friend of Luther and became so furious that he collapsed and died. Fröschel, who reported this, says, "I was one of those who carried him to the grave."[94] The widespread agitation at that time was evident. Just like today, the discussions from the platform echoed in the living rooms and on the streets.
Duke George, though very decidedly in favour of Eck, did not betray so much passion as his subjects. He invited Eck, Luther, and Carlstadt to dine together with him. He even asked Luther to pay him a visit in private, but soon showed how strongly he was prejudiced against him. "By your book on the Lord's Prayer," said the duke to him, with bitterness, "you have led many consciences astray. There are persons who complain of not having been able to say one pater for more than four days."
Duke George, while clearly supporting Eck, didn't show as much passion as his subjects. He invited Eck, Luther, and Carlstadt to share a meal with him. He even asked Luther to come see him privately but quickly revealed his strong bias against him. "With your book on the Lord's Prayer," the duke said to him bitterly, "you've misled many people. There are those who say they haven't been able to say one pater for over four days."
CHAP. V.
Hierarchy and Rationalism—Two Peasants' Sons—Eck and Luther begin—The head of the Church—The primacy of Rome—Equality of Bishops—Peter the Foundation—Christ the Foundation—Eck insinuates that Luther is a Hussite—Luther on the doctrine of Huss—Agitation in the audience—Pleasantry of Dr. Eck—The Word alone—The Court Fool—Luther at Mass—Saying of the Duke—Purgatory—Close of the Discussion.
Hierarchy and Rationalism—Two Peasants' Sons—Eck and Luther begin—The head of the Church—The authority of Rome—Equal rank of Bishops—Peter as the base—Christ as the foundation—Eck implies that Luther is a Hussite—Luther's views on Huss's teachings—Tension in the crowd—Dr. Eck's humor—Scripture alone—The Court Jester—Luther during the Mass—The Duke's comment—Purgatory—Conclusion of the Discussion.
On the 4th of July the debate between Eck and Luther commenced. Every thing announced that it would be keener, more decisive, and more interesting than that which had just been concluded, and during which the audience had gradually thinned away. The two antagonists descended into the arena, resolved not to lay down their arms till victory should declare in favour of one of them. All were in eager expectation, for the subject to be debated was the primacy of the pope. Christianity has two great adversaries: hierarchism and rationalism. Rationalism, as applied to the doctrine of man's natural powers, had been attacked by the Reformation in the former branch of the Leipsic discussion. Hierarchism, viewed with reference to what is at once its apex, and its base, viz., the doctrine of the pope, was now to be considered. On the one side appeared Eck boasting of the debates in which he had been engaged, as a general boasts of his battles.[95] On the other side stood Luther, to whom the contest seemed to promise only persecution and obloquy, but who came forward with a good conscience, a firm resolution to sacrifice everything for the cause of truth, and a confident expectation founded on faith in God and the deliverance which he affords. New convictions had sunk deep into his mind; as yet they were not arranged into a system, but in the heat of debate they flashed forth like lightning. Grave and intrepid, he manifested a decision which set all trammels at defiance. His features bore marks of the storms which had raged within his soul, and of the courage with which he was prepared to face new tempests. Two peasants' sons, representatives of the two systems which still divide Christendom, were on the eve of a contest, the issue of which would go far to decide the future destiny of the State and the Church.
On July 4th, the debate between Eck and Luther began. Everything indicated that it would be sharper, more decisive, and more engaging than the previous discussion, during which the audience had gradually thinned out. The two opponents stepped into the arena, determined not to back down until one emerged victorious. Everyone was eagerly anticipating the debate, as the topic to be discussed was the primacy of the pope. Christianity faces two major challenges: hierarchism and rationalism. Rationalism, particularly regarding man's natural abilities, had already been challenged by the Reformation in the earlier part of the Leipzig debate. Now, hierarchism, focused on both its peak and foundation—the doctrine of the pope—was about to be examined. On one side was Eck, proudly highlighting his past debates as a general would boast about his battles. On the other side stood Luther, who saw the contest as likely leading only to persecution and disgrace but approached it with a clear conscience, a strong resolve to sacrifice everything for the truth, and a confident hope based on his faith in God and the deliverance He provides. New beliefs had deeply taken root in his mind; while they weren’t yet organized into a system, during the debate, they burst forth like lightning. Serious and fearless, he showed a determination that defied all constraints. His face showed the marks of the internal struggles he had faced and the bravery with which he was ready to confront new challenges. Two sons of peasants, representing the two systems that still divide Christianity, were on the verge of a contest that would significantly influence the future of both the State and the Church.
At seven in the morning the two antagonists were in their desks, in the midst of a numerous and attentive assembly.
At seven in the morning, the two rivals were at their desks, surrounded by a large and focused audience.
Luther rose and, in the exercise of a necessary precaution, modestly said:—
Luther stood up and, as a necessary precaution, said modestly:—
"In the name of the Lord! Amen. I declare, that the respect which I feel for the Sovereign Pontiff would have disposed me to avoid this discussion had the excellent Dr. Eck left me any alternative."
"In the name of the Lord! Amen. I declare that my respect for the Sovereign Pontiff would have led me to avoid this discussion if the esteemed Dr. Eck had left me any other choice."
Eck.—"In thy name, dear Jesus! before I descend into the arena I protest in your presence, mighty lords, that whatever I shall say is under correction of the first of all sees, and the master who occupies it."
Eck.—"In your name, dear Jesus! Before I enter the arena, I declare in front of you, powerful lords, that everything I say is subject to the authority of the highest office and the leader who holds it."
After a momentary pause, Eck continued—"There is in the church of God a primacy derived from Jesus Christ himself. The church militant is an image of the church triumphant. But the latter is a monarchical hierarchy, rising step by step up to the sole head, who is God, and, accordingly, Christ has established the same gradation upon earth. What kind of monster should the Church be if she were without a head!"[96]...
After a brief pause, Eck continued, “In the church of God, there is a leadership that comes directly from Jesus Christ himself. The church on earth reflects the victorious church in heaven. However, the latter is structured as a monarchy, ascending step by step to the one true head, who is God. Therefore, Christ has set up the same hierarchy here on earth. What kind of monster would the Church be if it had no head?”[96]...
Luther, (turning towards the audience).—"The doctor is correct in saying that the universal Church must have a head. If there is any one here who maintains the contrary, let him stand up? the remark does not at all apply to me."
Luther, (turning towards the audience).—"The doctor is right in saying that the universal Church needs a leader. If anyone here disagrees, they should stand up. That comment doesn’t apply to me at all."
Eck.—"If the Church militant has never been without a monarch, I should like to know who that monarch is, if he is not the pontiff of Rome?"
Eck.—"If the Church on earth has always had a leader, I want to know who that leader is if it's not the Pope of Rome?"
Luther.—"The head of the Church militant is not a man, but Jesus Christ himself. This I believe on the testimony of God." "Christ," says the Scripture, "must reign until he has put ALL HIS ENEMIES under his feet."[97] "We cannot therefore listen to those who would confine Christ to the Church triumphant in heaven. His reign is a reign of faith. We cannot see our Head, and yet we have him."[98]
Luther.—"The leader of the Church fighting on Earth isn't a person, but Jesus Christ himself. I believe this based on God's word." "Christ," the Scripture says, "must rule until he has placed ALL HIS ENEMIES under his feet."[97] "Therefore, we can't listen to those who want to limit Christ to the Church victorious in heaven. His reign is a reign of faith. We can't see our Head, but we still have him."[98]
Eck, not admitting that he was beaten, had recourse to other arguments, and resumed, "According to St. Cyprian, sacerdotal unity is derived from Rome."[99]
Eck, refusing to accept that he had lost, turned to other arguments and continued, "As St. Cyprian said, priestly unity comes from Rome."[99]
Luther.—"Granted in regard to the Western Church. But is not the Church of Rome herself a descendant of the Church of Jerusalem, which is properly the mother and nurse of all the churches?"[100]
Luther.—"Sure, in relation to the Western Church. But isn’t the Church of Rome itself a descendant of the Church of Jerusalem, which is truly the mother and caretaker of all the churches?"[100]
Eck.—"St. Jerome declares, that unless an extraordinary power, superior to all other powers, is given to the pope, churches will have as many schisms as pontiffs."[101]
Eck.—"St. Jerome states that unless an extraordinary power, greater than all other powers, is granted to the pope, there will be as many schisms in the churches as there are popes."[101]
Luther.—"Granted, that is to say, this power might, by human authority, be attributed to the Roman pontiff, provided all the faithful consent to it.[102] And, in like manner, I, for my part, deny not that if all the faithful throughout the world were to concur in acknowledging the bishop, either of Rome, or of Paris, or of Magdeburg, as prime and sovereign pontiff, it would be necessary to acknowledge him as such in deference to this universal consent of the Church. The thing, however, never has been, and never will be seen. Even in our own day does not the Greek Church refuse her assent to Rome?"
Luther.—"Granted, this power could be given to the Roman pope by human authority, as long as all the faithful agree to it.[102] Similarly, I acknowledge that if all the believers worldwide were to accept the bishop, whether from Rome, Paris, or Magdeburg, as the leading and sovereign pope, it would be necessary to recognize him as such because of this universal agreement of the Church. However, this has never happened and will never happen. Even today, doesn’t the Greek Church refuse to accept Rome?"
At this period Luther was quite ready to acknowledge the pope as first magistrate of the Church, elected by her own free choice; but he denied that he was of divine institution. At a later period he denied that subjection was due to him in any respect, and this denial he owed to the discussion at Leipsic. Eck had come upon ground which he did not know so thoroughly as Luther. The latter, it is true, could not maintain his thesis, that the papacy had not been in existence for more than four centuries. Eck quoted authorities of an earlier date, and these Luther was unable to obviate, criticism not having yet attacked the spurious decretals. But the nearer the discussion was brought to primitive times, the more Luther's strength increased. Eck appealed to the Fathers. Luther quoted the Fathers in reply, and all the hearers were struck with his superiority to his rival.
At this time, Luther was willing to recognize the pope as the primary leader of the Church, chosen by its own free will; however, he rejected the idea that this position was divinely established. Later on, he denied any obligation to submit to him at all, a stance influenced by the debate at Leipzig. Eck ventured into areas he wasn't as familiar with as Luther. Although Luther couldn't uphold his argument that the papacy had existed for only four centuries, as Eck referenced sources that were older, which Luther couldn't counter since criticism hadn't yet targeted the false decretals. However, as the discussion moved closer to early Church times, Luther's confidence grew. Eck cited the Church Fathers, and Luther responded by referencing them too, impressing the audience with his superiority over his opponent.
"That my exposition," said he, "is that of St. Jerome, I prove by St. Jerome's own Epistle to Evagrius, in which he says, 'Every bishop, whether at Rome, or Eugubium, or Constantinople, or Rhegium, or Alexandria, or Tanis, has the same merit, and the same priesthood.'[103] The power of riches, and the humiliation of poverty, constitute the only precedence or inferiority among bishops."
"That's my explanation," he said, "and I can back it up with St. Jerome's own letter to Evagrius, where he states, 'Every bishop, whether in Rome, Eugubium, Constantinople, Rhegium, Alexandria, or Tanis, has the same merit and the same priesthood.'[103] The wealth of riches and the shame of poverty are the only factors that create a hierarchy or inferiority among bishops."
From the writings of the Fathers, Luther passed to the decrees of Councils which regard the bishop of Rome as only a first among equals.[104]
From the writings of the Church Fathers, Luther moved on to the decrees of Councils that view the bishop of Rome as just one among equals.[104]
"We read," says he, "in the decree of the Council of Africa," "The bishop of the first see must not be called either prince of the the pontiffs, or sovereign pontiff, or any other similar name, but only bishop of the first see. Were the supremacy of the bishop of Rome of divine institution, would not these words be heretical?"
"We read," he says, "in the decree of the Council of Africa, 'The bishop of the first see must not be called either prince of the pontiffs, or sovereign pontiff, or any other similar name, but only bishop of the first see. If the supremacy of the bishop of Rome were of divine institution, wouldn’t these words be heretical?'"
Eck replied by one of those subtile distinctions which were so familiar to him.
Eck responded with one of those subtle distinctions that he was so well-known for.
"The bishop of Rome, if you will so have it, is not universal bishop, but bishop of the universal church."[105]
"The bishop of Rome, if you want to put it that way, is not the universal bishop, but the bishop of the universal church."[105]
Luther.—"I am quite willing to leave this reply unanswered: let our hearers judge for themselves."
Luther.—"I'm totally fine with leaving this reply unanswered: let our listeners decide for themselves."
"Assuredly," said he, afterwards, "the gloss is worthy of a theologian, and well fitted to satisfy a disputant thirsting for glory. My expensive sojourn in Leipsic has not been for nothing, since I have learned that the pope, though not indeed the universal bishop, is the bishop of the universal church."[106].
"Definitely," he said later, "the commentary is worthy of a theologian and perfectly designed to satisfy a debater seeking fame. My costly stay in Leipzig hasn't been in vain, since I've learned that the pope, while not exactly the universal bishop, is the bishop of the universal church." [106].
Eck.—"Very well, I come to the essential point. The venerable doctor calls upon me to prove that the primacy of the church of Rome is of divine institution—I prove it by these words of Christ: 'Thou art Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church.' St. Augustine, in one of his epistles, has thus expounded the passage, 'Thou art Peter, and upon this rock, that is to say, on this Peter, I will build my Church.' It is true, Augustine has elsewhere said that, by this rock must be understood Christ himself, but he never retracted his former exposition."
Eck.—"Alright, let’s get to the main point. The respected doctor asks me to prove that the authority of the church of Rome is established by God—I prove it with these words from Christ: 'You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church.' St. Augustine, in one of his letters, explained this passage as, 'You are Peter, and upon this rock, meaning this Peter, I will build my Church.' It's true that Augustine said elsewhere that this rock refers to Christ himself, but he never took back his earlier interpretation."
Luther.—"If the reverend doctor would attack me, he should first reconcile these contrary statements of Augustine. It is undeniable that St. Augustine has again and again said that the rock was Christ, and he may perhaps have once said that it was Peter himself. But even should St. Augustine and all the Fathers say that the apostle is the rock of which Christ speaks, I would combat their view on the authority of an apostle, in other words, divine authority;[107] for it is written, 'No other foundation can any man lay than that is laid, namely, Jesus Christ.'[108] Peter himself calls Christ, 'the chief and corner stone on which we are built up a spiritual house.'"[109]
Luther.—"If the respected doctor wants to challenge me, he should first resolve these conflicting statements from Augustine. It’s clear that St. Augustine has repeatedly stated that the rock is Christ, and he may have mentioned at some point that it was Peter himself. But even if St. Augustine and all the Church Fathers claim that the apostle is the rock that Christ refers to, I would oppose their interpretation based on the authority of an apostle, meaning divine authority;[107] because it is written, 'No one can lay a foundation other than the one already laid, which is Jesus Christ.'[108] Peter himself refers to Christ as 'the chief cornerstone on which we are being built into a spiritual house.'"[109]
Eck.—"I am astonished at the humility and modesty with which the reverend doctor undertakes single-handed to combat so many distinguished Fathers, and to know better than sovereign pontiffs, councils, doctors, and universities.... It would, certainly, be astonishing that God should have concealed the truth from so many saints and martyrs ... and not revealed it until the advent of the reverend father!"
Eck.—"I'm amazed at the humility and modesty with which the reverend doctor takes on so many distinguished Fathers all by himself and claims to know better than popes, councils, scholars, and universities.... It would definitely be surprising if God had kept the truth hidden from so many saints and martyrs ... and only revealed it with the coming of the reverend father!"
Luther.—"The Fathers are not against me. The distinguished doctors, St. Augustine, and St. Ambrose, speak as I do. 'Super isto articulo fidei, fundata est ecclesia,'[110] says St. Ambrose, when explaining what must be understood by the rock on which the church is built. Let my opponent then bridle his tongue. To express himself as he does is to stir up strife, not to discuss like a true doctor."
Luther.—"The Church Fathers are not against me. The respected scholars, St. Augustine and St. Ambrose, agree with my perspective. 'Super isto articulo fidei, fundata est ecclesia,'[110] says St. Ambrose while explaining what is meant by the rock on which the church is built. So let my opponent hold his tongue. His way of speaking creates conflict, rather than engaging in a true scholarly discussion."
Eck had not expected that his opponent would possess so much knowledge of the subject, and be able to disentangle himself from the labyrinth in which he tried to bewilder him. "The reverend doctor," said he, "has entered the lists after carefully studying his subject. Your highnesses will excuse me for not presenting them with such exact researches. I came to debate and not to make a book." Eck was astonished, but not beaten. Having no more arguments to give, he had recourse to a mean and despicable artifice, which, if it did not vanquish his opponent, would at least subject him to great embarrassment. If the charge of being a Bohemian, a heretic, a Hussite fastens upon Luther, he is vanquished, for the Bohemians were detested in the Church. The scene of discussion was not far from the frontiers of Bohemia. Saxony, which, immediately after the condemnation of John Huss by the Council of Constance, had been subjected to all the horrors of a long and ruinous war, was proud of the resistance which she had then given to the Hussites. The university of Leipsic had been founded to oppose their tenets, and the discussion was in presence of nobles, princes, and citizens, whose fathers had fallen in that celebrated struggle. To make out that Luther was at one with Huss was almost like giving him the finishing blow, and this was the stratagem to which the doctor of Ingolstadt had recourse. "From primitive times downwards," says he, "it was acknowledged by all good Christians, that the Church of Rome holds its primacy of Jesus Christ himself and not of man. I must confess, however, that the Bohemians, while obstinately defending their errors, attacked this doctrine. The venerable father must pardon me if I am an enemy of the Bohemians, because they are the enemies of the Church, and if the present discussion has reminded me of these heretics; for, ... according to my weak judgment, ... the conclusions to which the doctor has come are all in favour of their errors. It is even affirmed that the Hussites loudly boast of this."[111]
Eck hadn't anticipated that his opponent would know so much about the topic and be able to navigate the tricky arguments he tried to throw him off with. "The reverend doctor," he said, "has entered this debate after thoroughly studying his subject. Your highnesses will forgive me for not providing such detailed research. I'm here to discuss, not to write a book." Eck was shocked, but he wasn't defeated. With no more arguments left, he resorted to a low and underhanded tactic, which, while it might not win him the debate, would at least put his opponent in a tough spot. If Luther could be labeled a Bohemian, heretic, or Hussite, he would be defeated because the Church loathed the Bohemians. The discussion took place near the borders of Bohemia. Saxony, which had suffered through a long and devastating war right after John Huss was condemned by the Council of Constance, prided itself on the resistance it had shown against the Hussites. The University of Leipzig had been established to counter their beliefs, and the discussion was held in front of nobles, princes, and citizens whose fathers had died in that famous conflict. Claiming that Luther aligned with Huss was almost like delivering the final blow, and this was the trick that the doctor of Ingolstadt decided to use. "From ancient times onwards," he stated, "it has been recognized by all good Christians that the Church of Rome derives its authority from Jesus Christ himself, not from man. I must admit, though, that the Bohemians, while stubbornly defending their misguided beliefs, have challenged this doctrine. The esteemed father must forgive me for being against the Bohemians since they are enemies of the Church, and if this discussion has reminded me of these heretics; for... according to my limited judgment... the conclusions the doctor has reached support their errors. It's even claimed that the Hussites are boasting about this." [111]
Eck had calculated well. All his partizans received the insinuation with acclamation, and an expression of applause was general throughout the audience. "These slanders," said the Reformer at a later period, "tickled their fancy much more agreeably than the discussion itself."
Eck had done his math right. All his supporters welcomed the suggestion with enthusiasm, and there was widespread applause in the crowd. "These slanders," said the Reformer later on, "entertained them far more than the actual discussion."
Luther.—"I love not a schism and I never shall. Since the Bohemians, of their own authority, separate from our unity, they do wrong even were divine authority decisive in favour of their doctrine; for at the head of all divine authority is charity and the unity of the Spirit."[112]
Luther.—"I don’t support division and I never will. Since the Bohemians, on their own initiative, separate from our unity, they are wrong even if divine authority strongly supports their beliefs; for at the core of all divine authority is love and the unity of the Spirit."[112]
It was at the morning sitting, on the 5th July, that Luther thus expressed himself. Shortly after, the meeting adjourned for dinner. Luther felt uneasy. Had he not gone too far in thus condemning the Christians of Bohemia? Have they not maintained the doctrine which Luther is maintaining at this hour? He sees all the difficulty of the step before him. Will he declare against the Council which condemned John Huss, or will he abjure the grand idea of an universal Christian Church, an idea deeply imprinted on his mind? Resolute Luther hesitated not. "I must do my duty come what may." Accordingly, when the assembly again met at two o'clock, he rose and said firmly:—
It was during the morning session on July 5th that Luther expressed his thoughts. Shortly after, the meeting broke for lunch. Luther felt uneasy. Had he gone too far in condemning the Christians of Bohemia? Had they not upheld the same doctrine that Luther was defending at that moment? He understood the difficulty of the decision ahead. Would he oppose the Council that condemned John Huss, or would he renounce the profound idea of a universal Christian Church, a concept that was deeply ingrained in his mind? Determined, Luther did not hesitate. "I must do my duty, no matter the consequences." So, when the assembly reconvened at two o'clock, he stood up and said firmly:—
"Certain of the tenets of John Huss and the Bohemians are perfectly orthodox. This much is certain. For instance, 'That there is only one universal church,' and again, 'That it is not necessary to salvation to believe the Roman Church superior to others.' Whether Wickliffe or Huss has said so I care not.... It is the truth."
"Some of the beliefs of John Huss and the Bohemians are completely mainstream. This is clear. For example, 'There is only one universal church,' and also, 'It is not necessary for salvation to believe that the Roman Church is superior to others.' I don’t care whether Wickliffe or Huss said it… It’s the truth."
This declaration of Luther produced an immense sensation in the audience. The abhorred names of Huss and Wickliffe pronounced with eulogium by a monk in the heart of a Catholic assembly!... A general murmur was heard. Duke George himself felt as much alarmed, as if he had actually seen the standard of civil war, which had so long desolated the states of his maternal ancestors, unfurled in Saxony. Unable to conceal his emotion, he struck his thigh, shook his head, and exclaimed, loud enough to be heard by the whole assembly, "The man is mad!"[113] The whole audience was extremely excited. They rose to their feet, and every one kept talking to his neighbour. Those who had fallen asleep, awoke. Luther's opponents expressed their exultation, while his friends were greatly embarrassed. Several persons, who till then had listened to him with pleasure, began to doubt his orthodoxy. The impression produced upon the mind of the duke by this declaration was never effaced; from this moment he looked upon the Reformer with an unfavourable eye, and became his enemy.[114]
This declaration from Luther caused a huge reaction in the audience. The hated names of Huss and Wycliffe praised by a monk right in the middle of a Catholic assembly!... A general murmur arose. Duke George himself felt as alarmed as if he had actually seen the banner of civil war, which had long ravaged the lands of his maternal ancestors, raised in Saxony. Unable to hide his feelings, he struck his thigh, shook his head, and exclaimed loud enough for everyone to hear, "The man is mad!"[113] The entire audience was extremely stirred up. They stood up, and everyone started talking to their neighbor. Those who had fallen asleep woke up. Luther's opponents expressed their delight, while his supporters felt very uncomfortable. Several people who had been enjoying his speech began to question his orthodoxy. The impact of this declaration on the duke's mind was never forgotten; from this moment on, he viewed the Reformer unfavorably and became his enemy.[114]
Luther was not intimidated by this explosion of disapprobation One of his leading arguments was, that the Greeks had never recognised the pope, and yet had never been declared heretics; that the Greek Church had subsisted, was subsisting, and would subsist without the pope, and was a Church of Christ as much as the Church of Rome. Eck, on the contrary, boldly affirmed that the Christian Church and the Roman Church were one and the same; that the Greeks and Orientals, by abandoning the Church, had also abandoned Christian faith, and unquestionably were heretics. "What!" exclaimed Luther, "Are not Gregory of Nanzianzen, Basil the Great, Epiphanius, Chrysostom, and an immense number of other Greek bishops in bliss? and yet they did not believe that the Church of Rome was superior to other churches!... It is not in the power of the pontiff of Rome to make new articles of faith. The Christian believer has no other authority than the Holy Scriptures—they alone constitute divine law. I pray the illustrious doctor to admit that the pontiffs of Rome were men, and have the goodness not to make gods of them."[115]
Luther wasn’t fazed by this outburst of disapproval. One of his main arguments was that the Greeks had never acknowledged the pope and yet hadn’t been labeled heretics; that the Greek Church had existed, currently existed, and would continue to exist without the pope, and was just as much a Church of Christ as the Church of Rome. Eck, on the other hand, confidently claimed that the Christian Church and the Roman Church were one and the same; that the Greeks and Orientals, by leaving the Church, had also abandoned the Christian faith, and were definitely heretics. "What!" Luther exclaimed, "Aren’t Gregory of Nazianzen, Basil the Great, Epiphanius, Chrysostom, and countless other Greek bishops in heaven? And yet they didn’t believe that the Church of Rome was superior to other churches!... It’s not the role of the pope in Rome to create new articles of faith. The Christian believer has no authority other than the Holy Scriptures—they alone are divine law. I urge the esteemed doctor to recognize that the popes of Rome were human, and to please refrain from turning them into gods."[115]
Eck had recourse to one of those witticisms which at small cost give a little air of triumph to the person employing them.
Eck resorted to one of those clever remarks that, with minimal effort, give a sense of victory to the one using them.
"The reverend father," says he, "not being well versed in the culinary art, makes an odd mixture of Greek saints and heretics, so that the perfume of holiness in the one disguises the poison in the other."[116]
"The reverend father," he says, "not really skilled in cooking, makes a strange blend of Greek saints and heretics, so that the scent of holiness in one hides the poison in the other."[116]
Luther—(hastily interrupting Eck.)—"The worthy doctor is impertinent. I do not hold that there is any communion between Christ and Belial."
Luther—(quickly cutting in on Eck)—"The esteemed doctor is being rude. I don’t believe there’s any connection between Christ and Belial."
Luther had taken a large step in advance. In 1516, and 1517, he had only attacked the discourses of the venders of indulgences, and had respected the decrees of the popes. At a later period he had rejected these decrees, but had appealed from them to a council. Now he had discarded this last authority also, declaring that no council can establish a new article of faith, or claim to be infallible. Thus all human authorities had successively fallen before him. The sand brought along by the rain and the floods had disappeared; and now, for building up the ruins of the Lord's house, there remained only the eternal rock of the Word of God. "Venerable father!" said Eck to him, "if you believe that a council, lawfully assembled, can err, you are to me only a heathen man and a publican."
Luther had made significant progress. In 1516 and 1517, he had only criticized the talks of those selling indulgences and had respected the decrees of the popes. Later on, he rejected these decrees but appealed to a council instead. Now, he had dismissed that authority as well, stating that no council can establish a new article of faith or claim to be infallible. Thus, all human authorities had gradually fallen away before him. The sand brought by the rain and floods had vanished, leaving only the eternal rock of the Word of God to rebuild the ruins of the Lord's house. "Venerable father!" Eck said to him, "if you believe that a properly assembled council can make errors, then to me, you're just a heathen and a tax collector."
Such were the discussions between the two doctors. The audience were attentive but occasionally began to flag, and hence were pleased with any incident which enlivened the scene and gave them a momentary relaxation. The gravest matters have their comic interludes; and so it was at Leipsic.
Such were the discussions between the two doctors. The audience was attentive but occasionally started to lose interest, so they appreciated any incident that lightened the mood and gave them a brief break. Even the most serious topics have their funny moments; and so it was at Leipsic.
Duke George, according to the custom of the time, had a court fool, to whom some wags said, "Luther maintains that a court fool may marry. Eck maintains the contrary." On this the fool took a great dislike to Eck, and, every time he came into the hall with the servants of Duke George, eyed the theologian with a menacing air. The chancellor of Ingolstadt, not disdaining to descend to pleasantry, one day shut one eye, (the fool was blind of one,) and with the other began to squint at the poor creature, who, in a perfect rage, let fly a volley of abuse. "The whole assembly," says Peiffer, "burst into laughter." This amusing incident somewhat relieved their minds from the stretch on which they had been kept.[117]
Duke George, like many during that era, had a court jester, who some jokesters remarked, "Luther says a court jester can marry. Eck says the opposite." Because of this, the jester developed a strong dislike for Eck and, every time he entered the hall with Duke George's servants, he glared at the theologian with a threatening expression. The chancellor of Ingolstadt, not above participating in some fun, one day closed one eye (since the jester was blind in one) and began to squint at the poor fellow with the other, which sent the jester into a fit of rage, unleashing a stream of insults. "The whole assembly," says Peiffer, "burst into laughter." This funny incident provided a bit of relief from the tension they had been under. [117]
At the same time, both in the town and in the churches scenes occurred which showed how much the partisans of Rome were horrified at Luther's bold assertions. An outcry was raised against him, especially in the convents attached to the pope.
At the same time, both in the town and in the churches, scenes unfolded that revealed how shocked the supporters of Rome were by Luther's bold statements. There was an uproar against him, particularly in the convents associated with the pope.
Luther had one day walked into the church of the Dominicans, before high mass. The only persons present were some monks, saying low mass at the side altars. No sooner was it told in the cloister that the heretic Luther was in the church than the monks came down in all haste, laid hold of the ostensorium, and carrying it into the tabernacle shut it up, carefully watching it, lest the holy sacrament should be profaned by the heretical eye of the Augustin of Wittemberg. At the same time, those who were saying mass hastily gathered up their articles, quitted the altar, ran across the church, and took refuge in the sacristy, "just," says a historian, "as if the devil had been at their heels."
Luther once walked into the Dominican church before the high mass began. The only people there were a few monks saying low mass at the side altars. As soon as it was announced in the cloister that the heretic Luther was in the church, the monks hurried down, grabbed the ostensorium, and put it into the tabernacle, keeping a close watch on it to prevent the holy sacrament from being tainted by the heretical gaze of the Augustinian from Wittenberg. Meanwhile, those who were saying mass quickly gathered their things, left the altar, rushed across the church, and sought refuge in the sacristy, "just," as one historian puts it, "as if the devil had been chasing them."
The discussion became the general subject of conversation. In the inns, at the university, and the court, every one gave his opinion. Duke George, whatever his irritation may have been, did not obstinately shut his ears against conviction. One day, when Eck and Luther were dining with him, he interrupted their conversation, saying, "Let the pope be pope, whether by divine or human law; at all events he is pope."[118] Luther was much pleased with the expression. "The prince," says he, "never would have uttered it, if my arguments had not made some impression on him."
The discussion became the main topic everywhere. In the inns, at the university, and in court, everyone shared their thoughts. Duke George, despite his frustration, didn’t completely ignore the truth. One day, while Eck and Luther were having dinner with him, he interrupted their conversation, saying, "Let the pope be pope, whether by divine or human law; either way, he is still the pope." Luther was very pleased with this statement. "The prince," he said, "would never have said that if my arguments hadn’t made some impact on him."
The discussion on the primacy of the pope had lasted during five days. On the 8th of July, the doctrine of purgatory was discussed, and occupied two days. Luther was still a believer in the existence of purgatory; but he denied that the doctrine, as held by the schoolmen and his opponent, was taught either in the Scriptures or by the Fathers. "Our Doctor Eck," said he, referring to the superficial knowledge of his opponent, "has to-day run over the Holy Scriptures almost without touching them, just as an insect skims the water."
The debate about the pope's authority went on for five days. On July 8th, they talked about the doctrine of purgatory, which took two days. Luther still believed in purgatory's existence, but he argued that the way it was taught by the intellectuals and his opponent wasn't found in the Scriptures or the writings of the Church Fathers. "Our Doctor Eck," he said, pointing out his opponent's shallow understanding, "has just skimmed through the Holy Scriptures today, like an insect gliding over the water."
On the 11th July indulgences were discussed. "It was mere sport and burlesque," says Luther. "Indulgences gave way at once, and Eck was almost entirely of my opinion."[119] Eck himself said, "Had I not disputed with Doctor Martin on the primacy of the pope, I could almost agree with him."[120]
On July 11th, they talked about indulgences. "It was just a joke and a mockery," says Luther. "Indulgences quickly lost their appeal, and Eck mostly agreed with me." [119] Eck himself said, "If I hadn't argued with Doctor Martin about the pope's authority, I could almost see eye to eye with him." [120]
The discussion afterwards turned on repentance, absolution by the priest, and satisfactions. Eck, as usual, quoted the schoolmen, the dominicans, and the canons of the pope. Luther closed the discussion with these words:—
The conversation afterward focused on repentance, forgiveness from the priest, and atonement. Eck, as usual, referenced the scholars, the Dominicans, and the pope's canons. Luther ended the discussion with these words:—
"The reverend doctor flees before the Holy Scriptures, as the devil does before the cross. For my part, with all due deference to the Fathers, I prefer the authority of Scripture, and recommend it to our judges."[121]
"The reverend doctor runs away from the Holy Scriptures just like the devil runs away from the cross. For my part, with all due respect to the Fathers, I prefer the authority of Scripture and suggest it to our judges."[121]
This closed the debate between Eck and Luther, but Carlstadt and the doctor of Ingolstadt continued for two days longer to discuss the subject of human merit and good works. On the 16th July, the whole proceeding, after having lasted twenty days, was closed by a discourse from the rector of Leipsic. The moment the discourse was finished, thrilling music burst forth, and the whole concluded with the Te Deum.
This ended the debate between Eck and Luther, but Carlstadt and the doctor from Ingolstadt kept discussing the topic of human merit and good works for two more days. On July 16th, the entire process, which had lasted twenty days, was wrapped up with a speech from the rector of Leipzig. As soon as the speech concluded, exciting music erupted, and everything ended with the Te Deum.
But, during this solemn chant, the feelings of the audience no longer were what they had been during the Veni Spiritus. The presentiments which several persons had expressed seemed to be actually realised. The blows struck by the champions of the two systems had made a large wound in the papacy.
But during this serious chant, the feelings of the audience were no longer what they had been during the Veni Spiritus. The premonitions that several people had shared seemed to actually come true. The attacks from the champions of the two systems had made a significant impact on the papacy.
CHAP. VI.
Interest felt by the Laity—Luther's Opinion—Admissions and Boastings of Dr. Eck—Effects of the Discussion—Poliander—Cellarius—The Young Prince of Anhalt—The Students of Leipsic—Cruciger—Calling of Melancthon—Emancipation of Luther.
Interest from the general public—Luther's perspective—Dr. Eck's admissions and assertions—Effects of the debate—Poliander—Cellarius—The young prince of Anhalt—Leipsic students—Cruciger—Reaching out to Melancthon—Luther's independence.
These theological discussions, to which the worldly-minded of the present day would not devote a few short moments, had been attended and listened to with eagerness, during twenty days—laymen, knights, and princes, taking a deep interest in them to the last. Duke Barnim, and Duke George, seemed particularly attentive, whereas some of the theologians of Leipsic, friends of Dr. Eck, slept, as an eye-witness expresses it, "quite soundly." It was even necessary to awake them on the adjournments, that they might not lose their dinner.
These theological discussions, which today’s more secular-minded people wouldn't spend even a moment on, were eagerly attended and listened to for twenty days—laypeople, knights, and princes all showed great interest until the end. Duke Barnim and Duke George seemed especially attentive, while some of the theologians from Leipzig, who were friends of Dr. Eck, slept, as one eyewitness described it, "quite soundly." They even had to be awakened during breaks so they wouldn’t miss their dinner.
Luther was the first to quit Leipsic, and next Carlstadt. Eck remained several days after they were gone.
Luther was the first to leave Leipsic, followed by Carlstadt. Eck stayed several days after they had left.
No formal decision was given on the points discussed.[122] Every one spoke as he thought. "There was at Leipsic," says Luther, "loss of time, and no investigation of truth. During the two years in which we have been examining the doctrines of our opponents, we have counted all their bones. Eck, on the contrary, has hardly skimmed the surface;[123] but he cried more in one hour than we did in two long years."
No formal decision was made on the topics discussed.[122] Everyone shared their thoughts. "At Leipsic," Luther says, "we wasted time and didn’t really investigate the truth. Over the two years that we've been examining our opponents' doctrines, we've thoroughly analyzed everything. Eck, on the other hand, has barely scratched the surface;[123] but he made more noise in one hour than we did in two long years."
Eck, when writing privately to his friends, admitted his defeat to a certain extent, though he was at no loss for an explanation. "The Wittembergers," wrote he to Hochstraten on the 24th July,[124] "defeated me on several points—first, because they brought books with them—secondly, because they took down the debate in writing, and examined it at home at their leisure—and thirdly, because they were more numerous. Two doctors, (Carlstadt and Luther,) Lange, vicar of the Augustins, two licentiates, Amsdorff, and a very arrogant nephew of Reuchlin, (Melancthon,) three doctors of law, and several masters of arts, lent their assistance both in public and private, whereas I stood alone, having nothing but a good cause for my companion." Eck forgot Emser, and all the doctors of Leipsic.
Eck, in his private letters to friends, acknowledged his defeat to some extent, although he had no shortage of justifications. "The people from Wittenberg," he wrote to Hochstraten on July 24,[124] "defeated me on several points—first, because they brought books with them—secondly, because they recorded the debate in writing and reviewed it at home at their convenience—and thirdly, because they were more numerous. Two doctors, (Carlstadt and Luther), Lange, the vicar of the Augustinians, two licentiates, Amsdorff, and a very arrogant nephew of Reuchlin, (Melancthon), three doctors of law, and several masters of arts, all contributed both in public and private, while I stood alone, armed only with a good cause for company." Eck overlooked Emser and all the doctors from Leipzig.
Though these concessions escaped Eck in familiar correspondence, he acted otherwise in public. The doctor of Ingolstadt, and the theologians of Leipsic, made a great noise with what they called their victory. They everywhere set false reports in circulation, while all the tongues of the party reiterated their expressions of self-complacency. "Eck goes about triumphing,"[125] wrote Luther. There were disputes, however, in the camp of Rome, in regard to the laurels. "Had we not come to the help of Eck," said the theologians of Leipsic, "the illustrious doctor would have been overthrown." "The theologians of Leipsic," said Eck on his part, "are well enough, but I had hoped too much from them—I did the whole myself." "You see," said Luther to Spalatin, "how they are chanting a new Iliad, and a new Æneid. They are kind enough to make me a Hector or a Turnus, while Eck is their Achilles, or Æneas. Their only doubt is whether the victory was gained by the arms of Eck, or by those of Leipsic. All I can say to throw light on the matter is, that Eck uniformly kept bawling, and the Leipsickers as uniformly held their peace."[126]
Though these concessions went unnoticed by Eck in familiar correspondence, he acted differently in public. The doctor from Ingolstadt and the theologians from Leipsic made a big deal out of what they called their victory. They spread false reports everywhere, while everyone in the party repeated their self-satisfied claims. "Eck is walking around celebrating," [125] wrote Luther. However, there were arguments within the Roman camp about the glory. "If we hadn't supported Eck," said the theologians from Leipsic, "the distinguished doctor would have been defeated." "The theologians from Leipsic," Eck replied, "are okay, but I expected too much from them—I did everything myself." "You see," Luther told Spalatin, "how they are creating a new Iliad and a new Æneid. They’re generous enough to make me a Hector or a Turnus, while Eck is their Achilles or Æneas. Their only question is whether the victory was won by Eck's arms or those of Leipsic. All I can say to clarify things is that Eck kept shouting, and the Leipsickers remained silent."[126]
"Eck," says the elegant, clever, and sagacious Mosellanus "has triumphed in the estimation of those who do not understand the subject, and who have grown old in poring over the schoolmen; but, in the estimation of all men of learning, intellect, and moderation, Luther and Carlstadt are the victors."[127]
"Eck," says the stylish, smart, and wise Mosellanus, "has managed to win the approval of those who don’t really grasp the topic and who have spent too long studying the scholastics; however, among all knowledgeable, intelligent, and reasonable people, Luther and Carlstadt are the true winners."[127]
The Leipsic discussion, however, was not destined to vanish into smoke. Every work which is devoutly performed bears fruit. The words of Luther had penetrated the minds of his hearers with irresistible force. Several of those who had daily thronged the castle hall were subdued by the truth, whose leading conquests were made among her most decided opponents. Even Poliander, the secretary, familiar friend and disciple of Eck, was gained to the Reformation, and began, in 1522, to preach the gospel at Leipsic. John Camerarius, professor of Hebrew, one of the keenest opponents of the Reformation, impressed by the words of the mighty teacher, began to examine the Holy Scriptures more thoroughly; and, shortly after throwing up his situation, came to Wittemberg to study at the feet of Luther. He was afterwards pastor at Frankfort and Dresden.
The Leipsic discussion, however, was not going to fade away. Every action done with devotion bears fruit. Luther's words struck his listeners with undeniable force. Several people who crowded the castle hall every day were moved by the truth, which made significant inroads even among its strongest opponents. Even Poliander, the secretary, close friend, and disciple of Eck, was won over to the Reformation and started preaching the gospel in Leipsic in 1522. John Camerarius, a Hebrew professor and one of the fiercest critics of the Reformation, was so impressed by the powerful teacher's words that he began to study the Holy Scriptures more deeply; shortly after, he quit his position and went to Wittenberg to learn from Luther. He later became a pastor in Frankfurt and Dresden.
Among those who had taken their place on the seats reserved for the Court, and accompanied Duke George, was George of Anhalt, a young prince, twelve years of age, of a family which had distinguished itself in the wars against the Saracens. At this time he was studying at Leipsic with his tutor. Great ardour for science, and a strong attachment to truth, had already become the characteristics of the illustrious young prince. He was often heard to repeat the words of Solomon, falsehood ill becomes a prince. The Leipsic discussion inspired this child with serious reflection, and with a decided leaning to Luther.[128] Some time after a bishopric was offered to him. His brother, and all his family, with the view of raising him to high honour in the Church, urged him to accept it, but he resolutely declined. His pious mother, who was secretly favourable to Luther, having died, he became possessed of all the Reformer's writings. He was constant and fervent in prayer to God, to incline his heart to the truth; and, often in the solitude of his chamber, exclaimed, with tears, "Deal mercifully with thy servant, and teach me thy statutes."[129] His prayers were heard. Carried forward by his convictions, he fearlessly joined the ranks of the friends of the gospel. In vain did his guardians, and particularly Duke George, besiege him with entreaties and remonstrances. He remained inflexible, and the Duke, half convinced by his pupil's reasons, exclaimed, "I cannot answer him; still, however, I will keep by my Church—I am too old a dog to be trained." We will afterwards see in this amiable prince one of the finest characters of the Reformation, one who himself preached the word of life to his subjects, and to whom the saying of Dion respecting the emperor Marcus Antoninus, has been applied, "He was through life consistent with himself, he was a good man, a man free from guile."[130]
Among those seated in the designated area for the Court, accompanying Duke George, was George of Anhalt, a twelve-year-old prince from a family known for its valor in battles against the Saracens. At that time, he was studying in Leipzig with his tutor. A strong passion for knowledge and a deep commitment to truth had already become hallmarks of this remarkable young prince. He was frequently heard quoting Solomon, falsehood ill becomes a prince. The discussions in Leipzig sparked serious contemplation in him, and he showed a clear inclination towards Luther.[128] Later, a bishopric was offered to him. His brother and the rest of his family pushed him to accept it, aiming to elevate him within the Church, but he firmly turned it down. After the passing of his devout mother, who secretly supported Luther, he gained access to all of the Reformer's writings. He was dedicated and passionate in prayer to God, asking to guide his heart towards the truth; often in the solitude of his room, he would cry out, "Deal mercifully with thy servant, and teach me thy statutes."[129] His prayers were answered. Driven by his beliefs, he boldly aligned himself with the supporters of the gospel. His guardians, especially Duke George, tried in vain to persuade him with pleas and arguments. He remained steadfast, and the Duke, partially swayed by his pupil's reasoning, declared, "I can't refute him; still, I will stick with my Church—I'm too old to change." We will later see in this admirable prince one of the finest figures of the Reformation, someone who preached the message of life to his people, and to whom the saying of Dion about Emperor Marcus Antoninus has been attributed, "He remained consistent throughout his life, a good man, free from deceit."[130]
But Luther's words met with an enthusiastic reception, especially from the students. They felt the difference between the spirit and life of the doctor of Wittemberg, and the sophistical distinctions, and vain speculations, of the chancellor of Ingolstadt. They saw Luther founding upon the word of God, and they saw Dr. Eck founding only on human traditions. The effect was soon visible. The classes of the university of Leipsic almost emptied after the discussion. One circumstance partly contributed to this. The plague threatened to make its appearance—but there were many other universities—for example, Erfurt, or Ingolstadt, to which the students might have repaired. The force of truth drew them to Wittemberg, where the number of the students was doubled.[131]
But Luther's words were received with great enthusiasm, especially by the students. They recognized the difference between the spirit and life of the doctor from Wittenberg and the confusing distinctions and empty speculations of the chancellor from Ingolstadt. They saw Luther basing his arguments on the word of God, while Dr. Eck relied only on human traditions. The impact was quickly noticeable. The classes at the University of Leipzig nearly emptied after the debate. One factor played a part in this. The plague was threatening to break out—but there were many other universities, like Erfurt or Ingolstadt, that students could have gone to. However, the power of truth drew them to Wittenberg, where the number of students doubled.[131]
Among those who removed from the one university to the other was a youth of sixteen, of a melancholy air, who spoke little, and often amid the conversation and games of his fellow-students seemed absorbed by his own thoughts.[132] His parents at first thought him of weak intellect, but they soon found him so apt to learn, and so completely engrossed by his studies, that they conceived high hopes of him. His integrity, his candour, his modesty, and his piety, made him a general favourite, and Mosellanus singled him out as a model to all the university. He was called Gaspard Cruciger, and was originally from Leipsic. This new student of Wittemberg was afterwards the friend of Melancthon, and the assistant of Luther in the translation of the Bible.
Among those who moved from one university to another was a sixteen-year-old boy with a gloomy demeanor who spoke very little. Often, during conversations and games with his fellow students, he seemed lost in his own thoughts.[132] At first, his parents thought he was not very bright, but they soon realized he was quite quick to learn and completely absorbed in his studies, which gave them high hopes for his future. His integrity, honesty, modesty, and piety made him a favorite among others, and Mosellanus picked him out as a role model for the whole university. His name was Gaspard Cruciger, and he was originally from Leipsic. This new student at Wittenberg eventually became friends with Melancthon and assisted Luther in translating the Bible.
The Leipsic discussion produced results still more important, in as much as the theologian of the Reformation then received his call. Modest and silent, Melancthon had been present at the discussion almost without taking any part in it. Till then his attention had been engrossed by literature, but the discussion gave him a new impulse, and gained him over to theology. Henceforth his science did homage to the word of God. He received the evangelical truth with the simplicity of a child. His audience heard him expound the doctrines of salvation with a grace and clearness by which all were charmed. He boldly advanced in this, which was to him a new career; "for," said he, "Christ will never leave his people."[133] From this moment the two friends walked side by side, contending for liberty and truth, the one with the energy of St. Paul, and the other with the meekness of St. John. Luther has admirably expressed the difference of their calling:—"I was born," said he, "to enter the field of battle, and contend with factions and demons. Hence, my writings breathe war and tempest. I must root up the trunks, remove the thorns and the brambles, and fill up the marshes and pools. I am the sturdy wood-cutter who must clear the passage and level the ground; but master Philip advances calmly and softly; he digs and plants, sows, and waters joyously, in accordance with the gifts which God has, with so liberal a hand, bestowed upon him."[134]
The Leipsic discussion led to even more significant outcomes, especially since it was then that the Reformation theologian received his calling. Modest and quiet, Melanchthon attended the discussion without actively participating. Until that point, he had focused on literature, but the discussion sparked a new motivation in him and drew him towards theology. From then on, his scholarship honored the word of God. He embraced the evangelical truth with the openness of a child. His audience was captivated as he explained the doctrines of salvation with grace and clarity. He confidently embraced this new path, stating, "for," said he, "Christ will never leave his people." [133] From that moment on, the two friends walked together, fighting for liberty and truth, one with the vigor of St. Paul and the other with the gentleness of St. John. Luther expressed their differing callings beautifully: “I was born,” he said, “to enter the battlefield and struggle against factions and demons. Therefore, my writings resonate with war and storms. I must uproot trees, clear out thorns and brambles, and fill in marshes and ponds. I am the tough woodcutter who must create a clear path and level the ground; but Master Philip goes forward softly and peacefully; he digs, plants, sows, and waters joyfully, in accordance with the generous gifts that God has given him.”[134]
If Melancthon, the quiet sower, was called to the work by the discussion of Leipsic, Luther, the hardy wood-cutter, felt his arm strengthened, and his courage still more inflamed by it. The mightiest result of this discussion was produced in Luther himself. "Scholastic theology," said he, "sunk entirely in my estimation, under the triumphant presidency of Dr. Eck." In regard to the reformer, the veil which the School and the Church had hung up in front of the sanctuary was rent from top to bottom. Constrained to engage in new enquiries, he arrived at unexpected discoveries. With equal astonishment and indignation he saw the evil in all its magnitude. While poring over the annals of the Church, he discovered that the supremacy of Rome had no other origin than ambition on the one hand, and credulous ignorance on the other. The narrow point of view under which he had hitherto looked at the Church was succeeded by one both clearer and wider. In the Christians of Greece and the East he recognised true members of the Catholic Church; and, instead of a visible head, seated on the banks of the Tiber, he adored, as sole Head of his people, that invisible and eternal Redeemer, who, according to his promise, is always, and in all parts of the world, in the midst of those who believe in his name. The Latin Church Luther no longer regarded as the universal Church. The narrow barriers of Rome were thrown down; and he shouted for joy when he saw the glorious domain of Jesus Christ stretching far beyond them. Henceforth he felt that he could be a member of the Church of Christ without belonging to the Church of the pope. In particular, the writings of John Huss made a strong impression on him. To his great surprise, he discovered in them the doctrine of St. Paul and St. Augustine, the doctrine to which he had himself arrived, after so many struggles. "I believed," said he, "and, without knowing it, taught all the doctrines of John Huss.[135] So did Staupitz. In short, without suspecting it, we are all Hussites, as are also St. Paul and St. Augustine. I am confounded at it, and know not what to think.... O what dreadful judgments have not men merited from God! Evangelical truth, when unfolded, and published more than a century ago, was condemned, burned, and suppressed.... Woe! Woe to the earth!"
If Melancthon, the quiet sower, was called to the task by the debate at Leipsic, Luther, the tough woodcutter, felt his strength and courage boosted even more by it. The most significant outcome of this debate happened within Luther himself. “Scholastic theology,” he said, “fell completely in my view, under the victorious leadership of Dr. Eck.” As for the reformer, the barrier that the School and the Church had placed before the sanctuary was torn in two. Forced to explore new questions, he made unexpected discoveries. With equal surprise and anger, he recognized the extent of the problem. While studying the history of the Church, he found that the supremacy of Rome stemmed from ambition on one side and gullible ignorance on the other. The narrow perspective he had previously held about the Church was replaced by one that was clearer and broader. In the Christians of Greece and the East, he saw genuine members of the Catholic Church; and instead of a visible leader sitting along the Tiber River, he worshipped the invisible and eternal Redeemer, who, as promised, is always present among those who believe in his name. Luther no longer viewed the Latin Church as the universal Church. The cramped confines of Rome were dismantled, and he rejoiced when he saw the glorious realm of Jesus Christ reaching far beyond them. From then on, he felt he could be a member of the Church of Christ without being part of the pope's Church. In particular, the writings of John Huss deeply influenced him. To his great surprise, he found in them the teachings of St. Paul and St. Augustine, the same teachings he had arrived at after countless struggles. “I believed,” he said, “and, without realizing it, taught all the doctrines of John Huss. So did Staupitz. In short, without knowing it, we are all Hussites, just like St. Paul and St. Augustine. I am amazed by this and don’t know what to think... O what terrible judgments have humans deserved from God! Evangelical truth, when revealed and published more than a century ago, was condemned, burned, and suppressed... Woe! Woe to the earth!”
Luther disengaged himself from the papacy, regarding it with decided aversion and holy indignation. All the witnesses, who in every age had risen up against Rome came successively before him to testify against her, and unveil some of her abuses or errors. "O darkness!" exclaimed he.
Luther separated himself from the papacy, viewing it with strong dislike and righteous anger. All the witnesses, who had opposed Rome through the ages, came before him one by one to speak out against her and reveal some of her wrongdoings or mistakes. "O darkness!" he exclaimed.
He was not allowed to be silent as to these sad discoveries. The pride of his adversaries, their pretended triumph, and the efforts which they made to extinguish the light, fixed his decision. He advanced in the path in which God was leading him, without any uneasiness as to the result. Luther has fixed upon this as the moment of his emancipation from the papal yoke—"Learn by me," said he, "how difficult it is to disencumber oneself of errors which the whole world confirms by its example, and which, from long habit, have become a second nature.[136] For seven years I had been reading, and, with great zeal, publicly expounding the Holy Scriptures, so that I had them almost entirely by heart.[137] I had also all the rudiments of knowledge and faith in the Lord Jesus Christ,—that is to say, I knew that we were not justified and saved by our works, but by faith in Christ: and I even maintained openly, that the pope is not head of the Christian Church by divine authority. And yet ... I could not see the inference, viz.—that certainly and necessarily the pope is of the devil. For whatever is not of God must, of necessity, be of the devil."[138] Further on, Luther adds—"I no longer vent my indignation against those who are still attached to the pope, since I myself, after reading the Holy Scriptures so carefully, and for so many years, still clung to the pope with so much obstinacy."[139]
He couldn't remain silent about these troubling discoveries. The pride of his opponents, their fake triumph, and their attempts to snuff out the light solidified his decision. He moved forward on the path that God was guiding him, without any anxiety about the outcome. Luther considered this the moment he broke free from the papal authority—"Learn from me," he said, "how hard it is to rid oneself of errors that the whole world endorses by example and which, out of long habit, have become second nature.[136] For seven years, I had been reading and passionately teaching the Holy Scriptures publicly, so I had them almost completely memorized.[137] I also had all the foundational knowledge and faith in the Lord Jesus Christ—that is to say, I understood that we are not justified and saved by our actions, but through faith in Christ: and I even publicly claimed that the pope does not have divine authority as the head of the Christian Church. Yet ... I couldn’t see the conclusion, namely—that it certainly and necessarily means the pope is of the devil. For anything not of God must, by necessity, be of the devil."[138] Later, Luther adds—"I no longer express my anger towards those who are still loyal to the pope, since I myself, after carefully studying the Holy Scriptures for so many years, still clung to the pope with such stubbornness."[139]
Such were the true results of the discussion of Leipsic—results far more important than the discussion itself, and resembling those first successes which discipline an army and inflame its courage.
Such were the real outcomes of the discussion in Leipzig—outcomes far more significant than the discussion itself, and akin to those initial victories that train an army and boost its morale.
CHAP. VII.
Eck attacks Melancthon—Melancthon's defence—Interpretation of Scripture—Luther's firmness—The Bohemian Brethren—Emser—Staupitz.
Eck criticizes Melancthon—Melancthon replies—Interpreting Scripture—Luther's determination—The Bohemian Brethren—Emser—Staupitz.
Eck abandoned himself to all the intoxication of what he would fain have passed off as a victory. He kept tearing at Luther, and heaped accusation upon accusation[140] against him. He also wrote to Frederick. Like a skilful general, he wished to take advantage of the confusion which always succeeds a battle, in order to obtain important concessions from the prince. Preparatory to the steps which he meant to take against his opponent personally, he invoked the flames against his writings, even those of them which he had not read. Imploring the Elector to convene a provincial council, the coarse-minded doctor exclaimed, "Let us exterminate all this vermin before they multiply out of measure."[141]
Eck got swept up in the excitement of what he wanted to call a victory. He kept attacking Luther, piling on accusation after accusation[140]. He also reached out to Frederick. Like a savvy general, he aimed to take advantage of the chaos that follows a battle to get important concessions from the prince. Before making personal moves against his opponent, he called for the destruction of Luther’s writings, even those he hadn’t read. Urging the Elector to set up a provincial council, the blunt doctor shouted, "Let’s wipe out all this vermin before they multiply beyond control."[141]
Luther was not the only person against whom he vented his rage. He had the imprudence to call Melancthon into the field. Melancthon, who was in terms of the greatest intimacy with the excellent Œcolampadius, gave him an account of the discussion, and spoke of Eck in eulogistic terms.[142] Nevertheless, the pride of the chancellor of Ingolstadt was offended, and he immediately took up the pen against this "grammarian of Wittemberg, who, it is true," said he, "was not ignorant of Latin and Greek, but had dared to publish a letter in which he had insulted him, Dr. Eck."[143]
Luther wasn't the only one on whom he unleashed his anger. He foolishly brought Melancthon into the mix. Melancthon, who was quite close with the wonderful Œcolampadius, informed him about the discussion and spoke highly of Eck. Nevertheless, the pride of the chancellor of Ingolstadt was hurt, and he immediately picked up his pen to go against this "grammarian from Wittenberg, who, it's true," he said, "was knowledgeable in Latin and Greek, but had dared to publish a letter that insulted me, Dr. Eck."
Melancthon replied. It is his first theological writing, and displays the exquisite urbanity which characterised this excellent man. Laying down the fundamental principles of Hermeneutics, he shows that the Holy Scriptures ought not to be explained according to the Fathers, but the Fathers according to the Holy Scriptures. "How often," says he, "did not Jerome commit mistakes, how often Augustine, how often Ambrose; how often do they differ in opinion, how often do they retract their own errors; ... there is only one volume inspired by the Spirit of heaven—pure and true throughout."[144]
Melancthon responded. This is his first theological work, showcasing the refined charm that defined this remarkable man. Establishing the basic principles of Hermeneutics, he argues that the Holy Scriptures shouldn't be interpreted through the lens of the Church Fathers, but rather the Church Fathers should be understood through the Holy Scriptures. "How often," he says, "did Jerome make mistakes, how often did Augustine, how often did Ambrose; how often do they have differing opinions, how often do they take back their own errors; ... there is only one book inspired by the Spirit of heaven—pure and true throughout."[144]
"Luther," it is said, "does not follow some ambiguous expositions of the ancients, and why should he follow them? When he expounds the passage of St. Matthew, "Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church," he agrees with Origen, who by himself alone is worth a host; with Augustine in his homily, and Ambrose in his sixth book on St. Luke, to say nothing of others. What, then, you will say, do the Fathers contradict each other? Is it surprising that they should?[145] I believe in the Fathers, because I believe in the Holy Scriptures. The meaning of Scripture is one, and simple, like heavenly truth herself. We arrive at it by comparing different passages together; we deduce it from the thread and connection of the discourse.[146] There is a philosophy enjoined us in regard to the Book of God, and it is to employ it as the touch-stone by which all the opinions and maxims of men must be tried."[147]
"Luther," they say, "doesn't follow some unclear interpretations of the ancients, and why should he? When he explains the passage from St. Matthew, 'Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church,' he aligns with Origen, who stands as a significant figure on his own; with Augustine in his homily, and Ambrose in his sixth book on St. Luke, not to mention others. So, you might ask, do the Church Fathers contradict each other? Is that really surprising?[145] I believe in the Church Fathers because I believe in the Holy Scriptures. The meaning of Scripture is singular and straightforward, just like divine truth itself. We reach it by comparing different passages and drawing it from the flow and coherence of the discussion.[146] There is a principle we should follow concerning the Book of God, which is to use it as the standard against which all human opinions and principles must be measured."[147]
It was a long time since these great truths had been so elegantly expounded. The Word of God was restored to its proper place, and the Fathers to theirs. The simple method by which we ascertain the meaning of Scripture was distinctly traced. The Word had precedence over all the difficulties and the expositions of the School. Melancthon furnished the answer to those who, like Dr. Eck, would envelope this subject in the mists of a remote antiquity. The feeble grammarian had risen up, and the broad and sturdy shoulders of the scholastic gladiator had bent under the first pressure of his arm.
It had been a long time since these important truths were explained so clearly. The Word of God was placed back where it belonged, and the early Church Fathers were recognized for their roles. The straightforward method we use to understand Scripture was clearly outlined. The Word took precedence over all the challenges and interpretations of the School. Melancthon provided the answer to those who, like Dr. Eck, tried to shroud this topic in the complexities of ancient times. The weak grammarian had stood up, and the strong, robust scholar had bent under the initial weight of his argument.
The weaker Eck was, the more noise he made, as if his rhodomontades and accusations were to secure the victory which he had failed to obtain in debate. The monks and all the partisans of Rome re-echoing his clamour, Germany rang with invectives against Luther, who, however, remained passive. "The more I see my name covered with opprobrium," said he in finishing the expositions which he published, on the propositions of Leipsic, "the prouder I feel; the truth, in other words, Christ, must increase, but I must decrease. The voice of the Bridegroom and the bride delights me more than all this clamour dismays me. Men are not the authors of my sufferings, and I have no hatred against them. It is Satan, the prince of evil, who would terrify me. But he who is in us is greater than he who is in the world. The judgment of our contemporaries is bad; that of posterity will be better."[148]
The weaker Eck was, the louder he got, as if his bragging and accusations were meant to win the argument he couldn’t in debate. The monks and all of Rome's supporters echoed his outcry, and Germany filled with insults against Luther, who remained calm. "The more my name is dragged through the mud," he said while finishing the statements he published on the propositions from Leipsic, "the prouder I feel; the truth, or in other words, Christ, must grow, but I must fade away. The voice of the Bridegroom and the bride brings me more joy than this noise brings me distress. People are not the source of my suffering, and I bear no hatred toward them. It is Satan, the prince of evil, who seeks to scare me. But he who is with us is greater than he who is in the world. The judgment of our society is poor; that of future generations will be better."
If the Leipsic discussion multiplied Luther's enemies in Germany, it also increased the number of his friends abroad; "What Huss was formerly in Bohemia, you, O Martin, are now in Saxony," wrote the brothers of Bohemia to him; "wherefore pray and be strong in the Lord."
If the Leipzig debate increased Luther's enemies in Germany, it also grew the number of his allies abroad; "What Huss used to be in Bohemia, you, O Martin, are now in Saxony," the Bohemian brothers wrote to him; "so keep praying and stay strong in the Lord."
About this time war was declared between Luther and Emser, now a professor of Leipsic. The latter addressed a letter to Dr. Zach, a zealous Roman Catholic of Prague, in which his professed object was to disabuse the Hussites of the idea that Luther was of their party. Luther could not doubt that under the semblance of defending him, the learned Leipsicker's real purpose was to fasten on him a suspicion of adhering to the Bohemian heresy, and he resolved to tear aside the veil under which his old Dresden host was endeavouring to shroud his enmity. With this view he published a letter addressed to the "goat Emser," Emser's arms being a goat. Luther concludes with a sentiment which well delineates his own character, "To love all, but fear none."[149]
Around this time, war was declared between Luther and Emser, who was now a professor in Leipzig. Emser wrote a letter to Dr. Zach, a committed Roman Catholic from Prague, claiming he wanted to clear up the misunderstanding that Luther was part of the Hussites. Luther suspected that, under the guise of defending him, the scholarly Leipzig professor’s true goal was to cast doubt on his association with the Bohemian heresy. He decided to expose the intentions of his old host from Dresden, who was trying to hide his hostility. To achieve this, he published a letter addressed to the “goat Emser,” since Emser’s coat of arms featured a goat. Luther ended with a statement that reflects his character well: “To love all, but fear none.”[149]
While new friends and new enemies thus appeared, old friends seemed to draw off from Luther. Staupitz, who had been the means of bringing the Reformer out of the obscurity of the cloister of Erfurt, began to show him some degree of coolness. Luther was rising too high for Staupitz to follow him.—"You abandon me," wrote Luther to him. "The whole day I have been exceedingly grieved on your account, like a child just weaned and weeping for its mother.[150] Last night," continues the Reformer, "I dreamed of you, you were keeping aloof from me, and I was sobbing and shedding tears; then you gave me your hand, and told me to dry up my tears, for you would return to me."
While new friends and new enemies appeared, old friends seemed to distance themselves from Luther. Staupitz, who had helped the Reformer emerge from the shadows of the Erfurt cloister, began to show some coolness toward him. Luther was climbing too high for Staupitz to keep up. —"You're abandoning me," Luther wrote to him. "I've been really upset about you all day, like a child just weaned and crying for its mother.[150] Last night," the Reformer continued, "I dreamed about you. You were keeping your distance from me, and I was sobbing and crying; then you took my hand and told me to stop crying because you would come back to me."
The pacificator, Miltitz, wished to make a new attempt at conciliation. But what hold can be had on men while still under the excitement of the contest? His endeavours led to no result. He brought the famous rose of gold, but the Elector did not even take the trouble to receive it in person.[151] Frederick knew the artifices of Rome, and was not to be imposed upon.[152]
The peacemaker, Miltitz, wanted to make another attempt at reconciliation. But how can you reason with people when they're still caught up in the heat of conflict? His efforts didn’t lead to any results. He brought the famous golden rose, but the Elector didn’t even bother to accept it personally.[151] Frederick was aware of Rome's tricks and wasn’t going to be fooled.[152]
CHAP. VIII.
Epistle to the Galatians—Christ for us—Blindness of Luther's Adversaries—First Ideas on the Supper—Is the Sacrament Sufficient without Faith?—Luther a Bohemian—Eck attacked—Eck sets out for Rome.
Letter to the Galatians—Christ on our behalf—Ignorance of Luther's Opponents—Initial Thoughts on the Supper—Is the Sacrament Sufficient Without Faith?—Luther from Bohemia—Eck under attack—Eck goes to Rome.
Far from drawing back, Luther uniformly continued to advance, and at this time struck one of his severest blows at error, by publishing his first commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians.[153] It is true, the second commentary was superior to the first; but still the first contained a forcible exposition of the doctrine of justification by faith. Every expression of the new apostle was full of life, and God employed him to imbue the hearts of the people with divine knowledge. "Christ gave himself for our sins," said Luther to his contemporaries.[154] "It was not silver or gold that he gave for us, nor was it a man or angels. He gave himself—himself, out of whom there is no true greatness; and this incomparable treasure he gave ... for our sins. Where, now, are those who proudly boast of the powers of our will? where are the lessons of moral philosophy? where the power and strength of the law? Our sins being so great that they cannot possibly be taken away without an immense ransom, shall we pretend to acquire righteousness by the energy of our will, by the power of the law, and the doctrines of men? What will all these cunning devices, all these illusions, avail us? Ah! we will only cover our iniquities with a spurious righteousness and convert ourselves into hypocrites, whom no worldly power can save."
Far from backing down, Luther consistently pushed forward, and during this time he dealt a significant blow to error by publishing his first commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians.[153] It’s true that the second commentary was better than the first; however, the first still presented a powerful explanation of the doctrine of justification by faith. Every word from the new apostle was full of life, and God used him to instill divine knowledge in the hearts of the people. "Christ gave himself for our sins," Luther told his contemporaries.[154] "It wasn’t silver or gold that he gave for us, nor was it a man or angels. He gave himself—himself, from whom there is no true greatness; and this priceless treasure he gave ... for our sins. Now, where are those who arrogantly boast about the powers of our will? Where are the teachings of moral philosophy? Where is the power and strength of the law? Our sins are so great that they cannot possibly be removed without an immense ransom. Should we pretend we can achieve righteousness through our willpower, through the law, and the teachings of men? What will all these clever tricks and illusions do for us? Ah! We will only hide our sins with a false righteousness and turn ourselves into hypocrites, whom no worldly power can save."
But while Luther thus proves that man's only salvation is in Christ, he also shows how this salvation changes his nature, and enables him to abound in good works. "The man," says he, "who has truly heard the word of Christ, and keeps it, is immediately clothed with the spirit of charity. If thou lovest him who has made thee a present of twenty florins, or done thee some service, or in some way given thee a proof of his affection, how much more oughtest thou to love him, who, on thy account, has given not silver or gold, but himself, received so many wounds, endured a bloody sweat, and even died for thee; in one word, who, in paying for all thy sins, has annihilated death, and secured for thee a Father full of love in heaven!... If thou lovest him not, thy heart has not listened to the things which he has done; thou hast not believed them; for faith works by love." "This epistle," said Luther, in speaking of the Epistle to the Galatians, "is my epistle—I am married to it."
But while Luther shows that a person's only salvation is in Christ, he also explains how this salvation transforms their nature and enables them to do good works abundantly. "The person," he says, "who has truly heard the word of Christ and follows it is immediately filled with the spirit of love. If you love someone who has given you a gift of twenty florins or has done something nice for you, or has in some way shown you affection, how much more should you love the one who, for your sake, has given not silver or gold, but himself, endured numerous wounds, experienced a bloody sweat, and even died for you; in short, who, by paying for all your sins, has destroyed death and ensured that you have a loving Father in heaven!... If you do not love him, your heart has not truly grasped what he has done; you do not believe it, because faith expresses itself through love." "This letter," Luther said, referring to the Epistle to the Galatians, "is my letter—I am bound to it."
His opponents caused him to proceed at a quicker pace than he would otherwise have done. At this time Eck instigated the Franciscans of Juterbock to make a new attack upon him; and Luther, in his reply,[155] not satisfied with repeating what he had already taught, attacked errors which he had recently discovered. "I would fain know," says he, "in what part of Scripture the power of canonising saints has been given to the popes; and also what the necessity, or even the utility is, of canonising them?"... "However," adds he, ironically, "let them canonise as they will."[156]
His opponents made him move faster than he might have otherwise. At this point, Eck encouraged the Franciscans of Juterbock to launch a new attack against him; and Luther, in his response,[155] not content with just reiterating what he had already taught, challenged errors he had recently uncovered. "I would like to know," he says, "where in the Bible the authority to canonize saints has been given to the popes; and what the necessity, or even the usefulness, of canonizing them is?"... "However," he adds, sarcastically, "let them canonize as they choose."[156]
These new attacks of Luther remained unanswered. The blindness of his enemies was as favourable to him as his own courage. They passionately defended secondary matters, and said not a word when they saw the foundations of Roman doctrine shaking under his hand. While they were eagerly defending some outworks, their intrepid adversary penetrated into the heart of the citadel, and there boldly planted the standard of truth; and hence their astonishment, when they saw the fortress sapped, blazing, and falling to pieces amid the flames, at the moment when they thought it impregnable, and were hurling defiance at their assailants. Thus it is that great changes are accomplished.
These new attacks from Luther went unanswered. The ignorance of his enemies worked in his favor just as much as his own bravery did. They passionately defended minor issues and said nothing when they saw the foundations of Roman doctrine crumbling under his influence. While they were busy protecting the outskirts, their fearless opponent made his way into the heart of their stronghold and boldly raised the flag of truth; so it was no surprise that they were astonished when they saw the fortress being undermined, burning, and falling apart in the flames at the very moment they believed it was invincible and were taunting their attackers. This is how significant changes are made.
The sacrament of the Lord's supper began, at this time, to engage Luther's attention. He looked for it in the mass, but in vain. One day, shortly after his return from Leipsic, he mounted the pulpit. Let us mark his words, for they are the first which he pronounced, on a subject which afterwards divided the Church and the Reformation into two parties. "In the holy sacrament of the altar," says he, "there are three things which it is necessary to know; the sign, which must be external, visible, and under a corporal form; the thing signified, which is internal, spiritual, and within the mind; and faith, which avails itself of both."[157] Had the definitions not been pushed farther, unity would not have been destroyed.
The sacrament of the Lord's Supper started to capture Luther's attention at this time. He searched for it in the mass, but without success. One day, shortly after he returned from Leipsic, he stepped up to the pulpit. Let's take note of his words, as they were the first he spoke on a topic that later split the Church and the Reformation into two factions. "In the holy sacrament of the altar," he says, "there are three things that are important to understand: the sign, which must be external, visible, and in a physical form; the thing signified, which is internal, spiritual, and within the mind; and faith, which makes use of both."[157] If the definitions had not been pushed further, unity would not have been lost.
Luther continues. "It were good that the Church should, by a general council, decree that both kinds shall be distributed to all the faithful; not, however, on the ground that one kind is insufficient, for faith by itself would be sufficient." These bold words pleased his audience, though some were astonished and offended, and exclaimed, "This is false and scandalous."[158]
Luther continues. "It would be great for the Church to decide, through a general council, that both forms of communion should be given to all the faithful; not because one form is inadequate, since faith alone would be enough." These strong words pleased his audience, although some were shocked and offended, saying, "This is untrue and outrageous."[158]
The preacher continues. "There is no union closer, deeper, or more inseparable than that between food and the body which is nourished by it. In the sacrament, Christ unites himself to us so closely that he acts in us as if he were identified with us. Our sins attack him. His righteousness defends us."
The preacher goes on. "There’s no bond closer, deeper, or more unbreakable than the one between food and the body that it nourishes. In the sacrament, Christ connects with us so intimately that he works within us as if he is one with us. Our sins affect him. His righteousness protects us."
But Luther, not deeming it enough to expound the truth, attacks one of the most fundamental errors of Rome.[159] The Roman Church pretends that the sacrament operates by itself, independently of the disposition of him who receives it. Nothing can be more convenient than such an opinion, since to it, both the eagerness with which the sacrament is sought, and the profits of the clergy are to be ascribed. Luther attacks this doctrine,[160] and maintains its opposite[161]—viz., that faith and a right disposition of heart are indispensable.
But Luther, believing it wasn't enough just to explain the truth, challenges one of the most fundamental mistakes of Rome.[159] The Roman Church claims that the sacrament works by itself, without depending on the recipient's attitude. This belief is incredibly convenient, as it allows both the enthusiasm for receiving the sacrament and the financial gain of the clergy to be justified. Luther opposes this doctrine,[160] and argues the opposite[161]—that faith and a proper heart attitude are essential.
This energetic protestation was destined to overthrow ancient superstitions; but, strange to say, it attracted no attention. Rome overlooked what might have made her scream in agony, and impetuously attacked the unimportant observation which Luther threw out at the commencement of his discourse, concerning communion in two kinds. The discourse having been published in December, a general cry of heresy was raised. "It is just the doctrine of Prague unadulterated," was the exclamation at the Court of Dresden, where the sermon arrived during the Christmas festivals. "It is written, moreover, in German, in order to make it accessible to the common people."[162] The devotion of the prince was troubled, and on the third day of the festival he wrote to his cousin Frederick. "Since the publication of this discourse, the number of persons who receive the sacrament in two kinds has received an increase of 6000. Your Luther, from being a professor of Wittemberg, is on the eve of becoming a bishop of Prague, and an arch-heretic".... The cry was, "he was born in Bohemia, of Bohemian parents, he was brought up at Prague, and trained in the writings of Wickliffe."
This passionate protest was meant to challenge old superstitions; yet, oddly enough, it went unnoticed. Rome ignored what could have made her cry out in pain and hastily targeted the insignificant remark Luther made at the start of his speech regarding communion in both forms. After the speech was published in December, a loud outcry of heresy erupted. "It’s just the unfiltered doctrine of Prague," was the reaction at the Court of Dresden, where the sermon reached during the Christmas celebrations. "It’s also written in German to make it accessible to the general public."[162] The prince felt disturbed, and on the third day of the festival, he wrote to his cousin Frederick. "Since the publication of this speech, the number of people receiving the sacrament in both forms has increased by 6000. Your Luther, who started as a professor in Wittenberg, is about to become a bishop of Prague and an arch-heretic.".... The outcry was, "he was born in Bohemia, to Bohemian parents, brought up in Prague, and educated in the writings of Wycliffe."
Luther judged it right to contradict these rumours in a writing in which he gravely detailed his parentage. "I was born at Eisleben," said he, "and was baptised in St. Peter's church. The nearest town to Bohemia in which I have ever been, is Dresden."[163]
Luther thought it was important to refute these rumors in a document where he seriously outlined his family background. "I was born in Eisleben," he stated, "and was baptized in St. Peter's church. The closest town to Bohemia that I've ever visited is Dresden."[163]
The letter of Duke George did not prejudice the Elector against Luther, for a few days after he invited him to a splendid entertainment which he gave to the Spanish ambassador, and at which Luther valiantly combated the minister of Charles.[164] The Elector's chaplain had, by his master's order, requested Luther to use moderation in defending his cause. "Excessive folly displeases man," replied Luther to Spalatin, "but excessive wisdom displeases God. The gospel cannot be defended without tumult and scandal. The word of God is sword, war, ruin, scandal, destruction, poison;"[165] and, hence, as Amos expresses it, "it presents itself like a bear in the path, and a lioness in the forest. I ask nothing, I demand nothing. There is one greater than I who asks and demands. Whether he stands or falls, I am neither gainer nor loser."[166]
The letter from Duke George didn’t turn the Elector against Luther. A few days later, he invited Luther to a grand event he hosted for the Spanish ambassador, where Luther boldly debated Charles’s minister.[164] The Elector's chaplain, following his orders, asked Luther to be moderate in defending his views. "Being overly foolish annoys people," Luther told Spalatin, "but being excessively wise annoys God. You can’t defend the gospel without chaos and controversy. The word of God is a sword, war, devastation, scandal, destruction, poison;"[165] and, as Amos puts it, "it shows up like a bear on the road and a lioness in the forest. I want nothing, I demand nothing. There is someone greater than I who asks and demands. Whether he stands or falls, it doesn’t benefit or hurt me."[166]
It was obvious that faith and courage were about to become more necessary to Luther than ever. Eck was forming projects of revenge. Instead of the laurels which he had counted on gaining, he had become a laughing-stock to all men of intellect throughout the nation.[167] Cutting satires were published against him. Eck was cut to the very heart by "An Epistle of Ignorant Canons," written by Œcolompadius, and a complaint against him probably by the excellent Pirckheimer of Nuremberg, exhibiting a combination of sarcasm and dignity of which the 'Provincial Letters' of Pascal alone can give some idea.
It was clear that faith and courage were about to become more important to Luther than ever. Eck was scheming for revenge. Instead of the praise he had expected to receive, he had turned into a joke among all the intellectuals in the country.[167] Sharp satirical pieces were published against him. Eck was deeply hurt by "An Epistle of Ignorant Canons," written by Œcolompadius, and a complaint against him likely by the esteemed Pirckheimer of Nuremberg, showcasing a blend of sarcasm and dignity that only Pascal's 'Provincial Letters' can partially convey.
Luther expressed his dissatisfaction with some of these writings. "It is better," said he, "to attack openly than to keep barking behind a hedge."[168]
Luther voiced his frustration with some of these writings. "It's better," he said, "to confront issues directly than to keep complaining from the sidelines."[168]
How greatly the chancellor of Ingolstadt had miscalculated! His countrymen abandon him, and he prepares for a journey beyond the Alps, to invoke the aid of strangers. Wherever he goes he vents his threatenings against Luther, Melancthon, Carlstadt, and the Elector himself. "From the haughtiness of his expressions," says the doctor of Wittemberg, "one would say he imagines himself to be God Almighty."[169] Inflamed with rage, and thirsting for vengeance, Eck, having in February, 1520, published a work on the primacy of St. Peter,—a work devoid of sound criticism, in which he maintained that this apostle, the first of the popes, resided for twenty-five years at Rome—set out for Italy in order to receive the reward of his pretended triumphs, and to forge at Rome, near the papal capitol, thunders mightier than the frail scholastic arms which had given way in his hands.
How badly the chancellor of Ingolstadt miscalculated! His fellow countrymen abandon him, and he gets ready for a journey beyond the Alps to seek help from strangers. Wherever he goes, he unleashes his threats against Luther, Melancthon, Carlstadt, and even the Elector himself. "From the arrogance of his words," says the doctor from Wittenberg, "you would think he believes himself to be God Almighty." [169] Filled with rage and seeking revenge, Eck, having published a work in February 1520 on the primacy of St. Peter—a book lacking sound criticism, in which he claimed that this apostle, the first of the popes, lived in Rome for twenty-five years—set off for Italy to claim the reward for his supposed victories and to create, in Rome, near the papal capital, thunderous responses far greater than the weak scholarly arguments that had failed him.
Luther was aware of all the dangers to which the journey of his antagonist would expose him—but he feared not. Spalatin, alarmed, urged him to make proposals of peace. "No," replied Luther, "so long as he clamours, I cannot decline the contest. I commit the whole affair to God, and leave my bark to the winds and waves. It is the battle of the Lord. How can it be imagined that Christ will advance his cause by peace? Did he not combat even unto death, and have not all the martyrs since done the same?"[170]
Luther understood all the risks that his opponent's journey would bring, but he didn't worry. Spalatin, feeling anxious, urged him to suggest a peace treaty. "No," Luther replied, "as long as he keeps shouting, I won’t back down. I’m leaving everything to God and setting my ship adrift on the winds and waves. This is the Lord's battle. How could anyone think that Christ would further his cause through peace? Didn't He fight to the very end, and haven't all the martyrs since then done the same?"[170]
Such was the position of the two combatants of Leipsic, at the commencement of the year 1520. The one was stirring up the whole papacy to strike a blow at his rival, who, on his part, waited for war as calmly as if he had been waiting for peace. The year on which we are entering will see the bursting of the storm.
Such was the situation of the two fighters in Leipsic at the beginning of 1520. One was rallying the entire papacy to attack his opponent, who, for his part, awaited the conflict as calmly as if he had been waiting for peace. The year we are entering will bring the storm to a head.
BOOK SIX.
THE BULL OF ROME.
1520.
THE BULL OF ROME. 1520.
CHAP. I.
Character of Maximilian—The Competitors for the Empire—Charles—Francis I—Inclination of the Germans—The Crown offered to Frederick—Charles is Elected.
Maximilian's Character—The Rivals for the Empire—Charles—Francis I—German Preferences—The Crown Proposed to Frederick—Charles Gets Elected.
A new character was going to appear upon the stage. God saw meet to place the monk of Wittemberg in presence of the most powerful monarch who had appeared in Christendom since Charlemagne. He chose a prince, in the fervid vigour of youth, to whom every thing presaged a reign of long duration—a prince whose sceptre extended over a considerable portion both of the old and the new world; so that, according to a celebrated expression, the sun never set on his vast dominions—and opposed him to this humble Reformation, which began with the anguish and sighs of a poor monk, in the obscure cell of a convent at Erfurt. The history of this monarch and his reign seems to have been destined to give a great lesson to the world. It was to show the nothingness of all "the power of man," when it presumes to contend with "the weakness of God." Had a prince, friendly to Luther, been called to the empire, the success of the Reformation would have been attributed to his protection. Had even an emperor opposed to the new doctrine, but feeble, occupied the throne, the triumphant success of the work would have been accounted for by the feebleness of the monarch. But it was the proud conqueror of Pavia who behoved to humble his pride before the power of the Divine Word, that all the world might see how he, who had found it easy to drag Francis I a captive to Madrid, was compelled to lower his sword before the son of a poor miner.
A new character was about to step onto the stage. God decided to put the monk from Wittenberg in front of the most powerful king to arise in Christendom since Charlemagne. He chose a young and vigorous prince, one whose reign seemed destined to last a long time—a prince whose rule covered a significant part of both the old and new worlds; so much so that, as a famous saying goes, the sun never set on his vast territories. This noble figure was pitted against the humble Reformation, which started with the pain and sighs of a poor monk in a small cell at the Erfurt convent. The story of this king and his reign appears to have been meant to provide a significant lesson to the world. It was to demonstrate the insignificance of "the power of man" when it dares to challenge "the weakness of God." If a prince who supported Luther had taken the throne, the success of the Reformation would have been credited to his backing. Even if a weak emperor opposed the new doctrine, the triumph of the movement would have been explained by the emperor's weakness. But it was the proud conqueror of Pavia who had to humble himself before the power of the Divine Word, so that everyone could see how the man who easily captured Francis I and brought him to Madrid had to lower his sword in front of the son of a poor miner.
The Emperor Maximilian was dead, and the electors had met at Frankfort to give him a successor. In the circumstances in which Europe was placed, this election was of vast importance, and was regarded with deep interest by all Christendom. Maximilian had not been a great prince; but his memory was dear to the people, who took a pleasure in remembering his presence of mind and good-humoured affability. Luther often talked of him to his friends, and one day related the following anecdote.
The Emperor Maximilian was dead, and the electors had gathered in Frankfurt to choose his successor. Given the situation in Europe at the time, this election was crucial and attracted significant attention from all of Christendom. Maximilian hadn’t been a remarkable leader, but his memory was cherished by the people, who enjoyed recalling his composure and friendly demeanor. Luther often spoke about him to his friends, and one day shared the following story.
A beggar had kept running after him asking charity, and addressing him as his brother; "for," said he, "we are both descended from the same father, Adam. I am poor," continued he, "but you are rich, and it is your duty to assist me." At these words the emperor turned round and said to him—"Hold, there's a penny: go to your other brothers, and if each gives you as much, you will soon be richer than I am."[171]
A beggar had been following him, asking for charity and calling him his brother; "Because," he said, "we both come from the same father, Adam. I’m poor," he continued, "but you’re rich, and it’s your responsibility to help me." At these words, the emperor turned around and said to him, "Wait, here's a penny: go to your other brothers, and if each of them gives you the same, you'll soon be richer than I am."[171]
The person about to be called to the empire was not a good-natured Maximilian. Times were to undergo a change; ambitious potentates were competing for the imperial throne of the West; the reins of the empire were to be seized by an energetic hand; profound peace was to be succeeded by long and bloody wars.
The person about to be called to the empire was not a kind-hearted Maximilian. Times were about to change; ambitious leaders were vying for the imperial throne of the West; the control of the empire would be taken by a strong hand; deep peace would be followed by long and bloody wars.
At the assembly of Frankfort, three kings aspired to the crown of the Cæsars. A youthful prince, grandson of the last emperor, born at the opening of the century, and consequently nineteen years of age, first presented himself. He was named Charles, and was born at Ghent. His paternal grandmother, Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, had left him Flanders and the rich States of Burgundy. His mother, Joan, daughter of Ferdinand of Arragon and Isabella of Castile, and wife of Philip, son of the Emperor Maximilian, had transmitted to him the united kingdoms of Spain, Naples, and Sicily, to which Christopher Columbus had added a new world, while the recent death of his grandfather put him in possession of the hereditary States of Austria. This young prince, who was endowed with great talents. To a turn for military exercises (in which the dukes of Burgundy had long been distinguished)—to the finesse and penetration of the Italians—to the reverence for existing institutions which still characterises the house of Austria, and promised the papacy a firm defender, he joined a thorough knowledge of public affairs, acquired under the direction of Chièvres, having from fifteen years of age taken part in all the deliberations of his cabinet.[172] These diversified qualities were, in a manner, shrouded under Spanish reserve and taciturnity. In personal appearance he was tall in stature, and had somewhat of a melancholy air. "He is pious and tranquil," said Luther, "and I believe does not speak as much in a year as I do in a day."[173] Had the character of Charles been formed under the influence of freedom and Christianity, he would perhaps have been one of the most admirable princes on record; but politics engrossed his life, and stifled his great and good qualities.
At the assembly in Frankfurt, three kings were vying for the crown of the Caesars. A young prince, the grandson of the last emperor, born at the start of the century and now nineteen years old, was the first to step forward. His name was Charles, and he was born in Ghent. His paternal grandmother, Mary, the daughter of Charles the Bold, had left him Flanders and the wealthy States of Burgundy. His mother, Joan, the daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, and wife of Philip, son of Emperor Maximilian, had passed on to him the combined kingdoms of Spain, Naples, and Sicily, to which Christopher Columbus had added a new world. With the recent death of his grandfather, he also inherited the hereditary States of Austria. This young prince was immensely talented. He had a flair for military exercises (which the dukes of Burgundy had long been known for), the sharpness and insight of the Italians, a respect for established institutions that still defines the House of Austria, and he promised to be a solid defender of the papacy. He also possessed a thorough understanding of public affairs, having been guided by Chièvres and actively participating in all cabinet discussions since he was fifteen. These varied qualities were somewhat hidden by a Spanish demeanor of reserve and silence. In terms of appearance, he was tall and had a somewhat melancholic look. "He is pious and calm," said Luther, "and I believe he speaks less in a year than I do in a day." If Charles's character had been shaped by freedom and Christianity, he might have been one of the most admirable princes in history; however, politics consumed his life and suppressed his great and noble qualities.
Not contented with all the sceptres which he grasped in his hand, young Charles aspired to the imperial dignity. "It is like a sunbeam, which throws lustre on the house which it illumines," said several, "but put forth the hand to lay hold of it and you will find nothing." Charles, on the contrary, saw in it the pinnacle of all earthly grandeur, and a means of acquiring a magic influence over the spirit of the nations.
Not satisfied with all the power he held, young Charles aimed for the imperial title. "It's like a sunbeam that brightens the house it shines on," some said, "but reach out to grab it, and you'll find nothing." Charles, on the other hand, viewed it as the peak of earthly greatness and a way to gain a magical influence over the hearts of the people.
Francis I was the second of the competitors. The young paladins of the court of this chivalric king were incessantly representing to him that he was entitled, like Charlemagne, to be the emperor of all the West, and reviving the exploits of the ancient knights, to attack the crescent which was menacing the empire, discomfit the infidels, and recover the holy sepulchre.
Francis I was the second competitor. The young knights at the court of this chivalric king were constantly reminding him that he had the right, like Charlemagne, to be the emperor of all the West. They were drawing inspiration from the feats of ancient knights to combat the crescent that threatened the empire, defeat the infidels, and reclaim the holy sepulchre.
"It is necessary," said the ambassadors of Francis to the electors, "it is necessary to prove to the Dukes of Austria, that the imperial crown is not hereditary. Besides, in existing circumstances, Germany has need not of a young man of nineteen, but of a prince who, to an experienced judgment, joins talents which have already been recognised. Francis will unite the arms of France and Lombardy to those of Germany, and make war on the Mussulmans. Sovereign of the duchy of Milan, he is already a member of the imperial body." These arguments, the French ambassadors supported by four hundred thousand crowns, which they distributed in purchasing votes and in festivities, by which they endeavoured to gain over their guests.
"It’s essential," said Francis's ambassadors to the electors, "it’s essential to show the Dukes of Austria that the imperial crown isn’t something that’s passed down by inheritance. Moreover, given the current situation, Germany needs not a young man of nineteen, but a prince who combines experienced judgment with proven talents. Francis will align the forces of France and Lombardy with those of Germany and wage war against the Muslims. As the sovereign of the duchy of Milan, he is already part of the imperial body." To support these arguments, the French ambassadors backed their case with four hundred thousand crowns, which they used to buy votes and host celebrations to win over their guests.
The third competitor was Henry VIII, who, jealous of the influence which the choice of the electors might give to Francis or Charles, also entered the lists, but soon left his powerful rivals sole disputants for the crown.
The third competitor was Henry VIII, who, jealous of the influence that the choice of the electors might give to Francis or Charles, also joined the competition, but soon withdrew, leaving his powerful rivals as the sole contenders for the crown.
The electors were not disposed to favour either. Their subjects thought they would have in Francis a foreign master, and a master who might deprive the electors themselves of their independence, as he had lately deprived the nobles of his own dominions. As to Charles, it was an ancient rule with the electors not to choose a prince who was already playing an important part in the empire. The pope shared in these fears. He wished neither the king of Naples, who was his neighbour, nor the king of France, whose enterprising spirit filled him with alarm; "Choose rather some one from amongst yourselves," was his message to the electors. The elector of Trèves proposed Frederick of Saxony, and the imperial crown was laid at the feet of Luther's friend.
The electors were not inclined to support either candidate. Their subjects believed that if they chose Francis, they would be getting a foreign ruler who could strip the electors of their independence, just like he had recently done to the nobles in his own territory. As for Charles, the electors had a long-standing rule against selecting a prince who was already playing a significant role in the empire. The pope shared these concerns. He didn't want the king of Naples, who was his neighbor, or the king of France, whose ambitious nature made him uneasy; "Choose someone from among your own," was his message to the electors. The elector of Trèves proposed Frederick of Saxony, and the imperial crown was offered to Luther's ally.
This choice would have obtained the approbation of all Germany. Frederick's wisdom, and affection for his people, were well known. During the revolt of Erfurt, he had been urged to take the town by assault, and refused, in order to spare blood. "But it will not cost five men." "A single man would be too many," replied the prince.[174] The triumph of the Reformation seemed on the eve of being secured by the election of its protector. Ought not Frederick to have regarded the offer of the electors as a call from God himself? Who could have presided better over the destinies of the empire than a prince of so much wisdom? Who could have been stronger to oppose the Turks than an emperor strong in faith? The refusal of the Elector of Saxony, so much lauded by historians, was perhaps a fault. For the contests which afterwards tore Germany to pieces he is perhaps partly to blame. But it is difficult to say whether Frederick deserves censure for his want of faith or honour for his humility. He thought that even the safety of the empire made it his duty to refuse the crown.[175] "To save Germany," said this modest and disinterested prince, "an emperor more powerful than I is requisite."
This choice would have received the approval of all of Germany. Frederick's wisdom and care for his people were well known. During the Erfurt revolt, he was urged to take the town by storm but refused to do so to avoid bloodshed. "But it won't cost five men." "Even one man would be too many," the prince replied.[174] The triumph of the Reformation seemed on the verge of being secured with the election of its protector. Shouldn't Frederick have seen the electors' offer as a divine call? Who could have better guided the fate of the empire than a prince of such wisdom? Who could have been stronger against the Turks than an emperor with a strong faith? The refusal of the Elector of Saxony, praised by historians, might have been a mistake. For the conflicts that later tore Germany apart, he may bear some blame. But it's hard to determine if Frederick deserves criticism for his lack of ambition or praise for his humility. He believed that even the safety of the empire required him to turn down the crown.[175] "To save Germany," said this humble and selfless prince, "we need a more powerful emperor than I."
The legate of Rome seeing that the choice would fall upon Charles, intimated that the pope withdrew his objections; and on the 28th of June, the grandson of Maximilian was elected. "God," said Frederick afterwards, "gave him to us in mercy and in anger."[176] The Spanish envoys sent a present of thirty thousand gold florins to the Elector of Saxony, as a mark of their master's gratitude; but the prince refused it, and charged his ministers not to accept of any present. At the same time he secured the German liberties by an engagement, to which the envoys of Charles took an oath in his name. The circumstances in which the latter prince encircled his head with the imperial crown seemed still better fitted than the oath to secure the Germanic liberties, and the success of the Reformation. The young prince was jealous of the laurels which his rival, Francis I, had gained at Marignan. The struggle was to be continued in Italy, and in the meantime the Reformation would doubtless be made secure. Charles left Spain in May, 1520, and was crowned on the 22nd of October, at Aix-la-Chapelle.
The legate of Rome saw that the choice would probably go to Charles and indicated that the pope was retracting his objections. On June 28th, the grandson of Maximilian was elected. "God," Frederick later said, "gave him to us in mercy and in anger." [176] The Spanish envoys sent a gift of thirty thousand gold florins to the Elector of Saxony as a sign of their master's gratitude, but the prince refused it and instructed his ministers not to accept any gifts. At the same time, he secured German liberties with an agreement to which Charles's envoys took an oath in his name. The circumstances surrounding the way the latter prince crowned himself with the imperial crown seemed better suited than the oath to ensure German liberties and the success of the Reformation. The young prince was envious of the fame that his rival, Francis I, had earned at Marignan. The struggle would continue in Italy, and in the meantime, the Reformation would surely be secured. Charles left Spain in May 1520 and was crowned on October 22nd at Aix-la-Chapelle.
CHAP. II.
Luther writes to the Emperor—Luther's dangers—Instructions of Frederick to the court of Rome—Luther's sentiments—Melancthon's fears—The German nobles favourable to the Reformation—Schaumburg—Seckingen—Ulric de Hütten—Luther's Confidence—Luther's Greater Freedom—Faith the source of Works—What Faith gives—Luther judging his own writings.
Luther writes to the Emperor—Luther's risks—Frederick's instructions to the court of Rome—Luther's feelings—Melancthon's concerns—The German nobles support the Reformation—Schaumburg—Seckingen—Ulric de Hütten—Luther's confidence—Luther's increased freedom—Faith as the source of good works—What faith provides—Luther assessing his own writings.
Luther had foreseen that the cause of the Reformation would soon be brought before the new emperor; and, when Charles was still at Madrid, addressed a letter to him, in which he said, "If the cause which I defend is worthy of being presented before the heavenly Majesty, it cannot be unworthy of engaging the attention of a prince of this world. O, Charles! prince of the kings of the earth, I cast myself as a suppliant at the feet of your most serene majesty, and beseech you to deign to take under the shadow of your wings, not me, but the very cause of eternal truth, for the defence of which God has entrusted you with the sword."[177] The young king of Spain threw aside this odd letter from a German monk, and returned no answer.
Luther anticipated that the issue of the Reformation would soon be brought before the new emperor. While Charles was still in Madrid, he wrote him a letter, saying, "If the cause I support is worthy of being presented before the heavenly Majesty, it can't be unworthy of a prince's attention in this world. Oh, Charles! prince of the kings of the earth, I come to you as a humble supplicant, asking you to take under your protection, not me, but the cause of eternal truth, for which God has given you the sword." [177] The young king of Spain dismissed this strange letter from a German monk and did not respond.
While Luther was turning in vain toward Madrid, the storm seemed gathering around him. Fanaticism was rekindled in Germany. Hochstraten, indefatigable in his efforts at persecution, had extracted certain theses from Luther's writings, and obtained their condemnation by the universities of Cologne and Louvain. That of Erfurt, which had always had a grudge at Luther, for having given Wittemberg the preference, was on the eve of following their example. But the doctor, having been informed of it, wrote Lange, in terms so energetic that the theologians of Erfurt took fright, and said nothing. Still, however, there was enough to inflame the minds of men in the condemnation pronounced by Cologne and Louvain. More than this; the priests of Misnia who had espoused Emser's quarrel said openly (such is Melancthon's statement) that there would be no sin in killing Luther.[178] "The time is come," said Luther, "when men think they will do Jesus Christ service by putting us to death." The murderous language of the priests did not fail of its effect.
While Luther was futilely turning his attention to Madrid, a storm seemed to be brewing around him. Fanaticism was reigniting in Germany. Hochstraten, tirelessly pursuing his campaign of persecution, had pulled certain theses from Luther's writings and got them condemned by the universities of Cologne and Louvain. The university in Erfurt, which had always held a grudge against Luther for favoring Wittenberg, was about to follow suit. However, upon learning of this, the doctor wrote to Lange in such forceful terms that the theologians of Erfurt were intimidated and said nothing. Still, the condemnations from Cologne and Louvain were enough to inflame public sentiment. Furthermore, the priests in Misnia who supported Emser's conflict openly claimed (according to Melancthon) that it wouldn't be sinful to kill Luther. "The time has come," Luther said, "when people believe they can serve Jesus Christ by killing us." The violent rhetoric from the priests had its impact.
"One day," says a biographer, "when Luther was in front of the Augustin convent, a stranger, with a pistol hid under his arm, accosted him, and said, Why do you walk about thus quite alone?" "I am in the hands of God," replied Luther; "He is my strength and my shield." "Thereupon," adds the biographer, "the stranger grew pale, and fled trembling."[179] About the same time Serra Longa, the orator of the conference of Augsburg, wrote to the Elector, "Let not Luther find any asylum in the states of your highness, but, repulsed by all, let him be stoned to death in the face of heaven. This would please me more than a gift of ten thousand crowns."[180]
"One day," says a biographer, "when Luther was in front of the Augustin convent, a stranger, with a gun hidden under his arm, approached him and asked, 'Why are you walking around all alone?' 'I am in the hands of God,' Luther replied; 'He is my strength and my shield.' 'Then,' the biographer adds, 'the stranger became pale and fled trembling.'[179] Around the same time, Serra Longa, the speaker at the Augsburg conference, wrote to the Elector, 'Don’t let Luther find any refuge in your territories; rather, let him be driven away by everyone and stoned to death under heaven. That would please me more than a gift of ten thousand crowns.'[180]
But the sound of the gathering storm was heard, especially in the direction of Rome. Valentine Teutleben, a noble of Thuringia, vicar of the Archbishop of Mentz, and a zealous partisan of the papacy, was the representative of the Elector of Saxony at Rome. Teutleben, ashamed of the protection which his master gave to the heretical monk, could not bear to see his mission paralysed by this imprudent conduct; and imagined that, by alarming the Elector, he would induce him to abandon the rebel theologian. Writing to his master, he said, "I am not listened to, because of the protection which you give to Luther." But the Romans were mistaken if they thought they could frighten sage Frederick. He knew that the will of God and the movements of the people were more irresistible than the decrees of the papal chancery. He ordered his envoy to hint to the pope that, far from defending Luther, he had always left him to defend himself, that he had moreover told him to quit Saxony and the university, that the doctor had declared his readiness to obey, and would not now be in the electoral states had not the legate, Charles de Miltitz, begged the prince to keep him near himself, from a fear that in other countries he would act with still less restraint than in Saxony.[181] Frederick did still more; he tried to enlighten Rome. "Germany," continues he, in his letter, "now possesses a great number of learned men distinguished for scholarship and science; the laity themselves begin to cultivate their understanding, and to love the Holy Scriptures. Hence, there is great reason to fear that, if the equitable proposals of Doctor Luther are not accepted, peace will never be re-established. The doctrine of Luther has struck its roots deep in many hearts. If, instead of refuting it by passages from the Bible, an attempt is made to crush him by the thunders of ecclesiastical power, great scandal will be given, and pernicious and dreadful outbreaks will ensue."[182]
But the sound of the approaching storm was heard, especially towards Rome. Valentine Teutleben, a noble from Thuringia, the vicar of the Archbishop of Mentz, and a strong supporter of the papacy, represented the Elector of Saxony in Rome. Teutleben, embarrassed by the protection his master offered to the heretical monk, couldn’t stand to see his mission hindered by this reckless behavior; he thought that by raising alarm with the Elector, he could persuade him to turn against the rebellious theologian. In a letter to his master, he wrote, "I am not being heard because of the protection you give to Luther." But the Romans were mistaken if they believed they could intimidate wise Frederick. He understood that the will of God and the actions of the people were more powerful than the decrees of the papal chancery. He instructed his envoy to suggest to the pope that, rather than defending Luther, he had always allowed him to defend himself, that he had even told Luther to leave Saxony and the university, that the doctor had agreed to comply, and would not currently be in the electoral states if the legate, Charles de Miltitz, hadn't urged the prince to keep him close, fearing that in other countries he would act even less restrained than in Saxony.[181] Frederick did even more; he tried to inform Rome. "Germany," he continued in his letter, "now has many learned individuals distinguished for their scholarship and science; the laity themselves are starting to cultivate their understanding and to appreciate the Holy Scriptures. Therefore, there is great reason to worry that if Doctor Luther's fair proposals are not accepted, peace will never be restored. Luther's doctrine has taken deep root in many hearts. If, instead of disproving it with passages from the Bible, there’s an attempt to silence him with the might of ecclesiastical power, it will cause great scandal and lead to harmful and dreadful upheaval."[182]
The Elector, having full confidence in Luther, caused Teutleben's letter to be communicated to him, and also another letter from cardinal St. George. The Reformer was moved on reading them. He at once saw all the dangers by which he was surrounded, and for an instant his heart sank. But it was in such moments as these that his faith displayed its full power. Often, when feeble and ready to fall into despondency, he rallied again, and seemed greater amid the raging of the storm. He would fain have been delivered from all these trials; but, aware of the price that must have been paid for repose, he spurned it with indignation. "Be silent!" said he, "I am disposed to be so, if I am allowed—that is to say, if others are silent. If any one envies my situation he is welcome to it. If any one is desirous to destroy my writings, let him burn them. I am ready to remain quiet, provided gospel truth is not compelled to be quiet also.[183] I ask not a cardinal's hat; I ask neither gold, nor aught that Rome esteems. There is nothing which I will not concede, provided Christians are not excluded from the way of salvation.[184] All their threatenings do not terrify—all their promises cannot seduce me."
The Elector, fully trusting Luther, shared Teutleben's letter with him, along with another letter from Cardinal St. George. The Reformer felt a strong emotional response as he read them. He immediately recognized all the dangers surrounding him, and for a moment, his heart sank. But it was in moments like these that his faith showed its true strength. Often, when he felt weak and on the brink of despair, he would rally and seem even greater amidst the chaos. He wished he could escape all these trials; however, knowing the cost of such peace, he rejected it with anger. "Be quiet!" he said, "I would be, if I could—that is, if others would stay quiet. If anyone envies my situation, they're welcome to it. If anyone wants to destroy my writings, let them burn them. I'm ready to keep quiet, as long as the truth of the Gospel isn't silenced as well. I don’t ask for a cardinal's hat; I don’t want gold or anything valued by Rome. I will concede anything, as long as Christians aren’t blocked from salvation. None of their threats scare me, and none of their promises can tempt me."
Animated by these sentiments, Luther soon resumed his warlike temperament, preferring the Christian combat to the calmness of solitude. One night was sufficient to revive his desire of overthrowing Rome. "My part is taken," wrote he next day. "I despise the fury of Rome, and I despise her favour. No more reconciliation, nor more communication with her for ever.[185] Let her condemn and burn my writings! I, in my turn, will condemn and publicly burn the pontifical law, that nest of all heresies. The moderation which I have shown up to this hour has been useless, and I have done with it!"
Fueled by these feelings, Luther quickly regained his aggressive mindset, choosing the fight for Christianity over the peace of solitude. One night was enough to reignite his desire to take down Rome. "I've made my decision," he wrote the next day. "I reject the rage of Rome, and I reject her approval. No more reconciliation, no more communication with her ever. Let her condemn and burn my writings! I, in turn, will condemn and publicly burn the papal law, that source of all heresies. The restraint I've shown until now has been pointless, and I'm done with it!"
His friends were far from feeling equally tranquil. Great alarm prevailed at Wittemberg. "We are waiting in extreme anxiety," said Melancthon. "I would sooner die than be separated from Luther.[186] Unless God come to our assistance we perish." Writing a month later, in his anxiety, he says, "Our Luther still lives, and God grant he long may; for the Roman sycophants are using every mean to destroy him. Pray for the life of him who is sole vindicator of sound theology."[187]
His friends were anything but calm. There was a lot of worry in Wittenberg. "We're waiting in complete anxiety," said Melanchthon. "I would rather die than be separated from Luther.[186] Unless God helps us, we will perish." A month later, in his worry, he wrote, "Our Luther is still alive, and may God grant that he stays that way for a long time; because the Roman manipulators are using every tactic to destroy him. Pray for the life of him who is the only defender of sound theology."[187]
These prayers were not in vain. The warnings which the Elector had given Rome, through his envoy, were not without foundation. The word of Luther had been every where heard, in cottages, and convents, at the firesides of the citizens, in the castles of nobles, in academies, and in the palaces of kings. He had said to Duke John of Saxony, "Let my life only have contributed to the salvation of a single individual, and I will willingly consent that all my books perish."[188] Not a single individual, but a great multitude, had found light in the writings of the humble doctor; and hence, in all quarters, there were men ready to protect him. The sword which was to attack him was on the anvil of the Vatican; but there were heroes in Germany who would interpose their bodies as his buckler. At the moment when the bishops were waxing wroth, when princes were silent, when the people were awaiting the result, and when the thunder was already grumbling on the seven hills, God raised up the German nobility, and placed them as a rampart around his servant.
These prayers were not in vain. The warnings that the Elector had sent to Rome through his envoy were not unfounded. Luther’s message was heard everywhere: in cottages, convents, at citizens’ homes, in noble castles, in academies, and in the palaces of kings. He told Duke John of Saxony, "If my life has helped save just one person, I would gladly let all my books be destroyed." Not just one person, but a large number had found hope in the writings of the humble doctor; thus, there were many ready to protect him. The attack against him was being forged at the Vatican, but there were heroes in Germany who would stand in front of him as a shield. At the time when the bishops were getting angry, when princes were quiet, when the people were waiting for the outcome, and when the storm was already brewing over the seven hills, God raised up the German nobility and placed them as a shield around His servant.
At this time Sylvester of Schaumburg, one of the most powerful nobles of Franconia, sent his son to Wittemberg with a letter for the Reformer, in which he said, "Your life is exposed to danger. If the support of electors, princes, or magistrates fails you, I beg you to beware of going into Bohemia, where, of old, very learned men had much to suffer; come rather to me; God willing, I shall soon have collected more than a hundred gentlemen, and with their help, will be able to keep you free from harm."[189]
At that time, Sylvester of Schaumburg, one of the most powerful nobles in Franconia, sent his son to Wittenberg with a letter for the Reformer, in which he said, "Your life is in danger. If you lose the support of electors, princes, or officials, please be careful about going to Bohemia, where many learned men have suffered in the past; instead, come to me. God willing, I will soon have gathered more than a hundred gentlemen, and with their help, I will be able to keep you safe."[189]
Francis of Seckingen, the hero of his age, whose intrepid courage we have already seen,[190] loved the Reformer, because he found that he was worthy of love, and also because he was hated by the monks.[191] "My person, my property, and services, all that I possess," wrote he to him, "is at your disposal. Your wish is to maintain Christian truth, and in that I am ready to assist you."[192] Harmuth of Cronberg, spoke in similar terms. Ulric von Hütten, the poet and valiant knight of the sixteenth century, ceased not to speak in commendation of Luther. But how great the contrast between these two men! Hütten wrote to the Reformer—"We must have swords, bows, javelins, and bullets, to destroy the fury of the devil." Luther, on receiving these letters, exclaimed—"I have no wish that men should have recourse to arms and carnage in order to defend the gospel. It was by the Word the world was overcome, by the Word the Church has been saved, and by the Word will she be re-established." "I despise not his offers," said he on receiving the above letter from Schaumburg, "but still I wish to lean on none but Christ."[193] So spake not the pontiffs of Rome when they waded in the blood of the Vaudois and Albigenses. Hütten was sensible of the difference between his cause and Luther's, and accordingly wrote with noble frankness: "I am occupied with the things of man, but you, rising to a far greater height, give yourself wholly to those of God."[194] After thus writing, he set out to try, if possible, to gain over Ferdinand and Charles V to the truth.[195]
Francis of Seckingen, the hero of his time, whose bold bravery we have already seen,[190] admired the Reformer because he found him deserving of love and also because he was disliked by the monks.[191] "Everything I have—my person, my property, and my services— is at your service," he wrote to him. "Your goal is to uphold Christian truth, and I am ready to support you in that."[192] Harmuth of Cronberg expressed similar sentiments. Ulric von Hütten, the poet and brave knight of the sixteenth century, continued to praise Luther. But the difference between these two men was significant! Hütten wrote to the Reformer—"We need swords, bows, javelins, and bullets to defeat the devil's rage." Upon receiving these letters, Luther exclaimed—"I don’t want people to resort to weapons and violence to defend the gospel. It was through the Word that the world was overcome, by the Word the Church has been saved, and by the Word it will be restored." "I don’t reject his offers," he said after receiving the letter from Schaumburg, "but I still wish to rely on none but Christ."[193] This was not the position of the popes in Rome when they were drenched in the blood of the Vaudois and Albigenses. Hütten recognized the difference between his mission and Luther's, and he wrote with admirable honesty: "I am focused on human affairs, but you, ascending to a much higher purpose, dedicate yourself entirely to divine matters."[194] After writing this, he set off to try, if possible, to win over Ferdinand and Charles V to the truth.[195]
Thus, on the one hand, Luther's enemies assail him, and on the other, his friends rise up to defend him. "My bark," says he, "floats here and there at the pleasure of the winds, ... hope and fear reign by turns, but what matters it?"[196] Still his mind was not uninfluenced by the marks of sympathy which he received. "The Lord reigns," said he, "and so visibly as to be almost palpable."[197] Luther saw that he was no longer alone; his words had proved faithful, and the thought inspired him with new courage. Now that he has other defenders prepared to brave the fury of Rome, he will no longer be kept back by the fear of compromising the Elector. He becomes more free, and, if possible, more decided. This is an important period in the development of Luther's mind. Writing at this time to the Elector's chaplain, he says, "Rome must be made aware, that though she should succeed, by her menaces, in exiling me from Wittemberg, she will only damage her cause. Those who are ready to defend me against the thunders of the papacy are to be found not in Bohemia, but in the heart of Germany. If I have not yet done to my enemies all that I am preparing for them, they must ascribe it neither to my moderation nor to their tyranny, but to my fear of compromising the name of the Elector, and the prosperity of the university of Wittemberg. Now, that I have no longer any such fears, I will rush with new impetuosity on Rome and her courtiers."[198]
So, on one side, Luther's enemies attack him, and on the other, his friends stand up to defend him. "My ship," he says, "drifts here and there at the mercy of the winds, ... hope and fear take turns ruling, but what does it matter?"[196] Still, he wasn't unaffected by the support he received. "The Lord reigns," he said, "so visibly that it feels almost tangible."[197] Luther recognized that he was no longer alone; his words had proved true, and it filled him with new courage. Now that he has other supporters ready to face Rome's wrath, he won't be held back by the fear of compromising the Elector. He becomes freer and, if anything, more determined. This is a crucial moment in the growth of Luther's thoughts. In a letter at this time to the Elector's chaplain, he writes, "Rome needs to understand that even if her threats manage to exile me from Wittenberg, she will only harm her own cause. Those willing to defend me against the papacy's wrath are not in Bohemia, but in the heart of Germany. If I haven't yet done everything I plan against my enemies, it should not be attributed to my restraint or their oppression, but to my concern about tarnishing the Elector's name and the university's success in Wittenberg. Now that I no longer have such fears, I will charge at Rome and her courtiers with new intensity."[198]
Still Luther's hope was not placed on the great. He had often been urged to dedicate a book to Duke John, the Elector's brother, but had never done it. "I fear," he had said, "that the suggestion comes from himself. The Holy Scriptures must be subservient only to the glory of God's name."[199] Luther afterwards laid aside his suspicions, and dedicated his discourse on good works to Duke John, a discourse in which he gives a forcible exposition of the doctrine of justification by faith, a mighty doctrine, whose power he rates far higher than the sword of Hütten, the army of Seckingen, or the protection of dukes and electors.
Still, Luther's hope wasn't placed in the powerful. He had often been encouraged to dedicate a book to Duke John, the Elector's brother, but he had never done so. "I worry," he had said, "that the idea comes from him. The Holy Scriptures should serve solely to glorify God's name."[199] Luther later set aside his doubts and dedicated his discussion on good works to Duke John, where he strongly presents the doctrine of justification by faith—a powerful doctrine that he values much more than the sword of Hütten, the army of Seckingen, or the protection of dukes and electors.
"The first, the noblest, the sublimest of all works," says he, "is faith in Jesus Christ.[200] From this work all other works should proceed; they are all the vassals of faith, and from it alone derive their efficacy.
"The first, the greatest, the most profound of all works," he says, "is faith in Jesus Christ.[200] From this work, all other works should flow; they are all dependent on faith, and they draw their power solely from it."
"If a man's own heart assures him, that what he is doing is agreeable to God, the work is good should it be merely the lifting up of a straw, but in the absence of this assurance the work is not good, though it should be the raising of the dead. A pagan, a Jew, a Turk, a sinner, can do all other works, but to trust firmly in the Lord, and feel assured of pleasing him, are works of which none are capable but the Christian strengthened by grace.
"If a guy's own heart tells him that what he’s doing is right in God's eyes, then it’s a good action even if it’s just picking up a straw. But without that confidence, the action isn't good, no matter if it’s bringing someone back to life. A pagan, a Jew, a Turk, or a sinner can do many things, but truly trusting in the Lord and feeling certain about pleasing Him are things that only a Christian, empowered by grace, can do."
"A Christian, who has faith in God, acts, at all times, with freedom and gladness, whereas, the man who is not at one with God is full of cares, and is detained in thraldom; he anxiously asks how many works he ought to do, he runs up and down interrogating this man and that man, and, nowhere finding any peace, does everything with dissatisfaction and fear.
"A Christian who believes in God acts freely and joyfully at all times, while a person who is not aligned with God is burdened with worries and is trapped. They constantly question how much they need to do, running around asking everyone and finding no peace, doing everything with dissatisfaction and fear."
"Hence, I have always extolled faith. But it is otherwise in the world: there the essential point is to have many works, works great and high, and of all dimensions, while it is a matter of indifference whether or not faith animates them. Thus men build their peace, not on the good pleasure of God, but on their own merits, that is to say, on the sand.... (Matt. vii, 27.)
"Hence, I've always praised faith. But in the world, the main thing is to have many actions—grand and significant ones, of all kinds—regardless of whether faith drives them or not. So people establish their peace, not on God's approval, but on their own achievements, which is to say, on shaky ground.... (Matt. vii, 27.)"
"To preach faith is, it is said, to prevent good works; but though a single man should have in himself the powers of all men, or even of all creatures,[201] the mere obligation of living by faith would be a task too great for him ever to accomplish. If I say to a sick person, be in health and you will have the use of your members—will it be said that I forbid him to use his members? Must not health precede labour? The same holds true in the preaching of faith; it must be before works, in order that works themselves may exist.
"People say that preaching faith prevents good works, but even if one person had the abilities of everyone else, or even all beings, just living by faith would be an overwhelming challenge. If I tell a sick person to be healthy and they'll be able to use their body, does that mean I'm stopping them from using their body? Doesn't health need to come before action? The same principle applies to preaching faith; it must come before works so that the works themselves can even happen."
"Where then, you will ask, is this faith found, and how is it received? This, indeed, is the most important of all questions. Faith comes solely from Jesus Christ, who is promised, and given gratuitously.
"Where, then, you might ask, is this faith found, and how is it received? This, truly, is the most important of all questions. Faith comes entirely from Jesus Christ, who is promised and freely given."
"O, man! represent Christ to thyself, and consider how in him God manifests his mercy to thee without being anticipated by any merit on thy part.[202] In this image of his grace receive the faith and assurance that all thy sins are forgiven thee. Works cannot produce it. It flows from the blood, the wounds, and the death of Christ, whence it wells up in the heart. Christ is the rock out of which come milk and honey. (Deut. xxxii.)
"O, man! See Christ for who He is, and think about how God shows His mercy to you without you doing anything to earn it.[202] Accept the faith and certainty that all your sins are forgiven through this image of His grace. Good deeds can't create it. It comes from the blood, the wounds, and the death of Christ, rising up in the heart. Christ is the rock from which flows milk and honey. (Deut. xxxii.)
Not being able to give an account of all Luther's works, we have quoted some short fragments of this discourse on good works, on account of the opinion which the Reformer himself had of it. "It is in my judgment," said he, "the best work that I have published." He immediately subjoins this profound observation. "But I know that when any thing I write pleases myself, the infection of this bad leaven prevents it from pleasing others."[203] Melancthon, in sending a copy of this discourse to a friend, thus expressed himself, "Of all Greek and Latin authors none has come nearer the spirit of St. Paul than Luther."[204]
Not being able to cover all of Luther's works, we've quoted some brief sections of his discussion on good works, due to the high regard the Reformer had for it. "In my opinion,” he said, “this is the best work I have published." He then adds this insightful remark: "But I know that whenever something I write makes me happy, the influence of this negative bias stops it from appealing to others." [203] Melancthon, when sending a copy of this discourse to a friend, expressed, "Of all Greek and Latin authors, none has come closer to the spirit of St. Paul than Luther." [204]
CHAP. III.
The Papacy Attacked—Appeal to the Nobility—The Three Walls—All Christians are Priests—The Magistrate's duty to Correct the Clergy—Abuses of Rome—Ruin of Italy—Dangers of Germany—The Pope—The Legates—The Monks—The Marriage of Priests—Celibacy—Festivals—The Bohemians—Charity—The Universities—The Empire—The Emperor must retake Rome—A Book not Published—Luther's Modesty—Success of the Address.
The Papacy in Crisis—A Call to the Nobility—The Three Barriers—All Christians as Priests—The Leader's Duty to Hold the Clergy Accountable—Problems in Rome—Italy's Decline—Danger to Germany—The Pope—The Envoys—The Monks—Married Priests—Celibacy—Celebrations—The Bohemians—Generosity—The Universities—The Empire—The Emperor Must Take Back Rome—A Unreleased Book—Luther's Humility—The Impact of the Address.
But the substitution of a system of meritorious works for the idea of grace and amnesty was not the only evil existing in the Church. A domineering power had risen up among the humble pastors of Christ's flock. Luther must attack this usurped authority. A vague and distant rumour of Eck's intrigues and success at Rome awakened a warlike spirit in the Reformer, who, amid all his turmoil, had calmly studied the origin, progress, and usurpations of the papacy. His discoveries having filled him with surprise, he no longer hesitated to communicate them and strike the blow which was destined, like the rod of Moses of old, to awaken a whole nation out of a lethargy, the result of long bondage. Even before Rome had time to publish her formidable bull, he published his declaration of war. "The time of silence," exclaims he, "is past; the time for speaking has arrived. The mysteries of Antichrist must at length be unveiled." On the 24th June, 1520, he published his famous 'Appeal to his Imperial Majesty, and the Christian Nobility of Germany, on the Reformation of Christianity.'[205] This work was the signal of the attack which was at once to complete the rupture and decide the victory.
But replacing the idea of grace and forgiveness with a system based on good works wasn’t the only problem in the Church. A dominating power had emerged among the humble leaders of Christ's followers. Luther had to challenge this seized authority. A vague and distant rumor of Eck's schemes and successes in Rome sparked a fighting spirit in the Reformer, who, despite his turmoil, had calmly studied the origins, developments, and encroachments of the papacy. His findings shocked him, and he no longer hesitated to share them and strike a blow that was meant, like Moses' rod of old, to awaken a whole nation from a long-standing slumber due to oppression. Even before Rome could announce her powerful bull, he released his declaration of war. "The time for silence," he declared, "is over; now is the time to speak. The mysteries of Antichrist must finally be revealed." On June 24, 1520, he published his famous 'Appeal to his Imperial Majesty, and the Christian Nobility of Germany, on the Reformation of Christianity.'[205] This work marked the beginning of the attack that would complete the break and determine the victory.
"It is not from presumption," says he, at the outset of this Treatise, "that I, who am only one of the people, undertake to address your lordships. The misery and oppression endured at this moment by all the States of Christendom, and more especially by Germany, wring from me a cry of distress. I must call for aid; I must see whether God will not give his Spirit to some one of our countrymen, and stretch out a hand to our unhappy nation. God has given us a young and generous prince, (the Emperor Charles V,)[206] and thus filled our hearts with high hopes. But we too must, on our own part, do all we can.
"It’s not out of arrogance," he begins this Treatise, "that I, just one of the people, take it upon myself to speak to your lordships. The suffering and oppression faced by all the states of Christendom right now, especially in Germany, compel me to cry out for help. I need to seek if God will inspire one of our fellow countrymen and reach out to our troubled nation. God has blessed us with a young and generous prince, (the Emperor Charles V),[206] and has filled our hearts with great hopes. But we must also do everything we can on our end."
"Now, the first thing necessary is, not to confide in our own great strength, or our own high wisdom. When any work otherwise good is begun in self-confidence, God casts it down, and destroys it. Frederick I, Frederick II, and many other emperors besides, before whom the world trembled, have been trampled upon by the popes, because they trusted more to their own strength than to God. They could not but fall. In this war we have to combat the powers of hell, and our mode of conducting it must be to expect nothing from the strength of human weapons—to trust humbly in the Lord, and look still more to the distress of Christendom than to the crimes of the wicked. It may be that, by a different procedure, the work would begin under more favourable appearances, but suddenly in the heat of the contest confusion would arise, bad men would cause fearful disaster, and the world would be deluged with blood. The greater the power, the greater the danger, when things are not done in the fear of the Lord."
"Now, the first thing we need to understand is not to rely on our own strength or wisdom. When any worthwhile effort starts with self-confidence, God will bring it down and destroy it. Frederick I, Frederick II, and many other emperors who made the world tremble were overthrown by the popes because they trusted in their own power rather than in God. They were bound to fail. In this struggle, we need to fight against the forces of evil, and our approach should be to expect nothing from human strength—to humbly trust in the Lord and pay more attention to the suffering of Christendom than to the actions of the wicked. It might seem that with a different approach, things could start off under better circumstances, but suddenly in the heat of battle, confusion would arise, bad people would cause terrible disasters, and the world would be flooded with blood. The greater the power, the greater the danger, when actions are not taken with the fear of the Lord."
After this exordium, Luther continues:—
After this introduction, Luther continues:—
"The Romans, to guard against every species of reformation, have surrounded themselves with three walls. When attacked by the temporal power, they denied its jurisdiction over them, and maintained the superiority of the spiritual power. When tested by Scripture, they replied, that none could interpret it but the pope. When threatened with a council, they again replied, that none but the pope could convene it.
"The Romans, to protect themselves from any kind of reform, have built three walls around themselves. When challenged by secular authority, they rejected its power over them and upheld the primacy of spiritual authority. When confronted with Scripture, they answered that only the pope could interpret it. When faced with the threat of a council, they again said that only the pope could call one."
"They have thus carried off from us the three rods destined to chastise them, and abandoned themselves to all sorts of wickedness. But now may God be our help, and give us one of the trumpets which threw down the walls of Jericho. Let us blow down the walls of paper and straw which the Romans have built around them, and lift up the rods which punish the wicked, by bringing the wiles of the devil to the light of day."
"They have taken away the three rods meant to punish them and have given in to all kinds of evil. But now may God help us and give us one of the trumpets that brought down the walls of Jericho. Let’s blow down the walls of paper and straw that the Romans have built around them, and raise the rods that punish the wicked by exposing the devil’s tricks."
Luther next commences the attack, and shakes to the foundation that papal monarchy which had for ages united the nations of the West into one body under the sceptre of the Roman bishop. There is no sacerdotal caste in Christianity. This truth, of which the Church was so early robbed, he vigorously expounds in the following terms:—
Luther then starts his attack, challenging the papal monarchy that had for centuries brought the nations of the West together under the authority of the Roman bishop. There is no priestly class in Christianity. He passionately explains this truth, which the Church was deprived of long ago, in the following words:—
"It has been said that the pope, the bishops, the priests, and all those who people convents, form the spiritual or ecclesiastical estate; and that princes, nobles, citizens, and peasants, form the secular or lay estate. This is a specious tale. But let no man be alarmed. All Christians belong to the spiritual estate, and the only difference between them is in the functions which they fulfil. We have all but one baptism, but one faith, and these constitute the spiritual man. Unction, tonsure, ordination, consecration, given by the pope or by a bishop, may make a hypocrite, but can never make a spiritual man. We are all consecrated priests by baptism, as St. Peter says, 'You are a royal priesthood;' although all do not actually perform the offices of kings and priests, because no one can assume what is common to all, without the common consent. But if this consecration of God did not belong to us, the unction of the pope could not make a single priest. If ten brothers, the sons of one king, and possessing equal claims to his inheritance, should choose one of their number to administer for them, they would all be kings, and yet only one of them would be the administrator of their common power. So it is in the Church. Were several pious laymen banished to a desert, and were they, from not having among them a priest consecrated by a bishop, to agree in selecting one of their number, whether married or not, he would be as truly a priest, as if all the bishops of the world had consecrated him. In this way were Augustine, Ambrose, and Cyprian elected.
"It has been said that the pope, bishops, priests, and everyone in monasteries make up the spiritual or church community, while princes, nobles, citizens, and peasants make up the secular or lay community. This is a misleading idea. But don’t worry. All Christians are part of the spiritual community, and the only difference among us is in the roles we play. We all have one baptism and one faith, which define us as spiritual beings. Anointing, tonsure, ordination, and consecration granted by the pope or a bishop may create a hypocrite but can never create a true spiritual person. We are all consecrated priests through baptism, as St. Peter says, 'You are a royal priesthood;' even though not everyone performs the duties of kings and priests, because no one can take on a role that belongs to everyone without their shared agreement. If this divine consecration didn’t belong to us, the pope's anointing couldn’t make a single priest. If ten brothers, all sons of a king with equal claims to the throne, chose one among them to administer for them, they would all still be kings, with only one of them managing their shared authority. It’s the same in the Church. If several devout laypeople were sent to a desert, and without having a priest consecrated by a bishop, they agreed to select one of their own, whether married or single, he would be as much a priest as if all the bishops in the world had consecrated him. This is how Augustine, Ambrose, and Cyprian were chosen."
"Hence it follows that laymen and priests, princes and bishops, or, as we have said, ecclesiastics and laics, have nothing to distinguish them but their functions. They have all the same condition, but they have not all the same work to perform.
"Hence it follows that laypeople and priests, princes and bishops, or, as we've said, religious leaders and ordinary folks, have nothing to set them apart except their roles. They all share the same status, but they don't all have the same tasks to complete."
"This being so, why should not the magistrate correct the clergy? The secular power was appointed by God for the punishment of the wicked and the protection of the good, and must be left free to act throughout Christendom without respect of persons, be they pope, bishops, priests, monks, or nuns. St. Paul says to all Christians, 'Let every soul,' (and consequently the pope also,) 'be subject to the higher powers; for they bear not the sword in vain.'"[207]
"This being the case, why shouldn't the magistrate hold the clergy accountable? The secular authority was appointed by God to punish the wicked and protect the good, and it should be allowed to operate freely throughout Christendom without favoritism, whether it concerns the pope, bishops, priests, monks, or nuns. St. Paul tells all Christians, 'Let every soul' (and therefore the pope as well), 'be subject to the higher powers; for they bear not the sword in vain.'"[207]
Luther, after throwing down the other two walls in the same way, takes a review of all the abuses of Rome. With an eloquence of a truly popular description he exposes evils which had, for ages, been notorious. Never had a nobler remonstrance been heard. The assembly which Luther addresses is the Church, the power whose abuses he attacks is that papacy which had for ages been the oppressor of all nations, and the Reformation for which he calls aloud is destined to exercise its powerful influence on Christendom, all over the world, and so long as man shall exist upon it.
Luther, after tearing down the other two walls in the same way, reviews all the abuses of Rome. With a truly relatable eloquence, he reveals the wrongs that have been well-known for ages. Never has a more noble protest been heard. The audience Luther speaks to is the Church, and the authority he criticizes is the papacy, which has oppressed nations for centuries. The Reformation he passionately calls for is set to have a significant impact on Christianity worldwide, as long as humanity exists.
He begins with the pope. "It is monstrous," says he, "to see him who calls himself the vicar of Jesus Christ displaying a magnificence, unequalled by that of any emperor. Is this the way in which he proves his resemblance to lowly Jesus, or humble Peter? He is, it is said, the lord of the world. But Christ, whose vicar he boasts to be, has said, 'My kingdom is not of this world.' Can the power of a vicegerent exceed that of his prince?..."
He starts with the pope. "It's monstrous," he says, "to see someone who claims to be the representative of Jesus Christ flaunting a splendor unmatched by any emperor. Is this how he shows he's like humble Jesus or lowly Peter? It's said he is the lord of the world. But Christ, whose representative he claims to be, said, 'My kingdom is not of this world.' Can a vicegerent's power surpass that of his ruler?..."
Luther proceeds to depict the consequences of the papal domination. "Do you know of what use the cardinals are? I will tell you. Italy and Germany have many convents, foundations, and benefices, richly endowed. How could their revenues be brought to Rome?... Cardinals were created; then, on them, cloisters and prelacies were bestowed, and at this hour ... Italy is almost a desert—the convents are destroyed—the bishopricks devoured—the towns in decay—the inhabitants corrupted—worship dying out, and preaching abolished.... Why? Because all the revenues of the churches go to Rome. Never would the Turk himself have so ruined Italy."
Luther goes on to show the impact of papal control. "Do you know what the cardinals are really for? Let me explain. Italy and Germany have many convents, foundations, and benefices that are well-funded. How could their income be sent to Rome?... Cardinals were appointed; then, they were given monasteries and bishoprics, and now ... Italy is nearly a wasteland—the convents are destroyed—the bishoprics are consumed—the towns are falling apart—the people are corrupted—worship is fading away, and preaching has been silenced.... Why? Because all the church funds go to Rome. Not even the Turk himself would have caused such destruction in Italy."
Luther next turns to his countrymen.
Luther then addresses his fellow countrymen.
"And now that they have thus sucked the blood of their own country, they come into Germany. They begin gently, but let us be on our guard. Germany will soon become like Italy. We have already some cardinals. Their thought is—before the rustic Germans comprehend our design they will have neither bishoprick, nor convent, nor benefice, nor penny, nor farthing. Antichrist must possess the treasures of the earth. Thirty or forty cardinals will be elected in a single day; to one will be given Bamberg, to another the duchy of Wurtzburg, and rich benefices will be annexed until the churches and cities are laid desolate. And then the pope will say, 'I am the vicar of Christ, and the pastor of his flocks. Let the Germans be resigned.'"
"And now that they've drained the resources of their own country, they come to Germany. They start slowly, but we need to be cautious. Germany will soon become like Italy. We already have some cardinals. Their plan is—before the simple Germans realize what’s happening, they will have no bishoprics, no monasteries, no financial support, not a penny to their name. Antichrist must claim the world's wealth. Thirty or forty cardinals will be appointed in one day; one will get Bamberg, another the duchy of Wurtzburg, and valuable properties will be attached until the churches and cities are left in ruins. And then the pope will declare, 'I am the vicar of Christ, and the shepherd of his flock. Let the Germans accept their fate.'"
Luther's indignation rises.
Luther's anger grows.
"How do we Germans submit to such robbery and concussion on the part of the pope? If France has successfully resisted, why do we allow ourselves to be thus sported with and insulted? Ah! if they deprived us of nothing but our goods. But they ravage churches, plunder the sheep of Christ, abolish the worship and suppress the word of God."
"How do we Germans put up with such theft and violence from the pope? If France has successfully fought back, why do we let ourselves be treated this way and insulted? Ah! If they were only taking our possessions. But they are wrecking churches, stealing from the followers of Christ, ending the worship, and silencing the word of God."
Luther then exposes the devices of Rome to obtain money and secure the revenues of Germany. Annats, palliums, commendams, administrations, expected favours, incorporations, reservations, etc., all pass in review. Then he says, "Let us endeavour to put a stop to this desolation and misery. If we would march against the Turks—let us begin with the worst species of them. If we hang pickpockets, and behead robbers, let us not allow Roman avarice to escape—avarice, which is the greatest of all thieves and robbers, and that too in the name of St. Peter and Jesus Christ. Who can endure it? Who can be silent? Is not all that the pope possesses stolen? He neither purchased it nor inherited it from St. Peter, nor acquired it by the sweat of his own brow. Where then did he get it?"
Luther then reveals how Rome schemes to gather money and secure Germany's revenue. Annats, palliums, commendams, administrations, expected favors, incorporations, reservations, and so on are all reviewed. He then says, "Let’s work to put an end to this destruction and suffering. If we’re going to fight the Turks—let’s start with the worst kind of them. If we hang pickpockets and behead robbers, we shouldn’t let Roman greed get away—greed that is the greatest of all thieves and robbers, and that too in the name of St. Peter and Jesus Christ. Who can stand it? Who can stay silent? Isn’t everything the pope has stolen? He didn’t buy it, inherit it from St. Peter, or earn it through hard work. So where did he get it?"
Luther proposes remedies for all these evils, and energetically arouses the German nobility to put an end to Roman depredation. He next comes to the reform of the pope himself. "Is it not ridiculous," says he, "that the pope should pretend to be the lawful heir of the empire? Who gave it to him? Was it Jesus Christ, when he said, 'The kings of the earth exercise lordship over them, but it shall not be so with you'? (Luke, xxii, 25, 26). How can he govern an empire, and at the same time preach, pray, study, and take care of the poor? Jesus Christ forbade his disciples to carry with them gold or clothes, because the office of the ministry cannot be performed without freedom from every other care; yet the pope would govern the empire, and at the same time remain pope."...
Luther suggests solutions for all these issues and passionately urges the German nobility to put a stop to Roman exploitation. He then addresses the need for reform within the papacy itself. "Isn't it absurd," he says, "that the pope claims to be the rightful heir of the empire? Who gave it to him? Was it Jesus Christ when he said, 'The kings of the earth exercise lordship over them, but it shall not be so with you'? (Luke, xxii, 25, 26). How can he govern an empire while also preaching, praying, studying, and helping the poor? Jesus Christ instructed his disciples not to carry gold or extra clothes because the ministry requires freedom from all other concerns; yet the pope wants to rule the empire while still being the pope."
Luther continues to strip the sovereign pontiff of his spoils. "Let the pope renounce every species of title to the kingdom of Naples and Sicily. He has no more right to it than I have. His possession of Bologna, Imola, Ravenna, Romagna, Marche d'Ancona, etc., is unjust and contrary to the commands of Jesus Christ. 'No man,' says St. Paul, 'who goeth a warfare entangleth himself with the affairs of this life,' (2 Tim. ii, 2). And the pope, who pretends to take the lead in the war of the gospel, entangles himself more with the affairs of this life than any emperor or king. He must be disencumbered of all this toil. The emperor should put a bible and a prayer book into the hands of the pope, that the pope may leave kings to govern, and devote himself to preaching and prayer."[208]
Luther continues to strip the pope of his advantages. "Let the pope give up any claim to the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. He has no more right to them than I do. His control over Bologna, Imola, Ravenna, Romagna, and Marche d'Ancona, etc., is unjust and goes against the teachings of Jesus Christ. 'No man,' says St. Paul, 'who goes to war entangles himself with the affairs of this life,' (2 Tim. ii, 2). And the pope, who claims to lead the fight for the gospel, gets more caught up in worldly matters than any emperor or king. He needs to be freed from all this burden. The emperor should hand the pope a Bible and a prayer book so that the pope can let kings rule and focus on preaching and prayer."[208]
Luther is as averse to the pope's ecclesiastical power in Germany as to his temporal power in Italy. "The first thing necessary is to banish from all the countries of Germany, the legates of the pope, and the pretended blessings which they sell us at the weight of gold, and which are sheer imposture. They take our money—and why? For legalising ill gotten gain, for loosing oaths, and teaching us to break faith, to sin, and go direct to hell.... Hearest thou, O, pope! not pope most holy, but pope most sinful.... May God, from his place in heaven, cast down thy throne into the infernal abyss!"
Luther is just as opposed to the pope's authority in Germany as he is to his power in Italy. "The first thing we need to do is get rid of the pope’s legates in all the countries of Germany, along with the false blessings they sell us for a huge price, which are nothing but a scam. They take our money—and for what? To make illegal gains legal, to release us from our oaths, and to teach us to break our promises, sin, and head straight to hell.... Do you hear me, O pope! Not the most holy pope, but the most sinful pope.... May God, from his place in heaven, throw down your throne into the depths of hell!"
The Christian tribune pursues his course. After citing the pope to his bar, he cites all the abuses in the train of the papacy, and endeavours to sweep away from the Church all the rubbish by which it is encumbered. He begins with the monks.
The Christian leader continues on his path. After bringing the pope before him, he points out all the problems that come with the papacy and tries to remove all the junk that weighs down the Church. He starts with the monks.
"And now I come to a lazy band which promises much, but performs little. Be not angry, dear Sirs, my intention is good; what I have to say is a truth at once sweet and bitter; viz., that it is no longer necessary to build cloisters for mendicant monks. Good God! we have only too many of them, and would they were all suppressed.... To wander vagabond over the country never has done, and never will do good."
"And now I turn to a lazy group that talks a big game but gets very little done. Please don’t be upset, dear Sirs; my intentions are good. What I have to say is both sweet and bitter: it’s no longer necessary to create monasteries for begging monks. Goodness! We have way too many of them, and I wish they were all gone.... Wandering around as vagabonds has never helped anyone and never will."
The marriage of ecclesiastics comes next in course. It is the first occasion on which Luther speaks of it.
The marriage of clergy comes next. This is the first time Luther discusses it.
"Into what a state have the clergy fallen, and how many priests are burdened with women and children and remorse, while no one comes to their assistance? Let the pope and the bishops run their course, and let those who will, go to perdition; all very well! but I am resolved to unburden my conscience and open my mouth freely, however pope, bishops, and others may be offended!... I say, then, that according to the institution of Jesus Christ and the apostles, every town ought to have a pastor or bishop, and that this pastor may have a wife, as St. Paul writes to Timothy, "Let the bishop be the husband of one wife," (1 Tim. iii. 2,) and as is still practised in the Greek Church. But the devil has persuaded the pope, as St. Paul tells Timothy (1 Tim. iv, 1-3), to forbid the clergy to marry. And hence, evils so numerous, that it is impossible to give them in detail. What is to be done? How are we to save the many pastors who are blameworthy only in this, that they live with a female, to whom they wish with all their heart to be lawfully united? Ah! let them save their conscience! let them take this woman in lawful wedlock, and live decently with her, not troubling themselves whether it pleases or displeases the pope. The salvation of your soul is of greater moment than arbitrary and tyrannical laws, laws not imposed by the Lord."
"Look at the state the clergy are in, with so many priests weighed down by women, children, and guilt, and no one stepping in to help them. Let the pope and the bishops do what they want, and let those who choose to go astray do so; that’s fine! But I am determined to clear my conscience and speak my mind, no matter who gets offended—pope, bishops, or anyone else! So, I say that according to the teachings of Jesus Christ and the apostles, every town should have a pastor or bishop, and this pastor can have a wife, as St. Paul writes to Timothy, 'Let the bishop be the husband of one wife' (1 Tim. iii. 2), just as is still done in the Greek Church. But the devil has convinced the pope, as St. Paul warns Timothy (1 Tim. iv, 1-3), to prohibit clergy from marrying. This has led to countless problems that are impossible to list in detail. What should we do? How can we help the many pastors who are only guilty of wanting to live with a woman they want to marry? Ah! Let them save their conscience! Let them marry this woman and live properly with her, without worrying about whether the pope approves or not. The salvation of your soul is far more important than arbitrary and oppressive laws, laws not set by the Lord."
In this way the Reformation sought to restore purity of morals within the Church. The Reformer continues:—
In this way, the Reformation aimed to bring back moral integrity within the Church. The Reformer continues:—
"Let feast-days be abolished, and let Sunday only be kept, or if it is deemed proper to keep the great Christian festivals, let them be celebrated in the morning, and let the remainder of the day be a working-day as usual. For by the ordinary mode of spending them in drinking and gaming and committing all sorts of sins, or in mere idleness, God is offended on festivals much more than on other days."
"Let’s get rid of feast days and just keep Sunday, or if we think it’s right to observe the major Christian holidays, let’s celebrate them in the morning and have the rest of the day be a regular workday. Because the usual way of spending those days—drinking, gambling, and doing all kinds of wrong things, or just being lazy—offends God on holidays even more than on regular days."
He afterwards attacks the dedications of Churches, (which he describes as mere taverns,) and after them fasts and fraternities. He desires not only to suppress abuses, but also to put an end to schisms. "It is time," says he, "to take the case of the Bohemians into serious consideration, that hatred and envy may cease, and union be again established." He proposes excellent methods of conciliation, and adds—"In this way must heretics be refuted by Scripture, as the ancient fathers did, and not subdued by fire. On a contrary system, executioners would be the most learned of all doctors. Oh! would to God that each party among us would shake hands with each other in fraternal humility, rather than harden ourselves in the idea of our power and right! Charity is more necessary than the Roman papacy. I have now done what was in my power. If the pope or his people oppose it, they will have to give an account. The pope should be ready to renounce the popedom, and all his wealth, and all his honours, if he could thereby save a single soul. But he would see the universe go to destruction sooner than yield a hair-breadth of his usurped power.[209] I am clear of these things."
He later criticizes the dedications of churches, which he refers to as just taverns, and then moves on to talk about fasting and fraternities. He wants not only to eliminate abuses but also to end divisions. "It's time," he says, "to seriously consider the situation of the Bohemians so that hatred and envy can stop, and we can restore unity." He suggests some great ways to bring people together and adds, "This is how we should refute heretics with Scripture, like the ancient fathers did, and not by burning them. Under a different approach, executioners would be the most knowledgeable of all scholars. Oh! I wish that each group among us would come together in humble friendship, instead of clinging to our sense of power and righteousness! Love is more important than the Roman papacy. I've done my part. If the pope or his followers resist, they'll have to answer for it. The pope should be willing to give up the papacy, along with all his wealth and honors, if it could save just one soul. But he would rather see the entire world perish than concede even a small fraction of his usurped power. [209] I am free from these matters."
Luther next comes to universities and schools.
Luther then discusses universities and schools.
"I much fear the universities will become wide gates to hell, if due care is not taken to explain the Holy Scriptures, and engrave it on the hearts of the students. My advice to every person is, not to place his child where the Scripture does not reign paramount. Every institution in which the studies carried on lead to a relaxed consideration of the Word of God must prove corrupting;[210] a weighty sentiment, which governments, literary men, and parents in all ages would do well to ponder."
"I really worry that universities will become gateways to hell if we don't take care to teach the Holy Scriptures and instill it in students' hearts. My advice to everyone is not to put their child in a place where the Scripture is not the top priority. Any institution where the studies allow for a casual attitude toward the Word of God will surely lead to corruption;[210] a serious thought that governments, scholars, and parents throughout history should consider carefully."
Towards the end of his address he returns to the empire and the emperor.
Towards the end of his speech, he goes back to discussing the empire and the emperor.
"The popes," says he, "unable to lead the ancient masters of the Roman empire at will, resolved on wresting their title and their empire from them and giving it to us Germans. This they accomplished, and we have become bondmen to the pope. For the pope has possessed himself of Rome, and bound the emperor by oath never to reside in it; and the consequence is, that the emperor is the emperor of Rome without having Rome. We have the name; the pope has the country and its cities. We have the title and the insignia of empire; the pope its treasury, power, privileges, and freedom. The pope eats the fruit, and we amuse ourselves with the husk. In this way our simplicity has always been abused by the pride and tyranny of the Romans.
"The popes," he says, "unable to control the ancient leaders of the Roman Empire as they wished, decided to take their title and their empire away from them and give it to us Germans. They succeeded in this, and now we have become servants to the pope. The pope has taken over Rome and made the emperor swear an oath never to live there; as a result, the emperor is the emperor of Rome without actually having Rome. We have the title; the pope has the land and its cities. We have the name and symbols of the empire; the pope has its wealth, power, privileges, and independence. The pope enjoys the rewards, while we settle for the leftovers. This is how our innocence has always been exploited by the arrogance and oppression of the Romans."
"But now, may God who has given us such an empire, be our aid! Let us act conformably to our name, our title, our insignia; let us save our freedom, and give the Romans to know that, through their hands it was committed to us by God. They boast of having given us an empire. Very well! let us take what belongs to us. Let the pope surrender Rome, and every part of the empire that he possesses. Let him put an end to his taxes and extortions. Let him restore our liberty, our power, our wealth, our honour, our soul, and our body. Let the empire be all that an empire ought to be; and let the sword of princes no longer be compelled to lower itself before the hypocritical pretensions of a pope."
“But now, may God, who has granted us such an empire, help us! Let’s act according to our name, our title, and our symbols; let’s protect our freedom and make the Romans understand that it was entrusted to us by God. They claim to have given us an empire. Fine! Let’s take what’s rightfully ours. Let the pope give up Rome and every part of the empire he controls. Let him stop his taxes and extortions. Let him restore our liberty, our power, our wealth, our honor, our spirit, and our body. Let the empire be everything an empire should be; and let the authority of princes no longer have to bow before the hypocritical claims of a pope.”
In these words there is not only energy and eloquence, but also sound argument. Never did orator so speak to the nobility of the empire, and to the emperor himself. Far from being surprised that so many German states revolted from Rome we should rather wonder that all Germany did not proceed to the banks of the Tiber, and there resume that imperial power, the insignia of which the popes had imprudently placed on the head of their chief.
In these words, there's not just energy and eloquence but also solid reasoning. No speaker has ever addressed the nobility of the empire and the emperor himself like this. Instead of being surprised that so many German states turned against Rome, we should actually be amazed that all of Germany didn't march to the banks of the Tiber and take back that imperial power, the symbols of which the popes foolishly put on their leader's head.
Luther thus concludes his intrepid address.
Luther wraps up his bold speech.
"I presume, however, that I have struck too high a note, proposed many things that will appear impossible, and been somewhat too severe on the many errors which I have attacked. But what can I do? Better that the world be offended with me than God!... The utmost which it can take from me is life. I have often offered to make peace with my opponents, but, through their instrumentality God has always obliged me to speak out against them. I have still a chant upon Rome in reserve, and if they have an itching ear, I will sing it to them at full pitch. Rome! do ye understand me?"... It is probable that Luther here refers to a treatise on the papacy which he was preparing for publication, but which never was published. Rector Burkhard, writing at this time to Spengler, says, "There is, moreover, a short tract, De Execranda Venere Romanorum, but it is kept in reserve." The title of the work seems to intimate something which would have given great offence, and it is pleasing to think that Luther had moderation not to publish it.
"I assume, though, that I've aimed too high, suggested many things that might seem impossible, and have been a bit too harsh on the numerous mistakes I've challenged. But what can I do? It's better for the world to be upset with me than God!... The worst they can do is take my life. I've often tried to make peace with my opponents, but through their actions, God has always forced me to speak out against them. I still have a song about Rome waiting, and if they have an eager ear, I will sing it loudly for them. Rome! Do you understand me?"... It's likely that Luther is referring to a treatise on the papacy he was preparing to publish but never did. Rector Burkhard, writing to Spengler at the time, states, "There is also a short tract, De Execranda Venere Romanorum, but it is kept in reserve." The title of this work suggests something that would have been very offensive, and it's nice to think that Luther had the restraint not to publish it.
"If my cause is just," continues he, "it must be condemned on the earth, and justified only by Christ in heaven. Therefore, let pope, bishops, priests, monks, doctors, come forward, display all their zeal, and give full vent to their fury. Assuredly they are just the people who ought to persecute the truth, as in all ages they have persecuted it."
"If my cause is just," he continues, "it should be condemned on earth and only justified by Christ in heaven. So, let the pope, bishops, priests, monks, and scholars step up, show all their zeal, and unleash their anger. They are exactly the kind of people who should go after the truth, just as they have done throughout history."
Where did this monk obtain this clear knowledge of public affairs, which even the states of the empire often find it so difficult to unravel? Whence did this German derive this courage which enables him to hold up his head among his countrymen who had been enslaved for so many ages, and deal such severe blows to the papacy? By what mysterious energy is he animated? Does it not seem that he must have heard the words which God addressed to one of ancient times; "Lo! I have strengthened thy face against their faces, I have made thy forehead like a diamond, and harder than flint; be not then afraid because of them"?
Where did this monk get such clear insights into public affairs, which even the leaders of the empire often struggle to understand? How did this German gain the courage to stand tall among his countrymen who have been oppressed for so long and deal such heavy blows to the papacy? What mysterious force drives him? Doesn't it seem like he must have heard the words that God spoke to someone in ancient times: "Look! I have made your face strong against their faces; I have made your forehead like a diamond, tougher than flint; so don’t be afraid of them"?
This exhortation, being addressed to the German nobility, was soon in the hands of all those for whom it was intended. It spread over Germany with inconceivable rapidity. Luther's friends trembled, while Staupitz, and those who wished to follow gentle methods, thought the blow too severe. "In our days," replied Luther, "whatever is treated calmly falls into oblivion, and nobody cares for it."[211] At the same time, he displayed extraordinary simplicity and humility. He was unconscious of his own powers. "I know not," writes he, "what to say of myself; perhaps I am the precursor of Philip (Melancthon). Like Elias, I am preparing the way for him, in spirit and in power, that he may one day trouble Israel, and the house of Ahab."[212] But there was no occasion to wait for any other than he who had appeared. The house of Ahab was already shaken. The Address to the German Nobility was published on the 26th of June, 1520, and, in a short time, 4000 copies were sold, a number at that period unprecedented. The astonishment was universal, and the whole people were in commotion. The vigour, spirit, perspicuity, and noble boldness by which it was pervaded, made it truly a work for the people, who felt that one who spoke in such terms truly loved them. The confused views which many wise men entertained were enlightened. All became aware of the usurpations of Rome. At Wittemberg, no man had any doubt whatever, that the pope was Antichrist. Even the Elector's court, with all its timidity and circumspection, did not disapprove of the Reformer, but only awaited the issue. The nobility and the people did not even wait. The nation was awakened, and, at the voice of Luther, adopted his cause, and rallied around his standard. Nothing could have been more advantageous to the Reformer than this publication. In palaces, in castles, in the dwellings of the citizens, and even in cottages, all are now prepared, and made proof, as it were, against the sentence of condemnation which is about to fall upon the prophet of the people. All Germany is on fire, and the bull, come when it may, never will extinguish the conflagration.
This message, directed at the German nobility, quickly reached everyone it was meant for. It spread across Germany at an unbelievable pace. Luther's friends were anxious, while Staupitz and those who preferred softer approaches thought the impact was too harsh. "Nowadays," Luther replied, "anything treated calmly fades into obscurity, and no one pays attention to it." [211] At the same time, he showed remarkable simplicity and humility. He was unaware of his own strength. "I don’t know," he wrote, "what to say about myself; maybe I am the forerunner of Philip (Melancthon). Like Elijah, I’m preparing the way for him—spiritually and powerfully—so he might one day challenge Israel and the house of Ahab." [212] But there was no need to wait for anyone other than the one who had already come. The house of Ahab was already shaken. The Address to the German Nobility was published on June 26, 1520, and within a short time, 4,000 copies were sold, an unprecedented number at that time. The astonishment was widespread, and the entire populace was stirred. The vigor, spirit, clarity, and boldness that infused it made it truly a work for the people, who sensed that someone speaking like this genuinely cared for them. The confused ideas that many learned men harbored were clarified. Everyone became aware of the overreach of Rome. In Wittenberg, no one doubted that the pope was the Antichrist. Even the Elector's court, with all its fearfulness and caution, didn’t disapprove of the Reformer; they only waited to see what would happen. The nobility and the people couldn’t wait, either. The nation was awakened, and at Luther's call, they embraced his cause and rallied around his banner. Nothing could have benefited the Reformer more than this publication. In palaces, castles, the homes of citizens, and even in cottages, everyone was now prepared and, so to speak, fortified against the impending condemnation that was about to befall the people's prophet. All Germany is ablaze, and no matter when the papal bull arrives, it will never extinguish this fire.
CHAP. IV.
Preparations at Rome—Motives to resist the Papacy—Eck at Rome—Eck gains the Day—The Pope is the World—God produces the Separation—A Swiss Priest pleads for Luther—The Roman Consistory—Preamble of the Bull—Condemnation of Luther.
Preparations in Rome—Reasons to resist the Papacy—Eck in Rome—Eck wins the debate—The Pope symbolizes the World—God starts the Separation—A Swiss Priest supports Luther—The Roman Consistory—Announcement of the Bull—Condemnation of Luther.
At Rome every thing necessary for the condemnation of the defender of the liberty of the Church was prepared. Men had long lived there in arrogant security. The monks of Rome had long accused Leo X of devoting himself to luxury and pleasure, and of spending his whole time in hunting, theatricals, and music,[213] while the Church was crumbling to pieces. At last, through the clamour of Dr. Eck, who had come from Leipsic to invoke the power of the Vatican, the pope, the cardinals, the monks, all Rome awoke and bestirred themselves to save the papacy.
At Rome, everything needed to condemn the defender of the Church's freedom was set in motion. People had long lived there with arrogant confidence. The monks in Rome had spent years accusing Leo X of indulging in luxury and pleasure, wasting his time on hunting, theater, and music,[213] while the Church was falling apart. Finally, due to the outcry from Dr. Eck, who had come from Leipzig to call on the Vatican's power, the pope, the cardinals, the monks, and all of Rome stirred to action to save the papacy.
Rome, in fact, was obliged to adopt the severest measures. The gauntlet had been thrown down, and the combat was destined to be mortal. Luther attacked not the abuses of the Roman pontificate, but the pontificate itself. At his bidding, the pope was humbly to descend from his throne, and again become a simple pastor, or bishop, on the banks of the Tiber. All the dignitaries of the Roman hierarchy were required to renounce their riches and worldly glory, and again become elders or deacons of the churches of Italy. All the splendour and power which had for ages dazzled the West behoved to vanish away and give place to the humble and simple worship of the primitive Christians. These things God could have done, and will one day do, but they were not to be expected from men. Even should a pope have been disinterested enough, and bold enough to attempt the overthrow of the ancient and sumptuous edifice of the Romish Church, thousands of priests and bishops would have rushed forward to its support. The pope had received power under the express condition of maintaining whatever was entrusted to him. Rome deemed herself appointed of God to govern the Church; and no wonder, therefore, that she was prepared with this view to adopt the most decisive measures. And yet, at the outset, she did show hesitation. Several cardinals and the pope himself, were averse to severe proceedings. Leo had too much sagacity not to be aware that a decision, the enforcement of which depended on the very dubious inclinations of the civil power, might seriously compromise the authority of the Church. He saw, moreover, that the violent methods already resorted to had only increased the evil. "Is it impossible to gain this Saxon monk?" asked the politicians of Rome. "Would all the power of the Church, and all the wiles of Italy, be ineffectual for this purpose? Negotiation must still be attempted."
Rome was forced to take drastic action. The challenge had been issued, and the battle was bound to be deadly. Luther wasn't just criticizing the mistakes of the pope; he was targeting the papacy itself. He called for the pope to humbly step down from his throne and return to being just a regular pastor or bishop along the Tiber River. All the high-ranking officials in the Roman hierarchy were expected to give up their wealth and worldly prestige, going back to being elders or deacons of the Italian churches. The grandeur and power that had captivated the West for centuries needed to disappear and make way for the humble and simple worship of the early Christians. God could have done this and will one day do it, but it wasn't something to expect from people. Even if a pope were selfless and daring enough to dismantle the ancient and lavish structure of the Roman Church, countless priests and bishops would intervene to support it. The pope held power on the condition that he maintain what was entrusted to him. Rome saw itself as chosen by God to lead the Church, so it's no surprise that they were ready to take definitive actions for that purpose. Yet, at first, there was some hesitation. Several cardinals, including the pope, were against harsh measures. Leo was wise enough to know that a decision reliant on the unpredictable will of civil authorities could seriously undermine the Church's authority. He also realized that the aggressive tactics already used had only worsened the situation. "Is it really impossible to win over this Saxon monk?" the Roman politicians asked. "Would all the power of the Church and all the tricks of Italy be useless for this? We must at least try negotiating."
Eck accordingly encountered formidable obstacles. He neglected nothing to prevent what he termed impious concessions. Going up and down Rome, he gave vent to his rage, and cried for vengeance. The fanatical faction of the monks having immediately leagued with him he felt strong in this alliance, and proceeded with new courage to importune the pope and the cardinals. According to him all attempts at conciliation were useless. "The idea of it," said he, "is only the vain dream of those who slumber at a distance from the scene." But he knew the danger; for he had wrestled with the audacious monk. The thing necessary was to amputate the gangrened limb, and so prevent the disease from attacking the whole body. The blustering disputant of Leipsic solves objections one after another, and endeavours, but finds it difficult to persuade the pope.[214] He wishes to save Rome in spite of herself. Sparing no exertion, he spent whole hours in deliberation in the cabinet of the pontiff,[215] and made application both to the court and the cloisters, to the people and the Church. "Eck is calling to the depth of depths against me," said Luther, "and setting on fire the forests of Lebanon."[216] At length he succeeded. The fanatics in the councils of the papacy vanquished the politicians. Leo gave way, and Luther's condemnation was resolved. Eck began again to breathe, and his pride felt gratified by the thought that his own efforts had procured the ruin of his heretical rival, and thereby saved the church. "It was well," said he, "that I came to Rome at this time, for little was known of Luther's errors. It will one day be seen how much I have done in this cause."[217]
Eck faced significant challenges. He did everything he could to stop what he called godless concessions. Roaming around Rome, he expressed his anger and demanded justice. Aligning himself with the fanatical group of monks, he felt empowered by this alliance and moved forward with renewed determination to pressure the pope and the cardinals. In his view, all attempts at reconciliation were pointless. "The idea of it," he said, "is just the foolish fantasy of those who are far removed from the situation." But he was aware of the danger; he had confronted the bold monk. The essential action was to cut off the infected part to prevent the disease from spreading throughout the entire body. The boastful debater from Leipzig tackles objections one by one and tries to convince the pope, but he finds it challenging.[214] He aims to save Rome against its own will. He put in a lot of effort, spending hours deliberating in the pope's office,[215] and reached out to the court and the monastic communities, as well as to the people and the Church. "Eck is calling to the depths against me," Luther said, "and igniting the forests of Lebanon."[216] Eventually, he succeeded. The radicals within the papacy's councils overwhelmed the politicians. Leo gave in, and Luther's condemnation was decided. Eck began to feel relieved, and his pride was boosted by the thought that his efforts had led to the downfall of his heretical rival, thus saving the church. "It was a good thing," he said, "that I came to Rome at this time, for very little was known about Luther's errors. One day it will be clear how much I have accomplished for this cause."[217]
No one exerted himself so much in seconding Dr. Eck as the master of the sacred palace, Sylvester Mazzolini De Prierio, who had just published a work, in which he maintained, that not only to the pope alone appertained the infallible decision of all debateable points, but also that papal ascendancy was the fifth monarchy of Daniel, and the only true monarchy; that the pope was the prince of all ecclesiastical, and the father of all secular princes, the chief of the world, and even in substance the world itself.[218] In another writing he affirmed, that the pope is as much superior to the emperor as gold is to lead;[219] that the pope can appoint and depose emperors and electors, establish and annul positive rights; and that the emperor, with all the laws and all the nations of Christendom, cannot decide the smallest matter contrary to the pope's will. Such was the voice which came forth from the palace of the sovereign pontiff, such the monstrous fiction which, in union with scholastic dogmas, aimed at suppressing reviving truth. Had this fiction not been unmasked, as it has been, and that even by learned members of the Catholic Church, there would have been neither true history nor true religion. The papacy is not merely a lie in regard to the Bible, it is also a lie in regard to the annals of nations. And hence the Reformation, by destroying its fascinating power, has emancipated not only the Church, but also kings and nations. The Reformation has been described as a political work, and in this secondary sense it truly was so.
No one worked as hard to support Dr. Eck as Sylvester Mazzolini De Prierio, the master of the sacred palace, who had just published a book arguing that not only did the infallible authority to resolve debatable issues belong to the pope, but also that papal supremacy was the fifth monarchy mentioned in Daniel, and the only real monarchy; that the pope was the leader of all church leaders and the father of all secular princes, the chief of the world, and essentially the world itself. In another writing, he claimed that the pope is as much greater than the emperor as gold is greater than lead; that the pope can appoint and dismiss emperors and electors, establish and revoke laws; and that the emperor, along with all the laws and nations of Christendom, cannot decide even the smallest matter against the pope's wishes. This was the message coming from the pope's palace, a monstrous falsehood which, combined with scholastic doctrines, aimed to silence the emerging truths. Had this falsehood not been revealed, as it has been, even by knowledgeable members of the Catholic Church, there would have been neither true history nor true religion. The papacy is not only a distortion in relation to the Bible, but also a distortion in the historical records of nations. Therefore, the Reformation, by dismantling its captivating influence, has freed not just the Church, but also kings and nations. The Reformation has been referred to as a political movement, and in that secondary sense, it truly was.
Thus God sent a spirit of delusion on the doctors of Rome. The separation between truth and error must now be accomplished, and it is to error that the task is assigned. Had a compromise been entered into, it must have been at the expense of truth; for to mutilate truth in the slightest degree is to pave the way for her complete annihilation. Like the insect, which is said to die on the loss of one of its antennæ, she must be complete in all her parts, in order to display the energy which enables her to gain great and advantageous victories, and propagate herself through coming ages. To mingle any portion of error with truth is to throw a grain of poison into a large dish of food. The grain suffices to change its whole nature, and death ensues slowly, it may be; but yet surely. Those who defend the doctrine of Christ against the attacks of its adversaries keep as jealous an eye on its farthest outposts as on the citadel itself, for the moment the enemy gains any footing at all he is on the highway to conquest. The Roman pontiff determined at the period of which we now treat to rend the Church; and the fragment which remained in his hand, how splendid soever it may be, in vain endeavours under pompous ornaments to hide the deleterious principle by which it is attacked. It is only where the word of God is, that there is life. Luther, however great his courage was, would probably have been silent had Rome been so and made some faint show of concession. But God did not leave the Reformation to depend on a weak human heart. Luther was under the guidance of a clearer intellect than his own. The pope was the instrument in the hand of Providence to sever every tie between the past and the future, and launch the Reformer on a new, unknown, and to him uncertain career, and the difficult avenues to which he would, if left to himself, have been unable to find. The papal bull was a writing of divorce sent from Rome to the pure Church of Jesus Christ, as personified in him who was then her humble but faithful representative. And the Church accepted the writing on the understanding that she was thenceforth to depend on none but her heavenly Head.
Thus God sent a spirit of deception upon the doctors of Rome. The divide between truth and falsehood must now be established, and error has been assigned this task. If there had been a compromise, it would have come at the cost of truth; because altering truth even slightly is the first step toward its total destruction. Like an insect that is said to die if it loses one of its antennae, truth must remain whole in all its parts to retain the strength that allows it to achieve significant victories and continue into future generations. Mixing even a small amount of error with truth is like adding a grain of poison to a large dish of food. That single grain is enough to change the entire nature of the dish, leading to a slow, but certain, death. Those who defend Christ's doctrine against challenges keep a vigilant watch on its farthest edges as well as on the fortress itself, because the moment the enemy gains any foothold, they are on the path to victory. The Roman pontiff decided at this time to tear the Church apart, and the fragment that remained in his hands, no matter how grand it might be, absurdly tries to hide the harmful principle attacking it behind extravagant decorations. True life exists only where the word of God is. Luther, as brave as he was, might have remained silent if Rome had shown even a hint of concession. But God did not leave the Reformation dependent on a fragile human heart. Luther was guided by a clearer insight than his own. The pope was the instrument in God's hand to cut every connection between the past and the future, sending the Reformer into a new, unknown, and uncertain path that he would have been unable to navigate on his own. The papal bull was a divorce document sent from Rome to the pure Church of Jesus Christ, represented at that time by the humble yet faithful Luther. The Church accepted this document with the understanding that, from that point on, it would rely only on its heavenly Head.
While at Rome, Luther's condemnation was urged forward with so much violence, a humble priest, dwelling in one of the humble towns of Helvetia, and who had never had any correspondence with the Reformer, was deeply moved when he thought of the blow which was aimed at him; while even the friends of the Wittemberg doctor trembled in silence, this mountaineer of Switzerland resolved to employ every means to stay the formidable bull. His name was Ulrick Zwingle. William des Faucons, who was secretary to the papal Legate in Switzerland, and managed the affairs of Rome during the Legate's absence, was his friend, and a few days before had said to him, "while I live you may calculate on obtaining from me everything that a true friend can be expected to give." The Helvetian priest, trusting to this declaration, repaired to the Roman embassy. This, at least, may be inferred from one of his letters. For himself, he had no fear of the dangers to which evangelical faith exposed him, knowing that a disciple of Jesus Christ must always be ready to sacrifice his life; "All I ask of Christ for myself," said he to a friend to whom he was unbosoming his solicitude on Luther's account, "all I ask is to be able to bear like a man whatever evils await me. I am a vessel of clay in his hands. Let him break or let him strengthen me as seemeth to him good."[220] But the Swiss evangelist had fears for the Christian Church, should this formidable blow reach the Reformer, and he endeavoured to persuade the representative of Rome to enlighten the pope, and employ all the means in his power to prevent him from launching an excommunication at Luther.[221] "The dignity of the holy see itself," said he to him, "is here at stake, for if matters are brought to such a point, Germany, in the height of her enthusiasm for the gospel, and for its preacher, will despise the pope and his anathemas."[222] The efforts of Zwingle were in vain. It appears, indeed, that when he was making them, the blow had been already struck. Such was the first occasion on which the paths of the Saxon doctor and the Swiss priest met. The latter we will again meet with in the course of this history, and will see him gradually expanding and growing until he obtain a high standing in the Church of the Lord.
While in Rome, Luther's condemnation was pushed forward with such intensity that a humble priest living in a small town in Switzerland, who had never been in contact with the Reformer, became deeply troubled as he considered the repercussions aimed at him. Meanwhile, even the friends of the Wittenberg doctor stood by silently in fear. This Swiss mountain dweller decided to use every means possible to stop the powerful bull. His name was Ulrick Zwingle. William des Faucons, who was the secretary to the papal Legate in Switzerland and handled the affairs of Rome during the Legate's absence, was his friend. Just a few days earlier, he had told him, "While I live, you can count on me for everything a true friend can offer." Trusting this assurance, the Helvetian priest went to the Roman embassy. This assumption is backed up by one of his letters. For himself, he had no fear of the perils that could arise from evangelical faith, knowing that a disciple of Jesus Christ must always be prepared to sacrifice his life. "All I ask of Christ for myself," he told a friend to whom he was sharing his concerns about Luther, "is the strength to endure whatever hardships await me like a man. I am a vessel of clay in His hands. Let Him break or strengthen me as He sees fit."[220] However, the Swiss evangelist feared for the Christian Church if this severe blow were to strike the Reformer. He tried to convince the representative of Rome to inform the pope and use all means at his disposal to prevent him from issuing an excommunication against Luther.[221] "The dignity of the holy see itself," he said, "is at stake here, for if things progress this far, Germany, caught up in her enthusiasm for the gospel and its preacher, will disregard the pope and his anathemas."[222] Zwingle's efforts were futile. In fact, it seems that while he was working on this, the blow had already been delivered. This was the first time the paths of the Saxon doctor and the Swiss priest crossed. We will encounter the latter again as this story unfolds, and we will observe him gradually growing and achieving a significant position in the Church of the Lord.
After Luther's condemnation was at last resolved upon, new difficulties arose in the Consistory. The theologians wished to proceed at once to fulmination, whereas the lawyers were for beginning with a citation, asking their theological colleagues, "Was not Adam first cited? 'Adam, where art thou?' said the Lord. It was the same with Cain, the question asked at him was, 'where is thy brother, Abel?'" These strange arguments, drawn from Scripture, the canonists strengthened by appealing to the principles of the law of nature. "The certainty of a crime," said they, "cannot deprive the criminal of his right of defence."[223] It is pleasing to find a sense of justice still existing in a Roman consistory. But these scruples did not suit the theologians, who, hurried on by passion, thought only of proceeding to business with despatch. It was at length agreed that the doctrine of Luther should be immediately condemned, and that a period of sixty days should be granted to him and his adherents; after which, provided they did not retract, they should all be, ipso facto, excommunicated. De Vio, who had returned from Germany in ill health, was carried to the meeting, that he might not lose this little triumph, which carried with it some degree of consolation. Having been defeated at Augsburg, he longed to be able at Rome to condemn the invincible monk, before whom his knowledge, finesse, and authority had proved unavailing. Luther not being there to reply, De Vio felt himself strong. A last conference, which Eck attended, was held in presence of the pope himself, in his villa at Malliano. On the 15th of June the sacred college resolved on condemnation, and approved of the famous bull.
After Luther's condemnation was finally decided, new problems emerged in the Consistory. The theologians wanted to move straight to a sentence, while the lawyers suggested starting with a citation, asking their theological peers, "Wasn't Adam first cited? 'Adam, where are you?' said the Lord. It was the same with Cain; the question directed at him was, 'Where is your brother, Abel?'" These unusual arguments, drawn from Scripture, were reinforced by the canonists referring to the principles of natural law. "The certainty of a crime," they said, "cannot strip the criminal of his right to defend himself." It is reassuring to see some sense of justice still present in a Roman consistory. However, these concerns did not align with the theologians, who, driven by emotion, focused solely on getting things done quickly. It was eventually agreed that Luther's doctrine should be condemned immediately, and that he and his supporters would be given sixty days to retract; if they didn’t, they would all be, ipso facto, excommunicated. De Vio, who had returned from Germany in poor health, was brought to the meeting so he wouldn’t miss this small victory, which offered him some comfort. After being defeated in Augsburg, he longed to condemn the unyielding monk in Rome, where his knowledge, skill, and authority had failed him. With Luther absent and unable to respond, De Vio felt empowered. A final conference, which Eck attended, was held in the presence of the pope himself at his villa in Malliano. On June 15th, the sacred college resolved to condemn Luther and approved the famous bull.
"Arise, O Lord!" said the Roman pontiff, speaking at this solemn moment as vicar of God and head of the Church, "arise and be judge in thy own cause. Remember the insults daily offered to thee by infatuated men. Arise, O Peter, remember thy holy Roman Church, the mother of all churches, and mistress of the faith! Arise, O Paul, for here is a new Porphyry, who is attacking thy doctrines and the holy popes our predecessors! Arise, in fine, assembly of all the saints, holy Church of God, and intercede with the Almighty!"[224]
"Rise up, O Lord!" said the Roman Pope, speaking at this serious moment as your representative and leader of the Church, "rise and be the judge in your own cause. Remember the daily insults thrown at you by misguided people. Rise, O Peter, remember your holy Roman Church, the mother of all churches, and the guardian of the faith! Rise, O Paul, for there is a new Porphyry here, attacking your teachings and the holy popes who came before us! Rise, in short, assembly of all the saints, holy Church of God, and plead with the Almighty!"[224]
The pope afterwards quotes as pernicious, scandalous, and poisonous, forty-one propositions in which Luther had expounded the holy doctrine of the gospel. Among these propositions we find the following:—
The pope later describes forty-one statements made by Luther about the holy doctrine of the gospel as harmful, scandalous, and toxic. Among these statements, we find the following:—
"To deny that sin remains in an infant after baptism, is to trample St. Paul and our Lord Jesus Christ under foot."
"To say that sin doesn't exist in a baby after baptism is to disrespect St. Paul and our Lord Jesus Christ."
"A new life is the best and noblest penance."
"A fresh start is the best and most honorable way to atone."
"To burn heretics is contrary to the will of the Holy Spirit, etc."
"Burning heretics goes against the will of the Holy Spirit, etc."
"The moment this Bull is published," continued the pope, "it will be the duty of the bishops to make careful search for the writings of Martin Luther, which contain these errors, and to burn them publicly and solemnly in presence of the clergy and laity. In regard to Martin himself, good God! what have we not done! Imitating the goodness of the Almighty, we are ready, even yet, to receive him into the bosom of the Church, and we give him sixty days to transmit his retractation to us in a writing sealed by two prelates; or, what will be more agreeable to us, to come to Rome in person, that no doubt may be entertained as to his submission. Meanwhile, and from this moment, he must cease to preach, teach, or write, and must deliver his works to the flames. If, in the space of sixty days, he do not retract, we, by these presents, condemn him and his adherents as public and absolute heretics." The pope afterwards pronounces a multiplicity of excommunications, maledictions, and interdicts against Luther and all his adherents, with injunctions to seize their persons and send them to Rome.[225] It is easy to conjecture what the fate of these noble confessors of the gospel would have been in the dungeons of the papacy.
"The moment this Bull is published," the pope continued, "it will be the responsibility of the bishops to carefully search for the writings of Martin Luther, which contain these errors, and to publicly and solemnly burn them in front of the clergy and laity. As for Martin himself, good God! what haven’t we done! Following the mercy of the Almighty, we are still ready to welcome him back into the Church, and we’re giving him sixty days to send us a written retraction sealed by two bishops; or, to make things easier for us, to come to Rome in person, so there's no doubt about his submission. In the meantime, starting now, he must stop preaching, teaching, or writing, and must surrender his works to the flames. If he does not retract within sixty days, we hereby condemn him and his followers as public and absolute heretics." The pope then pronounces a series of excommunications, curses, and bans against Luther and all his followers, ordering their arrest and transportation to Rome.[225] It's easy to imagine what the fate of these brave confessors of the gospel would have been in the dungeons of the papacy.
A thunder storm was thus gathering over the head of Luther. Some had been able to persuade themselves, after Reuchlin's affair, that the Court at Rome would not again make common cause with the Dominicans and the Inquisitors. These, however, were again in the ascendant, and the old alliance was solemnly renewed. The Bull was published, and for ages the mouth of Rome had never pronounced a sentence of condemnation without following it up with a death blow. This murderous message was about to issue from the seven hills, and attack the Saxon monk in his cloister. The moment was well chosen. There were good grounds for supposing that the new emperor, who, for many reasons, was anxious to obtain the friendship of the pope, would hasten to merit it by the sacrifice of an obscure monk. Leo X, the cardinals, and all Rome, were exulting in the belief that their enemy was already in their power.
A thunderstorm was brewing over Luther's head. Some people had convinced themselves, after the Reuchlin affair, that the Court in Rome wouldn’t team up with the Dominicans and the Inquisitors again. However, they were once more on the rise, and the old alliance was officially revived. The Bull was published, and for centuries, Rome had never issued a condemnation without backing it up with a lethal blow. This deadly message was about to come from the seven hills, ready to strike the Saxon monk in his cloister. The timing was perfect. There were solid reasons to believe that the new emperor, eager to gain the pope's favor for various reasons, would quickly try to win it by sacrificing an obscure monk. Leo X, the cardinals, and all of Rome were celebrating the belief that their enemy was already within their grasp.
CHAP. V.
Wittemberg—Melancthon—His Marriage—Catharine—Domestic Life—Beneficence—Good Humour—Christ and Antiquity—Labour—Love of Letters—His Mother—Outbreak among the Students.
Wittenberg—Melanchthon—His Marriage—Catherine—Family Life—Kindness—Sense of Humor—Christ and Ancient History—Career—Love for Learning—His Mother—Commotion among the Students.
While the inhabitants of the eternal city were thus agitated more tranquil events were occurring at Wittemberg, where Melancthon was shedding a soft but brilliant light. From 1500 to 2000 hearers, who had flocked from Germany, England, the Netherlands, France, Italy, Hungary, and Greece, often assembled around him. He was twenty-four years of age, and had not taken orders. Every house in Wittemberg was open to this learned and amiable young professor. Foreign universities, in particular Ingolstadt, were desirous to gain him, and his Wittemberg friends wished to get him married, and thereby retain him among them. Luther, though he concurred in wishing that his dear Philip should have a female companion, declared openly that he would give no counsel in the matter. The task was undertaken by others. The young doctor was a frequent visitor of Burgomaster Krapp. The burgomaster was of an ancient family, and had a daughter named Catharine, remarkable for the mildness of her dispositions, and her great sensibility. Melancthon was urged to ask her in marriage; but the young scholar was buried among his books, and could talk of nothing else. His Greek authors and his New Testament were all his delight. He combated the arguments of his friends; but at length his consent was obtained, and all the arrangements having been made by others, Catharine became his wife. He received her with great coolness,[226] and said, with a sigh, "God has willed it; so I must renounce my studies and my delights, to follow the wishes of my friends."[227] Still he appreciated the good qualities of Catharine. "The disposition and education of the girl," said he, "are such as I might have asked God to give her, δεξιᾷ ὁ θεὸς τεκμαίροιτο.[228] She certainly deserved a better husband." The matter was settled in August. The espousals took place on the 25th of September, and the marriage was celebrated in the end of November. Old John Luther and his wife came with their daughters to Wittemberg on the occasion.[229] Many learned and distinguished persons were also present.
While the people of the eternal city were in turmoil, more peaceful happenings were unfolding in Wittenberg, where Melanchthon was shining brightly. Between 1500 and 2000 listeners from Germany, England, the Netherlands, France, Italy, Hungary, and Greece often gathered around him. He was twenty-four years old and had not been ordained. Every house in Wittenberg welcomed this knowledgeable and friendly young professor. Foreign universities, especially Ingolstadt, wanted to recruit him, and his friends in Wittenberg hoped to see him married to keep him close. Luther, while he agreed that his dear Philip should have a partner, openly stated that he wouldn’t offer any advice on the matter. Others took on the task. The young doctor frequently visited Burgomaster Krapp, who came from an old family and had a daughter named Catharine, known for her gentle nature and sensitivity. Melanchthon was encouraged to propose to her, but the young scholar was absorbed in his books and could think of nothing else. His Greek texts and New Testament were his only joys. He resisted his friends' arguments, but eventually he agreed, and all the plans were made by others, and Catharine became his wife. He received her rather coolly and sighed, saying, "God has willed it; thus, I must give up my studies and pleasures to follow my friends' wishes." Yet, he recognized Catharine's good qualities. "The girl's character and upbringing," he said, "are exactly what I could have asked God for, δεξιᾷ ὁ θεὸς τεκμαίροιτο. She certainly deserved a better husband." The engagement was settled in August. The wedding took place on September 25th, and the marriage was celebrated at the end of November. Old John Luther and his wife came to Wittenberg with their daughters for the occasion. Many learned and distinguished guests were also present.
The young bride was as warm in her affection as the young professor was cold. Ever full of anxiety for her husband, Catharine took the alarm the moment she saw him threatened with even the semblance of danger. If Melancthon proposed to take any step which might compromise him, she urged and entreated him to abandon it. "On one of these occasions," wrote Melancthon, "I was obliged to yield to her weakness.... It is our lot." How much unfaithfulness in the Church has had a similar origin. To the influence of Catharine ought, perhaps, to be attributed the timidity and fears with which her husband has often been reproached. Catharine was as fond a mother as a wife. She gave liberally to the poor. "O God, leave me not in my old age, when my hair shall begin to turn grey!" Such was the frequent prayer of this pious and timorous soul. Melancthon was soon won by the affection of his wife. When he had tasted the pleasures of domestic society he felt how sweet they were, for he was of a nature to feel them. His happiest moments were beside his Catharine and her children. A French traveller having one day found the "preceptor of Germany" rocking his infant with one hand, and with a book in the other, started back in surprise; but Melancthon, without being discomposed, so warmly explained to him the value of children in the sight of God, that the stranger left the house, (to use his own words,) "wiser than he had entered it."
The young bride was as warm in her love as the young professor was cold. Always anxious about her husband, Catharine panicked the moment she saw him face even the slightest hint of danger. If Melancthon considered taking any action that might put him at risk, she urged and pleaded with him to stop. "On one of these occasions," Melancthon wrote, "I had to give in to her concerns.... It’s our fate." So much unfaithfulness in the Church has stemmed from similar origins. We might attribute her influence to the hesitation and fears her husband was often criticized for. Catharine was as loving a mother as she was a wife. She generously gave to the poor. "O God, don’t abandon me in my old age, when my hair starts to turn grey!" This was a frequent prayer of her pious and fearful spirit. Melancthon was quickly won over by his wife’s affection. Once he experienced the joys of family life, he realized how sweet they were because he had the kind of nature that appreciated them. His happiest moments were spent with Catharine and their children. One day, a French traveler found the "teacher of Germany" rocking his baby with one hand and holding a book in the other, and he was taken aback in surprise; but Melancthon, unfazed, passionately explained to him the importance of children in God's eyes, prompting the stranger to leave the house, in his own words, "wiser than when he entered."
The marriage of Melancthon gave a domestic hearth to the Reformation. There was, thenceforth, in Wittemberg, a family whose house was open to all those whom the principle of a new life now animated. The concourse of strangers was immense.[230] Melancthon was waited on for a thousand different affairs, and his rule was never to deny himself to any body.[231] The young professor was particularly skilful in concealing his own good deeds. If he had no more money he secretly carried his silver plate to some merchant, never hesitating to part with it, provided he had the means of assisting those who were in distress. "Hence," says his friend, Camerarius, "it would have been impossible for him to provide for his own wants and those of his family had not a divine and hidden blessing from time to time furnished him with the means." He carried his good nature to an extreme. He had some antique medals of gold and silver, which were extremely curious. One day when showing them to a stranger who was visiting him, Melancthon said, "Take any one of them you wish." "I wish them all," replied the stranger." "I confess," says Philip, "I was at first offended at the selfishness of the request; however I gave them to him."[232] Melancthon's writings had a savour of antiquity. This, however, did not prevent them from exhaling the sweet savour of Christ, while it gave them an inexpressible charm. There is not one of his letters to his friends which does not contain some very apt allusion to Homer, Plato, Cicero, and Pliny, while Christ is always brought forward as his master and his God. Spalatin had asked him for an explanation of our Saviour's words—"Without me ye can do nothing," (John, xv, 5). Melancthon refers him to Luther—"Cur agam gestum spectante Roscio? as Cicero expresses it;[233] and then continues, "This passage means that we must be absorbed by Christ, so that it is no longer we that act, but Christ that liveth in us. As in his person the Divine has been incorporated with the human nature, so must man be incorporated with Jesus Christ by faith."
The marriage of Melancthon brought a home life to the Reformation. From then on, in Wittenberg, there was a household open to everyone inspired by the principle of a new life. The influx of visitors was huge.[230] Melancthon was approached for countless matters, and his rule was never to turn anyone away.[231] The young professor was especially good at hiding his own good deeds. When he had no more money, he would secretly take his silver plates to a merchant, never hesitating to sell them if it meant helping those in need. "Because of this," says his friend, Camerarius, "it would have been impossible for him to take care of his own needs and those of his family if not for a divine and hidden blessing that occasionally provided him with means." He took his kindness to the extreme. He had some antique gold and silver medals that were quite interesting. One day, while showing them to a visitor, Melancthon said, "Take any one of them you want." "I want them all," replied the visitor. "I admit," says Philip, "I was initially upset by the selfishness of the request; still, I gave them to him."[232] Melancthon's writings had an old-world charm. However, this didn't prevent them from radiating the sweet essence of Christ, giving them an indescribable appeal. There isn't a single letter he wrote to his friends that doesn't include a clever reference to Homer, Plato, Cicero, and Pliny, while Christ is always presented as his master and God. Spalatin asked him to explain our Savior's words—"Without me ye can do nothing" (John, xv, 5). Melancthon referred him to Luther—"Cur agam gestum spectante Roscio? as Cicero puts it;[233] and then continued, "This passage means that we must be fully dedicated to Christ, so that it is not us who act, but Christ who lives in us. Just as the Divine was united with human nature in his person, so must a person be united with Jesus Christ through faith."
The distinguished scholar's habit was to go to bed shortly after supper, and get up to his studies at two or three in the morning.[234] During these early hours his best works were composed. His manuscripts usually lay on his table exposed to the view of all who came and went, so that several were stolen. When he had a party of his friends, he asked one or other of them, before they sat down to table, to read some short composition in prose or verse. During his journeys he was always accompanied by some young persons with whom he conversed in a manner at once instructive and amusing. If the conversation flagged, each of them had to repeat in his turn some passage taken from the ancient poets. He often had recourse to irony, but always tempered it with great gentleness. "He stings and cuts," said he of himself, "but still without doing any harm."
The renowned scholar had a routine of going to bed shortly after dinner and waking up for his studies around two or three in the morning.[234] During these early hours, he created his best work. His manuscripts typically lay on his table, open for anyone who came by to see, which led to several being stolen. When he had friends over, he would ask one of them, before they sat down to eat, to read a short piece of prose or poetry. While traveling, he was always accompanied by young people, with whom he engaged in conversations that were both educational and entertaining. If the conversation lagged, each person would take turns reciting a passage from the ancient poets. He often used irony, but he always tempered it with kindness. "I sting and cut," he said about himself, "but still without causing any harm."
The acquisition of knowledge was his ruling passion. The aim of his life was to diffuse literature and instruction. Let us not forget, that with him the first place in literature was given to the Holy Scriptures, and only a secondary place to the ancient classics. "My sole object," said he, "is the defence of literature; we must, by our example, inspire youth with an admiration of literature, and make them love it for itself, and not for the pecuniary profit which it may be made to yield. The downfall of literature involves the destruction of all that is good—of religion and morals—of things human and divine.[235]... The better a man is, the more ardently does he exert himself in favour of learning, for he knows that the most pernicious of all pests is ignorance."
The pursuit of knowledge was his main passion. His life's goal was to spread literature and education. Let’s not forget that he prioritized the Holy Scriptures above all in literature, with the ancient classics coming second. "My only aim," he said, "is to defend literature; we must, through our example, inspire young people to appreciate literature for its own sake and not just for any financial gain it might bring. The decline of literature leads to the destruction of all that is good—of religion and morals—of both human and divine matters.[235]... The better a person is, the more passionately he works for learning, because he understands that ignorance is the most harmful of all afflictions."
Some time after his marriage, Melancthon went to Bretten, in the Palatinate, accompanied by Camerarius and other friends, to pay a visit to his affectionate mother. On coming in sight of his native town, he dismounted from his horse, threw himself on his knees, and thanked God for permitting him to see it again. Margaret, on embracing her son, almost fainted with joy. She would have had him reside at Bretten, and earnestly entreated him to continue in the faith of his fathers. On this head, Melancthon excused himself, but with great tenderness, that he might not give offence to the conscientious feelings of his mother; he had great difficulty in parting with her, and whenever a traveller brought him news of his native town, he rejoiced, to use his own expression, as if he had renewed the joys of his childhood. Such was the character of one of the greatest instruments employed in the religious revolution of the sixteenth century.
Some time after he got married, Melancthon traveled to Bretten in the Palatinate, joined by Camerarius and other friends, to visit his loving mother. As he approached his hometown, he got off his horse, knelt down, and thanked God for allowing him to see it again. When Margaret embraced her son, she nearly fainted from joy. She wanted him to stay in Bretten and earnestly urged him to remain in the faith of his ancestors. On this matter, Melancthon gently declined, wanting to avoid upsetting his mother’s strong convictions. He found it very hard to say goodbye to her, and whenever a traveler brought him news of his hometown, he was overjoyed, as he put it, as if he had relived the joys of his childhood. This was the character of one of the key figures in the religious revolution of the sixteenth century.
The domestic calmness and studious activity of Wittemberg was, however, disturbed by a commotion, the consequence of a rupture which took place between the students and the citizens. The Rector betrayed great weakness. One may suppose how deeply Melancthon was grieved when he saw these disciples of literature committing such excesses. Luther felt indignant, and had no idea of trying to gain them over by a false condescension. The disgrace which these disorders brought upon the university stung him to the heart.[236] Having mounted the pulpit, he inveighed in strong terms against these commotions, calling upon both parties to submit to the authorities.[237] His discourse produced great irritation; "Satan," says he, "unable to attack us from without, is trying to do us mischief from within. Him I fear not, but I fear lest the wrath of God be kindled against us for not having duly received his word. During the three last years I have been thrice exposed to great danger. In 1518, at Augsburg; in 1519, at Leipsic; and now, in 1520, at Wittemberg. It is neither by wisdom nor by arms that the renovation of the Church will be accomplished, but by humble prayers, and by an intrepid faith which puts Jesus Christ on our side.[238] O, my friend! unite your prayers to mine, that the evil spirit may not be able, by means of this small spark, to kindle a vast conflagration."
The peaceful atmosphere and serious study in Wittenberg were suddenly disrupted by a conflict between the students and the townspeople. The Rector showed significant weakness. One can only imagine how distressed Melancthon felt seeing his students behaving so wrongly. Luther was outraged and had no intention of trying to win them over with false kindness. The shame these disturbances brought to the university deeply affected him. [236] After taking to the pulpit, he strongly criticized the unrest, urging both sides to follow the authorities. [237] His speech caused a lot of frustration; "Satan," he said, "unable to attack us from outside, is trying to harm us from the inside. I don’t fear him, but I worry that God’s anger might be kindled against us for not properly receiving His word. In the last three years, I’ve faced great danger three times: in 1518 in Augsburg, in 1519 in Leipzig, and now in 1520 in Wittenberg. The renewal of the Church won’t come from wisdom or military strength but through humble prayers and fearless faith that puts Jesus Christ on our side. [238] Oh, my friend! Join your prayers with mine so that the evil spirit cannot turn this small spark into a huge fire."
CHAP. VI.
The Gospel In Italy—Discourse on the Mass—The Babylonish Captivity of the Church—Baptism—Abolition of Vows—Progress of the Reformation.
The Gospel in Italy—Discussion on the Mass—The Babylonian Captivity of the Church—Baptism—Ending Vows—Progress of the Reformation.
But fiercer combats awaited Luther. Rome was brandishing the sword with which she had resolved to attack the gospel. Her threatened sentence, however, so far from dispiriting the Reformer increased his courage. The blows of this arrogant power gave him little concern. He will himself give more formidable blows, and thereby neutralize those of his adversaries. While Transalpine consistories are fulminating their anathemas against him, he will, with the sword of the gospel, pierce to the very heart of the Italian states. Luther having been informed, by letters from Venice, of the favourable reception which had been given to his opinions, felt an ardent desire to carry the gospel over the Alps. Evangelists must be found to transport it. "I wish," said he, "that we had living books, I mean preachers,[239] and that we could multiply them, and afford them protection in all quarters, in order that they might convey the knowledge of holy things to the people. The prince could not do a work more worthy of him. Were the inhabitants of Italy to receive the truth our cause would be unassailable." It does not appear that this project of Luther was realised. It is true that, at a later period, evangelists, even Calvin himself, sojourned for a while in Italy, but at this time the design was not followed out. He had applied to one of the great ones of the earth. Had he made his appeal to men low in station, but full of zeal for the kingdom of God, the result might have been very different. The idea at this period was, that every thing behoved to be done by governments. The association of private individuals, by which so much is now accomplished in Christendom, was almost unknown.
But tougher battles lay ahead for Luther. Rome was swinging the sword she intended to use against the gospel. However, the threatened sentence only fueled the Reformer’s courage. The attacks from this arrogant power didn’t worry him much. He would strike back even harder, effectively countering his opponents' blows. While councils across the mountains were issuing their anathemas against him, he would, with the sword of the gospel, penetrate to the very heart of the Italian states. After receiving letters from Venice about the positive reception of his ideas, Luther felt a strong urge to bring the gospel over the Alps. He needed evangelists to spread it. "I wish," he said, "that we had living books, I mean preachers,[239] and that we could create more of them, and protect them everywhere, so they could share the knowledge of holy things with the people. The prince could not do a more worthy deed. If the people of Italy accepted the truth, our cause would be unbeatable." It seems that Luther's plan didn’t come to fruition. It’s true that, later on, evangelists, including Calvin himself, stayed in Italy for a bit, but at this time, the initiative was not pursued. He had approached one of the powerful figures of the world. If he had reached out to ordinary people, who were full of zeal for God's kingdom, the outcome might have been very different. At that time, the belief was that everything had to be done by governments. The collaboration of private individuals, which accomplishes so much today in Christianity, was almost unheard of.
If Luther did not succeed in his plans of spreading the truth in a distant country, he was only the more zealous in proclaiming it himself. At this time his discourse, 'On the Holy Mass,'[240] was delivered at Wittemberg. In it he inveighed against the numerous sects of the Romish Church, and justly reproached it with its want of unity. "The multiplicity of spiritual laws," said he, "has filled the world with sects and divisions. Priests, monks, and laics, have shown more hatred of each other than subsists between Christians and Turks. What do I say? Priests are mortal enemies of priests, and monks of monks. Each is attached to his particular sect, and despises all others. There is an end of Christian love and unity." He then attacks the idea that the mass is a sacrifice, and has any efficacy in itself. "The best thing in every sacrament, and consequently in the Supper, is the word and promises of God. Without faith in this word, and these promises, the sacrament is dead; a body without a soul, a flagon without wine, a purse without money, a type without an antitype, the letter without the spirit, a casket without its diamond, a scabbard without its sword."
If Luther didn't succeed in his efforts to spread the truth in a far-off country, he certainly became more passionate about proclaiming it himself. At this time, he delivered his discourse, 'On the Holy Mass,'[240] in Wittenberg. In it, he criticized the many sects of the Roman Church and rightly pointed out its lack of unity. "The multitude of spiritual laws," he said, "has filled the world with sects and divisions. Priests, monks, and laypeople show more hatred toward each other than exists between Christians and Turks. What am I saying? Priests are deadly enemies of other priests, and monks of other monks. Each is loyal to their particular sect and looks down on all others. There is no longer any Christian love or unity." He then challenges the belief that the mass itself is a sacrifice or has any inherent power. "The most important aspect of every sacrament, including the Supper, is the word and promises of God. Without faith in this word and these promises, the sacrament is lifeless; it's a body without a soul, a jug without wine, a wallet without money, a symbol without its reality, the letter without the spirit, a box without its diamond, a sheath without its sword."
Luther's voice, however, was not confined to Wittemberg; and if he failed to procure missionaries to carry his instructions to distant lands, God provided him with a missionary of a new description. The art of printing supplied the place of evangelists. The press was destined to make a breach in the Roman fortress. Luther had prepared a mine, the explosion of which shook the Roman edifice to its very foundations. This was his famous treatise on the Babylonish Captivity of the Church, which appeared 6th October, 1520.[241] Never had man displayed such courage in such critical circumstances.
Luther's voice, however, reached far beyond Wittenberg; and even though he couldn't send missionaries to share his teachings in far-off places, God provided him with a different kind of missionary. The art of printing took the place of evangelists. The press was meant to make a significant impact on the Roman stronghold. Luther had set the stage for an explosion that shook the Roman structure to its core. This was his famous treatise on the Babylonish Captivity of the Church, which came out on October 6, 1520.[241] Never before had anyone shown such bravery in such critical times.
In this writing he first enumerates, with a kind of ironical pride, all the advantages for which he is indebted to his enemies.
In this writing, he sarcastically lists all the benefits he owes to his enemies.
"Whether I will or not," says he, "I daily become more learned, spurred on as I am by so many celebrated masters. Two years ago I attacked indulgences, but with so much fear and indecision, that I am now ashamed of it. But, after all, the mode of attack is not to be wondered at, for I had nobody who would help me to roll the stone." He returns thanks to Prierio, Eck, Emser, and his other opponents, and continues—"I denied that the papacy was of God, but I granted that it had the authority of man. Now, after reading all the subtleties by which these sparks prop up their idol, I know that the papacy is only the kingdom of Babylon, and the tyranny of the great hunter Nimrod. I therefore beg all my friends, and all booksellers, to burn the books which I wrote on this subject, and to substitute for them the single proposition—'The papacy is a general chace, by command of the Roman pontiff, for the purpose of running down and destroying souls.'"[242]
"Whether I like it or not," he says, "I'm learning more every day, pushed on by so many famous teachers. Two years ago, I took on indulgences, but I did it with so much fear and uncertainty that I'm embarrassed about it now. But, thinking back, it makes sense that I approached it that way since I had no one to help me tackle the issue." He thanks Prierio, Eck, Emser, and his other critics, and continues—"I denied that the papacy was ordained by God, but I accepted that it had human authority. Now, after going through all the clever arguments that these guys use to support their idol, I realize that the papacy is just the kingdom of Babylon and the oppression of the great hunter Nimrod. So, I urge all my friends and all booksellers to destroy the books I wrote on this topic and replace them with this simple statement—'The papacy is a general hunt, ordered by the Roman pontiff, aimed at chasing down and destroying souls.'"[242]
Luther afterwards attacks the prevailing errors on the sacraments, on monastic vows, etc. The seven sacraments of the Church he reduces to three—viz., baptism, penitence, and the Lord's supper. He then proceeds to baptism, and when discussing it dwells especially on the excellence of faith, and makes a vigorous attack upon Rome. "God," says he, "has preserved this single sacrament to us clear of human traditions. God has said, 'Whoso believeth, and is baptized, shall be saved.' This divine promise must take precedence of all works however splendid, of all vows, all satisfactions, all indulgences, all that man has devised. On this promise, if we receive it in faith, all our salvation depends. If we believe, our heart is strengthened by the divine promise, and though all else should abandon the believer, this promise will not abandon him. With it he will resist the adversary who assaults his soul, and will meet death though pitiless, and even the judgment of God himself. In all trials his comfort will be to say, 'God is faithful to his promises, and these were pledged to me in baptism; if God be for me, who can be against me?' Oh, how rich the Christian, the baptized! Nothing can destroy him but his own refusal to believe."
Luther later confronts the errors surrounding the sacraments, monastic vows, and more. He simplifies the seven sacraments of the Church to three: baptism, repentance, and the Lord's Supper. When he discusses baptism, he emphasizes the importance of faith and strongly criticizes Rome. "God," he says, "has kept this one sacrament free from human traditions. God has declared, 'Whoever believes and is baptized shall be saved.' This divine promise takes priority over all works, no matter how impressive, all vows, all satisfactions, all indulgences, and everything humans have invented. Our entire salvation hinges on this promise if we accept it in faith. If we believe, our hearts are strengthened by this divine promise, and even if everyone else forsakes the believer, this promise will not let him down. With it, he will stand against the enemy attacking his soul and confront death, even the judgment of God himself. In all challenges, his reassurance will be to say, 'God is faithful to his promises, and these were given to me in baptism; if God is for me, who can be against me?' Oh, how wealthy the Christian, the baptized! Nothing can destroy him except his own refusal to believe."
"It may be that, to my observations on the necessity of faith will be opposed the baptism of little children. But as the Word of God is powerful to change even the heart of the wicked, though neither less deaf, nor less impotent than a little child; so the prayer of the Church, to which all things are possible, changes the little child by means of the faith which God is pleased to pour into its soul, and so cleanses and renews it."[243]
"It might be that my observations on the importance of faith will be challenged by the practice of baptizing young children. However, just as the Word of God has the power to transform even the heart of the wicked, which is no less deaf and powerless than that of a small child; the Church's prayer, to which all things are possible, changes the little child through the faith that God chooses to instill in its soul, thereby cleansing and renewing it." [243]
After explaining the doctrine of baptism, Luther employs it as a weapon against the papacy. In fact, if the Christian finds complete salvation in the renewal which accompanies the baptism of faith, what need has he of the prescriptions of Rome?
After explaining the concept of baptism, Luther uses it as a tool against the papacy. In fact, if a Christian finds total salvation in the renewal that comes with the baptism of faith, what need do they have for the rules from Rome?
"Wherefore," says Luther, "I declare that neither the pope, nor the bishop, nor any man whatever, is entitled to impose the smallest burden on a Christian—at least without his consent. Whatsoever is done otherwise is done tyrannically.[244] We are free of all men. The vow which we made in baptism is sufficient by itself alone, and is more than all we could ever accomplish.[245] Therefore, all other vows may be abolished. Let every one who enters the priesthood, or a religious order, consider well that the works of a monk or a priest, how difficult soever they may be, are, in the view of God, in no respect superior to those of a peasant labouring in the field, or a woman attending to the duties of her house.[246] God estimates all these things by the rule of faith. And it often happens that the simple labour of a man-servant, or a maid-servant, is more agreeable to God than the fastings and works of a monk, these being deficient in faith.... The Christian people is the people of God led away into captivity, to Babylon, and there robbed of their baptism."
"Therefore," says Luther, "I state that neither the pope, nor the bishop, nor anyone else has the right to impose even the smallest burden on a Christian—at least without their consent. Anything done otherwise is done tyrannically.[244] We are free from all people. The vow we made at baptism is sufficient on its own and is more than anything we could ever achieve.[245] Therefore, all other vows can be ignored. Anyone who enters the priesthood or a religious order should remember that the work of a monk or a priest, no matter how difficult it may seem, is not in any way superior in God’s eyes to that of a peasant working in the field or a woman taking care of her household.[246] God evaluates all these actions by the measure of faith. It often happens that the simple work of a servant is more pleasing to God than the fasting and efforts of a monk, which may lack faith.... The Christian people are the people of God taken into captivity, to Babylon, and there stripped of their baptism."
Such were the weapons by which the religious revolution whose history we are tracing was accomplished. First, the necessity of faith was established, and then the reformers used it as a hammer to break superstition in pieces. They attacked error with that divine power which removes mountains. These, and many similar passages of Luther circulated in towns, convents, and the country, were the leaven which leavened the whole lump.
Such were the tools that brought about the religious revolution we are exploring. First, the importance of faith was established, and then the reformers used it like a hammer to crush superstition. They challenged falsehood with that divine power that can move mountains. These, along with many other similar statements from Luther, spread through towns, convents, and the countryside, acting as the leaven that transformed everything.
The conclusion of this famous production on the captivity of Babylon is in the following terms:—
The conclusion of this well-known production about the captivity of Babylon is as follows:—
"I learn that a new papal excommunication has been prepared against me. If so, the present book may be regarded as part of my future recantation. In proof of my obedience, the rest will soon follow, and the whole will, with the help of Christ, form a collection, the like to which Rome never saw or heard before."
"I've found out that a new papal excommunication has been set up against me. If that's the case, this book can be seen as part of my future recantation. To prove my obedience, more will come soon, and together, with Christ's help, it will create a collection unlike anything Rome has ever seen or heard before."
CHAP. VII.
New Negotiations—Miltitz and the Augustins of Eisleben—Deputation to Luther—Miltitz and the Elector—Conference at Lichtemberg—Luther's Letter to the Pope—Book Presented to the Pope—Union of the Believer with Christ—Freedom and Bondage.
New Talks—Miltitz and the Augustinians of Eisleben—Delegation to Luther—Miltitz and the Elector—Meeting at Lichtemberg—Luther's Letter to the Pope—Book Presented to the Pope—Connection of the Believer with Christ—Freedom and Slavery.
After this publication, all hope of reconciliation between the pope and Luther must have vanished. Persons of the least possible discernment must have been struck with the incompatibility of the Reformer's belief with the doctrine of the Church; and yet, at this very moment, new negotiations were about to commence. In the end of August, 1520, five weeks before the publication of the 'Captivity of Babylon,' the general Chapter of the Augustins had assembled at Eisleben. At this meeting, the venerable Staupitz resigned his office of vicar-general of his order, and Winceslas Link, he who accompanied Luther to Augsburg, was invested with it. Suddenly, in the middle of the Chapter, arrived the indefatigable Miltitz, burning with eagerness to reconcile Luther and the pope.[247] His avarice, and, above all, his jealousy and hatred, were interested. Eck and his swaggering had galled him; he knew that the doctor of Ingolstadt had spoken disparagingly of him at Rome, and there was nothing he would not have sacrificed in order to defeat the designs of this troublesome rival by means of a speedily concluded peace. The interest of religion gave him no concern. One day, by his own account, he was dining with the bishop of Leipsic. After the guests had drunk very freely, a new work of Luther's was brought in. On being opened and read, the bishop flew into a passion, and the official swore, but Miltitz laughed with all his heart.[248] The Reformation was treated by Miltitz as a man of the world, and by Eck as a theologian.
After this publication, any hope of reconciliation between the pope and Luther must have disappeared. Even those with the least discernment must have noticed the conflict between the Reformer's beliefs and the Church's doctrine; yet, at that very moment, new negotiations were about to begin. At the end of August 1520, five weeks before the publication of the 'Captivity of Babylon,' the general Chapter of the Augustinians gathered in Eisleben. During this meeting, the respected Staupitz resigned as the vicar-general of his order, and Winceslas Link, who had accompanied Luther to Augsburg, took over the position. Suddenly, in the middle of the Chapter, the tireless Miltitz arrived, eager to reconcile Luther and the pope. His greed, and above all his jealousy and hatred, were at play. Eck and his arrogance had annoyed him; he knew that the doctor of Ingolstadt had spoken poorly of him in Rome, and he would have sacrificed anything to thwart this troublesome rival by quickly arranging a peace. The interest of religion did not concern him. One day, according to him, he was having dinner with the bishop of Leipsic. After the guests had drunk quite a bit, a new work by Luther was brought in. When it was opened and read, the bishop became enraged, and the official swore, but Miltitz laughed heartily. Miltitz approached the Reformation like a worldly man, while Eck treated it as a theologian.
Aroused by the arrival of Dr. Eck, Miltitz addressed the Chapter of the Augustins, in a discourse which he delivered with a very marked Italian accent,[249] thinking thus to overawe his countrymen. "The whole Augustin order is compromised by this affair," said he. "Show me some method of silencing Luther."[250] "We have nothing to do with the doctor," replied the Fathers, "and we know not what counsel to give you." They founded doubtless on what Staupitz had done at Augsburg, when he loosed Luther from his vows of obedience to the order. Miltitz insisted, "Let a deputation from this venerable Chapter wait upon Luther, and solicit him to write a letter to the pope, assuring him that he has never plotted in any respect against his person.[251] That will be sufficient to terminate the affair." The Chapter gave their consent, and assigned the task of conferring with Luther, no doubt at the nuncio's request, to the ex-vicar-general, Staupitz, and his successor Link. The deputation forthwith set out for Wittemberg with a letter from Miltitz to the doctor filled with expressions of the highest respect. "There is no time to be lost," said he, "the thunder already hovering over the head of the Reformer, will soon burst, and then all is over."
Aroused by Dr. Eck's arrival, Miltitz spoke to the Chapter of the Augustins in a speech delivered with a strong Italian accent,[249] thinking this would impress his fellow countrymen. "The entire Augustin order is being hurt by this situation," he said. "Show me a way to silence Luther."[250] "We have nothing to do with the doctor," replied the Fathers, "and we don't know what advice to give you." They were likely referencing what Staupitz did in Augsburg when he released Luther from his vows of obedience to the order. Miltitz persisted, "Let a delegation from this esteemed Chapter visit Luther and ask him to write a letter to the pope, assuring him that he has never plotted against him in any way.[251] That will be enough to resolve the matter." The Chapter agreed and assigned the task of talking to Luther, likely at the nuncio's request, to the ex-vicar-general Staupitz and his successor Link. The delegation quickly set out for Wittenberg with a letter from Miltitz to Luther filled with expressions of the highest respect. "There's no time to waste," he said, "the storm hovering over the Reformer will soon break, and then it will be too late."
Neither Luther nor the deputies, who concurred in his opinions,[252] hoped any thing from a letter to the pope. That however was a reason for not refusing to write it, as it would only be a mere matter of form, and might serve to bring out Luther's rights. "This Italian of Saxony (Miltitz)," thought Luther, "in making this demand has doubtless his own particular interest in view. Very well, be it so, I will write, as I can with truth, that I have never objected to the pope personally. I will even endeavour to guard against severity in attacking the see of Rome. Still it shall have its sprinkling of salt."[253]
Neither Luther nor the deputies who agreed with him expected anything from a letter to the pope. However, that was no reason to refuse to write it, as it would just be a formality and could help clarify Luther's rights. "This Italian from Saxony (Miltitz)," thought Luther, "must have his own interests in mind with this request. Fine, I'll write it, and I can truthfully say I've never had a personal issue with the pope. I'll also try to be careful not to be too harsh in critiquing the papacy. But it will still have its share of pointed criticism."
Luther having shortly after been informed of the arrival of the bull in Germany, declared to Spalatin, on the 3rd of October, that he would not write the pope, and, on the 6th of the same month, published his book on the 'Captivity of Babylon.' Miltitz did not even yet despair of success. His eagerness to humble Eck made him believe an impossibility. On the 2nd of October, he had written the Elector, in high spirits. "Every thing will go well, but, for the love of God, delay no longer to order payment of the pension which I have had from you and your brother for some years. I must have money in order to make new friends at Rome. Write the pope, and do homage to the young cardinals, the relatives of his holiness, with gold and silver pieces, from the mint of your electoral highness, and add some for me also, for I was robbed of those which you gave me."[254]
Luther, shortly after learning about the arrival of the bull in Germany, told Spalatin on October 3rd that he wouldn’t write to the pope. On October 6th, he published his book titled 'Captivity of Babylon.' Miltitz still held out hope for success. His desire to embarrass Eck led him to believe in something impossible. On October 2nd, he wrote to the Elector, feeling optimistic. "Everything will turn out fine, but please, for the love of God, don’t delay any longer in arranging the payment of the pension that you and your brother have been giving me for several years. I need money to make new friends in Rome. Write to the pope and curry favor with the young cardinals, the relatives of His Holiness, using gold and silver from your electoral highness’s mint, and include some for me as well, since I was robbed of what you gave me."[254]
Even after Luther was acquainted with the bull, the intriguing Miltitz was not discouraged, and requested a conference with Luther at Lichtemberg. The Elector ordered Luther to repair thither.[255] But his friends, and especially the affectionate Melancthon, opposed it.[256] "What, thought they, at the moment when a bull has appeared ordering Luther to be seized and carried off to Rome, to accept a conference with the pope's nuncio in a retired spot! Is it not evident that, because Dr. Eck from having too openly proclaimed his hatred is not able to approach the Reformer, the wily chamberlain has been employed to ensnare Luther in his nets?"
Even after Luther learned about the papal bull, the intriguing Miltitz didn't give up and asked to meet with Luther at Lichtemberg. The Elector ordered Luther to go there.[255] But his friends, especially the caring Melancthon, were against it.[256] "What are they thinking?" they wondered, especially now that a bull has come out ordering Luther to be captured and taken to Rome. "Isn't it obvious that since Dr. Eck can't approach the Reformer due to his openly declared hatred, this crafty chamberlain has been sent to trap Luther?"
These fears could not deter the doctor of Wittemberg. The prince has commanded, and he will obey. "I am setting out for Lichtemberg," wrote he, to the chaplain on the 11th of October, "pray for me." His friends would not quit him. The same day, towards evening, Luther entered Lichtemberg on horse-back, amid thirty horsemen, one of whom was Melancthon. The papal nuncio arrived almost at the same time with only four attendants.[257] Was this modest escort a stratagem to throw Luther and his friends off their guard?
These fears couldn’t stop the doctor from Wittenberg. The prince has ordered it, and he will follow through. “I’m heading to Lichtemberg,” he wrote to the chaplain on October 11th, “please pray for me.” His friends wouldn’t leave his side. That same evening, Luther rode into Lichtemberg on horseback, accompanied by thirty horsemen, one of whom was Melancthon. The papal envoy arrived almost at the same time with just four attendants.[257] Was this small group a tactic to catch Luther and his friends off guard?
Miltitz urged Luther with the most pressing solicitations, assuring him that the blame would be thrown upon Eck and his foolish boastings,[258] and that every thing would terminate to the satisfaction of both parties. "Very well," replied Luther, "I offer henceforth to keep silence, provided my opponents keep it also. For the sake of peace I will do every thing that it is possible for me to do."[259]
Miltitz pressured Luther with urgent requests, promising that the blame would be placed on Eck and his silly bragging,[258] and that everything would end to the satisfaction of both sides. "Alright," replied Luther, "I’m willing to stay silent from now on, as long as my opponents do too. For the sake of peace, I will do everything I can."[259]
Miltitz was delighted; and accompanying Luther as far as Wittemberg, the Reformer and the papal nuncio walked arm in arm into this town which Dr. Eck was now approaching, holding menacingly in his hand the formidable bull which was to overthrow the Reformation. "We will bring the matter to a happy conclusion," wrote Miltitz forthwith to the Elector; "Thank the pope for his rose, and at the same time send forty or fifty florins to Cardinal Quatuor Sanctorum."[260]
Miltitz was thrilled; and as he accompanied Luther to Wittenberg, the Reformer and the papal envoy strolled arm in arm into the town that Dr. Eck was now approaching, threateningly holding the powerful bull meant to dismantle the Reformation. "We will resolve this matter positively," Miltitz quickly wrote to the Elector; "Thank the pope for his rose, and at the same time send forty or fifty florins to Cardinal Quatuor Sanctorum."[260]
Luther felt bound to keep his promise of writing the pope. Before bidding Rome an eternal adieu, he wished once more to tell her important and salutary truths. Some perhaps will regard his letter only as a piece of irony—a bitter and insulting satire—but this were to mistake the sentiments by which he was actuated. He sincerely believed that Rome was to blame for all the evils of Christendom; and in this view his words are not insults, but solemn warnings. The more he loved Leo, and the more he loved the Church of Christ, the more he desired to unfold the full magnitude of the disease. The energy of his expressions is proportioned to the energy of his feelings. The crisis has arrived, and he seems like a prophet walking round the city for the last time, upbraiding it for all its abominations, denouncing the judgments of the Almighty, and crying aloud, "Still some days of respite." The letter is as follows:—
Luther felt it was important to keep his promise to write to the pope. Before saying a final goodbye to Rome, he wanted to share some critical and beneficial truths one last time. Some might see his letter as just a sarcastic jab—a harsh and insulting satire—but that would be to misinterpret his true feelings. He genuinely believed that Rome was responsible for all the problems in Christendom; in that light, his words are not insults, but serious warnings. The more he cared for Leo and the more he cherished the Church of Christ, the more he wanted to reveal the full extent of the issue. The intensity of his words matches the strength of his emotions. The time has come, and he appears like a prophet walking through the city for the last time, condemning it for all its wrongdoings, announcing the judgments of the Almighty, and shouting, "There’s still some time left." The letter is as follows:—
"To the Most Holy Father in God, Leo X, Pope at Rome, Salvation in Christ Jesus our Lord. Amen.
"To the Most Holy Father in God, Leo X, Pope in Rome, Salvation in Christ Jesus our Lord. Amen."
"From amid the fearful war which I have been waging for three years with disorderly men, I cannot help looking to you, O Leo, Most Holy Father in God. And although the folly of your impious flatterers has compelled me to appeal from your judgment to a future council, my heart is not turned away from your Holiness, and I have not ceased to pray God earnestly and with profound sighs, to grant prosperity to yourself and your pontificate.[261]
"After fighting a daunting battle for three years against unruly people, I find myself looking to you, O Leo, Most Holy Father in God. Even though the foolishness of your wicked flatterers has forced me to seek a future council’s judgment instead of yours, I remain devoted to your Holiness and continue to pray earnestly to God with deep sighs, asking for blessings on you and your papacy.[261]"
"It is true I have attacked some antichristian doctrines, and have inflicted a deep wound on my adversaries because of their impiety. Of this I repent not, as I have here Christ for an example. Of what use is salt if it have lost its savour, or the edge of a sword if it will not cut?[262] Cursed be he who does the work of the Lord negligently. Most excellent Leo, far from having conceived any bad thoughts with regard to you, my wish is that you may enjoy the most precious blessings throughout eternity. One thing only I have done: I have maintained the word of truth. I am ready to yield to all in every thing; but, as to this word, I will not, I cannot, abandon it.[263] He who thinks differently on this subject is in error.
"It’s true that I have challenged some anti-Christian beliefs and have deeply wounded my opponents because of their lack of faith. I don’t regret this, as I have Christ as an example. What’s the point of salt if it has lost its flavor, or a sword if it won’t cut?[262] Cursed is the one who does the Lord’s work carelessly. Most excellent Leo, I have no bad thoughts about you; my hope is that you may receive the greatest blessings for all eternity. There is only one thing I have done: I have upheld the truth. I am willing to yield on everything else, but regarding this truth, I will not, I cannot, let it go.[263] Anyone who thinks differently on this matter is mistaken."
"It is true that I have attacked the Court of Rome; but neither yourself nor any man living can deny that there is greater corruption in it than was in Sodom and Gomorrah, and that the impiety which prevails makes cure hopeless. Yes; I have been horrified on seeing how, under your name, the poor followers of Christ were deceived. I have opposed this, and will oppose it still, not that I imagine it possible, in spite of the opposition of flatterers, to accomplish any thing in this Babylon, which is confusion itself; but I owe it to my brethren to endeavour, if possible, to remove some of them from these dreadful evils.
"It’s true that I’ve criticized the Court of Rome; but neither you nor anyone alive can deny that there’s more corruption there than in Sodom and Gomorrah, and the impiety that dominates makes any change seem impossible. Yes, I’ve been horrified to see how, in your name, the poor followers of Christ have been misled. I’ve fought against this, and I will keep fighting, not because I believe it’s possible to achieve anything in this Babylon, which is pure chaos, but because I owe it to my fellow believers to try, if I can, to pull some of them away from these terrible evils."
"You know it; Rome has for many years been inundating the world with whatever could destroy both soul and body. The Church of Rome, formerly the first in holiness, has become a den of robbers, a place of prostitution, a kingdom of death and hell;[264] so that Antichrist himself, were he to appear, would be unable to increase the amount of wickedness. All this is as clear as day.
You know it; Rome has been flooding the world for years with whatever could ruin both soul and body. The Church of Rome, once the holiest, has turned into a den of thieves, a place of immorality, a kingdom of death and hell;[264] so that even Antichrist himself, if he were to show up, couldn't add to the level of wickedness. All this is as clear as day.
"And yet, O Leo, you yourself are like a lamb in the midst of wolves—a Daniel in the lions' den. But single-handed, what can you oppose to these monsters? There may be three or four cardinals who to knowledge add virtue. But what are these against so many? You should perish by poison even before you could try any remedy. It is all over with the Court at Rome—the wrath of God has overtaken and will consume it.[265] It hates counsel—it fears reform—it will not moderate the fury of its ungodliness; and hence it may be justly said of it as of its mother—We would have healed Babylon, but she is not healed; forsake her.[266] It belonged to you and your cardinals to apply the remedy; but the patient laughs at the doctor, and the horse refuses to feel the bit....
"And yet, O Leo, you are like a lamb among wolves—a Daniel in the lions' den. But what can you do alone against these monsters? There may be three or four cardinals who combine knowledge with virtue. But what are they against so many? You could be poisoned before you even have a chance to find a cure. The situation at the Court in Rome is hopeless—the wrath of God has come upon it and will destroy it. It resists advice—it fears change—it won't rein in its wickedness; and so it can justly be said of it as of its mother—We would have healed Babylon, but she is not healed; forsake her. It was your responsibility and that of your cardinals to find the solution; but the patient mocks the doctor, and the horse refuses to accept the bridle...."
"Cherishing the deepest affection for you, most excellent Leo, I have always regretted that, formed as you are for a better age, you were raised to the pontificate in these times. Rome is not worthy of you, and those who resemble you; the only chief whom she deserves to have is Satan himself, and hence, the truth is, that in this Babylon he is more king than you are. Would to God, that, laying aside this glory which your enemies so much extol, you would exchange it for a modest pastoral office, or live on your paternal inheritance. Rome's glory is of a kind fit only for Iscariots.... O, my dear Leo, of what use are you in this Roman court, unless it be to allow the most execrable men to use your name and your authority in ruining fortunes, destroying souls, multiplying crimes, oppressing faith, truth, and the whole Church of God? O Leo, Leo, you are the most unfortunate of men, and you sit upon the most dangerous of thrones. I tell you the truth because I wish your good.
"Cherishing my deepest affection for you, dear Leo, I have always regretted that, given your potential for a better era, you were raised to the papacy in these times. Rome doesn't deserve someone like you, and those who resemble you; the only leader she truly deserves is Satan himself. The harsh truth is that in this Babylon, he holds more power than you do. If only you could set aside the glory that your enemies praise so much, and trade it for a humble pastoral role, or simply live off your family inheritance. Rome's glory is only meant for traitors... Oh, my dear Leo, what purpose do you serve in this Roman court, except to let the most despicable people exploit your name and authority to ruin lives, destroy souls, breed crimes, and oppress faith, truth, and the entire Church of God? Oh Leo, Leo, you are the most unfortunate man, sitting on the most perilous throne. I speak the truth because I care for your well-being."
"Is it not true, that, under the vast expanse of heaven there is nothing more corrupt, more hateful, than the Roman Court? In vice and corruption it infinitely exceeds the Turks. Once the gate of heaven, it has become the mouth of hell—a wide mouth which the wrath of God keeps open, so that, on seeing so many unhappy beings thrown headlong into it, I was obliged to lift my voice, as in a tempest, in order that, at least, some might be saved from the fearful abyss.[267] Such, O Leo, my father, was the reason why I inveighed against this death-giving see. Far from attacking your person, I thought I was labouring for your safety, when I valiantly assaulted this prison, or rather this hell in which you are confined. To do all sorts of evil to the Court of Rome were to discharge your own duty; to cover it with shame is to honour Christ; in one word, to be a Christian is to be anything but a Roman.
"Isn’t it true that under the vast sky there’s nothing more corrupt and hateful than the Roman Court? It far surpasses the Turks in vice and corruption. Once the gateway to heaven, it has become the mouth of hell—a gaping mouth that God’s wrath keeps open, so that when I see so many unfortunate souls thrown into it, I can’t help but raise my voice like a storm to try and save at least some from that terrifying abyss.[267] That’s why, O Leo, my father, I spoke out against this deadly seat. Far from attacking you personally, I believed I was working for your safety when I boldly criticized this prison, or rather this hell in which you are trapped. To do all kinds of harm to the Court of Rome is to fulfill your duty; to expose its shame is to honor Christ; in other words, being a Christian means being anything but Roman."
"Meanwhile, seeing that in succouring the see of Rome, I was losing my labour and my pains, I sent her a letter of divorce. I said to her, 'Adieu, Rome! He that is unjust, let him be unjust still, and he that is filthy, let him be filthy still;'[268] and devoted myself to the tranquil and solitary study of the sacred volume. Then Satan opened his eyes and awoke his servant, John Eck, a great enemy of Jesus Christ, in order that he might oblige me again to descend into the arena. Eck's wish was to establish the primacy not of Peter but of himself, and, for that purpose, to lead vanquished Luther in triumph. The blame of all the obloquy which has been cast on the see of Rome rests with him."
"Meanwhile, realizing that my efforts to support the Vatican were futile, I sent her a letter of divorce. I said to her, 'Goodbye, Rome! Let the unjust remain unjust, and the filthy remain filthy;'[268] and I dedicated myself to the peaceful and solitary study of the sacred texts. Then Satan opened his eyes and stirred his servant, John Eck, a fierce opponent of Jesus Christ, to pull me back into the fight. Eck aimed to establish his own authority over that of Peter, and to lead the defeated Luther in a parade of shame. The blame for all the disgrace thrown at the Vatican falls on him."
Luther narrates his intercourse with De Vio, Miltitz, and Eck, and then continues.
Luther talks about his interactions with De Vio, Miltitz, and Eck, and then goes on.
"Now, then, I come to you, O Most Holy Father, and, prostrated at your feet, pray you, if possible, to put a curb on the enemies of the truth. But I cannot retract my doctrine. I cannot permit rules of interpretation to be imposed on the Holy Scriptures. The Word of God, the source whence all freedom springs, must be left free.[269]
"Now, I come to you, O Most Holy Father, and, kneeling at your feet, I ask you, if possible, to restrain the enemies of the truth. But I cannot take back my beliefs. I cannot allow rules of interpretation to be imposed on the Holy Scriptures. The Word of God, the source of all freedom, must remain free.[269]
"O, Leo, my father! listen not to those flattering Sirens who tell you that you are not a mere man, but a demi-god, and can ordain what you please. You are the servant of servants, and the seat which you occupy is of all others the most dangerous, and the most unhappy. Give credit not to those who exalt, but to those who humble you. Perhaps I am too bold in giving advice to so high a majesty, whose duty it is to instruct all men. But I see the dangers which surround you at Rome, I see you driven hither and thither, tossed as it were upon the billows of a raging sea. Charity urges me, and I cannot resist sending forth a warning cry.
"O, Leo, my father! Don't listen to those flattering Sirens who tell you that you're not just a regular person, but a demi-god, and can do whatever you want. You are the servant of servants, and the position you're in is the most dangerous and the most unhappy of all. Don’t believe those who praise you, but pay attention to those who bring you back down to earth. Maybe it’s too bold of me to give advice to such a high authority, whose role is to guide everyone else. But I can see the dangers surrounding you in Rome; I see you being tossed back and forth, like someone on the waves of a stormy sea. My sense of compassion drives me, and I can’t help but send out a warning."
"Not to appear empty handed before your Holiness, I present you with a little book, which has appeared under your name, and which will make you aware of the subjects to which I will be able to devote myself, if your flatterers permit me. It is a small matter as regards the size of the volume, but a great one in regard to its contents, for it comprehends a summary of the Christian life. I am poor, and have nothing else to offer; besides, you have no want of any thing but spiritual gifts. I commend myself to your Holiness. May the Lord keep you for ever and ever, amen."
"Not wanting to show up empty-handed before you, Your Holiness, I’m giving you a little book that’s published under your name. It will let you know what topics I can focus on, if your supporters allow me. The book is small in size but significant in its content, as it provides a summary of Christian life. I’m poor and don’t have anything else to offer; besides, you need nothing but spiritual gifts. I place myself in your care, Your Holiness. May the Lord keep you now and always, amen."
The little book with which Luther did homage to the pope was his 'Treatise on the liberty of the Christian;' in which he demonstrates without any polemical discussion, how the Christian, without infringing on the liberty which faith has given him, may submit to every external ordinance in a spirit of freedom and love. Two truths form the basis of the whole discourse, viz., The Christian is free—all things are his: The Christian is a servant subject to all in every thing. By faith he is free, by love he is subject.
The little book Luther dedicated to the pope was his 'Treatise on the Liberty of the Christian,' in which he shows, without any argumentative debate, how a Christian can submit to every external rule while still maintaining the freedom that faith gives. Two key truths underpin the entire discussion: The Christian is free—everything belongs to him: The Christian is a servant, subject to all in everything. By faith, he is free; by love, he is a servant.
At first he explains the power of faith to make the Christian free. "Faith unites the soul with Christ, as a bride with the bridegroom. Every thing that Christ has becomes the property of the believer, every thing that the believer has becomes the property of Christ. Christ possesses all blessings, even eternal salvation, and these are thenceforth the property of the believer. The believer possesses all vices and all sins, and these become, thenceforth, the property of Christ. A happy exchange now takes place. Christ who is God and man, Christ who has never sinned, and whose holiness is invincible, Christ, the Omnipotent and Eternal, appropriating to himself by his wedding ring—that is to say, by faith, all the sins of the believer; these sins are swallowed up in him and annihilated; for no sin can exist in presence of his infinite righteousness. Thus, by means of faith, the soul is delivered from all sins, and invested with the eternal righteousness of Jesus Christ the bridegroom. O happy union! Jesus Christ the rich, the noble, the holy bridegroom, takes in marriage this poor, guilty, contemned bride, delivers her from all evil, and decks her in the richest robes.[270]... Christ, a King, and Priest, shares this honour and glory with all Christians. The Christian is a king, and consequently possesses all things. He is a priest, and consequently possesses God. And it is faith, not works, which procures him this honour. The Christian is free from all things, and above all things—faith giving him every thing in abundance."
At first, he explains how faith empowers Christians to be free. "Faith connects the soul with Christ, like a bride with her bridegroom. Everything that Christ has becomes the believer's, and everything the believer has belongs to Christ. Christ holds all blessings, including eternal salvation, which now belongs to the believer. The believer holds all vices and sins, which from then on become Christ’s. A wonderful exchange takes place. Christ, who is both God and man, who has never sinned and whose holiness is unbeatable, takes on all the believer's sins with a kind of wedding ring—that is, through faith; these sins are consumed in Him and erased, for no sin can stand before His infinite righteousness. Thus, through faith, the soul is freed from all sins and wrapped in the eternal righteousness of Jesus Christ the bridegroom. Oh, what a joyful union! Jesus Christ, the wealthy, noble, and holy bridegroom, marries this poor, guilty, and despised bride, frees her from all evil, and adorns her in the finest garments.[270]... Christ, a King and Priest, shares this honor and glory with all Christians. The Christian is a king, and therefore possesses everything. He is a priest, and thus possesses God. And it is faith, not works, that grants him this honor. The Christian is free from all things and above all things—faith giving him everything in abundance."
In the second part of the treatise Luther presents the truth in its other point of view. "Although the Christian has thus been made free, he voluntarily becomes a servant that he may act towards his brethren as God has acted towards him through Jesus Christ. I desire," said he, "freely, joyfully, and gratuitously, to serve a Father who hath thus shed upon me all the riches of his goodness. I wish to become every thing to my neighbour, as Christ has become every thing to me."... "From faith," continues Luther, "flows love to God, and from love a life full of liberty, charity, and joy. O how noble and elevated a life the life of the Christian is! But, alas, none know it and none preach it. By faith the Christian rises even to God: by love he descends to man; still, however, remaining always in God. This is true liberty, a liberty as far above every other species of liberty as the heavens are above the earth."
In the second part of the treatise, Luther presents the truth from another perspective. "Even though the Christian has been made free, he willingly becomes a servant so he can act towards his brothers and sisters as God has acted towards him through Jesus Christ. I want," he said, "to serve a Father who has generously given me all the riches of his goodness, freely and joyfully. I want to be everything to my neighbor, just as Christ has been everything to me."... "From faith," Luther continues, "love for God flows, and from love comes a life filled with freedom, charity, and joy. Oh, how noble and elevated the life of a Christian is! But, unfortunately, no one understands it and no one preaches it. Through faith, the Christian rises to God; through love, he descends to humanity, yet still remains in God. This is true freedom, a freedom that is far above every other kind of freedom, as the heavens are above the earth."
Such was the treatise which accompanied Luther's letter to Leo X.
Such was the paper that came with Luther's letter to Leo X.
CHAP. VIII.
The Bull in Germany—Eck's Reception—The Bull at Wittemberg—Interposition of Zuinglius.
The Bull in Germany—Eck's Welcome—The Bull at Wittenberg—Zwingli's Intervention.
While the Reformer was thus addressing the Roman pontiff for the last time, the bull which anathematised him was already in the hands of the Germanic Church, and at Luther's own door. It would seem that no doubt was entertained at Rome as to the success of the measure which had thus been adopted against the Reformation. The pope had charged two high functionaries of his court, Carracioli and Aleander, to be the bearers of it to the Archbishop of Mentz who was requested to see to its execution. But Eck himself appeared in Saxony as the herald and executor of the great pontifical work. No man knew better than the doctor of Ingolstadt how formidable the blows were which Luther had struck. Alive to the danger he had stretched forth his hand to sustain the tottering edifice of Rome. In his own estimation he was the Atlas, destined to support the ancient Roman world on his robust shoulders, when on the point of falling to pieces. Proud of the success of his journey to Rome; proud of the charge which he had received from the sovereign pontiff; proud to appear in Germany with the new title of protonotary and pontifical nuncio; proud of the bull which he held in his hand, and which contained the condemnation of his indomitable rival, he regarded his present mission as a triumph more splendid than all the victories which he had gained in Hungary, Bavaria, Lombardy, and Saxony, and from which he had previously derived so much renown. But this pride was soon to be humbled. The pope, in entrusting the publication of the bull to Eck, had committed a blunder which was destined to neutralise its effect. The proud distinction conferred on a man who did not hold high rank in the Church gave offence to sensitive and jealous spirits. The bishops, accustomed to receive the bulls directly from the pope, were offended at the publication of this one in their dioceses by an upstart nuncio. The nation who had hooted the pretended conqueror of Leipsic at the moment of his flight into Italy, were equally astonished and indignant when they saw him repass the Alps, decked in the insignia of pontifical nuncio, and with the power of crushing whomsoever he chose. The sentence brought by his implacable adversary, Luther regarded as an act of personal revenge. "He regarded it," says Pallavicini, "as the perfidious poniard of a mortal enemy, and not as the legitimate act of a Roman lictor."[271] It was generally viewed as less the bull of the sovereign pontiff, than of Dr. Eck. In this way, the blow was obstructed and weakened before-hand by the very person at whose instigation it was struck.
While the Reformer was addressing the Roman pope for the last time, the bull that condemned him was already in the possession of the German Church, and right at Luther's doorstep. It seemed there was no doubt in Rome about the effectiveness of the action taken against the Reformation. The pope had tasked two high-ranking members of his court, Carracioli and Aleander, with delivering it to the Archbishop of Mainz, who was asked to ensure its implementation. However, Eck himself showed up in Saxony as the messenger and executor of this significant papal decree. No one understood the serious blows Luther had dealt better than the doctor from Ingolstadt. Aware of the threat, he extended his hand to support the shaky structure of Rome. In his own view, he was the Atlas, meant to uphold the ancient Roman world on his strong shoulders just as it seemed about to collapse. He was proud of the success of his trip to Rome, proud of the mission he had received from the pope, proud to appear in Germany with the new title of protonotary and papal nuncio; proud of the bull he held, which contained the condemnation of his relentless rival. He saw his current mission as a triumph greater than any victories he had previously achieved in Hungary, Bavaria, Lombardy, and Saxony, from which he had gained much fame. But this pride was soon to be deflated. The pope, by giving the task of publishing the bull to Eck, made a mistake that would undermine its impact. The prestigious title given to someone who did not hold a high position in the Church offended sensitive and envious spirits. The bishops, used to receiving bulls directly from the pope, were upset by this one being announced in their dioceses by a newcomer. The people who had mocked the supposed conqueror of Leipzig during his flight to Italy were equally surprised and angry when they saw him return over the Alps, adorned with the regalia of a papal nuncio, empowered to crush anyone he chose. Luther perceived the sentence delivered by his relentless opponent as a personal vendetta. "He viewed it," says Pallavicini, "as the treacherous dagger of a mortal enemy, not as the legitimate act of a Roman lictor." It was commonly seen as more the bull of Dr. Eck than of the sovereign pontiff. Thus, the blow was weakened and obstructed beforehand by the very individual who initiated it.
The chancellor of Ingolstadt had hastened back to Saxony, which, as having been the scene of battle, he was desirous should also be the scene of his victory. Having arrived he published the bull at Meissen, Merseburg, and Brandenburg towards the end of September. But in the first of these towns it was posted up in a place where nobody could read it; and the bishops of those three sees were in no haste to publish it. Even Duke George, Eck's great patron, prohibited the Council of Leipsic from making it public, before receiving orders from the Bishop of Merseburg, and these orders did not arrive till the following year. "These are only difficulties of form," said John Eck to himself at first, for every thing else seemed to smile upon him. Duke George sent him a golden cup and some ducats. Even Miltitz, who had hastened to Leipsic, on learning that his rival had arrived, invited him to dinner. The two legates were boon companions; and Miltitz thought he could not have a better opportunity of sounding Eck than over their wine. "After he had drunk pretty freely, he began," says the pope's chamberlain, "to boast in grand style—he displayed his bull, and told how he meant to bring that droll fellow Martin to his senses."[272] But the Ingolstadt doctor soon had occasion to observe that the wind was veering. The course of a year had produced a great change in Leipsic.[273] On St. Michael's day some students posted up placards, in ten different places, containing a severe attack on the new nuncio, who, in amazement, took refuge in the cloister of St. Paul, where Tetzel had previously found his asylum, and declining every visit, induced the rector to call his youthful opponents to account. By this poor Eck gained little. The students composed a song upon him, and sang it in the streets. Eck must have heard it in his prison. On this all his courage failed him, and the redoubtable champion trembled in every limb. Every day brought him threatening letters. One hundred and fifty students, who had arrived from Wittemberg, spoke out boldly against the papal envoy. For once the poor apostolical nuncio could hold out no longer. "I would not have them kill him," said Luther, "though I wish his designs to fail."[274] Eck, quitting his retreat at night, clandestinely escaped from Leipsic to go and hide himself at Coburg. Miltitz, who gives the account, triumphed more than the Reformer. His triumph, however, was not of long duration. All the chamberlain's projects of conciliation failed, and he came at last to a miserable end. One day, when drunk, he fell into the Rhine at Mentz, and was drowned.
The chancellor of Ingolstadt quickly returned to Saxony, which, since it had been the site of battle, he wanted to also be the site of his victory. Upon arrival, he announced the bull in Meissen, Merseburg, and Brandenburg toward the end of September. But in Meissen, it was posted in a spot where no one could read it, and the bishops of those three places weren’t eager to announce it. Even Duke George, Eck's main supporter, forbade the Council of Leipsic from making it public until they got the go-ahead from the Bishop of Merseburg, and those orders didn’t come until the following year. "These are just procedural issues," John Eck thought to himself at first, as everything else seemed to be going well for him. Duke George sent him a golden cup and some ducats. Even Miltitz, who rushed to Leipsic upon hearing that his rival had arrived, invited him to dinner. The two legates were good friends, and Miltitz thought he couldn’t find a better time to probe Eck than over drinks. "After he had a little too much to drink, he started," says the pope's chamberlain, "to boast extravagantly—he showed off his bull and talked about how he planned to bring that silly Martin to his senses." [272] But the Ingolstadt doctor quickly realized that the tides were turning. In just a year, a huge change had taken place in Leipsic.[273] On St. Michael's Day, some students put up posters in ten different places with a harsh critique of the new nuncio, who, taken aback, sought refuge in the St. Paul cloister, where Tetzel had previously found safety, and avoided all visitors, prompting the rector to call the young critics to account. This didn’t do Eck much good. The students composed a song about him and sang it in the streets. Eck must have heard it from his hideout. At that, all his courage left him, and the once formidable champion shook with fear. Each day brought him threatening letters. One hundred and fifty students who had come from Wittenberg boldly spoke out against the papal envoy. For once, the poor apostolic nuncio couldn’t take it any longer. "I wouldn’t want them to kill him," said Luther, "though I hope his plans fail." [274] Eck, leaving his hideout at night, secretly escaped from Leipsic to hide in Coburg. Miltitz, who recounts the story, triumphed more than the Reformer. However, his triumph was short-lived. All of the chamberlain's reconciliation efforts failed, and he ultimately met a miserable end. One day, when drunk, he fell into the Rhine in Mentz and drowned.
Eck gradually recovered courage. Repairing to Erfurt, whose theologians had on more than one occasion betrayed their jealousy of Luther, he insisted on having his bull published in this town, but the students seized the copies, tore them to pieces, and threw them into the river, saying, "since it is a bull, let it swim."[275] "Now," said Luther, on being informed of this, "the pope's paper is a true bull." Eck durst not make his appearance at Wittemberg; but he sent the bull to the rector with a threat, that if it was not conformed to, he would destroy the university. At the same time he wrote Duke John, Frederick's brother, and co-regent, "Do not take what I do in bad part, I am acting in behalf of the faith, and it costs me many cares, great labour, and much money."[276]
Eck gradually regained his courage. He went to Erfurt, where the theologians had shown their jealousy of Luther more than once, and insisted that his bull be published there. However, the students seized the copies, ripped them apart, and tossed them into the river, saying, "Since it’s a bull, let it swim." [275] "Now," said Luther when he heard about this, "the pope's paper is truly a bull." Eck dared not show up in Wittenberg; instead, he sent the bull to the rector with a threat that if it wasn’t followed, he would destroy the university. At the same time, he wrote to Duke John, Frederick's brother and co-regent, saying, "Please don't take what I’m doing the wrong way; I'm acting for the sake of the faith, and it’s costing me a lot of worry, effort, and money." [276]
The bishop of Brandenburg, supposing him inclined, was not entitled to act at Wittemberg in his capacity of ordinary, the university being protected by its privileges. Luther and Carlstadt, who were condemned by the bull, were asked to take part in the meetings which were held to deliberate on its contents. The rector declared that, as he had not received a letter from the pope along with the bull, he declined to publish it. The university had already acquired greater authority in the surrounding countries than the sovereign pontiff himself. Its declaration served as a model to the government of the Elector; and thus the spirit which was in Luther triumphed over the bull of Rome.
The Bishop of Brandenburg, assuming he was inclined to, wasn't allowed to act in Wittenberg in his role as ordinary because the university was protected by its privileges. Luther and Carlstadt, who were condemned by the papal bull, were invited to participate in the meetings held to discuss its contents. The rector stated that since he hadn’t received a letter from the pope along with the bull, he refused to publish it. The university had already gained more authority in the surrounding areas than the pope himself. Its declaration served as a guide for the Elector's government; thus, the spirit within Luther prevailed over the bull from Rome.
While the German mind was thus strongly agitated by this affair, a grave voice was heard in another quarter of Europe. An individual, foreseeing the immense rent which the papal bull was about to make in the Church, came forward to give a solemn warning, and to defend the Reformer. It was that of the Swiss priest, of whom we have already spoken, viz., Ulrich Zuinglius, who, though not united to Luther by any friendly tie, published a treatise full of wisdom and dignity, the first of his numerous writings.[277] A kind of fraternal affection seemed to draw him towards the doctor of Wittemberg. "The piety of the pontiff," said he, "requires that he shall joyfully sacrifice whatever is dearest to him for the glory of Christ his King, and for the public peace of the Church. Nothing is more injurious to his dignity than to defend it by pensions or terror. Even before the writings of Luther were read, he had been calumniated to the people as a heretic, a schismatic, and as Antichrist himself. Not one gave him warning, none refuted him. He called for a discussion; but all he could get was a sentence of condemnation. The bull which is published displeases even those who honour the majesty of the pope. For it is everywhere regarded as an expression of the impotent hatred of some monks, and not of the mildness of a pontiff, who ought to be the vicar of a Saviour full of love. All acknowledge that the true doctrine of the gospel of Jesus Christ has greatly degenerated, and that a public and thorough reformation of laws and manners is required.[278] Consider all men of learning and virtue—the more sincere they are, the stronger is their attachment to evangelical truth, and the less their dissatisfaction with Luther's writings.[279] There is not one who does not acknowledge that he has derived benefit from these books, though he may have met with passages which he was unable to approve. Let men of sound doctrine and acknowledged probity be selected. Let three princes above all suspicion—the emperor Charles, the King of England, and the king of Hungary—name the judges. Let these judges read Luther's writings. Let them hear his defence, and then let their decision, whatever it be, be confirmed. Νιμησατω ἡ του Χριστου παιδεια και εληθεια."[280]
While the German public was deeply stirred by this situation, a serious voice was heard elsewhere in Europe. An individual, anticipating the significant divide the papal bull was about to create in the Church, stepped forward to give a solemn warning and to support the Reformer. This was the Swiss priest we’ve already mentioned, Ulrich Zwingli, who, although not connected to Luther by any friendly bond, published a thoughtful and dignified treatise, the first of his many writings.[277] A kind of brotherly affection seemed to draw him to the doctor of Wittenberg. "The piety of the pope," he said, "requires that he joyfully sacrifices whatever is closest to him for the glory of Christ his King and for the peace of the Church. Nothing undermines his dignity more than trying to defend it through bribes or intimidation. Even before Luther's writings were read, he was slandered to the public as a heretic, a schismatic, and even as Antichrist himself. No one warned him, and no one refuted his accusations. He called for a debate, but all he received was a sentence of condemnation. The published bull displeases even those who respect the pope’s authority. It is seen everywhere as a sign of the impotent hatred of certain monks, not as the mildness of a pontiff who should be the representative of a loving Savior. Everyone agrees that the true teaching of the gospel of Jesus Christ has significantly declined, and that there needs to be a public and thorough reform of laws and conduct.[278] Consider all individuals of knowledge and virtue—the more genuine they are, the stronger their connection to evangelical truth, and the less dissatisfaction they express with Luther's writings.[279] There isn’t anyone who doesn’t acknowledge that they have gained something from these books, even if they found some passages they couldn’t agree with. Let individuals of sound theology and recognized integrity be chosen. Let three princes above all suspicion—the emperor Charles, the King of England, and the King of Hungary—appoint the judges. Let these judges read Luther's writings. Let them hear his defense, and then let their decision, whatever it may be, be finalized. Νιμησατω ἡ του Χριστου παιδεια και εληθεια."[280]
This proposal, which came from the country of the Swiss, led to no result. It was necessary that the great divorce should take place. It was necessary that Christendom should be rent in twain. Her very wounds were destined to be the cure of her diseases.
This proposal from Switzerland led to no outcome. The significant split was inevitable. It was necessary for Christianity to be divided. Its very wounds were meant to heal its afflictions.
CHAP. IX.
Luther Examines himself in the presence of God—Luther's opinion of the Bull—A neutral Family—Luther on the Bull, and against the Bull of Antichrist—The Pope prohibits Faith—Effects of the Bull—The faggot pile of Louvain.
Luther examines himself before God—Luther's perspective on the Bull—A fair Family—Luther's position on the Bull, opposing the Bull of the Antichrist—The Pope dismisses Faith—Results of the Bull—The heap of sticks in Louvain.
But what signified all this resistance by students, rectors, and priests. If the mighty arm of Charles V is joined to the mighty arm of the pope, will they not crush these scholars and grammarians? Will any one be able to resist the combined power of the pontiff of Christendom and of the emperor of the West? The blow has been struck. Luther is excommunicated, and the gospel seems lost. At this solemn moment the Reformer does not disguise to himself the magnitude of the danger to which he is exposed; but he looks upward, and prepares to receive, as from the hand of the Lord himself, a blow which seems destined to annihilate him. He retires within himself, and meditates at the footstool of the throne of God. "What the result is to be," says he, "I know not, and I am not anxious to know; certain as I am that He who sits in heaven has from all eternity foreseen the beginning, the progress, and the end of this affair. Wherever the blow is to strike, I am without fear. The leaf of a tree falls not without our Father's will. How much less shall we fall. It is a small matter to die for the Word, since this Word which became incarnate and that for us has itself first died. If we die with it, we shall rise again with it; and, passing along the same road by which it passed, will arrive where it has arrived, and remain with it throughout eternity."[281] Sometimes, however, Luther could not restrain the contempt which he felt for the manœuvres of his enemies. On these occasions he displays his characteristic combination of sublimity and sarcasm. "I know nothing of Eck," says he, "except that he arrived with a long beard, a long bull, and a long purse.... But I will laugh at his bull."[282]
But what does all this resistance from students, rectors, and priests really mean? If the powerful Charles V teams up with the mighty pope, won’t they just crush these scholars and grammarians? Who can stand against the combined force of the pope of Christendom and the emperor of the West? The strike has been made. Luther is excommunicated, and it feels like the gospel is lost. At this serious moment, the Reformer fully understands the magnitude of the danger he faces; yet he looks up and braces himself to receive what seems like a blow from God himself that could destroy him. He retreats within himself and contemplates at the foot of God’s throne. "What the outcome will be," he says, "I don’t know, and I’m not worried to know; I’m certain that He who sits in heaven has seen from all eternity the beginning, the middle, and the end of this situation. Wherever the blow falls, I fear nothing. A leaf on a tree doesn’t fall without our Father’s will. How much less will we fall? It’s insignificant to die for the Word, since this Word that became flesh has itself first died for us. If we die with it, we will rise again with it; and, traveling the same path it took, we will arrive where it arrives and remain with it for eternity." Sometimes, however, Luther couldn't hold back the disdain he felt for his enemies’ tactics. In those moments, he shows his typical mix of nobility and sarcasm. "I know nothing about Eck," he says, "other than that he showed up with a long beard, a long bull, and a long purse... But I will mock his bull."
On the third of October he was made acquainted with the papal letter. "At length," says he, "this Roman bull has arrived. I despise it, and defy it as impious, false, and in all respects worthy of Eck. It is Christ himself who is condemned. It gives no reasons; it merely cites me, not to be heard, but simply to sing a palinode. I will treat it as spurious, though I have no doubt it is genuine. O, if Charles V were a man, and would, for the love of Christ, attack these demons![283] I rejoice in having to endure some hardships for the best of causes. I already feel more liberty in my heart; for at length I know that the pope is Antichrist, and that his see is that of Satan himself."
On October 3rd, he learned about the papal letter. "Finally," he says, "this Roman bull has arrived. I reject it and challenge it as wicked, false, and entirely deserving of Eck. It is Christ himself who is condemned. It offers no reasons; it just names me, not to give a response, but simply to recant. I'll consider it fake, even though I have no doubt it’s real. Oh, if Charles V were a man and would, for the love of Christ, confront these demons![283] I take joy in enduring some struggles for the best cause. I already feel more freedom in my heart; for I finally know that the pope is the Antichrist and that his seat is that of Satan himself."
It was not in Saxony merely that the thunders of Rome had produced alarm. A quiet family of Swabia, a neutral family, saw its peace suddenly broken up. Bilibald Pirckheimer, of Nuremberg, one of the most distinguished men of his age, having early lost his beloved wife Crescentia, was united in the closest affection with his two young sisters, Charitas, abbess of St. Clair, and Clara, a nun of the same convent. These two pious females served God in solitude, and divided their time between study, the care of the poor, and preparation for eternity. Bilibald, who was a statesman, relaxed from public affairs by maintaining a correspondence with them. They were learned, read Latin, and studied the Fathers; but their favourite volume was the Holy Scriptures. They had never had any other teacher than their brother. The letters of Charitas are written in a delicate and amiable spirit. Tenderly attached to Bilibald she took alarm at the least danger which threatened him. Pirckheimer, to dissipate the fears of this timid spirit, wrote a dialogue between Charitas and Veritas, (Charity and Truth), in which Veritas tries to strengthen Charitas.[284] Nothing can be more touching, or better fitted to solace a tender and agonised heart.
It wasn't just in Saxony that the thunders of Rome caused alarm. A quiet family in Swabia, a neutral family, suddenly found their peace disrupted. Bilibald Pirckheimer, from Nuremberg, one of the most distinguished men of his time, had early lost his beloved wife Crescentia and was closely bonded with his two young sisters, Charitas, the abbess of St. Clair, and Clara, a nun in the same convent. These two devout women dedicated their lives to serving God in solitude, spending their time on study, caring for the poor, and preparing for eternity. Bilibald, who was a statesman, found a break from public affairs by keeping in touch with them. They were educated, read Latin, and studied the Church Fathers, but their favorite book was the Holy Scriptures. They had never had another teacher besides their brother. The letters from Charitas are written with a delicate and kind spirit. Deeply attached to Bilibald, she would worry at the slightest hint of danger to him. To ease the fears of this anxious soul, Pirckheimer wrote a dialogue between Charitas and Veritas (Charity and Truth), in which Veritas tries to reassure Charitas.[284] Nothing could be more touching or better suited to comfort a tender and troubled heart.
What must have been the terror of Charitas when the rumour spread that in the papal bull Bilibald's name was posted up beside that of Luther, on the doors of cathedrals? In fact, Eck, pushed on by blind fury, had associated with Luther six of the most distinguished men of Germany, viz., Carlstadt, Feldkirchen, and Egranus, (who gave themselves very little concern about it,) and Adelman, Pirckheimer, and his friend Spengler, whose public functions made them particularly alive to the insult. There was great agitation in the Convent of St. Clair. How shall the disgrace of Bilibald be borne? Nothing affects relatives more deeply than such trials. In vain did the city of Nuremberg, the Bishop of Bamberg, and even the dukes of Bavaria interfere in behalf of Spengler and Pirckheimer; these noble-minded men were obliged to humble themselves before Dr. Eck, who made them feel all the importance of a Roman protonotary, and obliged them to write a letter to the pope, declaring that they adhered to the doctrines of Luther only in so far as they were conformable to Christian faith. At the same time Adelman, with whom Eck had once had a scuffle on rising up from table after a discussion on the great question which then occupied all minds, was required to appear before the bishop of Augsburg and purge himself on oath of all participation in the Lutheran heresy. Still, however, anger and revenge had proved bad counsellors to Eck. The names of Bilibald and his friends damaged the bull. The character of these eminent men and their extensive connections increased the general irritation.
What must have been the terror of Charitas when the rumor spread that in the papal bull Bilibald's name was listed next to Luther's on the doors of cathedrals? In fact, Eck, driven by blind fury, had associated with Luther six of the most distinguished men in Germany: Carlstadt, Feldkirchen, and Egranus (who didn't seem to care much about it), along with Adelman, Pirckheimer, and his friend Spengler, whose public roles made them particularly aware of the insult. There was great agitation in the Convent of St. Clair. How would they handle the disgrace of Bilibald? Nothing affects relatives more deeply than such trials. In vain did the city of Nuremberg, the Bishop of Bamberg, and even the dukes of Bavaria intervene on behalf of Spengler and Pirckheimer; these noble-minded men had to humble themselves before Dr. Eck, who made them acutely aware of the significance of being a Roman protonotary, and forced them to write a letter to the pope declaring that they supported Luther's doctrines only insofar as they aligned with Christian faith. At the same time, Adelman, with whom Eck had once had a confrontation after a discussion on the pressing issue of the day, was required to appear before the bishop of Augsburg and swear that he had no involvement in Lutheran heresy. However, anger and revenge had proven to be poor advisors for Eck. The names of Bilibald and his friends damaged the bull. The reputation of these prominent men and their wide connections only intensified the general outrage.
Luther at first pretended to doubt the authenticity of the bull. "I learn," says he in the first work which he published after it, "that Eck has brought from Rome a new bull, which resembles him so much, is so stuffed with falsehood and error, that it might well be named Doctor Eck. He gives out that it is the work of the pope, whereas it is only a work of lies." After explaining his reasons for doubting its genuineness, Luther thus concludes, "I must with my own eyes see the lead, the seal, the tape, the conclusion, the signature of the bull—every part of it, in short, or I will not estimate all this clamour at the weight of a straw."[285]
Luther initially claimed to be unsure about the authenticity of the bull. "I’ve heard," he states in the first work he published after it, "that Eck has brought back from Rome a new bull that looks so much like him, is so full of lies and errors, that it could easily be called Doctor Eck. He claims it's the pope's work, but it's just a bunch of falsehoods." After sharing his reasons for doubting its authenticity, Luther concludes, "I need to see the lead, the seal, the tape, the conclusion, the signature of the bull—all of it, or I won’t give any of this fuss the weight of a straw."[285]
But no man doubted, not even Luther himself, that the bull was the pope's. Germany waited to see what the Reformer would do. Would he stand firm? All eyes were fixed on Wittemberg. Luther did not keep his contemporaries long in suspense. On the 4th of November, 1520, he replied with a discharge of thunder, by publishing his treatise 'Against the Bull of Antichrist.'
But no one doubted, not even Luther himself, that the bull was the pope's. Germany waited to see what the Reformer would do. Would he hold his ground? All eyes were on Wittenberg. Luther didn't keep his contemporaries waiting long. On November 4, 1520, he responded with a bang by publishing his treatise 'Against the Bull of Antichrist.'
"What errors, what impostures," said he, "have crept in among the poor people under the cloak of the Church, and the pretended infallibility of the pope! how many souls have thus been lost! how much blood shed! what murders committed! what kingdoms ruined!"
"What mistakes, what deceits," he said, "have infiltrated the lives of the poor under the guise of the Church and the so-called infallibility of the pope! How many souls have been lost! How much blood has been spilled! What murders have been committed! What kingdoms have been destroyed!"
Further on he ironically says, "I know very well how to distinguish between art and malice, and set very little value on a malice which has no art. To burn books is so easy a matter that even children can do it; how much more the Holy Father and his doctors.[286] It would become them to show greater ability than is requisite merely to burn books.... Besides, let them destroy my works! I desire nothing more; for all I wished was to guide men to the Bible, that they might thereafter lay aside all my writings.[287] Good God! if we had the knowledge of Scripture, what need would there be for my writings?... I am free by the grace of God, and bulls neither solace nor frighten me. My strength and consolation are where neither men nor devils can assail them."
Further along, he ironically remarks, "I know very well how to tell the difference between art and malice, and I don't think much of malice that lacks art. Burning books is so easy that even kids can do it; how much more the Pope and his scholars.[286] They should demonstrate more skill than what's needed just to burn books.... Besides, let them destroy my works! I want nothing more; all I aimed for was to direct people to the Bible, so they could eventually ignore all my writings.[287] Good God! If we truly understood Scripture, what need would there be for my writings?... I am free by the grace of God, and papal bullies neither comfort nor scare me. My strength and comfort lie where neither people nor devils can reach them."
Luther's tenth proposition, condemned by the pope, was in the following terms: "No man's sins are pardoned, if, when the priest absolves him, he does not believe that they are pardoned." The pope in condemning it denied that faith was necessary in the Sacrament. "They maintain," exclaims Luther, "that we ought not to believe that our sins are pardoned when we are absolved by the priest. What then are we to do? Listen now, O! Christians, to a new arrival from Rome. Condemnation is pronounced against this article of faith which we profess when we say 'I believe in the Holy Ghost, the Holy Catholic Church, and the forgiveness of sins.' Did I know that the pope had really given this bull at Rome," (he did not doubt it,) "and that it was not the invention of the arch-liar, Eck, I would cry aloud to all Christians that they ought to hold the pope as the true Antichrist spoken of in Scripture. And if he would not desist from proscribing the faith of the Church, ... then let the temporal sword resist him even sooner than the Turk!... For the Turks allow belief, but the pope forbids it."
Luther's tenth proposition, which was condemned by the pope, stated: "No one's sins are forgiven if, when the priest absolves him, he doesn't believe that they are forgiven." In condemning it, the pope argued that faith isn't necessary in the Sacrament. "They claim," Luther exclaims, "that we shouldn't believe our sins are forgiven when the priest absolves us. So what are we supposed to do? Listen, O Christians, to news from Rome. A condemnation has been issued against this article of faith that we declare when we say 'I believe in the Holy Spirit, the Holy Catholic Church, and the forgiveness of sins.' If I knew that the pope really issued this bull in Rome," (he had no doubt about it), "and that it wasn't just the invention of the arch-liar, Eck, I would shout to all Christians that they should see the pope as the true Antichrist mentioned in Scripture. And if he doesn’t stop rejecting the faith of the Church, ... then let the sword of the state confront him even before the Turk!... Because the Turks allow belief, but the pope forbids it."
While Luther was speaking thus forcibly, his perils were increasing. The scheme of his enemies was to drive him out of Wittemberg. If Luther and Wittemberg are separated, both will be destroyed. A single stroke would thus disencumber Rome of both the heretical doctor and the heretical university. Duke George, the bishop of Merseburg, and the theologians of Leipsic were labouring underhand at this work.[288] Luther on being apprised of it said, "I leave this affair in the hands of God."[289] These proceedings were not without result: Adrian, professor of Hebrew at Wittemberg, suddenly turned against the doctor. It required great firmness in the faith to withstand the shock given by the Roman bull. There are characters which follow the truth only a certain distance, and such was Adrian. Frightened at the condemnation he quitted Wittemberg, and repaired to Leipsic to be near Dr. Eck.
While Luther was speaking so forcefully, his dangers were increasing. His enemies plotted to drive him out of Wittenberg. If Luther and Wittenberg were separated, both would be destroyed. A single move could rid Rome of both the heretical doctor and the heretical university. Duke George, the bishop of Merseburg, and the theologians of Leipzig were working behind the scenes on this. Luther, upon finding out, said, "I leave this matter in God's hands." These actions had consequences: Adrian, a professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg, suddenly turned against Luther. It took a lot of faith to withstand the impact of the papal bull. There are people who follow the truth only to a certain point, and Adrian was one of them. Scared of the condemnation, he left Wittenberg and went to Leipzig to be close to Dr. Eck.
The bull began to be executed. The voice of the pontiff of Christendom was not an empty sound. Long had fire and sword taught subjection to it. Faggot piles were prepared at his bidding, and everything indicated that a dreadful catastrophe was to put an end to the audacious revolt of the Augustin monk. In October, 1520, all the copies of Luther's works in the shops of the booksellers at Ingolstadt were seized, and put under seal. The Archbishop-Elector of Mentz, moderate as he was, had to banish Ulric of Hütten from his court, and imprison his printer. The papal nuncios having laid siege to the young Emperor, Charles declared that he would protect the ancient religion;[290] and in some of his hereditary possessions scaffolds were erected, on which the writings of the heretic were reduced to ashes. Princes of the Church and magistrates were present at these auto-da-fe. Alcander was quite elated with his success. "The pope," said he, in imitation of Prierio, "may dethrone kings! He may, if he chooses, say to the emperor, Thou art only a tanner! He knows well how to bring one or two miserable grammarians to their senses. We will dispose, moreover, of Duke Frederick also." To hear the proud nuncio, one would have said that the pile of Mentz which consumed Luther's books was "le commencement de la fin" (the beginning of the end.) These flames, it was said at Rome, will carry terror into every quarter. Such, in truth, was the effect on many superstitious and timid spirits; but even in the hereditary states of Charles, where alone it was ventured to execute the bull, the people, and even the grandees, often answered these pontifical demonstrations with derision, or expressions of indignation. "Luther," said the doctors of Louvain, on presenting themselves before Margaret, Regent of the Netherlands, "Luther is subverting the Christian faith." "Who is this Luther?" asked the Princess. "An ignorant monk." "Well, then," replied she, "do you, who are learned, and in such numbers, write against him. The world will credit a multitude of learned men sooner than an isolated, ignorant monk." The doctors of Louvain preferred an easier method. They caused a vast pile to be erected at their own expense. The place of execution was covered with spectators, and students and burghers were seen hastening through the crowd, their arms filled with large volumes, which they threw into the flames. Their zeal edified the monks and doctors; but the trick was afterwards discovered. Instead of the writings of Luther, they had thrown into the fire the Sermones discipuli, Tartaret, and other scholastic and popish books.[291]
The bull began to be enforced. The voice of the Pope was not just empty words. For a long time, fire and sword had imposed obedience to it. Bonfires were prepared at his command, and everything suggested that a terrible disaster was about to end the bold rebellion of the Augustinian monk. In October 1520, all copies of Luther's works in the bookstores of Ingolstadt were seized and sealed. The Archbishop-Elector of Mainz, reasonable as he was, had to expel Ulrich von Hütten from his court and imprison his printer. The papal envoys pressuring the young Emperor caused Charles to declare that he would protect the traditional religion; and in some of his hereditary lands, scaffolds were set up where the writings of the heretic were burned. Church leaders and officials were present at these **auto-da-fé**. Alcander was quite pleased with his achievements. "The pope," he mimicked Prierio, "can dethrone kings! He can tell the emperor, 'You are just a tanner!' He knows how to bring a couple of miserable grammarians to heel. We'll also take care of Duke Frederick." Listening to the proud envoy, one would think that the pyre in Mainz that consumed Luther's books was "the beginning of the end." It was said in Rome that these flames would spread fear everywhere. Indeed, that was the reaction among many superstitious and fearful souls; but even in Charles' hereditary territories, where it was dared to enforce the bull, the people, including the nobility, often responded to these papal displays with mockery or anger. "Luther," said the professors of Leuven when they appeared before Margaret, Regent of the Netherlands, "is undermining the Christian faith." "Who is this Luther?" asked the Princess. "An ignorant monk." "Well, then," she replied, "you learned men, in such numbers, should write against him. The world will believe a multitude of educated people sooner than a single, ignorant monk." The Leuven scholars chose a simpler approach. They arranged for a large bonfire to be built at their own expense. The execution site was crowded with spectators, and students and townspeople rushed through the crowd, arms full of large books, which they tossed into the flames. Their fervor impressed the monks and professors; however, the trick was later uncovered. Instead of Luther's writings, they had thrown into the fire the **Sermones discipuli**, **Tartaret**, and other scholastic and papist texts.
The Count of Nassau, Viceroy of Holland, when the Dominicans were soliciting the favour of burning the doctor's books, said to them, "Go and preach the gospel as purely as Luther, and you will have nobody to complain of." At a festival, attended by the leading princes of the empire, the Reformer having become the subject of conversation, the Baron of Ravenstein said, aloud, "In the space of four centuries, only one Christian man has dared to lift his head, and the pope is wishing to put him to death."[292]
The Count of Nassau, Viceroy of Holland, said to the Dominicans who were asking for permission to burn the doctor’s books, “Go and preach the gospel as sincerely as Luther, and no one will complain.” At a festival attended by the top princes of the empire, the Reformer became the topic of discussion, and the Baron of Ravenstein said loudly, “In the last four centuries, only one Christian has had the courage to stand up, and the pope wants to kill him.”[292]
Luther, conscious of the power of his cause, remained tranquil amid the tumult which the bull had excited.[293] "Did you not urge me so keenly," said he to Spalatin, "I would be silent, well knowing that, by the power and counsel of God, this work must be accomplished."[294] The timid man was anxious for speech, the strong man wished to be silent. It was because Luther discerned a power not visible to the eyes of his friend. "Be of good courage," continues the Reformer; "Christ began these things, and Christ will accomplish them, though I should be put to flight or put to death. Jesus Christ is present here, and more powerful is He who is in us, than he who is in the world."[295]
Luther, aware of the significance of his cause, stayed calm amidst the chaos stirred up by the bull.[293] "If you hadn't urged me so strongly," he said to Spalatin, "I would keep quiet, knowing that, through God’s power and guidance, this work will be done."[294] The anxious man wanted to speak, while the strong man preferred silence. This was because Luther sensed a strength that his friend couldn't see. "Take heart," the Reformer continued; "Christ started this, and Christ will see it through, even if I am chased away or killed. Jesus Christ is here, and He who is in us is more powerful than he who is in the world."[295]
CHAP. X.
Decisive steps by the Reformer—Luther's Appeal to a General Council—Struggle at close quarters—The Bull burned by Luther—Meaning of this bold act—Luther in the Academic Chair—Luther against the Pope—New Work by Melancthon—How Luther encourages his Friends—Progress of the Contest—Melancthon's Opinion of the timid—Luther's Work on the Bible—Doctrine of Grace—Luther's Recantation.
Key actions taken by the Reformer—Luther's call for a General Council—Intense conflict—The Bull burned by Luther—Importance of this bold act—Luther in the Academic Chair—Luther against the Pope—New initiative by Melancthon—How Luther supports his allies—Progress in the fight—Melancthon's perspective on the fearful—Luther's work on the Bible—Doctrine of Grace—Luther's renunciation.
But duty obliged him to speak, in order to manifest the truth to the world. Rome has struck, and he will make it known how he receives the blow. The pope has put him under the ban of the Church, and he will put the pope under the ban of Christendom. Up to this hour the pope's word has been omnipotent. Luther will oppose word to word, and the world will know which is the more powerful of the two. "I am desirous," said he, "to set my conscience at rest, by making men aware of the danger to which they are exposed."[296] At the same time he prepares to renew his appeal to an universal council. An appeal from the pope to a council was a crime, and hence the mode in which Luther attempts to justify himself is a new act of hostility to papal authority.
But he felt it was his duty to speak up and reveal the truth to the world. Rome has struck, and he will show how he responds to that blow. The pope has excommunicated him, and he will counter by declaring the pope an enemy of Christendom. Until now, the pope's word has been all-powerful. Luther will respond to word with word, and the world will see which carries more weight. "I want," he stated, "to ease my conscience by making people aware of the danger they face."[296] At the same time, he is preparing to renew his appeal to a universal council. An appeal from the pope to a council was seen as a crime, so the way Luther tries to justify himself is a new act of rebellion against papal authority.
On the morning of the 17th November, a notary and five witnesses, of whom Cruciger was one, met at ten o'clock, in one of the halls of the Augustin convent in which the doctor resided. There the public officer, Sarctor of Eisleben, having seated himself to draw up the minute of his protest, the Reformer, in presence of the witnesses, says, with a solemn tone:
On the morning of November 17th, a notary and five witnesses, including Cruciger, gathered at ten o'clock in one of the halls of the Augustin convent where the doctor lived. There, the public officer, Sarctor of Eisleben, took a seat to draft the record of his protest, and the Reformer, in front of the witnesses, stated in a serious tone:
"Considering that a general Council of the Christian Church is above the pope, especially in all that concerns the faith;
"Since a general Council of the Christian Church is above the pope, especially regarding all matters of faith;
"Considering that the power of the pope is not above, but beneath Scripture, and that he has no right to worry the sheep of Christ, and throw them into the wolf's mouth:
"Considering that the authority of the pope is not above but below Scripture, and that he has no right to distress the flock of Christ and put them into the mouth of the wolf:"
"I, Martin Luther, Augustin, doctor of the Holy Scriptures at Wittemberg, do, by this writing, appeal for myself, and for all who shall adhere to me, from the most holy Pope Leo, to a future universal Christian Council.
"I, Martin Luther, Augustinian, doctor of Holy Scriptures at Wittenberg, make this appeal for myself and for everyone who agrees with me, from the most holy Pope Leo, to a future universal Christian Council."
"I appeal from the said Pope Leo, first, as an unjust, rash, tyrannical judge, who condemns me without hearing me, and without explaining the grounds of his judgment; secondly, as a heretic, a strayed, obdurate apostate, condemned by the Holy Scriptures, inasmuch as he ordains me to deny that Christian faith is necessary in the use of the sacraments;[297] thirdly, as an enemy, an antichrist, an adversary, a tyrant of the Holy Scripture,[298] who dares to oppose his own words to all the words of God; fourthly, as a despiser, a calumniator, a blasphemer of the holy Christian Church and a free Council, inasmuch as he pretends that a Council is nothing in itself.
I appeal from Pope Leo, first, as an unjust, reckless, tyrannical judge who condemns me without hearing me or explaining the reasons for his judgment; secondly, as a heretic, a lost, stubborn apostate, condemned by the Holy Scriptures, because he insists that I deny the necessity of Christian faith in the use of the sacraments;[297] thirdly, as an enemy, an antichrist, an opponent, a tyrant of the Holy Scripture,[298] who dares to put his own words against all the words of God; fourthly, as a despiser, a slanderer, a blasphemer of the holy Christian Church and a free Council, as he claims that a Council means nothing on its own.
"Wherefore, I most humbly supplicate the most serene, most illustrious, excellent, generous, noble, brave, sage, and prudent lords, Charles, the Roman emperor, the electors, princes, counts, barons, knights, gentlemen, counsellors, towns, and commonalties, throughout Germany, to adhere to my protestation, and join me in resisting the antichristian conduct of the pope, for the glory of God, the defence of the Church, and of Christian doctrine, and the maintenance of free councils in Christendom. Let them do so, and Christ our Lord will richly recompence them by his eternal grace. But if there are any who despise my prayer, and continue to obey that impious man, the pope, rather than God,[299] I, by these presents, shake myself free of the responsibility. Having faithfully warned their consciences, I leave them, as well as the pope, and all his adherents, to the sovereign judgment of God."
"Therefore, I humbly ask the most serene, illustrious, excellent, generous, noble, brave, wise, and sensible leaders—Charles, the Roman emperor, the electors, princes, counts, barons, knights, gentlemen, counselors, towns, and communities across Germany—to support my protest and join me in opposing the un-Christian actions of the pope, for the glory of God, the defense of the Church, and Christian teachings, as well as the support of free councils in Christendom. If they do so, Christ our Lord will reward them generously with His eternal grace. However, if anyone disregards my plea and chooses to obey that wicked man, the pope, rather than God,[299] I hereby free myself from any responsibility. After having faithfully alerted their consciences, I leave them, along with the pope and all his followers, to the ultimate judgment of God."
Such is Luther's deed of divorce, such his answer to the papal bull. There is great seriousness in this declaration. The accusations which he brings against the pope are very grave, and are not made in a spirit of levity. This protestation spread over Germany, and was sent to the leading courts of Christendom.
Such is Luther's declaration of divorce, such is his response to the papal bull. This statement carries significant weight. The accusations he levels against the pope are serious and are not made lightly. This protest spread throughout Germany and was sent to the prominent courts of Christendom.
Though the step which Luther had just taken seemed the very height of daring, he had a still bolder step in reserve. The monk of Wittemberg will do all that the pope dares to do. The son of the Medicis, and the son of the miner of Mansfeld, have descended into the lists, and in this mortal struggle, which shakes the world, not a blow is given by the one which is not returned by the other. On the 10th December, a notice appeared on the walls of Wittemberg, inviting the professors and students to meet at nine o'clock in the morning, at the east gate, near the holy cross. A great number of teachers and pupils assembled, and Luther, walking at their head, led the procession to the appointed spot. How many faggot piles has Rome kindled in the course of ages! Luther desires to make a better application of the great Roman principle. He only wishes to rid himself of some old papers, and the fire, he thinks, is the fit instrument for that. A scaffold had been prepared. One of the oldest masters of arts applied the torch. At the moment when the flames rose, the redoubted Augustin, dressed in his frock, was seen to approach the pile, holding in his hands the Canon Law, the Decretals, the Clementines, the Extravagants of the popes, some writings of Eck and Emser, and the papal bull. The Decretals having first been consumed, Luther held up the bull, and saying, "Since thou hast grieved the Lord's Anointed, let the eternal fire grieve and consume thee," threw it into the flames. Never was war declared with more energy and resolution. Luther quietly took the road back to the town, and the crowd of doctors, professors, and students, after a loud cheer, returned with him to Wittemberg. "The Decretals," said Luther, "resemble a body with a head as soft as that of a maiden, limbs as full of violence as those of a lion, and a tail with as many wiles as a serpent. In all the papal laws, there is not one word to teach us who Jesus Christ is.[300] My enemies," continues he, "have been able, by burning my books, to injure the truth in the minds of the common people, and therefore I have burnt their books in my turn. A serious struggle has now commenced. Hitherto I have only had child's play with the pope. I began the work in the name of God; it will be terminated without me and by his power. If they burn my books, in which, to speak without vain-glory, there is more of the gospel than in all the books of the pope, I am entitled, a fortiori, to burn theirs, in which there is nothing good."
Though the step Luther had just taken seemed incredibly bold, he had an even bolder move in mind. The monk from Wittenberg is ready to do everything the pope is willing to do. The son of the Medicis and the son of the miner from Mansfeld have stepped into the arena, and in this life-and-death struggle that shakes the world, every blow one delivers is met with a counter from the other. On December 10th, a notice appeared on the walls of Wittenberg, calling for professors and students to gather at nine in the morning at the east gate, near the holy cross. A large crowd of teachers and students gathered, and Luther, leading the way, walked with them to the designated spot. How many bonfires has Rome ignited over the ages! Luther aims to make a better use of this significant Roman principle. He simply wants to get rid of some old documents, and he thinks fire is the right way to do that. A platform had been set up. One of the senior lecturers lit the torch. As the flames rose, the famed Augustinian, dressed in his robe, approached the pile, holding the Canon Law, the Decretals, the Clementines, the Extravagants of the popes, some writings of Eck and Emser, and the papal bull. After the Decretals were burned, Luther raised the bull and said, "Since you have offended the Lord's Anointed, let eternal fire grieve and consume you," before tossing it into the flames. Never had war been declared with such energy and determination. Luther calmly walked back to the town, and the crowd of doctors, professors, and students cheered loudly as they returned with him to Wittenberg. "The Decretals," Luther remarked, "are like a body with a head as soft as a maiden's, limbs as fierce as a lion's, and a tail with as many tricks as a serpent. In all the papal laws, there isn't a single word to teach us who Jesus Christ is. My enemies," he continued, "have been able to damage the truth in the minds of ordinary people by burning my books, so I have burned theirs in return. A serious battle has now begun. Until now, I've only been playing around with the pope. I started this work in God's name; it will reach its conclusion without me and by His power. If they burn my books, which, to speak without arrogance, contain more of the gospel than all of the pope's books, then I am justified, a fortiori, in burning theirs, which contain nothing good."
Had Luther commenced the Reformation in this way, such a proceeding would doubtless have led to fatal results. Fanaticism would have been able to lay hold of it, and throw the Church into a course of disorder and violence. But the Reformer's grave exposition of Scripture had formed a prelude to his work. The foundations had been wisely laid, and now the mighty stroke which he had just given would not only expose him to no hazard, but even accelerate the hour when Christendom would be delivered from her chains.
Had Luther started the Reformation this way, it would have likely resulted in disastrous consequences. Fanaticism could have taken hold and plunged the Church into chaos and violence. However, the Reformer's serious interpretation of Scripture had set the stage for his work. He had laid a solid foundation, and now the powerful action he had just taken would not only put him at no risk but also speed up the moment when Christianity would be freed from its restraints.
Thus solemnly did Luther declare his separation from the pope and his church. After his letter to Leo he might think this necessary. He accepted the excommunication which Rome had pronounced. It made the Christian world aware that there was now mortal war between him and the pope. On reaching the shore, he burnt his ships, and left himself no alternative but that of advancing to the combat.
Thus seriously did Luther announce his break from the pope and his church. After his letter to Leo, he might have felt this was necessary. He acknowledged the excommunication that Rome had declared. It made the Christian world realize that there was now a deadly conflict between him and the pope. Upon reaching the shore, he burned his ships, leaving himself no option but to move forward into battle.
Luther had returned to Wittemberg. Next day the academic hall was fuller than usual. Men's minds were excited. A feeling of solemnity prevailed throughout the audience, in expectation of an address from the doctor. He commented on the Psalms, a task which he had commenced in March of the previous year. Having finished his lecture, he paused a few moments, and then said firmly, "Be on your guard against the laws and statutes of the pope. I have burned the Decretals, but it is only child's play. It is time, and more than time, to burn the pope. I mean, he instantly resumed, the see of Rome, with all its doctrines and abominations." Then, assuming a more solemn tone, he said, "If you do not, with all your heart, combat the impious government of the pope, you cannot be saved. Whoever takes pleasure in the religion and worship of the papacy will be eternally lost in the life to come."[301]
Luther had returned to Wittenberg. The next day, the lecture hall was more crowded than usual. The men were buzzing with excitement. A sense of seriousness filled the room as everyone anticipated a talk from the doctor. He discussed the Psalms, a task he had started the previous March. After finishing his lecture, he paused for a moment and then said firmly, "Be careful of the laws and rules of the pope. I've burned the Decretals, but that's just child's play. It's time, and well past time, to burn the pope." He quickly clarified, "I mean the seat of Rome, along with all its doctrines and corrupt practices." Then, taking on a more serious tone, he said, "If you don't wholeheartedly fight against the wicked rule of the pope, you cannot be saved. Anyone who enjoys the religion and worship of the papacy will be eternally lost in the afterlife."[301]
"If we reject it," added he, "we may expect all kinds of dangers and even the loss of life. But it is far better to run such risks in the world than to be silent! As long as I live I will warn my brethren of the sore and plague of Babylon, lest several who are with us fall back with the others into the abyss of hell."
"If we turn it down," he added, "we can expect all kinds of dangers and even loss of life. But it's much better to take those risks in the world than to stay silent! As long as I’m alive, I will warn my brothers about the pain and suffering of Babylon, so that those of us here don’t fall back with the others into the depths of hell."
It is scarcely possible to imagine the effect produced upon the audience by language, the energy of which still makes us wonder. "None of us," adds the candid student to whom we owe the fact, "at least, if he be not a block without intelligence, ('as,' adds he in a parenthesis, 'all the papists are,')—none of us doubts that it contains the simple truth. It is evident to all the faithful, that Dr. Luther is an angel of the living God, called to feed the long bewildered sheep of Christ with the divine Word."[302]
It’s hard to imagine the impact that language can have on an audience, the kind of energy that still leaves us in awe. “None of us,” the honest student we have to thank for this insight adds, “at least if he isn’t completely lacking in intelligence, (as he notes in a side comment, ‘like all the papists are’)—none of us doubts that it holds the simple truth. It’s clear to all the faithful that Dr. Luther is a messenger from the living God, chosen to guide the long-lost sheep of Christ with the divine Word.”[302]
This discourse, and the act which crowned it, mark an important epoch in the Reformation. The Leipsic discussion had detached Luther inwardly from the pope. But the moment when he burned the bull was that in which he declared, in the most expressive manner, his entire separation from the bishop of Rome and his church, and his attachment to the Church universal, as founded by the apostles of Jesus Christ. After three centuries the fire which he kindled at the East gate is still burning.
This conversation, along with the act that followed, marks an important moment in the Reformation. The Leipsic debate had already led Luther to separate himself inwardly from the pope. However, the moment he burned the bull was when he declared, in the most emphatic way, his complete break from the bishop of Rome and his church, along with his commitment to the universal Church founded by the apostles of Jesus Christ. After three centuries, the fire he ignited at the East gate is still burning.
"The pope," said he, "has three crowns, and they are these: the first is against God, for he condemns religion,—the second against the emperor, for he condemns the secular power,—and the third against society, for he condemns marriage."[303] When he was reproached with inveighing too violently against the papacy, he replied, "Ah! I wish every thing I testify against him were a clap of thunder, and every one of my words were a thunderbolt."[304]
"The pope," he said, "has three crowns, and they are these: the first is against God, because he condemns religion,—the second against the emperor, because he condemns secular authority,—and the third against society, because he condemns marriage."[303] When he was criticized for being too harsh against the papacy, he replied, "Ah! I wish everything I say against him were a clap of thunder, and every one of my words were a thunderbolt."[304]
This firmness of Luther was communicated to his friends and countrymen. A whole nation rallied round him. The university of Wittemberg in particular always became more attached to the hero to whom it owed its importance and renown. Carlstadt raised his voice against "the raging lion of Florence," who tore divine and human laws to pieces, and trampled under foot the principles of eternal truth. At this time Melancthon also addressed the States of the empire in a writing characterised by his usual elegance and wisdom. It was a reply to a treatise attributed to Emser, but published under the name of Rhadinus, a Roman theologian. Luther himself spoke not more forcibly, and yet there is a grace in Melancthon's words which gives them access to the heart.
This determination of Luther was shared with his friends and countrymen. A whole nation rallied around him. The university of Wittenberg, in particular, grew increasingly attached to the hero who had brought it significance and fame. Carlstadt raised his voice against "the raging lion of Florence," who tore apart both divine and human laws and trampled on the principles of eternal truth. At this time, Melancthon also addressed the states of the empire in a piece marked by his usual elegance and wisdom. It was a response to a treatise attributed to Emser, but published under the name of Rhadinus, a Roman theologian. Luther himself couldn't have expressed it more forcefully, yet there is a grace in Melancthon's words that makes them resonate deeply.
After showing, by passages of Scripture, that the pope is not superior to other bishops; "What prevents us," says he to the States of the empire, "from depriving the pope of the privilege which we have given him?[305] It matters little to Luther that our riches, i.e. the treasures of Europe, are sent to Rome. But what causes his grief and ours is, that the laws of the pontiffs, and the reign of the pope, not only endanger the souls of men but utterly destroy them. Every man can judge for himself, whether or not it suits him to give his money for the maintenance of Roman luxury, but to judge of the things of religion, and of sacred mysteries, is beyond the reach of the vulgar. Here, then, Luther implores your faith and zeal, and all pious men implore with him, some with loud voice and others with groans and sighs. Remember, princes of the Christian people, that you are Christians, and rescue the sad wrecks of Christianity from the tyranny of Antichrist. You are deceived by those who pretend that you have no authority over priests. The same spirit which animated Jehu against the priests of Baal urges you, in imitation of that ancient example, to abolish the Roman superstition—a superstition far more horrible than the idolatry of Baal."[306] So spoke mild Melancthon to the princes of Germany.
After demonstrating with Scripture that the pope is not superior to other bishops, he says to the leaders of the empire, "What stops us from taking away the privilege we granted to the pope?[305] Luther isn't concerned that our wealth, meaning Europe's treasures, is sent to Rome. But what troubles him and us is that the laws of the popes and the pope's rule not only threaten people’s souls but completely destroy them. Everyone can decide for themselves if it's worth it to use their money to support Roman luxury, but judging religious matters and sacred mysteries is beyond the average person’s understanding. So, Luther appeals to your faith and zeal, along with all righteous people who are with him, some speaking loudly and others with sighs and groans. Remember, leaders of the Christian people, that you are Christians, and save the unfortunate remnants of Christianity from Antichrist's tyranny. Don’t let yourself be fooled by those who claim you have no authority over priests. The same spirit that drove Jehu against the priests of Baal urges you, following that ancient example, to eliminate Roman superstition—a superstition far worse than Baal's idolatry."[306] Thus spoke mild Melancthon to the princes of Germany.
Some cries of alarm were heard among the friends of the Reformation. Timid spirits inclined to excessive moderation—Staupitz in particular, expressed the keenest anguish. "Till now," said Luther to him, "the whole affair has been mere sport. You yourself have said, 'did God not do these things it is impossible they could by done.' The tumult becomes more and more tumultuous! and I do not think it will be quelled before the last day."[307] Such was Luther's mode of encouraging the timid. The tumult has existed for three centuries and is not quelled!
Some alarmed cries were heard among the supporters of the Reformation. Cautious individuals leaning towards excessive moderation—especially Staupitz—expressed the deepest concern. "So far," Luther told him, "this whole situation has been just a game. You’ve said yourself, ‘if God didn’t do these things, it would be impossible for them to happen.’ The chaos is getting more and more intense! I don’t believe it will settle down before the end of days."[307] That was Luther's way of encouraging the anxious. The chaos has lasted for three centuries and shows no signs of stopping!
"The papacy," continued he, "is not now what it was yesterday and the day before. Let it excommunicate and burn my writings; ... let it kill me! it cannot arrest what is going forward. Something wonderful is at the door.[308] I burnt the bull in great trembling, but now I experience more joy from it than from any action of my life."[309]
"The papacy," he continued, "is not what it was yesterday or the day before. Let it excommunicate and burn my writings; ... let it kill me! It can't stop what's already happening. Something amazing is on the way.[308] I burned the bull while shaking with fear, but now I feel more joy from that than from anything I've ever done."[309]
We stop involuntarily and delight to read in the great soul of Luther all that the future is preparing. "O! my father," says he to Staupitz in concluding, "pray for the word of God and for me. I am heaved on the billows, and as it were whirled upon them."[310]
We stop without meaning to and enjoy reading in the great spirit of Luther everything that the future has in store. "Oh! my father," he says to Staupitz in closing, "please pray for the word of God and for me. I am tossed on the waves, as if I’m being spun around on them."[310]
War is thus declared on all sides. The combatants have thrown away their scabbards. The Word of God has resumed its rights, and deposes him who had gone the length of usurping God's place. Society is shaken throughout. No period is without egotistical men, who would willingly leave human society in error and corruption, but wise men, even the timid among them, think differently. "We know well," says the mild and moderate Melancthon, "that statesmen have a horror at every thing like innovation; and it must be confessed, that in the sad confusion called human life, discord, even that which arises from the best of causes, is always accompanied with evil. Still it is necessary that in the Church the Word of God take precedence of every thing human.[311] God denounces eternal wrath against those who strive to extinguish the truth; and therefore, it was a duty incumbent on Luther—a Christian duty which he could not evade—to rebuke the pernicious errors which disorderly men were circulating with inconceivable effrontery. If discord engenders many evils, (to my great grief I see it does, adds sage Philip,) it is the fault of those who at the beginning circulated errors, and of those who, filled with diabolic hatred, are seeking at present to maintain them."
War is declared on all sides. The fighters have thrown away their scabbards. The Word of God has claimed its authority back and removes the one who went so far as to take God's place. Society is shaken as a whole. No time is free of self-centered individuals who would gladly leave humanity in confusion and decay, but wise people, even the timid among them, see it differently. "We know very well," says the gentle and reasonable Melancthon, "that politicians dread anything that resembles change; and it must be acknowledged that in the unfortunate chaos known as human life, discord—even when stemming from the best intentions—always brings about harm. Still, it is essential that in the Church, the Word of God takes precedence over anything human.[311] God condemns eternal punishment for those who attempt to suppress the truth; thus, it was a duty required of Luther—a Christian duty he could not ignore—to denounce the harmful errors that disorderly individuals were spreading with shocking boldness. If discord breeds many evils, (to my great sorrow, I see that it does, adds wise Philip,) it is the fault of those who initially spread the errors, and of those who, driven by diabolical hatred, are currently trying to uphold them."
All, however, were not of the same opinion. Luther was loaded with reproaches; the storm burst upon him from all sides. "He is quite alone," said some—"He teaches novelties," said others.
All, however, did not share the same view. Luther faced a barrage of criticism; the backlash hit him from every direction. "He is completely alone," some said—"He promotes new ideas," others claimed.
"Who knows," replied Luther, in accordance with the virtue given him from on high,—"who knows if God has not chosen me, and called me,[312] and if they ought not to fear that in despising me they may be despising God himself?... Moses was alone on coming but of Egypt—Elijah alone in the time of King Ahab—Isaiah alone in Jerusalem—Ezekiel alone at Babylon.... God never chose for a prophet either the high priest or any other great personage. He usually chose persons who were low and despised,—on one occasion he even chose a shepherd, (Amos). At all times the saints have had to rebuke the great—kings, princes, priests, the learned—at the risk of their lives. And under the New Dispensation has it not been the same? Ambrose in his day was alone; after him Jerome was alone; later still Augustine was alone.... I do not say that I am a prophet,[313] but I say they ought to fear just because I am alone and they are many. One thing I am sure of—the Word of God is with me and is not with them.
"Who knows," replied Luther, reflecting the virtue bestowed upon him from above, "who knows if God hasn't chosen me and called me, and if they shouldn't fear that by despising me, they might be despising God himself?... Moses was alone when he came out of Egypt—Elijah was alone during King Ahab's reign—Isaiah was alone in Jerusalem—Ezekiel was alone in Babylon.... God never chose the high priest or any other prominent figure as a prophet. He typically chose those who were lowly and despised—one time, he even chose a shepherd (Amos). Throughout history, the saints have had to challenge the powerful—kings, princes, priests, and the educated—at the risk of their lives. And hasn't it been the same in the New Testament era? Ambrose was alone in his time; then Jerome was alone; later, Augustine stood alone.... I'm not claiming to be a prophet, but I believe they should be concerned precisely because I am one and they are many. One thing I know for sure—God's Word is with me and not with them."
"It is said also," continues he, "that I advance novelties, and that it is impossible to believe that all other doctors have for so long a period been mistaken.
"It is also said," he continues, "that I'm introducing new ideas, and that it's impossible to believe that all the other doctors have been wrong for such a long time."
"No, I do not preach novelties. But I say that all Christian doctrines have disappeared, even among those who ought to have preserved them; I mean bishops and the learned. I doubt not, however, that the truth has remained in some hearts, should it even have been in infants in the cradle.[314] Poor peasants, mere babes, now understand Jesus Christ better than the pope, the bishops, and the doctors.
"No, I’m not preaching anything new. But I say that all Christian teachings have faded away, even among those who should be keeping them alive; I mean the bishops and the educated. However, I have no doubt that the truth still exists in some hearts, even if it's in infants in the cradle.[314] Poor peasants, mere children, now understand Jesus Christ better than the pope, the bishops, and the scholars."
"I am accused of rejecting the holy doctors of the Church. I reject them not: but since all those doctors try to prove their writings by Holy Scripture, it must be clearer and more certain than they are. Who thinks of proving an obscure discourse by one still more obscure? Thus, then, necessity constrains us to recur to the Bible, as all the doctors do, and to ask it to decide upon their writings; for the Bible is lord and master.
"I am accused of dismissing the holy doctors of the Church. I do not dismiss them; however, since all those doctors try to validate their writings through Holy Scripture, it should be clearer and more certain than they are. Who would think to prove a confusing argument by referencing one that’s even more confusing? Therefore, we are compelled to turn to the Bible, as all the doctors do, and ask it to determine the validity of their writings; for the Bible is the ultimate authority."
"But it is said men in power persecute him. And is it not clear from Scripture that persecutors are usually in the wrong, and the persecuted in the right; that the majority are always in favour of falsehood, and the minority in favour of truth? The truth has, at all times, caused clamour."[315]
"But it's said that those in power go after him. And isn't it obvious from the Scriptures that persecutors are generally in the wrong, while the persecuted are usually in the right? The majority often supports falsehood, while the minority stands for truth. The truth has always stirred up a lot of noise." [315]
Luther afterwards reviews the propositions condemned in the bull as heretical, and demonstrates their truth, by proofs drawn from Holy Scripture. With what force, in particular, does he now maintain the doctrine of grace!
Luther then goes over the propositions condemned in the bull as heretical and shows their truth with evidence from Holy Scripture. With what strength, in particular, does he now support the doctrine of grace!
"What," says he, "will nature be able, before and without grace, to hate sin, avoid it, and repent of it; while that, even since grace is come, this nature loves sin, seeks it, desires it, and ceases not to combat grace, and to be irritated against it; a fact for which all the saints continually do groan!... It is as if it were said that a large tree, which I am unable to bend by exerting my utmost strength, bends of itself on my letting it go; or that a torrent, which walls and dykes cannot arrest, is arrested the instant I leave it to itself.... No, it is not by considering sin and its consequences that we attain to repentance, but by contemplating Jesus Christ, his wounds, and boundless love.[316] The knowledge of sin must result from repentance, and not repentance from the knowledge of sin. Knowledge is the fruit, repentance is the tree. With us the fruit grows upon the tree, but it would seem that, in the states of the holy father, the tree grows upon the fruit."
"What," he says, "can nature, even before grace and without it, truly hate sin, avoid it, and regret it? Yet, even since grace has come, this nature loves sin, pursues it, desires it, and constantly fights against grace, often becoming annoyed with it; something that all the saints always lament!... It's like saying that a large tree, which I can’t bend no matter how hard I try, bends on its own as soon as I let go; or that a torrent, which walls and barriers can’t stop, is suddenly halted the moment I leave it to its own devices.... No, we don’t reach repentance by focusing on sin and its consequences, but by reflecting on Jesus Christ, his wounds, and his immense love.[316] The understanding of sin should come from repentance, not the other way around. Knowledge is the fruit, repentance is the tree. For us, the fruit grows on the tree, but it seems that, in the blessed state of the holy father, the tree grows from the fruit."
The courageous doctor, though he protests, also retracts some of his propositions. Surprise will cease when his mode of doing it is known. After quoting the four propositions on indulgences, condemned by the bull,[317] he simply adds,
The brave doctor, even though he argues against it, also takes back some of his statements. The shock will end once his approach is revealed. After citing the four statements on indulgences that were condemned by the bull,[317] he just adds,
"In honour of the holy and learned bull I retract all that I have ever taught touching indulgences. If my books have been justly burned, it must certainly be because I conceded something to the pope in the doctrine of indulgences; wherefore, I myself condemn them to the fire."
"In honor of the holy and learned bull, I take back everything I’ve ever taught about indulgences. If my books have been rightfully burned, it’s because I admitted something to the pope regarding the doctrine of indulgences; therefore, I condemn them to the fire myself."
He also retracts in regard to John Huss. "I say now, not that some articles, but all the articles of John Huss, are Christian throughout. The pope, in condemning Huss, condemned the gospel. I have done five times more than he, and yet I much fear have not done enough. Huss merely says, that a wicked pope is not a member of Christendom; but I, were St. Peter himself sitting to-day at Rome, would deny that he was pope by the appointment of God."
He also takes back what he said about John Huss. "I’m saying now that not just some of John Huss's articles, but all of them are entirely Christian. By condemning Huss, the pope condemned the gospel. I've done five times more than he did, and yet I still worry that it’s not enough. Huss simply points out that a corrupt pope isn’t a true member of Christendom; but I, even if St. Peter himself were sitting in Rome today, would deny that he was a pope appointed by God."
CHAP. XI.
Coronation of Charles—The Nuncio Aleander—Will Luther's Books be burnt?—Aleander and the Emperor—The Nuncios and the Elector—The Son of Duke John pleads for Luther—Luther's calmness—The Elector protects Luther—Reply of the Nuncios—Erasmus at Cologne—Erasmus with the Elector—Declaration of Erasmus—Advice of Erasmus—System of Charles V.
Coronation of Charles—Nuncio Aleander—Will Luther's books be burned?—Aleander and the Emperor—The Nuncios and the Elector—Duke John's son stands up for Luther—Luther's calmness—The Elector defends Luther—Response from the Nuncios—Erasmus in Cologne—Erasmus with the Elector—Erasmus' statement—Erasmus' advice—Charles V's approach.
The powerful words of the Reformer penetrated all minds, and contributed to their emancipation. The sparks of light which each word threw out were communicated to the whole nation. But a great question remained to be solved. Would the prince, in whose states Luther dwelt, favour the execution of the bull, or would he oppose it? The reply seemed doubtful. At that time the Elector and all the princes of the empire were at Aix-la-Chapelle where the crown of Charlemagne was placed upon the head of the youngest but most powerful monarch of Christendom. Unprecedented pomp and magnificence were displayed in the ceremony. Charles V, Frederick, the princes, ministers, and ambassadors, immediately after repaired to Cologne. Aix-la-Chapelle, where the plague was raging, seemed to empty itself into this ancient town on the banks of the Rhine.
The powerful words of the Reformer reached everyone's minds and helped set them free. The sparks of light that each word created spread throughout the entire nation. But one big question was still unanswered. Would the prince, in whose territories Luther lived, support the enforcement of the bull, or would he fight against it? The answer seemed uncertain. At that time, the Elector and all the princes of the empire were in Aix-la-Chapelle, where the crown of Charlemagne was placed on the head of the youngest but most powerful king in Christendom. The ceremony showcased unprecedented splendor and luxury. Charles V, Frederick, the princes, ministers, and ambassadors all went to Cologne right afterward. Aix-la-Chapelle, where the plague was spreading, seemed to empty into this ancient town on the banks of the Rhine.
Among the crowd of strangers who pressed into the city were the two papal nuncios, Marino Carracioli and Jerome Aleander. Carracioli, who had previously executed a mission to Maximilian, was appointed to congratulate the new emperor, and confer with him on matters of state. But Rome had become aware that, in order to succeed in extinguishing the Reformation, it was necessary to send into Germany a nuncio specially entrusted with the task, and with a character, address, and activity fitted to accomplish it. Aleander had been selected.[318] This man, who was afterwards decorated with the cardinals' purple, seems to have been of rather an ancient family, and not of Jewish parentage as has been said. The guilty Borgia called him to Rome to be secretary to his son, the Cesar, before whose murderous sword all Rome trembled.[319] "Like master like servant," says a historian, who thus compares Aleander to Alexander VI. This judgment seems too severe. After the death of Borgia, Aleander devoted himself to study with new ardour. His skill in Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, gave him the reputation of being the most learned man of his age. He threw his whole soul into whatever he undertook. The zeal with which he studied languages was not a whit stronger than that which he displayed in persecuting the Reformation. Leo X took him into his service. Protestant historians speak of his epicurean habits—Roman historians of the integrity of his life.[320] He seems to have been fond of luxury, show, and amusement. "Aleander," says his old friend Erasmus, "lived in Venice, in high office, but in low epicureanism." He is admitted to have been violent in temper, prompt in action, full of ardour, indefatigable, imperious, and devoted to the pope. Eck is the blustering, intrepid champion of the school,—Aleander the proud ambassador of the arrogant court of the pontiffs. He seemed formed to be a nuncio.
Among the crowd of strangers flooding into the city were the two papal nuncios, Marino Carracioli and Jerome Aleander. Carracioli, who had previously been sent on a mission to Maximilian, was appointed to congratulate the new emperor and discuss state matters with him. However, Rome realized that, to effectively combat the Reformation, they needed to send a nuncio to Germany specifically tasked with this mission, someone with the right character, skills, and energy to get the job done. Aleander was chosen. This man, who later received the title of cardinal, apparently came from an old family and wasn't of Jewish descent as some had claimed. The notorious Borgia summoned him to Rome to serve as secretary to his son, the César, whose murderous reign instilled fear throughout Rome. "Like master, like servant," notes a historian, comparing Aleander to Alexander VI. This assessment seems rather harsh. After Borgia's death, Aleander immersed himself in study with renewed passion. His proficiency in Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic earned him the reputation of being the most learned man of his time. He dedicated himself wholeheartedly to everything he pursued. His enthusiasm for learning languages matched his fervor in opposing the Reformation. Leo X brought him into his service. Protestant historians comment on his indulgent lifestyle, while Roman historians highlight his integrity. He appeared to enjoy luxury, spectacle, and entertainment. "Aleander," writes his old friend Erasmus, "lived in Venice, holding a high position, but indulged in low epicureanism." It’s noted that he had a fiery temper, acted quickly, was passionate, tireless, commanding, and loyal to the pope. Eck was the loud, fearless champion of the cause, while Aleander acted as the proud ambassador of the arrogant papal court. He seemed perfectly suited to be a nuncio.
Rome had made every preparation to destroy the monk of Wittemberg. The duty of assisting at the coronation of the emperor, as representative of the pope, was to Aleander only a secondary mission, fitted to facilitate his task by the respect which it secured to him. The essential part of his commission was to dispose Charles to crush the growing Reformation.[321] In putting the bull into the hands of the emperor, the nuncio had thus addressed him:—"The pope, who has succeeded with so many great princes, will have little difficulty in bringing three grammarians to order." By these he meant Luther, Melancthon, and Erasmus. Erasmus was present at this audience.
Rome had prepared thoroughly to eliminate the monk from Wittenberg. Aleander saw his role in the emperor's coronation, as the pope's representative, as a minor mission that would only help him by giving him more respect. The main part of his job was to persuade Charles to crush the rising Reformation.[321] When handing the bull to the emperor, the nuncio said to him: “The pope, who has had success with so many powerful leaders, will have little trouble getting three scholars under control.” He was referring to Luther, Melancthon, and Erasmus. Erasmus was present during this meeting.
No sooner had Aleander arrived at Cologne, than he proceeded in concert with Carracioli, to put everything in train for burning Luther's heretical writings throughout the empire, but more especially under the eyes of the princes of Germany who were then assembled. Charles V had already consented to its being done in his hereditary states. The minds of men were greatly agitated. "Such measures," it was said to the ministers of Charles, and to the nuncios themselves, "far from curing the evil, will only make it worse. Do you imagine that the doctrine of Luther exists only in the books which you throw into the flames? It is written where you cannot reach it—on the hearts of the population.[322] If you will employ force, it must be that of innumerable swords, drawn to massacre an immense multitude.[323] Some billets of wood, collected for the purpose of consuming some bits of paper, will do nothing; such weapons become not the dignity either of the emperor or the pontiff." The nuncio defended his faggot piles. "These flames," said he, "are a sentence of condemnation written in gigantic letters, and understood alike by those who are near, and those who are at a distance, by the learned and the ignorant, by those even who cannot read."
As soon as Aleander arrived in Cologne, he teamed up with Carracioli to prepare for the burning of Luther's heretical writings across the empire, especially in front of the German princes who were gathered there. Charles V had already agreed to this action in his hereditary territories. People were extremely upset. "These actions," it was said to Charles's ministers and the nuncios, "won't solve the problem; they'll only make it worse. Do you think Luther's ideas only exist in the books you throw into the fire? They're written where you can't touch them—on the hearts of the people. If you want to use force, you’ll need countless swords ready to slaughter a huge crowd. A few pieces of wood gathered to burn some sheets of paper won’t make any difference; such tactics are beneath the dignity of both the emperor and the pope." The nuncio defended his piles of materials for burning. "These flames," he said, "are a declaration of condemnation written in huge letters, understood by those nearby and far away, by the educated and the uneducated, even by those who can't read."
But, in reality the nuncio's efforts were directed not against papers and books, but Luther himself. "These flames," resumed he, "are not sufficient to purify the infected air of Germany.[324] If they deter the simple, they do not correct the wicked. The thing wanted is an edict from the emperor against Luther's head."[325]
But in reality, the nuncio's efforts were aimed not at papers and books, but at Luther himself. "These flames," he continued, "aren't enough to clear the tainted air of Germany.[324] If they scare the innocent, they do nothing to change the wicked. What we really need is an edict from the emperor targeting Luther."[325]
Aleander did not find the emperor so complying on the subject of the Reformer's person as on that of his books.
Aleander didn't find the emperor as agreeable regarding the Reformer himself as he was about his writings.
"Having just ascended the throne," said he to Aleander, "I cannot, without the advice of my counsellors, and the consent of the princes, strike such a blow at an immense faction, surrounded by such powerful defenders. Let us first know what our father, the Elector of Saxony, thinks of the affair; after that, we shall see what answer to give to the pope."[326] On the Elector, therefore, the nuncios proceeded to try their wiles, and the power of their eloquence.
"Now that I’ve just become king," he said to Aleander, "I can’t make a big move against a huge faction backed by such strong supporters without consulting my advisors and getting approval from the princes. Let's first find out what our father, the Elector of Saxony, thinks about this situation; after that, we’ll decide how to respond to the pope."[326] So, the nuncios set out to work their charms and use their persuasive skills on the Elector.
On the first Sunday of November, after Frederick had attended mass in the convent of the Cordeliers, Carracioli and Aleander requested an audience. He received them in the presence of the Bishop of Trent, and several of his counsellors. Carracioli first presented the papal brief. Milder than Aleander, he thought it best to gain the Elector by flattery, and began to laud him and his ancestors. "In you," said he, "we hope for the salvation of the Roman Church and the Roman empire."
On the first Sunday of November, after Frederick went to mass at the Cordeliers convent, Carracioli and Aleander asked for a meeting. He met with them in front of the Bishop of Trent and several of his advisors. Carracioli started by presenting the papal brief. Being less intense than Aleander, he believed it was better to win over the Elector with compliments and began to praise him and his ancestors. "In you," he said, "we see the hope for the salvation of the Roman Church and the Roman Empire."
But the impetuous Aleander, wishing to come to the point, came briskly forward, and interrupted his colleague, who modestly gave way to him.[327] "It is to me," said he, "and Eck, that Martin's affair has been entrusted. See the immense perils to which this man exposes the Christian commonwealth. If a remedy is not speedily applied, the empire is destroyed. What ruined the Greeks if it was not their abandonment of the pope? You cannot remain united to Luther without separating from Jesus Christ.[328] In the name of his Holiness, I ask of you two things: first, to burn the writings of Luther; secondly, to punish him according to his demerits, or at least to give him up a prisoner to the pope.[329] The emperor, and all the princes of the empire have declared their readiness to accede to our demands; you alone still hesitate...."
But the impulsive Aleander, wanting to get straight to the point, stepped up and interrupted his colleague, who humbly stepped aside for him.[327] "It falls to me," he said, "and Eck, to handle Martin's case. Look at the huge risks this man poses to the Christian community. If we don't act quickly, the empire will be ruined. What led to the downfall of the Greeks if not their abandonment of the pope? You can't stay connected to Luther without drifting away from Jesus Christ.[328] In the name of his Holiness, I request two things from you: first, to burn Luther's writings; secondly, to punish him as he deserves, or at least to hand him over as a prisoner to the pope.[329] The emperor and all the princes of the empire have expressed their willingness to meet our demands; you alone are still hesitant...."
Frederick replied, by the intervention of the Bishop of Trent, "This affair is too grave to be decided on the spur of the moment. We will acquaint you with our resolution."
Frederick responded, through the Bishop of Trent, "This matter is too serious to be decided hastily. We will inform you of our decision."
Frederick's position was difficult. What course will he adopt? On the one side are the emperor, the princes of the empire, and the chief pontiff of Christendom, from whose authority the Elector has as yet no thought of withdrawing; on the other, a monk, a feeble monk; for his person is all that is asked. The reign of the emperor has just commenced, and will discord be thrown into the empire by Frederick, the oldest and the wisest of all the princes of Germany? Besides, can he renounce that piety which led him as far as the sepulchre of Christ?...
Frederick's situation was tricky. What will he choose to do? On one side, there are the emperor, the princes of the empire, and the pope of Christendom, whose authority the Elector hasn't considered stepping away from yet; on the other side, there's a monk, a weak monk; all that's being asked is for him to stand up. The emperor's reign has just started, and will Frederick, the oldest and wisest of all the princes of Germany, cause division in the empire? Plus, can he give up the piety that brought him all the way to the tomb of Christ?
Other voices were then heard. John Frederick, son of Duke John, and nephew of Frederick, the pupil of Spalatin, a young prince, seventeen years of age, who afterwards wore the electoral crown, and whose reign was marked by great misfortunes, had been inspired with a heartfelt love of the truth, and was strongly attached to Luther.[330] When he saw him struck with the anathemas of Rome, he embraced his cause with the warmth of a young Christian and a young prince. He wrote to the doctor, he wrote also to his uncle, soliciting him to protect Luther against his enemies. At the same time, Spalatin, though indeed he was often very desponding, Pontanus, and the other counsellors who were with the Elector at Cologne, represented to him that he could not abandon the Reformer.[331]
Other voices were then heard. John Frederick, the son of Duke John and nephew of Frederick, who was a student of Spalatin, was a young prince just seventeen years old. He would later wear the electoral crown, and his reign was marked by significant hardships. He had developed a deep love for the truth and was strongly loyal to Luther.[330] When he saw Luther struck by the anathemas of Rome, he embraced his cause with the enthusiasm of both a young Christian and a young prince. He wrote to Luther and also reached out to his uncle, urging him to protect Luther from his enemies. Meanwhile, Spalatin, who often felt very discouraged, along with Pontanus and the other advisers with the Elector in Cologne, urged him not to abandon the Reformer.[331]
Amid the general agitation, only one man remained tranquil—that man was Luther. While others were trying to save him by the influence of the great, the monk, in his cloister at Wittemberg, thought that the great stood more in need of being saved by him. Writing to Spalatin, he says, "If the gospel was of a nature to be propagated or maintained by the power of the world, God would not have entrusted it to fishermen.[332] To defend the gospel appertains not to the princes and pontiffs of this world. They have enough to do to shelter themselves from the judgments of the Lord and his Anointed. If I speak, I do it in order that they may obtain the knowledge of the divine word, and be saved by it."
Amid all the commotion, there was only one man who stayed calm—that man was Luther. While others tried to save him through the influence of the powerful, the monk in his monastery at Wittenberg believed that the powerful needed to be saved by him instead. Writing to Spalatin, he says, "If the gospel could be spread or upheld by the power of the world, God wouldn’t have trusted it to fishermen.[332] It's not up to the princes and popes of this world to defend the gospel. They have enough on their plates just trying to protect themselves from the judgments of the Lord and His Anointed. If I speak up, it's so that they can gain the knowledge of the divine word and be saved by it."
Luther's expectation was not to be deceived. The faith which a convent of Wittemberg contained exercised its influence in the palaces of Cologne. The heart of Frederick, shaken perhaps for an instant, became gradually stronger. He was indignant that the pope, notwithstanding of urgent entreaties to investigate the matter in Germany, had condemned it at Rome, on the demand of the Reformer's personal enemy; and that in his absence that enemy should have dared to publish in Saxony a bull which threatened the existence of the university and the peace of his people. Besides, the Elector was convinced that Luther had been wronged. He shuddered at the thought of delivering an innocent man into the cruel hands of his enemies. Justice, rather than the pope, such was the rule he adopted. He resolved not to yield to Rome. On the 4th November, when the Roman nuncios were in his presence with the Bishop of Trent, his counsellors announced to them, on the part of the Elector, that he was much grieved to see how Doctor Eck had taken the opportunity of his absence to involve in condemnation several persons not adverted to in the bull; that it might be that, since his departure, an immense number of the learned and the ignorant, the clergy and the laity, had united in adhering to the cause and the appeal of Luther;[333] that neither his Imperial Majesty, nor any person, had shown him that the writings of Luther had been refuted, and that the only thing now necessary was to throw them into the fire, that he moreover demanded a safe conduct for Doctor Luther, to enable him to appear before learned, pious, and important judges.
Luther didn't expect to be misled. The faith from the convent in Wittenberg reached its influence all the way to the palaces in Cologne. Frederick's heart, shaken for a moment, gradually grew stronger. He was outraged that the pope, despite urgent requests to look into the matter in Germany, condemned it in Rome at the demand of Luther's personal enemy. He was further angered that, in his absence, this enemy had the audacity to publish a bull in Saxony that threatened the university's existence and the peace of his people. Moreover, the Elector was convinced that Luther had been treated unfairly. He was horrified at the thought of handing an innocent man over to the brutal hands of his adversaries. He chose justice over the pope; that was his guiding principle. He decided not to submit to Rome. On November 4th, when the Roman nuncios were with him alongside the Bishop of Trent, his advisors informed them on the Elector's behalf that he was deeply troubled to see how Doctor Eck had taken advantage of his absence to condemn several individuals not mentioned in the bull. They noted that since his departure, countless learned and uneducated people, both clergy and laypeople, had come together to support Luther's cause and appeal. They stated that neither his Imperial Majesty nor anyone else had shown him that Luther's writings had been refuted and that the only thing left to do was burn them. He also demanded safe passage for Doctor Luther so he could appear before knowledgeable, devout, and significant judges.
After this declaration, Aleander, Carracioli, and their suite, retired to deliberate.[334] It was the first time the Elector had publicly declared his intentions with regard to the Reformer. The nuncios had anticipated a very different result. "Now," thought they, "that the Elector, by persisting in playing his part of impartiality, would expose himself to dangers, the full extent of which cannot be foreseen, he will not hesitate to sacrifice the monk." So Rome had reasoned. But her schemes were destined to fail before a power to which she had not adverted—the love of justice and truth.
After this announcement, Aleander, Carracioli, and their group stepped aside to discuss things. [334] This was the first time the Elector had openly stated his position regarding the Reformer. The nuncios had expected a completely different outcome. "Now," they thought, "since the Elector insists on maintaining his role of neutrality, he will put himself in dangers that can't fully be predicted, and he won't hesitate to sacrifice the monk." That was Rome's reasoning. But her plans were destined to fail against a force she hadn’t considered—the love of justice and truth.
When again before the Elector's counsellors, "I would fain know," said the imperious Aleander, "what the Elector would think were one of his subjects to choose the King of France or some other foreign prince for judge?" Seeing at length that the Saxon counsellors were not to be shaken, he said, "We will execute the bull; we will prosecute and burn the writings of Luther. As to his person," added he, affecting a disdainful indifference, "the pope has no anxiety to dip his hand in the blood of the wretch."
When he was once again in front of the Elector's advisors, the commanding Aleander said, "I'd like to know what the Elector would think if one of his subjects chose the King of France or some other foreign prince as a judge?" Seeing that the Saxon advisors were finally standing firm, he declared, "We will enforce the bull; we will pursue and burn Luther's writings. As for him," he added, trying to sound indifferent, "the pope isn’t concerned about getting his hands dirty with the blood of that wretch."
News of the reply which the Elector had given to the nuncios having reached Wittemberg, Luther's friends were overjoyed. Melancthon and Amsdorff, in particular, cherished the most flattering hopes. "The German nobility," said Melancthon, "will shape their course by the example of a prince whom they follow in every thing as their Nestor. If Homer called his hero 'the wall of the Greeks,' why should not Frederick be called 'the wall of the Germans?'"[335]
News of the reply the Elector had given to the nuncios reached Wittenberg, and Luther's friends were thrilled. Melanchthon and Amsdorff, in particular, had the highest hopes. "The German nobility," said Melanchthon, "will look to the example of a prince they follow in everything like their Nestor. If Homer called his hero 'the wall of the Greeks,' why shouldn't Frederick be called 'the wall of the Germans?'"[335]
Erasmus, the oracle of courts, the torch of the schools, the light of the world, was then at Cologne, having been invited thither by several princes who wished to consult him. At the period of the Reformation, Erasmus was at the head of the true middle (juste milieu) party, at least he thought he was, but erroneously; for when truth and error are in presence of each other, the right side is not the middle. He was the chief of that philosophical and university party, which had for ages aspired to correct Rome, without being able to do so; he was the representative of human wisdom; but this wisdom was too weak to repress the arrogance of the papacy. The wisdom of God was necessary—that wisdom which the world often calls folly, but at the bidding of which mountains are crushed. Erasmus was unwilling either to throw himself into the arms of Luther, or to seat himself at the feet of the pope. He hesitated, and often vibrated between these two powers, sometimes attracted towards Luther, and then suddenly repelled towards the pope. He had declared for Luther in a letter to the Archbishop of Mentz, in which he had said, "The last spark of Christian piety seems ready to be extinguished. It is this that has moved Luther's heart; he cares neither for money nor honour."[336] The publication of this letter by the imprudent Ulric von Hütten, subjected Erasmus to so much annoyance that he resolved to act with more prudence in future. Besides, he was accused of being in concert with Luther whose unguarded speeches moreover offended him. "Almost all good people,"[337] said he, "are for Luther, but I see that we are on the high way to a revolt. I would not have my name coupled with his. It hurts me and does him no good."[338] "Be it so," replied Luther, "since it pains you, I promise never to mention your name, nor that of any of your friends." Such was the man to whom both the enemies and the friends of the Reformer applied.
Erasmus, the go-to guy for courts, the bright light of schools, and the guiding light of the world, was in Cologne, having been invited there by several princes who wanted his advice. During the Reformation, Erasmus believed he was leading the true middle ground, but he was mistaken; when truth and error face off, the right side isn't the middle. He was the leader of a philosophical and academic movement that had long aimed to reform Rome but had failed to do so; he represented human wisdom, but that wisdom was too weak to challenge the papacy's arrogance. What was needed was the wisdom of God—wisdom that the world often dismisses as foolishness, yet can move mountains. Erasmus was hesitant to fully align with Luther or to submit to the pope. He wavered between these two forces, sometimes drawn to Luther, only to be pushed back toward the pope. He had expressed support for Luther in a letter to the Archbishop of Mentz, stating, "The last spark of Christian piety seems ready to be extinguished. This has moved Luther's heart; he cares neither for money nor honor." The careless publication of this letter by Ulric von Hütten caused Erasmus so much trouble that he decided to be more cautious moving forward. Furthermore, he was accused of collaborating with Luther, whose reckless comments also bothered him. "Almost all good people," he said, "are siding with Luther, but I see that we’re heading towards a revolt. I wouldn’t want my name connected with his. It hurts me and does him no good." "Alright," replied Luther, "if it bothers you, I promise never to mention your name or that of any of your friends." Such was the man whom both supporters and critics of the Reformer turned to.
The Elector, aware that the opinion of a man so much respected as Erasmus would carry great weight, invited the illustrious Dutchman to come to him. Erasmus complied. This was on the 5th of December. The friends of Luther saw this step not without secret apprehension. The Elector was sitting before the fire, with Spalatin beside him, when Erasmus was introduced. "What think you of Luther?" immediately asked Frederick. The prudent Erasmus, surprised at the direct question, at first tried to evade it. He twisted his mouth, bit his lips, and said nothing. Then the Elector, opening his eyes (says Spalatin,) as he was wont to do when speaking to persons from whom he wished a precise answer, looked piercingly at Erasmus,[339] who, not knowing how to disembarrass himself, at last said, half in jest, "Luther has committed two great faults; he has attacked the pope's crown and the monks' belly." The Elector smiled, but gave Erasmus to understand that he was in earnest. Then Erasmus, laying aside his reserve, said, "The source of all this dispute is the hatred of the monks against letters, and the fear they have of seeing an end put to their tyranny.[340] What have they put in operation against Luther? Clamour, cabal, hatred, libels. The more virtuous, and the more attached to the doctrines of the gospel a man is, the less is he opposed to Luther.[341] The harshness of the bull has excited the indignation of all good men, and nobody has been able to discover in it the meekness of a vicar of Jesus Christ.[342] Out of so many universities two only have attacked Luther, and even these have only condemned, not convicted him. Let not people deceive themselves; the danger is greater than some suppose. Things difficult and arduous are at hand.[343]... To begin the reign of Charles with an act so hateful as the imprisonment of Luther would be of sad augury. The world is thirsting for evangelical truth.[344] Let us beware of culpably resisting it. Let the affair be examined by grave men of sound judgment; this would be more accordant with the dignity of the pope himself."
The Elector, knowing that the opinion of someone as respected as Erasmus would be significant, invited the renowned Dutchman to visit him. Erasmus agreed. This was on December 5th. Luther's supporters viewed this move with quiet concern. The Elector was sitting by the fire with Spalatin when Erasmus was introduced. "What do you think of Luther?" Frederick immediately asked. The cautious Erasmus, caught off guard by the direct question, initially tried to avoid answering. He grimaced, bit his lips, and said nothing. Then the Elector, widening his eyes (as Spalatin noted), looked intently at Erasmus, who, unsure how to respond, finally said, partly joking, "Luther has made two big mistakes; he has opposed the pope’s authority and the monks’ lifestyle." The Elector smiled but made it clear he was serious. Then, dropping his hesitation, Erasmus said, "The root of all this conflict lies in the monks' disdain for education and their fear of losing their power. What have they done against Luther? They’ve resorted to noise, conspiracies, hatred, and slander. The more virtuous and committed someone is to the gospel, the less they oppose Luther. The severity of the papal bull has stirred the anger of all good people, and no one sees in it the humility expected from the vicar of Christ. Among so many universities, only two have spoken out against Luther, and they have merely condemned him rather than truly convict him. Let’s not fool ourselves; the threat is greater than many realize. Serious and difficult times are ahead. Starting Charles' reign with such a detestable act as imprisoning Luther would be an ominous sign. The world is craving evangelical truth. Let’s be careful not to willfully resist it. The situation should be examined by wise and serious individuals; this would be more fitting for the dignity of the pope himself."
Thus spoke Erasmus to the Elector. The reader will perhaps be astonished at his frankness; but Erasmus knew to whom he was speaking. Spalatin was delighted, and going out with Erasmus, accompanied him as far as the house of the Count of Nuenar, provost of Cologne, where the illustrious scholar was residing. Erasmus, in a fit of frankness, went into his room, took up the pen and wrote down the substance of what he had said to the Elector, and gave it to Spalatin. But fear of Aleander soon took possession of the timid Erasmus, the courage which he had felt in the presence of the Elector and his chaplain vanished, and he begged Spalatin to send back his too bold writing lest it should fall into the hands of the terrible nuncio. It was too late.
Thus spoke Erasmus to the Elector. The reader might be surprised by his honesty; however, Erasmus knew exactly who he was talking to. Spalatin was thrilled and, after leaving with Erasmus, walked with him to the house of the Count of Nuenar, the provost of Cologne, where the distinguished scholar was staying. In a moment of honesty, Erasmus entered his room, picked up a pen, and wrote down the main points of what he had said to the Elector, then handed it to Spalatin. But soon, fear of Aleander took hold of the anxious Erasmus; the bravery he had felt in front of the Elector and his chaplain faded, and he asked Spalatin to retrieve his overly bold writing for fear it would get into the hands of the frightening nuncio. Unfortunately, it was too late.
The Elector, feeling strong in the opinion of Erasmus, spoke in more decided terms to the emperor. Erasmus himself strove in nocturnal conferences,[345] like Nicodemus of old, to persuade the counsellors of Charles that it was necessary to remit the whole affair to impartial judges. Perhaps he had some hope of being named arbiter in this cause which threatened to divide the Christian world. His vanity would have been flattered by the office. But, at the same time, not to lose himself at Rome, he wrote the most submissive letters to Leo, who replied in kind terms, and thereby put poor Aleander to the torture.[346] From love to the pope, he could have sharply rebuked the pope. Erasmus communicated the pontiff's letters because they added to his credit. The nuncio made a complaint at Rome: "Pretend," was the answer, "that you do not observe the naughtiness of that man. Prudence requires it: it is necessary to leave the door open for repentance."[347]
The Elector, confident in Erasmus's opinion, spoke more decisively to the emperor. Erasmus himself made an effort in late-night meetings,[345] like Nicodemus from the past, to convince Charles's advisors that it was essential to hand the whole matter over to unbiased judges. Perhaps he hoped to be appointed as the mediator in this issue, which threatened to split the Christian world. His pride would have been boosted by such a role. But, not wanting to lose favor in Rome, he wrote very humble letters to Leo, who responded kindly, which left poor Aleander in a tough spot.[346] Out of loyalty to the pope, he could have given the pope a stern warning. Erasmus shared the pope's letters because they boosted his reputation. The nuncio lodged a complaint in Rome: "Act as if," was the response, "you don't notice that man's misbehavior. Caution is necessary: it's important to keep the door open for repentance."[347]
Charles V himself embraced a vacillating system, which consisted in flattering both the pope and the Elector, and in seeming to incline alternately towards the one or the other according to the wants of the moment. One of his ministers, whom he had sent to Rome on certain Spanish matters, had arrived at the very time when Eck was loudly prosecuting Luther's condemnation. The wily ambassador instantly saw the advantages which his master might derive from the Saxon monk, and on the 12th May, 1520, wrote the emperor, who was still in Spain: "Your Majesty should go into Germany, and there show some favour to one Martin Luther, who is at the Court of Saxony, and, by his discourses, is giving much uneasiness to the Court of Rome."[348] Such, at the outset, was the light in which Charles viewed the matter. His object was not to know on which side truth or error lay, or to ascertain what the great interest of Germany demanded. What does policy require, and by what means can the pope be induced to support the emperor? This was the whole question, and at Rome was well known to be so. The ministers of Charles gave Aleander a hint of the plan which their master meant to follow. "The emperor," said they, "will act towards the pope as the pope acts towards the emperor: for he cares not to increase the power of his rivals, and in particular of the king of France."[349] At these words the imperious nuncio gave vent to his indignation: "What!" replied he, "even should the pope abandon the emperor must the emperor abandon religion? If Charles means thus to take his revenge ... let him tremble! This unprincipled course will turn against himself." The imperial diplomatists were not moved by the menaces of the nuncio.
Charles V adopted a flexible approach, which involved flattering both the pope and the Elector, and appearing to lean towards one or the other depending on the circumstances. One of his ministers, sent to Rome for certain Spanish issues, arrived just as Eck was vigorously pursuing Luther's condemnation. The clever ambassador quickly recognized the potential benefits his master could gain from the Saxon monk, and on May 12, 1520, he wrote to the emperor, who was still in Spain: "Your Majesty should go to Germany and show some support for one Martin Luther, who is at the Court of Saxony, and is causing much concern for the Court of Rome."[348] This was initially how Charles viewed the situation. His goal was not to determine where truth or falsehood lay, or to find out what was best for Germany. Instead, he focused on what was politically advantageous and how to persuade the pope to back the emperor. This was the main issue, and it was well understood in Rome. Charles's ministers hinted to Aleander about the plan their master intended to pursue. "The emperor," they said, "will treat the pope the same way the pope treats the emperor: for he does not want to bolster the power of his rivals, especially that of the king of France."[349] At these words, the arrogant nuncio expressed his outrage: "What!" he replied, "even if the pope were to abandon the emperor, must the emperor abandon religion? If Charles intends to seek revenge like this... let him be wary! This unscrupulous approach will backfire on him." The imperial diplomats were unfazed by the nuncio's threats.
CHAP. XII.
Luther on Confession—True absolution—Antichrist—Rally around Luther—Satires—Ulric von Hütten—Lucas Cranach—The Carnival at Wittemberg—Staupitz intimidated—Luther's Labours—Luther's Humility—Progress of the Reformation.
Luther on Confession—Genuine forgiveness—Antichrist—Backing Luther—Satirical writings—Ulric von Hütten—Lucas Cranach—The Carnival in Wittenberg—Staupitz feeling pressured—Luther's initiatives—Luther's humility—Progress in the Reformation.
If the legates of Rome failed with the mighty of the world, the inferior agents of the papacy succeeded in producing disturbance among the weak. The militia of Rome had heard the command of their chief. Fanatical priests employed the bull in alarming consciences, and honest but ill informed ecclesiastics regarded it as a sacred duty to act conformably to the instructions of the pope. Luther had begun his struggle against Rome in the confessional,[350] and in the confessional Rome gave battle to the adherents of the Reformer. The bull, though openly contemned by the nation, became powerful in these solitary tribunals. "Have you read the writings of Luther," demanded the confessors, "do you possess them? do you regard them as sound or as heretical?" If the penitent hesitated to pronounce the anathema, the priest refused him absolution. Several consciences were troubled. The people were strongly agitated. This skilful manœuvre promised to restore to the papal yoke whole districts already gained to the gospel. Rome congratulated herself on having, in the thirteenth century, erected a tribunal destined to bring the free consciences of Christians under subjection to the priests.[351] While it continues in force her reign is not ended.
If the envoys from Rome struggled with the powerful leaders of the world, the lower agents of the papacy managed to create turmoil among the vulnerable. The military of Rome had heard their leader's command. Fanatical priests used the papal bull to create alarm in people's consciences, while well-meaning but misinformed clergy saw it as their sacred duty to follow the pope's instructions. Luther had started his fight against Rome in the confessional,[350] and in the confessional, Rome confronted the followers of the Reformer. The bull, although openly rejected by the nation, gained strength in these isolated courts. "Have you read Luther's writings?" the confessors would ask. "Do you have them? Do you think they are valid or heretical?" If the person confessing hesitated to denounce them, the priest would deny them absolution. Many consciences were troubled. The people were deeply stirred. This clever tactic threatened to bring whole regions that had already embraced the gospel back under the papal control. Rome took pride in having established, in the thirteenth century, a tribunal aimed at bringing the free consciences of Christians under the authority of priests.[351] As long as it remains in effect, her reign is not over.
Luther became aware of these circumstances. Single handed what will he do to defeat the manœuvre? The Word—the Word uttered loudly and boldly: such is his weapon. The Word will search out these alarmed consciences, these frightened souls, and strengthen them. A powerful impulse was required, and Luther's voice was heard addressing penitents with heroic boldness, and a noble disregard of all secondary considerations. "When you are asked," says he, "whether or not you approve my books, answer, 'You are a confessor, and not an inquisitor or a gaoler. My duty is to confess what my conscience dictates; yours not to probe and discover the secrets of my heart. Give me absolution, and thereafter dispute with Luther, the pope, and whomsoever you please; but do not connect the sacrament of peace with strife and combat.' If the confessor will not yield, then," continues Luther, "I would rather dispense with his absolution. Give yourself no uneasiness; if man will not absolve you God will absolve you. Rejoice in that you are absolved by God himself, and present yourself without fear at the sacrament of the altar. The priest will have to account at the final judgment for the absolution which he shall have refused you. They may indeed refuse us the sacrament, but they cannot deprive us of the strength and grace which God has attached to it.—God has placed salvation neither in their will nor in their power but in our faith. Leave their sacrament, altar, priest, church: the Word of God condemned in the bull is more than all these things. The soul can dispense with the sacrament, but cannot live without the Word. Christ, the true Bishop, will himself undertake to nourish you spiritually."[352]
Luther became aware of these circumstances. Alone, what will he do to counter the maneuver? The Word—the Word spoken loudly and boldly: that’s his weapon. The Word will reach out to these troubled consciences, these scared souls, and give them strength. A strong push was needed, and Luther's voice was heard addressing the penitents with heroic courage and a genuine disregard for all secondary matters. "When you’re asked," he says, "whether or not you approve of my books, respond, 'You are a confessor, not an inquisitor or jailer. My duty is to confess what my conscience tells me; yours is not to dig into the secrets of my heart. Grant me absolution, and then you can argue with Luther, the pope, or anyone else you like; but don’t connect the sacrament of peace with conflict and struggle.' If the confessor won’t agree, then," Luther continues, "I’d rather do without his absolution. Don’t worry; if man won’t absolve you, God will. Take joy in the fact that you are absolved by God himself, and come forward without fear at the sacrament of the altar. The priest will be held accountable at the final judgment for the absolution he denies you. They may deny us the sacrament, but they can’t take away the strength and grace that God has attached to it.—God has placed salvation not in their will or power but in our faith. Leave their sacrament, altar, priest, church: the Word of God condemned in the bull is greater than all these things. The soul can go without the sacrament but cannot live without the Word. Christ, the true Bishop, will take care of nourishing you spiritually.[352]
Thus, Luther's voice found its way into families, and alarmed consciences, imparting to them courage and faith. But it was not enough for him merely to defend himself; he felt it his duty to attack and return blow for blow. Ambrose Catherin, a Roman theologian, had written against him.[353]"I will stir up the bile of the Italian beast," said Luther; and he kept his word. In his reply, he proved by the revelations of Daniel and St. John, by the epistles of St. Paul, St. Peter, and St. Jude, that the reign of Antichrist, predicted and described in the Bible, was the papacy. "I know for certain," says he, in conclusion, "that our Lord Jesus Christ lives and reigns. Strong in this assurance, I would not fear several thousands of popes. May God at length visit you according to his infinite power, and cause the day of the glorious advent of his Son to shine, that day in which he will destroy the wicked. And let all the people say, Amen!"[354]
Thus, Luther's voice reached families and stirred their consciences, giving them courage and faith. But defending himself wasn't enough for him; he felt it was his duty to strike back. Ambrose Catherin, a Roman theologian, had written against him.[353]"I will stir up the wrath of the Italian beast," Luther declared, and he kept his promise. In his response, he demonstrated through the revelations of Daniel and St. John, and the letters of St. Paul, St. Peter, and St. Jude, that the reign of Antichrist, predicted and described in the Bible, referred to the papacy. "I know for sure," he concluded, "that our Lord Jesus Christ lives and reigns. Confident in this, I wouldn't fear thousands of popes. May God finally visit you with his infinite power and let the day of the glorious coming of his Son shine forth, the day when he will destroy the wicked. And let everyone say, Amen!"[354]
And all the people did say, Amen! A holy fear took possession of men's souls. They saw Antichrist seated on the pontifical throne. This new idea, an idea which derived great force from the prophetical description, being thrown by Luther into the midst of his age, gave Rome a dreadful shock. Faith in the divine Word was substituted for that, which, till then the Church alone had obtained, and the power of the pope, which had long been adored by the people, became the object of their hatred and terror.
And all the people said, Amen! A deep fear took hold of people's souls. They saw Antichrist sitting on the papal throne. This new concept, which gained significant strength from the prophetic description, was introduced by Luther during his time, delivering a huge blow to Rome. Faith in the divine Word replaced what had previously been solely held by the Church, and the pope’s authority, once revered by the people, became a source of their hatred and fear.
Germany replied to the papal bull by surrounding Luther with acclamation. The plague was in Wittemberg, and yet arrivals of new students daily took place, while from four to six hundred pupils regularly took their seats in the academic halls at the feet of Luther and Melancthon. The church of the convent and the town church were too small for the crowds eager to hear the words of the Reformer. The prior of the Augustins was in terror lest these churches should give way under the pressure of the audience.[355] But the movement was not confined within the walls of Wittemberg: it extended over Germany. Letters full of consolation and faith, from princes, noble and learned men, reached Luther from all quarters. He showed the chaplain more than thirty of them.[356]
Germany responded to the papal bull by rallying around Luther with enthusiasm. The plague was present in Wittenberg, yet new students were arriving daily, while between four to six hundred pupils consistently filled the classrooms to learn from Luther and Melancthon. The church of the convent and the town church were too small to accommodate the crowds eager to hear the Reformer’s words. The prior of the Augustinians was terrified that the churches might collapse under the weight of the audience.[355] But the movement wasn't limited to the walls of Wittenberg; it spread throughout Germany. Letters filled with encouragement and faith from princes, nobles, and scholars came to Luther from everywhere. He showed the chaplain more than thirty of them.[356]
One day the Margrave of Brandenburg, with several other princes, arrived at Wittemberg to visit Luther. "They wished to see the man,"[357] said the Margrave. In fact all wished to see the man, whose word alarmed the pope, and caused the pontiff of the West to totter on his throne.
One day, the Margrave of Brandenburg, along with a few other princes, came to Wittenberg to see Luther. "They wanted to meet the man," said the Margrave. In fact, everyone wanted to see the man whose words frightened the pope and made the pontiff of the West shaky on his throne.
The enthusiasm of Luther's friends increased from day to day. "Unparalleled folly of Emser!"—exclaimed Melancthon—"to presume to measure weapons with our Hercules, overlooking the finger of God in the actions of Luther,[358] as the king of Egypt overlooked it in the hand of Moses." The mild Melancthon found strong expressions to excite those who seemed to him to retrograde or remain stationary. "Luther has stood up for the truth," wrote he to John Hess, "and yet you keep silence. He still breathes, he still prospers, though Leo is indignant and roars with rage. Remember, it is impossible for Roman impiety to approve of the gospel.[359] How should this unhappy age be without its Judases, Caiaphases, Pilates, and Herods? Arm yourself then with the power of the Word of God against such adversaries."
The enthusiasm of Luther's friends grew stronger every day. "What a ridiculous fool Emser is!" shouted Melancthon, "to think he can compete with our Hercules, ignoring the hand of God in Luther's actions, just like the king of Egypt ignored it in Moses." The gentle Melancthon found strong words to motivate those he saw as either going backward or standing still. "Luther has stood up for the truth," he wrote to John Hess, "and yet you remain silent. He’s still alive, he’s still thriving, even though Leo is furious and screaming with rage. Remember, Roman corruption will never accept the gospel. How could this troubled age be without its Judases, Caiaphases, Pilates, and Herods? So, prepare yourself with the power of the Word of God against such enemies."
All the writings of Luther, his Lord's Prayer, and especially a new edition of the German theology, were eagerly devoured. Reading societies were formed, for the purpose of procuring his works, for the use of the members. Friends made new impressions of them, and circulated them by means of hawkers. They were also recommended from pulpits. A German church was demanded, one in which no dignity should in future be conferred on anyone who was not able to preach to the people in German, and the German bishops of which should every where oppose the papal power.
All of Luther's writings, his version of the Lord's Prayer, and especially a new edition of German theology, were eagerly consumed. Reading groups were formed to obtain his works for their members. Friends had new copies printed and distributed them through vendors. They were also promoted from the pulpit. People demanded a German church where no honor would be given to anyone who couldn't preach to the congregation in German, and the German bishops would oppose papal authority everywhere.
Moreover, cutting satires directed against the leading Ultra-Montanists were circulated throughout the provinces of the empire. The opposition united all its forces around this new doctrine, which give it precisely what it wanted, by justifying it in regard to religion. The greater part of the lawyers, weary of the quirks of the Ecclesiastical tribunals, attached themselves to the Reformation, but its cause was keenly embraced above all by the Humanists. Ulric von Hütten was indefatigable. He wrote letters to Luther, to the legates, and the leading men of Germany. "I tell you, and tell you again, O Marinus!" said he to the legate, Carracioli, in one of his publications, "the mists with which you blinded us are cleared away—the gospel is preached—the truth proclaimed—the absurdities of Rome treated with contempt—your ordinances languish and die—liberty begins."[360]
Moreover, sharp satirical pieces aimed at the top Ultra-Montanists were spread throughout the provinces of the empire. The opposition gathered all its strength around this new doctrine, which gave it exactly what it wanted by justifying it in terms of religion. Most lawyers, tired of the quirks of the Ecclesiastical courts, joined the Reformation, but its cause was especially embraced by the Humanists. Ulric von Hütten was relentless. He wrote letters to Luther, the legates, and the leading figures in Germany. "I tell you, and I’ll say it again, O Marinus!" he said to the legate, Carracioli, in one of his publications, "the fog you used to blind us is gone—the gospel is preached—the truth is proclaimed—the absurdities of Rome are treated with scorn—your rules wither and die—freedom is starting." [360]
Not contenting himself with prose, Hütten had recourse to verse also. He published his Cry on the Burning by Luther.[361] Appealing to Jesus Christ, he prayed him to consume, with the brightness of his countenance, those who dared to deny his power. He began, moreover, to write in German. "Hitherto," said he, "I have written in Latin, a language which all could not comprehend, but now I address myself to my country." His German rhymes laid open and enabled the people to read the shameful and voluminous record of the sins of the Roman Court. But Hütten was unwilling to confine himself to mere words; he was impatient to bring his sword into the struggle, for he thought that by the swords and halberds of the many valiant warriors, of which Germany was proud, the vengeance of God was to be accomplished. Luther opposed his infatuated projects. "I would not," said he, "that men should fight for the gospel by violence and carnage. I have written so to Hütten.[362]
Not satisfied with just writing prose, Hütten also turned to poetry. He published his Cry on the Burning by Luther.[361] He called on Jesus Christ, praying for Him to use the brilliance of His presence to consume those who dared to deny His power. Additionally, he started writing in German. “Up until now,” he said, “I have written in Latin, a language that everyone couldn’t understand, but now I am speaking to my own people.” His German verses revealed and allowed the public to see the disgraceful and extensive record of the sins of the Roman Court. However, Hütten didn’t want to limit himself to just words; he was eager to take up his sword in the fight, believing that the swords and halberds of the many brave warriors, of whom Germany was proud, would fulfill God's vengeance. Luther opposed his misguided plans. “I would not,” he said, “have men fight for the gospel through violence and bloodshed. I have written this to Hütten.[362]
The celebrated painter, Lucas Cranach, published, under the title of the Passions of Christ and Antichrist, engravings which represented, on the one hand, the splendour and magnificence of the pope, and on the other, the humility and sufferings of the Redeemer. Luther wrote the inscriptions. These engravings, executed with great spirit, produced an astonishing effect. The people withdrew from a church which appeared so opposed to the spirit of its Founder. "This work," said Luther, "is excellent for the laity."[363]
The famous painter, Lucas Cranach, released a series of engravings titled Passions of Christ and Antichrist, depicting, on one side, the grandeur and opulence of the pope, and on the other side, the humility and suffering of the Redeemer. Luther wrote the inscriptions. These lively engravings had a remarkable impact. People left a church that seemed so contrary to the spirit of its Founder. "This work," said Luther, "is excellent for the laity."[363]
Several, in opposing the Papacy, had recourse to arms which ill accorded with the holiness of the Christian life. Emser, in replying to Luther's tract, entitled, 'To the Goat Emser,' had published one entitled, 'To the Bull of Wittemberg.' The name was not ill chosen. But at Magdeburg, Emser's book was hung on the gallows, with this inscription, "The book is worthy of the place;" and a rod was placed beside it, to indicate the punishment which the author deserved.[364] At Doeblin, there was written under the Papal bull, in derision of its impotent thunders, "The nest is here, but the birds are flown."[365]
Several people, in opposing the Papacy, turned to violence, which didn’t really match the principles of a Christian life. Emser, in response to Luther's pamphlet titled, 'To the Goat Emser,' published one called, 'To the Bull of Wittenberg.' The title was quite fitting. In Magdeburg, Emser's book was hung from a gallows with the inscription, "The book is worthy of the place;" and a rod was placed beside it to show the punishment the author deserved.[364] In Doeblin, someone wrote beneath the Papal bull, mocking its useless threats, "The nest is here, but the birds are flown."[365]
At Wittemberg, the students, taking advantage of the carnival, clothed one of their number in a dress resembling that of the pope, and paraded him through the streets "pompously, but rather too ludicrously," says Luther.[366] On arriving at the public square they went down to the banks of the river, and some of them, feigning a sudden attack, seemed to wish to throw the pope into the water; but the pope, having no liking for such a bath, took to his heels. His cardinals, bishops, and familiars, followed his example, dispersing over all the quarters of the town, while the students continued to pursue them. There was not a corner of Wittemberg where some Roman dignitary did not flee before the shouts and laughter of the inhabitants, who were all in motion.[367] "The enemy of Christ," says Luther, "who sports both with kings and with Christ himself, well deserves to be thus sported with." In this we think him in error. Truth is too beautiful, and ought never to be made to walk through the mire. She ought to fight without such auxiliaries as songs, caricatures, and carnival frolics. It may be that without these popular demonstrations, her success would be less apparent, but it would be more pure, and consequently more durable. Be this as it may, the imprudent and passionate conduct of the Court of Rome had excited universal antipathy, and the bull by which the Papacy thought to stifle every thing was itself the cause of general revolt.
At Wittenberg, the students, taking advantage of the carnival, dressed one of their peers in an outfit similar to the pope's and paraded him through the streets “showily, but a bit too comically,” says Luther.[366] When they reached the public square, they went down to the riverbanks, and some of them, pretending to suddenly attack, seemed ready to throw the pope into the water; but the pope, not wanting that kind of bath, ran away. His cardinals, bishops, and followers did the same, scattering throughout the town while the students kept chasing them. There wasn’t a corner of Wittenberg where some Roman official didn’t flee before the cheers and laughter of the residents, who were all on the move.[367] “The enemy of Christ,” says Luther, “who toys with both kings and Christ himself, deserves to be toyed with in return.” In this, we think he is mistaken. Truth is too beautiful to be dragged through the mud. It should fight without the support of songs, caricatures, and carnival antics. Perhaps without these public displays, its success would be less obvious, but it would be purer and therefore more lasting. Whatever the case may be, the careless and passionate behavior of the Court of Rome had stirred up widespread resentment, and the papal bull intended to silence everything only sparked a general revolt.
Still the Reformer's whole course was not one of exultation and triumph. Behind the car in which he was drawn by his zealous countrymen, transported with admiration, there was not wanting the slave appointed to remind him of his frailty. Some of his friends seemed disposed to call a halt. Staupitz, whom he called his father, seemed shaken. The pope had accused him, and Staupitz had declared his readiness to submit to the judgment of his Holiness. "I fear," said Luther to him, "that in accepting the pope for judge, you will seem to throw off me and the doctrines which I have maintained. If Christ loves you, he will constrain you to retract your letter. Christ is condemned, spoiled, blasphemed; it is time not to fear, but to cry aloud.[368] Wherefore, while you exhort me to humility, I exhort you to pride; for you have too much humility, just as I have too much of its opposite. I shall be called proud and avaricious, an adulterer, a murderer, an anti-pope, a man guilty of all crimes. It matters not, so long as they cannot accuse me of having kept an impious silence at the moment when the Lord was grieved, and said 'I looked on my right hand, and beheld but there was no man that would know me.' (Ps. cxlii, 4.) The word of Jesus Christ is not a word of peace, but a sword. If you will not follow Jesus Christ, I will walk alone, advance alone, and gain the day."[369]
Still, the Reformer's journey was not all about celebration and victory. Behind the carriage where he was being pulled by his enthusiastic supporters, filled with admiration, there was a slave meant to remind him of his human weakness. Some of his friends seemed ready to pause. Staupitz, whom he referred to as his father, appeared uncertain. The pope had accused him, and Staupitz had shown his willingness to accept the pope's judgment. "I worry," Luther told him, "that by accepting the pope as a judge, you will seem to distance yourself from me and the beliefs I stand for. If Christ truly loves you, He will compel you to take back your letter. Christ is condemned, ridiculed, and blasphemed; it's time to stop fearing and start speaking out. [368] So while you encourage me to be humble, I urge you to be bold; you have too much humility, just as I have too much pride. I will be labeled as proud and greedy, an adulterer, a murderer, an anti-pope, a person guilty of every crime. It doesn't matter, as long as they can't accuse me of having stayed silent at the moment when the Lord was hurt, and said 'I looked on my right hand, and beheld, but there was no man that would know me.' (Ps. cxlii, 4.) The word of Jesus Christ does not bring peace, but a sword. If you won't follow Jesus Christ, I will walk alone, move forward alone, and succeed."[369]
Thus Luther, like the commander of an army, kept an eye on the whole field of battle, and while he urged fresh troops forward into the thickest of the fight, marked those who appeared faint-hearted and recalled them to their post. His exhortations were everywhere heard. His letters rapidly succeeded each other. Three presses were constantly employed in multiplying his writings.[370] His words had free course among the people, strengthened consciences which the confessionals had alarmed, raised up those ready to faint in convents, and maintained the rights of truth in the palaces of princes.
Thus, Luther, like a general leading an army, surveyed the entire battlefield. While he pushed fresh troops into the thick of the action, he also noticed those who seemed hesitant and brought them back to their positions. His calls to action were heard everywhere. His letters flowed in quickly one after another. Three printing presses were constantly at work to produce his writings. His words spread freely among the people, bolstered the consciences that confessionals had shaken, lifted those who were ready to give up in convents, and upheld the rights of truth in the courts of princes.[370]
"Amid the tempests which assail me," wrote he to the Elector, "I always hoped I would one day find peace. But I now see it was only a man's thought. Day after day the wave is rising, and I already stand in the midst of the ocean. The tempest breaks loose with fearful roar.[371] With one hand I grasp the sword, and with the other build up the walls of Sion.[372] Her ancient links are snapt asunder, broken by the hand which darted the thunders of excommunication against her." "Excommunicated by the bull," says he, "I am loosed from the authority of the pope and monastic laws. With joy I embrace the deliverance. But I lay aside neither the habit of the order nor the convent."[373] And yet, amidst all this agitation, he never loses sight of the dangers by which his own soul is beset during the strife. He feels the necessity of keeping a watch upon himself. "You do well to pray for me," wrote he to Pellican, who was living at Bâle. "I cannot devote enough of time to holy exercises. My life is a cross. You do well to exhort me to modesty. I feel the want of it; but I am not my own master: I know not what spirit rules me. I wish ill to nobody;[374] but my enemies press me with such fury that I am not sufficiently on my guard against the seductions of Satan. Pray then for me."
"Amid the storms that hit me," he wrote to the Elector, "I always hoped I would someday find peace. But now I realize it was just a human idea. Day after day the wave rises, and I already stand in the middle of the ocean. The storm breaks loose with a terrifying roar.[371] With one hand, I hold the sword, and with the other, I build the walls of Zion.[372] Her ancient bonds are snapped apart, broken by the hand that unleashed the thunders of excommunication against her." "Excommunicated by the bull," he says, "I am free from the authority of the pope and monastic laws. With joy, I embrace this freedom. But I do not give up the habit of the order or the convent."[373] Yet, in the midst of all this turmoil, he never loses sight of the dangers that threaten his own soul during the struggle. He feels the need to keep a close watch on himself. "You’re right to pray for me," he wrote to Pellican, who was living in Basel. "I can’t devote enough time to spiritual practices. My life is a cross. You’re right to encourage me to be modest. I feel the need for it; but I am not in control of myself: I don’t know what spirit governs me. I wish no harm to anyone;[374] but my enemies are pressing me with such fury that I am not cautious enough against the temptations of Satan. So please pray for me."
Thus both the Reformer and the Reformation hastened on in the direction in which God called them. The movement extended. Men who might have been expected to be most faithful to the hierarchy began to be shaken. "Even those," says Eck, ingenuously enough, "who hold of the pope the best benefices and the richest canonries remain mute as fishes. Several among them even extol Luther as a man filled with the Spirit of God, and call the defenders of the pope sophists and flatterers."[375] The Church, apparently great in power, supported by the treasures, the powers and the armies of the world, but in reality emaciated and enfeebled, without love to God, without Christian life, without enthusiasm for the truth, found herself in presence of men, simple, but bold, men who, knowing that God is with those who combat for His Word, had no doubt of victory? Every age has experienced how powerful an idea is in penetrating the masses, in arousing nations, and, if need be, hurrying thousands to the field of battle and to death; but if such is the influence of a human idea, what must be the power of an idea sent down from heaven when God opens the door of the human heart. The world has not often seen such a power in operation. It did see it, however, in the first days of Christianity and in those of the Reformation; and it will see it in days yet to come. Men who disdained the world's wealth, and grandeur, and were contented to lead a life of pain and poverty, began to move in behalf of the holiest thing upon the earth—the doctrine of faith and of grace. In this heaving of society, all the religious elements were brought into operation, and the fire of enthusiasm hurried men boldly forward into a new life an epoch of renovation which had just opened so majestically, and towards which Providence was hastening the nations.
So both the Reformer and the Reformation moved forward in the direction God called them. The movement spread. People who were expected to be the most loyal to the hierarchy began to waver. "Even those," Eck says candidly, "who have the best benefices and the richest canonries from the pope stay silent like fish. Some among them even praise Luther as a man filled with the Spirit of God and label the defenders of the pope as sophists and flatterers." [375] The Church, seemingly powerful, backed by wealth, authority, and armies, was actually weak and lacking, devoid of love for God, Christian life, and enthusiasm for the truth, faced simple but brave men who, knowing that God supports those who fight for His Word, had no doubt of victory. Every era has shown how powerful an idea can be in reaching the masses, inspiring nations, and, if necessary, driving thousands into battle and to death; but if a human idea can have such an influence, how much more power must an idea sent from heaven hold when God opens the human heart? The world hasn’t often witnessed such power in action. It did see it, though, in the early days of Christianity and during the Reformation; and it will see it again in the future. Men who rejected worldly wealth and glory and were willing to endure pain and poverty began to advocate for the most sacred thing on earth—the doctrine of faith and grace. In this upheaval of society, all religious elements were engaged, and the fire of enthusiasm propelled people boldly into a new life, an era of renewal that had just begun so splendidly, and towards which Providence was guiding the nations.
BOOK SEVEN.
THE DIET OF WORMS.
1521. (January—May.)
THE DIET OF WORMS.
1521. (January—May.)
CHAP. I.
Conquests by the Word of God—The Diet of Worms—Difficulties—Charles demands Luther—The Elector to Charles—State of Men's minds—Aleander's Alarm—The Elector sets out without Luther—Aleander awakens Rome—Excommunication of the Pope, and Communion with Christ—Fulmination of the Bull—Luther's motives in the Reformation.
Victories through God's Word—The Diet of Worms—Conflicts—Charles calls Luther—The Elector talks to Charles—Public opinion—Aleander's terror—The Elector leaves without Luther—Aleander notifies Rome—The Pope's excommunication and connection with Christ—Release of the Bull—Luther's justifications for the Reformation.
The Reformation, which commenced with the struggles of an humble soul in the cell of a convent at Erfurt, had never ceased to advance. An obscure individual, with the Word of life in his hand, had stood erect in presence of worldly grandeur, and made it tremble. This Word he had opposed, first, to Tezel and his numerous host, and these avaricious merchants, after a momentary resistance, had taken flight. Next, he had opposed it to the legate of Rome at Augsburg, and the legate, paralysed, had allowed his prey to escape. At a later period he had opposed it to the champions of learning in the halls of Leipsic, and the astonished theologians had seen their syllogistic weapons broken to pieces in their hands. At last he had opposed it to the pope, who, disturbed in his sleep, had risen up upon his throne, and thundered at the troublesome monk; but the whole power of the head of Christendom this Word had paralysed. The Word had still a last struggle to maintain. It behoved to triumph over the emperor of the West, over the kings and princes of the earth, and then, victorious over all the powers of the world, take its place in the Church to reign in it as the pure Word of God.
The Reformation, which started with the struggles of a humble individual in a convent cell in Erfurt, has never stopped advancing. This ordinary person, holding the Word of life, stood tall in front of worldly power and made it tremble. He first challenged Tezel and his numerous followers, and these greedy merchants quickly fled after a brief resistance. Next, he confronted the representative of Rome in Augsburg, who, stunned, let his opportunity slip away. Later, he faced off against the scholars in the halls of Leipzig, where the astonished theologians watched as their logical arguments fell apart. Finally, he stood against the pope, who, disturbed from his sleep, rose on his throne and raged at the troublesome monk; yet the entire power of the head of Christendom was rendered powerless by this Word. The Word still had one last battle to fight. It needed to triumph over the emperor of the West, over the kings and princes of the earth, and then, victorious over all worldly authorities, take its rightful place in the Church to reign as the pure Word of God.
The whole kingdom was agitated. Princes and nobles, knights and citizens, clergy and laity, town and country, all were engrossed. A mighty religious revolution, of which God himself was the prime mover, but which was also deeply rooted in the minds of the people, was threatening to overthrow the long venerated head of the Roman hierarchy. A new generation, of a grave, profound, active, and energetic spirit, filled the universities, towns, courts, and castles, the rural districts, and not unfrequently cloisters also. The feeling that a great social transformation was at hand animated all minds with holy enthusiasm. In what relation will the new emperor stand to this movement of the age, and what will be the issue of the mighty impulse, by which all feel that they are borne along?
The entire kingdom was in turmoil. Princes and nobles, knights and citizens, clergy and laypeople, towns and the countryside, everyone was caught up in it. A significant religious revolution, driven by God himself but also deeply rooted in the people's minds, was threatening to topple the long-respected leader of the Roman Church. A new generation, serious, thoughtful, active, and passionate, filled universities, towns, courts, castles, rural areas, and even monasteries. The sense that a major social change was coming inspired everyone with a fervent excitement. What role will the new emperor play in this movement of the times, and what will be the outcome of the powerful wave that everyone feels they are riding?
A solemn Diet was about to be opened. It was the first imperial assembly over which the youthful Charles was to preside. Nuremberg, where, in virtue of the Golden Bull, it ought to have been held, being desolated by the plague, it had been summoned to meet at Worms, on the 6th of January, 1521.[376] Never had a Diet been attended by so many princes. All desired to be present at this first act of the government of the young emperor, and to make a display of their power. Among others, the young Landgrave, Philip of Hesse, who was afterwards to play so important a part in the Reformation, arrived at Worms in the middle of January, with six hundred cavaliers, among them men of renowned valour.
A solemn assembly was about to begin. It was the first imperial meeting that the young Charles would lead. Since Nuremberg, where it was supposed to take place according to the Golden Bull, was devastated by the plague, it was relocated to Worms, on January 6, 1521.[376] Never before had an assembly seen so many princes in attendance. Everyone wanted to be there for this inaugural act of the young emperor's governance and to showcase their power. Among them was the young Landgrave, Philip of Hesse, who would later play a significant role in the Reformation. He arrived in Worms in mid-January, accompanied by six hundred knights, including many renowned warriors.
But there was a still more powerful motive which induced the electors, dukes, archbishops, landgraves, margraves, bishops, barons, and lords of the empire; as well as the deputies of towns, and the ambassadors of the kings of Christendom, at this moment, to throng the roads leading to Worms with their brilliant equipages. It had been announced that the Diet would be occupied with the nomination of a council of regency to govern the empire during the absence of Charles, with the jurisdiction of the imperial chamber, and other important questions. But the public attention was particularly directed to another matter, which the emperor had also mentioned in his letter convening the Diet, viz., the Reformation. The great interests of politics trembled before the cause of the Monk of Wittemberg. This cause was the principal subject of conversation among all personages who arrived at Worms.
But there was an even stronger reason that drew the electors, dukes, archbishops, landgraves, margraves, bishops, barons, and lords of the empire, along with town deputies and ambassadors from Christian kingdoms, to flood the roads leading to Worms with their opulent carriages. It had been announced that the Diet would focus on appointing a council of regency to govern the empire in Charles's absence, along with overseeing the imperial chamber and other significant issues. However, public attention was especially focused on another topic that the emperor had also mentioned in his letter calling the Diet, namely, the Reformation. The major political interests were overshadowed by the cause of the Monk of Wittenberg. This issue became the main topic of conversation among everyone who arrived in Worms.
Every thing announced that the Diet would be difficult and stormy. Charles, scarcely twenty years of age, pale and sickly, yet as skilful as any one in the graceful management of his horse and in breaking a lance, of a character imperfectly developed, and with a grave and melancholy but still benevolent expression of countenance, gave no proof as yet of distinguished talent, and seemed not to have adopted a decided course. The able and active William of Croi, Lord of Chievres, who was his grand chamberlain, his governor, and prime minister, and possessed absolute authority at the court, died at Worms. Numerous ambitious projects were competing with each other. Many passions were in collision. The Spaniards and Belgians were eager to insinuate themselves into the counsels of the young prince. The nuncios multiplied their intrigues, while the princes of Germany spoke out boldly. A struggle might have been foreseen, yet a struggle in which the principal part would be performed by the secret movements of factions.[377]
Everything indicated that the Diet would be challenging and turbulent. Charles, barely twenty, pale and unwell, but skilled in riding and jousting, had an underdeveloped character with a serious and melancholic yet kind expression. He showed no signs of exceptional talent and did not seem to have chosen a clear path. The capable and energetic William of Croi, Lord of Chievres, who was his grand chamberlain, governor, and prime minister, holding complete authority at court, died in Worms. Numerous ambitious plans were vying for attention. Many conflicting passions were at play. The Spaniards and Belgians were eager to gain influence over the young prince's decisions. The nuncios intensified their schemes, while the princes of Germany spoke out openly. A conflict was anticipated, but one where the main actions would come from the subtle maneuvers of factions.[377]
Charles opened the Diet on the 28th of January, 1521, being the festival of Charlemagne. He had a high idea of the importance of the imperial dignity. In his opening address he said, that no monarchy could be compared to the Roman empire, to which of old almost the whole world had been subject; that, unhappily, the empire was now only the shadow of what it had been; but that he hoped, by means of his kingdoms and powerful alliances, to re-establish it in its ancient glory.
Charles opened the Diet on January 28, 1521, which was the feast day of Charlemagne. He held a strong belief in the significance of the imperial position. In his opening speech, he stated that no monarchy could be compared to the Roman Empire, which had once held sway over nearly the entire world; however, he lamented that the empire was now merely a shadow of its former self. Still, he expressed hope that through his kingdoms and powerful alliances, he could restore it to its former glory.
But numerous difficulties immediately presented themselves to the young emperor. How will he act, placed, as he is, between the papal nuncio and the Elector to whom he owes his crown? How can he avoid dissatisfying Aleander or Frederick? The former urged the emperor to execute the papal bull, and the latter begged him to undertake nothing against the monk without giving him a hearing. Wishing to please these two opposite parties, the young prince, during a sojourn at Oppenherm, had written to the Elector to bring Luther to the Diet, assuring him that no injustice would be done him, that he would meet with no violence, and that learned men would confer with him.
But the young emperor immediately faced many challenges. How should he act, caught between the papal envoy and the Elector to whom he owes his throne? How can he avoid upsetting Aleander or Frederick? Aleander pushed the emperor to carry out the papal decree, while Frederick urged him not to take any action against the monk without giving him a chance to speak. Wanting to satisfy both sides, the young prince, during a stay at Oppenherm, wrote to the Elector to bring Luther to the Diet, assuring him that no injustice would be done, that he would not face any violence, and that scholars would discuss things with him.
This letter of Charles, accompanied by letters from Chievres and the Count of Nassau, threw the Elector into great perplexity. An alliance with the pope might at any instant become necessary to the young and ambitious emperor, and in that case it was all over with Luther. Frederick, by taking the Reformer to Worms, was perhaps taking him to the scaffold; and yet the orders of Charles were express. The Elector ordered Spalatin to acquaint Luther with the letters which he had received. "The enemy," said the chaplain to him, "is putting every thing in operation to hasten on the affair."[378]
This letter from Charles, along with letters from Chievres and the Count of Nassau, put the Elector in a tough spot. An alliance with the pope could suddenly become essential for the young and ambitious emperor, which would mean trouble for Luther. By bringing the Reformer to Worms, Frederick might just be leading him to his doom; still, Charles's orders were clear. The Elector instructed Spalatin to inform Luther about the letters he had received. "The enemy," the chaplain told him, "is doing everything to push this along."[378]
Luther's friends trembled, but he trembled not. He was then in very feeble health; no matter. "If I cannot go to Worms in health," replied he to the Elector, "I will make myself be carried; since the emperor calls me, I cannot doubt but it is a call from God himself. If they mean to employ violence against me, as is probable, (for assuredly it is not with a view to their own instruction that they make me appear,) I leave the matter in the hands of the Lord. He who preserved the three young men in the furnace, still lives and reigns. If He is not pleased to save me, my life is but a small matter; only let us not allow the gospel to be exposed to the derision of the wicked, and let us shed our blood for it sooner than permit them to triumph. Whether would my life or my death contribute most to the general safety? It is not for us to decide. Let us only pray to God that our young emperor may not commence his reign with dipping his hands in my blood; I would far rather perish by the sword of the Romans. You know what judgments befel the emperor Sigismund after the murder of John Huss. Expect every thing of me—save flight and recantation;[379] I cannot fly, still less can I recant."
Luther's friends were scared, but he wasn’t. He was in very poor health, but that didn’t matter. "If I can’t go to Worms in good health," he told the Elector, "I’ll make sure I’m carried there; since the emperor has summoned me, I believe it’s a call from God himself. If they plan to use violence against me, which seems likely (since it’s not for their own learning that they’re bringing me out), I’ll leave it in the hands of the Lord. He who saved the three young men in the furnace is still alive and in charge. If He doesn’t choose to save me, my life is insignificant; just let’s not allow the gospel to be mocked by the wicked, and let’s shed our blood for it rather than let them win. Would my life or my death do more for everyone’s safety? That’s not for us to say. Let’s just pray that our young emperor doesn’t start his reign by having my blood on his hands; I’d much rather die by the sword of the Romans. You know what happened to Emperor Sigismund after the murder of John Huss. Expect everything from me—except for flight and recantation; I can’t run away, and I definitely can’t recant.”
Before receiving this letter from Luther, the Elector had taken his resolution. As he was advancing in the knowledge of the gospel, he began to be more decided in his measures. Seeing that the conference of Worms could not have a happy result, he wrote to the emperor. "It seems to me difficult to bring Luther with me to Worms; relieve me from the task. Besides, I have never wished to take his doctrine under my protection, but only to prevent him from being condemned without a hearing. The Legates without waiting for your orders, have proceeded to take a step insulting both to Luther and to me, and I much fear, that in this way they have hurried him on to an imprudent act which might expose him to great danger were he to appear at the Diet." The Elector alluded to the pile which had consumed the Papal bull.
Before getting this letter from Luther, the Elector had made his decision. As he grew more knowledgeable about the gospel, he became more assertive in his actions. Realizing that the conference in Worms wouldn’t end well, he wrote to the emperor. "It seems very difficult to bring Luther with me to Worms; please relieve me of this task. Besides, I never intended to protect his teachings, but only to ensure he wasn’t condemned without a chance to defend himself. The Legates, without waiting for your instructions, have taken a step that insults both Luther and me, and I’m quite worried that this will push him into making a reckless move that could put him in serious danger if he shows up at the Diet." The Elector was referring to the pile that had burned the Papal bull.
But the rumour of Luther's journey to Worms had already spread. Men eager for novelty rejoiced at it. The emperor's courtiers were alarmed, but no one felt so indignant as the papal legate. Aleander on his journey had seen how deep an impression the gospel which Luther preached had made on all classes of society. Literary men, lawyers, nobles, the lower clergy, the regular orders, and the people, were gained to the Reformation.[380] These friends of the new doctrine carried their heads erect, and were bold in their language, while fear and terror froze the partizans of Rome. The papacy still stood, but its props were shaking. A noise of devastation was already heard, somewhat resembling the creaking which takes place at the time when a mountain begins to slip.[381]
But the rumor of Luther's trip to Worms had already spread. People eager for change were excited about it. The emperor's courtiers were worried, but no one was as outraged as the papal legate. Aleander had seen on his journey how deeply the gospel Luther preached had affected all parts of society. Intellectuals, lawyers, nobles, lower clergy, regular orders, and the common people were joining the Reformation.[380] These supporters of the new doctrine walked with their heads held high and spoke boldly, while fear and dread paralyzed the followers of Rome. The papacy was still standing, but its support was weakening. A noise of destruction was already starting to sound, reminiscent of the creaking that happens when a mountain starts to slide.[381]
Aleander, during his journey to Worms, was sadly annoyed. When he had to dine or sleep, neither literary men nor nobles nor priests, even among the supposed friends of the pope, durst receive him, and the proud nuncio was obliged to seek an asylum in taverns of the lowest class.[382] He was thus in terror, and had no doubt that his life was in great danger. In this way he arrived at Worms; and, thenceforth, to his Roman fanaticism was added resentment for the personal injuries which he had received. He immediately put every means in operation to prevent the audacious compearance of the redoubtable Luther. "Would it not be scandalous," said he, "to see laics re-investigating a cause which the pope had already condemned?" Nothing alarms a Roman courtier so much as an investigation; and, moreover, an investigation to take place in Germany, and not at Rome. How humiliating even should Luther's condemnation be unanimously decided! And it was not even certain that such would be the result. Will not the powerful word of Luther, which has already done such havoc, involve many princes and nobles in inevitable ruin? Aleander, when before Charles, insisted, implored, threatened, and spoke out as nuncio of the head of the Church.[383] Charles yielded; and wrote to the Elector that the time granted to Luther having already elapsed, the monk was under papal excommunication; and that therefore unless he were willing to retract his writings, Frederick must leave him at Wittemberg. Frederick had already quitted Saxony without Luther. "I pray the Lord to be favourable to our Elector," were the words of Melancthon on seeing him depart; "on him our hopes of the restoration of Christendom repose. His enemies dare every thing, και παντα λιθον κιτησομενους;[384] but God will bring to nought the counsel of Ahithophel. As for us, let us do our part in the combat by our lessons and our prayers." Luther was deeply grieved at being prohibited to appear at Worms.[385]
Aleander, on his way to Worms, was extremely frustrated. When it came time to eat or sleep, neither scholars, nobles, nor clergy, even those who were supposedly friends of the pope, dared to host him, and the arrogant envoy had to find refuge in the most lowly taverns. He was terrified and had no doubt that his life was in serious danger. This is how he arrived at Worms; from then on, along with his Roman zealotry, he also felt bitterness over the personal slights he had suffered. He wasted no time in taking action to stop the bold appearance of the formidable Luther. "Wouldn't it be outrageous," he said, "to see laypeople re-examining a matter that the pope has already condemned?" Nothing alarms a Roman courtier more than an investigation, especially one taking place in Germany instead of Rome. How humiliating it would be if Luther's condemnation were reached unanimously! And it wasn't even guaranteed that this would happen. Wouldn't Luther's powerful words, which have already caused so much destruction, lead many princes and nobles to inevitable doom? When Aleander stood before Charles, he insisted, begged, threatened, and spoke as the pope's representative. Charles complied and wrote to the Elector that since the time allowed for Luther had already passed, the monk was under papal excommunication; thus, unless he was willing to retract his writings, Frederick must abandon him at Wittemberg. Frederick had already left Saxony without Luther. "I pray the Lord to show favor to our Elector," were Melancthon's words upon seeing him leave; "on him rests our hope for the restoration of Christendom. His enemies dare to do anything, αλλά ο Θεός θα καταστρέψει τη συμβουλή του Αχιτόφελ. As for us, let's do our part in the battle through our teachings and prayers." Luther was deeply saddened by being banned from appearing at Worms.
Aleander did not consider it enough that Luther should not come to Worms—he wished him to be condemned. Returning incessantly to the charge before the princes, prelates, and different members of the Diet, he accused the Augustin monk not only of disobedience and heresy, but also of sedition, rebellion, impiety, and blasphemy. The very accent in which he spoke betrayed the passions by which he was actuated; so that men exclaimed, it is hatred and love of vengeance, rather than zeal and piety, that excite him.[386] However frequent, however vehement his discourses were, he made no converts.[387]
Aleander didn’t think it was enough for Luther to stay away from Worms—he wanted him to be punished. Consistently returning to the point in front of the princes, church leaders, and various members of the Diet, he accused the Augustinian monk not just of disobedience and heresy, but also of sedition, rebellion, impiety, and blasphemy. The tone in which he spoke revealed the emotions driving him; people claimed that it was hatred and a thirst for revenge, rather than true zeal and piety, that fueled his anger.[386] Regardless of how often or passionately he spoke, he didn’t win over any supporters.[387]
Some pointed out to him that the papal bull had condemned Luther only conditionally; others did not altogether conceal the joy which they felt at seeing Roman pride humbled. The ministers of the emperor, on the one hand, and the ecclesiastical electors, on the other, affected great coldness—the former to make the pope more sensible how necessary it was for him to league with their master, the latter in order to induce him to pay better for their favour. A conviction of Luther's innocence prevailed in the assembly, and Aleander could not restrain his indignation.
Some pointed out to him that the papal bull had only conditionally condemned Luther; others didn’t hide their joy at seeing Roman pride brought low. The emperor’s ministers, on one side, and the church electors, on the other, acted very aloof—the former to make the pope realize how important it was for him to team up with their master, the latter to push him to provide better compensation for their support. A belief in Luther's innocence was strong in the gathering, and Aleander couldn’t hold back his anger.
But the coldness of the Diet did not try the patience of the legate so much as the coldness of Rome. Rome, which had so long refused to take a serious view of the quarrel of the drunk German, had no idea that a bull of the sovereign pontiff could prove insufficient to make him humble and submissive. She had accordingly resumed her wonted security,[388] no longer sending either bull or purses of money. But how was it possible without money to succeed in such a business?[389] Rome must be awakened, and Aleander gives the alarm. Writing to the Cardinal de Medicis, he says, "Germany is detaching herself from Rome, and the princes are detaching themselves from the pope. A few delays more—a few more attempts at compromise and the matter is past hope. Money! money! or Germany is lost."[390]
But the coldness of the Diet didn’t test the legate’s patience as much as the indifference of Rome. Rome, which had long dismissed the serious nature of the quarrel with the drunken German, had no idea that a bull from the pope wouldn’t be enough to make him humble and compliant. As a result, she had slipped back into her usual confidence,[388] no longer sending either bulls or piles of money. But how could anyone succeed in such a situation without money?[389] Rome needed to be stirred into action, and Aleander sounded the alarm. Writing to Cardinal de Medicis, he says, "Germany is separating from Rome, and the princes are pulling away from the pope. A few more delays—a few more attempts at compromise, and it’ll be hopeless. Money! Money! Or Germany is lost."[390]
At this cry Rome awakes: the servants of the papacy, laying aside their torpor, hastily forge their dreaded thunder at the Vatican. The pope issues a new bull;[391] and the excommunication with which till then the heretical doctor had been merely threatened, is in distinct terms pronounced against him and all his adherents. Rome herself, breaking the last thread which still attached him to her church, gave Luther greater freedom, and thereby greater power. Thundered at by the pope, he, with new affection, took refuge in Christ. Driven from the external temple, he felt more strongly that he was himself a temple inhabited by God.
At this shout, Rome wakes up: the papal servants, shaking off their laziness, rush to forge their feared thunder at the Vatican. The pope issues a new bull;[391] and the excommunication that had only been threatened against the heretical doctor is now clearly declared against him and all his followers. Rome, cutting the last connection that still tied him to the church, gave Luther more freedom and, in turn, more power. When thundered at by the pope, he, with renewed affection, sought refuge in Christ. Cast out from the external temple, he felt more intensely that he himself was a temple inhabited by God.
"It is a glorious thing," said he, "that we sinners, in believing on Jesus Christ, and eating his flesh, have him within us with all his strength, power, wisdom and justice, according as it is written, 'He who believeth in me, dwelleth in me and I in him.' Admirable dwelling! marvellous tabernacle! far superior to that of Moses, and all magnificently adorned within with superb tapestry, veils of purple, and furniture of gold, while without, as on the tabernacle which God ordered to be constructed in the wilderness of Sinai, is seen only a rough covering of beavers' skins or goats' hair.[392] Christians often stumble, and in external appearance are all feebleness and disgrace. But no matter: within this infirmity and folly dwells secretly a power which the world cannot know, but which overcomes the world; for Christ remaineth in them. I have sometimes seen Christians walking with a halt, and in great weakness; but when the hour of combat or appearance at the world's bar arrived, Christ of a sudden acted within them, and they became so strong and resolute that the devil in dismay fled before them."[393]
"It is amazing," he said, "that we sinners, by believing in Jesus Christ and taking in his body, have him inside us with all his strength, power, wisdom, and justice, just as it is written, 'He who believes in me, dwells in me and I in him.' What an incredible dwelling! A marvelous tabernacle! Far better than Moses' and adorned within with amazing tapestries, purple veils, and gold furnishings, while outside, like the tabernacle God instructed to be built in the wilderness of Sinai, it only shows a rough covering of beaver skins or goat hair.[392] Christians may often stumble and appear weak and disgraceful on the outside. But that doesn't matter: within this weakness and foolishness lies a hidden power that the world doesn't understand, but which triumphs over the world; for Christ remains in them. I've sometimes seen Christians walk with a limp and in great weakness; but when the moment of battle or a stand before the world's judgment came, Christ suddenly worked within them, and they became so strong and determined that the devil fled in fear."[393]
In regard to Luther, such an hour was about to peal, and Christ, in whose communion he dwelt, was not to forsake him. Meanwhile Rome naturally rejected him. The Reformer, and all his partisans, whatever their rank and power, were anathematised, and deprived personally, as well as in their descendants, of all their dignities and effects. Every faithful Christian as he loved his soul's salvation was ordered to shun the sight of the accursed crew. Wherever heresy had been introduced, the priests were, on Sundays and festivals, at the hour when the churches were best filled, solemnly to publish the excommunication. They were to carry away the vessels and ornaments of the altar, and lay the cross upon the ground; twelve priests, with torches in their hands, were to kindle them and dash them down with violence, and extinguish them by trampling them with their feet; then the bishop was to publish the condemnation of the impious men; all the bells were to be rung; the bishops and priests were to pronounce anathemas and maledictions, and preach forcibly against Luther and his adherents.
In relation to Luther, such a moment was about to arrive, and Christ, in whose fellowship he existed, would not abandon him. Meanwhile, Rome naturally rejected him. The Reformer and all his supporters, regardless of their status and influence, were excommunicated and stripped of all their honors and possessions, both personally and for their descendants. Every faithful Christian who valued their soul's salvation was instructed to avoid the sight of the condemned group. Wherever heresy had spread, the priests were to publicly announce the excommunication on Sundays and holidays, at times when the churches were most crowded. They were to remove the altar's vessels and decorations and lay the cross on the ground; twelve priests, with torches in hand, were to light them and violently throw them down, extinguishing them by trampling underfoot; then the bishop was to announce the condemnation of the wicked individuals; all the bells were to be rung; bishops and priests were to utter curses and maledictions, preaching strongly against Luther and his followers.
Twenty-two days had elapsed since the excommunication had been published at Rome, and it was perhaps not yet known in Germany, when Luther, learning that there was again some talk of calling him to Worms, addressed the Elector in a letter written in such terms that Frederick might communicate it to the Diet. Luther wished to correct the erroneous impression of the princes, and frankly explain to this august tribunal the true nature of a cause which was so much misapprehended. "I rejoice with all my heart, most serene lord," said he, "that his imperial majesty means to bring this affair under consideration. I call Jesus Christ to witness that it is the cause of Germany, of the Catholic Church, of the Christian world, and of God himself, ... and not of any single man, and more especially such a man as I.[394] I am ready to repair to Worms, provided I have a safe-conduct, and learned, pious, and impartial judges. I am ready to answer, ... for it is not in a spirit of rashness, or with a view to personal advantage, that I have taught the doctrine with which I am reproached; I have done it in obedience to my conscience, and to the oath which, as doctor, I took to the Holy Scriptures; I have done it for the glory of God, the safety of the Christian Church, the good of the German nation, and the extirpation of many superstitions, abuses, and evils, disgrace, tyranny, blasphemy, and impiety."
Twenty-two days had passed since the excommunication was announced in Rome, and it probably hadn't reached Germany yet when Luther, hearing that there were once again discussions about summoning him to Worms, wrote to the Elector in a way that Frederick could share with the Diet. Luther aimed to correct the wrong impressions held by the princes and openly clarify to this esteemed assembly the true nature of a cause that was so widely misunderstood. "I am truly glad, most gracious lord," he said, "that his imperial majesty intends to consider this matter. I swear before Jesus Christ that this is the cause of Germany, the Catholic Church, the Christian world, and of God himself, ... and not about any one individual, especially not someone like me.[394] I am prepared to go to Worms, as long as I have a safe passage and competent, devout, and fair judges. I am ready to respond, ... for I do not speak out of recklessness or for personal gain; I have taught the doctrine I'm being accused of because of my conscience and the oath I took as a doctor to the Holy Scriptures; I have done this for the glory of God, the safety of the Christian Church, the welfare of the German nation, and to eliminate many superstitions, abuses, and evils, such as disgrace, tyranny, blasphemy, and impiety."
This declaration, in the solemn circumstances in which Luther made it, is deserving of our attention. We here see the motives which influenced him, and the primary causes which led to the renovation of Christian society. These were something more than monkish jealousy or a wish to marry.
This declaration, given the serious circumstances in which Luther made it, deserves our attention. We can see the reasons that influenced him and the main factors that led to the renewal of Christian society. These were more than just monkish jealousy or a desire to marry.
CHAP. II.
A Foreign Prince—Advice of Politicians—Conference between the Confessor and the Elector's Chancellor—Uselessness of these Manœuvres—Aleander's activity—Luther's Sayings—Charles gives in to the Pope.
A Foreign Prince—Politicians' Advice—A Meeting between the Confessor and the Elector's Chancellor—The Pointlessness of These Maneuvers—Aleander's Efforts—Luther's Comments—Charles Gives In to the Pope.
But all this was of no importance in the eyes of politicians. How high soever the idea which Charles entertained of the imperial dignity, it was not in Germany that his interests and policy centred. He was always a Duke of Burgundy, who, to several sceptres, added the first crown of Christendom. Strange! at the moment of her thorough transformation, Germany selected for her head a foreign prince in whose eyes her wants and tendencies were only of secondary importance. The religious movement, it is true, was not indifferent to the young emperor; but it was important in his eyes only in so far as it menaced the pope. War between Charles and France was inevitable, and its chief seat was necessarily to be in Italy. An alliance with the pope thus became every day more necessary to the schemes of Charles. He would fain have either detached Frederick from Luther, or satisfied the pope without offending Frederick. Several of those about him manifested, in regard to the affairs of the Augustin monk, that cold disdain which politicians usually affect when religion is in question. "Let us avoid extremes," said they. "Let us trammel Luther by negotiations, and reduce him to silence by some kind of concession. The true course is to stifle the embers, not stir them up. If the monk is caught in the net, we have gained the day. By accepting a compromise he will be interdicted and undone. For appearance some externa reforms will be devised; the Elector will be satisfied; the pope will be gained, and affairs will resume their ordinary course."
But all this didn’t matter to the politicians. No matter how highly Charles regarded the imperial position, his main interests and policies were not centered in Germany. He was always a Duke of Burgundy, who added the highest crown of Christendom to several other titles. It’s strange! At the time of its major transformation, Germany chose a foreign prince as its leader, someone who saw its needs and tendencies as secondary. The religious movement, to be fair, wasn’t insignificant to the young emperor, but it was only important to him because it threatened the pope. War between Charles and France was unavoidable, and Italy was bound to be the main battlefield. Therefore, an alliance with the pope became increasingly essential to Charles's plans. He wanted to either pull Frederick away from Luther or satisfy the pope without upsetting Frederick. Many around him showed the usual cold indifference that politicians tend to have when it comes to religion regarding the matters of the Augustinian monk. “Let’s avoid extremes,” they said. “Let’s restrain Luther through negotiations and quiet him with some sort of concession. The right approach is to smother the sparks, not fan the flames. If we trap the monk, we win. By accepting a compromise, he will be banned and ruined. For appearances, some external reforms will be created; the Elector will be appeased, the pope will be won over, and things will return to normal.”
Such was the project of the confidential counsellors of the emperor. The doctors of Wittemberg seem to have divined this new policy. "They are trying in secret to gain men's minds," said Melancthon, "and are working in darkness."[395] John Glapio, the confessor of Charles V,—a man of rank, a skilful courtier, and an intriguing monk,—undertook the execution of the project. Glapio possessed the entire confidence of Charles, who (in accordance with Spanish manners) left to him almost entirely the management of matters relating to religion. As soon as Charles was appointed emperor, Leo X had assiduously endeavoured to gain Glapio by favours to which the confessor was strongly alive.[396] There was no way in which he could make a better return to the pope's kindness than by reducing heresy to silence, and he accordingly set about the task.[397]
Such was the plan of the emperor's trusted advisors. The doctors at Wittenberg seem to have figured out this new strategy. "They are secretly trying to sway people's opinions," Melancthon said, "and are operating in the shadows."[395] John Glapio, the confessor of Charles V—a man of significance, a skilled courtier, and a scheming monk—took on the execution of the plan. Glapio had Charles's complete trust, who (following Spanish customs) left him almost entirely in charge of religious matters. As soon as Charles became emperor, Leo X worked hard to win Glapio over with favors that the confessor was very receptive to.[396] There was no better way for him to repay the pope's kindness than by silencing heresy, so he got started on the task.[397]
One of the Elector's counsellors was Chancellor Gregory Bruck, or Pontanus, a man of great intelligence, decision, and courage, who knew more of theology than all the doctors, and whose wisdom was a match for the wiles of the monks at the emperor's court. Glapio, aware of the influence of the chancellor, asked an interview with him; and coming up to him as if he had been the friend of the Reformer, said to him, with an expression of good will, "I was delighted when, on reading the first productions of Luther, I found him a vigorous stock, which had pushed forth noble branches, and which gave promise to the Church of the most precious fruits. Several before him, it is true, made the same discoveries: still none but he has had the noble courage to publish the truth without fear. But when I read his book on the Captivity of Babylon, I felt as if beaten and bruised from head to foot." "I don't believe," added the monk, "that Luther acknowledges himself to be the author. I do not find in it either his style or his science...." After some discussion, the confessor continued, "Introduce me to the Elector, and I will, in your presence, explain to him the errors of Luther."
One of the Elector's advisors was Chancellor Gregory Bruck, or Pontanus, a man of great intelligence, determination, and bravery, who knew more about theology than all the scholars, and whose wisdom was equal to the cunning of the monks at the emperor's court. Glapio, aware of the chancellor's influence, requested a meeting with him; and approaching him as if he were a friend of the Reformer, said with a friendly demeanor, "I was thrilled when, after reading Luther's early works, I discovered he was a strong figure that had produced noble ideas, promising the Church the most valuable outcomes. It's true that several before him made similar discoveries; still, none had the noble courage to publish the truth without fear. But when I read his book on the Captivity of Babylon, I felt completely battered and beaten." "I don't believe," the monk added, "that Luther claims to be the author. I don't see his style or intellect in it...." After some discussion, the confessor continued, "Introduce me to the Elector, and I will, in your presence, explain to him Luther's errors."
The chancellor replied, "That the business of the Diet did not leave any leisure to his Highness, who, moreover, did not meddle with the affair." The monk was vexed when his request was denied. "By the way," said the chancellor, "as you say there is no evil without a remedy, will you explain yourself?"
The chancellor replied, "The work of the Diet didn't allow his Highness any free time, and besides, he didn't get involved in the matter." The monk was upset when his request was turned down. "Speaking of which," said the chancellor, "since you say there's no problem without a solution, could you elaborate?"
Assuming a confidential air, the confessor replied: "The emperor earnestly desires to see such a man as Luther reconciled to the Church, for his books (before the publication of his treatise, 'On the Captivity of Babylon,') rather pleased his Majesty.[398]... It must doubtless have been Luther's rage at the bull which dictated that work. Let him declare that he did not wish to disturb the peace of the Church, and the learned of all nations will rally around him.... Procure me an audience of his Highness."
Assuming a confidential tone, the confessor replied: "The emperor genuinely wants to see someone like Luther reconciled with the Church, as his books (before the release of his treatise, 'On the Captivity of Babylon') quite impressed His Majesty.[398]... It must surely have been Luther's anger at the bull that led to that work. If he declares that he doesn't wish to disrupt the peace of the Church, scholars from all nations will support him.... Please arrange an audience with His Highness."
The chancellor waited upon Frederick. The Elector being well aware that any kind of recantation was impossible replied, "Tell the confessor that I cannot comply with his request, but do you continue the conference."
The chancellor met with Frederick. The Elector, fully aware that any kind of retraction was impossible, replied, "Tell the confessor that I can’t agree to his request, but you keep the discussion going."
Glapio received this message with great demonstrations of respect; and changing the attack, said, "Let the Elector name some confidential persons to deliberate on this affair."
Glapio received this message with a lot of respect, and shifting the approach, said, "Let the Elector choose some trusted individuals to discuss this matter."
Chancellor.—"The Elector does not profess to defend the cause of Luther."
Chancellor.—"The Elector doesn't claim to support Luther's cause."
Confessor.—"Very well, do you at least discuss it with me.... Jesus Christ is my witness, that all I do is from love to the Church, and to Luther who has opened so many hearts to the truth."[399]
Confessor.—"Alright, do you at least want to talk about it with me.... Jesus Christ is my witness that everything I do is out of love for the Church, and for Luther, who has opened so many hearts to the truth."[399]
The chancellor having refused to undertake what was the Reformer's own task, was preparing to retire.
The chancellor, having declined to take on what was the Reformer’s own responsibility, was getting ready to leave.
"Stay!" said the monk to him.
"Stay!" the monk said to him.
Chancellor.—"What then is to be done?"
Chancellor.—"So, what should we do now?"
Confessor.—"Let Luther deny that he is the author of the Captivity of Babylon."
Confessor.—"Let Luther deny that he's the author of the Captivity of Babylon."
Chancellor.—"But the papal bull condemns all his other works."
Chancellor.—"But the papal bull condemns all his other works."
Confessor.—"It is because of his obstinacy. If he retracts his book, the pope, in the plenitude of his power, can easily restore him to favour. What hopes may we not cherish now that we have so excellent an emperor!..."
Confessor.—"It's because of his stubbornness. If he takes back his book, the pope can easily bring him back into favor with all his power. What hopes can we not have now that we have such an amazing emperor!..."
Perceiving that these words made some impression on the chancellor, the monk hastened to add—"Luther always insists on arguing from the Bible. The Bible! ... it is like wax, and may be stretched and bent at pleasure. I undertake to find in the Bible opinions still more extraordinary than those of Luther. He is mistaken when he converts all the sayings of Jesus into commandments." Then, wishing to work also on the fears of the chancellor, he added, "What would happen if to-day or to-morrow the Emperor were to try the effect of arms?... Think of it." He then allowed Pontanus to retire.
Seeing that his words had made an impact on the chancellor, the monk quickly added, “Luther always insists on arguing from the Bible. The Bible! ... it’s like wax, and can be stretched and twisted to fit any idea. I can find even more outrageous opinions in the Bible than Luther’s. He is wrong to turn all of Jesus' sayings into strict rules.” Then, hoping to play on the chancellor's fears, he added, “What would happen if today or tomorrow the Emperor decided to take military action?... Think about it.” He then let Pontanus leave.
The confessor prepared new snares. "After living ten years with him," said Erasmus, "we should not know him."
The confessor set up new traps. "After living with him for ten years," said Erasmus, "we still wouldn't recognize him."
"What an excellent book that of Luther's on 'Christian Liberty,'" said he to the chancellor when he saw him a few days after—"what wisdom! what talent! what intellect! it is just the style in which a true scholar ought to write. Let unexceptionable persons be chosen on either side, and let the pope and Luther refer to their judgment. No doubt Luther has the best of it on several articles.[400] I will speak to the emperor himself on the subject. Believe me, I do not say these things to you on my own suggestion. I have told the emperor that God will chastise him, as well as all the princes, if the Church, which is the spouse of Jesus Christ, is not washed from all the stains by which she is polluted. I have added that God himself had raised up Luther, and had ordered him to rebuke men sharply, using him as a rod to punish the sins of the world."[401]
"What an excellent book Luther wrote on 'Christian Liberty,'" he said to the chancellor when he saw him a few days later—"what wisdom! what talent! what intellect! It's exactly the way a true scholar should write. Let reputable individuals be chosen on both sides, and let the pope and Luther refer to their judgment. No doubt Luther has the upper hand on several points.[400] I'll speak to the emperor himself about it. Trust me, I'm not saying this just on my own initiative. I told the emperor that God will punish him, along with all the princes, if the Church, which is the bride of Jesus Christ, isn't cleansed of all the impurities that stain her. I added that God himself had raised up Luther and had commanded him to sharply criticize people, using him as a means to address the sins of the world."[401]
The chancellor hearing these words, (they convey the impressions of the time, and show what was then thought of Luther even by his opponents,) thought it right to express his astonishment that more respect was not shown to his master. "Deliberations on this subject," said he, "are daily carried on before the emperor, and the Elector is not invited to them. It seems strange that the emperor, who owes him some gratitude, excludes him from his counsels."
The chancellor, hearing these words (which reflect the sentiments of the era and illustrate how even Luther's opponents viewed him), felt it was important to express his surprise that his master wasn't being treated with more respect. "Discussions about this topic," he said, "are happening every day in front of the emperor, yet the Elector isn’t invited to them. It seems odd that the emperor, who owes him some gratitude, keeps him out of his decisions."
Confessor.—"I have been present only once at these deliberations, and I have heard the emperor resist the solicitations of the nuncios. Five years hence it will be seen how much Charles shall have done for the reformation of the Church."
Confessor.—"I've only been present at these discussions once, and I've heard the emperor push back against the requests from the envoys. In five years, we’ll see how much Charles has done for the church's reform."
"The Elector," replied Pontanus, "is ignorant of the emperor's intentions: He should be invited that he may hear them stated."
"The Elector," Pontanus replied, "doesn't know what the emperor is planning. He should be invited so he can hear it for himself."
The confessor answered with a deep sigh,[402] "I call God to witness how ardently I desire to see the Reformation of Christendom accomplished."
The confessor sighed deeply,[402] "I swear to God that I really want to see the Reformation of Christendom happen."
To lengthen out the affair, and meanwhile keep Luther's mouth shut, was all that Glapio had in view. At all events, Luther must not come to Worms. A dead man returning from the other world, and appearing in the midst of the Diet, would not have alarmed the nuncios, and monks, and whole host of the pope, so much as the sight of the Wittemberg doctor.
To drag things out and keep Luther quiet for the time being was all Glapio cared about. In any case, Luther could not come to Worms. The sight of a dead man coming back from the afterlife and appearing at the Diet wouldn’t have scared the nuncios, monks, and the entire entourage of the pope nearly as much as seeing the Wittenberg doctor.
"How many days does it take to come from Wittemberg to Worms?" asked the monk at the chancellor, affecting an air of indifference; then begging Pontanus to present his very humble respects to the Elector, he departed.
"How many days does it take to get from Wittenberg to Worms?" the monk asked the chancellor, trying to sound indifferent; then, asking Pontanus to send his sincere regards to the Elector, he left.
Such were the manœuvres of the courtiers. The firmness of Pontanus outwitted them. This upright man was immovable as a rock in all negotiations. Moreover, the Roman monks fell into the very snares which they were laying for their enemies. "The Christian," says Luther, in his figurative language, "is like a bird fastened near a trap. The wolves and foxes go round and round, and make a dart upon it to devour it, but fall into the pit and perish, while the timid bird remains alive. Thus holy angels guard us, and devouring wolves, hypocrites, and persecutors, cannot do us any harm."[403] Not only were the confessor's artifices unavailing, but, moreover, his admissions confirmed Frederick in the belief that Luther was in the right, and that it was his duty to defend him.
Such were the maneuvers of the courtiers. The determination of Pontanus outsmarted them. This honest man was as unyielding as a rock in all negotiations. Additionally, the Roman monks ended up caught in the very traps they set for their enemies. "The Christian," Luther says in his vivid style, "is like a bird trapped near a snare. The wolves and foxes circle around, trying to pounce on it to eat it, but they fall into the pit and perish, while the scared bird stays alive. In this way, holy angels protect us, and the ferocious wolves, hypocrites, and persecutors can’t harm us." [403] Not only were the confessor's schemes ineffective, but his admissions also strengthened Frederick's belief that Luther was correct, and that it was his duty to support him.
The hearts of men became every day more inclined towards the gospel. A prior of the Dominicans proposed that the emperor, the kings of France, Spain, England, Portugal, Hungary, and Poland, the pope, and the electors, should name representatives by whom the matter should be decided. "Never," said he, "has reference been made to the pope alone."[404] The general feeling became such, that it seemed impossible to condemn Luther without a hearing and regular conviction.[405]
The hearts of people became increasingly open to the gospel. A prior of the Dominicans suggested that the emperor, the kings of France, Spain, England, Portugal, Hungary, and Poland, the pope, and the electors should appoint representatives to decide the matter. "Never," he said, "has there been a reference made solely to the pope."[404] The overall sentiment grew to a point where it seemed impossible to condemn Luther without a proper hearing and official conviction.[405]
Aleander became uneasy, and displayed more than wonted energy. It is no longer merely against the Elector and Luther that he has to contend. He is horrified at the secret negotiations of the confessor, the proposition of the prior, the consent of Charles' ministers, and the extreme coldness of Roman piety among the most devoted friends of the pope, "so that one would have thought," says Pallavicini, "that a torrent of ice had passed over them."[406] He had at length received gold and silver from Rome, and held in his hand energetic briefs addressed to the most powerful personages in the empire.[407] Afraid that his prey might escape, he felt that now was the time to strike a decisive blow. He despatched the briefs, showered gold and silver with liberal hand, dealt out the most enticing promises, "and provided," says the Cardinal historian, "with this triple weapon, he strove anew to turn the wavering assembly of the electors in favour of the pope."[408] He laboured above all to encircle the emperor with his snares. Availing himself of the differences between the Belgian and the Spanish ministers, he laid close siege to the prince. All the friends of Rome, awakened by his voice, urged young Charles with solicitations. "Every day," wrote the Elector to his brother John, "deliberations are held against Luther: the demand is that he be put under the ban of the pope and the emperor; in all sorts of ways attempts are made to hurt him. Those who parade about with their red hats, the Romans with all their sect, labour in the task with indefatigable zeal."[409]
Aleander became uneasy and showed more energy than usual. It's no longer just the Elector and Luther he has to deal with. He's shocked by the secret negotiations of the confessor, the proposal from the prior, the agreement of Charles' ministers, and the extreme indifference of Roman piety among the pope's most devoted supporters, "so that one would have thought," says Pallavicini, "that a torrent of ice had passed over them."[406] He had finally received gold and silver from Rome and held powerful briefs in his hands addressed to the most influential figures in the empire.[407] Worried that his opportunity might slip away, he realized it was time to make a decisive move. He sent out the briefs, generously spread gold and silver, made tempting promises, "and provided," says the Cardinal historian, "with this triple weapon, he worked again to sway the unsteady assembly of the electors in favor of the pope."[408] He focused especially on surrounding the emperor with his traps. Taking advantage of the disagreements between the Belgian and Spanish ministers, he closely besieged the prince. All of Rome's supporters, stirred by his call, urged young Charles with their pleas. "Every day," the Elector wrote to his brother John, "meetings are being held against Luther: the demand is that he be placed under the ban of the pope and the emperor; all sorts of attempts are being made to harm him. Those who strut around with their red hats, the Romans along with their followers, toil at this task with tireless zeal."[409]
In fact, Aleander urged the condemnation of the Reformer with a violence which Luther terms "marvellous fury."[410] The apostate nuncio,[411] as Luther calls him, hurried by passion beyond the bounds of prudence, one day exclaimed, "If you mean, O Germans, to shake off the yoke of Roman obedience, we will act so, that, setting the one against the other, as an exterminating sword, you will all perish in your own blood."[412] "Such," adds the Reformer, "is the pope's method of feeding the sheep of Christ."
In fact, Aleander pushed for the Reformer to be condemned with a passion that Luther described as "marvellous fury."[410] The disloyal nuncio,[411] as Luther refers to him, let his emotions get the best of him and one day shouted, "If you Germans really want to throw off the Roman yoke, we will make it so that, by turning you against each other like an exterminating sword, you will all die in your own blood."[412] "This," the Reformer adds, "is the pope's way of caring for the flock of Christ."
Luther himself spoke a very different language. He made no demand of a personal nature. "Luther is ready," said Melancthon, "to purchase the glory and advancement of the gospel with his life."[413] But he trembled at the thought of the disasters of which his death might be the signal. He saw a people led astray, and perhaps avenging his martyrdom in the blood of his enemies, especially the priests. He recoiled from the fearful responsibility. "God," said he, "arrests the fury of his enemies; but should it break forth, ... a storm will burst upon the priests similar to that which ravaged Bohemia.... I am clear of it; for I have earnestly besought the German nobility to arrest the Romans by wisdom, and not by the sword.[414] To war upon priests, a body without courage and strength, is to war upon women and children."
Luther spoke a very different language. He made no personal demands. "Luther is ready," said Melancthon, "to sacrifice his life for the glory and progress of the gospel."[413] However, he was anxious about the disasters his death could trigger. He saw people being misled and possibly seeking revenge for his martyrdom against his enemies, especially the priests. He recoiled from the heavy responsibility. "God," he said, "holds back the fury of his enemies; but if it were to be unleashed... a storm will hit the priests like the one that devastated Bohemia... I am free of this, for I have earnestly urged the German nobility to confront the Romans wisely instead of with violence.[414] To wage war on priests, a group without courage and strength, is like waging war on women and children."
Charles did not withstand the solicitations of the nuncio. His Belgian and Spanish devotion had been developed by his preceptor Adrian, who afterwards occupied the pontifical throne. The pope had addressed a brief to him imploring him to give legal effect to the bull by an imperial edict. "In vain," said he to him, "shall God have invested you with the sword of supreme power if you do not employ it both against infidels, and also against heretics, who are far worse than infidels." One day, accordingly, in the beginning of February, at the moment when every thing was ready at Worms for a brilliant tournament, and after the emperor's tent had actually been erected, the princes who were preparing to attend the fête were summoned to repair to the imperial palace. There the papal bull was read to them, and they were presented with a stringent edict enjoining the execution of it. "If you have any thing better to propose," added the emperor in the usual form, "I am ready to hear you."
Charles couldn't resist the requests of the nuncio. His devotion to Belgium and Spain had been nurtured by his tutor Adrian, who later became pope. The pope had sent him a brief urging him to give legal force to the bull through an imperial decree. "It would be pointless," he told him, "for God to have given you the sword of supreme power if you don't use it against infidels as well as heretics, who are even worse than infidels." So, one day in early February, just when everything was set up in Worms for a grand tournament and the emperor's tent was already erected, the princes preparing to attend the celebration were called to the imperial palace. There, they had the papal bull read to them, and they received a strict edict requiring its enforcement. "If you have a better suggestion," the emperor added in his usual manner, "I'm ready to listen."
Animated debates then began in the diet. "The monk," wrote the deputy of one of the German free towns, "gives us a great deal to do. Some would like to crucify him, and I don't think that he will escape: the only thing to be feared is that he may rise again on the third day." The emperor had thought he would be able to publish his edict without opposition on the part of the States, but it was not so. Men's minds were not prepared, and it was necessary to gain the Diet. "Convince this assembly," said the young monarch to the nuncio. This was just what Aleander desired, and he received a promise of being admitted to the Diet on the 13th February.
Animated debates then started in the assembly. "The monk," wrote the representative from one of the German free towns, "is giving us a lot to deal with. Some want to crucify him, and I doubt he will escape: the only thing to worry about is that he might rise again on the third day." The emperor had thought he could issue his edict without facing any opposition from the States, but that wasn't the case. People's minds were not ready, and it was necessary to win over the assembly. "Convince this group," the young monarch told the nuncio. This was exactly what Aleander wanted, and he was promised entry to the assembly on February 13th.
Chap. III.
Aleander admitted to the Diet—Aleander's Address—Luther accused—Rome defended—Appeal to Charles against Luther—Effect of the Nuncio's Address.
Aleander addressed the Diet—Aleander's Speech—Luther faced accusations—Defense of Rome—Appeal to Charles regarding Luther—Effect of the Nuncio's Speech.
The nuncio prepared for the solemn audience. The task was important, but Aleander was worthy of it. The ambassador of the sovereign pontiff was surrounded with all the splendour of his office; he was moreover one of the most eloquent men of his age. The friends of the Reformation looked forward to the sitting not without fear. The Elector, under the pretext of indisposition, kept away, but he ordered some of his counsellors to attend and give heed to the nuncio's address.
The nuncio got ready for the important audience. It was a significant task, but Aleander was up for it. The ambassador of the pope was surrounded by all the grandeur of his position; he was also one of the most persuasive speakers of his time. The supporters of the Reformation were anxious about the meeting. The Elector pretended to be unwell and stayed away, but he instructed a few of his advisors to attend and pay attention to the nuncio's speech.
On the appointed day, Aleander proceeded to the hall of the assembled princes. Men's minds were excited; several thought of Annas or Caiaphas repairing to Pilate's judgment hall to demand the life of him who was "perverting the nation."[415] At the moment when the nuncio was about to step across the threshold, the officer of the Diet (says Pallavicini,) came briskly up to him, took him by the breast, and shoved him back."[416] "He was a Lutheran at heart," adds the Roman historian. If the story is true, it doubtless betrays strange passion in the officer, but at the same time, gives an idea of the powerful influence which Luther's doctrine had produced even on the doorkeepers of the Imperial Council. Proud Aleander, haughtily drawing himself up, moved on and entered the hall. Never had Rome been called to make her apology before so august an assembly. The nuncio placed before him the judicial documents which he judged necessary, the works of Luther, and the papal bulls. Silence being called, he spoke as follows:—
On the scheduled day, Aleander made his way to the hall where the princes had gathered. Tensions were high; many thought of Annas or Caiaphas going to Pilate's judgment hall to demand the life of the one who was "perverting the nation."[415] Just as the nuncio was about to step through the door, the officer of the Diet (as Pallavicini recounts) quickly approached him, grabbed him by the chest, and pushed him back."[416] "He was a Lutheran at heart," the Roman historian adds. If the tale is true, it certainly reflects strong emotions in the officer, and at the same time, indicates the significant impact Luther's teachings had even on the doorkeepers of the Imperial Council. Proud Aleander, standing tall, continued on and entered the hall. Never before had Rome been called to justify herself before such a distinguished assembly. The nuncio presented the judicial documents he deemed necessary, the works of Luther, and the papal bulls. Once silence was established, he began to speak as follows:—
"Most august emperor!—most puissant princes!—most excellent deputies! I come before you to maintain a cause for which my heart burns with the most ardent affection. The subject is the preservation on my master's head of that tiara which is reverenced by all, the maintenance of that papal throne, for which I am ready to give my body to the flames, could the monster who has engendered the growing heresy be consumed by the same pile, and mingle his ashes with mine.[417]
"Most esteemed emperor!—most powerful princes!—most excellent representatives! I stand before you to defend a cause for which my heart burns with deep passion. The issue is the preservation of the tiara on my master's head, which is respected by all, and the protection of that papal throne. I would willingly sacrifice myself to the flames if it meant that the monster who has spawned this growing heresy could be destroyed along with me, so that our ashes might be united." [417]
"No! the disagreement between Luther and Rome turns not on the interests of the pope. Luther's books are before me, and any man with eyes in his head may perceive that the holy doctrines of the Church are the object of his attack. He teaches that those only communicate worthily whose consciences are filled with sadness and confusion for their sins, and that there is no justification in baptism, without faith in the promise of which baptism is the pledge.[418] He denies the necessity of our works to obtain celestial glory. He denies that we have liberty and power to observe natural and divine law. He affirms that we sin necessarily in all our actions. Did ever the arsenal of hell send forth arrows better fitted to loose the reins of modesty?... He preaches the abolition of religious vows. Can more sacrilegious impiety be imagined?... What desolation will not be seen in the world when those who ought to be the leaven of the people shall have thrown aside their sacred vestments, abandoned the temples which re-echoed with their holy hymns, and plunged into adultery, incest, and dissoluteness!...
"No! The disagreement between Luther and Rome isn't about the pope's interests. Luther's books are right in front of me, and anyone with eyes can see that he is attacking the core teachings of the Church. He argues that only those who feel genuine sorrow and confusion for their sins can participate meaningfully in communion, and that baptism offers no justification without faith in the promise that baptism represents.[418] He claims that our works are unnecessary for achieving heavenly glory. He denies that we have the freedom and ability to follow natural and divine laws. He insists that we sin inevitably in all that we do. Has the arsenal of hell ever released arrows more suited to undermine decency?... He advocates for the elimination of religious vows. Could anything be more sacrilegious and impious?... What chaos will arise in the world when those who should inspire the people toss aside their sacred garments, abandon the temples that echoed with their holy songs, and dive into infidelity, incest, and moral decay!...
"Shall I enumerate all the crimes of this audacious monk? He sins against the dead, for he denies purgatory; he sins against heaven, for he says, he would not believe an angel from heaven; he sins against the Church, for he pretends that all Christians are priests; he sins against the saints, for he despises their venerable writings; he sins against the councils, for he terms that of Constance an assembly of demons; he sins against the world, for he forbids the punishment of death to be inflicted on any one who has not committed a mortal sin.[419] Some say he is a pious man ... I have no wish to attack his life, I would only remind this assembly that the devil deceives men by semblances of truth."
"Should I list all the wrongdoings of this bold monk? He sins against the dead by denying purgatory; he sins against heaven by saying he wouldn't believe an angel from heaven; he sins against the Church by claiming that all Christians are priests; he sins against the saints by dismissing their respected writings; he sins against the councils by calling the one in Constance a gathering of demons; he sins against the world by saying that no one should be punished with death unless they have committed a mortal sin.[419] Some say he’s a devout man ... I don’t want to criticize his life; I just want to remind this group that the devil tricks people with appearances of truth."
Aleander having spoken of the condemnation of purgatory by the council of Florence, laid the papal bull on this council at the feet of the emperor. The archbishop of Mentz took it up and handed it to the archbishops of Cologne and Treves, who received it reverently, and passed it to the other princes. The nuncio, having thus accused Luther, now proceeded to the second point, which was to justify Rome.
Aleander, after discussing the council of Florence's condemnation of purgatory, placed the papal bull from that council at the emperor's feet. The archbishop of Mentz picked it up and handed it to the archbishops of Cologne and Treves, who accepted it with respect and passed it on to the other princes. With this accusation against Luther made, the nuncio moved on to the second point, which was to defend Rome.
"At Rome," says Luther, "they promise one thing with the lip and do its opposite with the hand. If this fact is true, must not the inference be the very reverse of what he draws from it? If the ministers of a religion live conformably to its precepts it is a proof that it is false. Such was the religion of the ancient Romans.... Such is that of Mahomet, and that of Luther himself; but such is not the religion which the pontiffs of Rome teach us. Yes, the doctrine which they confess condemns all as faulty, several as culpable, and some even (I say it candidly) as criminal.[420]... This doctrine delivers their actions to the censure of men during their life, and to historical infamy after their death.[421] Now what pleasure, what advantage, I ask, could the pontiffs have found in inventing such a religion?
"At Rome," says Luther, "they say one thing and do the opposite. If that's true, shouldn't the conclusion be the exact opposite of what he claims? If the leaders of a religion live according to its teachings, it shows that it's false. That was the religion of the ancient Romans... That’s the case with Muhammad’s and even Luther’s religion; but that’s not the religion the popes of Rome teach us. Yes, their doctrine condemns everyone as flawed, some as guilty, and even a few (I say this openly) as criminals.[420]... This doctrine subjects their actions to criticism while they're alive and to historical shame after they die.[421] Now, what joy or benefit, I ask, could the popes possibly find in creating such a religion?"
"The Church, it will be said, was not governed in primitive times by Roman pontiffs—What must the conclusion be? With such arguments they might persuade men to live on acorns, and princesses to be their own washerwomen."
"The Church, it could be argued, wasn't run by Roman popes in early times—What should we conclude from that? With reasoning like this, they might convince people to live on acorns and princesses to do their own laundry."
But it was against his adversary, the Reformer, that the nuncio chiefly directed his attack. Full of indignation against those who said that he ought to be heard, he exclaimed, "Luther will not allow any one to instruct him." The pope summoned him to Rome, but he did not obey. The pope summoned him to Augsburg before his legate, and he would not appear without a safe-conduct from the emperor, i. e. until the hands of the legate were tied, and nothing left free to him but his tongue.[422] "Ah!" said Aleander, turning towards Charles V, "I supplicate your imperial majesty not to do what would issue in disgrace. Interfere not with a matter of which laics have no right to take cognisance. Do your own work. Let Luther's doctrine be interdicted throughout the empire: let his writings be everywhere burnt. Fear not: there is enough in the writings of Luther to burn a hundred thousand heretics.[423]... And what have we to fear?... The populace? Before the battle they seem terrible from their insolence; in the battle they are contemptible from their cowardice. Foreign princes? The king of France has prohibited Luther's doctrine from entering his kingdom, while the king of Great Britain is preparing a blow for it with his royal hand. You know what the feelings of Hungary, Italy, and Spain are, and none of your neighbours, how great soever the enmity he may bear to yourself, wishes you any thing so bad as this heresy. If the house of our enemy is adjacent to our own we may wish him fever, but not pestilence.... Who are all these Lutherans? A huddle of insolent grammarians, corrupt priests, disorderly monks, ignorant advocates, degraded nobles, common people misled and perverted. Is not the Catholic party far more numerous, able, and powerful? A unanimous decree of this assembly will enlighten the simple, give warning to the imprudent, determine those who are hesitating, and confirm the feeble.... But if the axe is not laid to the root of this poisonous shrub, if the fatal stroke is not given to it, then.... I see it covering the heritage of Jesus Christ with its branches, changing the vineyard of the Lord into a howling forest, transforming the kingdom of God into a den of wild beasts, and throwing Germany into the frightful state of barbarism and desolation to which Asia has been reduced by the superstition of Mahomet."
But it was primarily against his opponent, the Reformer, that the nuncio focused his attack. Filled with anger towards those who said he should be heard, he exclaimed, "Luther won’t let anyone teach him." The pope called him to Rome, but he didn’t comply. The pope called him to Augsburg before his legate, and he wouldn’t show up without a safe-conduct from the emperor, meaning the legate would have no power over him except to speak.[422] "Ah!" said Aleander, turning to Charles V, "I beseech your imperial majesty not to do anything that would lead to disgrace. Don’t get involved in a matter that should concern only the clergy. Focus on your own responsibilities. Let Luther's teachings be banned across the empire: let his writings be burned everywhere. Don’t worry: there’s enough in Luther’s writings to burn a hundred thousand heretics.[423]... And what do we have to fear?... The people? They seem terrifying before a fight due to their arrogance; in battle, they are pathetic due to their cowardice. Foreign rulers? The king of France has forbidden Luther’s teachings from entering his kingdom, while the king of Great Britain is preparing to strike against them with his royal authority. You know how Hungary, Italy, and Spain feel, and none of your neighbors, no matter how much they might hate you, wish anything as terrible as this heresy upon you. If our enemy’s house is next to ours, we might hope for a fever to afflict him, but not a plague... Who are all these Lutherans? A group of arrogant grammarians, corrupt priests, disorderly monks, ignorant lawyers, fallen nobles, and common people who have been misled and corrupted. Isn’t the Catholic side far more numerous, capable, and powerful? A unanimous decision from this assembly will enlighten the simple-minded, warn the foolish, guide those who are unsure, and strengthen the weak... But if we don’t cut down this poisonous plant, if we don’t strike it down, then... I see it spreading across the heritage of Jesus Christ, turning the Lord’s vineyard into a howling forest, transforming the kingdom of God into a den of wild beasts, and plunging Germany into the horrifying state of barbarism and ruin that Asia has suffered due to the superstition of Muhammad."
The nuncio ceased. He had spoken for three hours. The torrent of his eloquence had moved the assembly. "The princes shaken and alarmed," says Cochlœus, "looked at each other; and murmurs were soon heard from different quarters against Luther and his partisans."[424] Had the mighty Luther been present, had he been permitted to answer the discourse, had he, availing himself of the concession forced from the Roman orator by the remembrance of his old master, the infamous Borgia, been permitted to show that these arguments, designed to defend Rome, constituted her condemnation, and that the doctrine which gave proof of her iniquity was not invented by him, as the orator said, but was the very religion which Christ had given to the world, and which the reformation was establishing in its primitive lustre, could he have presented an exact and animated picture of the errors and abuses of the papacy, and shown how it had perverted the religion of Jesus Christ into an instrument of aggrandisement and rapine,—the effect of the nuncio's harangue would have been neutralised at the moment of its delivery; but nobody rose to speak. The assembly remained under the impression of the address, and, excited and carried away, showed themselves ready violently to eradicate the heresy of Luther from the soil of the empire.[425]
The nuncio stopped speaking. He had talked for three hours. The force of his speech had affected the assembly. "The princes, shaken and alarmed," says Cochlœus, "looked at each other; and murmurs soon began to arise from different corners against Luther and his followers." [424] If the powerful Luther had been there, if he had been allowed to respond to the speech, if he had taken advantage of the concession that the Roman speaker was forced to make by recalling his former master, the notorious Borgia, if he had been able to demonstrate that these arguments, meant to defend Rome, actually condemned it, and that the doctrine proving its wickedness was not created by him, as the speaker claimed, but was the true religion that Christ had given to the world, which the reformation was restoring to its original purity, if he could have presented a clear and passionate depiction of the errors and abuses of the papacy, showing how it had twisted the religion of Jesus Christ into a tool for power and plunder—then the impact of the nuncio's speech would have been countered right at that moment; but no one stood up to speak. The assembly remained influenced by the address and, energized and swept away, showed readiness to violently remove Luther's heresy from the empire's territory. [425]
Still the victory was only apparent. It was the will of God that Borne should have an opportunity of displaying her reasons and her strength. The greatest of her orators had addressed the assembled princes, and said all that Rome had to say. But the last effort of the papacy was the very thing which was destined to become, in regard to several of those who witnessed it, the signal of her defeat. If, in order to secure the triumph of truth, it is necessary to proclaim it aloud, so in order to secure the destruction of error, it is sufficient to publish it without reserve. Neither the one nor the other, in order to accomplish its course, should be concealed. The light judges all things.
Still, the victory was only superficial. It was God's will that Borne should have a chance to show her reasoning and strength. The greatest of her speakers had addressed the gathered princes and said everything that Rome had to say. But the papacy's final effort ended up being what caused the defeat for many who witnessed it. If it's necessary to loudly proclaim the triumph of truth, then to ensure the downfall of falsehood, simply revealing it openly is enough. Neither truth nor error should be hidden to fulfill their purpose. Light judges all things.
CHAP. IV.
Sentiments of the Princes—Speech of Duke George—Character of the Reformation—A hundred and one grievances—Charles yields—Tactics of Aleander—The Grandees of Spain—Luther's peace—Death and not Retractation.
The Princes' Opinions—Duke George's Speech—Nature of the Reformation—One hundred and one complaints—Charles yields—Aleander's Strategies—Spanish Nobility—Luther's Peace—Death over Retractation.
A few days sufficed to wear off these first impressions, as always happens when an orator shrouds the emptiness of his arguments in high sounding phrases.
A few days were enough to fade these first impressions, as usually happens when a speaker covers the lack of substance in their arguments with impressive words.
The majority of the princes were ready to sacrifice Luther, but none were disposed to sacrifice the rights of the empire and the redress of German grievances. There was no objection to give up the insolent monk who had dared to speak so loud, but it was wished to make the pope so much the more sensible of the justice of a reform which was demanded by the heads of the kingdom. Accordingly, it was the greatest personal enemy of Luther, Duke George of Saxony, who spoke most energetically against the encroachments of Rome. The grandson of Podiebrad, King of Bohemia, repulsed by the doctrines of grace which the Reformer proclaimed, had not yet abandoned the hope of seeing a moral and ecclesiastical reform, and what irritated him so much against the monk of Wittemberg, was that he had spoiled the whole affair by his despised doctrines. But now, seeing the nuncio sought to confound Luther and reform in one common condemnation, George suddenly stood up among the assembled princes, and, to the great astonishment of those who knew his hatred to the Reformer, said, "The Diet must not forget the grievances of which it complains against the Court of Rome. What abuses have crept into our states! The annats which the emperor granted freely for the good of Christendom now demanded as a debt—the Roman courtiers every day inventing new ordinances, in order to absorb, sell, and farm out ecclesiastical benefices—a multitude of transgressions winked at; rich offenders unworthily tolerated, while those who have no means of ransom are punished without pity—the popes incessantly bestowing expectancies and reversions on the inmates of their palace, to the detriment of those to whom the benefices belong—the commendams of abbeys and convents of Rome conferred on cardinals, bishops, and prelates, who appropriate their revenues, so that there is not one monk in convents which ought to have twenty or thirty—stations multiplied without end, and indulgence shops established in all the streets and squares of our cities, shops of St. Anthony, shops of the Holy Spirit, of St. Hubert, of St. Cornelius, of St. Vincent, and many others besides—societies purchasing from Rome the right of holding such markets, then purchasing from their bishop the right of exhibiting their wares, and, in order to procure all this money, draining and emptying the pockets of the poor—the indulgence, which ought to be granted solely for the salvation of souls, and which ought to be merited only by prayers, fastings, and the salvation of souls, sold at a regular price—the officials of the bishops oppressing those in humble life with penances for blasphemy, adultery, debauchery, the violation of this or that feast day, while, at the same time, not even censuring ecclesiastics who are guilty of the same crimes—penances imposed on the penitent, and artfully arranged, so that he soon falls anew into the same fault, and pays so much the more money.[426]... Such are some of the crying abuses of Rome; all sense of shame has been cast off, and one thing only is pursued ... money! money! Hence preachers who ought to teach the truth, now do nothing more than retail lies—lies, which are not only tolerated, but recompensed, because the more they lie, the more they gain. From this polluted well comes forth all this polluted water. Debauchery goes hand in hand with avarice. The officials cause women to come to their houses under divers pretexts, and strive to seduce them, sometimes by menaces, sometimes by presents; or, if they cannot succeed, injure them in their reputation.[427] Ah! the scandals caused by the clergy precipitate multitudes of poor souls into eternal condemnation! There must be a universal reform, and this reform must be accomplished by summoning a general Council. Wherefore, most excellent princes and lords, with submission I implore you to lose no time in the consideration of this matter." Several days after Aleander's address, Duke George produced the list of grievances which he had enumerated. This important document is preserved in the archives of Weimar.
The majority of the princes were willing to sacrifice Luther, but none wanted to compromise the rights of the empire or address Germany's grievances. While they had no problem giving up the insolent monk who dared to speak so boldly, they aimed to make the pope more aware of the need for reform, which was being demanded by the kingdom's leaders. Interestingly, it was Duke George of Saxony, Luther’s most personal enemy, who spoke most passionately against Rome's overreach. The grandson of Podiebrad, King of Bohemia, was frustrated by the notions of grace that the Reformer espoused, yet he still held out hope for moral and ecclesiastical reform. What bothered him most about the monk from Wittenberg was that he had ruined the whole situation with his despised teachings. However, seeing that the nuncio was trying to lump Luther and reform into one blanket condemnation, George abruptly stood up among the assembled princes and, to the astonishment of those who knew his animosity toward the Reformer, said, "The Diet must not overlook the grievances it has against the Court of Rome. Look at the abuses that have crept into our states! The annats that the emperor once granted freely for the good of Christendom are now being demanded as debts—the Roman courtiers inventing new rules every day to absorb, sell, and lease ecclesiastical benefices—a multitude of offenses overlooked; wealthy wrongdoers unreasonably tolerated while the less fortunate are punished mercilessly—the popes continually giving preferment and reversions to those in their palaces at the expense of those who really deserve the benefices—the commendams of abbeys and convents in Rome handed to cardinals, bishops, and prelates, who collect their revenues, leaving no monk in convents that should have twenty or thirty—endlessly multiplying positions, with indulgence shops popping up on every street corner of our cities, stalls of St. Anthony, shops of the Holy Spirit, and many others—groups buying from Rome the right to hold such markets, then buying from their bishop the right to sell their goods, and in the process, draining the pockets of the poor—the indulgences that should be granted solely for the salvation of souls and should only be earned through prayers and fasting being sold at fixed prices—the bishops' officials oppressing ordinary people with penances for blasphemy, adultery, debauchery, or for violating certain feast days, while, at the same time, failing to criticize clergy guilty of the same sins—penances placed on the penitent, set up so he quickly falls back into the same faults, paying even more money.[426]... These are just some of the glaring abuses of Rome; shame has entirely vanished, and only one thing is pursued ... money! money! That’s why preachers, who should be teaching the truth, are now just spreading lies—lies that are not only tolerated but rewarded, as the more they lie, the more they earn. From this tainted source flows all this impure water. Debauchery walks hand in hand with greed. Officials lure women to their homes under various pretenses and try to seduce them, sometimes with threats, sometimes with gifts; or, if they fail, they damage their reputations.[427] Ah! The scandals caused by the clergy drive countless souls into eternal damnation! A universal reform is necessary, and this reform must happen through a general Council. So, most esteemed princes and lords, I humbly urge you to give this matter your immediate attention." Several days later, Duke George presented the list of grievances he had outlined. This important document is kept in the archives of Weimar.
Luther had not spoken more forcibly against the abuses of Rome but he had done something more. The duke pointed out the evil, Luther had, along with the evil, pointed out both the cause and the cure. He had shown that the sinner receives the true indulgence, that which comes from God, solely by faith in the grace and merits of Jesus Christ, and this simple but powerful doctrine had overturned all the markets established by the priests. "How can one become pious?" asked he one day. "A Cordelier will reply, Put on a grey hood, and tie a cord round your waist. A Roman will reply, Hear mass, and fast. But a Christian will say, Faith in Christ alone justifies and saves. Before works we must have eternal life. After we are born anew, and made children of God by the word of grace, then it is we do good works."[428]
Luther had not just spoken strongly against the abuses of Rome; he had done something even more significant. The duke pointed out the problem, but Luther identified both the cause and the solution. He demonstrated that the sinner receives true indulgence—from God—only through faith in the grace and merits of Jesus Christ. This simple yet powerful doctrine turned the tables on all the markets established by the priests. "How can one become pious?" he asked one day. "A Cordelier might say, 'Put on a gray hood and tie a cord around your waist.' A Roman would say, 'Attend mass and fast.' But a Christian will say, 'Faith in Christ alone justifies and saves.' Before we can do good works, we must have eternal life. After we are reborn and made children of God by the word of grace, that's when we do good works."[428]
The duke spoke the language of a secular prince—Luther, the language of a reformer. The great sore of the Church was that she had devoted herself entirely to externals; had made all her works and her graces to consist of outward and material things. Indulgences had carried this to its extreme point, and pardon, the most spiritual thing in Christianity, had been purchased in shops like meat and drink. The great work of Luther consisted in his availing himself of this extreme point in the degeneracy of Christendom, in order to bring back the individual and the Church to the primitive source of life, and to re-establish the reign of the Holy Spirit within the sanctuary of the heart. Here, as often happens, the cure sprung out of the disease, and the two extremes met. Henceforward the Church, which during so many ages had been developed externally by ceremonies, observances, and human practices, began again to be developed within by faith, hope, and charity.
The duke spoke like a modern leader, channeling Luther, the reformer. The main issue with the Church was that it had focused entirely on outward appearances, making all its actions and virtues about material things. Indulgences took this to the extreme, and forgiveness, the most spiritual aspect of Christianity, was sold in stores like groceries. Luther's main achievement was using this extreme decline in Christian values to guide individuals and the Church back to the original source of life, restoring the influence of the Holy Spirit in people’s hearts. In this case, the solution emerged from the problem, and the two opposites converged. From then on, the Church, which for centuries had grown through rituals, rules, and human traditions, began to develop internally through faith, hope, and love.
The duke's address produced the greater effect from his opposition to Luther being well known. Other members of the Diet stated different grievances. The ecclesiastical princes themselves supported these complaints.[429] "We have a pontiff," said they, "who spends his life in hunting and pleasure. The benefices of Germany are given at Rome to huntsmen, domestics, grooms, stable boys, body servants, and other people of that class, ignorant unpolished people, without capacity, and entire strangers to Germany."[430] The Diet appointed a commission to collect all these grievances. Their number was found to be a hundred and one. A deputation, consisting of secular and ecclesiastical princes, presented the list to the emperor, imploring him to give redress, as he had engaged to do at his election. "How many Christian souls are lost?" said they to Charles V. "How many depredations, how much extortion, are caused by the scandals with which the spiritual chief of Christendom is environed? The ruin and dishonour of our people must be prevented. Therefore, we all, in a body, supplicate you most humbly, but also most urgently, to ordain a general reformation, to undertake it, and to accomplish it."[431] There was, at this time, in Christian society, an unseen power influencing princes and their subjects, a wisdom from above dragging forward even the adversaries of the Reformation, and preparing that emancipation whose appointed hour had at length arrived.
The duke's speech had a bigger impact because everyone knew he was against Luther. Other members of the Diet brought up various complaints. The church leaders backed these complaints. "We have a pope," they said, "who spends his life hunting and having fun. The benefits in Germany are given in Rome to hunters, servants, grooms, stable boys, bodyguards, and other people like them, who are uneducated and completely unfamiliar with Germany." The Diet set up a commission to gather all these grievances. They found there were a total of one hundred and one. A delegation made up of both secular and church leaders presented the list to the emperor, pleading with him to take action as he had promised to do at his election. "How many Christian souls are lost?" they asked Charles V. "How many robberies, how much extortion, are caused by the scandals surrounding the spiritual leader of Christendom? We must prevent the ruin and disgrace of our people. So, we all urgently ask you to implement a general reform, to take it on, and to see it through." At this time, in Christian society, there was an unseen force influencing both leaders and their followers, a higher wisdom pushing even the opponents of the Reformation, preparing for the liberation that was finally due.
Charles could not be insensible to these remonstrances of the empire. Neither himself nor the nuncio had expected them. His confessor had even denounced the vengeance of Heaven against him if he did not reform the Church. The emperor immediately withdrew the edict which ordered Luther's writings to be committed to the flames in every part of the empire, and in its place substituted a provisional order remitting these books to the magistrates.
Charles couldn't ignore these objections from the empire. Neither he nor the nuncio had anticipated them. His confessor had even warned that Heaven's wrath would fall upon him if he didn't reform the Church. The emperor quickly revoked the decree that called for Luther's writings to be burnt throughout the empire and instead issued a temporary order turning these books over to the magistrates.
This did not satisfy the assembly, who were desirous that the Reformer should appear. It is unjust, said his friends, to condemn Luther without having heard him, and without knowing from himself whether he is the author of the books which are proposed to be burnt. His doctrine, said his opponents, has so taken possession of men's hearts, that it is impossible to arrest their progress without hearing him. There need be no discussion with him. If he avows his writings, and refuses to retract them, then all of us, electors, princes, states of the whole empire, true to the faith of our ancestors, will, in a body, aid your majesty, by all the means in our power, in the execution of your decrees.[432]
This didn't satisfy the assembly, which wanted the Reformer to show up. His friends argued that it's unfair to judge Luther without hearing him out and knowing from him whether he actually wrote the books that are supposed to be burned. His opponents claimed that his teachings have captured people's hearts so much that it's impossible to stop their support without hearing from him. There's no need for a debate with him. If he stands by his writings and refuses to take them back, then all of us—electors, princes, and states of the whole empire, staying true to our ancestors' faith—will collectively support your majesty in enforcing your decisions, using all means at our disposal.[432]
Aleander, alarmed, dreading both the intrepidity of Luther and the ignorance of the princes, immediately set himself to the task of preventing the Reformer's compearance. He went from the ministers of Charles to the princes who were most disposed to favour the pope, and from these princes to the emperor himself.[433] "It is unlawful," said he, "to bring into question what the sovereign pontiff has decided. There will be no discussion with Luther, you say; but" continued he, "will not the power of this audacious man, will not the fire of his eye, and the eloquence of his tongue, and the mysterious spirit which animates him, be sufficient to excite some sedition?[434] Several already venerate him as a saint, and you everywhere meet with his portrait surrounded with a halo of glory, as round the head of the Blessed. If it is determined to cite him, at least let it be without giving him the protection of public faith."[435] These last words were meant to frighten Luther, or prepare his ruin.
Aleander, alarmed and fearing both Luther's boldness and the ignorance of the princes, quickly focused on stopping the Reformer from appearing. He went from Charles's ministers to the princes who were more inclined to support the pope, and from these princes to the emperor himself.[433] "It is unlawful," he said, "to question what the sovereign pontiff has decided. You say there will be no discussion with Luther; but," he continued, "won't the power of this daring man, the intensity in his eyes, the persuasiveness of his words, and the mysterious spirit that drives him be enough to spark some unrest?[434] Many already regard him as a saint, and you can find his portrait everywhere, surrounded by a glowing halo, just like that of the Blessed. If we are determined to summon him, at least do it without granting him the protection of public faith."[435] These last words were meant to intimidate Luther or set the stage for his downfall.
The nuncio found easy access to the grandees of Spain. In Spain, as in Germany, the opposition to the Dominican inquisitors was national. The yoke of the inquisition, which had been discontinued for a time, had just been re-established by Charles. A numerous party in the Peninsula sympathised with Luther; but it was not so with the great, who, on the banks of the Rhine, again met with what they had hated beyond the Pyrenees. Inflamed with the most violent fanaticism, they were bent on annihilating the new heresy. In particular, Frederick, Duke of Alba, was transported with rage whenever the subject of Reformation was mooted.[436] His wish would have been to wade in the blood of all its adherents. Luther had not yet been called to appear, and yet his mere name was already agitating all the grandees of Christendom then assembled at Worms.
The nuncio easily connected with the powerful figures in Spain. Similar to Germany, there was a national opposition to the Dominican inquisitors in Spain. The inquisition, which had been halted for a while, was recently reinstated by Charles. Many people in the Peninsula sympathized with Luther; however, the nobles, who had faced what they despised beyond the Pyrenees along the Rhine, were not among them. Fueled by intense fanaticism, they were determined to destroy the new heresy. In particular, Frederick, Duke of Alba, was filled with rage whenever the topic of Reformation came up.[436] He would have preferred to wade through the blood of all its supporters. Luther had not yet been summoned, yet his name alone was stirring up the grandees of Christendom gathered in Worms.
The man who was thus agitating the mighty of the earth was the only one who seemed to be at peace. The news from Worms were alarming. Even Luther's friends were frightened. "Nothing now is left us but our wishes and our prayers," wrote Melancthon to Spalatin. "Oh! if God would deign to ransom the safety of the Christian people by my blood."[437] But Luther was a stranger to fear. Shutting himself up in his peaceful cell, he sat down to meditate, applying to himself the words of Mary, the mother of our Lord, when she exclaimed, "My soul doth magnify the Lord, and my spirit hath rejoiced in God my Saviour. For he that is mighty has done for me great things, and holy is His name. He has shown strength with his arm; he hath put down the mighty from their seats, and exalted them of low degree."[438] The following are some of the thoughts which filled Luther's heart.... "'He that is mighty,' says Mary. Oh! how great boldness on the part of a young girl! With a single word she strikes all the strong with languor, all the mighty with feebleness, all the wise with folly, and all those whose name is glorious on the earth with ignominy, and lays at the feet of God all strength, all power, all wisdom, all glory.[439] 'His arm,' continues she, and she thus appeals to that power by which he acts of himself, and without the agency of his creatures—a mysterious power operating in secrecy and in silence, until his purpose is accomplished. Hence destruction comes before any one is aware of its approach; hence elevation, when no one is thinking of it. He leaves his children in oppression and feebleness, so that each of them says to himself, 'We are all lost!' Then, however, they are most strong. For it is where the power of man ends that the power of God begins. Only let faith wait upon Him.... And, on the other hand, God permits his adversaries to increase their power and grandeur. He withdraws from them the aid of his strength, and leaves them to be inflated with their own.[440] He leaves them void of his eternal wisdom, and lets them fill themselves with their wisdom of a day. And while they rise up in the greatness of their might, the arm of the Lord keeps back, and their work ... vanishes like a soap bubble when it bursts in the air."
The man shaking up the powerful on earth was the only one who seemed calm. The news from Worms was disturbing. Even Luther's friends were scared. "All we have left now are our wishes and prayers," Melancthon wrote to Spalatin. "Oh! if God would just allow my blood to save the safety of the Christian people." But Luther didn’t know fear. Isolating himself in his quiet cell, he sat down to reflect, applying to himself the words of Mary, the mother of our Lord, when she exclaimed, "My soul magnifies the Lord, and my spirit rejoices in God my Savior. For he who is mighty has done great things for me, and holy is His name. He has shown strength with His arm; He has brought down the mighty from their thrones and lifted up the humble." The following are some thoughts that filled Luther's heart.... "'He who is mighty,' says Mary. Oh! what great boldness from a young girl! With a single word, she makes all the strong weak, all the mighty feeble, all the wise foolish, and all those who are famous on earth disgraced, placing all strength, power, wisdom, and glory at God's feet. 'His arm,' she continues, appealing to that power by which He acts independently, without relying on His creations—a mysterious force working in secret and silence until His aim is achieved. Thus, destruction often arrives before anyone even realizes it's near; and so does elevation, when no one sees it coming. He allows His children to endure oppression and weakness, making each of them think, 'We are all doomed!' Yet, in that moment, they are strongest. It's where human strength ends that God's power begins. Just let faith wait on Him.... On the flip side, God lets His enemies grow in power and greatness. He pulls back His strength from them and allows them to become puffed up with their own. He leaves them without His eternal wisdom, letting them fill themselves with their temporary wisdom. And while they rise in their might, the Lord’s arm holds back, and their efforts ... vanish like a soap bubble when it pops in the air."
It was on the 10th of March, at the moment when his name was filling the imperial city with alarm, that Luther finished this exposition of the Magnificat.
It was on March 10th, just as his name was causing a stir throughout the imperial city, that Luther completed this explanation of the Magnificat.
He was not allowed to remain tranquil in his retreat. Spalatin, in conformity to the orders of the Elector, sent him a note of the articles of which it was proposed to demand a retractation from him. A retractation after the refusal at Augsburg![441]... "Fear not," he wrote to Spalatin, "that I will retract a single syllable, since their only argument is to insist that my writings are opposed to the rites of what they call the Church. If the Emperor Charles summon me merely for the purpose of retracting, I will answer him that I will remain here; and it will be just the same thing as if I had been to Worms and come back again. But if, on the contrary, the emperor chooses to summon me in order that I may be put to death, I am ready to repair at his call; for, with the help of Christ, I will not desert his word on the battle-field. I know it: these bloody men will never rest till they have deprived me of life. Oh, that none but papists would become guilty of my blood!"
He wasn't allowed to stay calm in his retreat. Spalatin, following the Elector's orders, sent him a note detailing the articles from which they intended to demand a retraction from him. A retraction after the refusal at Augsburg![441]... "Don’t worry," he wrote to Spalatin, "I won’t retract a single word, since their only argument is to claim that my writings contradict the practices of what they call the Church. If Emperor Charles summons me just to demand a retraction, I will tell him that I will remain here; it would be the same as if I had gone to Worms and returned. But if the emperor decides to summon me with the intent to have me executed, I’m ready to go at his call; with Christ’s help, I won’t abandon His word on the battlefield. I know it: these ruthless men will never rest until they have taken my life. Oh, if only papists would be responsible for my blood!"
CHAP. V.
Will a Safe-conduct be given?—Safe-conduct—Will Luther go?—Holy Thursday at Rome—The Pope and Luther.
Will a travel pass be issued?—Travel pass—Is Luther leaving?—Holy Thursday in Rome—The Pope and Luther.
At length the emperor decided. The appearance of Luther before the Diet seemed the only thing fitted to bring this affair which occupied the whole empire, to some kind of termination. Charles V resolved to cite him, but without giving him a safe-conduct. Here Frederick again began to act as his protector. Every body saw the danger which threatened the Reformer. Luther's friends, says Cochlœus, were afraid that he would be delivered up to the pope, or that the emperor himself would put him to death as unworthy, on account of his obstinate heresy, that any faith should be kept with him.[442] On this subject there was a long and keen debate among the princes.[443] Struck, at last, with the general agitation then prevailing almost throughout the whole population of Germany, and afraid that, as Luther passed along, some sudden tumult or dangerous sedition might break forth,[444] (doubtless in favour of the Reformer,) the princes deemed it wise to calm men's minds on his account, and not only the emperor, but also the Elector of Saxony, Duke George, and the Landgrave of Hesse, through whose states he had to pass, each gave him a safe-conduct.
Eventually, the emperor made a decision. Bringing Luther before the Diet seemed like the only way to wrap up this matter that was consuming the entire empire. Charles V decided to summon him, but without offering him a safe-conduct. This is where Frederick stepped in again as his protector. Everyone recognized the danger facing the Reformer. Luther's friends, according to Cochlœus, feared that he would be handed over to the pope, or that the emperor would execute him for his stubborn heresy, believing that no promises should be kept with him.[442] There was a long and intense debate among the princes on this issue.[443] Ultimately, struck by the widespread unrest almost throughout all of Germany, and worried that as Luther traveled, a sudden riot or dangerous uprising could erupt,[444] (most likely in support of the Reformer,) the princes decided it was wise to calm people's fears regarding him. Therefore, not only the emperor but also the Elector of Saxony, Duke George, and the Landgrave of Hesse, through whose territories he had to travel, each granted him a safe-conduct.
On the 6th March, 1521, Charles V signed the following summons addressed to Luther:—
On March 6, 1521, Charles V signed the following summons directed to Luther:—
"Charles, by the grace of God, elected Roman Emperor, always Augustus, etc., etc.
"Charles, by the grace of God, elected Roman Emperor, always Augustus, etc., etc."
THE SAFE-CONDUCT."Honourable, dear, and pious! We, and the States of the Holy Empire, having resolved to make an inquest touching the doctrine and the books which you have published for some time past have given you, to come here and return to a place of safety, our safe-conduct and that of the empire here subjoined. Our sincere desire is that you immediately prepare for this journey, in order that, in the space of twenty-one days mentioned in our safe-conduct you may be here certainly, and without fail. Have no apprehension of either injustice or violence. We will firmly enforce our safe-conduct under-written, and we expect that you will answer to our call. In so doing you will follow our serious advice.
"Honorable, dear, and devout! We, together with the States of the Holy Empire, have decided to examine the doctrine and the books you've recently published. We're granting you safe passage to come here and return to a secure location, as outlined in the attached safe-conduct. We sincerely hope you will prepare for this journey right away so that within the twenty-one days mentioned in our safe-conduct, you will definitely be here without fail. Do not fear any injustice or violence. We will uphold the safe-conduct provided, and we expect you to accept our invitation. By doing so, you will be following our serious advice."
"Given at our imperial city of Worms, the sixth day of March, in the year of our Lord, 1521, and in the second of our reign.
"Given in our imperial city of Worms, on the sixth day of March, in the year of our Lord 1521, and in the second year of our reign."
"Charles.
"Charles.
"By order of my Lord the Emperor, with his own hand, Albert, Cardinal of Mentz, Arch-chancellor. Nicolas Zwyl."
"By the command of my Lord the Emperor, written personally, Albert, Cardinal of Mentz, Arch-chancellor. Nicolas Zwyl."
The safe-conduct enclosed in this letter bore the following address:—"To the honourable, our dear and pious doctor Martin Luther, of the order of the Augustins."
The safe-conduct included in this letter had the following address:—"To the honorable, our dear and devout doctor Martin Luther, of the Augustinian order."
It began thus:—
It started like this:—
"We, Charles, fifth of the name, by the grace of God, elected Roman Emperor, always Augustus, King of Spain, of the Two Sicilies, of Jerusalem, Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, etc., Arch-Duke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Count of Hapsburg, Flanders, the Tyrol, etc., etc."
"We, Charles V, by the grace of God, elected Roman Emperor, always Augustus, King of Spain, of the Two Sicilies, of Jerusalem, Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, and so on, Arch-Duke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Count of Hapsburg, Flanders, the Tyrol, and more."
Then the king of so many nations giving to wit that he had summoned before him an Augustin monk named Luther, ordered all princes, lords, magistrates, and others, to respect the safe-conduct which he gave him, under pain of punishment by the emperor and the empire.[445]
Then the king of many nations, aware that he had called before him an Augustinian monk named Luther, ordered all princes, lords, magistrates, and others to honor the safe-conduct he provided him, or face punishment from the emperor and the empire.[445]
Thus the emperor gave the title of "dear, honourable, and pious," to a man at whose head the Church had launched her excommunication. It had been wished, in the drawing up of the document, to remove all distrust from the mind of Luther and his friends. Gaspard Sturm was appointed to carry this message to the Reformer, and accompany him to Worms. The Elector, dreading the public indignation, wrote, on the 12th March, to the magistrates of Wittemberg to see to the safety of the emperor's officer, and, if deemed necessary, to provide him with a guard. The herald set out.
Thus, the emperor conferred the title of "dear, honorable, and pious" on a man whom the Church had excommunicated. In drafting the document, the intention was to eliminate any mistrust from Luther and his associates. Gaspard Sturm was chosen to deliver this message to the Reformer and accompany him to Worms. The Elector, fearing public outrage, wrote on March 12th to the magistrates of Wittenberg to ensure the safety of the emperor's officer and, if necessary, to provide him with a guard. The herald departed.
Thus the designs of God were accomplished. God was pleased to set upon a hill that light which he had kindled in the world, and emperors, kings, and princes, without knowing it, were forthwith in motion to execute his design. It is easy for him to exalt the lowest to the highest. An act of his power suffices to raise the humble child of Mansfeld from an obscure hut to the palace where kings are assembled. In regard to Him, there is nothing small, nothing great. When he wills it, Charles V and Luther meet face to face.
Thus, God's plans were carried out. He chose to place on a hill the light He had ignited in the world, and emperors, kings, and princes, unknowingly, were immediately set in motion to fulfill His purpose. It's simple for Him to elevate the lowest to the highest. Just one act of His power can lift the humble child of Mansfeld from a tiny hut to the palace where kings gather. For Him, there is nothing too small or too great. When He decides, Charles V and Luther come face to face.
But will Luther obey this citation? His best friends were in doubt. The Elector on the 25th of March wrote his brother—"Doctor Martin is summoned hither, but I know not if he will come. I cannot augur any good of it." Three weeks later (16th April), this excellent prince seeing the danger increase wrote anew to Duke John. "There is a proclamation against Luther. The cardinals and bishops attack him with much severity. May God turn all to good. Would to God I could procure him an equitable reception!"[446]
But will Luther follow this summons? His closest friends were uncertain. On March 25th, the Elector wrote to his brother, "Doctor Martin has been called here, but I’m not sure if he will come. I can’t predict anything good will come of it." Three weeks later, on April 16th, this great prince, seeing the situation worsening, wrote again to Duke John, "There’s a proclamation against Luther. The cardinals and bishops are attacking him quite harshly. May God turn everything to good. I wish I could get him a fair reception!"[446]
While these things were passing at Worms and Wittemberg, the Papacy was reiterating its blows. On the 28th March, the Thursday before Easter, Rome resounded with a solemn excommunication. At this season it is usual to publish the dreadful bull in Cœna Domini, which is only a long series of imprecations. On that day, the avenues to the church in which the sovereign pontiff was to officiate were occupied at an early hour by the papal guards, and by a crowd of people who had flocked from all parts of Italy to receive the benediction of the holy father. The square in front of the Basilisk was decorated with branches of laurel and myrtle; wax tapers were burning on the balcony of the church, and the ostensorium was raised upon it. All at once bells make the air re-echo with solemn sounds; the pope, clothed in his pontifical robes, and carried in a chair, appears on the balcony; the people kneel, all heads are uncovered, the colours are lowered, the muskets grounded, and a solemn silence reigns. Some moments after, the pope slowly stretches out his hands, raises them towards heaven, then bends them slowly towards the ground, making the sign of the cross. This movement is repeated thrice, and the air echoes anew with the ringing of bells, which intimate the pope's benediction to the surrounding country; then priests advance with impetuosity, holding lighted torches, which they reverse, brandish, and throw about with violence, to represent the flames of hell; the people are moved and agitated, and the words of malediction are heard from the height of the temple.[447]
While these events were unfolding in Worms and Wittenberg, the Papacy was striking back. On March 28th, the Thursday before Easter, Rome was loud with a formal excommunication. During this time, it's common to announce the grim bull in Cœna Domini, which is just a long list of curses. On that day, the paths to the church where the pope was to lead the service were taken over early by papal guards and a crowd of people who had come from all over Italy to receive the blessing of the holy father. The square in front of the Basilica was adorned with branches of laurel and myrtle; wax candles were lit on the church's balcony, and the ostensorium was raised there. Suddenly, bells filled the air with their solemn ringing; the pope, dressed in his ceremonial robes and carried in a chair, appeared on the balcony. The crowd knelt, everyone removed their hats, flags were lowered, guns were placed on the ground, and a deep silence fell. After a moment, the pope slowly raised his hands, lifting them toward heaven before lowering them to the ground, making the sign of the cross. This gesture was repeated three times, and the bells rang out again, signaling the pope's blessing to the surrounding area; then priests rushed forward, holding lit torches that they turned upside down, waved, and tossed around with force, symbolizing the flames of hell. The crowd was stirred and moved, and the curses rang out from the height of the temple.[447]
When Luther was informed of this excommunication, he published the tenor of it, with some remarks, written in that caustic style in which he so much excelled. Although this publication did not appear till afterwards, we will here give some idea of it. Let us hear the high priest of Christendom on the balcony of his Basilisk, and the monk of Wittemberg answering him from the bosom of Germany.[448]
When Luther learned about his excommunication, he published the details along with some comments, written in his signature sharp style. Even though this publication came out later, we'll give you a sense of it here. Let's listen to the pope of Christendom from his lofty perch, and the monk from Wittenberg responding from the heart of Germany.[448]
There is something characteristic in the contrast of the two voices.
There’s something unique about the contrast between the two voices.
The Pope.—"Leo Bishop."
The Pope.—"Pope Leo."
Luther.—"Bishop ... as a wolf is a shepherd; for the bishop ought to exhort according to the doctrine of salvation, not belch out imprecations and maledictions."
Luther.—"Bishop ... like a wolf in sheep's clothing; because a bishop should encourage based on the teachings of salvation, not spew out curses and condemnations."
The Pope.—"... Servant of all the servants of God...."
The Pope.—"... Servant of everyone who serves God...."
Luther.—"In the evening when we are drunk; but in the morning we call ourselves Leo lord of all the lords."
Luther.—"In the evening when we’re drunk; but in the morning we call ourselves the master of all the masters."
The Pope.—"The Roman bishops, our predecessors, have been wont, on this festival, to employ the weapons of righteousness."...
The Pope.—"The Roman bishops, our predecessors, have usually, on this festival, used the tools of righteousness."...
Luther.—"Which, according to you, are excommunication and anathema, but according to St. Paul, patience, meekness, and charity." (2 Cor. vi, 7.)
Luther.—"You call them excommunication and anathema, but according to St. Paul, they are patience, meekness, and charity." (2 Cor. vi, 7.)
The Pope.—"According to the duty of the apostolic office, and to maintain the purity of Christian faith."
The Pope.—"In line with the responsibilities of the apostolic office, and to uphold the integrity of Christian faith."
Luther.—"In other words, the temporal possessions of the pope."
Luther.—"In other words, the pope's earthly possessions."
The Pope.—"And its unity, which consists in the union of the members with Christ their head ... and with his vicar...."
The Pope.—"And its unity, which is the connection of the members with Christ their head ... and with his representative...."
Luther.—"For Christ is not sufficient; one more than he is necessary."
Luther.—"Christ isn't enough; we need something beyond him."
The Pope.—"To guard the holy communion of the faithful, we follow the ancient custom, and excommunicate and anathematise on the part of God Almighty the Father."
The Pope.—"To protect the sacred communion of the faithful, we uphold the traditional practice and excommunicate and curse on behalf of God Almighty the Father."
Luther.—"Of whom it is said, 'God sent not his Son into the world to condemn the world.'" (John, iii, 17.)
Luther.—"Of whom it is said, 'God didn't send his Son into the world to judge the world.'" (John, iii, 17.)
The Pope.—"... And the Son and the Holy Spirit, and according to the power of the Apostles Peter and Paul ... and our own...."
The Pope.—"... And the Son and the Holy Spirit, and based on the authority of the Apostles Peter and Paul ... and our own...."
Luther.—"And myself! says the ravenous wolf, as if the power of God were too feeble without him."
Luther.—"And me! says the hungry wolf, as if God’s power wasn’t strong enough without him."
The Pope.—"We curse all heretics,—the Garasi,[449] the Patarini, the Pauperes of Lyon, the Arnoldists, the Speronists, the Passagians, the Wickliffites, the Hussites, the Fraticelli."
The Pope.—"We condemn all heretics—the Garasi,[449] the Patarini, the Poor Folk of Lyon, the Arnoldists, the Speronists, the Passagians, the Wycliffites, the Hussites, the Fraticelli."
Luther.—"For they wished to possess the Holy Scriptures, and insisted that the pope should be sober and preach the Word God."
Luther.—"Because they wanted to have the Holy Scriptures, and insisted that the pope should be serious and preach the Word of God."
The Pope.—"And Martin Luther recently condemned by us for a similar heresy, as well as all his adherents, and all, whosoever they be, that show him any favour."
The Pope.—"And Martin Luther, whom we recently condemned for a similar heresy, along with all his supporters, and anyone else who shows him any favor."
Luther.—"I thank thee, most gracious Pontiff, for condemning me in common with all these Christians. I count it an honour to have my name proclaimed at Rome during the feast in so glorious a manner, and carried over the world with the names of all those humble confessors of Jesus Christ."
Luther.—"I thank you, most gracious Pope, for condemning me along with all these Christians. I consider it an honor to have my name announced in Rome during the festival in such a glorious way, and to have it spread across the world alongside the names of all those humble confessors of Jesus Christ."
The Pope.—"Likewise we excommunicate and curse all pirates and corsairs...."
The Pope.—"Similarly, we excommunicate and condemn all pirates and privateers...."
Luther.—"Who then is the greatest of pirates and corsairs if it be not he who robs souls, chains them, and puts them to death?"
Luther.—"Who, then, is the greatest pirate and corsair if not the one who steals souls, enslaves them, and brings about their death?"
The Pope.—"Particularly those who sail upon our sea."
The Pope.—"Especially those who travel on our sea."
Luther.—"Our SEA!... Saint Peter, our predecessor, said, 'Silver and gold have I none,' (Acts, iii, 6.) Jesus Christ said, 'The kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over them; but it shall not be so with you.' (Luke, xxii, 25.) But if a waggon loaded with hay must, on meeting with a drunken man, give way to him, à fortiori must St. Peter and Jesus Christ himself give way to the pope."
Luther.—"Our SEA!... Saint Peter, our predecessor, said, 'I don't have silver or gold,' (Acts, iii, 6.) Jesus Christ said, 'The kings of the Gentiles dominate over them; but that shouldn't be how it is for you.' (Luke, xxii, 25.) But if a wagon full of hay has to give way to a drunk man, then, even more so, must St. Peter and Jesus Christ himself yield to the pope."
The Pope.—"Likewise we excommunicate and curse all who falsify our bulls, and our apostolic letters...."
The Pope.—"We also excommunicate and condemn everyone who falsifies our official documents and our apostolic letters...."
Luther.—"But the letters of God, the Scriptures of God, all the world may condemn and burn."
Luther.—"But the letters of God, the Scriptures of God, the whole world may judge and destroy."
The Pope.—"Likewise we excommunicate and curse all who detain provisions which are on the way to Rome...."
The Pope.—"We also excommunicate and condemn anyone who holds back supplies meant for Rome...."
Luther.—"He barks and bites like a dog threatened to be deprived of his bone."[450]
Luther.—"He growls and snaps like a dog afraid of losing his bone."[450]
The Pope.—"Likewise we condemn and curse all who keep back judicial rights, fruits, tithes, revenues, appertaining to the clergy."
The Pope.—"We also condemn and denounce anyone who withholds judicial rights, offerings, tithes, and income that belong to the clergy."
Luther.—"For Jesus Christ has said, 'Whosoever will sue thee at the law and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also.' (Matt. v, 40.) and this is our commentary upon the passage."
Luther.—"For Jesus Christ said, 'If anyone takes you to court and wants to take your shirt, give them your coat, too.' (Matt. v, 40.) and this is our commentary on the passage."
The Pope.—"Whatever be their station, dignity, order, power, or rank; be they even bishops or kings...."
The Pope.—"No matter their position, status, order, power, or rank; whether they are bishops or kings...."
Luther.—"For 'There will arise false teachers among you who will despise dominion and speak evil of dignities,' saith the Scripture. (Jude, 8.)"
Luther.—"For 'False teachers will arise among you who will reject authority and speak against those in positions of power,' says the Scripture. (Jude, 8.)"
The Pope.—"Likewise we condemn and curse all those who in any kind of way attack the city Rome, the kingdom of Sicily, the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, the patrimony of St. Peter in Tuscany, the duchy of Spoleto, the margravate of Ancona, the Campagna, the cities of Ferrara and Benevento, or any other city or country appertaining to the Church of Rome."
The Pope.—"We also condemn and denounce anyone who attacks the city of Rome, the kingdom of Sicily, the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, the property of St. Peter in Tuscany, the duchy of Spoleto, the margraviate of Ancona, the Campagna, the cities of Ferrara and Benevento, or any other city or region that belongs to the Church of Rome."
Luther.—"O, Peter, poor fisherman! where did you get Rome and all those kingdoms? I salute you, Peter, king of Sicily! ... and fisherman at Bethsaida!"
Luther.—"Oh, Peter, poor fisherman! Where did you get Rome and all those kingdoms? I greet you, Peter, king of Sicily! ... and fisherman from Bethsaida!"
The Pope.—"We excommunicate and curse all chancellors, counsellors, parliaments, procurators, governors, officials, bishops, and others who oppose our letters of exhortation, invitation, prohibition, mediation, execution, etc."
The Pope.—"We excommunicate and condemn all chancellors, advisers, parliaments, representatives, governors, officials, bishops, and anyone else who goes against our letters of encouragement, invitation, prohibition, mediation, execution, etc."
Luther.—"For the holy see seeks only to live in idleness, magnificence, and debauchery, to command, storm, deceive, lie, insult, and commit all sorts of wickedness in peace and safety...."
Luther.—"Because the Vatican only wants to live in luxury, splendor, and excess, to rule, bully, deceive, lie, insult, and carry out all kinds of wrongdoing without fear or consequence...."
"O Lord, arise! it is not as the papists pretend. Thou hast not forsaken us, nor is thy favour turned away from us."
"O Lord, rise up! It's not like the Catholics say. You haven't abandoned us, and your favor hasn't been taken away from us."
So spake Leo X at Rome, and Luther at Wittemberg.
So spoke Leo X in Rome, and Luther in Wittenberg.
The pontiff having finished his anathemas, the parchment on which they were written was torn in pieces, and the fragments thrown to the people. Immediately there was a great rush among the crowd, all pressing forward, and striving to get hold of a morsel of the terrible bull.
The pope, having finished his curses, had the parchment they were written on ripped into pieces, and the scraps thrown to the crowd. Instantly, there was a massive surge among the people, all pushing forward and trying to grab a piece of the infamous document.
Such were the holy relics which the papacy offered to her faithful on the eve of the great day of grace of expiation. The multitude soon dispersed, and the vicinity of the Basilisk resumed its wonted stillness. Let us return to Wittemberg.
Such were the holy relics that the papacy presented to its followers on the eve of the significant day of grace and atonement. The crowd quickly dispersed, and the area around the Basilisk returned to its usual quietness. Let's go back to Wittemberg.
CHAP. VI.
Luther's courage—Bugenhagen at Wittemberg—Persecutions in Pomerania—Melancthon wishes to set out with Luther—Amsdorff—Schurff—Suaven—Hütten to Charles V.
Luther's courage—Bugenhagen in Wittenberg—Persecutions in Pomerania—Melancthon is thinking of leaving with Luther—Amsdorff—Schurff—Suaven—Hütten to Charles V.
It was the 24th of March. The imperial herald, Gaspard Sturm, having at length passed the gates of the town where Luther was, presented himself before the doctor, and put the summons of Charles V into his hands. A grave and solemn moment for the Reformer! All his friends were in consternation. No prince, not even excepting Frederick the Wise, had as yet declared in his favour. Knights, it is true, uttered menaces, but the mighty Charles despised them. Still Luther was not troubled. "The papists," said he, on seeing the anguish of his friends, "have no wish for my arrival at Worms, they only wish my condemnation and death.[451] No matter, pray not for me, but for the Word of God. Before my blood is cold, thousands throughout the world will be called to answer for having shed it. The most holy adversary of Christ, the father, master, and generalissimo of homicides, insists on having my life. Amen! Let the will of the Lord be done. Christ will give me his Spirit to vanquish these ministers of error. I despise them during my life, and will triumph over them by my death.[452] They are doing all they can at Worms, to compel me to retract. Here then will be my retractation: I once said, that the pope was the vicar of Christ; now, I say that he is the enemy of the Lord, and the apostle of the devil." And when he learned that all the pulpits of the Franciscans were resounding with imprecations and maledictions against him, he exclaimed, "O what wondrous joy it gives me!"[453] He knew that he had done the will of God, and that God was with him; why then should he not set out boldly? This purity of intention, this liberty of conscience is a hidden power of incalculable might which never fails the servant of God, and which makes him more invincible than helmets and armied hosts could make him.
It was March 24th. The imperial herald, Gaspard Sturm, finally made his way through the town where Luther was and presented himself to the doctor, handing him the summons from Charles V. It was a serious and weighty moment for the Reformer! All his friends were in shock. No prince, not even Frederick the Wise, had yet spoken in his favor. Knights had threatened him, but the powerful Charles ignored them. Still, Luther remained untroubled. "The papists," he said, seeing his friends' distress, "don’t want me in Worms; they only want my condemnation and death. No matter, please don’t pray for me, but for the Word of God. Before my blood is even cold, thousands around the world will be held accountable for shedding it. The most holy enemy of Christ, the father, master, and commander of murderers, demands my life. Amen! Let the will of the Lord be done. Christ will give me His Spirit to defeat these agents of falsehood. I dismiss them in life, and I will conquer them in death. They’re doing everything they can in Worms to force me to recant. So here’s my recantation: I once said the pope was the vicar of Christ; now I say he is the enemy of the Lord and the apostle of the devil." And when he heard that all the Franciscan pulpits were echoing with curses and condemnations against him, he exclaimed, "Oh, what amazing joy this gives me!" He knew he had done God's will and that God was with him; so why shouldn’t he boldly set out? This purity of intention and freedom of conscience is a hidden power of immense strength that always supports the servant of God, making him more invincible than any armor or army could.
At this time arrived at Wittemberg a man who, like Melancthon, was destined to be Luther's friend through life, and to console him at the moment of his departure.[454] It was a priest of thirty-six years of age, named Bugenhagen, who had fled from the severities with which the Bishop of Camin, and Prince Bogislas of Pomerania, persecuted the friends of the gospel of all classes—clergy, citizens, and literati.[455] Of a senatorial family at Wollin in Pomerania, from which he is commonly called 'Pomeranus', Bugenhagen, at twenty years of age, began to teach at Treptow. Youth flocked to hear him, while nobles and learned men vied with each other for his society. He was a diligent student of the Holy Scriptures, and prayed to God to instruct him.[456] One day towards the end of December, 1520, when he was supping with several friends, Luther's treatise on the Captivity of Babylon was put into his hands. After turning it over, he exclaimed, "Many heretics have infested the Church since our Saviour died, but never was there one more pestilential than the author of this work." Having taken the book home with him, and read it over and over, his views entirely changed; new truths presented themselves to his mind, and returning some days afterwards to his companions, he said to them, "The whole world is fallen into Cimmerian darkness. This man and none but he sees the truth."[457] Some priests, a deacon, even the abbot himself, received the pure doctrine of salvation, and preaching it with power, "soon," (says a historian,) "turned away their hearers from human superstitions to the sole efficacious merit of Jesus Christ."[458] Then persecution burst forth. Several were already immured in dungeons, when Bugenhagen escaped from his enemies, and arrived at Wittemberg. "He suffers for the love of the gospel," immediately wrote Melancthon to the Elector's chaplain, "where could he fly if not to our ασυλον, (asylum,) to the protection of our prince?"[459]
At this time, a man arrived in Wittenberg who, like Melanchthon, was meant to be Luther's lifelong friend and to provide comfort at his moment of departure.[454] He was a 36-year-old priest named Bugenhagen, who had fled from the harsh treatment the Bishop of Camin and Prince Bogislaus of Pomerania inflicted on supporters of the gospel across all walks of life—clergy, townspeople, and scholars.[455] Coming from a prominent family in Wollin, Pomerania, he was often called 'Pomeranus.' Bugenhagen began teaching at Treptow when he was 20. Young people gathered to hear him, while nobles and educated individuals competed for his company. He was a dedicated student of the Holy Scriptures and prayed for God's guidance.[456] One day in late December 1520, while dining with friends, he was handed Luther's treatise on the Captivity of Babylon. After looking it over, he exclaimed, "Many heretics have troubled the Church since our Savior died, but none has been more harmful than the author of this work." After taking the book home and reading it repeatedly, his views completely changed; new truths emerged in his mind. When he returned to his friends a few days later, he said, "The whole world has fallen into deep darkness. This man, and only he, sees the truth."[457] Some priests, a deacon, and even the abbot accepted the pure teaching of salvation and preached it with power, which, as a historian notes, "soon turned their listeners away from human superstitions to the sole effective merit of Jesus Christ."[458] Then persecution erupted. Several had already been locked away in dungeons when Bugenhagen escaped his enemies and arrived in Wittenberg. "He suffers for the love of the gospel," Melanchthon immediately wrote to the Elector's chaplain, "where could he escape to if not to our asylum, to the protection of our prince?"[459]
But none received Bugenhagen with so much delight as Luther. It was arranged between them that, immediately after the Reformer's departure, Bugenhagen should begin to expound the Psalms. Thus divine Providence brought this powerful mind to aid in supplying the place of him whom Wittemberg was going to lose. Placed a year after at the head of the church of this town, Bugenhagen presided over it for thirty-six years. Luther distinguished him by the name of The Pastor.
But no one welcomed Bugenhagen with as much joy as Luther. They agreed that right after the Reformer's departure, Bugenhagen would start teaching the Psalms. This is how divine Providence brought this strong thinker in to help fill the gap left by the one whom Wittenberg was about to lose. A year later, Bugenhagen became the leader of the church in this town and served for thirty-six years. Luther referred to him as The Pastor.
Luther behoved to depart. His alarmed friends thought that unless God miraculously interposed, he was going to death. Melancthon, who had left his native country, had become attached to Luther with all the affection of his soul. "Luther," said he, "is to me in place of all my friends: I feel him to be greater and more admirable than I can express. You know how Alcibiades admired his Socrates;[460] but I admire Luther in a higher sense, for he is a Christian." Then he added the simple but beautiful expression, "Every time I contemplate him, I find him even greater than himself."[461] Melancthon wished to follow Luther in his dangers. But their common friends, and doubtless the doctor himself, were against it. Must not Philip supply the place of his friend? and, should that friend never return, who would direct the cause of the Reformation? "Ah! would to God," said Melancthon, resigned, but grieved, "would to God I had been allowed to go with him."[462]
Luther had to leave. His worried friends believed that unless God intervened miraculously, he was headed for death. Melancthon, who had left his homeland, had formed a deep bond with Luther, full of heartfelt affection. "Luther," he said, "is like all my friends to me: I see him as greater and more admirable than I can put into words. You know how Alcibiades admired his Socrates; but I admire Luther even more, because he is a Christian." Then he added the simple yet beautiful thought, "Every time I look at him, I find him even greater than before." Melancthon wanted to accompany Luther in his troubles. But their mutual friends, and probably Luther himself, were against it. Shouldn’t Philip take the place of his friend? And if that friend never returned, who would lead the Reformation? "Ah! I wish to God," Melancthon said, resigned but saddened, "I wish to God I could have gone with him."
The ardent Amsdorff immediately declared that he would accompany the doctor. His strong soul felt a pleasure in exposing itself to danger. His high bearing enabled him to appear fearless before an assembly of kings. The Elector had invited to Wittemberg, as professor of law, Jerome Schurff, the son of a physician of St. Gall, a celebrated man, of great meekness of temper, and a very intimate friend of Luther. "He has not yet summoned up courage," said Luther, "to pronounce sentence of death on a single malefactor."[463] Yet this timid individual volunteered to act as the doctor's counsel on this dangerous journey. A young Danish student named Peter Suaven, who boarded with Melancthon, and afterwards distinguished himself by his labours in Pomerania and Denmark, also declared that he would accompany his master. The youth in schools were entitled to have their representative beside the champion of truth.
The passionate Amsdorff quickly stated that he would join the doctor. His strong spirit found joy in facing danger. His dignified presence allowed him to stand fearless in front of a gathering of kings. The Elector had invited Jerome Schurff, the son of a physician from St. Gall, to Wittemberg as a law professor. Schurff was a well-known figure, known for his gentle nature, and a close friend of Luther. "He hasn’t yet gathered the courage," Luther remarked, "to declare a single criminal's sentence of death." Yet this timid man offered to be the doctor's advisor on this risky journey. A young Danish student named Peter Suaven, who lived with Melancthon and later made a name for himself in Pomerania and Denmark, also said he would accompany his master. The youth in schools were entitled to have their representative alongside the champion of truth.
Germany was moved at the thought of the dangers which threatened the representative of her people, and found a voice well fitted to express her fears. Ulric von Hütten shuddered at the thought of the blow about to be struck at his country, and, on the 1st of April wrote directly to Charles V as follows:—"Most excellent emperor, you are on the point of destroying us, and yourself with us. What is intended in this affair of Luther but just to destroy our liberty and abridge your power? There is not throughout the whole breadth of the empire a good man who does not feel the liveliest interest in this business.[464] The priests alone are in arms against Luther because he is opposed to their excessive power, their shameful luxury, their depraved lives, and has pleaded for the doctrine of Christ, his country's freedom, and purity of manners.
Germany was deeply concerned about the dangers facing the representative of her people and found a way to voice those fears. Ulric von Hütten was horrified by the impending blow to his country and, on April 1st, wrote directly to Charles V saying: “Most excellent emperor, you are about to destroy us and yourself along with us. What is this plan regarding Luther if not an attempt to take away our freedom and limit your power? There isn't a single good person in the entire empire who doesn't care deeply about this issue. The priests are the only ones rising up against Luther because he challenges their excessive power, their disgraceful luxury, their corrupt lives, and advocates for Christ's teachings, the freedom of his country, and moral integrity.”
"O emperor! dismiss from your presence those orators of Rome, those bishops and cardinals who would prevent every thing like reform. Did you not observe the sadness of the people on seeing you on your arrival approach the people surrounded by those wearers of red hats, by a herd of priests and not a band of valiant warriors?
"O emperor! send away those speakers from Rome, those bishops and cardinals who want to stop any kind of reform. Didn't you notice the sadness of the people when they saw you arrive surrounded by those in red hats, by a crowd of priests instead of a group of brave warriors?"
"Do not give up your sovereign majesty to those who would trample it under their feet! Have pity on us! Do not in your ruin drag the whole nation along with you! Place us amid the greatest perils, under the swords of the enemy and the canon's mouth;[465] let all nations conspire against us; let all armies assail us, so that we may be able openly to manifest our valour, and not be thus vanquished and enslaved in the dark, like women, without arms and without a struggle.... Ah! our hope was that you would deliver us from the yoke of the Romans and overthrow the pontifical tyranny. God grant that the future may turn out better than the commencement.
"Don't surrender your power to those who will just walk all over it! Have some compassion for us! Don't drag the whole nation down with you in your downfall! Even if we face the greatest dangers, standing against the enemies and the cannons; let all nations plot against us; let all armies attack us, so we can show our bravery and not be defeated and enslaved in the shadows, like women, without weapons and without a fight.... Ah! We hoped you would free us from the Roman yoke and overthrow the papal tyranny. May the future be brighter than the beginning."
"All Germany kneels before you; she supplicates you with tears, implores your aid, your pity, your faith, and, by the holy memory of those Germans, who, when the whole world was subjugated to Rome, refused to bend their head before that proud city, conjures you to save her, restore her to herself, deliver her from slavery, and avenge her of her tyrants!..."[466]
"All of Germany kneels before you; she begs for your help, your compassion, your trust, and, by the sacred memory of those Germans who, when the entire world was conquered by Rome, refused to bow their heads to that arrogant city, urges you to save her, help her find herself again, free her from oppression, and take revenge on her oppressors!..."[466]
So spoke Germany to Charles V through the instrumentality of the knight. The emperor paid no attention to the letter; perhaps threw it disdainfully from him to one of his secretaries. He was a Fleming, and not a German. Personal aggrandisement, not the liberty and glory of the empire, was the object of all his desires.
So spoke Germany to Charles V through the knight. The emperor ignored the letter; he might have thrown it away dismissively to one of his secretaries. He was a Fleming, not a German. Personal gain, not the freedom and glory of the empire, was his only concern.
CHAP. VII.
Departure for the Diet of Worms—Luther's Adieu—His Condemnation Published—Cavalcade near Erfurt—Meeting of Jonas and Luther—Luther in his old Convent—Luther Preaches at Erfurt—Incident—Faith and Works—Concourse of People—Luther's Courage—Luther to Spalatin—Halt at Frankfort—Fears at Worms—Plan of the Imperialists—Luther's Firmness.
Leaving for the Diet of Worms—Luther's Goodbye—His Condemnation Lifted—Procession near Erfurt—Meeting between Jonas and Luther—Luther at his old Monastery—Luther Preaches in Erfurt—Event—Belief and Deeds—Crowd of People—Luther's Courage—Luther to Spalatin—Stop at Frankfurt—Worries in Worms—Imperialists' Strategy—Luther's Determination.
The 2nd of April had arrived, and Luther behoved to take leave of his friends. After writing a note to Lange to intimate that he would spend the following Thursday or Friday at Erfurt,[467] he bade adieu to his colleagues. Turning to Melancthon he said to him, in a tone which betrayed emotion, "If I do not return, and my enemies put me to death, O, my brother, cease not to teach, and remain firm in the truth. Labour in my stead, since I shall not be able to labour any longer for myself. If you live, it matters little though I perish."[468] Then, committing himself to the hand of Him who is faithful and true, Luther took his seat and quitted Wittemberg. The town council had provided him with a modest carriage with a cloth covering which might be put on or off at pleasure. The imperial herald, clad in his insignia, and wearing the imperial eagle, was on horseback in front, followed by his servant. Next followed Luther, Schurff, Amsdorff, and Suaven in their carriage. The friends of the gospel, the citizens of Wittemberg, in deep emotion, were invoking God, and shedding tears. Such was Luther's departure.
The 2nd of April had come, and Luther needed to say goodbye to his friends. After writing a note to Lange to let him know he would be at Erfurt the following Thursday or Friday,[467] he said farewell to his colleagues. Turning to Melancthon, he said, with emotion in his voice, "If I don’t come back and my enemies kill me, oh, my brother, don’t stop teaching and stay strong in the truth. Work in my place, since I won’t be able to do it for myself anymore. If you live, it doesn’t matter much if I die."[468] Then, placing himself in the hands of the One who is faithful and true, Luther took his seat and left Wittemberg. The town council had provided him with a simple carriage with a removable cloth cover. An imperial herald, dressed in his official insignia and wearing the imperial eagle, rode ahead on horseback, followed by his servant. Next came Luther, Schurff, Amsdorff, and Suaven in their carriage. The friends of the gospel and the citizens of Wittemberg, filled with deep emotion, were praying to God and shedding tears. That was Luther's departure.
He soon observed that the hearts of those whom he met were filled with gloomy forebodings. At Leipsic no honour was paid to him. He only received the usual present of wine. At Naumburg he met a priest, probably J. Langer, a man of stern zeal, who carefully preserved in his study the portrait of the famous Jerome Savonarola of Ferrara, who was burnt at Florence in 1498, by order of pope Alexander VI, as a martyr to liberty and morality, as well as a confessor of evangelical truth. Having taken the portrait of the Italian martyr, the priest came up to Luther, and held out the portrait to him without speaking. Luther understood what the dumb figure intimated, but his intrepid soul remained firm. "It is Satan," said he, "who, by these terrors, would fain prevent a confession of the truth from being made in the assembly of the princes, because he foresees the blow which this will give to his kingdom."[469] "Adhere firmly to the truth which thou hast perceived," said then the priest to him gravely, "and thy God will also adhere firmly to thee."[470]
He soon noticed that the people he met were filled with dark apprehensions. In Leipsic, he received no honor. He only got the customary gift of wine. In Naumburg, he encountered a priest, likely J. Langer, a serious and dedicated man, who kept a portrait of the famous Jerome Savonarola of Ferrara in his study. Savonarola was burned in Florence in 1498 on the orders of Pope Alexander VI, considered a martyr for liberty and morality, as well as a champion of evangelical truth. The priest approached Luther with the portrait of the Italian martyr and silently extended it to him. Luther understood the unspoken message, but his brave spirit stood strong. "It is Satan," he said, "who, through these fears, wants to stop a confession of the truth from being made in the assembly of the princes, because he knows the blow this will strike against his kingdom." [469] "Stick firmly to the truth you have recognized," the priest said to him seriously, "and your God will also stick firmly to you." [470]
Having spent the night at Naumburg, where the burgomaster had hospitably entertained him, Luther arrived next evening at Weimar. He was scarcely a moment there when he heard loud cries in all directions. They were publishing his condemnation. "Look," said the herald to him. He looked, and his astonished eyes beheld imperial messengers traversing the town, and posting up the imperial edict, which ordered his writings to be laid before the magistrates. Luther had no doubt that these harsh measures were exhibited before-hand, to deter him from coming, that he might afterwards be condemned for having refused to appear. "Well, doctor, will you go on?" said the imperial herald to him in alarm. "Yes," replied Luther, "though put under interdict in every town, I will go on: I confide in the emperor's safe-conduct."
Having spent the night in Naumburg, where the mayor had welcomed him warmly, Luther arrived in Weimar the next evening. He had barely been there a moment when he heard loud shouts all around. They were announcing his condemnation. "Look," the herald said to him. He turned to see imperial messengers moving through the town, putting up the imperial edict, which demanded that his writings be presented to the authorities. Luther was certain that these severe actions were publicly displayed beforehand to intimidate him from coming, so he could later be condemned for not appearing. "Well, doctor, are you going to continue?" the imperial herald asked him in distress. "Yes," Luther replied, "even if I'm banned from every town, I will continue: I trust in the emperor's safe-conduct."
At Weimar, Luther had an audience of the Elector's brother, Duke John, who was then residing there. The prince invited him to preach. He consented, and from his heart, now under deep emotion, came forth the words of life. John Voit, the friend of Frederick Myconius, a Franciscan monk, heard him, and being converted to evangelical doctrine, quitted the convent two years after. At a later period, he became professor of theology at Wittemberg. The duke gave Luther the money necessary for his journey.
At Weimar, Luther met with the Elector's brother, Duke John, who was living there at the time. The prince asked him to preach, and he agreed. From his heart, filled with deep emotion, he spoke words of life. John Voit, a friend of Frederick Myconius and a Franciscan monk, listened to him and was converted to evangelical beliefs, leaving the convent two years later. Eventually, he became a theology professor at Wittenberg. The duke provided Luther with the funds he needed for his trip.
From Weimar the Reformer proceeded to Erfurt. It was the town of his youth, and he hoped to see his friend Lange, provided, as he had written him, he could enter the town without danger.[471] He was still three or four leagues off, near the village of Nora, when he saw a troop of horsemen appear in the distance. Were they friends, or were they enemies? Shortly Crotus, the rector of the university, Eobanus Hesse, Melancthon's friend, whom Luther called the king of poets, Euricius Cordus, John Draco, and others, to the number of forty, members of the senate, the university, and the municipality, all on horseback, saluted him with acclamation. A multitude of the inhabitants of Erfurt covered the road, and gave loud expression to their joy. All were eager to see the mighty man who had ventured to declare war against the pope.
From Weimar, the Reformer headed to Erfurt. It was the town of his youth, and he hoped to see his friend Lange, as long as, as he had written to him, he could enter the town safely.[471] He was still three or four leagues away, near the village of Nora, when he saw a group of horsemen in the distance. Were they friends or enemies? Soon, Crotus, the rector of the university, Eobanus Hesse, Melancthon’s friend, whom Luther called the king of poets, Euricius Cordus, John Draco, and others, about forty in total, members of the senate, the university, and the municipality, all on horseback, greeted him with cheers. A crowd of Erfurt residents filled the road and expressed their joy loudly. Everyone was eager to see the great man who had dared to declare war against the pope.
A young man of twenty-eight, named Justus Jonas, had got the start of the party.[472] Jonas, after studying law at Erfurt, had been appointed rector of the university in 1519. Illumined by the evangelical light which then radiated in all directions, he felt desirous to become a theologian. "I believe," wrote Erasmus to him, "that God has elected you as an instrument to spread the glory of his Son Jesus."[473] All Jonas' thoughts were turned to Wittemberg and Luther. Some years before, when only a student of law, being of an active enterprising spirit, he had set out on foot, accompanied by some friends, and in order to reach Erasmus, then at Brussels, had traversed forests infested by robbers, and towns ravaged by the plague. Will he not now confront other dangers in order to accompany the Reformer to Worms? He earnestly begged the favour, and Luther consented. Thus met these two doctors, who were to labour through life in the renovation of the Church. Divine Providence gathered around Luther men destined to be the light of Germany: the Melancthons, the Amsdorffs, the Bugenhagens, the Jonases. On his return from Worms, Jonas was appointed provost of the Church of Wittemberg, and doctor in theology. "Jonas," said Luther, "is a man whose life would deserve to be purchased at a large price, in order to detain him on the earth."[474] No preacher ever surpassed him in the gift of captivating his hearers. "Pomeranus is an expositor," said Melancthon, "and I am a dialectitian,—Jonas is an orator. The words flow from his lips with surpassing grace, and his eloquence is overpowering. But Luther is beyond us all."[475] It seems that nearly about the same time a companion of Luther's childhood, one of his brothers, joined the escort.
A young man of twenty-eight, named Justus Jonas, had gotten ahead of the group.[472] Jonas, after studying law at Erfurt, was appointed the rector of the university in 1519. Inspired by the evangelical movement that was spreading everywhere, he wanted to become a theologian. "I believe," Erasmus wrote to him, "that God has chosen you as an instrument to spread the glory of his Son Jesus."[473] All of Jonas's thoughts were focused on Wittenberg and Luther. A few years earlier, when he was just a law student and possessed an active, adventurous spirit, he set out on foot with some friends to reach Erasmus, who was in Brussels, traveling through forests plagued by robbers and towns ravaged by disease. Will he now face other dangers to join the Reformer in Worms? He earnestly sought permission, and Luther agreed. Thus, these two scholars met, destined to work together for the renewal of the Church. Divine Providence brought together men around Luther who were meant to be the light of Germany: Melanchthon, Amsdorf, Bugenhagen, and Jonas. After returning from Worms, Jonas was appointed provost of the Wittenberg Church and became a doctor of theology. "Jonas," said Luther, "is a man whose life would be worth a lot to keep him here."[474] No preacher ever captivated his audience like him. "Pomeranus is an expositor," Melanchthon said, "and I’m a dialectician—Jonas is an orator. His words flow effortlessly, and his eloquence is remarkable. But Luther is above us all."[475] It seems that around the same time, a childhood friend of Luther, one of his brothers, joined the group.
The deputation turned their steeds, and horsemen and footmen, surrounding Luther's carriage, entered the town of Erfurt. At the gate, in the squares and streets, where the poor monk had so often begged his bread, the crowd of spectators was immense. Luther dismounted at the Augustin convent, where the gospel had consoled his heart. Lange received him with joy; Usingen, and some of the more aged fathers, showed great coolness. There was a general desire to hear him preach, and though he was interdicted from doing it, the herald himself could not resist the desire, and consented.
The group turned their horses around, and the horsemen and foot soldiers surrounding Luther's carriage rode into the town of Erfurt. At the gate, in the squares and streets where the poor monk had often asked for food, the crowd of onlookers was huge. Luther got off his horse at the Augustinian convent, where the gospel had comforted him. Lange welcomed him with joy; Usingen and some of the older fathers were noticeably cool. There was a strong desire to hear him preach, and even though he was forbidden from doing so, the herald himself couldn’t resist and agreed.
Sunday after Easter, the Augustin church at Erfurt was crowded. That friar who formerly opened the doors and swept the church, mounted the pulpit, and having opened the Bible, read these words: "Peace be with you; and when he had so said, he showed them his hands and his side." (John, xx, 19, 20.) "All the philosophers, doctors, and writers," said he, "have exerted themselves to show how man may obtain eternal life, and have not succeeded. I will now tell you."
Sunday after Easter, the Augustinian church in Erfurt was packed. That friar who used to open the doors and clean the church climbed up to the pulpit, and after opening the Bible, read these words: "Peace be with you; and when he had said this, he showed them his hands and his side." (John, xx, 19, 20.) "All the philosophers, scholars, and writers," he said, "have tried to explain how a person can achieve eternal life, but they haven't succeeded. Let me tell you now."
This has, in all ages, been the great question; accordingly Luther's hearers redoubled their attention.
This has always been the big question; as a result, Luther's listeners paid even more attention.
"There are two kinds of works," continued the Reformer; "works foreign to ourselves—these are good works; and our own works—these are of little value. One builds a church; another goes on a pilgrimage to St James or St. Peter; a third fasts, prays, takes the cowl, walks barefoot; a fourth does something else. All these works are nothing, and will perish: for our own works have no efficacy in them. But I am now going to tell you what is the genuine work. God raised a man again from the dead, even the Lord Jesus Christ, that he might crush death, destroy sin, and shut the gates of hell. Such is the work of salvation. The devil thought that he had the Lord in his power when he saw him between the two thieves, suffering the most ignominious martyrdom, accursed of God and men.... But the Divinity displayed its power, and annihilated sin, death, and hell....
"There are two types of works," the Reformer continued; "external works—these are good works; and our own works—these have little value. One person builds a church; another goes on a pilgrimage to St. James or St. Peter; a third fasts, prays, takes vows, walks barefoot; a fourth does something different. All these works mean nothing and will fade away because our own efforts have no true value. But now I will tell you what the real work is. God brought a man back to life, the Lord Jesus Christ, so that He could defeat death, destroy sin, and close the gates of hell. That is the work of salvation. The devil thought he had the Lord when he saw Him between the two thieves, suffering a humiliating death, cursed by God and humanity.... But the Divinity showed its power and wiped out sin, death, and hell...."
"Christ has vanquished; this is the grand news; and we are saved by his work, not by our own. The pope gives a very different account. But I maintain that the holy Mother of God herself was saved neither by her virginity nor maternity, neither by her purity nor her works, but solely by means of faith and by the works of God...."
"Christ has won; this is the big news; and we are saved through what He did, not by our own efforts. The pope tells a very different story. But I assert that the holy Mother of God herself was saved not by her virginity or motherhood, not by her purity or her actions, but only through faith and by the works of God...."
While Luther was speaking, a sudden noise was heard; one of the galleries gave a crack, and seemed as if it were going to give way under the pressure of the crowd. Some rushed out, and others sat still, terror-struck. The orator stopped for a moment, and then, stretching out his hand, exclaimed, with a loud voice, "Fear nothing; there is no danger; the devil is seeking, in this way, to prevent me from proclaiming the gospel, but he shall not succeed."[476] At these words, those who were running out, stopped astonished and rivetted to the spot; the assembly calmed, and Luther, without troubling himself with the attempts of the devil, continued. "You will perhaps say to me, You tell us a great deal about faith. Tell us, also, how we can obtain it. Yes; well, I will tell you. Our Lord Jesus Christ says, 'Peace be with you; behold my hands:' in other words, 'Behold, O man, it is I, I alone who have taken away thy sin, and ransomed thee, and now thou hast peace, saith the Lord.'
While Luther was speaking, a sudden noise echoed; one of the balconies cracked, and it looked like it might collapse under the weight of the crowd. Some people rushed out, while others sat frozen in fear. The speaker paused for a moment, then, raising his hand, shouted loudly, "Don't be afraid; there’s no danger; the devil is trying to stop me from sharing the gospel, but he won't succeed."[476] At these words, those who were fleeing stopped in shock and couldn't move. The crowd settled down, and Luther, ignoring the devil’s attempts, continued. "You might say to me, 'You talk a lot about faith. But tell us how we can get it.' Yes; I will tell you. Our Lord Jesus Christ says, 'Peace be with you; behold my hands:' meaning, 'Look, O man, it is I, I alone who have taken away your sin, and redeemed you, and now you have peace, says the Lord.'
"I did not eat the fruit of the tree," resumed Luther; "neither did you eat it; but we received the sin which Adam has transmitted to us, and are guilty of it. In like manner, I did not suffer on the cross, nor did you suffer on it; but Christ suffered for us; we are justified by the work of God, and not by our own.... 'I am,' saith the Lord, 'thy righteousness and thy redemption.'...
"I didn't eat the fruit from the tree," Luther continued; "nor did you eat it, but we inherited the sin that Adam passed down to us, and we're responsible for it. Similarly, I didn't suffer on the cross, nor did you suffer on it; Christ suffered for us; we're made right by God's work, not by our own.... 'I am,' says the Lord, 'your righteousness and your redemption.'...
"Let us believe the gospel, let us believe St. Paul, and not the letters and decretals of the popes."
"Let’s trust the gospel, let’s trust St. Paul, and not the letters and decrees of the popes."
Luther, after having preached faith as the means of the sinner's justification, preaches works as the consequence and evidence of salvation.
Luther, after preaching that faith is the way sinners are justified, now teaches that works are the result and proof of salvation.
"Since God has saved us," continues he, "let us so order our works that he may take pleasure in them. Art thou rich,—let thy wealth be useful to the poor. Art thou poor,—let thy service be useful to the rich. If thy toil is useful only to thyself, the service which thou pretendest to render to God is mere falsehood."[477]
"Since God has saved us," he continues, "let's arrange our actions in a way that makes Him happy. If you're rich, use your wealth to help the poor. If you're poor, let your work be beneficial to the rich. If your labor only serves yourself, then the service you claim to offer God is just a lie."[477]
There is not a word in the sermon on Luther himself; no allusion to the circumstances in which he is placed; nothing on Worms, on Charles, or the nuncios; he preaches Christ, and Christ only; at this moment, when the world has its eyes upon him, he is not in the least occupied with himself; and herein is the mark of a genuine servant of God.
There’s not a single word in the sermon about Luther himself; no mention of his situation; nothing about Worms, Charles, or the nuncios; he talks about Christ, and Christ alone; even now, when the world is watching him, he’s not at all focused on himself; and this shows what it truly means to be a genuine servant of God.
Luther set out from Erfurt, and passed through Gotha, where he again preached. Myconius adds, that at the moment when the people were coming out from the sermon the devil detached from the pediment of the church some stones which had not budged for two centuries. The doctor slept in the convent of the Benedictines, at Rheinhardsbrunn, and thence proceeded to Eisenach, where he felt indisposed. Amsdorff, Jonas, Schurff, and all his friends, were alarmed. He was bled, and the greatest possible attention was paid him. Even the Schulthess of the town, John Oswald, hastened to him with a cordial. Luther, after drinking it, fell asleep, and was thereby so far recovered that he was able to proceed on the following day.[478]
Luther left Erfurt and passed through Gotha, where he preached again. Myconius adds that just as the people were leaving the sermon, the devil caused some stones from the church's pediment to fall, stones that hadn’t moved for two centuries. The doctor stayed the night at the Benedictine convent in Rheinhardsbrunn, and from there he went to Eisenach, where he started to feel unwell. Amsdorff, Jonas, Schurff, and all his friends were worried. He was bled, and they took the utmost care of him. Even the town's Schulthess, John Oswald, rushed to him with a tonic. After Luther drank it, he fell asleep and recovered enough to continue on the next day.[478]
Wherever he passed the people flocked to see him. His journey was a kind of triumphal procession. Deep interest was felt in beholding the intrepid man who was on the way to offer his head to the emperor and the empire. An immense concourse surrounded him.[479] "Ah!" said some of them to him, "there are so many cardinals and so many bishops at Worms, they will burn you; they will reduce your body to ashes, as was done with that of John Huss." But nothing terrified the monk. "Were they to make a fire," said he, "that would extend from Worms to Wittemberg, and reach even to the sky, I would walk across it in the name of the Lord; I would appear before them; I would walk into the jaws of this Behemoth, and break his teeth, and confess the Lord Jesus Christ."[480]
Wherever he went, people gathered to see him. His journey felt like a triumphant parade. There was a deep interest in witnessing the brave man who was heading to offer his life for the emperor and the empire. A massive crowd surrounded him.[479] "Oh!" some of them said to him, "there are so many cardinals and bishops in Worms; they will burn you. They will turn your body to ashes, just like they did with John Huss." But nothing scared the monk. "Even if they made a fire," he said, "that stretched from Worms to Wittenberg and reached up to the sky, I would walk through it in the name of the Lord; I would stand before them; I would walk into the jaws of this Behemoth, break his teeth, and confess the Lord Jesus Christ."[480]
One day, when just going into an inn, and while the crowd were as usual pressing around him, an officer came up to him and said, "Are you the man who undertakes to reform the papacy? How will you succeed?" "Yes," replied Luther, "I am the man. I confide in Almighty God, whose word and command I have before me." The officer, affected, gave him a milder look, and said, "Dear friend, there is something in what you say; I am the servant of Charles, but your Master is greater than mine. He will aid you and guard you."[481] Such was the impression which Luther produced. Even his enemies were struck at the sight of the multitudes that thronged around him, though they have painted the journey in different colours.[482] At length the doctor arrived at Frankfort, on Sunday, 14th April.
One day, as he was entering an inn and the usual crowd was pressing around him, an officer approached and said, "Are you the one who plans to reform the papacy? How do you expect to succeed?" "Yes," Luther replied, "I am that person. I trust in Almighty God, whose word and command I have in front of me." The officer, moved, softened his expression and said, "Dear friend, there's truth in what you say; I serve Charles, but your Master is greater than mine. He will support and protect you." [481] Such was the impression Luther made. Even his enemies were taken aback by the sight of the crowds surrounding him, although they depicted the journey in various ways. [482] Finally, the doctor arrived in Frankfort on Sunday, April 14th.
News of Luther's advance had reached Worms. The friends of the pope had thought he would not obey the summons of the emperor. Albert, cardinal-archbishop of Mentz, would have given anything to stop him by the way, and new schemes were set on foot for this purpose.
News of Luther's advance had reached Worms. The pope's supporters thought he would ignore the emperor's summons. Albert, the cardinal-archbishop of Mentz, would have given anything to stop him along the way, and new plans were put in place for this purpose.
Luther, on his arrival at Frankfort, took some repose, and then announced his approach to Spalatin, who was at Worms with the Elector. It is the only letter which he wrote during his journey. "I am getting on," says he, "though Satan has striven to stop me on the way by sickness. From Eisenach to this I have never been without a feeling of languor, and am still completely worn out. I learn that Charles has published an edict to frighten me. But Christ lives, and we shall enter Worms in spite of all the barriers of hell and all the powers of the air.[483] Therefore, make ready my lodging."
Luther, upon arriving in Frankfurt, took a moment to rest and then informed Spalatin, who was in Worms with the Elector, of his arrival. This is the only letter he wrote during his trip. "I'm making progress," he wrote, "even though Satan has tried to stop me along the way with illness. From Eisenach to here, I've felt constantly tired and still feel completely drained. I've heard that Charles has issued an edict to intimidate me. But Christ lives, and we will enter Worms despite all the obstacles from hell and all the powers in the air.[483] So, please prepare my accommodations."
The next day Luther visited the learned school of William Nesse, a celebrated geographer of that time. "Be diligent," said he to the scholars, "in the reading of the Scriptures, and the investigation of truth." Then placing his right hand on the head of one of the children, and his left on another, he pronounced a blessing on the whole school.
The next day, Luther went to the renowned school of William Nesse, a famous geographer of that time. "Be diligent," he told the students, "in reading the Scriptures and seeking the truth." Then, placing his right hand on one child's head and his left on another, he blessed the entire school.
While Luther blessed the young, he was also the hope of the old. Catharine of Holzhausen, a widow advanced in years, and serving God, went to him, and said, "My father and mother told me that God would raise up a man who should oppose the papal vanities, and save the Word of God. I hope you are that man, and I wish you, for your work, the grace and the Holy Spirit of God."[484]
While Luther inspired the young, he was also a source of hope for the elderly. Catharine of Holzhausen, an older widow devoted to God, approached him and said, "My parents always told me that God would raise up someone to challenge the emptiness of the papacy and protect the Word of God. I hope you are that person, and I wish you the grace and the Holy Spirit of God for your mission."[484]
These were by no means the sentiments universally entertained at Frankfort. John Cochlœus, dean of the church of Notre Dame, was one of those most devoted to the Roman Church. On seeing Luther pass through Frankfort on his way to Worms, he could not suppress his fears. He thought the Church was in want of devoted defenders, and scarcely had Luther quitted the town than Cochlœus set out in his track, ready, as he says, to give his life in defence of the honour of the Church.[485]
These were definitely not the feelings that everyone in Frankfurt shared. John Cochlœus, the dean of the church of Notre Dame, was one of the most loyal supporters of the Roman Church. When he saw Luther pass through Frankfurt on his way to Worms, he couldn't hide his fears. He believed the Church needed dedicated defenders, and as soon as Luther left town, Cochlœus followed him, ready, as he said, to give his life to defend the honor of the Church.[485]
There was great alarm in the camp of the pope's friends. The heresiarch was at hand—every day, every hour brought him nearer Worms. If he entered, all was perhaps lost. The Archbishop Albert, the confessor Glapio, and all the politicians about the emperor, felt uneasy. How can the arrival of this monk be prevented? It is impossible to carry him off, for he has the emperor's safe-conduct. Stratagem alone can arrest him. These intriguers immediately arranged the following plan. The emperor's confessor, and his high chamberlain, Paul of Armsdorff, quit Worms in great haste, and proceed about ten leagues distant, to the castle of Ebernburg, the residence of Francis de Seckingen, the knight who had offered Luther an asylum.[486] Bucer, a young dominican, chaplain to the Elector-Palatine, and who had been gained to the evangelical doctrine at the Heidelberg discussion, had then taken refuge in "this hôtel of the just." The knight, who had no great knowledge of the affairs of religion, was easily imposed upon, while the disposition of the Palatine chaplain favoured the designs of the confessor. In fact, Bucer was inclined to pacific measures. Distinguishing between fundamental and secondary points, he thought he might sacrifice the latter to unity and peace.[487]
There was a lot of panic among the pope's supporters. The heretic was getting closer—every day, every hour brought him nearer to Worms. If he got in, everything could be lost. Archbishop Albert, confessor Glapio, and all the politicians around the emperor were on edge. How can we stop this monk from arriving? It’s impossible to capture him since he has the emperor's protection. Only a scheme could prevent him. These conspirators quickly devised a plan. The emperor's confessor and his high chamberlain, Paul of Armsdorff, left Worms in a hurry and traveled about ten leagues to the castle of Ebernburg, the home of Francis de Seckingen, the knight who had offered Luther refuge.[486] Bucer, a young Dominican chaplain to the Elector-Palatine, who had been won over to the evangelical movement during the Heidelberg debate, had sought shelter in "this hotel of the just." The knight, not being very knowledgeable about religious matters, was easily fooled, while the attitude of the Palatine chaplain supported the confessor's plans. In fact, Bucer leaned towards peaceful solutions. Differentiating between core and secondary issues, he believed he could compromise on the latter for the sake of unity and peace.[487]
The chamberlain and confessor begin their attack. They give Seckingen and Bucer to understand that it is all over with Luther if he goes to Worms. They assure him that the emperor is ready to send certain learned men to Ebernburg there to confer with the doctor. "Under your charge," say they to the knight, "the two parties will be placed." "We are at one with Luther on all essential points," say they to Bucer: "only some secondary points remain; and as to these you will be mediator." The knight and the chaplain are shaken. The confessor and chamberlain continue. "The invitation addressed to Luther must come from you," say they to Seckingen, "and let Bucer be the bearer of it."[488] Every thing was arranged according to their wish. Let Luther only be credulous enough to come to Ebernburg; his safe-conduct will soon expire, and then who will be able to defend him?
The chamberlain and confessor launch their attack. They make it clear to Seckingen and Bucer that it will be the end for Luther if he goes to Worms. They assure him that the emperor is willing to send certain knowledgeable men to Ebernburg to meet with the doctor. "Under your supervision," they tell the knight, "the two sides will be brought together." "We agree with Luther on all major issues," they say to Bucer, "only a few minor points remain; and for those, you will mediate." The knight and the chaplain are unsettled. The confessor and chamberlain press on. "The invitation to Luther must come from you," they say to Seckingen, "and let Bucer deliver it." [488] Everything was arranged to their liking. If only Luther is gullible enough to come to Ebernburg; his safe-conduct will soon run out, and after that, who will protect him?
Luther had arrived at Oppenheim. His safe-conduct was available only for three days longer. He sees a troop of horsemen approaching, and soon recognises at their head the Bucer with whom he had such intimate conference at Heidelberg.[489] "These horsemen belong to Francis of Seckingen," said Bucer to him after the first expressions of friendship. "He sends me to you to conduct you to his strong castle.[490] The emperor's confessor is desirous of a conference with you. His influence over Charles is unbounded: every thing may be arranged. But beware of Aleander!" Jonas Amsdorff and Schurff knew not what to think; Bucer insisted; but Luther hesitated not. "I continue my journey," was his answer to Bucer; "and if the emperor's confessor has any thing to say to me, he will find me at Worms. I go where I am called."
Luther had arrived in Oppenheim. His safe-conduct was only valid for three more days. He saw a group of horsemen approaching and soon recognized that Bucer, with whom he had such close discussions in Heidelberg, was leading them. [489] "These horsemen are from Francis of Seckingen," Bucer told him after their initial greetings. "He sent me to bring you to his stronghold.[490] The emperor's confessor wants to meet with you. He has a lot of influence over Charles: everything can be arranged. But watch out for Aleander!" Jonas Amsdorff and Schurff didn’t know what to think; Bucer pressed the issue, but Luther was resolute. "I'm continuing my journey," he replied to Bucer, "and if the emperor's confessor has something to discuss, he will find me in Worms. I'm going where I'm called."
Meanwhile Spalatin himself began to be troubled and afraid. Surrounded at Worms by the enemies of the Reformation, he heard them saying that no respect should be paid to the safe-conduct of a heretic. He became alarmed for his friend; and at the moment when the latter was approaching the town a messenger presented himself and said to him on the part of the chaplain, "Don't enter Worms!" This from his best friend, the Elector's confidant, Spalatin himself! Luther unmoved, turns his eye on the messenger, and replies, "Go and tell your master, that were there as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs, I would enter."[491] Never, perhaps, was Luther so grand. The envoy returned to Worms with his extraordinary message. "I was then intrepid," said Luther a few days before his death, "I feared nothing; God can give man such boldness; I know not if at present I would have as much liberty and joy."—"When the cause is good," adds his disciple Mathesius, "the heart expands, giving courage and energy to evangelists and soldiers."[492]
Meanwhile, Spalatin started to feel troubled and scared. Surrounded by the enemies of the Reformation in Worms, he overheard them saying that no one should honor the safe-conduct of a heretic. He became concerned for his friend; and just as Luther was approaching the town, a messenger came and told him on behalf of the chaplain, "Don't enter Worms!" This warning came from his best friend, the Elector's confidant, Spalatin himself! Unfazed, Luther looked at the messenger and replied, "Go and tell your master that even if there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles on the roofs, I would enter." Never, perhaps, was Luther so magnificent. The messenger returned to Worms with his remarkable message. "I was fearless then," Luther said a few days before his death, "I feared nothing; God can give a person such boldness; I don't know if I would have the same freedom and joy now."—"When the cause is good," added his disciple Mathesius, "the heart opens up, giving courage and energy to evangelists and soldiers."
CHAP. VIII.
Entry into Worms—Chant for the Dead—Council held by Charles V—Capito and the Temporisers—Concourse around Luther—Citation—Hütten to Luther—Proceeds to the Diet—Saying of Freundsberg—Imposing Assembly—The Chancellor's Address—Luther's Reply—His Wisdom—Saying of Charles V—Alarm—Triumph—Luther's Firmness—Insults from the Spaniards—Council—Luther's Trouble and Prayer—Might of the Reformation—Luther's Oath to Scripture—The Court of the Diet—Luther's Address—Three kinds of Writings—He demands Proof of his Error—Solemn Warnings—He repeats his Address in Latin—Here I am: I can't do otherwise—The "weakness" of God—New Attempt.
Entering Worms—Chant for the Dead—Council held by Charles V—Capito and the Moderates—Crowd surrounding Luther—Citation—Hütten to Luther—Goes to the Diet—Saying of Freundsberg—Impressive Assembly—The Chancellor's Speech—Luther's Response—His Wisdom—Saying of Charles V—Concern—Victory—Luther's Determination—Insults from the Spaniards—Council—Luther's Struggles and Prayer—Power of the Reformation—Luther's Commitment to Scripture—The Court of the Diet—Luther's Speech—Three types of Writings—He demands Evidence of his Error—Serious Warnings—He repeats his Speech in Latin—Here I am: I cannot do otherwise—The "weakness" of God—New Attempt.
At length, on the morning of the 16th April, Luther perceived the walls of the ancient city. All were looking for him, and there was only one thought in Worms. The young noblemen, Bernard of Hirschfeld and Albert of Lindenau, with six cavaliers, and other gentlemen in the suite of the princes, to the number of a hundred, if we may believe Pallavicini, unable to restrain their impatience, galloped to meet him, and surrounded him in order to escort him at the moment of his entry. He approached. Before him pranced the imperial herald decked in all the insignia of his office. Next came Luther in his humble carriage. Jonas followed on horseback surrounded by the cavaliers. A large crowd was waiting in front of the gates. It was near mid-day when he passed those walls which so many persons had foretold him he should never leave. It was the dinner hour, but the moment when the sentinel stationed in the cathedral steeple tolled the signal, every body ran into the street to see the monk. Thus was Luther in Worms.
At last, on the morning of April 16th, Luther saw the walls of the ancient city. Everyone was looking for him, and there was just one thought in Worms. Young nobles Bernard of Hirschfeld and Albert of Lindenau, along with six knights and other gentlemen from the princes’ retinue, totaling about a hundred, if we can believe Pallavicini, unable to hold back their excitement, rode out to meet him and surrounded him to escort him upon his arrival. He drew near. In front of him was the imperial herald dressed in all the symbols of his position. Next came Luther in his modest carriage. Jonas followed on horseback, accompanied by the knights. A large crowd was gathered in front of the gates. It was close to noon when he passed the walls that so many had predicted he would never leave. It was dinnertime, but as soon as the sentinel in the cathedral steeple rang the signal, everyone rushed into the street to see the monk. That was how Luther arrived in Worms.
Two thousand persons accompanied him through the streets: there was a rush to meet him. The crowd was increasing every moment, and was much larger than when the emperor made his entry.
Two thousand people followed him through the streets: there was a rush to see him. The crowd grew bigger every moment and was much larger than when the emperor arrived.
Suddenly, relates a historian, a man clad in a singular dress, and carrying a large cross before him, as is usual at funerals, breaks off from the crowd, advances towards Luther, and then, in a loud voice, and with the plaintive cadence which is used in saying mass for the repose of the souls of the dead, chants the following stanzas as if he had been determined that the very dead should hear them:—
Suddenly, a historian recounts, a man dressed in a unique outfit, carrying a large cross in front of him like is common at funerals, steps away from the crowd, moves towards Luther, and then, in a loud voice and with the mournful tone typically used in mass for the souls of the deceased, chants the following verses as if he wanted the very dead to hear them:—
Luther's arrival is celebrated by a Requiem. If the story is true, it was the court fool of one of the dukes of Bavaria who gave Luther one of those warnings remarkable at once for wisdom and irony, of which so many instances are furnished by these individuals. But the clamour of the multitude soon drowned the De Profundis of the cross-bearer.
Luther's arrival is celebrated by a Requiem. If the story is true, it was the court jester of one of the dukes of Bavaria who gave Luther one of those warnings that are striking for both wisdom and irony, which many of these individuals are known to provide. But the shouting of the crowd quickly overshadowed the De Profundis of the cross-bearer.
The train could scarcely proceed through the moving mass. At length the imperial herald stopped before the hotel of the Knights of Rhodes. Here lodged two of the Elector's counsellors, Frederic of Thun and Philip of Feilitsch, as well as the marshal of the empire, Ulric of Pappenheim. Luther got out of his carriage, and, on alighting, said, "The Lord will be my defence."[494]... "I entered Worms," said he afterwards, "in a covered car in my frock. Everybody ran into the street to see friar Martin."[495]
The train could barely move through the crowd. Eventually, the imperial herald stopped in front of the hotel of the Knights of Rhodes. Here stayed two of the Elector's advisors, Frederic of Thun and Philip of Feilitsch, along with the marshal of the empire, Ulric of Pappenheim. Luther got out of his carriage and, as he stepped down, said, "The Lord will be my defense."[494]... "I entered Worms," he later said, "in a covered car wearing my robe. Everyone rushed into the street to see Friar Martin."[495]
The news of his arrival filled the Elector of Saxony and Aleander with alarm. The young and elegant Archbishop Albert, who held a mean between those two parties, was amazed at Luther's boldness. "Had I not had more courage than he," said Luther, "it is true I never should have been seen in Worms."
The news of his arrival alarmed the Elector of Saxony and Aleander. The young and stylish Archbishop Albert, who balanced between the two sides, was shocked by Luther's audacity. "If I hadn't had more courage than him," Luther said, "it's true I would never have been seen in Worms."
Charles V immediately assembled his council. The counsellors in the emperor's confidence repaired in haste to the palace for they too were in dismay. "Luther is arrived," said Charles, "what must be done?"
Charles V quickly called a meeting with his council. The trusted advisors of the emperor rushed to the palace, as they were also alarmed. "Luther has arrived," said Charles, "what should we do?"
Modo, bishop of Palermo and chancellor of Flanders, if we are to receive Luther's own statement, replied, "We have long consulted on this subject. Let your imperial Majesty speedily get rid of this man. Did not Sigismond cause John Huss to be burnt? There is no obligation either to give or observe a safe-conduct to a heretic."[496] "No," said Charles: "what has been promised must be performed." There was nothing for it, therefore, but to make the Reformer appear.
Modo, the bishop of Palermo and chancellor of Flanders, if we are to take Luther's own words, replied, "We have been discussing this issue for a long time. Your imperial Majesty should quickly deal with this man. Didn't Sigismond have John Huss burned? There's no duty to grant or uphold a safe-conduct for a heretic."[496] "No," said Charles: "what has been promised must be kept." So, there was nothing left to do but bring the Reformer in.
While the councils of the great were thus agitated on the subject of Luther, there were many men in Worms who rejoiced that they were able at length to behold this illustrious servant of God. In the first rank among them was Capito, chaplain and counsellor to the Archbishop of Mentz. This remarkable man, who a short time before had preached the gospel in Switzerland with great freedom,[497] thought it due to the place which he then occupied to pursue a course which exposed him to a charge of cowardice from the Evangelists, and of dissimulation from the Romans.[498] He had, however, preached the doctrine of faith clearly at Mentz, and on his departure had succeeded in supplying his place by a young preacher full of zeal, named Hedio. In this town, the ancient see of the primate of the German Church, the word of God was not bound. The gospel was eagerly listened to: in vain did the monks strive to preach the gospel after their own way, and employ all the means in their power in order to arrest the general impulse; they had no success.[499] But Capito, even while he preached the new doctrine, laboured to continue in friendship with those who persecuted it. He flattered himself, with others of the same sentiments, that he would thus be of great utility to the Church. To hear them talk it might have been supposed that, if Luther was not burnt, if all the Lutherans were not excommunicated, it was owing entirely to Capito's influence over the Archbishop Albert.[500] Cochlœus, dean of Frankfort, arriving at Worms almost at the same time with Luther, immediately waited upon Capito, who being, apparently at least, on very good terms with Aleander, introduced Cochlœus to him, thus serving as a connecting link between the two greatest enemies of the Reformer.[501] Capito doubtless thought that he would do great service to the cause of Christ by all this management; but it cannot be said that any good resulted from it. The event almost always belies these calculations of human wisdom, and proves that a decided course, while it is the most frank, is also the most wise.
While the powerful councils were engrossed in discussions about Luther, many people in Worms were excited to finally see this prominent servant of God. Among them was Capito, chaplain and advisor to the Archbishop of Mentz. This notable man, who had recently preached the gospel in Switzerland with great freedom,[497] felt it his duty to his position to take a path that risked accusations of cowardice from the Evangelists and of dissimulation from the Romans.[498] However, he had clearly preached the doctrine of faith in Mentz and, upon leaving, managed to find a passionate young preacher named Hedio to take his place. In this town, the historical see of the primate of the German Church, the word of God was freely shared. The gospel was eagerly heard: despite the monks' efforts to preach the gospel in their own way and use all their means to stop the widespread enthusiasm, they failed.[499] Yet, while Capito preached the new doctrine, he tried to maintain friendly relations with those who persecuted it. He and others who thought like him believed that this would greatly benefit the Church. From their talks, one might think that if Luther wasn't burned and if all the Lutherans weren't excommunicated, it was entirely due to Capito's influence over Archbishop Albert.[500] Cochlœus, the dean of Frankfort, arrived in Worms almost simultaneously with Luther and immediately visited Capito, who seemed to be on good terms with Aleander, introducing Cochlœus to him and thus acting as a bridge between the two most prominent adversaries of the Reformer.[501] Capito likely thought he was doing great service to the cause of Christ with all this maneuvering; however, it can't be said that any good came from it. Events often contradict these calculations of human wisdom, showing that a decisive course is both the most open and the wisest.
Meanwhile the crowd continued around the hotel of Rhodes at which Luther had alighted. Some looked upon him as a prodigy of wisdom, and others as a monster of iniquity. The whole town wished to see him.[502] The first hours were left him to recover from his fatigue, and converse with his most intimate friends; but as soon as evening came, counts, barons, knights, gentlemen, ecclesiastics, and citizens flocked in upon him. All, even his greatest enemies, were struck with the bold step he had taken, the joy which appeared to animate him, the power of his eloquence, and the lofty elevation and enthusiasm which made the influence of this simple monk almost irresistible. Many attributed this grandeur to something within him partaking of the divine, while the friends of the pope loudly declared that he was possessed with a devil.[503] Call followed call, and the crowd of curious visitors kept Luther standing to a late period of the night.
Meanwhile, the crowd continued to gather around the hotel in Rhodes where Luther had arrived. Some viewed him as a genius, while others saw him as a villain. The whole town was eager to see him.[502] He had the first few hours to rest from his journey and chat with his closest friends, but as evening approached, counts, barons, knights, gentlemen, clergy, and townspeople flocked to him. Everyone, even his fiercest critics, was taken aback by the bold move he had made, the joy radiating from him, the power of his speech, and the high spirit and enthusiasm that gave this simple monk an almost irresistible presence. Many attributed this greatness to something divine within him, while the pope’s supporters loudly claimed he was possessed by a devil.[503] Call after call poured in, and the throng of curious visitors kept Luther standing late into the night.
The next morning, (Friday, 17th April,) Ulric of Pappenheim, hereditary marshal of the empire, summoned him to appear at four o'clock, p. m., in presence of his imperial Majesty and the States of the empire. Luther received the summons with profound respect.
The next morning, (Friday, April 17th,) Ulric of Pappenheim, hereditary marshal of the empire, called him to appear at four o'clock, p. m., in front of his imperial Majesty and the States of the empire. Luther received the summons with deep respect.
Thus every thing is fixed, and Luther is going to appear for Jesus Christ before the most august assembly in the world. He was not without encouragement. The ardent knight, Ulric von Hütten, was then in the castle of Ebernburg. Not being able to appear at Worms, (for Leo X had asked Charles to send him to Rome bound hand and foot,) he desired to stretch out a friendly hand to Luther, and on the same day (17th April) wrote to him, borrowing the words of a king of Israel:[504] "The Lord hear thee in the day of trouble: the name of the God of Jacob defend thee: send thee help from the sanctuary, and strengthen thee out of Zion: remember all thy offerings, and accept thy burnt sacrifice. O dearly beloved Luther! my respected father, fear not and be strong. The counsel of the wicked has beset you, they have opened their mouths upon you like roaring lions. But the Lord will rise up against the wicked and scatter them. Fight then valiantly for Christ. As for me I also will fight boldly. Would to God I were permitted to see the wrinkling of their brows. But the Lord will cleanse his vine which the wild boar of the forest has laid waste.... May Christ preserve you!"[505]
Thus everything is set, and Luther is about to stand up for Jesus Christ before the most important assembly in the world. He didn’t lack support. The passionate knight, Ulric von Hütten, was then at the castle of Ebernburg. Unable to attend Worms (since Leo X had asked Charles to send him to Rome tied up), he wanted to reach out to Luther and on the same day (April 17) wrote to him, borrowing words from a king of Israel:[504] "The Lord hear you in the day of trouble: may the God of Jacob protect you: may He send you help from the sanctuary and strengthen you from Zion: remember all your offerings, and accept your burnt sacrifice. O dearly beloved Luther! my respected father, do not be afraid and stay strong. The plans of the wicked have surrounded you, they have opened their mouths against you like roaring lions. But the Lord will rise up against the wicked and scatter them. So fight bravely for Christ. As for me, I will also fight boldly. I wish I could see the worry on their faces. But the Lord will purify his vineyard which the wild boar of the forest has destroyed.... May Christ keep you!"[505]
Bucer did what Hütten was unable to do: he came from Ebernburg to Worms, and remained the whole time beside his friend.[506]
Bucer did what Hütten couldn't: he traveled from Ebernburg to Worms and stayed by his friend's side the entire time.[506]
Four o'clock having struck, the marshal of the empire presented himself. It was necessary to set out, and Luther made ready. He was moved at the thought of the august congress before which he was going to appear. The herald walked first, after him the marshal, and last the Reformer. The multitude thronging the streets was still more numerous than on the previous evening. It was impossible to get on; it was in vain to cry, Give place: the crowd increased. At length, the herald seeing the impossibility of reaching the town hall caused some private houses to be opened, and conducted Luther through gardens and secret passages to the place of meeting.[507] The people perceiving this rushed into the houses on the steps of the monk of Wittemberg, or placed themselves at the windows which looked into the gardens, while great numbers of persons got up on the roofs. The tops of the houses, the pavement, every place above and below was covered with spectators.[508]
Four o'clock struck, and the marshal of the empire arrived. It was time to leave, and Luther got ready. He felt emotional thinking about the important congress he was about to attend. The herald led the way, followed by the marshal, and lastly, the Reformer. The crowd in the streets was even larger than the night before. It was impossible to move; shouting "Make way!" had no effect as the crowd kept growing. Eventually, the herald realizing they couldn't reach the town hall, had some private homes opened up and guided Luther through gardens and hidden paths to the meeting place.[507] The people, noticing this, rushed into the homes following the monk from Wittenberg, or took positions at the windows overlooking the gardens, while many climbed onto the rooftops. The tops of the buildings, the pavement, and every spot above and below were filled with onlookers.[508]
Arrived at length at the town, Luther and those who all accompanied him were again unable, because of the crowd, to reach the door. Give way! give way! Not one stirred. At last the imperial soldiers forced a passage for Luther. The people rushed forward to get in after him, but the soldiers kept them back with their halberds. Luther got into the interior of the building, which was completely filled with people. As well in the antechambers as at the windows there were more than five thousand spectators—German, Italian, Spanish, etc. Luther advanced with difficulty. As he was at length approaching the door, which was to bring him in presence of his judges, he met a valiant knight, the celebrated general, George of Freundsberg, who, four years afterwards, at the head of the German lansquenets couched his lance on the field of Pavia, and bearing down upon the left wing of the French army, drove it into the Tessino, and in a great measure decided the captivity of the king of France. The old general, seeing Luther pass, clapped him on the shoulder, and shaking his head, whitened in battle, kindly said to him, "Poor monk, poor monk, you have before you a march, and an affair, the like to which neither I nor a great many captains have ever seen in the bloodiest of our battles. But if your cause is just, and you have full confidence in it, advance in the name of God and fear nothing. God will not forsake you."[509] A beautiful homage borne by warlike courage to courage of intellect. It is the saying of a king,[510] "He that ruleth his spirit is greater than he that taketh a city."
Finally arriving in town, Luther and his companions found it impossible to get through the crowd to the door. "Make way! Make way!" But no one moved. Eventually, the imperial soldiers cleared a path for Luther. The people surged forward to follow him, but the soldiers held them back with their halberds. Luther made his way inside the building, which was packed with people. There were over five thousand spectators in the antechambers and at the windows—Germans, Italians, Spaniards, and more. Luther struggled to advance. As he finally approached the door that would bring him face to face with his judges, he encountered a brave knight, the famous general George of Freundsberg. Four years later, he would lead the German landsknechts and tilt his lance on the battlefield of Pavia, pushing back the left wing of the French army into the Tessino, significantly contributing to the capture of the King of France. The old general, seeing Luther pass by, patted him on the shoulder and, shaking his head—now gray from battle—said kindly, "Poor monk, poor monk, ahead of you lies a journey and a situation unlike anything I've seen in even the fiercest of our battles. But if your cause is just, and you have complete confidence in it, move forward in the name of God and fear nothing. God will not abandon you." [509] A beautiful tribute from a warrior to the courage of intellect. It echoes the words of a king, [510] "He who controls his spirit is greater than he who captures a city."
At length the doors of the hall being opened, Luther entered, and many persons not belonging to the Diet made their way in along with him. Never had man appeared before an assembly so august. The emperor Charles V, whose dominions embraced the old and the new world; his brother, the Archduke Ferdinand; six electors of the empire, whose descendants are now almost all wearing the crown of kings; twenty-four dukes, the greater part of them reigning over territories of greater or less extent, and among whom are some bearing a name which will afterwards become formidable to the Reformation (the Duke of Alva, and his two sons); eight margraves; thirty archbishops, bishops, or prelates; seven ambassadors, among them those of the kings of France and England; the deputies of ten free towns; a great number of princes, counts, and sovereign barons; the nuncios of the pope; in all, two hundred and four personages. Such was the court before which Martin Luther appeared.
At last, the doors of the hall were opened, and Luther entered, with many people not part of the Diet following him in. Never had anyone stood before such a distinguished assembly. Emperor Charles V, who ruled over both the old and new worlds; his brother, Archduke Ferdinand; six electors of the empire, whose descendants now mostly wear crowns of kings; twenty-four dukes, most of whom govern territories of varying sizes, including some who will later become powerful figures in the Reformation (the Duke of Alva and his two sons); eight margraves; thirty archbishops, bishops, or prelates; seven ambassadors, including those from the kings of France and England; representatives from ten free towns; and a large number of princes, counts, and sovereign barons; the papal nuncios; in total, two hundred and four notable figures. This was the court before which Martin Luther stood.
This appearance was in itself a signal victory gained over the papacy. The pope had condemned the man; yet here he stood before a tribunal which thus far placed itself above the pope. The pope had put him under his ban, debarring him from all human society, and yet here he was convened in honourable terms, and admitted before the most august assembly in the world. The pope had ordered that his mouth should be for ever mute, and he was going to open it before an audience of thousands, assembled from the remotest quarters of Christendom. An immense revolution had thus been accomplished by the instrumentality of Luther. Rome was descending from her throne, descending at the bidding of a monk.
This appearance was, in itself, a significant victory over the papacy. The pope had condemned the man; yet here he stood before a tribunal that was, so far, placing itself above the pope. The pope had excommunicated him, cutting him off from all human society, and yet here he was convened in respectful terms and admitted before the most prestigious assembly in the world. The pope had ordered that his voice should be silenced forever, and he was going to speak before an audience of thousands gathered from the farthest corners of Christendom. An enormous revolution had thus been brought about through the efforts of Luther. Rome was descending from her throne, and it was at the command of a monk.
Some of the princes seeing the humble son of the miner of Mansfeld disconcerted in presence of the assembly of kings, kindly approached him; and one of them said, "Fear not them who can kill the body, but cannot kill the soul." Another added, "When you will be brought before kings it is not you that speak but the Spirit of your Father that speaketh in you."[511] Thus, the Reformer was consoled in the very words of his Master, by the instrumentality of the rulers of the world.
Some of the princes, seeing the humble son of the miner from Mansfeld feeling uneasy in front of the assembly of kings, kindly approached him. One of them said, "Don’t be afraid of those who can kill the body but can't kill the soul." Another added, "When you are brought before kings, it’s not you who speaks, but the Spirit of your Father speaking through you."[511] In this way, the Reformer was comforted with the very words of his Master through the influence of the world’s rulers.
During this time, the guards were making way for Luther, who advanced till he came in front of the throne of Charles V. The sight of the august assembly seemed for a moment to dazzle and overawe him. All eyes were fixed upon him. The agitation gradually calmed down into perfect silence. "Don't speak before you are asked," said the marshal of the empire to him and withdrew.
During this time, the guards were making way for Luther, who stepped forward until he stood in front of the throne of Charles V. The sight of the impressive gathering seemed to dazzle and intimidate him for a moment. All eyes were focused on him. The agitation slowly settled into complete silence. "Don’t speak until you’re asked," the marshal of the empire told him before stepping back.
After a moment of solemn stillness, John of Eck, the chancellor of the Archbishop of Trèves, a friend of Aleander, and who must not be confounded with the theologian of the same name, rose up and said, in a distinct and audible voice, first in Latin and then in German, "Martin Luther, his sacred and invincible imperial Majesty has cited you before his throne, by the advice and counsel of the States of the holy Roman empire, in order to call upon you to answer these two questions: First, Do you admit that these books were composed by you?"—At the same time the imperial orator pointed to about twenty books lying on the table in the middle of the hall in front of Luther—"I did not exactly know how they had procured them," says Luther, in relating the circumstance. It was Aleander who had taken the trouble. "Secondly," continued the chancellor, "do you mean to retract these books and their contents, or do you persist in the things which you have advanced in them?"
After a moment of serious silence, John of Eck, the chancellor of the Archbishop of Trèves and a friend of Aleander—who should not be confused with the theologian of the same name—stood up and said in a clear voice, first in Latin and then in German, "Martin Luther, his sacred and invincible imperial Majesty has summoned you before his throne, following the advice and counsel of the States of the holy Roman Empire, to ask you these two questions: First, do you admit that you wrote these books?"—At that moment, the imperial orator pointed to about twenty books lying on the table in the center of the hall in front of Luther—"I wasn't exactly sure how they had gotten them," Luther noted when recounting this event. It was Aleander who took the effort. "Secondly," the chancellor continued, "do you intend to retract these books and their contents, or do you stand by what you have said in them?"
Luther, without hesitation, was going to reply in the affirmative to the former question, when his counsel, Jerôme Schurff, hastily interfering, called out, "Read the titles of the books."[512] The chancellor going up to the table read the titles. The list contained several devotional works not relating to controversy.
Luther was ready to answer yes to the earlier question when his lawyer, Jerôme Schurff, quickly interrupted, saying, "Read the titles of the books."[512] The chancellor approached the table and read the titles. The list included several devotional books that did not address any controversies.
After the enumeration, Luther said, first in Latin, and then in German.
After the counting, Luther spoke first in Latin and then in German.
"Most gracious Emperor! Gracious Princes and Lords!
Most gracious Emperor! Gracious Princes and Lords!
"His imperial Majesty asks me two questions.
"His imperial Majesty has two questions for me."
"As to the first, I acknowledge that the books which have been named are mine: I cannot deny them.
"As for the first, I admit that the books mentioned are mine: I can't deny it."
"As to the second, considering that is a question which concerns faith and the salvation of souls, a question in which the Word of God is interested, in other words, the greatest and most precious treasure either in heaven or on the earth,[513] I should act imprudently were I to answer without reflection. I might say less than the occasion requires, or more than the truth demands, and thus incur the guilt which our Saviour denounced when he said, 'Whoso shall deny me before men, him will I deny before my Father who is in Heaven.' Wherefore, I pray your imperial Majesty, with all submission, to give me time that I may answer without offence to the Word of God."
"As for the second point, since it deals with faith and the salvation of souls, and involves the Word of God—essentially the greatest and most valuable treasure, whether in heaven or on earth,[513] I would be acting carelessly if I answered without careful thought. I could say too little for the occasion or too much for the truth, and in doing so, I would risk incurring the guilt our Savior warned about when he said, 'Whoever denies me before men, I will deny before my Father in heaven.' Therefore, I respectfully ask your imperial Majesty for some time to ensure my answer does not offend the Word of God."
This reply, far from countenancing the idea that there was any hesitation in Luther, was worthy of the Reformer and the assembly. It became him to show calmness and circumspection in so grave a matter, and to refrain on this solemn moment from every thing that might seem to indicate passion or levity. Moreover, by taking a suitable time, he would thereby the better prove the immovable firmness of his resolution. History shows us many men who, by a word uttered too hastily, brought great calamities on themselves, and on the world. Luther curbs his naturally impetuous character; restrains a tongue always ready to give utterance; is silent when all the feelings of his heart are longing to embody themselves in words. This self restraint, this calmness, so extraordinary in such a man, increased his power a hundred-fold, and put him into a position to answer afterwards with a wisdom, power, and dignity which will disappoint the expectation of his enemies, and confound their pride and malice.
This response, rather than suggesting any doubt in Luther, was fitting for both the Reformer and the gathering. He needed to demonstrate composure and careful thought in such a serious situation and to hold back, at this important moment, from anything that might appear emotional or trivial. Additionally, by choosing an appropriate time, he would better showcase the unwavering strength of his resolve. History shows us that many people, by speaking too quickly, have brought great misfortune upon themselves and the world. Luther controls his naturally impulsive nature; he holds back a tongue that is always eager to speak; he stays silent even when his heart yearns to express itself in words. This self-control, this calmness, so remarkable in someone like him, amplified his influence significantly and positioned him to respond later with wisdom, strength, and dignity that would exceed the expectations of his adversaries and bewilder their pride and spite.
Nevertheless, as he had spoken in a respectful and somewhat subdued tone, several thought he was hesitating and even afraid. A ray of hope gleamed into the souls of the partizans of Rome. Charles, impatient to know the man whose words shook the empire, had never taken his eye off him. Now turning towards one of his courtiers, he said with disdain, "Assuredly that is not the man who would ever make me turn heretic."[514] Then rising up, the young emperor withdrew with his ministers to the council chamber: the electors with the princes were closeted in another, and the deputies of the free towns in a third. The Diet when it again met, agreed to grant Luther's request. It was a great mistake in men under the influence of passion. "Martin Luther," said the chancellor of Trèves, "his imperial Majesty, in accordance with the goodness which is natural to him, is pleased to grant you another day, but on condition that you give your reply verbally and not in writing."
Nevertheless, since he spoke in a respectful and somewhat subdued tone, many thought he was hesitating and even afraid. A glimmer of hope lit up the hearts of the supporters of Rome. Charles, eager to know the man whose words rattled the empire, never took his eyes off him. Now, turning to one of his courtiers, he said with contempt, "That is definitely not the man who would ever make me turn heretic." [514] Then, standing up, the young emperor left with his ministers for the council chamber: the electors with the princes were gathered in another room, and the representatives of the free towns in a third. When the Diet reconvened, they agreed to grant Luther's request. It was a significant mistake made by those swept up in passion. "Martin Luther," said the chancellor of Trèves, "his imperial Majesty, in line with his natural goodness, is pleased to give you another day, but on the condition that you respond verbally and not in writing."
Then the imperial herald advanced and reconducted Luther to his hôtel. Menaces and cheers succeeded each other as he passed along. The most unfavourable reports were circulated among Luther's friends. "The Diet is dissatisfied," said they, "the envoys of the pope triumph, the Reformer will be sacrificed." Men's passions grew hot. Several gentlemen hastened to Luther's lodgings. "Doctor," asked they in deep emotion, "how does the matter stand? It is confidently said that they mean to burn you."[515] "That won't be," continued they, "or they shall pay for it with their lives."—"And that would have been the result," said Luther, twenty years later at Eisleben, when quoting these expressions.
Then the imperial herald stepped forward and escorted Luther back to his hotel. Threats and cheers alternated as he walked by. The worst rumors spread among Luther's friends. "The Diet is unhappy," they said, "the pope's envoys are winning, the Reformer will be doomed." Tempers flared. Several gentlemen rushed to Luther's lodgings. "Doctor," they asked with deep concern, "what's the situation? It's being confidently said that they plan to burn you." "That won't happen," they continued, "or they'll pay for it with their lives." — "And that would have been the outcome," Luther said twenty years later in Eisleben when recalling these words.
On the other hand, Luther's enemies were quite elated. "He has asked time," said they; "he will retract. When at a distance he spoke arrogantly, but now his courage fails him.... He is vanquished."
On the other hand, Luther's enemies were really happy. "He has asked for time," they said; "he's going to back down. When he was far away, he spoke boldly, but now he's losing his nerve... He’s defeated."
Luther, perhaps, was the only tranquil person in Worms. A few moments after his return from the Diet, he wrote to the imperial counsellor Cuspianus. "I write you from the midst of tumult, (meaning, probably, the noise of the crowd outside his hotel;) I have, within this hour, appeared before the emperor and his brother.[516] I have acknowledged the authorship, and declared that to-morrow I will give my answer concerning retractation. By the help of Jesus Christ, not one iota of all my works will I retract."[517]
Luther was probably the only calm person in Worms. A few moments after he returned from the Diet, he wrote to the imperial counselor Cuspianus. "I'm writing to you amid the chaos, (likely referring to the noise of the crowd outside my hotel); I just appeared before the emperor and his brother within the last hour.[516] I acknowledged my authorship and declared that tomorrow I'll give my answer regarding retraction. With the help of Jesus Christ, I will not take back even a single word of my work."[517]
The excitement of the people and of the foreign troops increased every hour. While parties were proceeding calmly to the business of the Diet, others were coming to blows in the streets. The Spanish soldiers, proud and merciless, gave offence by their insolence to the burghers of the town. One of these satellites of Charles, finding in a bookseller's shop the papal bull, with a commentary on it by Hütten, took and tore it to pieces, and then trampled the fragments under his feet. Others, having discovered several copies of Luther's 'Captivity of Babylon,' carried them off and tore them. The people, indignant, rushed upon the soldiers, and obliged them to take flight. On another occasion, a Spanish horseman, with drawn sword, was seen in one of the principal streets of Worms in pursuit of a German who was fleeing before him, while the people durst not interfere.[518]
The excitement of the people and the foreign troops grew with each passing hour. While some were calmly handling the business of the Diet, others were fighting in the streets. The Spanish soldiers, arrogant and ruthless, offended the townspeople with their arrogance. One of Charles's men, finding a papal bull in a bookstore along with a commentary by Hütten, ripped it to shreds and then stomped on the pieces. Others found several copies of Luther's 'Captivity of Babylon,' took them, and tore them apart. The enraged crowd charged at the soldiers, forcing them to flee. On another occasion, a Spanish horseman with his sword drawn was seen chasing a German down one of the main streets of Worms while the people dared not intervene.[518]
Some politicians thought they had discovered a method of saving Luther. "Recant your errors in doctrine," said they to him; "but persist in all you have said against the pope and his court, and you are safe." Aleander shuddered at this advice. But Luther, immovable in his purpose, declared that he set little value on a political reform, if not founded on faith.
Some politicians believed they found a way to save Luther. "Take back your mistakes in doctrine," they told him; "but keep everything you've said against the pope and his court, and you'll be fine." Aleander was horrified by this suggestion. But Luther, determined in his beliefs, stated that he didn't care much for a political reform if it wasn't based on faith.
The 18th of April having arrived, Glapio, the Chancellor Eck, and Aleander, met at an early hour, by order of Charles V, to fix the course of procedure in regard to Luther.
The 18th of April arrived, and Glapio, Chancellor Eck, and Aleander met early, on the orders of Charles V, to determine how to deal with Luther.
Luther had been for a moment overawed on the evening before when he had to appear before so august an assembly. His heart had been agitated at the sight of so many princes before whom great kingdoms humbly bent the knee. The thought that he was going to refuse obedience to men whom God had invested with sovereign power gave him deep concern; and he felt the necessity of seeking strength from a higher source. "He who, attacked by the enemy, holds the shield of faith," said he one day, "is like Perseus holding the head of the Gorgon, on which whoever looked, that moment died. So ought we to hold up the Son of God against the snares of the devil."[519] On this morning of the 18th April, he had moments of trouble, when the face of God was hid from him. His faith becomes faint; his enemies seem to multiply before him; his imagination is overpowered.... His soul is like a ship tossed by a violent tempest, now plunged to the depths of the sea, and again mounting up towards heaven. At this hour of bitter sorrow, when he drinks the cup of Christ, and feels as it were in a garden of Gethsemane, he turns his face to the ground, and sends forth broken cries, cries which we cannot comprehend, unless we figure to ourselves the depth of the agony from which they ascended up to God.[520] "God Almighty! God Eternal! how terrible is the world! how it opens its mouth to swallow me up! and how defective my confidence in thee! How weak the flesh, how powerful Satan! If I must put my hope in that which the world calls powerful, I am undone!... The knell is struck,[521] and judgment is pronounced!... O God! O God! O thou, my God! assist me against all the wisdom of the world! Do it: Thou must do it.... Thou alone ... for it is not my work, but Thine. I have nothing to do here; I have nothing to do contending thus with the mighty of the world! I, too, would like to spend tranquil and happy days. But the cause is Thine: and it is just and everlasting! O Lord! be my help! Faithful God, immutable God! I trust not in any man. That were vain. All that is of man vacillates! All that comes of man gives way. O God, O God, dost thou not hear?... My God! art thou dead?... No, thou canst not die! Thou only hidest Thyself. Thou hast chosen me for this work. I know it! Act, then, O God!... Stand by my side, for the sake of thy well beloved Son Jesus Christ, who is my defence, my buckler, and my fortress."
Luther had felt overwhelmed for a moment the night before when he had to stand before such a prestigious assembly. His heart raced at the sight of so many princes, before whom powerful kingdoms humbly bowed. The thought of refusing obedience to the men whom God had appointed with sovereign power troubled him deeply; he felt the need to seek strength from a higher source. "He who, under attack from the enemy, holds the shield of faith," he once said, "is like Perseus holding the head of the Gorgon, whose gaze made anyone who looked upon it die instantly. We should hold up the Son of God against the devil's traps." [519] On the morning of April 18th, he faced moments of distress when he felt God was hidden from him. His faith wavered; his enemies seemed to multiply around him; his imagination overwhelmed him.... His soul felt like a ship tossed in a violent storm, sometimes sinking to the ocean's depths, and other times rising toward the sky. In this hour of deep sorrow, as he embraced the suffering of Christ, feeling like he was in the garden of Gethsemane, he turned his face to the ground and let out cries that we can't fully understand unless we imagine the intensity of the agony from which they arose to God. [520] "Almighty God! Eternal God! How terrifying is the world! It opens its mouth to swallow me whole! How weak my trust in you is! How frail is the flesh, how powerful is Satan! If I must place my hope in what the world deems strong, I am lost!... The bell tolls,[521] and judgment has been passed!... Oh God! Oh God! Oh, my God! Help me against all the wisdom of the world! Do it: You must do it.... Only You ... for this is not my fight, but Yours. I have nothing to accomplish here; I have no business battling against the powerful of the world! I, too, want peaceful and happy days. But the cause is Yours: just and eternal! Oh Lord! be my help! Faithful God, unchanging God! I do not trust in any man. That would be futile. Everything from man wavers! All that originates from man collapses. Oh God, oh God, can you not hear?... My God! Are you dead?... No, You cannot die! You are simply hiding Yourself. You have chosen me for this task. I know it! Act, then, oh God!... Stand by my side, for the sake of Your beloved Son Jesus Christ, who is my defense, my shield, and my fortress."
After a moment of silence and wrestling, he continues thus: "Lord, where standest thou?... O, my God, where art thou?... Come! come! I am ready!... I am ready to give up my life for thy truth ... patient as a lamb. For the cause is just, and it is thine!... I will not break off from thee either now or through eternity!... And though the world should be filled with devils, though my body, which however is the work of thy hands, should bite the dust, be racked on the wheel, cut in pieces ... ground to powder ... my soul is thine.[522] Yes, thy Word is my pledge. My soul belongs to thee, and will be eternally near thee.... Amen.... O God, help me.... Amen."
After a moment of silence and struggle, he continues: "Lord, where are you?... Oh, my God, where are you?... Come! Come! I’m ready!... I’m ready to give up my life for your truth... patient as a lamb. Because the cause is just, and it’s yours!... I will not separate from you now or for eternity!... And even if the world were filled with demons, even if my body, which you made, were to fall to the ground, be tortured on a wheel, cut to pieces... ground to dust... my soul is yours.[522] Yes, your Word is my promise. My soul belongs to you and will always be close to you.... Amen.... Oh God, help me.... Amen."
This prayer explains Luther and the Reformation. History here lifts the veil of the sanctuary, and shows us the secret place whence strength and courage were imparted to this humble man, who was the instrument of God in emancipating the soul and the thoughts of men, and beginning a new era. Luther and the Reformation are here seen in actual operation. We perceive their most secret springs. We discover where their power lay. This meditation by one who is sacrificing himself to the cause of truth, is found among the collection of pieces relating to Luther's appearance at Worms, under number XVI, among safe-conducts, and other documents of a similar description. Some of his friends doubtless extended it, and so have preserved it to us. In my opinion, it is one of the finest documents on record.
This prayer explains Luther and the Reformation. History here pulls back the curtain of the sanctuary and shows us the hidden place from which strength and courage were given to this humble man, who was God's instrument in freeing people's souls and thoughts, and starting a new era. Luther and the Reformation are here seen in action. We see their most secret motivations. We find out where their power came from. This reflection, from someone who is dedicated to the cause of truth, is found in the collection of pieces related to Luther's appearance at Worms, under number XVI, alongside safe-conducts and other similar documents. Some of his friends likely contributed to it, allowing it to be preserved for us. In my view, it's one of the finest documents on record.
Luther, after he had thus prayed, found that peace of mind without which no man can do anything great. He read the Word of God; he glanced over his writings, and endeavoured to put his reply into proper shape. The thought that he was going to bear testimony to Jesus Christ and his Word, in presence of the emperor and the empire, filled his heart with joy. The moment of appearance was drawing near; he went up with emotion to the sacred volume, which was lying open on his table, put his left hand upon it, and lifting his right toward heaven, swore to remain faithful to the gospel, and to confess his faith freely, should he even seal his confession with his blood. After doing so, he felt still more at peace.
Luther, after he had prayed, experienced a sense of peace that is essential for anyone to achieve great things. He read the Word of God, reviewed his writings, and worked on organizing his response. The thought of testifying to Jesus Christ and His Word in front of the emperor and the empire filled him with joy. The moment of his appearance was approaching; he moved emotionally to the sacred book that was open on his table, placed his left hand on it, and raising his right hand to heaven, pledged to remain faithful to the gospel and to share his faith openly, even if it meant sealing his confession with his blood. After this, he felt an even greater sense of peace.
At four o'clock the herald presented himself and conducted him to the place where the Diet sat. The general curiosity had increased, for the reply behoved to be decisive. The Diet being engaged, Luther was obliged to wait in the court in the middle of an immense crowd, who moved to and fro like a troubled sea, and pressed the Reformer with its waves. The doctor spent two long hours amid this gazing multitude. "I was not used," says he, "to all these doings and all this noise."[523] It would have been a sad preparation for an ordinary man. But Luther was with God. His eye was serene, his features unruffled; the Eternal had placed him upon a rock. Night began to fall, and the lamps were lighted in the hall of the Diet. Their glare passed through the ancient windows and shone into the court. Every thing assumed a solemn aspect. At last the doctor was introduced. Many persons entered with him, for there was an eager desire to hear his answer. All minds were on the stretch waiting impatiently for the decisive moment which now approached. This time Luther was free, calm, self-possessed, and showed not the least appearance of being under constraint. Prayer had produced its fruits. The princes having taken their seats, not without difficulty, for their places were almost invaded, and the monk of Wittemberg again standing in front of Charles V, the chancellor of the Elector of Trêves rose up, and said:—
At four o'clock, the herald showed up and took him to where the Diet was meeting. The crowd's curiosity had grown, since the upcoming response needed to be conclusive. While the Diet was busy, Luther had to wait in the courtyard amidst a huge crowd that shifted restlessly, pressing in on the Reformer like waves. He spent two long hours among the onlookers. "I wasn't used to all this commotion and noise," he said. It would have been a daunting situation for an ordinary person. But Luther was with God. His gaze was calm, his expression unfazed; the Eternal had set him on solid ground. As night approached, the lamps in the Diet hall were lit. Their light streamed through the old windows and illuminated the courtyard. Everything took on a serious tone. Finally, the doctor was called in. Many people entered with him, eager to hear his answer. Everyone was tense, waiting impatiently for the crucial moment that was about to arrive. This time, Luther was free, relaxed, composed, and showed no signs of being under pressure. Prayer had borne fruit. The princes settled into their seats, not without some effort, as their spots were nearly overrun, and the monk from Wittenberg stood once more before Charles V. The chancellor of the Elector of Treves rose and said:—
"Martin Luther! you yesterday asked a delay, which is now expired. Assuredly it might have been denied you, since every one ought to be sufficiently instructed in matters of faith to be able always to render an account of it to whosoever asks,—you above all, so great and able a doctor of Holy Scripture.... Now, then, reply to the question of his Majesty, who has treated you with so much mildness. Do you mean to defend your books out and out, or do you mean to retract some part of them?"
"Martin Luther! You asked for a delay yesterday, which has now ended. Surely, this could have been denied to you, since everyone should be knowledgeable enough in matters of faith to always explain it to anyone who asks—especially you, being such a great and knowledgeable scholar of Holy Scripture.... Now, please respond to the question from his Majesty, who has shown you great kindness. Do you intend to defend your books completely, or do you plan to take back some parts of them?"
These words, which the chancellor had spoken in Latin, he repeated in German.
These words, which the chancellor had spoken in Latin, he repeated in German.
"Then doctor Martin Luther," say the Acts of Worms, "replied in the most humble and submissive manner. He did not raise his voice; he spoke not with violence, but with candour, meekness, suitableness, and modesty, and yet with great joy and Christian firmness."[524]
"Then Doctor Martin Luther," say the Acts of Worms, "responded in the most humble and respectful way. He did not raise his voice; he spoke not with aggression, but with honesty, gentleness, appropriateness, and humility, and yet with great joy and steadfast Christian resolve."[524]
"Most serene Emperor! illustrious princes, gracious lords," said Luther, turning his eyes on Charles and the assembly, "I this day appear humbly before you, according to the order which was given me yesterday, and by the mercies of God I implore your Majesty and august Highnesses to listen kindly to the defence of a cause which I am assured is righteous and true. If from ignorance I am wanting in the usages and forms of courts, pardon me; for I was not brought up in the palaces of kings, but in the obscurity of a cloister.
"Most honorable Emperor! Distinguished princes, esteemed lords," said Luther, looking at Charles and the assembly, "I stand before you today, as instructed yesterday, and by the grace of God, I ask your Majesty and your esteemed Highnesses to kindly consider the defense of a cause that I believe is just and true. If I lack knowledge of court customs and procedures, I ask for your forgiveness; for I was not raised in the palaces of kings, but in the seclusion of a monastery.
"Yesterday two questions were asked me on the part of his imperial Majesty: the first, if I was the author of the books whose titles were read; the second, if I was willing to recal or to defend the doctrine which I have taught in them. I answered the first question, and I adhere to my answer.
"Yesterday, two questions were asked of me by his imperial Majesty: the first was whether I was the author of the books whose titles were read; the second was whether I was willing to recant or defend the beliefs I've taught in them. I answered the first question, and I stand by my answer."
"As to the second, I have composed books on very different subjects. In some I treat of faith and good works in a manner so pure, simple, and christian, that my enemies even, far from finding any thing to censure, confess that these writings are useful, and worthy of being read by the godly. The papal bull, how severe soever it may be, acknowledges this. Were I then to retract these what should I do?... Wretch! I should be alone among men abandoning truths which the unanimous voice of my friends and enemies approves, and opposing what the whole world glories in confessing.
"As for the second point, I've written books on a variety of topics. In some, I discuss faith and good deeds in such a pure, simple, and Christian way that even my enemies can't find anything to criticize; they admit that these writings are valuable and deserve to be read by the faithful. The papal bull, no matter how harsh, recognizes this. If I were to take these back, what would I be doing?... What a fool! I would be alone among people, abandoning truths that everyone, both my friends and enemies, agrees on and opposing what the entire world proudly confesses."
"In the second place, I have composed books against the papacy, books in which I have attacked those who, by their false doctrine, their bad life, and scandalous example, desolate the Christian world, and destroy both body and soul. Is not the fact proved by the complaints of all who fear God? Is it not evident that the human laws and doctrines of the popes entangle, torture, martyr the consciences of the faithful, while the clamant and never-ending extortions of Rome engulph the wealth and riches of Christendom, and particularly of this illustrious kingdom?
"In the second place, I have written books against the papacy, where I criticize those who, through their false teachings, immoral lives, and scandalous examples, ravage the Christian world and harm both body and soul. Isn't this confirmed by the complaints of all who fear God? Isn't it clear that the human laws and doctrines of the popes ensnare, torment, and martyr the consciences of the faithful, while the constant and relentless demands of Rome consume the wealth and resources of Christendom, especially in this distinguished kingdom?"
"Were I to retract what I have written on this subject what should I do?... What but fortify that tyranny, and open a still wider door for these many and great iniquities?[525] Then, breaking forth with more fury than ever, these arrogant men would be seen increasing, usurping, raging more and more. And the yoke which weighs upon the Christian people would by my retractation not only be rendered more severe, but would become, so to speak, more legitimate; for by this very retractation it would have received the confirmation of your most serene Majesty and of all the States of the holy empire. Good God! I should thus be as it were an infamous cloak destined to hide and cover all sorts of malice and tyranny.
"Were I to take back what I've written on this subject, what would I do?… What could I do except reinforce that tyranny and open an even wider door to these many and great wrongs?[525] Then, these arrogant men would burst forth with even more fury, seen growing in power, usurping, and raging more than ever. The burden on the Christian people would not only become heavier due to my retraction, but it would also be seen as more legitimate; for this very retraction would receive the approval of your most serene Majesty and all the states of the holy empire. Good God! I would thus become, in a sense, an infamous cover meant to hide and conceal all kinds of wickedness and tyranny."
"Thirdly and lastly, I have written books against private individuals who wished to defend Roman tyranny and to destroy the faith. I confess frankly that I have perhaps attacked them with more violence than became my ecclesiastical profession. I do not regard myself as a saint; but no more can I retract these books: because, by so doing, I should sanction the impiety of my opponents, and give them occasion to oppress the people of God with still greater cruelty.
"Lastly, I have written books against individuals who wanted to defend Roman tyranny and undermine the faith. I honestly admit that I may have attacked them more fiercely than is appropriate for someone in my position. I don't consider myself a saint; however, I cannot take back these books because doing so would mean endorsing the wrongdoing of my opponents and allowing them to oppress God's people with even greater cruelty."
"Still I am a mere man and not God; and I will defend myself as Jesus Christ did. He said, 'If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil,' (John, xviii, 23.) How much more should I, who am but dust and ashes and so apt to err, desire every one to state what he can against my doctrine?
"Still, I am just a man and not God; and I will defend myself like Jesus Christ did. He said, 'If I have spoken evil, bear witness of the evil,' (John, xviii, 23.) How much more should I, who am just dust and ashes and so prone to error, want everyone to point out anything they can against my teachings?"
"Wherefore, I implore you, by the mercies of God, you, most serene Emperor, and you, most illustrious princes, and all others of high or low degree, to prove to me by the writings of the prophets and the apostles that I am mistaken. As soon as this shall have been proved, I will forthwith retract all my errors, and be the first to seize my writings and cast them into the flames.
"Therefore, I urge you, by the mercies of God, you, most honorable Emperor, and you, most distinguished princes, and all others of high or low status, to show me through the writings of the prophets and the apostles that I've made a mistake. As soon as this is proven, I will immediately withdraw all my errors and be the first to take my writings and throw them into the fire."
"What I have just said shows clearly, I think, that I have well considered and weighed the dangers to which I expose myself; but, far from being alarmed, it gives me great joy to see that the gospel is now, as in former times, a cause of trouble and discord. This is the characteristic and the destiny of the Word of God. 'I came not to send peace, but a sword,' said Jesus Christ. (Matt. x, 34.) God is wonderful and terrible in working: let us beware, while pretending to put a stop to discord, that we do not persecute the holy Word of God, and bring in upon ourselves a frightful deluge of insurmountable dangers, present disasters, and eternal destruction.... Let us beware that the reign of this young and noble prince, the Emperor Charles, on whom, under God, we build such high hopes, do not only begin, but also continue and end under the most fatal auspices. I might cite examples taken from the oracles of God," continues Luther, speaking in presence of the greatest monarch in the world with the noblest courage, "I might remind you of the Pharaohs, the kings of Babylon, and of Israel, who never laboured more effectually for their ruin than when by counsels, apparently very wise, they thought they were establishing their empire. 'God removeth the mountains, and they know not.' (Job, ix, 5.)
"What I've just said makes it clear, I think, that I've carefully considered the dangers I'm facing; but instead of being scared, I'm actually really glad to see that the gospel is still, like in the past, a source of conflict and disagreement. This is the nature and the fate of the Word of God. 'I came not to send peace, but a sword,' said Jesus Christ. (Matt. x, 34.) God is both amazing and frightening in His work: let’s be cautious that in trying to stop discord, we don’t end up persecuting the holy Word of God and bring upon ourselves a terrible flood of overwhelming dangers, present disasters, and eternal destruction.... Let’s be careful that the reign of this young and noble prince, Emperor Charles, on whom we place such high hopes under God, doesn’t just begin but also continue and end with disastrous consequences. I could list examples from the scriptures," Luther continued, speaking in front of the greatest monarch in the world with remarkable courage, "I could remind you of the Pharaohs, the kings of Babylon, and of Israel, who never worked harder for their own downfall than when they believed they were wisely building their empires. 'God removeth the mountains, and they know not.' (Job, ix, 5.)"
"If I speak thus, it is not because I think such great princes have need of my counsels, but because I wish to restore to Germany what she has a right to expect from her children. Thus, commending myself to your august Majesty and your serene Highnesses, I humbly supplicate you not to allow the hatred of my enemies to bring down upon me an indignation which I have not deserved."[526]
"If I say this, it’s not because I believe these great leaders need my advice, but because I want to give Germany what she deserves from her children. So, I commend myself to your esteemed Majesty and your honorable Highnesses, and I respectfully ask you not to let my enemies' hatred bring upon me a wrath that I haven’t earned." [526]
Luther had spoken these words in German, modestly, but also with much warmth and firmness.[527] He was ordered to repeat them in Latin. The emperor had no liking for German. The imposing assembly which surrounded the Reformer, the noise and excitement, had fatigued him. "I was covered with perspiration," says he, "heated by the crowd, standing in the midst of the princes." Frederick de Thun, confidential counsellor of the Elector of Saxony, stationed by his master's order behind the Reformer, to take care that he was not taken by surprise or overborne, seeing the condition of the poor monk, said to him, "If you cannot repeat your address, that will do, doctor." But Luther, having paused a moment to take breath, resumed, and pronounced his address in Latin, with the same vigour as at first.[528]
Luther had said these words in German, humbly, but also with a lot of warmth and conviction.[527] He was told to repeat them in Latin. The emperor wasn’t a fan of German. The large gathering surrounding the Reformer, the noise and excitement, had worn him out. "I was sweating," he says, "overheated by the crowd, standing among the princes." Frederick de Thun, the trusted advisor of the Elector of Saxony, positioned behind the Reformer as per his master’s orders to ensure he wasn’t caught off guard or overwhelmed, seeing how the poor monk was feeling, said to him, "If you can’t repeat your speech, that’s fine, doctor." But Luther, taking a moment to catch his breath, continued and delivered his speech in Latin with the same energy as before.[528]
"This pleased the Elector Frederick exceedingly," relates the Reformer.
"This made Elector Frederick very happy," says the Reformer.
As soon as he had ceased, the Chancellor of Trêves, the orator of the Diet, said to him, indignantly, "You have not answered the question which was put to you. You are not here to throw doubt on what has been decided by Councils. You are asked to give a clear and definite reply. Will you, or will you not retract?" Luther then replied, without hesitation, "Since your most serene Majesty, and your high Mightinesses, call upon me for a simple, clear, and definite answer, I will give it;[529] and it is this: I cannot subject my faith either to the pope or to councils, because it is clear as day that they have often fallen into error, and even into great self-contradiction. If, then, I am not disproved by passages of Scripture, or by clear arguments; if I am not convinced by the very passages which I have quoted, and so bound in conscience to submit to the word of God, I neither can nor will retract any thing, for it is not safe for a Christian to speak against his conscience." Then, looking around on the assembly before which he was standing, and which held his life in its hands, "Here I am," says he, "I cannot do otherwise: God help me. Amen."[530]
As soon as he finished speaking, the Chancellor of Trêves, the speaker of the Diet, said to him, angrily, "You haven't answered the question that was asked of you. You're not here to cast doubt on what has been decided by Councils. We need a clear and definite response from you. Will you retract your statement, or not?" Luther then replied, without hesitation, "Since your most serene Majesty and your high Mightinesses have asked for a simple, clear, and definite answer, here it is: I cannot submit my faith to either the pope or to councils, because it's obvious they have often been wrong and have even contradicted themselves. So, unless I’m proven wrong by scripture or solid arguments; unless I'm convinced by the very passages I’ve quoted that bind my conscience to the word of God, I neither can nor will retract anything, because it’s unsafe for a Christian to go against their conscience." Then, looking around at the assembly that held his life in their hands, he said, "I'm here. I cannot do otherwise: God help me. Amen."
Thus Luther, constrained to obey his faith, led by his conscience to death, impelled by the noblest necessity, the slave of what he believes, but in this slavery supremely free, like to the ship tossed by a fearful tempest, which, in order to save something more precious than itself, is voluntarily allowed to dash itself to pieces against a rock, pronounces these sublime words, which have not lost their thrilling effect after the lapse of three centuries; thus speaks a monk before the emperor and the magnates of the empire, and this poor and feeble individual standing alone, but leaning on the grace of the Most High, seems greater and stronger than them all. His word has a power against which all these mighty men can do nothing. The empire and the Church, on the one side, the obscure individual, on the other, have been confronted. God had assembled these kings and prelates that he might publicly bring their wisdom to nought. They have lost the battle, and the consequences of their defeat will be felt in all nations, and during all future ages.
Thus Luther, compelled by his faith and guided by his conscience towards death, driven by the highest necessity, is a slave to his beliefs, yet in this slavery, he is incredibly free. He is like a ship caught in a terrifying storm, willing to smash itself against a rock to save something more valuable than itself. He utters these profound words, which still resonate powerfully after three centuries. Here stands a monk before the emperor and the powerful leaders of the empire, and this poor, weak man stands alone, but relying on the grace of the Most High, seems greater and stronger than them all. His words hold a power that none of these mighty figures can counter. The empire and the Church are on one side, while the obscure individual stands on the other. God has gathered these kings and church leaders to publicly render their wisdom useless. They have lost the battle, and the impact of their defeat will be felt across all nations and throughout future generations.
The assembly were amazed. Several princes could scarcely conceal their admiration. The emperor, changing his first impression, exclaimed, "The monk speaks with an intrepid heart and immovable courage."[531] The Spaniards and Italians alone felt disconcerted, and soon began to deride a magnanimity which they could not appreciate.
The assembly was astonished. Several princes could hardly hide their admiration. The emperor, changing his initial opinion, exclaimed, "The monk speaks with fearless resolve and unshakable courage."[531] Only the Spaniards and Italians felt uneasy and quickly started to mock a generosity they couldn't understand.
After the Diet had recovered from the impression produced by the address, the chancellor resumed: "If you do not retract, the emperor and the states of the empire will consider what course they must adopt towards an obstinate heretic." At these words, Luther's friends trembled, but the monk again said, "God help me; for I can retract nothing."[532]
After the Diet had absorbed the impact of the speech, the chancellor continued: "If you don't take back your words, the emperor and the states of the empire will decide how to deal with a stubborn heretic." At this, Luther's friends felt scared, but the monk firmly stated, "God help me; I can't take anything back."[532]
Luther then withdraws, and the princes deliberate. Every one felt that the moment formed a crisis in Christendom. The yea or nay of this monk was destined, perhaps for ages, to determine the condition of the Church and the world. It was wished to frighten him, but the effect had been to place him on a pedestal in presence of the nation. It was meant to give more publicity to his defeat, and all that had been done was to extend his victory. The partisans of Rome could not submit to bear their humiliation. Luther was recalled, and the orator thus, addressed him: "Martin, you have not spoken with the modesty which became your office. The distinction you have made between your books was useless, for if you retract those which contain errors, the empire will not allow the others to be burnt. It is extravagant to insist on being refuted from Scripture, when you revive heresies which were condemned by the universal Council of Constance. The emperor, therefore, orders you to say simply, Do you mean to maintain what you have advanced, or do you mean, to retract any part of it—yes, or no?" "I have no other answer than that which I have already given," replied Luther calmly. He was now understood. Firm as a rock, all the billows of human power had dashed against him in vain. The vigour of his eloquence, his intrepid countenance, the flashing of his eye, the immovable firmness imprinted in bold lineaments on his German features, had produced the deepest impression on this illustrious assembly. There was no longer any hope. Spaniards, Belgians, and even Romans were mute. The monk was victorious over earthly grandeur. He had negatived the Church and the empire. Charles rose up, and all the assembly with him. "The Diet will meet to-morrow morning to hear the emperor's decision," said the chancellor, with a loud voice.
Luther then stepped back, and the princes discussed among themselves. Everyone felt that this moment was a turning point for Christianity. The decision of this monk was likely to shape the future of the Church and the world for generations. They wanted to intimidate him, but instead, it elevated him in the eyes of the nation. They intended to publicize his defeat, but all that resulted was an even greater victory for him. The supporters of Rome couldn't handle their embarrassment. Luther was called back, and the speaker addressed him: "Martin, you haven't spoken with the humility expected of your position. The distinction you've made between your books was pointless because if you take back those that are wrong, the empire won’t allow the others to be burned. It’s unreasonable to demand a rebuttal based on Scripture while you’re reviving heresies condemned by the universal Council of Constance. Therefore, the emperor orders you to simply say whether you intend to stand by what you've stated or retract any part of it—yes or no?" "I have no other answer than what I've already given," Luther replied calmly. He was now fully understood. Steadfast as a rock, all the forces of human power had crashed against him in vain. The strength of his speech, his fearless demeanor, the intensity of his gaze, and the unwavering determination etched in his bold German features made a profound impact on this distinguished assembly. There was no longer any hope. Spaniards, Belgians, and even Romans fell silent. The monk triumphed over earthly power. He had rejected both the Church and the empire. Charles stood up, and so did the entire assembly with him. "The Diet will convene tomorrow morning to hear the emperor's decision," said the chancellor in a loud voice.
CHAP. IX.
Victory—Tumult and calm—Duke Erick's Glass of Beer—The Elector and Spalatin—Message from the Emperor—Wish to violate the Safe-conduct—Strong opposition—Enthusiasm for Luther—Voice for Conciliation—The Elector's Fear—Assemblage at Luther's Lodging—Philip of Hesse.
Victory—Chaos and peace—Duke Erick's Beer—The Elector and Spalatin—Message from the Emperor—Desire to violate the Safe-conduct—Strong opposition—Support for Luther—Call for Unity—The Elector's Worry—Meeting at Luther's Place—Philip of Hesse.
It was night, and each regained his dwelling in the dark. Two imperial officers were ordered to accompany Luther. Some persons imagining that his fate was decided, and that they were conducting him to prison, which he should leave only for the scaffold, an immense tumult arose. Several gentlemen exclaimed, "Are they taking him to prison?" "No," replied Luther, "they are accompanying me to my hotel." At these words the tumult calmed. Then some Spaniards of the emperor's household, following this bold champion, hissed and jeered at him[533] as he passed along the streets, while others howled like wild beasts deprived of their prey. Luther remained firm and peaceful.
It was night, and everyone returned to their homes in the dark. Two imperial officers were assigned to escort Luther. Some people, believing that his fate had been sealed and that they were taking him to prison—where he would only leave for the gallows—created a huge uproar. Several gentlemen shouted, "Are they taking him to prison?" "No," Luther replied, "they're just taking me to my hotel." With these words, the commotion quieted down. Then some Spaniards from the emperor's court, following this fearless champion, hissed and mocked him as he walked through the streets, while others howled like wild animals deprived of their prey. Luther stayed strong and calm.
Such was the scene at Worms. The intrepid monk, who had hitherto hurled defiance at his enemies, spake, when in the presence of those who had thirsted for his blood, with calmness, dignity, and humility. There was no exaggeration, no human enthusiasm, no anger; he was peaceful amid the strongest excitement; modest, while resisting the powers of the earth; great, in presence of all the princes of the world. In this we have an irrefragable proof that Luther was then obeying God—not following the suggestions of his own pride. In the hall of Worms there was One greater than Luther and Charles. Jesus Christ has said, "When they deliver you up, take no thought how or what you shall speak. For it is not ye that speak."[534] Never, perhaps, was this promise so manifestly fulfilled.
Such was the scene at Worms. The brave monk, who had previously challenged his enemies, spoke, in the presence of those who wanted him dead, with calmness, dignity, and humility. There was no exaggeration, no human enthusiasm, no anger; he was peaceful amid the strongest excitement; humble while standing up to the powers of the earth; great in front of all the princes of the world. This shows that Luther was then obeying God—not giving in to his own pride. In the hall of Worms, there was Someone greater than Luther and Charles. Jesus Christ said, "When they deliver you up, take no thought how or what you shall speak. For it is not you that speak."[534] Never, perhaps, was this promise so clearly fulfilled.
A deep impression had been produced on the heads of the empire. Luther had observed this, and it had increased his courage. The servants of the pope were angry at John Eck for not having oftener interrupted the guilty monk. Several princes and nobles were gained to a cause which was maintained with such conviction. In some, it is true, the impression was evanescent, but, on the other hand, several who till then had concealed their sentiments, henceforth displayed great courage.
A strong impact had been made on the leaders of the empire. Luther had noticed this, and it boosted his confidence. The pope's servants were upset with John Eck for not interrupting the guilty monk more often. Several princes and nobles were drawn to a cause that was defended with such passion. In some cases, the impact was fleeting, but on the other hand, many who had previously hidden their feelings now showed great bravery.
Luther had returned to his hotel, and was reposing from the fatigue of the severe service in which he had been engaged. Spalatin and other friends were around him, and all were giving thanks to God. While they were conversing, a valet entered, bearing a silver vase full of Eimbeck beer. "My master," said he, presenting it to Luther, "begs you to refresh yourself with this draught of beer." "What prince is it," asked Luther, "who so graciously remembers me?" It was old Duke Erick of Brunswick. The Reformer was touched by the offering thus made him by so powerful a prince; one, too, belonging to the papal party. "His highness," continued the valet, "was pleased to taste the draught before sending it to you." Luther, being thirsty, poured out the duke's beer, and after drinking it, said, "As Duke Erick has this day remembered me, so may the Lord Jesus Christ remember him in the day of his final combat."[535] The present was in itself of little value, but Luther, wishing to show his gratitude to a prince who had thought of him at such a moment, gave him what he had—a prayer. The valet returned with the message to his master. The old duke, in his last moments, remembered the words, and addressing a young page, Francis de Kramm, who was standing at his bedside, said to him, "Take the gospel and read it to me." The child read the words of Christ, and the soul of the dying man was refreshed. "Whosoever," says the Saviour, "shall give to one of you a cup of cold water in my name, because you are my disciple, verily I say unto you, he shall in no wise lose his reward."
Luther had returned to his hotel and was resting after the exhausting work he had been doing. Spalatin and other friends were gathered around him, and they were all giving thanks to God. While they were talking, a servant came in, carrying a silver vase filled with Eimbeck beer. "My master," he said, handing it to Luther, "asks you to enjoy this drink." "Which prince is so kind to remember me?" Luther asked. It was old Duke Erick of Brunswick. The Reformer was moved by this gesture from such a powerful prince, especially one from the papal party. "His highness," the servant continued, "tasted the drink before sending it to you." Feeling thirsty, Luther poured out the duke's beer and after drinking it, said, "As Duke Erick has remembered me today, may the Lord Jesus Christ remember him in his final battle."[535] The gift itself was of little worth, but Luther, wanting to show his gratitude to a prince who had thought of him at such a moment, offered what he had—a prayer. The servant went back with the message to his master. In his last moments, the old duke recalled Luther's words and told a young page, Francis de Kramm, who was standing at his bedside, "Take the gospel and read it to me." The boy read the words of Christ, and the dying man felt refreshed. "Whosoever," says the Savior, "shall give to one of you a cup of cold water in my name, because you are my disciple, verily I say unto you, he shall in no wise lose his reward."
The valet of the Duke of Brunswick was no sooner gone than a message from the Elector of Saxony ordered Spalatin to come to him instantly. Frederick had come to the Diet full of disquietude. He thought that, in presence of the emperor, Luther's courage might give way, and he had accordingly been deeply moved by the Reformer's firmness. He was proud of having taken such a man under his protection. When the chaplain arrived, the table was covered, and the Elector was going to sit down to supper with his Court—the valets having already brought in the vase for washing the hands. The Elector seeing Spalatin enter, immediately beckoned him to follow, and when alone with him in his bedchamber, said to him, with deep emotion, "Oh! how well father Luther spoke before the emperor and all the states of the empire! My only fear was, that he would be too bold."[536] Frederick then formed a resolution to protect the doctor in future with greater courage.
The Duke of Brunswick’s valet had barely left when a message from the Elector of Saxony summoned Spalatin to come to him immediately. Frederick had arrived at the Diet feeling uneasy. He worried that Luther might lose his nerve in front of the emperor, and he was deeply impressed by the Reformer's determination. He felt proud to have taken such a strong man under his wing. When the chaplain arrived, the table was set, and the Elector was about to sit down for supper with his Court—the valets had already brought in the bowl for washing hands. As soon as the Elector saw Spalatin enter, he motioned for him to follow, and once they were alone in his bedroom, he said, with deep emotion, “Oh! How well Father Luther spoke before the emperor and all the states of the empire! My only fear was that he would be too bold.”[536] Frederick then made a decision to protect the doctor with even greater resolve in the future.
Aleander saw the impression which Luther had produced. There was no time, therefore, to be lost. The young emperor must be induced to act vigorously. The moment was favourable, for there was immediate prospect of war with France. Leo X, wishing to enlarge his states, and caring little for the peace of Christendom, caused two treaties to be secretly negotiated, at the same time, the one with Charles against Francis, and the other with Francis against Charles.[537] By the former he stipulated with the emperor for Parma, Placenza, and Ferrara; by the latter, he stipulated with the king for a part of the kingdom of Naples, of which Charles was thus to be deprived. Charles felt the importance of gaining over Leo, in order that he might have him as an ally against his rival of France. Luther was an easy price to pay for the friendship of the mighty pontiff.
Aleander realized the impact Luther had made. There was no time to waste. The young emperor needed to be convinced to take decisive action. The timing was right, as there was a looming possibility of war with France. Leo X, aiming to expand his territories and indifferent to the peace of Christendom, arranged for two treaties to be secretly negotiated at the same time: one with Charles against Francis, and the other with Francis against Charles.[537] In the first, he made arrangements with the emperor for Parma, Placentia, and Ferrara; in the second, he made agreements with the king for part of the kingdom of Naples, which would leave Charles at a disadvantage. Charles understood the importance of winning over Leo so he could count on his support against his rival in France. Luther was an easy price to pay for the favor of the powerful pontiff.
The day after Luther's appearance, he caused a message to be read to the Diet, which he had written in French, with his own hand.[538] "Sprung," said he, "from the Christian emperors of Germany, from the Catholic kings of Spain, the archdukes of Austria, and the dukes of Burgundy, who are all illustrious as defenders of the Roman faith, it is my firm purpose to follow the example of my ancestors. A single monk, led astray by his own folly, sets himself up in opposition to the faith of Christendom. I will sacrifice my dominions, my power, my friends, my treasure, my body, my blood, my mind, and my life, to stay this impiety.[539] I mean to send back the Augustin, Luther, forbidding him to cause the least tumult among the people; thereafter I will proceed against him and his adherents as against declared heretics, by excommunication. and interdict, and all means proper for their destruction.[540] I call upon the members of the states to conduct themselves like faithful Christians."
The day after Luther's appearance, he had a message read to the Diet that he wrote in French himself.[538] "Coming," he said, "from the Christian emperors of Germany, the Catholic kings of Spain, the archdukes of Austria, and the dukes of Burgundy, who are all renowned as defenders of the Roman faith, I am determined to follow the example of my ancestors. A single monk, misled by his own foolishness, stands against the faith of Christendom. I will sacrifice my territories, my power, my friends, my wealth, my body, my blood, my mind, and my life to stop this wrongdoing.[539] I intend to send back the Augustin, Luther, ordering him to avoid causing any unrest among the people; from then on, I will act against him and his supporters as if they are declared heretics, through excommunication, interdict, and all appropriate means for their elimination.[540] I urge the members of the states to behave like faithful Christians."
This address did not please every body. Charles, young and impassioned, had not observed the ordinary forms; he ought previously to have asked the opinion of the Diet. Two extreme views were immediately declared. The creatures of the pope, the Elector of Brandenburg, and several ecclesiastical princes, demanded that no regard should be paid to the safe-conduct which had been given to Luther.[541] "The Rhine," said they, "must receive his ashes, as a century ago it received the ashes of John Huss." Charles, if we may believe a historian, afterwards bitterly repented that he had not followed this dastardly counsel. "I confess," said he, towards the close of his life, "that I committed a great fault in allowing Luther to live. That heretic having offended a greater master than I, even God himself, I was not obliged to keep my promise to him. I might, nay, I ought to have forgotten my word, and avenged the insult which he offered to God; because I did not put him to death, the heresy has not ceased to gain strength. His death would have strangled it in the cradle."[542]
This speech didn’t sit well with everyone. Charles, young and passionate, hadn’t followed the usual protocols; he should have consulted the Diet first. Two opposing views were quickly expressed. The followers of the pope, the Elector of Brandenburg, and several church leaders insisted that the safe-conduct given to Luther should be ignored. “The Rhine,” they said, “must receive his ashes, just like it did a century ago with John Huss.” If we are to believe one historian, Charles later deeply regretted not heeding this cowardly advice. “I admit,” he said towards the end of his life, “that I made a significant mistake by allowing Luther to live. That heretic, having offended a greater authority than I—God himself—I wasn’t obligated to honor my promise to him. I could, and should, have forgotten my word and avenged the insult he directed at God; because I did not execute him, heresy has only continued to grow. His death would have nipped it in the bud.”
This horrible proposition filled the Elector and all Luther's friends with terror. "The execution of John Huss," said the Elector Palatine, "brought too many calamities on Germany to allow such a scaffold to be erected a second time." "The princes of Germany," exclaimed George of Saxony, himself the irreconcilable enemy of Luther, "will not allow a safe-conduct to be violated. This first Diet, held by our new emperor, will not incur the guilt of an act so disgraceful. Such perfidy accords not with old German integrity." The princes of Bavaria, also devoted to the Church of Rome, joined in this protestation. The death scene which Luther's friends had already before their eyes appeared to be withdrawn.
This terrible proposal terrified the Elector and all of Luther's friends. "The execution of John Huss," said the Elector Palatine, "caused too many disasters in Germany to allow a scaffold to be set up like that again." "The princes of Germany," shouted George of Saxony, who was himself an unyielding enemy of Luther, "will not let a safe-conduct be violated. This first Diet, convened by our new emperor, will not commit such a disgraceful act. Such treachery does not align with traditional German integrity." The princes of Bavaria, who were also loyal to the Church of Rome, joined in this protest. The death scene that Luther's friends had envisioned seemed to fade away.
The rumour of these debates, which lasted for two days, spread over the town. Parties grew warm. Some gentlemen, partisans of reform, began to speak strongly against the treachery demanded by Aleander. "The emperor," said they, "is a young man whom the papists and bishops lead at pleasure by their flattery."[543] Pallavicini makes mention of four hundred nobles who were ready to maintain Luther's safe-conduct with the sword. On Saturday morning placards were found posted up on the houses and public places, some against Luther and others in his favour. One of them merely contained the energetic words of Ecclesiastes, "Woe to thee, O land, when thy king is a child!" Seckingen, it was said, had assembled at some leagues from Worms, behind the impregnable ramparts of his fortress, a large body of knights and soldiers, and only waited the issue of the affair that he might know how to act. The popular enthusiasm, not only in Worms, but also in the most distant towns of the empire,[544] the intrepidity of the knights, the attachment of several princes to the Reformer, all must have made Charles and the Diet comprehend that the step demanded by the Romans might compromise the supreme authority, excite revolts, and even shake the empire.[545] It was only a simple monk that they proposed to burn; but the princes and partisans of Rome, taken all together, had neither power nor courage enough to do it. Doubtless, also, Charles V, their young emperor, had still a fear of perjury. This would seem indicated by an expression, which, if some historians speak true, he uttered on this occasion: "Were fidelity and good faith banished from the whole world, they ought to find an asylum in the hearts of princes." It is said he forgot this when on the brink of the grave. But there were other motives which might have had their influence on the emperor. The Florentine Vettori, a friend of Leo X and of Machiaveli, affirms, that Charles spared Luther only that he might keep the pope in check.[546]
The news about these debates, which went on for two days, spread throughout the town. People got heated. Some gentlemen, supporters of reform, began to speak out strongly against the betrayal that Aleander demanded. "The emperor," they said, "is a young man who is easily swayed by the flattery of the papists and bishops." Pallavicini mentions that four hundred nobles were prepared to defend Luther's safe-conduct by force. On Saturday morning, posters were found on houses and in public places, some against Luther and others supporting him. One of the posters simply quoted Ecclesiastes: "Woe to thee, O land, when thy king is a child!" It was rumored that Seckingen had gathered a large group of knights and soldiers at his fortress a few leagues from Worms, waiting to see how things turned out so he could decide what to do next. The public enthusiasm, not only in Worms but also in distant towns across the empire, the bravery of the knights, and the loyalty of several princes to the Reformer all made Charles and the Diet realize that the demand from the Romans could threaten their authority, incite revolts, and even shake the empire. They were only planning to burn a simple monk, but the princes and supporters of Rome, all together, lacked the power and courage to carry it out. Undoubtedly, Charles V, their young emperor, still feared the idea of perjury. This seems to be indicated by a remark he supposedly made on this occasion: "If fidelity and good faith were banished from the world, they should find a home in the hearts of princes." It’s said he forgot this sentiment when he was near death. But there were other reasons that might have influenced the emperor. The Florentine Vettori, a friend of Leo X and Machiavelli, claims that Charles spared Luther just to keep the pope in check.
On the Saturday's sitting, the violent counsels of Aleander were negatived. There was a feeling in favour of Luther, and a wish to save the simple-hearted man whose confidence in God was so affecting; but there was a wish also to save the Church. The Diet shuddered equally at the consequences which would result from the triumph and from the destruction of the Reformer. Proposals of conciliation were heard, and it was suggested that a new attempt should be made with the doctor of Wittemberg. The archbishop-elector of Mentz himself, the young and extravagant Albert, more devout than courageous, says Pallavicini,[547] had taken alarm on seeing the interest which the people and the nobility showed in the Saxon monk. His chaplain, Capito, who, during his residence at Bâle, had been intimate with the evangelical priest of Zurich, named Zuinglius, the intrepid defender of the truth, of whom we have already had occasion to speak, had also, doubtless, represented to Albert the righteousness of the Reformer's cause. The worldly archbishop had one of those returns to Christian sentiment which his life occasionally exhibits, and agreed to go to the emperor and ask him to allow one last attempt. But Charles flatly refused. On Monday (22nd April) the princes met in a body to renew the solicitations of Albert. "I will not depart from what I have decreed," replied the emperor. I will not commission any person to go officially to Luther. "But," added he, to the great scandal of Aleander, "I give this man three days to reflect; during this time any one may, as an individual, give him suitable advice."[548] This was all that was asked. The Reformer, thought they, elevated by the solemnity of his public appearance, will yield in a more friendly conference, and perhaps be saved from the abyss into which he is ready to fall.
On Saturday's session, the aggressive advice of Aleander was rejected. There was a sense of support for Luther and a desire to protect the sincere man whose faith in God was so touching; however, there was also a desire to protect the Church. The Diet was equally alarmed by the potential outcomes of both the success and the downfall of the Reformer. Ideas for reconciliation were discussed, and it was proposed that another attempt should be made with the doctor from Wittenberg. The archbishop-elector of Mainz himself, the young and extravagant Albert, more pious than brave, as Pallavicini noted, had become concerned upon seeing the interest that the people and nobility took in the Saxon monk. His chaplain, Capito, who had become close with the evangelical priest of Zurich, named Zwingli—the bold defender of the truth—had surely conveyed to Albert the righteousness of the Reformer’s cause. The worldly archbishop had one of those moments of returning to Christian sentiment that his life sometimes showed, and he agreed to approach the emperor and ask him to allow one final attempt. But Charles outright refused. On Monday (April 22nd), the princes gathered to re-pitch Albert’s requests. "I will not change my decree," replied the emperor. "I will not appoint anyone to go to Luther officially. But,” he added, to Aleander’s great shock, “I give this man three days to think it over; during this time, anyone may, as an individual, offer him advice." This was all they hoped for. They thought that the Reformer, uplifted by the seriousness of his public appearance, would yield in a more amicable discussion, and perhaps be saved from the pit he was on the verge of falling into.
The Elector of Saxony knew the contrary; accordingly he was in great fear. "If it were in my power," wrote he next day to his brother, Duke John, "I would be ready to support Luther. You could not believe to what a degree I am attacked by the partisans of Rome. If I could tell you all, you would hear very strange things.[549] They are bent on his ruin, and however slight interest any one shows for his person, he is immediately decried as a heretic. May God, who forsakes not the righteous cause, bring all to a good end!" Frederick, without showing the strong affection which he felt for the Reformer, contented himself with not losing sight of any of his movements.
The Elector of Saxony was aware of the opposite; as a result, he was very afraid. "If I could," he wrote to his brother, Duke John, the next day, "I would be ready to support Luther. You wouldn't believe how much I am under attack by the supporters of Rome. If I could tell you everything, you'd hear some very strange things.[549] They are determined to ruin him, and whenever anyone shows even a little interest in him, they are immediately labeled a heretic. May God, who does not abandon the righteous cause, bring all this to a good conclusion!" Frederick, while not expressing the strong affection he felt for the Reformer, made sure to keep a close eye on all of his actions.
It was not so with men of all ranks then in Worms. Many fearlessly gave full vent to their sympathy. From the Friday, a crowd of princes, counts, barons, knights, gentlemen, ecclesiastics, laics, and common people surrounded the hotel where the Reformer lodged; they came in and went out, and could not see enough of him.[550] He was become the man in Germany. Even those who doubted not that he was in error were touched by the nobleness of soul which had led him to sacrifice his life at the bidding of his conscience. With several of the personages present at Worms, and forming the flower of the nation, Luther had occasionally conversations full of that salt with which his sayings were always seasoned. None left him without feeling animated with a generous enthusiasm for the truth. George Vogler, the private secretary of the margrave Casimir of Brandenburg, writing to a friend, says, "What things I should have to tell you! What conversations full of piety and kindness Luther has had with myself and others! How winning that man is!"[551]
It was different with men of all ranks in Worms back then. Many openly expressed their support. Starting Friday, a crowd of princes, counts, barons, knights, gentlemen, clergy, laypeople, and common folk surrounded the hotel where the Reformer was staying; they came and went, eager to see him.[550] He had become the man in Germany. Even those who believed he was mistaken were moved by the nobility of spirit that led him to risk his life for his conscience. He had engaging conversations with several prominent figures in Worms, which showcased the wit with which he always spoke. No one left him without feeling inspired by a passionate enthusiasm for the truth. George Vogler, the private secretary of Margrave Casimir of Brandenburg, wrote to a friend, saying, "I have so much to tell you! What conversations full of faith and kindness Luther has had with me and others! That man is so charming!"[551]
One day a young prince of seventeen came prancing into the court of the hotel: it was Philip, who had been reigning for two years in Hesse. The young landgrave was of an active and enterprising character, of a wisdom beyond his years, a martial spirit, and an impetuous temper, seldom allowing himself to be guided by any ideas but his own. Struck with Luther's addresses he wished to have a nearer view of him. "As yet, however," says Luther, in relating his visit, "he was not for me."[552] He dismounted, and without any other formality, came up into the Reformer's room, and addressing him, said, "Well, dear doctor, how goes it?" "Gracious lord," replied Luther, "I hope it will go well." "From what I learn," resumed the landgrave laughing, "you teach, doctor, that a wife may quit her husband, and take another, when the former is found to be too old!" The people of the imperial court had told this story to the landgrave. The enemies of the truth never fail to circulate fabulous accounts of the lessons of Christian teachers—"No, my lord," replied Luther gravely, "let your highness not speak so, if you please." Thereupon the prince briskly held out his hand to the doctor, shook his cordially, and said, "Dear doctor, if you are in the right, may God assist you." On this he left the room, again mounted his horse and rode off. This was the first interview between these two men, who were afterwards to stand at the head of the Reformation, and to defend it, the one with the sword of the word, and the other with the sword of kings.
One day, a young prince of seventeen strutted into the hotel court: it was Philip, who had been ruling in Hesse for two years. The young landgrave was energetic and enterprising, wise beyond his years, with a warrior spirit and a quick temper, often sticking to his own opinions. Inspired by Luther's speeches, he wanted to meet him up close. "But at this point," Luther recalls about the visit, "he wasn't for me."[552] He got off his horse, and without any formalities, walked into the Reformer's room, greeting him with, "Well, dear doctor, how's it going?" "Gracious lord," replied Luther, "I hope it will go well." "From what I've heard," the landgrave said with a laugh, "you teach, doctor, that a wife can leave her husband for another if the first one is too old!" This tale had been passed to him by the imperial court. Opponents of the truth often spread exaggerated stories about the teachings of Christian leaders—"No, my lord," Luther responded seriously, "please don't say that." The prince then warmly shook the doctor's hand and said, "Dear doctor, if you are right, may God support you." With that, he left the room, got back on his horse, and rode away. This was the first meeting between these two men, who would later lead the Reformation, one with the sword of the word and the other with the sword of kings.
It was the Archbishop of Trêves, Richard de Greifenklau, who, with permission of Charles V, had undertaken the office of mediator. Richard, who was on an intimate footing with the Elector of Saxony, and a good Roman Catholic, was desirous to arrange this difficult affair, and thereby at once do a service to his friend and to the Church. On Monday evening, (22nd April,) just as Luther was going to sit down to table, a messenger of the archbishop came to say, that the prelate wished to see him the day after to-morrow (Wednesday), at six o'clock in the morning.
It was the Archbishop of Trêves, Richard de Greifenklau, who, with permission from Charles V, had taken on the role of mediator. Richard, who was close to the Elector of Saxony and a committed Roman Catholic, wanted to sort out this challenging situation, hoping to benefit both his friend and the Church. On Monday evening, April 22nd, just as Luther was about to sit down for a meal, an envoy from the archbishop arrived to inform him that the prelate wanted to meet the day after tomorrow (Wednesday) at six o'clock in the morning.
CHAP. X.
Conference with the Archbishop of Trêves—Wehe's advice to Luther—Luther's Replies—Private Conversation—Visit of Cochlœus—Supper at the Archbishop's—Attempt on the Hôtel of Rhodes—A Council proposed—Last interview between Luther and the Archbishop—Visit to a sick friend—Luther ordered to quit Worms.
Meeting with the Archbishop of Trêves—Wehe's guidance to Luther—Luther's responses—Private chat—Visit from Cochlœus—Dinner at the Archbishop's—An incident at the Hôtel of Rhodes—A Council suggested—Final meeting between Luther and the Archbishop—Visit to a sick friend—Luther ordered to leave Worms.
That day the chaplain and the imperial herald, Sturm, were both at Luther's before six o'clock in the morning. Aleander had caused Cochlœus to be called at four. The nuncio had not been slow in discovering in the man who had been presented to him by Capito, a devoted servant of Rome, on whom he could calculate as on himself. Not being able to be present at this interview, Aleander wished to have a substitute at it. "Be present at the Archbishop's of Trêves," said he to the Dean of Frankfort. "Do not enter into discussion with Luther, but content yourself with paying the closest attention to every thing that is said, so as to be able to bring me back a faithful report."[553] The Reformer on arriving with some friends at the house of the archbishop, found him surrounded by the margrave, Joachim of Brandenburg and Augsburg, several nobles, deputies from free towns, lawyers, and theologians, among whom were Cochlœus and Jerome Wehe, chancellor of Baden. The latter, an able lawyer, wished a reformation in manners and discipline. He went even further. "The Word of God," said he, "which has so long been hid under the bushel, must reappear in all its lustre."[554] This conciliatory individual was entrusted with the conference. Turning kindly towards Luther, he said to him, "We did not make you come in order to dispute with you, but in order to give you brotherly advice. You know how carefully the Scripture requireth us to guard against the flying arrow, and the devil that walketh at noon-day. This enemy of the human race has instigated you to publish things contrary to religion. Think of your own safety, and that of the empire. Take care that those whom Jesus Christ has ransomed by his own death, from death eternal, be not seduced by you and perish for ever.... Do not set yourself up against holy councils. If we do not maintain the decrees of our fathers, there will be nothing but confusion in the Church. The distinguished princes now listening to me take a particular interest in your safety. But if you persist, the emperor will banish you from the empire,[555] and no place in the world will be able to offer you an asylum.... Reflect on the fate which awaits you."
That day, the chaplain and the imperial herald, Sturm, were both at Luther's before six in the morning. Aleander had called for Cochlœus at four. The nuncio quickly realized that the man presented to him by Capito was a loyal servant of Rome who he could rely on completely. Since he couldn't attend the meeting himself, Aleander wanted a substitute. "Be present at the Archbishop's of Trêves," he told the Dean of Frankfort. "Don't engage in a debate with Luther; just pay close attention to everything that's said so you can give me an accurate report." The Reformer, arriving with some friends at the archbishop’s house, found him surrounded by the margrave, Joachim of Brandenburg and Augsburg, several nobles, deputies from free towns, lawyers, and theologians, including Cochlœus and Jerome Wehe, chancellor of Baden. The latter, a skilled lawyer, desired a reform in conduct and discipline. He went even further. "The Word of God," he said, "which has been hidden for so long, must shine forth in all its glory." This conciliatory individual was put in charge of the conference. Turning kindly towards Luther, he said, "We didn’t bring you here to argue, but to offer you brotherly advice. You know how carefully Scripture instructs us to guard against the flying arrow and the devil that prowls at noon. This enemy of humanity has tempted you to publish things that go against religion. Think about your own safety and that of the empire. Make sure that those whom Jesus Christ has redeemed by his death from eternal death are not led astray by you and perish forever... Don’t oppose holy councils. If we don’t uphold the decrees of our ancestors, there will be nothing but chaos in the Church. The distinguished princes listening to me are particularly concerned for your safety. But if you continue down this path, the emperor will expel you from the empire, and no place in the world will be able to provide you refuge... Consider the fate that awaits you."
"Most Serene Princes!" replied Luther, "I give you thanks for your solicitude, for I am only a poor man, and am too humble to be exhorted by such high lords."[556] Then he continued, "I have not blamed all the councils, but only that of Constance; because, in condemning this doctrine of John Huss, viz.—that the Christian Church is the assembly of those who are predestinated to salvation[557]—it condemned this article of our creed, I believe in the holy Catholic Church; and the Word of God itself. My lessons, it is said, give offence," added he. "I answer that the gospel of Christ cannot be preached without offence. How then should this fear or apprehension of danger detach me from the Lord, and from this divine Word, which is the only truth? No, rather give my body, my blood, and my life!!..."
"Most Serene Princes!" replied Luther, "Thank you for your concern, but I am just a poor man and too humble to be advised by such high lords.[556] Then he continued, "I haven't criticized all the councils, only the one at Constance; because, in condemning this doctrine of John Huss—that the Christian Church is the assembly of those who are predestined for salvation—I believe in the holy Catholic Church;[557] it also condemned this article of our creed and the Word of God itself. They say my teachings are offensive," he added. "I respond that the gospel of Christ cannot be preached without causing offense. How can this fear or sense of danger pull me away from the Lord and this divine Word, which is the only truth? No, I would rather give my body, my blood, and my life!!..."
The princes and doctors having deliberated, Luther was recalled, and Wehe mildly resumed, "It is necessary to honour princes, even when they are mistaken, and to make great sacrifices to charity." Then he said, in a more urgent tone, "Cast yourself upon the judgment of the emperor, and have no fear."
The princes and doctors having discussed it, Luther was called back, and Wehe gently said, "We need to respect princes, even when they’re wrong, and be willing to make significant sacrifices for charity." Then he added, in a more pressing tone, "Trust in the emperor's judgment and don’t be afraid."
Luther.—"I consent, with all my heart, that the emperor, the princes, and even the humblest Christian, shall examine and judge my books; but on one condition, and it is, that they take the Word of God for their standard. Men have nothing else to do but to obey. My conscience is dependent upon it, and I am captive under its authority."[558]
Luther.—"I completely agree that the emperor, the princes, and even the simplest Christian should review and judge my books; but there’s one condition: they must use the Word of God as their standard. People only need to obey. My conscience relies on it, and I am bound by its authority."[558]
The Elector of Brandenburg.—"I understand you perfectly, doctor. You will not acknowledge any judge but the Holy Scripture?"
The Elector of Brandenburg.—"I get you completely, doctor. You won't recognize any authority except the Holy Scripture?"
Luther.—"Yes, my lord, exactly. That is my last word."[559]
Luther.—"Yes, my lord, that’s my final word."[559]
Then the princes and doctors withdrew, but the worthy Archbishop of Trêves could not resolve to abandon his undertaking. "Come," said he to Luther, as he passed into his private room, and, at the same time, ordered John Eck and Cochlœus, on the one side, and Schurff and Amsdorff, on the other, to follow them. "Why appeal incessantly to the Holy Scriptures?" said Eck keenly; "out of it all heresies have sprung." But Luther, says his friend Mathesius, remained immovable, like a rock resting on the true rock, the Word of the Lord. "The pope," replied he, "is no judge in things pertaining to the Word of God. Every Christian must see and understand for himself how he ought to live and die."[560] The parties separated. The partisans of the papacy felt Luther's superiority, and attributed it to there being nobody present who could answer him. "If the emperor," says Cochlœus, "had acted wisely in calling Luther to Worms, he would also have called theologians who might have refuted his errors."
Then the princes and doctors left, but the honorable Archbishop of Trêves couldn't bring himself to give up his mission. "Come," he said to Luther as he went into his private room, and at the same time he instructed John Eck and Cochlœus to follow them on one side, and Schurff and Amsdorff on the other. "Why do you keep referring to the Holy Scriptures?" Eck asked sharply; "all heresies have come from that." But Luther, according to his friend Mathesius, stood firm, like a rock on the true foundation, the Word of the Lord. "The pope," he replied, "is not a judge in matters regarding the Word of God. Every Christian must see and understand for themselves how they should live and die." The groups parted ways. The supporters of the papacy recognized Luther's superiority and believed it was because no one was there to challenge him. "If the emperor," Cochlœus said, "had been wise in calling Luther to Worms, he would have also brought in theologians who could have disproven his errors."
The Archbishop of Trêves repaired to the Diet, and announced the ill success of his mediation. The surprise of the young emperor equalled his indignation. "It is time," said he, "to put an end to this affair." The archbishop asked two days more, and the whole Diet seconded him. Charles V yielded. Aleander, transported with rage, uttered the bitterest invectives.[561]
The Archbishop of Trêves went to the Diet and reported that his efforts at mediation had failed. The young emperor was equally surprised and angry. "It's time," he said, "to wrap this up." The archbishop requested two more days, and the entire Diet supported him. Charles V agreed. Aleander, filled with rage, unleashed the harshest insults.[561]
While these things were passing at the Diet, Cochlœus was burning with eagerness to gain a victory denied to prelates and kings. Though he had, from time to time, thrown in a few words at the archbishop's, the order which he had received from Aleander had laid him under restraint. He resolved to compensate himself, and had no sooner given an account of his mission to the papal nuncio, than he presented himself at Luther's lodging. He accosted him as a friend, and expressed the grief which he felt at the emperor's resolution. After dinner, the conversation grew animated.[562] Cochlœus pressed Luther to retract. He declined by a nod. Several nobles, who were at table, had difficulty in restraining themselves. They were indignant that the partisans of Rome should wish not to convince the Reformer by Scripture, but constrain him by force. Cochlœus, impatient under these reproaches, says to Luther, "Very well, I offer to dispute publicly with you, if you renounce the safe-conduct."[563] All that Luther demanded was a public debate. What ought he to do? To renounce the safe-conduct was to be his own destroyer; to refuse the challenge of Cochlœus was to appear doubtful of his cause. The guests regarded the offer as a perfidious scheme of Aleander, whom the Dean of Frankfort had just left. Vollrat of Watzdorff, one of the number, freed Luther from the embarrassment of this puzzling alternative. This baron, who was of a boiling temperament, indignant at a snare which aimed at nothing less than to give up Luther into the hands of the executioner,[564] started up, seized the terrified priest, and pushed him to the door. There would even have been bloodshed had not the other guests risen up from the table, and interposed their mediation between the furious baron and the trembling Cochlœus,[565] who withdrew in confusion from the hotel of the Knights of Rhodes.
While these events were unfolding at the Diet, Cochlœus was eager to achieve a victory denied to bishops and kings. Although he had occasionally spoken at the archbishop's request, the order he received from Aleander restrained him. He decided to make up for it, and as soon as he reported his mission to the papal nuncio, he went to visit Luther at his accommodation. He approached him as a friend and expressed his sorrow over the emperor's decision. After dinner, the conversation became lively. Cochlœus urged Luther to take back his statements. Luther refused with a nod. Several nobles at the table struggled to hold back their anger. They were outraged that the supporters of Rome preferred to coerce the Reformer rather than persuade him with Scripture. Annoyed by these accusations, Cochlœus challenged Luther, saying, "Fine, I'll debate you publicly if you give up your safe-conduct." All Luther wanted was a public debate. What could he do? Giving up the safe-conduct would be like signing his own death warrant; refusing Cochlœus's challenge would make him seem uncertain about his position. The guests viewed the challenge as a treacherous trap set by Aleander, who the Dean of Frankfort had just left. Vollrat of Watzdorff, one of the attendees, relieved Luther of this tricky situation. This baron, known for his fiery temperament, was outraged by a scheme aimed at nothing less than handing Luther over to the executioner. He jumped up, grabbed the frightened priest, and pushed him toward the door. There might have been bloodshed if the other guests hadn’t stood up from the table and intervened between the furious baron and the trembling Cochlœus, who left the hotel of the Knights of Rhodes in shame.
The expression had no doubt escaped the dean in the heat of discussion, and was not a premeditated scheme between him and Aleander to make Luther fall into a perfidious snare. Cochlœus denies that it was, and we have pleasure in giving credit to his testimony, though it is true he had come to Luther's from a conference with the nuncio.
The expression likely slipped out of the dean during the heated discussion and wasn't a planned trap between him and Aleander to ensnare Luther. Cochlœus denies it was, and we are happy to take his word for it, even if it's true he had just come from a meeting with the nuncio.
In the evening, the Archbishop of Trêves entertained those who had been present at the morning conference. He thought it might be a means of calming down their minds, and bringing them nearer each other. Luther, who was so intrepid and immovable before arbiters or judges, had, in private society, a good humour and gayety which seemed to promise anything that might be asked of him. The archbishop's chancellor, who had shown so much sternness in his official capacity, joined in the attempt, and, towards the end of the repast, drank Luther's health. He was preparing to return the honour, the wine was poured out, and he was, according to his custom, making the sign of the cross on his glass, when suddenly the glass burst in his hands, and the wine was spilt upon the table. The guests were in consternation. "There must be poison in it,"[566] said some of Luther's friends, quite loud. But the doctor, without being moved, replied, with a smile, "Dear friends, either this wine was not destined for me, or it would have been hurtful to me." Then he calmly added, "The glass burst, no doubt, because in washing it had been too soon plunged in cold water." These simple words, in the circumstances in which they were uttered, have some degree of grandeur, and bespeak unalterable peace. We cannot suppose that the Roman Catholics could have wished to poison Luther, especially at the house of the Archbishop of Trêves. This répast neither estranged nor approximated the parties. The Reformer's resolution came from a higher source, and could not be influenced either by the hatred or the favour of men.
In the evening, the Archbishop of Trêves hosted those who had attended the morning conference. He thought it might help ease their minds and bring them closer together. Luther, who was fearless and steadfast in front of authorities, was cheerful and lighthearted in private gatherings, which suggested he would be agreeable to any request. The archbishop's chancellor, who had shown strictness in his official role, joined in the effort and, towards the end of the meal, raised a toast to Luther. Luther was about to return the gesture, the wine was poured, and he was, as was his custom, making the sign of the cross over his glass when suddenly the glass shattered in his hands, spilling the wine on the table. The guests were shocked. "There must be poison in it," said some of Luther's friends, quite loudly. But Luther, unfazed, replied with a smile, "Dear friends, either this wine wasn’t meant for me, or it wouldn’t have harmed me.” He then calmly added, "The glass broke, most likely because it was immersed in cold water too soon after washing." These simple words, given the situation in which they were spoken, carry a sense of grandeur and reflect unshakeable peace. We can’t assume that the Roman Catholics wanted to poison Luther, especially in the Archbishop of Trêves' home. This meal neither divided nor united the parties. The Reformer’s resolve came from a higher source and could not be swayed by either the animosity or favor of others.
On Thursday morning (25th April) Chancellor Wehe and doctor Peutinger of Augsburg, imperial counsellor, who had shown great affection for Luther ever since his interview with de Vio, repaired to the hotel of the Knights of Rhodes. The Elector of Saxony sent Frederick De Thun, and another of his counsellors, to be present at the conference. "Put yourself in our hands," earnestly said Wehe and Peutinger, who would willingly have sacrificed every thing to prevent the division which was about to rend the Church. "This affair will be terminated in a Christian manner; we give you our word for it." "In two words," said Luther to them, "here is my answer: I renounce the safe-conduct.[567] I place in the hands of the emperor my person and my life; but the Word of God ... never!" Frederick de Thun affected rose and said to the deputies, "Is it not enough? Is not the sacrifice great enough?" Then declaring that he would hear nothing more, he took his leave. Wehe and Peutinger, hoping to have better success with the doctor, came and sat down on each side of him. "Throw yourself upon the Diet," said they to him. "No," replied Luther, "for cursed be the man that trusteth in man." (Jeremiah, xvii, 5.) Wehe and Peutinger redoubled their counsels and attacks, pressing more closely on the Reformer. Luther worn out, rose up and put an end to the interview, saying, "I will not allow any man to set himself above the word of God."[568] "Reflect once more," said they to him on retiring, "we will return after mid-day."
On Thursday morning (25th April), Chancellor Wehe and Dr. Peutinger from Augsburg, an imperial counselor who had shown great support for Luther ever since his meeting with de Vio, went to the hotel of the Knights of Rhodes. The Elector of Saxony sent Frederick De Thun and another of his counselors to attend the conference. "Trust us," Wehe and Peutinger urged, willing to give up anything to prevent the division that was about to split the Church. "This matter will be resolved in a Christian way; we give you our word." "To put it simply," Luther replied, "here's my answer: I reject the safe-conduct. I entrust my person and my life to the emperor; but the Word of God ... never!" Frederick De Thun got up and addressed the deputies, saying, "Isn't this enough? Isn't the sacrifice great enough?" Then, announcing he would hear no more, he left. Wehe and Peutinger, hoping for better luck with Luther, sat down on either side of him. "Rely on the Diet," they suggested. "No," Luther responded, "for cursed is the man who trusts in man." (Jeremiah 17:5) Wehe and Peutinger intensified their efforts, pressing Luther harder. Exhausted, Luther stood up and ended the meeting, saying, "I will not allow anyone to place themselves above the word of God." "Think it over again," they said to him as they left, "we'll come back after noon."
They, in fact, did return; but convinced that Luther would not yield, they brought a new proposal. Luther had refused to be judged first by the pope, then by the emperor, then by the Diet. There remained one judge to whom he himself had once appealed—a general council. No doubt such a proposal would have been scouted by Rome; but it was the last plank for escape. The delegates offered Luther a Council; and he had it in his power to accept it unfettered by any precise definition. Years might have elapsed before the difficulties which the calling of a Council would have encountered on the part of the pope could have been obviated. To the Reformation and the Reformer a gain of years would have gained every thing. God and time would then have done the rest. But Luther preferred the straight course to every other: he would not save himself at the expense of truth though all that might have been necessary was to disguise it by keeping silence. "I consent," replied he, "but (this was equivalent to a refusal of the Council) on condition that the Council will judge only according to the Holy Scriptures."[569]
They did come back, but since they were sure Luther wouldn’t back down, they brought a new proposal. Luther had refused to be judged first by the pope, then by the emperor, and then by the Diet. There was still one judge left that he had previously appealed to—a general council. No doubt, Rome would have dismissed such a suggestion, but it was his last chance to escape. The delegates offered Luther a Council, and he could accept it without any specific conditions. It might have taken years to resolve the issues that the pope would have posed regarding calling a Council. For the Reformation and the Reformer, gaining those years would have meant everything. God and time would have done the rest. But Luther chose the direct path over any other: he wouldn’t compromise the truth even if all it took was staying silent. "I agree," he replied, "but (this was effectively a rejection of the Council) on the condition that the Council will judge only by the Holy Scriptures."[569]
Peutinger and Wehe, thinking that a Council could not judge otherwise, hastened overjoyed to the archbishop. "Dr. Martin," said they, "submits his books to a Council." The archbishop was going to carry the good news to the emperor, when some doubt occurring to him, he sent for Luther.
Peutinger and Wehe, believing that a Council wouldn't decide differently, quickly rushed to the archbishop with excitement. "Dr. Martin," they said, "is submitting his books to a Council." The archbishop was about to take the good news to the emperor when a doubt crossed his mind, so he called for Luther.
Richard of Grieffenklau was alone when the doctor arrived. "Dear doctor," said the archbishop, with much cordiality and kindness,[570] "my doctors assure me that you consent without reservation to submit your cause to a Council." "My Lord," replied Luther, "I can bear every thing, but cannot abandon the Holy Scriptures." The archbishop then perceived that Wehe and Peutinger had not explained themselves properly. Never could Rome consent to a Council bound to decide according to Scripture. "It was just," says Pallavicini, "to insist that a weak eye should read very small writing, and at the same time deny the use of spectacles."[571] The good archbishop sighed. "It was well," said he, "I made you come. What would have become of me had I immediately gone to the emperor with the news?"
Richard of Grieffenklau was alone when the doctor arrived. "Dear doctor," said the archbishop warmly, "my doctors tell me that you agree without hesitation to bring your case before a Council." "My Lord," replied Luther, "I can endure anything, but I cannot abandon the Holy Scriptures." The archbishop then realized that Wehe and Peutinger hadn't communicated clearly. Rome could never agree to a Council that was bound to make decisions based on Scripture. "It was just," says Pallavicini, "to expect a weak eye to read very small writing while denying the use of glasses." The archbishop sighed. "It was good," he said, "that I made you come. What would have happened to me if I had gone straight to the emperor with that news?"
The immovable firmness, the stern rectitude of Luther, are, no doubt, astonishing, but they will be comprehended and respected by all who know the claims of God. Seldom has a nobler homage been paid to the immutable word of Heaven, and that at the risk of life and liberty by the man who paid it.
The unyielding determination and strict integrity of Luther are certainly impressive, but they will be understood and respected by anyone who recognizes the demands of God. Rarely has there been a greater tribute to the unchanging word of Heaven, especially considering the risk to life and freedom taken by the man who offered it.
"Well," said the venerable prelate to Luther, "do you yourself then point out a remedy."
"Well," said the respected bishop to Luther, "can you suggest a solution?"
Luther, (after a moment's silence).—"My Lord, I know no other than that of Gamaliel: 'If this counsel or this work be of men it will come to nought, but if it be of God ye cannot overthrow it, lest haply ye be found even to fight against God.' Let the emperor, the electors, the princes, and the states of the empire, deliver this answer to the pope."
Luther, (after a moment's silence).—"My Lord, I know of no other argument than that of Gamaliel: 'If this plan or this work is of humans, it will fail, but if it is of God, you cannot stop it, or else you might find yourself fighting against God.' Let the emperor, the electors, the princes, and the states of the empire, deliver this response to the pope."
Archbishop.—"At least retract some articles."
Archbishop.—"At least take back some articles."
Luther.—"Provided it be not those which the Council of Constance condemned."
Luther.—"As long as it's not the ones that the Council of Constance condemned."
Archbishop.—"Ah, I fear they are the very ones which will be asked."
Archbishop.—"Oh, I'm afraid those are exactly the ones that will be asked."
Luther.—"Then sooner sacrifice my body and my life—better allow my legs and arms to be cut off than abandon the clear and genuine word of God."[572]
Luther.—"I would rather sacrifice my body and my life—it's better to have my arms and legs cut off than to abandon the clear and genuine word of God."[572]
The archbishop at length understood Luther. "You may withdraw," said he to him, always with the same gentleness. "Your Lordship," resumed Luther, "will be so good as to see that his Majesty cause the safe-conduct necessary for my return to be expedited." "I will see to it," replied the good archbishop, and they parted.
The archbishop finally understood Luther. "You may leave," he said to him, maintaining his gentleness. "Your Lordship," Luther continued, "please ensure that his Majesty issues the safe-conduct I need for my return." "I will take care of it," the kind archbishop replied, and they parted ways.
So ended these negotiations. The whole empire had assailed this man with the most urgent entreaties and the most fearful menaces,[573] and this man had never flinched. His refusal to bend under the iron arm of the pope emancipated the Church, and commenced a new era. The intervention of Providence was evident, and the whole presents one of those grand historical scenes in which the majestic form of the Divinity appears conspicuously displayed.
So ended these negotiations. The entire empire had pressured this man with desperate pleas and terrifying threats,[573] and he never wavered. His refusal to submit to the pope’s authority freed the Church and marked the beginning of a new era. It’s clear that Providence intervened, creating one of those grand moments in history where the majestic presence of the Divine is prominently revealed.
Luther withdrew in company with Spalatin who had arrived at the archbishop's during the course of the visit. John von Minkwitz, one of the Elector of Saxony's counsellors, had fallen sick at Worms. The two friends repaired to his lodging, and Luther administered the tenderest consolation to the sick man. "Adieu," said he to him on leaving, "to-morrow I shall quit Worms."
Luther left with Spalatin, who had come to the archbishop's during the visit. John von Minkwitz, one of the Elector of Saxony's advisors, had fallen ill in Worms. The two friends went to his room, and Luther offered the kindest comfort to the sick man. "Goodbye," he said as he left, "tomorrow I will leave Worms."
Luther was not mistaken. He had not been three hours returned to the hotel of the Knights of Rhodes when chancellor Eck and the chancellor of the emperor, with a notary, made their appearance.
Luther was not wrong. He had barely been back at the Knights of Rhodes hotel for three hours when Chancellor Eck and the emperor's chancellor, along with a notary, showed up.
The chancellor said to him, "Martin Luther, his imperial Majesty, the Electors, Princes, and States of the empire, having exhorted you to submission again and again, and in various manners, but always in vain, the emperor, in his quality of advocate and defender of the Catholic faith, sees himself obliged to take other steps. He therefore orders you to return to your home in the space of twenty-one days, and prohibits you from disturbing the public peace by the way, either by preaching or writing."
The chancellor said to him, "Martin Luther, his imperial Majesty, the Electors, Princes, and States of the empire have urged you to comply repeatedly and in different ways, but it has always been in vain. The emperor, acting as the advocate and defender of the Catholic faith, feels compelled to take further action. He therefore orders you to return home within twenty-one days and forbids you from disrupting public peace in the meantime, either through preaching or writing."
Luther was well aware that this message was the first step in his condemnation. "It has happened as Jehovah pleased," said he meekly. "Blessed be the name of Jehovah!" Then he added, "Before all things, very humbly and from the bottom of my heart, I thank his Majesty, the Electors, Princes, and other States of the empire, for having listened to me with so much kindness. I have desired, and do desire one thing only—a reformation of the Church agreeably to Holy Scripture. I am ready to do every thing and suffer every thing in humble submission to the will of the emperor. Life and death, honour and disgrace, are all alike to me: I make only one reservation—the preaching of the gospel; for, says St. Paul, 'The word of God cannot be bound.'" The deputies withdrew.
Luther knew that this message marked the beginning of his condemnation. "It has happened as God willed," he said humbly. "Blessed be the name of God!" Then he added, "First and foremost, I sincerely thank His Majesty, the Electors, Princes, and other States of the empire for listening to me with such kindness. I have only one desire—a reformation of the Church in line with the Holy Scriptures. I am ready to do anything and endure anything in humble submission to the emperor's will. Life and death, honor and disgrace, mean nothing to me: I only ask for one thing—the preaching of the gospel; for, as St. Paul says, 'The word of God cannot be bound'." The deputies left.
On the morning of Friday (26th April) the Reformer's friends and several nobles met at his lodgings.[574] They were gratified at seeing the Christian constancy which he had opposed to Charles and the empire, and to recognise in him the features of the ancient portrait:
On the morning of Friday (April 26th), the Reformer's friends and several nobles gathered at his place.[574] They were pleased to witness the unwavering faith he had shown against Charles and the empire and to see the likeness of the ancient portrait in him:
They wished once more, perhaps for ever, to bid adieu to this intrepid monk. Luther took a frugal meal. Now he must take leave of his friends, and flee far from them under a sky surcharged with storms. He wished to pass this solemn moment in the presence of God. He lifted up his soul and blessed those who were around him.[576] Ten in the morning having struck, Luther quitted the hotel with the friends who had accompanied him to Worms. Twenty gentlemen on horseback surrounded his carriage. A great crowd accompanied him beyond the walls. The imperial herald, Sturm, rejoined him some time after at Oppenheim, and the following day they reached Frankfort.
They hoped once more, perhaps for the last time, to say goodbye to this brave monk. Luther had a simple meal. Now he had to part ways with his friends and flee far from them beneath a sky filled with storms. He wanted to spend this serious moment in the presence of God. He lifted his soul and blessed those around him.[576] At ten in the morning, Luther left the hotel with the friends who had come with him to Worms. Twenty gentlemen on horseback surrounded his carriage. A large crowd followed him beyond the city walls. The imperial herald, Sturm, caught up with him later at Oppenheim, and the next day they arrived in Frankfurt.
CHAP. XI.
Luther's Departure—Journey from Worms—Luther to Cranach—Luther to Charles V—Luther with the Abbot of Hirschfeld—The Curate of Eisenach—Several Princes leave the Diet—Charles signs Luther's Condemnation—The Edict of Worms—Luther with his parents—Luther attacked and carried off—The ways of God—Wartburg—Luther a Prisoner.
Luther's Departure—Journey from Worms—Luther to Cranach—Luther to Charles V—Luther with the Abbot of Hirschfeld—The Curate of Eisenach—Several Princes leave the Diet—Charles signs Luther's Condemnation—The Edict of Worms—Luther with his parents—Luther attacked and taken away—The ways of God—Wartburg—Luther as a Prisoner.
Luther having thus escaped from these walls of Worms, which threatened to become his tomb, his whole heart gave glory to God. "The devil himself," said he, "guarded the citadel of the pope. But Christ has made a large breach in it; and Satan has been forced to confess that the Lord is mightier than he."[577]
Luther, having escaped from the walls of Worms that seemed destined to be his grave, gave all his praise to God. "The devil himself," he said, "was guarding the pope’s fortress. But Christ has made a significant opening in it, and even Satan has been compelled to admit that the Lord is stronger than he."[577]
"The day of the Diet of Worms," says the pious Mathesius, the disciple and friend of Luther, "is one of the greatest and most glorious days given to the world before its final close."[578] The battle fought at Worms re-echoed far and wide, and while the sound travelled over Christendom, from the regions of the North to the mountains of Switzerland, and the cities of England, France, and Italy, many ardently took up the mighty weapon of the Word of God.
"The day of the Diet of Worms," says the devoted Mathesius, a student and friend of Luther, "is one of the greatest and most glorious days ever granted to the world before its end." [578] The battle fought at Worms echoed widely, and as the news spread across Christendom, from the northern regions to the mountains of Switzerland, and the cities of England, France, and Italy, many passionately embraced the powerful weapon of the Word of God.
Luther, having arrived at Frankfort, on the evening of Saturday, (27th April,) took advantage next day of a moment of leisure, the first he had had for a long time, to write a note, in a style at once playful and energetic, to his friend, Lucas Cranach, the celebrated painter, at Wittemberg. "Your servant, dear compeer Lucas," said he to him, "I thought his majesty would assemble at Worms some fifty doctors to confute the monk off hand. But not at all. Are these books yours? Yes. Will you retract them? No. Ah well! get you gone! Such was the whole story. O blind Germans, how like children we act in allowing ourselves to be played upon and duped by Rome!... The Jews must for once have their chant, Yo! Yo! Yo! But our passover also will come, and then we will sing Hallelujah![579]... There must be silence and suffering for a short time. Jesus Christ says, 'A little while and ye shall not see me, and again a little while and ye shall see me.' (John, xvi, 16.) I hope it will be so with me. I commend you altogether to the Eternal. May He through Christ protect us against the attacks of the wolves and dragons of Rome. Amen."
Luther, having arrived in Frankfurt on the evening of Saturday, April 27th, took advantage of the next day, a rare moment of free time, to write a note in a playful yet energetic style to his friend, Lucas Cranach, the famous painter in Wittenberg. "Dear friend Lucas," he wrote, "I thought the king would gather about fifty doctors at Worms to quickly debunk the monk. But that's not what happened at all. Are these books yours? Yes. Will you take them back? No. Well then, get lost! That’s the whole story. Oh, blind Germans, how childlike we are to let ourselves be fooled and tricked by Rome!... The Jews must have their song for once, Yo! Yo! Yo! But our Passover will come too, and then we will sing Hallelujah![579]... There must be silence and suffering for a little while. Jesus Christ says, 'A little while and you shall not see me, and again a little while and you shall see me.' (John 16:16). I hope that will be the case for me. I entrust you entirely to the Eternal. May He, through Christ, protect us from the attacks of the wolves and dragons of Rome. Amen."
After writing this somewhat enigmatical letter, Luther, as time was pressing, set out immediately for Friedberg, which is six leagues from Frankfort. The next day Luther again communed with himself. He was desirous to write once more to Charles V, being unwilling to confound him with guilty rebels. In his letter to the emperor he clearly expounded the nature of the obedience which is due to man, and that which is due to God, and the limit where the former must stop and give place to the latter. In reading Luther, we involuntarily call to mind the saying of the greatest autocrat of modern times: "My role ends where that of conscience begins."[580] "God, who is the searcher of hearts, is my witness," says Luther, "that I am ready with all diligence to obey your majesty, whether in honour or disgrace, whether by life or by death, and with absolutely no exception but the word of God, from which man derives life. In all the affairs of the present life my fidelity will be immutable, for as to these loss or gain cannot at all affect salvation. But in regard to eternal blessings, it is not the will of God that man should submit to man. Subjection in the spiritual world constitutes worship, and should be paid only to the Creator."[581]
After writing this somewhat puzzling letter, Luther, since time was running out, set off immediately for Friedberg, which is about six leagues from Frankfurt. The next day Luther reflected on his thoughts again. He wanted to write to Charles V once more, not wanting to confuse him with guilty rebels. In his letter to the emperor, he clearly explained the type of obedience that is owed to humans and that which is owed to God, and where the former should stop and give way to the latter. Reading Luther makes us think of the saying by the most powerful ruler of modern times: "My role ends where that of conscience begins." [580] "God, who knows what’s in our hearts, is my witness," says Luther, "that I am ready to obey your majesty with all my effort, whether in honor or disgrace, whether in life or death, and with no exception other than the word of God, from which humans get life. In all matters of this life, my loyalty will be unwavering, as loss or gain cannot impact salvation at all. However, concerning eternal blessings, it is not God’s will for man to submit to man. Subjection in the spiritual realm is a form of worship and should only be directed towards the Creator." [581]
Luther also addressed a letter, but in German, to the States of the empire. It was nearly the same in substance as that to the emperor. It contained an account of all that had taken place at Worms. This letter was repeatedly printed and circulated all over Germany; "Every where," says Cochlœus, "it excited the popular indignation against the emperor and the dignified clergy."[582]
Luther also wrote a letter in German to the states of the empire. It was almost the same in content as the one he sent to the emperor. It included a summary of everything that had happened at Worms. This letter was printed and circulated widely throughout Germany; "Everywhere," says Cochlœus, "it sparked public outrage against the emperor and the high-ranking clergy."[582]
Early next day, Luther wrote a note to Spalatin, enclosing in it the two letters which he had written the evening before, and sent back the herald Sturm, who had been won to the gospel. Having embraced him he set out in all haste for Grunberg.
Early the next day, Luther wrote a note to Spalatin, including the two letters he had written the night before, and sent back the herald Sturm, who had accepted the gospel. After embracing him, he hurried off to Grunberg.
On Tuesday, when about two leagues from Hirschfeld, he met the chancellor of the abbot-prince of this town, who had come out to receive him. Shortly after a troop of horsemen appeared with the abbot at their head. The latter leapt from his horse, and Luther having alighted from his carriage, the prince and the Reformer embraced, and then entered Hirschfeld. The senate received them at the gates.[583] The princes of the Church ran to meet a monk anathematised by the pope, and the most distinguished among the laity, bowed the head before an individual whom the emperor had put under the ban.
On Tuesday, when he was about two leagues from Hirschfeld, he encountered the chancellor of the abbot-prince of the town, who had come out to greet him. Soon after, a group of horsemen arrived with the abbot leading the way. The abbot jumped off his horse, and after Luther got out of his carriage, the prince and the Reformer hugged each other and then went into Hirschfeld. The senate welcomed them at the gates.[583] The Church leaders rushed to meet a monk who had been excommunicated by the pope, while even the most prominent laypeople bowed their heads before a man whom the emperor had placed under a ban.
"At five in the morning we will be at the church," said the prince, on rising in the evening from table, at which the Reformer was a guest. He even wished Luther to occupy his own bed. Next day, Luther preached, the abbot-prince accompanying him with his suite.
"At five in the morning, we'll be at the church," said the prince as he got up from the dinner table where the Reformer was a guest. He even offered Luther his own bed for the night. The next day, Luther preached, with the abbot-prince and his entourage joining him.
In the evening, Luther arrived at Eisenach, the abode of his infancy. All his friends in the town gathered round him, and begged him to preach. The next day they conducted him to the church. The curate made his appearance, attended by a notary and witnesses. He came forward in great tremor, divided between the fear of losing his place, and that of opposing the powerful man before him. At last he said, in a tone of embarrassment, "I protest against the liberty which you are going to take." Luther mounted the pulpit, and that voice which, twenty-three years before, sung in the streets of this town for bread, caused the arches of the ancient church to ring with accents which had begun to shake the world. After the sermon, the curate, in confusion, stept softly forward to Luther. The notary had drawn up his instrument, the witnesses had signed it, and everything was in regular order to put the curate's place in safety. "Pardon me," said he humbly to the doctor; "I have done it from fear of the tyrants who oppress the Church."[584]
In the evening, Luther arrived at Eisenach, the place where he grew up. All his friends in town gathered around him and urged him to preach. The next day, they took him to the church. The curate showed up, accompanied by a notary and witnesses. He appeared visibly nervous, torn between the fear of losing his job and the fear of challenging the powerful man in front of him. Finally, he said, awkwardly, "I protest against the liberty you’re about to take." Luther took to the pulpit, and that voice which, twenty-three years earlier, had sung in the streets for bread, filled the ancient church with sounds that were starting to change the world. After the sermon, the curate, embarrassed, approached Luther quietly. The notary had prepared the documents, the witnesses had signed them, and everything was in place to secure the curate's position. "I'm sorry," he said humbly to the doctor; "I did it out of fear of the tyrants who oppress the Church."[584]
There was, in fact, some ground to fear them. At Worms, the aspect of affairs had changed. Aleander seemed to reign supreme. "Luther has nothing before him but exile," wrote Frederick to his brother, Duke John. "Nothing can save him. If God permits me to return, I will have things almost incredible to tell you. Not only Annas and Caiaphas, but also Pilate and Herod, have leagued against him." Frederick, having little wish to remain longer, left Worms. The Elector-Palatine did the same, as did also the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne. Princes of less elevated rank imitated them. Deeming it impossible to avert the blow which was about to be struck, they preferred, perhaps erroneously, to abandon the place. The Spaniards, Italians, and the most Ultra-Montane of the German princes, alone remained.
There was, in fact, some reason to fear them. At Worms, the situation had changed. Aleander appeared to have total control. "Luther has nothing ahead of him but exile," Frederick wrote to his brother, Duke John. "Nothing can save him. If God allows me to return, I will have almost unbelievable things to share with you. Not only Annas and Caiaphas, but also Pilate and Herod, have joined forces against him." Frederick, wanting to stay no longer, left Worms. The Elector-Palatine did the same, as did the Archbishop-Elector of Cologne. Princes of lower rank followed their example. Thinking it impossible to prevent the impending blow, they opted, perhaps mistakenly, to leave the area. Only the Spaniards, Italians, and the most extreme Ultra-Montane of the German princes remained.
The field was free, and Aleander triumphed. He laid before Charles the draft of an edict, which he intended should serve as the model of that which the Diet was to issue against the monk. The nuncio's labour pleased the irritated emperor. He assembled the remains of the Diet in his chamber, and caused Aleander's edict to be read to them. All who were present, (so says Pallavicini,) approved it.
The field was clear, and Aleander was victorious. He presented Charles with a draft of an edict that he planned to use as a template for what the Diet would issue against the monk. The nuncio's work satisfied the annoyed emperor. He gathered the remaining members of the Diet in his chamber and had Aleander's edict read to them. Everyone present, (according to Pallavicini,) approved it.
The next day—the day of a great festival—the emperor was in the church, surrounded by the nobility of his court. The religious solemnity was finished, and a multitude of people filled the church, when Aleander, clad in all the insignia of his rank, approached Charles V.[585] He held in his hand two copies of the edict against Luther, the one in Latin, and the other in German, and, kneeling down before his majesty, implored him to append his signature and the seal of the empire. It was at the moment when the host had just been offered, when incense filled the temple, when music was still ringing under its arches, and, as it were, in the presence of the Divinity, that the destruction of the enemy of Rome was to be completed. The emperor, assuming the most gracious manner,[586] took the pen and signed. Aleander went off in triumph, put the decree immediately to press, and sent it over all Christendom.[587] This fruit of the labour of Rome had cost the papacy some pains. Pallavicini himself informs us that this edict, though dated the 8th May, was signed later, but was antedated, to make it be supposed that it was executed during the time when all the members of the Diet were actually assembled.
The next day—on the day of a big festival—the emperor was in the church, surrounded by the nobility of his court. The religious ceremony had just wrapped up, and a crowd filled the church when Aleander, dressed in all the symbols of his rank, approached Charles V.[585] He held two copies of the edict against Luther, one in Latin and the other in German, and, kneeling before his majesty, pleaded with him to sign and seal it on behalf of the empire. It was the moment right after the host had been offered, as incense filled the temple, and music echoed under its arches, almost as if in the presence of the Divine, that the final blow against the enemy of Rome was to be dealt. The emperor, adopting a very gracious demeanor,[586] took the pen and signed. Aleander left in triumph, immediately sent the decree to print, and distributed it throughout Christendom.[587] This result of Rome's efforts had required some effort from the papacy. Pallavicini himself tells us that this edict, although dated May 8th, was signed later but backdated, to create the impression that it was executed while all members of the Diet were actually present.
"We Charles Fifth," said the emperor, (then followed all his titles,) "to all the electors, princes, prelates, and others, whom it may concern,
"We, Charles the Fifth," said the emperor, (then followed all his titles,) "to all the electors, princes, prelates, and others, whom it may concern,
"The Almighty having entrusted to us, for the defence of his holy faith, more kingdoms and power than he gave to any of our predecessors, we mean to exert ourselves to the utmost to prevent any heresy from arising to pollute our holy empire.
"The Almighty has entrusted us with more kingdoms and power to defend His holy faith than He gave to any of our predecessors. We intend to do everything we can to prevent any heresy from arising that could pollute our holy empire."
"The Augustin monk, Martin Luther, though exhorted by us, has rushed like a madman against the holy Church, and sought to destroy it by means of books filled with blasphemy. He has, in a shameful manner, insulted the imperishable law of holy wedlock. He has striven to excite the laity to wash their hands in the blood of priests;[588] and, overturning all obedience, has never ceased to stir up revolt, division, war, murder, theft, and fire, and to labour completely to ruin the faith of Christians.... In a word, to pass over all his other iniquities in silence, this creature, who is not a man, but Satan himself under the form of a man, covered with the cowl of a monk,[589] has collected into one stinking pool all the worst heresies of past times, and has added several new ones of his own....
"The Augustinian monk, Martin Luther, despite our pleas, has charged at the holy Church like a madman and tried to tear it down with his blasphemous writings. He has disgracefully insulted the unbreakable laws of marriage. He has attempted to incite ordinary people to rise up against priests;[588] and, by destroying all sense of obedience, he has continuously stirred up rebellion, division, war, murder, theft, and destruction, working tirelessly to undermine the faith of Christians.... In short, to ignore all his other wrongdoings, this being, who is not a man but Satan himself disguised as a man, cloaked in a monk's robe,[589] has gathered all the worst heresies from the past into a single, foul pool and added several new ones of his own....
"We have, therefore, sent this Luther from before our face, that all pious and sensible men may regard him as a fool, or a man possessed of the devil; and we expect that, after the expiry of his safe-conduct, effectual means will be taken to arrest his furious rage.
"We have, therefore, sent this Luther away from our presence so that all decent and sensible people may see him as a fool or a man possessed by the devil; and we expect that, after his safe-conduct expires, effective measures will be taken to stop his furious rage."
"Wherefore, under pain of incurring the punishment due to the crime of treason, we forbid you to lodge the said Luther so soon as the fatal term shall be expired, to conceal him, give him meat or drink, and lend him, by word or deed, publicly or secretly, any kind of assistance. We enjoin you, moreover, to seize him, or cause him to be seized, wherever you find him, and bring him to us without any delay, or to keep him in all safety until you hear from us how you are to act with regard to him, and till you receive the recompence due to your exertions in so holy a work.
"Therefore, under the threat of facing the punishment for treason, we forbid you to shelter Luther as soon as the designated time has expired, to hide him, provide him with food or drink, or offer him any kind of assistance, either openly or secretly, by word or action. Additionally, we command you to capture him or have him captured wherever you may find him and bring him to us without delay, or to keep him safe until you hear from us regarding what to do with him, and until you receive the reward for your efforts in this important task."
"As to his adherents you will seize them, suppress them, and confiscate their goods.
"As for his followers, you will capture them, silence them, and take their possessions."
"As to his writings, if the best food becomes the terror of all mankind as soon as a drop of poison is mixed with it, how much more ought these books which contain a deadly poison to the soul to be not only rejected but also annihilated.
"As for his writings, if the best food becomes frightening to everyone as soon as a drop of poison is added, how much more should these books, which contain a deadly poison for the soul, be not only rejected but also destroyed."
"You will therefore burn them, or in some other way destroy them entirely.
You will therefore burn them or completely destroy them in some other way.
"As to authors, poets, printers, painters, sellers or buyers of placards, writings, or paintings, against the pope, or the Church, you will lay hold of their persons and their goods, and treat them according to your good pleasure.
"As for authors, poets, printers, painters, sellers, or buyers of posters, writings, or paintings against the pope or the Church, you will seize their persons and their belongings and deal with them as you see fit."
"And if any one, whatever be his dignity, shall dare to act in contradiction to the decree of our imperial Majesty, we ordain that he shall be placed under the ban of the empire.
"And if anyone, no matter their status, dares to go against the decree of our imperial Majesty, we declare that they shall be placed under the ban of the empire."
"Let every one conform hereto."
"Let everyone conform to this."
Such was the edict signed in the Cathedral of Worms. It was more than a Roman bull which, though published in Italy, might not be executed in Germany. The emperor himself had spoken, and the Diet had ratified his decree. All the partisans of Rome sent forth a shout of triumph. "It is the end of the tragedy," exclaimed they. "For my part," said Alphonso Valdez, a Spaniard at the emperor's court, "I am persuaded it is not the end but the beginning."[590] Valdez perceived that the movement was in the Church, in the people, in the age, and that though Luther should fall, his cause would not fall with him. But no one disguised to himself the imminent, the inevitable danger to which the Reformer was exposed, while the whole tribe of the superstitious were seized with horror at the thought of the incarnate Satan whom the emperor pointed out to the nation as disguised under a monk's frock.
Such was the order signed in the Cathedral of Worms. It was more than a Roman bull that, although published in Italy, might not be enforced in Germany. The emperor himself had spoken, and the Diet had confirmed his decree. All the supporters of Rome erupted in cheers. "This is the end of the tragedy," they exclaimed. "For my part," said Alphonso Valdez, a Spaniard at the emperor's court, "I'm convinced it's not the end but the beginning." Valdez realized that the movement was within the Church, among the people, and of the time, and that even if Luther fell, his cause would not disappear with him. However, no one hid from themselves the imminent and unavoidable danger the Reformer faced, while the entire band of the superstitious were filled with dread at the thought of the embodiment of Satan that the emperor presented to the nation, disguised in a monk's robe.
The man against whom the mighty of the earth were thus forging their thunders had left the Church of Eisenach, and was preparing to separate from some of his dearest friends. He did not wish to follow the road of Gotha or Erfurt, but to repair to the village of Mora, his father's birth place, that he might there see his grandmother, who died four months after, his uncle, Henry Luther, and other relations. Schurff, Jonas, and Suaven, set off for Wittemberg; Luther mounted his vehicle with Amsdorff who remained with him, and entered the forest of Thuringia.[591]
The man against whom the powerful leaders of the world were conspiring had just left the Church of Eisenach and was getting ready to part ways with some of his closest friends. He didn’t want to travel to Gotha or Erfurt, but instead wanted to go to the village of Mora, where his father was born, to see his grandmother, who would pass away four months later, his uncle, Henry Luther, and other family members. Schurff, Jonas, and Suaven headed off to Wittenberg; Luther got into a carriage with Amsdorff, who stayed with him, and they entered the Thuringia forest.[591]
The same evening he reached the village of his fathers. The poor old peasant clasped in her arms this grandson who had just been showing front to the emperor Charles and pope Leo. Luther spent the next day with his family, happy in substituting this tranquil scene for the tumult at Worms. On the following day he resumed his journey, accompanied by Amsdorff and his brother James. In these lonely spots the Reformer's lot was to be decided. They were passing along the forest of Thuringia, on the road to Wallershausen. As the carriage was in a hollow part of the road, near the old church of Glisbach, at some distance from the castle of Altenstein, a sudden noise was heard, and at that moment five horsemen, masked and in complete armour, rushed upon the travellers. Luther's brother, as soon as he perceived the assailants, lept from the vehicle, and ran off at full speed without uttering a word. The driver was for defending himself. "Stop!" cried one of the assailants in a stern voice, and rushing upon him threw him to the ground.[592] A second man in a mask seized Amsdorff, and prevented him from coming near. Meanwhile the three other horsemen laid hold of Luther, keeping the most profound silence. They pulled him violently from the carriage, threw a horseman's cloak upon his shoulders, and placed him on a led horse. Then the other two quitted Amsdorff and the driver, and the whole lept into their saddles. The hat of one of them fell off, but they did not even stop to lift it, and in a twinkling disappeared in the dark forest with their prisoner. They at first took the road to Broderode, but they soon retraced their steps by a different road, and without quitting the forest, made turnings and windings in all directions, in order to deceive those who might attempt to follow their track.[593]
The same evening, he arrived at his family's village. The poor old peasant warmly embraced her grandson, who had just been presented to Emperor Charles and Pope Leo. Luther spent the next day with his family, content to replace the chaos of Worms with this peaceful setting. The following day, he continued his journey, joined by Amsdorff and his brother James. It was in these remote areas that the Reformer’s fate would be determined. They were traveling through the Thuringian forest on their way to Wallershausen when, as the carriage passed through a dip in the road near the old Glisbach church, not far from Altenstein castle, a sudden noise startled them. Five horsemen, masked and fully armored, charged at the travelers. Once Luther's brother saw the attackers, he jumped from the carriage and sprinted away without a word. The driver tried to defend himself. "Stop!" shouted one of the attackers sternly, then rushed at him and knocked him to the ground.[592] A second masked man grabbed Amsdorff, preventing him from getting closer. Meanwhile, the other three horsemen silently seized Luther. They dragged him roughly from the carriage, threw a horseman’s cloak over his shoulders, and placed him on a large horse. The other two then abandoned Amsdorff and the driver, quickly mounting their horses. One of the horsemen lost his hat, but they didn’t stop to pick it up, vanishing into the dark forest with their captive in no time. Initially, they headed toward Broderode, but soon they changed directions and continued through the forest, making twists and turns to mislead anyone who might try to follow.[593]
Luther, little accustomed to horseback, was soon overcome with fatigue. Being permitted to dismount for a few moments, he rested near a beech tree, and took a draught of fresh water from a spring, which is still called, Luther's Spring.[594] His brother James always continuing his flight arrived in the evening at Wallershausen. The driver in great alarm had got up on his vehicle, into which Amsdorff also mounted, and urging on his horses, which proceeded at a rapid pace, brought Luther's friend as far as Wittemberg. At Wallershausen, and Wittemberg, and the interjacent country, villages, and towns, all along the road, news of Luther's having been carried off were spread, news which, while it delighted some, filled the greater number with astonishment and indignation. A cry of grief soon resounded throughout Germany—"Luther has fallen into the hands of his enemies!"
Luther, who wasn’t used to riding, quickly became tired. Allowed to get off the horse for a bit, he rested by a beech tree and took a drink of fresh water from a spring, which is still known as Luther's Spring.[594] His brother James, continuing his escape, arrived in the evening at Wallershausen. The driver, in a panic, climbed onto his vehicle, where Amsdorff also got on, and they urged the horses on, which moved at a fast pace, bringing Luther's friend to Wittemberg. In Wallershausen, Wittemberg, and the surrounding areas, news spread about Luther being taken, news that delighted some but left most people shocked and angry. A cry of grief soon echoed throughout Germany—“Luther has fallen into the hands of his enemies!”
After the violent combat which Luther had been obliged to maintain, God was pleased to conduct him to a peaceful resting place. After placing him on the brilliant theatre of Worms, where all the powers of the Reformer's soul had been so vigorously exerted, He gave him the obscure and humiliating retreat of a prison. From the deepest obscurity He brings forth the feeble instruments by which he proposes to accomplish great things, and then, after allowing them to shine for a short time with great lustre on an elevated stage, sends them back again to deep obscurity. Violent struggles and pompous displays were not the means by which the Reformation was to be accomplished. That is not the way in which the leaven penetrates the mass of the population. The Spirit of God requires more tranquil paths. The man of whom the champions of Rome were always in pitiless pursuit, behoved for a time to disappear from the world. It was necessary that personal achievements should be eclipsed in order that the revolution about to be accomplished might not bear the impress of an individual. It was necessary that man should retire and God alone remain, moving, by his Spirit, over the abyss in which the darkness of the middle age was engulphed, and saying,—"Let there be light."
After the intense battles that Luther had to fight, God decided to lead him to a peaceful resting place. After placing him on the bright stage of Worms, where the full power of the Reformer's spirit had been fiercely displayed, He put him into the dark and humiliating isolation of a prison. From the deepest obscurity, He brings forth the weak tools by which He intends to achieve great things, and then, after letting them shine briefly with great brilliance in the spotlight, sends them back to deep obscurity. Violent struggles and grand displays were not the methods by which the Reformation was meant to happen. That's not how the leaven spreads through the populace. The Spirit of God requires more peaceful paths. The man pursued relentlessly by the champions of Rome needed to disappear from the world for a time. It was important that personal achievements be overshadowed so that the upcoming revolution would not be marked by an individual. It was necessary for man to retreat and for God alone to remain, moving, by His Spirit, over the void in which the darkness of the Middle Ages was engulfed, and saying,—"Let there be light."
Nightfall having made it impossible to follow their track, the party carrying off Luther took a new direction, and about an hour before midnight arrived at the foot of a mountain.[595] The horses climbed slowly to its summit on which stood an old fortress surrounded on all sides, except that of the entrance, by the black forests which cover the mountains of Thuringia.
Night had fallen, making it impossible to track their path, so the group taking Luther changed direction and arrived at the base of a mountain about an hour before midnight. [595] The horses climbed slowly to the top, where an old fortress stood, surrounded on all sides by the dark forests that cover the mountains of Thuringia, except for the entrance side.
To this elevated and isolated castle, named the Wartburg, where the Landgraves of old used to conceal themselves, was Luther conducted. The bolts are drawn, the iron bars fall, the gates open, and the Reformer clearing the threshold, the bars again close behind him. He dismounts in the court. Burkard de Hund, Lord of Allenstein, one of the horsemen, withdraws; another, John of Berlepsch, Provost of Wartburg, conducts Luther to the chamber which was to be his prison, and where a knight's dress and a sword were lying. The three other horsemen, dependants of the provost, carry off his ecclesiastical dress, and put on the other which had been prepared for him, enjoining him to allow his hair and beard to grow,[596] in order that none even in the castle might know who he was. The inmates of the Wartburg were only to know the prisoner under the name of Chevalier Georges. Luther scarcely knew himself in the dress which was put upon him.[597] At length he is left alone, and can turn in his thoughts the strange events which had just taken place at Worms, the uncertain prospect which awaits him, and his new and strange abode. From the narrow windows of his keep he discovers the dark, solitary, and boundless forests around. "There," says Mathesins, the biographer and friend of Luther, "the doctor remained like St. Paul in his prison at Rome."
To this high and remote castle, called the Wartburg, where the Landgraves of the past used to hide, Luther was brought. The bolts are drawn, the iron bars fall, the gates open, and the Reformer steps through the threshold, with the bars closing behind him. He dismounts in the courtyard. Burkard de Hund, Lord of Allenstein, one of the horsemen, steps back; another, John of Berlepsch, Provost of Wartburg, leads Luther to the room that would be his prison, where a knight's outfit and a sword are laid out. The three other horsemen, followers of the provost, take away his clerical clothing and dress him in the prepared outfit, telling him to let his hair and beard grow, so that no one, even in the castle, would know who he was. The people at the Wartburg were only to know the prisoner as Chevalier Georges. Luther hardly recognized himself in the clothes they put on him. Finally, he is left alone to reflect on the strange events that had just occurred in Worms, the uncertain future ahead, and his new and unfamiliar home. From the narrow windows of his keep, he sees the dark, lonely, and endless forests surrounding him. "There," says Mathesins, Luther's biographer and friend, "the doctor remained like St. Paul in his prison in Rome."
Frederick de Thun, Philip Feilitsch, and Spalatin, had not concealed from Luther, in a confidential interview which they had with him at Worms by order of the Elector, that his liberty behoved to be sacrificed to the wrath of Charles and the pope.[598] Still there was so much mystery in the mode of his being carried off that Frederick was long ignorant of the place of his confinement. The grief of the friends of the Reformation was prolonged. Spring passed away, succeeded by summer, autumn, and winter; the sun finished his annual course, and the walls of the Wartburg still confined their prisoner. The truth is laid under interdict by the Diet; its defender, shut up within the walls of a strong castle, has disappeared from the stage of the world, none knowing what has become of him. Aleander triumphs, and the Reformation seems lost; ... but God reigns, and the blow which apparently threatened to annihilate the cause of the gospel will serve only to save its intrepid minister and extend the light of faith.
Frederick de Thun, Philip Feilitsch, and Spalatin didn’t hide from Luther, in a private meeting they had with him at Worms on the Elector's orders, that his freedom had to be sacrificed to the anger of Charles and the pope.[598] Still, there was so much secrecy about how he was taken that Frederick was unaware of where he was being held for a long time. The grief of the Reformation's supporters dragged on. Spring passed, followed by summer, autumn, and winter; the sun completed its yearly cycle, and the walls of the Wartburg still held their prisoner. The truth is prohibited by the Diet; its defender, locked away in a strong castle, has vanished from the world, and no one knows what has happened to him. Aleander is celebrating victory, and the Reformation appears to be doomed; ... but God is in control, and what seemed to threaten the gospel's cause will only serve to protect its fearless minister and spread the light of faith.
Let us leave Luther a captive in Germany on the heights of the Wartburg, and let us see what God was then doing in the other countries of Christendom.
Let’s leave Luther imprisoned in Germany at the heights of the Wartburg, and let’s see what God was doing at that time in other countries of Christendom.
BOOK 8.
THE SWISS.
1484-1522.
THE SWISS.
1484-1522.
CHAP. I.
Movements in Switzerland—Source of the Reformation—Democratic Character—Foreign Service—Morality—The Tockenburg—An Alpine Hut—A Pastoral Family.
Changes in Switzerland—Origins of the Reformation—Democratic Character—Service Abroad—Ethics—The Tockenburg—An Alpine Cabin—A Pastoral Family.
At the moment when the decree of the Diet of Worms appeared, a continually increasing movement was beginning to shake the quiet valleys of Switzerland. The voice which was heard in the plains of Upper and Lower Saxony was answered from the bosom of the Helvetic mountains by the energetic voices of its priests, its shepherds, and the citizens of its warlike cities. The partisans of Rome, seized with terror, exclaimed that a vast and dreadful conspiracy was every where formed against the Church. The friends of the gospel filled with joy, said, that as in spring a living breath is felt from the streams which run into the sea up to the mountain tops, so, throughout all Christendom, the Spirit of God was now melting the ices of a long winter, and covering with verdure and flowers the lowest plains as well as the steepest and most barren rocks.
At the moment the decree from the Diet of Worms was issued, a growing movement began to stir the quiet valleys of Switzerland. The voice heard across the plains of Upper and Lower Saxony was echoed from the heart of the Helvetic mountains by the passionate voices of its priests, shepherds, and the citizens of its strong cities. The supporters of Rome, gripped by fear, declared that a vast and terrible conspiracy was forming everywhere against the Church. The friends of the gospel, filled with joy, said that just as in spring a refreshing breath flows from the streams that run into the sea all the way up to the mountain tops, so throughout all of Christendom, the Spirit of God was now melting the long winter's ice and covering both the lowest plains and the steepest, most barren rocks with greenery and flowers.
Germany did not communicate the truth to Switzerland, nor Switzerland to France, nor France to England. All these countries received it from God, just as one part of the world does not transmit the light to another part, but the same shining globe communicates it directly to all the earth. Christ, the day-spring from on high, infinitely exalted above all mankind, was, at the period of the Reformation as at that of the establishment of Christianity, the divine fire which gave life to the world. In the sixteenth century one and the same doctrine was at once established in the homes and churches of the most distant and diversified nations. The reason is, that the same Spirit was every where at work producing the same faith.
Germany didn't share the truth with Switzerland, nor did Switzerland share it with France, and France didn't share it with England. All these countries received it directly from God, just like how one part of the world doesn't pass on light to another, but the same shining globe illuminates the entire earth. Christ, the day-spring from on high, infinitely elevated above all humanity, was, during the Reformation as well as during the establishment of Christianity, the divine fire that brought life to the world. In the sixteenth century, the same doctrine was established simultaneously in the homes and churches of the most distant and diverse nations. The reason is that the same Spirit was at work everywhere, producing the same faith.
The reformation of Germany and that of Switzerland demonstrate this truth. Zuinglius had no intercourse with Luther. There was, no doubt, a link between these two men; but we must search for it above the earth. He who from heaven gave the truth to Luther, gave it to Zuinglius. God was the medium of communication between them. "I began to preach the gospel," says Zuinglius, "in the year of grace, 1516, in other words, at a time when the name of Luther had never been heard of in our country. I did not learn the doctrine of Christ from Luther, but from the word of God. If Luther preaches Christ, he does what I do; that is all."[599]
The reformations in Germany and Switzerland show this truth. Zwingli had no contact with Luther. There was definitely a connection between these two men; we just need to look for it beyond the surface. The same God who revealed the truth to Luther also revealed it to Zwingli. God was the link between them. "I started preaching the gospel," says Zwingli, "in the year 1516, which means that at that time, no one in our country had ever heard of Luther. I didn’t learn Christ’s doctrine from Luther, but from the word of God. If Luther preaches Christ, he’s doing what I do; that’s all."[599]
But if the different reformations, which all proceeded from the same Spirit, thereby acquired great unity, they also received certain peculiar features, corresponding to the different characters of the people among whom they took place.
But if the various reformations, which all came from the same Spirit, achieved significant unity, they also picked up certain unique traits that matched the different characteristics of the people they happened among.
We have already given a sketch of the state of Switzerland at the period of the Reformation,[600] and will only add a few words to what we have already said. In Germany, the ruling principle was monarchical, in Switzerland it was democratic. In Germany the Reformation had to struggle with the will of princes; in Switzerland, with the will of the people. A multitude are more easily led away than an individual, and are also more prompt in their decisions. The victory over the papacy on the other side of the Rhine was the work of years, but on this side of it required only months or days.
We’ve already outlined the situation in Switzerland during the Reformation,[600] and we’ll just add a few more thoughts. In Germany, the dominant force was monarchy; in Switzerland, it was democracy. In Germany, the Reformation had to contend with the will of the princes; in Switzerland, it faced the will of the people. A large group can be swayed more easily than an individual, and they can also make decisions more quickly. The struggle against the papacy across the Rhine took years, but here it took only months or even days.
In Germany, Luther's person stands forth imposingly from the midst of his Saxon countrymen. He seems to struggle alone in his attack on the Roman Colossus, and wherever the battle is fought, we see his lofty stature on the field of battle. Luther is, as it were, the monarch of the revolution which is being accomplished. In Switzerland, several cantons are at once engaged in the contest. We see a confederacy of Reformers, and are astonished at their numbers. No doubt there is one head which stands elevated above the rest, but no one has the command. It is a republican magistracy, where each presents his peculiar physiognomy, and exercises his separate influence. We have Wittemberg, Zuinglius, Capito, Haller, Œcolampadius. Again, we have Oswald Myconius, Leo Juda, Farel, and Calvin, and the Reformation takes place at Glaris, Bâle, Zurich, Berne, Neufchatel, Geneva, Lucerne, Schafausen, Appenzel, St. Gall, and in the Grisons. In the Reformation of Germany, one scene only is seen, and that one level like the country around; but in Switzerland, the Reformation is divided, as Switzerland itself is divided by its thousand mountains. So to speak, each valley has its awakening, and each Alpine height its gleams of light.
In Germany, Luther stands out strongly among his Saxon peers. He seems to be fighting alone against the massive power of Rome, and wherever the battle happens, we can see his impressive presence on the battlefield. Luther is, in a sense, the leader of the revolution that is taking place. In Switzerland, several cantons are engaged in the fight at the same time. We see a coalition of Reformers, and we are amazed by their numbers. No doubt there is one leader who stands out above the others, but no one is in charge. It is a republican system, where everyone contributes their unique perspective and has their own influence. We have Wittenberg, Zwingli, Capito, Haller, and Œcolampadius. Then there are Oswald Myconius, Leo Juda, Farel, and Calvin, with the Reformation taking place in Glaris, Basel, Zurich, Berne, Neuchâtel, Geneva, Lucerne, Schaffhausen, Appenzell, St. Gallen, and in the Grisons. In the Reformation of Germany, there is only one scene, flat like the surrounding land; but in Switzerland, the Reformation is scattered, just as Switzerland itself is divided by its many mountains. In a way, each valley has its moment of awakening, and each Alpine peak has its flashes of light.
A lamentable period had commenced in the history of the Swiss after their exploits against the dukes of Burgundy. Europe, which had learned to know the strength of their arm, had brought them forth from their mountains, and robbed them of their independence, by employing them to decide the destiny of states on battle-fields. Swiss brandished the sword against Swiss on the plains of Italy and France; and the intrigues of strangers filled these high valleys of the Alps, so long the abode of simplicity and peace, with envy and discord. Led away by the attraction of gold, sons, labourers, and servants, stole away from the chalets of alpine pastures towards the banks of the Rhine or the Po. Helvetic unity was crushed under the slow step of mules loaded with gold. The object of the Reformation in Switzerland—for there too it had a political aspect—was to re-establish the unity and ancient virtues of the cantons. Its first cry was that the Swiss should tear asunder the perfidious nets of strangers, and embrace each other in strict union at the foot of the cross. But the generous call was not listened to. Rome, accustomed to purchase in these valleys the blood which she shed in order to increase her power, rose up in wrath. She set Swiss against Swiss, and new passions arose which rent the body of the nation in pieces.
A regrettable time began in Swiss history after their battles against the dukes of Burgundy. Europe, having recognized their strength, pulled them from their mountains and took away their independence by using them to determine the fate of nations on battlefields. Swiss fought against Swiss on the plains of Italy and France, and the intrigues of outsiders filled these once-peaceful Alpine valleys with jealousy and conflict. Lured by the promise of gold, sons, workers, and servants left the chalets of the alpine pastures for the banks of the Rhine or the Po. Helvetic unity crumbled under the heavy burden of mules loaded with gold. The goal of the Reformation in Switzerland—where it also had a political dimension—was to restore the unity and old virtues of the cantons. Its initial call was for the Swiss to break the treacherous traps set by outsiders and come together in strong unity at the foot of the cross. But this noble appeal went unheard. Rome, used to buying the blood in these valleys to strengthen her power, rose in anger. She turned Swiss against Swiss, igniting new passions that tore the nation apart.
Switzerland stood in need of a reformation. It is true there was among the Helvetians a simplicity and good-nature, which the polished Italians thought ridiculous, but, at the same time, it was admitted that by no people were the laws of chastity more habitually transgressed. Astrologers ascribed this to the constellations;[601] philosophers, to the ardent temperament of this indomitable population; and moralists, to the principles of the Swiss, who regarded trick, dishonesty, and slander as much greater sins than uncleanness.[602] The priests were prohibited from marrying, but it would have been difficult to find one of them who lived in true celibacy. The thing required of them was, to conduct themselves not chastely, but prudently. This was one of the first disorders against which the Reformation was directed. It is time to trace the beginnings of this new day in the valleys of the Alps.
Switzerland needed a reformation. It's true that the Helvetians had a simplicity and good nature that the refined Italians found ridiculous, but at the same time, it was acknowledged that no people habitually broke the laws of chastity more than they did. Astrologers blamed this on the stars;[601] philosophers pointed to the passionate temperament of this unyielding population; and moralists attributed it to the Swiss principles, who considered trickery, dishonesty, and slander to be much worse sins than uncleanliness.[602] The priests weren't allowed to marry, but it would have been hard to find one who truly lived in celibacy. What was expected of them was not to behave chastely, but wisely. This was one of the first issues the Reformation aimed to address. It’s time to explore the beginnings of this new era in the valleys of the Alps.
Towards the middle of the eleventh century, two hermits set out from Saint Gall, and proceeding towards the mountains at the south of this ancient monastery, arrived in a deserted valley about ten leagues long.[603] Towards the north, the high mountains of Sentis, the Sommerigkopf, and the Old-Man, separate this valley from the canton of Appenzel. On the south, the Kuhfirsten, with its seven heads, rises between it and the Wallenses, Sargans, and the Grisons, while the eastern side of the valley opens to the rays of the rising sun, and discovers the magnificent prospect of the Tyrolese Alps. The two solitaries having arrived near the source of a small river, (the Thur,) built two cells. The valley gradually became inhabited. On the highest portion of it, 2010 feet above the Lake of Zurich, there was formed, around a church, a village named Wildhaus, or the Wild House, with which two hamlets are now connected, viz., Lisighaus, or the House of Elizabeth, and Schœnenboden. The fruits of the earth are unable to grow upon these heights. A green carpet of Alpine freshness covers the whole valley, and rises upon the sides of the mountains, above which masses of enormous rocks lift their wild grandeur towards heaven.
In the middle of the eleventh century, two hermits left Saint Gall and made their way toward the mountains south of this ancient monastery, arriving in a deserted valley that stretched about ten leagues long.[603] To the north, the high peaks of Sentis, the Sommerigkopf, and the Old-Man separate this valley from the canton of Appenzel. To the south, the Kuhfirsten, with its seven summits, stands between it and the Wallenses, Sargans, and the Grisons, while the eastern side of the valley faces the rising sun, revealing the stunning view of the Tyrolese Alps. After reaching the source of a small river, the Thur, the two hermits built two cells. Gradually, the valley became populated. At its highest point, 2010 feet above Lake Zurich, a village called Wildhaus, or the Wild House, formed around a church, which is now connected to two hamlets, namely Lisighaus, or the House of Elizabeth, and Schœnenboden. The land here isn’t fertile enough for crops to thrive at these elevations. A lush green blanket of Alpine freshness covers the entire valley, climbing the mountainsides, where huge rocks rise dramatically toward the sky.
At a quarter of a league from the church near Lisighaus, on the side of a path which leads into the pastures beyond the river, a solitary house is still standing. The tradition is, that the wood used in building it was cut upon the very spot.[604] Everything indicates that it must have been erected at a very remote period. The walls are thin. The windows have little round panes, and the roof is formed of slabs, on which stones are laid to prevent the wind from carrying them away. In front of the house there is a limpid gushing spring.
At a quarter of a league from the church near Lisighaus, along the path that leads to the pastures past the river, a solitary house still stands. The story goes that the wood used to build it was cut right from that spot.[604] Everything suggests it was built a very long time ago. The walls are thin. The windows have small round panes, and the roof is made of slabs, held down by stones to keep the wind from blowing them away. In front of the house, there’s a clear, bubbling spring.
In this house, towards the end of the fifteenth century, lived a man named Zuinglius, amman or bailiff of the district. The family of the Zwingles, or Zwingli, was ancient, and in high esteem among the inhabitants of these mountains.[605] Bartholomew, brother of the bailiff, at first curate of the parish, and, after 1487, dean of Wesen, was a person of some celebrity in the district.[606] Margaret Meili, the wife of the amman of Wildhaus, and whose brother John was afterwards abbot of the convent of Fischingen in Thurgovia, had already given birth to two sons, Heini and Klaus, when, on the first day of the year 1484, seven weeks after the birth of Luther, a third son, Ulric, was born in this solitary hut.[607] Five other sons, John, Wolfgang, Bartholomew, James, Andrew, and a daughter, Anna, were afterwards added to this Alpine family. No person in the country was more venerated than amman Zuinglius.[608] His character, his office, his numerous children, made him the patriarch of these mountains. He and all his sons were shepherds. No sooner did the first days of May open upon these mountains than the father and the children departed with their flocks for the pastures, rising gradually from station to station, and so, towards the end of July, reaching the highest summits of the Alps. Then they began gradually to redescend towards the valley, and in autumn the whole population of Wildhaus returned to their humble huts. Sometimes, during the summer, the young people who had been obliged to remain at home, eager for the mountain breezes, set out in bands for the chalets, uniting their voices to the melody of their rustic instruments. On their arrival on the Alps, the shepherds from a distance saluted them with their horns and their songs, and regaled them with a feast of milk. Afterwards the joyous band, by turnings and windings, descended again into the valley, moving to the sound of their pipes. Ulric in his youth doubtless joined occasionally in this amusement. He grew up at the foot of those rocks which seem eternal, and whose tops reach the heavens. "I have often thought," says one of his friends, "that, being brought near to heaven on these sublime heights, he there contracted something celestial and divine."[609]
In this house, towards the end of the fifteenth century, there lived a man named Zuinglius, the bailiff of the district. The Zwingli family was old and highly respected among the people living in these mountains.[605] Bartholomew, the bailiff's brother, who was initially the parish curate and became the dean of Wesen after 1487, was quite prominent in the area.[606] Margaret Meili, the wife of the bailiff of Wildhaus, whose brother John later became the abbot of the Fischingen convent in Thurgovia, had already given birth to two sons, Heini and Klaus, when a third son, Ulric, was born in this remote hut on the first day of the year 1484, seven weeks after Luther's birth.[607] Five other sons—John, Wolfgang, Bartholomew, James, Andrew—and a daughter, Anna, were later added to this Alpine family. No one in the country was more respected than bailiff Zuinglius.[608] His character, his position, and his many children made him the patriarch of these mountains. He and all his sons were shepherds. As soon as May arrived, the father and his children set off with their flocks for the pastures, moving gradually from spot to spot, and by the end of July, they reached the highest peaks of the Alps. Then they would slowly descend back into the valley, and in the autumn, the entire population of Wildhaus returned to their modest homes. Sometimes in the summer, the young people who had to stay behind, eager for the mountain breeze, would head out in groups to the chalets, joining their voices to the sounds of their rustic instruments. Upon reaching the Alps, the shepherds greeted them from a distance with their horns and songs, treating them to a feast of milk. Afterward, the cheerful group would wind their way back down into the valley, playing their pipes. Ulric surely took part in this fun during his youth. He grew up at the foot of those seemingly eternal rocks whose peaks reached the heavens. "I have often thought," said one of his friends, "that being brought close to heaven on those majestic heights, he absorbed something celestial and divine there."[609]
There were long winter evenings in the cottages of Wildhaus, and then young Ulric, seated at the paternal hearth, listened to the conversation of the bailiff and the old men of the district. He heard them tell how the inhabitants of the valley had formerly groaned under a heavy yoke. With the old men his heart beat high at the thought of the independence which the Tockenburg had acquired, and which the alliance with the Swiss had secured. A patriotic feeling was kindled in his breast. Switzerland became dear to him; and if any one uttered an unfavourable expression against the confederates, the child instantly stood up and warmly defended their cause.[610] During these long evenings he was often seen quietly seated at the feet of his pious grandmother, with his eyes rivetted upon her, listening to her Bible stories, and devout lessons, as he eagerly received them into his heart.
There were long winter evenings in the cottages of Wildhaus, and young Ulric, sitting by the family hearth, listened to the conversations of the bailiff and the older men in the area. He heard them talk about how the people in the valley had once suffered under a heavy burden. With the older men, his heart swelled with pride at the thought of the independence that Tockenburg had gained, thanks to the alliance with the Swiss. A sense of patriotism ignited within him. Switzerland became precious to him; and if anyone made a negative remark about the confederates, the boy would immediately stand up and passionately defend their cause.[610] During those long evenings, he was often seen quietly sitting at the feet of his devout grandmother, his eyes fixed on her, as he listened to her Bible stories and spiritual lessons, eagerly absorbing them into his heart.
CHAP. II.
Young Ulric at Wesen—At Bâle—At Berne—The Dominican Convent—Jetzer—The Apparitions—The Passion of the Lay Brother—The Imposture—Discovery and Punishment—Zuinglius at Vienna—At Bâle—Music at Bâle—Wittembach teaches the Gospel—Leon Juda—The Curate of Glaris.
Young Ulric in Wesen—In Basel—In Bern—The Dominican Convent—Jetzer—The Apparitions—The Passion of the Lay Brother—The Hoax—Discovery and Punishment—Zwingli in Vienna—In Basel—Music in Basel—Wittembach teaches the Gospel—Leon Juda—The Curate of Glaris.
The good amman was delighted with the happy presages in his son. He perceived that Ulric would be able to do something else than herd his cows on Mount Sentis, singing the shepherd's song. One day he took him by the hand and proceeded with him towards Wesen. He traversed the verdant ridges of the Ammon, avoiding the wild and precipitous rocks which border the lake of Wallenstadt. On arriving at the town, he called upon his brother the dean, to whom he intrusted the young mountaineer, in order that he might ascertain what his talents were.[611] The leading feature in his character was an innate horror at falsehood and a great love of truth. He himself relates that one day, when he was beginning to reflect, the thought struck him that falsehood should be punished more severely than even theft; "for," adds he, "veracity is the parent of all the virtues." The dean soon loved his nephew as if he had been his son; delighted with his sprightliness, he entrusted his education to a schoolmaster who in a short time taught him all that he knew himself. Young Ulric, when ten years of age, having given indications of a high order of intellect,[612] his father and his uncle resolved on sending him to Bâle.
The good father was thrilled with the promising signs in his son. He saw that Ulric could do more than just herd cows on Mount Sentis while singing the shepherd's song. One day, he took him by the hand and headed towards Wesen. They crossed the lush ridges of the Ammon, steering clear of the wild and steep rocks that line the lake of Wallenstadt. When they reached the town, he visited his brother the dean and entrusted him with the young mountaineer to find out what his talents were.[611] The main trait in his character was a natural aversion to falsehood and a strong love for truth. He recalls that one day, as he was starting to think deeply, it struck him that falsehood should be punished more harshly than theft; "for," he adds, "truthfulness is the foundation of all virtues." The dean quickly grew to love his nephew as if he were his own son; impressed by his liveliness, he entrusted his education to a teacher who soon taught him everything he knew. By the time Ulric was ten, showing signs of exceptional intelligence,[612] his father and uncle decided to send him to Bâle.
When the child of the Tockenburg arrived in this celebrated city, with an integrity and purity of heart which he seemed to have inhaled from the pure air of his mountains, but which came from a higher source, a new world opened before him. The celebrity of the famous council of Bâle; the university which Pius II had founded in 1460; the printing presses, which revived the master-pieces of antiquity, and circulated over the world the first fruits of the revival of letters; the residence of distinguished men; the Wessels, the Wittembachs, and, in particular, that prince of scholars and luminary of the schools, Erasmus, rendered Bâle, at the period of the Reformation, one of the great foci of light in the west.
When the child from Tockenburg arrived in this famous city, with a sense of integrity and purity of heart that seemed to come from the fresh air of his mountains, but which actually originated from a higher source, a whole new world opened up for him. The fame of the renowned council of Bâle; the university founded by Pius II in 1460; the printing presses that revived the masterpieces of the past and spread the early works of the Renaissance across the globe; the presence of distinguished individuals like the Wessels, the Wittembachs, and especially that leading scholar and beacon of learning, Erasmus, made Bâle, during the Reformation, one of the major centers of knowledge in the west.
Ulric entered the school of St. Theodore, which was taught by Gregory Binzli, a man of an affectionate and gentle temper, at this period rare among teachers. Young Zuinglius made rapid progress. The learned disputes which were then fashionable among the doctors of universities had even descended to the youth in schools. Ulric took part in them. He exercised his growing strength against the children of other schools, and was always victorious in those struggles which formed a kind of prelude to those by which the papacy was to be overthrown in Switzerland.[613] His success excited the jealousy of rivals older than himself. The school of Bâle was soon outstripped by him as that of Wesen had been.
Ulric entered St. Theodore's school, where he was taught by Gregory Binzli, a kind and gentle man, which was uncommon for teachers at that time. Young Zuinglius made quick progress. The academic debates that were popular among university scholars had even spread to school students. Ulric joined in on these discussions. He tested his growing skills against students from other schools and consistently came out on top in these contests, which served as a precursor to the challenges that would eventually lead to the downfall of the papacy in Switzerland.[613] His success sparked jealousy among older rivals. The school in Bâle soon fell behind him, just as her school in Wesen had.
Lupulus, a distinguished scholar, had just opened at Berne the first learned school that was founded in Switzerland. The bailiff of Wildhaus and the curate of Wesen resolved to send their child thither, and Zuinglius, in 1497, quitting the smiling plains of Bâle, again drew near to the high Alps, where he had spent his childhood, and whose snowy tops, gilded with the rays of the sun, he could see from Berne. Lupulus, a distinguished poet, introduced his pupil to the sanctuary of classic literature, a sanctuary then unknown, only a few of the initiated having passed the threshold.[614] The young neophyte ardently breathed an atmosphere rich in the perfumes of antiquity. His intellect was developed and his style formed. He became a poet.
Lupulus, a notable scholar, had just launched the first academic school in Switzerland at Berne. The bailiff of Wildhaus and the curate of Wesen decided to send their child there, and Zuinglius, in 1497, leaving the pleasant plains of Bâle, returned to the high Alps, where he had spent his childhood, and from Berne, he could see the sun-kissed, snow-capped peaks. Lupulus, a talented poet, introduced his student to the world of classic literature, a world that was largely unknown at the time, with only a few people having ventured inside. The young learner eagerly absorbed an atmosphere filled with the fragrances of antiquity. His mind expanded, and his writing style began to shape. He became a poet.
Among the convents of Berne, that of the Dominicans held a distinguished place. These monks were engaged in a serious quarrel with the Franciscans. The latter maintained the immaculate conception of the virgin, while the former denied it. In every step the Dominicans took—before the rich altars which decorated their church, and between the twelve pillars on which its arches were supported—they thought only of humbling their rivals. They had observed the fine voice of Zuinglius, and heard of his precocious intellect, and thinking that he might throw lustre on their order, strove to gain him.[615] With this view they invited him to remain in their convent till he should make his noviciate. The whole prospects of Zuinglius were threatened. The amman of Wildhaus having been informed of the bait to which the Dominicans had had recourse, trembled for the innocence of his son, and ordered him forthwith to quit Berne. Zuinglius thus escaped those monastic enclosures into which Luther rushed voluntarily. What happened afterwards may enable us to comprehend the imminent danger to which Zuinglius had been exposed.
Among the convents of Bern, the Dominican one had a prominent position. These monks were in a serious conflict with the Franciscans. The Franciscans supported the idea of the virgin's immaculate conception, while the Dominicans rejected it. With every move the Dominicans made—before the lavish altars that decorated their church and between the twelve pillars supporting its arches—they focused solely on undermining their rivals. They noticed Zuinglius’s beautiful voice and heard about his exceptional intelligence, believing he could bring prestige to their order, so they tried to recruit him. To this end, they invited him to stay at their convent until he completed his novitiate. Zuinglius's future was in jeopardy. The amman of Wildhaus, having learned of the trap the Dominicans had set, feared for his son's innocence and ordered him to leave Bern immediately. Zuinglius thus escaped the monastic confines that Luther entered willingly. What happened next helps us understand the real danger Zuinglius faced.
In 1507 great excitement prevailed in the town of Berne. A young man of Zurzach, named John Jetzer, having one day presented himself at this same Dominican convent, had been repulsed. The poor youth in despair had returned to the charge, holding in his hand fifty-three florins and some pieces of silk. "It is all I possess," said he, "take it, and receive me into your order." He was admitted on the 6th January among the lay brothers. But the very first night a strange noise in his cell filled him with terror. He fled to the Carthusian convent, but was again sent back to that of the Dominicans.
In 1507, there was a lot of excitement in the town of Berne. A young man from Zurzach, named John Jetzer, had gone to the Dominican convent one day but was turned away. The poor young man, feeling desperate, returned with fifty-three florins and some pieces of silk in his hand. "It's all I have," he said, "please take it and allow me to join your order." He was accepted as a lay brother on January 6th. However, that very first night, a strange noise in his cell terrified him. He ran to the Carthusian convent, but they sent him back to the Dominicans.
On the following night, being the eve of the feast of St. Matthew, he was awoke by deep sighs, and perceived at his bedside a tall phantom in white. "I am," said a sepulchral voice, "a soul escaped from the fire of purgatory." The lay brother trembling, replied, "God save you; for me, I can do nothing." Then the spirit advanced towards the poor friar and, seizing him by the throat, indignantly upbraided him with his refusal. Jetzer in terror exclaimed, "What then can I do to save you?" "Flagellate yourself for eight days till the blood comes, and lie prostrate on the pavement of the chapel of St. John." So answered the spirit, and disappeared. The lay brother gave information of the apparition to his confessor, a preacher of the convent, and by his advice submitted to the discipline required. The rumour soon spread throughout the town that a soul had applied to the Dominicans to be delivered from purgatory. The Franciscans were deserted, and every one ran to the church to see the holy man lying prostrate on the ground. The soul from purgatory had intimated that he would reappear in eight days. On the night appointed it in fact did appear, accompanied by two other spirits that were tormenting it and howling horribly. "Scotus," said the spirit, "Scotus, the inventor of the Franciscan doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin, is among those who like me are suffering these fierce pains." At this news, which soon spread over Berne, the partisans of the Franciscans were still more alarmed. The spirit on disappearing had announced a visit from the Virgin herself. In fact, on the day appointed, the astonished friar saw Mary herself appear in his cell. He could not believe his eyes. She approached him kindly, gave him three of our Saviour's tears, three drops of his blood, a crucifix, and a letter addressed to Pope Julius II, "who," said she, "was the individual chosen by God to abolish the festival of her pretended immaculate conception." Then coming still closer to the bed on which the friar lay, she announced, in a solemn tone, that a great grace was to be conferred on him, and drove a nail into his hand. The lay brother uttered a loud shriek, but Mary wrapt up his hand in a piece of linen which her Son, she said, had worn after his flight into Egypt. This wound was not sufficient to make the glory of the Dominicans equal to that of the Franciscans. Jetzer must have the five wounds of Christ and of St. Francis in his hands, feet, and side. The four others were inflicted, and then, after giving him a draught, he was placed in a hall hung with pictures representing our Saviour's passion. Here having spent whole days fasting, his imagination soon became heated. The doors of the hall were then thrown open from time to time to the public who came in crowds to contemplate with devout astonishment the friar with his five wounds, stretching out his arms, bending his head, and by his positions and gestures imitating the crucifixion of our Lord. Sometimes, out of his wits, he foamed, and seemed about to breathe his last. The whisper went round, "He is enduring the cross of Christ." The multitude, eager for miracles, continually thronged the convent. Men worthy of high esteem, among others Lupulus himself, the master of Zuinglius, were overawed, and the Dominicans, from the height of the pulpit extolled the glory which God was bestowing on their order.
On the night before the feast of St. Matthew, he was awakened by deep sighs and saw a tall ghost in white by his bedside. "I am," said a haunting voice, "a soul that escaped from the fire of purgatory." The lay brother trembled and replied, "God save you; I can do nothing for you." The spirit then moved closer to the terrified friar and grabbed him by the throat, angrily scolding him for his refusal. Jetzer, in fear, exclaimed, "What can I do to save you?" "Whip yourself for eight days until the blood flows, and lie flat on the chapel floor of St. John," the spirit answered before disappearing. The lay brother reported the apparition to his confessor, a preacher at the convent, and based on his advice, he carried out the required discipline. Rumors quickly spread throughout the town that a soul had asked the Dominicans for help to escape purgatory. The Franciscans were abandoned, and everyone rushed to the church to see the holy man lying on the ground. The soul from purgatory had indicated it would return in eight days. On the appointed night, it indeed appeared, accompanied by two other spirits that were tormenting it and howling loudly. "Scotus," said the spirit, "Scotus, the creator of the Franciscan doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin, is among those suffering these intense pains." This news spread quickly through Berne, causing even more alarm among the Franciscans' supporters. The spirit had announced a visit from the Virgin herself. On the designated day, the astonished friar saw Mary appear in his cell. He could hardly believe his eyes. She approached him kindly, gave him three of our Savior’s tears, three drops of His blood, a crucifix, and a letter addressed to Pope Julius II, "who," she said, "was chosen by God to abolish the festival of her supposed immaculate conception." Then, moving closer to the bed where the friar lay, she solemnly announced that a great grace would be given to him and drove a nail into his hand. The lay brother let out a loud scream, but Mary wrapped his hand in a piece of linen that her Son had worn after His flight into Egypt. This wound wasn't enough to elevate the Dominicans to the same glory as the Franciscans. Jetzer needed to have the five wounds of Christ and St. Francis in his hands, feet, and side. The other four wounds were inflicted, and then, after giving him a drink, he was placed in a room decorated with images of our Savior's passion. After spending several days fasting there, his imagination became heated. The doors of the room were occasionally opened to the public, who came in crowds to witness the friar with his five wounds, stretching out his arms, bending his head, and mimicking the crucifixion of our Lord. Sometimes, out of his mind, he would foam at the mouth and seem close to death. Whispers spread, "He is enduring the cross of Christ." The crowd, eager for miracles, continually flooded the convent. Respected figures, including Lupulus, Zuinglius's mentor, were awestruck, and the Dominicans, from their pulpit, praised the glory that God was bestowing on their order.
This order had for some years felt the necessity of humbling the Franciscans, and of augmenting the respect and liberality of the people by means of miracles. Berne, "a simple, rustic, and ignorant town," as the sub-prior of Berne described it to the Chapter held at Wimpfen on the Necker, had been selected as the theatre of their operations. The prior, sub-prior, preacher, and purveyor of the convent, had undertaken to perform the leading characters, but they wanted the talent necessary to perform them to the end. A new apparition of Mary having taken place, Jetzer thought he recognised the voice of his confessor, and having said so aloud, Mary disappeared. She soon made her appearance again, to censure the incredulous friar. "This time it is the prior," exclaimed Jetzer, rushing forward with a knife in his hand. The saintess threw a pewter plate at the poor friar's head, and likewise disappeared.
This order had felt the need to humble the Franciscans for some years and to increase the respect and generosity of the people through miracles. Berne, described by the sub-prior of Berne as "a simple, rustic, and ignorant town," had been chosen as the setting for their efforts. The prior, sub-prior, preacher, and supplier of the convent had taken on the main roles, but they lacked the skill to carry them out effectively. After a new appearance of Mary, Jetzer thought he recognized the voice of his confessor, and when he said so out loud, Mary vanished. She soon returned to scold the skeptical friar. "This time it is the prior," Jetzer shouted, rushing forward with a knife in his hand. The saint threw a pewter plate at the poor friar's head before disappearing once more.
In consternation at the discovery which Jetzer had thus made, the Dominicans tried to disencumber themselves of him by means of poison. He perceived it; and, having taken flight, disclosed the imposition. They put on a good countenance, and sent deputies to Rome. The pope committed the decision to his legate in Switzerland, and the bishops of Lausanne and Sion. The four Dominicans being convicted, were condemned to be burnt alive; and on the 1st May, 1509, were consumed by the flames, in presence of more than thirty thousand spectators. The affair made a noise throughout Europe, and by unveiling one of the worst sores of the Church, prepared the Reformation.[616]
In shock from the revelation that Jetzer had uncovered, the Dominicans attempted to get rid of him with poison. He noticed their plan, fled, and exposed their deception. They maintained a calm front and sent representatives to Rome. The pope assigned the matter to his legate in Switzerland, along with the bishops of Lausanne and Sion. The four Dominicans were found guilty and sentenced to be burned alive; on May 1, 1509, they were killed by the flames in front of more than thirty thousand onlookers. The incident created a stir across Europe and, by highlighting one of the Church's most significant issues, set the stage for the Reformation.[616]
Such were the men into whose hands Ulric Zuinglius had nearly fallen. He had studied literature at Berne; he behoved now to devote himself to philosophy, and with this view repaired to Vienna. A youth from St. Gall, named Joachim Vadian, whose genius gave promise to Switzerland of a distinguished scholar and a statesman; Henri Loreti, of the canton of Glaris, commonly called Glarean, and apparently destined to shine among poets; John Heigerlin, son of a forgemaster, and hence surnamed Faber, of a versatile temper, fond of honour and glory, possessing all the qualities indicative of a courtier—such were Ulric's fellow-students and companions in the capital of Austria.
Such were the men Ulric Zuinglius was almost involved with. He had studied literature in Bern and now needed to focus on philosophy, so he went to Vienna. There was a young man from St. Gall named Joachim Vadian, whose talent promised Switzerland a notable scholar and statesman; Henri Loreti, from the canton of Glaris, commonly known as Glarean, seemingly destined to excel among poets; and John Heigerlin, the son of a forgemaster, nicknamed Faber, who had a varied personality, loved honor and glory, and possessed all the qualities of a courtier—these were Ulric's fellow students and companions in the capital of Austria.
Zuinglius returned to Wildhaus in 1502; but on revisiting his mountains he felt that he had drunk of the cup of science, and could no longer live amid the songs of his brothers and the bleating of their flocks. He was eighteen years of age, and repaired to Bâle,[617] to engage again in literary pursuits, and thus at once master and pupil he taught at the school of St. Martin, and studied at the university; from this time he was able to dispense with assistance from his father. Shortly after, he took the degree of master of arts. An Alsatian, named Capito, nine years older than he, was one of his best friends.
Zuinglius went back to Wildhaus in 1502, but when he visited his mountains again, he realized he had tasted the knowledge of the world and couldn't just live among the songs of his brothers and the bleating of their sheep anymore. He was eighteen and went to Bâle,[617] to dive back into academic pursuits. There, he was both a teacher and a student at the St. Martin school and studied at the university; from then on, he was able to support himself without help from his father. Soon after, he earned his master of arts degree. An Alsatian named Capito, who was nine years older than him, became one of his closest friends.
Zuinglius devoted himself to the study of scholastic theology; for, being called one day to combat its sophisms, he behoved to explore its obscure labyrinth. But the light hearted student of the mountains of Sentis was often seen suddenly to shake off the dust of the school, and, substituting amusement for his philosophic toils, seize the lute, or the harp, or the violin, or the flute, or the tympanon, or the cornet, or the hunting horn, extract joyous sounds from these instruments as in the prairies of Lisighaus, and make his lodgings, or the dwellings of his friends, re-echo with the airs of his country, accompanying them with his voice. In regard to music, he was a true child of the Tockenburg, superior to all.[618] In addition to the instruments we have already named, he played several others. An enthusiast in the art he diffused a taste for it in the university, not from any desire of dissipation, but because he loved thus to relax his mind when fatigued by serious study, and fit himself for returning with greater zeal to difficult labours.[619] None had a gayer humour, a more amiable disposition, or more engaging conversation.[620] He was a vigorous Alpine tree which developed itself in all its gracefulness and strength, and which, never having been pruned, threw out strong branches in all directions. The time was coming when these branches would turn vigorously in the direction of heaven.
Zuinglius dedicated himself to studying scholastic theology; one day, when he was called to challenge its tricky arguments, he had to navigate its complicated depths. However, the carefree student from the mountains of Sentis was often seen suddenly shaking off the dust of the classroom, choosing fun over his philosophical work. He would pick up the lute, harp, violin, flute, tympanon, cornet, or hunting horn, creating joyful sounds from these instruments like in the prairies of Lisighaus, filling his lodgings or his friends' homes with the melodies of his homeland, singing along. When it came to music, he was a true child of Tockenburg, excelling above all.[618] Besides the instruments already mentioned, he played several others. A passionate enthusiast of the art, he fostered an appreciation for it at the university, not out of a wish to escape, but because he loved to unwind and refresh his mind when worn out from serious study, preparing himself to return to challenging tasks with renewed energy.[619] No one had a happier spirit, a more friendly nature, or more engaging conversation.[620] He was like a strong Alpine tree that grew with all its grace and power, and which, never having been pruned, spread its branches strongly in all directions. The time was coming when these branches would reach upward toward the heavens.
After he had forced an entrance into scholastic theology he left its arid tracts fatigued and disgusted, having found nothing in it but confused ideas, vain babbling, vain glory, barbarism, and not one sound idea of doctrine. "It is only a loss of time," said he, and waited for something better.
After he pushed his way into scholastic theology, he emerged from its dry territory tired and frustrated, having discovered nothing but mixed-up ideas, pointless chatter, empty pride, ignorance, and not a single solid doctrine. "It's just a waste of time," he said, and awaited something better.
At this time, (November, 1505,) arrived at Bâle Thomas Wittembach, son of a burgomaster of Bienne. Wittembach had till then taught at Tubingen, side by side with Reuchlin. He was in the vigour of life, sincere, pious, skilled in the liberal arts, and mathematics, and well acquainted with the Holy Scriptures. Zuinglius and all the academic youth immediately flocked around him. A spirit hitherto unknown animated his lectures, and prophetic words escaped from his lips: "The time is not distant," said he, "when scholastic theology will be abolished and the ancient doctrine of the Church restored."[621] "The death of Christ," added he, "is the only ransom of our souls."[622] The heart of Zuinglius eagerly received these seeds of life.[623] At this period classical studies began every where to supplant the scholastics of the middle age. Zuinglius, like his preceptors and friends, threw himself into this new course.
At this time, (November 1505), Thomas Wittembach, the son of a mayor from Bienne, arrived in Bâle. Wittembach had been teaching at Tübingen alongside Reuchlin until then. He was full of life, genuine, religious, knowledgeable in liberal arts and mathematics, and well-versed in the Holy Scriptures. Zwingli and all the students quickly gathered around him. His lectures were infused with a previously unknown spirit, and he spoke prophetic words: "The time is near," he said, "when scholastic theology will be abolished and the ancient teachings of the Church will be restored." "The death of Christ," he added, "is the only ransom for our souls." Zwingli eagerly embraced these seeds of life. During this period, classical studies started to replace the scholastics of the Middle Ages everywhere. Zwingli, like his teachers and friends, fully committed himself to this new path.
Among the students who followed the lessons of the new teacher with the greatest enthusiasm was a young man of twenty-three, of small stature, and a feeble sickly appearance, but whose eye bespoke at once gentleness and intrepidity. This was Leo Juda, son of an Alsatian curate, and whose uncle had fallen at Rhodes, fighting in defence of Christendom, under the standard of the Teutonic knights. Leo and Ulric were on intimate terms. Leo played the tympanon, and had a very fine voice. The joyous melodies of the young friends of the arts were often heard in his lodgings. Leo Juda, at a later period, became the colleague of Zuinglius, and even death could not destroy their sacred friendship.
Among the students who eagerly attended the new teacher's lessons was a twenty-three-year-old young man of short stature and a sickly appearance, but his eyes showed both kindness and bravery. This was Leo Juda, son of an Alsatian clergyman, with an uncle who had died at Rhodes, fighting for Christendom under the banner of the Teutonic knights. Leo and Ulric were close friends. Leo played the tympanum and had a beautiful voice. The cheerful tunes of the young art enthusiasts often filled his lodgings. Later on, Leo Juda became a colleague of Zuinglius, and even death could not break their sacred friendship.
At this time the office of pastor of Glaris having become vacant, Henry Goldli, a young courtier of the pope, and groom of the stable to his holiness, obtained the appointment from his master, and hastened with it to Glaris. But the Glarian shepherds, proud of the antiquity of their race, and of their battles for freedom, were not disposed to bow implicitly to a piece of parchment from Rome. Wildhaus is not far from Glaris; and Wesen, where Zuinglius' uncle was curate, is the place where the market of the district is held. The reputation of the young master of arts of Bâle had penetrated even into these mountains; and the Glarians, wishing to have him for their priest, gave him a call in 1506. Zuinglius having been ordained at Constance by the bishop, preached his first sermon at Rapperswil, read his first mass at Wildhaus on St. Michael's day, in presence of all his relations and the friends of his family, and towards the close of the year arrived at Glaris.
At this time, the position of pastor in Glaris became vacant. Henry Goldli, a young courtier of the pope and the groom of the stable to his holiness, received the appointment from his master and rushed to Glaris with it. However, the shepherds of Glaris, proud of their ancient lineage and their struggles for freedom, were not willing to simply accept a piece of parchment from Rome. Wildhaus is close to Glaris, and Wesen, where Zuinglius' uncle served as curate, is the location of the district market. The reputation of the young Master of Arts from Bâle had reached even these mountains, and the people of Glaris, wanting him as their priest, extended a call to him in 1506. Zuinglius was ordained at Constance by the bishop, preached his first sermon at Rapperswil, celebrated his first mass at Wildhaus on St. Michael's Day, in front of all his relatives and family friends, and by the end of the year, he arrived in Glaris.
CHAP. III.
Love of War—Schinner—Pension from the Pope—The Labyrinth—Zuinglius in Italy—Principle of Reform—Zuinglius and Luther—Zuinglius and Erasmus—Zuinglius and the Elders—Paris and Glaris.
Love of War—Schinner—Pension from the Pope—The Labyrinth—Zuinglius in Italy—Principle of Reform—Zuinglius and Luther—Zuinglius and Erasmus—Zuinglius and the Elders—Paris and Glaris.
Zuinglius immediately engaged in the zealous discharge of the work which his vast parish imposed upon him. Still he was only twenty-two years of age, and often allowed himself to be carried away by the dissipation and lax ideas of his age. A priest of Rome he was like the other priests around him. But even at this period, though the evangelical doctrine had not changed his heart, Zuinglius did not give way to those scandals which frequently afflicted the Church.[624] He always felt the need of subjecting his passions to the holy rule of the gospel.
Zuinglius quickly jumped into the passionate fulfillment of the responsibilities that came with his large parish. However, he was only twenty-two years old and often got swept up in the carefree attitudes and loose morals of his peers. As a priest in Rome, he was much like the other priests around him. Yet, even at this time, although the evangelical teachings hadn't transformed his heart, Zuinglius managed to avoid the scandals that often plagued the Church.[624] He always felt the urge to bring his passions in line with the holy principles of the gospel.
A love of war at this time inflamed the quiet valleys of Glaris where there were families of heroes—the Tschudis, the Walas, the Æblis, whose blood had flowed on the field of battle. The youth listened with eagerness to the old warriors when they told them of the wars of Burgundy and Suabia, of the battles of St. James and Ragaz. But alas! it was no longer against the enemies of their liberties that these warlike shepherds took up arms. They were seen, at the bidding of the kings of France, of the emperor, the dukes of Milan, or the holy father himself, descending from the Alps like an avalanche, and rushing with the noise of thunder against the troops drawn up in the plain.
A passion for war at this time stirred the peaceful valleys of Glaris, home to families of heroes—the Tschudis, the Walas, the Æblis—whose blood had been shed on the battlefield. The youth listened eagerly to the old warriors recount the wars of Burgundy and Suabia, and the battles of St. James and Ragaz. But sadly, it was no longer against the enemies of their freedom that these warlike shepherds took up arms. They were seen, at the command of the kings of France, the emperor, the dukes of Milan, or even the pope himself, descending from the Alps like an avalanche and charging with the sound of thunder against the troops lined up in the plain.
A poor boy named Matthew Schinner, who was at the school of Sion in the Valais, (it was toward the middle of the latter half of the fifteenth century,) singing before the houses, as young Martin Luther shortly after did, heard himself called by an old man, who, being struck with the frankness with which the child answered his questions, said to him with that prophetic spirit with which man is said to be sometimes endowed when on the brink of the grave, "Thou art to be a bishop and a prince."[625] The expression sunk deep into the young mendicant, and from that moment boundless ambition took possession of his heart. At Zurich and Como the progress he made astonished his masters. Having become curate of a small parish in Valais, he rose rapidly, and being sent at a later period to ask from the pope the confirmation of a bishop of Sion, who had just been elected, he obtained the bishopric for himself, and girt his brow with the episcopal mitre. This man, ambitious and crafty, but often noble and generous, always considered any dignity bestowed upon him as only a step destined to raise him to some still higher dignity. Having offered his services to Louis XII, and named his price, "It is too much for one man," said the king. "I will show him," replied the bishop of Sion, offended, "that I am a man worth several men." In fact he turned towards pope Julius II, who gladly received him, and Schinner succeeded in 1510 in linking the whole Swiss confederation to the policy of this ambitious pontiff. The bishop having been rewarded with a cardinal's hat smiled when he saw that there was now only one step between him and the papal throne.
A poor boy named Matthew Schinner, who was at the school of Sion in the Valais (in the latter half of the fifteenth century), was singing in front of houses, similar to how young Martin Luther would do later. He was called by an old man who, impressed by the openness with which the child answered his questions, told him with a prophetic tone, as if he were near death, "You are destined to be a bishop and a prince." The words deeply affected the young beggar, and from that moment on, a boundless ambition filled his heart. In Zurich and Como, he surprised his teachers with his progress. After becoming the curate of a small parish in Valais, he quickly advanced. Later, when he was sent to the pope to confirm the newly elected bishop of Sion, he ended up securing the bishopric for himself and donned the episcopal mitre. This man, ambitious and cunning but often noble and generous, always saw any honor given to him as just a stepping stone to an even greater position. After offering his services to Louis XII and stating his price, the king replied, "That's too much for one person." The bishop of Sion, offended, responded, "I'll prove to him that I'm worth more than one." He then turned to Pope Julius II, who welcomed him, and Schinner managed in 1510 to connect the entire Swiss confederation to the ambitions of this powerful pontiff. The bishop was rewarded with a cardinal's hat and smiled when he realized there was now only one step between him and the papal throne.
Schinner's eye was continually turned to the cantons of Switzerland, and as soon as he there discerned any man of influence he hastened to attach him to himself. The pastor of Glaris drew his attention, and Zuinglius soon received intimation that the pope had granted him an annual pension of fifty florins, to encourage him in the cultivation of letters. His poverty did not allow him to purchase books; and the money during the short time that Ulric received it was devoted to the purchase of classical or theological works, which he procured from Bâle.[626] Zuinglius was now connected with the cardinal, and accordingly joined the Roman party. Schinner and Julius II at last disclosed the end which they had in view in these intrigues. Eight thousand Swiss mustered by the eloquence of the cardinal-archbishop, passed the Alps; but famine, war, and French gold obliged them to return to their mountains without glory. They brought back the usual results of these foreign wars,—distrust, licentiousness, party spirit, all sorts of violence and disorder. Citizens refused to obey their magistrates, and children their parents; agriculture and the care of their flocks were neglected; luxury and mendicity kept pace with each other; the most sacred ties were broken, and the confederation seemed on the point of being dissolved.
Schinner was always watching what was happening in the cantons of Switzerland, and whenever he saw someone influential, he quickly tried to get close to them. He noticed the pastor of Glaris, and Zuinglius soon learned that the pope had given him a yearly stipend of fifty florins to support his studies. He was too poor to buy books, so during the short time Ulric received this money, he used it to purchase classical or theological texts from Bâle.[626] Zuinglius was now linked with the cardinal, and he joined the Roman faction. Eventually, Schinner and Julius II revealed their true intentions behind these plots. Eight thousand Swiss, rallied by the cardinal-archbishop's persuasive speaking, crossed the Alps; however, famine, war, and French gold forced them to retreat home without any glory. They returned with the typical consequences of these foreign conflicts: distrust, immorality, factionalism, and all kinds of violence and chaos. Citizens started disobeying their leaders, and children disregarded their parents; farming and tending to livestock were ignored; luxury and poverty grew side by side; the most sacred bonds were shattered, and the confederation appeared on the verge of collapse.
The eyes of the young curate of Glaris were now opened, and his indignation aroused. He raised his voice aloud to warn them of the abyss into which they were about to fall. In 1510 he published his poem entitled "The Labyrinth." Behind the windings of this mysterious garden, Minos has hidden the Minotaur, that monster, half man half bull, whom he feeds on the flesh of young Athenians. "The Minotaur, ... in other words," says Zuinglius, "sin, vice, irreligion, and the foreign service of the Swiss," devour the sons of his countrymen.
The eyes of the young curate of Glaris were now opened, and his anger was ignited. He raised his voice to warn them about the danger they were about to encounter. In 1510, he published his poem titled "The Labyrinth." Behind the twists and turns of this mysterious garden, Minos has hidden the Minotaur, that creature, half man, half bull, who feeds on the flesh of young Athenians. "The Minotaur, ... in other words," says Zuinglius, "sin, vice, irreligion, and the foreign service of the Swiss," devour the sons of his countrymen.
Theseus, a man of courage, wishes to deliver his country, but numerous obstacles arrest him;—first, a lion with one eye; this is Spain and Arragon;—then a crowned eagle, whose throat is opened to devour it; this is the empire;—then a cock, with his comb up, and calling for battle; this is France. The hero surmounts all these obstacles, gets up to the monster, stabs it, and saves his country.
Theseus, a brave man, wants to save his country, but he faces many challenges; first, a one-eyed lion; this represents Spain and Aragon; next, a crowned eagle, ready to attack; this symbolizes the empire; then a crowing rooster, eager for a fight; this stands for France. The hero overcomes all these challenges, confronts the monster, stabs it, and saves his country.
"So now," exclaims the poet, "men wander in a labyrinth, but having no thread to guide them they cannot regain the light. No where is there any imitation of Jesus Christ. A little glory makes us hazard our life, torment our neighbour, rush into strife, war, and combat.... One would say that the furies have escaped from the depths of hell."[627]
"So now," the poet exclaims, "men wander through a maze, but without a thread to guide them, they can't find their way back to the light. Nowhere is there an imitation of Jesus Christ. A little bit of glory makes us risk our lives, torment our neighbors, and plunge into conflict, war, and battles... It's as if the furies have escaped from the depths of hell."[627]
A Theseus, a Reformer was required. Zuinglius perceived this, and thenceforth had a presentiment of his mission. Not long after he composed an allegory with a still clearer application.[628]
A Theseus, a Reformer was needed. Zuinglius recognized this, and from that moment on, he had a sense of his purpose. Soon after, he created an allegory with an even clearer meaning.[628]
In April, 1512, the confederates rose anew at the bidding of the cardinal, for the deliverance of the Church. Glaris was in the foremost rank. The whole population was brought into the field, ranged round their banner with their landaman and their pastor. Zuinglius behoved to march. The army passed the Alps, and the cardinal appeared amidst the confederates with the presents given him by the pope,—a ducal hat adorned with pearls and gold, and surmounted by the Holy Spirit, represented under the form of a dove. The Swiss escaladed the fortresses and towns, swam rivers in the presence of the enemy, unclothed, and with halberds in their hands; the French were every where put to flight; bells and trumpets resounded, and the population flocked from all quarters; the nobles supplied the army with wine and fruits in abundance; the monks and priests mounted on platforms, and proclaimed, that the confederates were the people of God taking vengeance on the enemies of the Lord's spouse; and the pope becoming prophet, like Caiaphas of old, gave the confederates the title of "Defenders of the liberty of the Church."[629]
In April 1512, the confederates rose again at the request of the cardinal to protect the Church. Glaris was at the forefront. The entire population took to the field, gathered around their banner with their landaman and their pastor. Zuinglius had to march. The army crossed the Alps, and the cardinal appeared among the confederates with gifts from the pope—a ducal hat decorated with pearls and gold, topped by the Holy Spirit represented as a dove. The Swiss stormed the fortresses and towns, swam rivers in front of the enemy, undressed, and wielded halberds; the French were routed everywhere; bells and trumpets sounded, and people came rushing in from all directions. The nobles provided the army with plenty of wine and fruit; monks and priests stood on platforms, proclaiming that the confederates were the people of God bringing retribution on the enemies of the Lord's bride; and the pope, becoming a prophet like Caiaphas of old, named the confederates "Defenders of the liberty of the Church."[629]
This sojourn of Zuinglius in Italy was not without its effect, in reference to his vocation of Reformer. On his return from this campaign, he began to study Greek, "in order," says he, "to be able to draw the doctrine of Jesus Christ from the very fountain of truth."[630] Writing to Vadian, 23rd February, 1513, he says, "I have resolved so to apply myself to the study of Greek, that none will be able to turn me from it but God. I do it not for fame, but from love to sacred literature." At a later period, a worthy priest, who had been his school companion, having come to pay him a visit, said to him, "Master Ulric, I am assured that you are tainted with the new heresy, that you are a Lutheran." "I am not a Lutheran," said Zuinglius, "for I knew Greek before I heard of the name of Luther."[631] To know Greek, to study the gospel in the original tongue, was, according to Zuinglius, the basis of the Reformation.
Zwingli's time in Italy had a significant impact on his role as a Reformer. When he returned from this experience, he started studying Greek, saying, "to be able to draw the teachings of Jesus Christ from the very fountain of truth."[630] In a letter to Vadian on February 23, 1513, he mentioned, "I have decided to commit myself to studying Greek so thoroughly that only God could divert me from it. I pursue this not for recognition, but out of love for sacred literature." Later on, a respected priest who had been his classmate came to visit him and remarked, "Master Ulric, I'm convinced you're influenced by the new heresy; you’re a Lutheran." Zwingli replied, "I am not a Lutheran, as I knew Greek before I even heard the name Luther."[631] For Zwingli, knowing Greek and studying the gospel in its original language was the foundation of the Reformation.
Zuinglius did more than recognise, at this early period, the great principle of evangelical Christianity—the infallible authority of the Holy Scriptures. Besides this, he understood how the meaning of the divine Word ought to be ascertained. "Those," said he, "have a very grovelling idea of the Scriptures who regard whatever seems to them at variance with their own reason as frivolous, vain, and unjust.[632] Men have no right to bind the gospel at pleasure to their own sense, and their own interpretation."[633] "Zuinglius raised his eye to heaven," said his dearest friend, "unwilling to have any other interpreter than the Holy Spirit himself."[634]
Zwingli recognized early on the essential principle of evangelical Christianity—the absolute authority of the Holy Scriptures. In addition, he understood how to determine the meaning of the divine Word. "Those," he said, "have a very shallow view of the Scriptures who dismiss anything that contradicts their own reasoning as unimportant, meaningless, and unjust.[632] People have no right to limit the gospel to their own understanding and interpretation."[633] "Zwingli looked up to heaven," said his closest friend, "not wanting any interpreter other than the Holy Spirit himself."[634]
Such, from the commencement of his career, was the man, whom some have not scrupled to represent as having wished to subject the Bible to human reason. "Philosophy and theology," said he, "ceased not to raise up objections against me. I, at length, arrived at this conclusion, 'We must leave all these things, and seek our knowledge of God only in his Word.' I began," continues he, "earnestly to supplicate the Lord to give me his light, and though I read only the text of Scripture, it became far clearer to me than if I had read a host of commentators." Comparing the Scriptures with themselves and explaining passages that were obscure by such as were more clear,[635] he soon had a thorough knowledge of the Bible, especially the New Testament.[636] When Zuinglius thus turned toward the Holy Scriptures, Switzerland took her first step in the Reformation. Accordingly, when he expounded the Scriptures, every one felt that his lessons came from God, and not from man.[637] "Work all divine!" here exclaims Oswald Myconius; "thus was the knowledge of heavenly truth restored to us!"
From the start of his career, this was the man whom some have represented as wanting to place the Bible under human reasoning. "Philosophy and theology," he said, "kept raising objections against me. Finally, I concluded, 'We must set all these aside and seek our understanding of God only in His Word.' I began," he continued, "to earnestly ask the Lord to give me His light, and even though I only read the text of Scripture, it became much clearer to me than if I had read many commentators." By comparing the Scriptures with each other and explaining unclear passages using those that were clearer,[635] he quickly gained a deep understanding of the Bible, especially the New Testament.[636] When Zwingli turned to the Holy Scriptures in this way, Switzerland took its first step toward the Reformation. As a result, when he taught the Scriptures, everyone could sense that his lessons came from God, not from man.[637] "Work all divine!" exclaimed Oswald Myconius; "thus was the knowledge of heavenly truth restored to us!"
Zuinglius did not, however, despise the expositions of the most celebrated doctors: at a later period, he studied Origen, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Chrysostom, but not as authorities. "I study the doctors," says he, "with the same feelings with which one asks a friend, 'What do you understand by this?'" The Holy Scripture was, according to him, the touch-stone by which the most holy of the doctors were themselves to be tested.[638]
Zuinglius didn’t dismiss the teachings of the most famous scholars. Later on, he studied Origen, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Chrysostom, but not as authoritative figures. "I study the scholars," he said, "with the same curiosity as when you ask a friend, 'What do you make of this?'" For him, the Holy Scripture was the standard by which even the most revered scholars should be judged.[638]
Zuinglius's step was slow, but progressive. He did not come to the truth like Luther amid those tempests which compel the soul to seek a speedy shelter. He arrived at it by the peaceful influence of Scripture, whose power gradually gains upon the heart. Luther reached the wished-for shore across the billows of the boundless deep; Zuinglius, by allowing himself to glide along the stream. These are the two principal ways by which God leads men. Zuinglius was not fully converted to God and his gospel till the first period of his sojourn at Zurich; yet, in 1514 or 1515, at the moment when the strong man began to bend the knee to God, praying for the understanding of his Word, the rays of that pure light by which he was afterwards illumined, first began to gleam upon him.
Zwingli's progress was slow but steady. Unlike Luther, who found the truth amidst storms that force the soul to seek quick refuge, Zwingli discovered it through the calming influence of Scripture, whose power slowly takes hold of the heart. Luther reached his desired destination by battling the waves of a vast ocean; Zwingli, by allowing himself to float along the current. These are the two main paths by which God guides people. Zwingli wasn’t fully committed to God and His gospel until he had spent some time in Zurich; however, around 1514 or 1515, as he began to submit himself to God, praying for insight into His Word, the first glimpses of the pure light that would later enlighten him began to shine on him.
At this period, a poem of Erasmus, in which Jesus Christ was introduced addressing man as perishing by his own fault, made a powerful impression on Zuinglius. When alone in his study, he repeated the passage in which Jesus complains that all grace is not sought from him, though he is the source of all that is good. "All!" said Zuinglius, "All!" And this word was incessantly present to his mind. "Are there then creatures, saints, from whom we ought to ask assistance? No! Christ is our only treasure."[639]
At this time, a poem by Erasmus, where Jesus Christ addressed humanity regarding their downfall being their own doing, deeply affected Zuinglius. When he was alone in his study, he kept repeating the part where Jesus laments that not everyone seeks grace from him, even though he is the source of all goodness. "All!" Zuinglius exclaimed, "Everyone!" This word continuously occupied his thoughts. "Are there really beings, saints, from whom we should seek help? No! Christ is our only treasure."[639]
Zuinglius did not confine his reading to Christian writings. One of the distinguishing characteristics of the sixteenth century is the profound study of the Greek and Roman authors. The poetry of Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, enraptured him, and he has left us commentaries, or characteristics, on the two last poets. It seemed to him that Pindar spoke of his gods in such sublime strains that he must have had some presentiment of the true God. He studied Cicero and Demosthenes thoroughly, and learned from them both the art of the orator and the duties of the citizen. He called Seneca a holy man. The Swiss mountaineer loved also to initiate himself in the mysteries of nature, through the writings of Pliny. Thucydides, Sallust, Livy, Cæsar, Suetonius, Plutarch, and Tacitus, taught him to know the world. He has been censured for his enthusiastic admiration of the great men of antiquity, and it is true that some of his observations on this subject cannot be defended. But if he honoured them so much, it was because he thought he saw in them not human virtues, but the influence of the Holy Spirit. The agency of God, far from confining itself to ancient times within the limits of Palestine, extended, according to him, to the whole world.[640] "Plato," said he, "has also drunk at the Divine source. And if the two Catos, if Camillus, if Scipio had not been truly religious, would they have been so magnanimous?"[641]
Zwingli didn't limit his reading to just Christian texts. One of the key features of the sixteenth century is the deep exploration of Greek and Roman authors. The poetry of Hesiod, Homer, and Pindar captivated him, and he left behind commentaries on the last two poets. He believed that Pindar expressed such lofty praise of his gods that he must have had some sense of the true God. He thoroughly studied Cicero and Demosthenes and learned from them both the art of oratory and the responsibilities of citizenship. He referred to Seneca as a holy man. The Swiss mountaineer also loved to delve into the mysteries of nature through the writings of Pliny. Thucydides, Sallust, Livy, Caesar, Suetonius, Plutarch, and Tacitus taught him about the world. He has faced criticism for his passionate admiration of the great figures of antiquity, and it’s true that some of his views on this topic are debatable. However, if he honored them so much, it was because he believed he saw not just human virtues but the influence of the Holy Spirit in them. He thought that God's influence wasn't limited to ancient times in Palestine but extended to the entire world. [640] "Plato," he said, "has also drawn from the Divine source. And if the two Catos, Camillus, and Scipio weren’t truly religious, how could they have been so noble?"[641]
Zuinglius diffused around him a love of letters. Several choice youths were trained in his school. "You offered me not only books, but also yourself," wrote Valentine Tschudi, son of one of the heroes of the wars of Burgundy; and this young man, who at that time had already studied at Vienna and Bâle, under the most celebrated teachers, adds, "I have never met with any one who explained the classics with so much precision and profundity as yourself."[642] Tschudi repaired to Paris, and was able to compare the spirit which prevailed in that university, with that which he had found in the narrow Alpine valley, over which impend the gigantic peaks and eternal snows of the Dodi, the Glarnisch, the Viggis, and the Freyberg. "How frivolously," says he, "the French youth are educated! No poison is so bad as the sophistical art in which they are trained—an art which stupifies the senses, destroys the judgment, brutifies the whole man. Man is thenceforth, like the echo, an empty sound. Ten women could not keep pace with one of these rhetoricians.[643] In their prayers even they present their sophisms to God, (I know the fact,) and pretend, by their syllogisms, to constrain the Holy Spirit to hear them." Such, then, were Paris and Glaris; the intellectual metropolis of Christendom, and a village of Alpine shepherds. A ray of the Divine Word gives more light than all human wisdom.
Zwingli spread a love for learning around him. Several talented young people were educated in his school. "You offered me not only books, but also yourself," wrote Valentine Tschudi, the son of one of the heroes from the Burgundy wars; and this young man, who had already studied in Vienna and Basel under the best teachers, added, "I've never met anyone who explained the classics with such precision and depth as you did."[642] Tschudi went to Paris and compared the atmosphere at that university with what he experienced in the narrow Alpine valley, overshadowed by the massive peaks and everlasting snows of the Dodi, Glarnisch, Viggis, and Freyberg. "How trivial," he remarked, "the French youth are educated! No poison is worse than the deceptive skills they are trained in—skills that dull the senses, ruin judgment, and reduce the whole person. From then on, a person is like an echo, just an empty sound. Ten women couldn't keep up with one of these rhetorical speakers.[643] Even in their prayers, they present their fallacies to God (I know this for a fact) and think they can force the Holy Spirit to listen to them through their syllogisms." Such were Paris and Glaris; the intellectual center of Christendom and a village of Alpine shepherds. A ray of the Divine Word brings more light than all human wisdom.
CHAP. IV.
Zuinglius in regard to Erasmus—Oswald Myconius—The Vagrants—Œcolampadius—Zuinglius at Marignan—Zuinglius and Italy—Method of Zuinglius—Commencement of Reform—Discovery.
Zwingli on Erasmus—Oswald Myconius—The Vagrants—Oecolampadius—Zwingli at Marignan—Zwingli and Italy—Zwingli's Approach—Beginning of the Reformation—Discovery.
A great man of this age, Erasmus, had much influence on Zuinglius, who, as soon as any of his writings appeared, lost no time in procuring it. In 1514, Erasmus had arrived at Bâle, and been received by the bishop with marks of high esteem. All the friends of letters had immediately grouped around him. But the monarch of the schools had no difficulty in singling out him who was to be the glory of Switzerland. "I congratulate the Swiss nation," wrote he to Zuinglius, "that by your studies and your manners, both alike excellent, you labour to polish and elevate them."[644] Zuinglius had a most ardent desire to see him. "Spaniards and Gauls went to Rome to see Titus Livy," said he. He set out, and on arriving at Bâle, found a personage of about forty years of age, of small stature, a frail body, a delicate look, but a remarkably amiable and winning address.[645] It was Erasmus. His affability removed the timidity of Zuinglius, while the power of his intellect overawed him. "Poor," said Ulric to him, "as Eschines, when each of the scholars of Socrates offered a present to his master, I give you what Eschines gave—I give you myself."
A great man of this time, Erasmus, greatly influenced Zwingli, who wasted no time getting hold of any of his writings as soon as they came out. In 1514, Erasmus arrived in Basel and was welcomed by the bishop with high regard. All the literary friends quickly gathered around him. But the king of the schools easily identified the one who would become the pride of Switzerland. "I congratulate the Swiss nation," he wrote to Zwingli, "that through your studies and your character, both truly outstanding, you work to refine and uplift them." Zwingli had a strong desire to meet him. "Spaniards and Gauls went to Rome to meet Titus Livy," he said. He set off, and upon arriving in Basel, he encountered a man about forty years old, of small stature, with a fragile build and a delicate appearance, but with a remarkably charming and engaging manner. It was Erasmus. His friendliness eased Zwingli's shyness, while the strength of his intellect left him in awe. "Poor," Zwingli said to him, "like Aeschines, when each of Socrates' students offered a gift to their teacher, I give you what Aeschines gave—I give you myself."
Among the literary men who formed the court of Erasmus, the Amerbachs, the Rhenans, the Frobeniuses, the Nessens, the Glareans, Zuinglius observed a youth from Lucerne, of twenty-seven years of age, named Oswald Geisshüsler. Erasmus hellenising his name, had called him Myconius. We will often designate him by his surname, to distinguish the friend of Zuinglius from Frederick Myconius, the disciple of Luther. Oswald, after studying first at Rothwyl with Berthold Haller, a young man of his own age, next at Berne, and lastly at Bâle, had in this last town been appointed rector of the school of St. Theodoret, and afterwards of that of St. Peter. The humble schoolmaster had a very limited income; but, notwithstanding, had married a young girl of a simplicity and purity of soul which won all hearts. We have already seen that Switzerland was then in a troubled state, foreign wars having stirred up violent disorders, and the soldiers having brought back to their country licentiousness and brutality. One dark and cloudy winter day, some of these rude men, in Oswald's absence, attacked his quiet dwelling. They knocked at the door, threw stones, and applied the grossest expressions to his modest spouse. At last they burst open the windows, and having forced their way into the school and broken every thing to pieces, made off. Oswald arrived shortly after. His little boy, Felix, ran out to meet him crying, while his wife, unable to speak, showed signs of the greatest terror. He understood what had happened, and at that moment, hearing a noise in the street, unable to restrain himself, he seized a musket, and pursued the villains as far as the burying ground. They retreated, intending to defend themselves. Three of them rushed upon Myconius and wounded him, and, while his wound was being dressed, these wretches again attacked his house, uttering cries of fury. Oswald says no more of the matter.[646] Such scenes frequently occurred in Switzerland at the beginning of the sixteenth century, before the Reformation had softened and disciplined manners.
Among the literary figures surrounding Erasmus, including the Amerbachs, Rhenans, Frobeniuses, Nessens, and Glareans, Zuinglius noticed a 27-year-old from Lucerne named Oswald Geisshüsler. Erasmus, adapting his name, referred to him as Myconius. To differentiate him from Frederick Myconius, Luther’s disciple, we’ll typically use his last name. Oswald began his studies at Rothwyl with Berthold Haller, a peer, then moved on to Berne, and finally to Bâle, where he was appointed rector of St. Theodoret’s school, and later, St. Peter’s. The modest schoolmaster had a very small income but had married a young woman whose simplicity and purity endeared her to everyone. At that time, Switzerland was in turmoil, with foreign wars causing chaos, and soldiers returning with licentiousness and brutality. One dark, overcast winter day, while Oswald was away, some of these rough men attacked his peaceful home. They knocked on the door, threw stones, and shouted the most vulgar insults at his modest wife. Eventually, they broke the windows, forced their way into the school, and destroyed everything before fleeing. Oswald arrived shortly after to find his young son, Felix, running out to greet him in tears, while his wife, unable to speak, showed signs of extreme fear. He understood what had happened, and upon hearing a noise outside, he couldn’t hold back; he grabbed a musket and chased the attackers as far as the graveyard. They backed off, ready to defend themselves. Three of them charged at Myconius and injured him, and while his wound was being treated, those scoundrels attacked his house again, shouting in rage. Oswald doesn’t say any more about the incident.[646] Such incidents were common in Switzerland at the beginning of the sixteenth century, before the Reformation brought about softer and more disciplined behavior.
The integrity of Oswald Myconius, his thirst for science and virtue, brought him into connection with Zuinglius. The rector of the school of Bâle was alive to all that was grand in the curate of Glaris. Full of humility, he shunned the praises bestowed upon him by Zuinglius and Erasmus. "You schoolmasters," often said the latter, "I esteem as highly as I do kings." But the modest Myconius did not think so. "I only crawl along the ground," said he. "From infancy I had always a feeling of littleness and humility."[647]
The integrity of Oswald Myconius, along with his passion for knowledge and goodness, connected him with Zwingli. The head of the school in Basel recognized all that was remarkable in the curate of Glarus. Full of humility, he avoided the compliments given to him by Zwingli and Erasmus. "You schoolmasters," Erasmus often remarked, "I value as much as I do kings." But the humble Myconius disagreed. "I merely crawl along the ground," he said. "Since childhood, I’ve always felt small and humble."[647]
A preacher who had arrived at Bâle about the same time as Zuinglius was attracting attention. Of a mild and pacific disposition, he led a tranquil life; slow and circumspect in conduct, his chief pleasure was to labour in his study, and produce concord among Christians.[648] He was named John Hausschein, in Greek Œcolampadius, that is, "light of the house," and was born of wealthy parents in Franconia, a year before Zuinglius. His pious mother longed to consecrate to literature and to God the only child whom He had left her. The father intended him first for a mercantile life, then for law. But as Œcolampadius was returning from Bologna, where he had been studying law, the Lord, who designed to make him a lamp in the Church,[649] called him to the study of theology. He was preaching in his native town when Capito, who had known him at Heidelberg, procured his appointment as preacher at Bâle. There he proclaimed Christ with an eloquence which filled his hearers with admiration.[650] Erasmus admitted him to his intimacy. Œcolampadius was enraptured with the hours which he spent in the society of this great genius. "In the Holy Scriptures," said the prince of literature, "one thing only ought to be sought, viz., Jesus Christ."[651] As a memento of his friendship he gave the young preacher the commencement of John's Gospel. Œcolampadius often kissed this precious pledge of affection, and kept it suspended to his crucifix, "in order," said he, "that I may always remember Erasmus in my prayers."
A preacher who arrived in Basel around the same time as Zwingli was drawing attention. With a gentle and peaceful nature, he lived a quiet life; careful and thoughtful in his actions, his main passion was to work in his study and promote harmony among Christians.[648] His name was John Hausschein, known in Greek as Œcolampadius, which means "light of the house." He was born into a wealthy family in Franconia, a year before Zwingli. His devout mother wished to dedicate her only child, whom God had left her, to literature and the Church. His father initially wanted him to go into business, then into law. However, as Œcolampadius was returning from Bologna, where he was studying law, God, who meant for him to be a beacon in the Church,[649] called him to study theology. He was preaching in his hometown when Capito, who had known him at Heidelberg, arranged for him to become a preacher in Basel. There, he proclaimed Christ with eloquence that deeply impressed his audience.[650] Erasmus welcomed him into his inner circle. Œcolampadius was thrilled by the time he spent with this remarkable intellect. "In the Holy Scriptures," said the literary leader, "one thing only should be sought, namely, Jesus Christ."[651] As a token of his friendship, he gave the young preacher the opening of John's Gospel. Œcolampadius often kissed this cherished symbol of affection and kept it attached to his crucifix, "so that," he said, "I may always remember Erasmus in my prayers."
Zuinglius returned to his mountains, his mind and heart full of all that he had seen and heard at Bâle. "I could not sleep," wrote he to Erasmus, shortly after his return, "if I had not conversed for some time with you. There is nothing of which I boast so much as of having seen Erasmus." Zuinglius had received a new impulse. Such journeys often exercise a great influence over the career of the Christian. The disciples of Zuinglius—Valentin, Jost, Louis, Peter, and Ægidius Tschudi; his friends, the landăman Æbli, the curate, Binzli of Wesen, Fridolin Brunnen, and the celebrated professor Glarean, saw with admiration how he grew in wisdom and knowledge. The old honoured him as a courageous servant of his country, and faithful pastors honoured him as a faithful servant of the Lord. Nothing was done in the district without taking his advice. All the good hoped that he would one day restore the ancient virtue of the Swiss.[652]
Zuinglius went back to his mountains, his mind and heart full of everything he had seen and heard in Bâle. "I couldn’t sleep," he wrote to Erasmus shortly after returning, "if I hadn’t talked with you for a while. There’s nothing I’m prouder of than having met Erasmus." Zuinglius felt a new drive. Such journeys often have a significant impact on a Christian’s life. His followers—Valentin, Jost, Louis, Peter, and Ægidius Tschudi; his friends, the farmer Æbli, the curate Binzli from Wesen, Fridolin Brunnen, and the well-known professor Glarean—watched in admiration as he grew in wisdom and knowledge. The older generation honored him as a brave servant of his country, and devoted pastors respected him as a loyal servant of the Lord. Nothing happened in the area without his input. Everyone hoped he would one day revive the old virtues of the Swiss.[652]
Francis I, having mounted the throne, and being desirous to vindicate the honour of the French name in Italy, the pope in alarm laboured to gain the cantons. Accordingly, in 1515, Ulric revisited the plains of Italy amid the phalanxes of his fellow-citizens. But the division which French intrigues produced in the army stung him to the heart. He was often seen in the middle of the camp energetically, and at the same time wisely, haranguing his hearers in full armour ready for battle.[653] On the 8th September, five days before the battle of Marignan, he preached in the public square of Monza, where the Swiss soldiers, who remained true to their colours, had reassembled. "Had the counsels of Zuinglius been followed then and afterwards," says Werner Steiner of Zug, "what evils would not our country have been saved!"[654] But all ears were shut to words of concord, prudence, and submission. The vehement eloquence of Cardinal Schinner electrified the confederates, and hurried them impetuously to the fatal field of Marignan. There fell the flower of the Helvetic youth. Zuinglius, who had been unable to prevent all these disasters, threw himself, for the cause of Rome, into the midst of danger. His hand seized the sword. Sad error of Zuinglius! A minister of Christ, he more than once forgot that it was his duty to fight only with spiritual weapons, and he was to see in his own person a striking fulfilment of our Saviour's prophecy, He who takes the sword shall perish by the sword.
Francis I, having taken the throne and eager to restore the honor of the French name in Italy, caused the pope to panic and work to win over the cantons. In 1515, Ulric returned to the plains of Italy alongside his fellow citizens. However, the divisions created by French intrigues within the army deeply pained him. He was often seen in the midst of the camp, passionately and wisely addressing his soldiers while fully armored and ready for battle.[653] On September 8th, just five days before the battle of Marignan, he spoke in the public square of Monza, where the Swiss soldiers who remained loyal had gathered. "If Zuinglius's advice had been followed then and afterward," said Werner Steiner of Zug, "our country could have been spared so many troubles!"[654] But no one would listen to words of unity, caution, and submission. The powerful speeches of Cardinal Schinner excited the confederates and pushed them recklessly toward the doomed field of Marignan. There, the best of the Helvetic youth fell. Zuinglius, unable to prevent these disastrous events, threw himself into danger for the cause of Rome. He took up the sword. Sad mistake by Zuinglius! As a minister of Christ, he repeatedly forgot that he was meant to fight only with spiritual weapons, and he became a living example of our Savior's prophecy, He who takes the sword shall perish by the sword.
Zuinglius and his Swiss had been unable to save Rome. The ambassador of Venice was the first in the pontifical city who received news of the defeat of Marignan. Delighted, he repaired at an early hour to the Vatican. The pope came out of his apartment half dressed to give him an audience. Leo X, on learning the news, did not disguise his terror. At this moment of alarm he saw only Francis I, and hoped only in him. "Ambassador," said he trembling to Zorsi, "we must throw ourselves into the arms of the king, and cry for mercy." Luther and Zuinglius in their danger knew another arm, and invoked another mercy.[655]
Zwingli and his Swiss troops had failed to save Rome. The Venetian ambassador was the first in the papal city to hear about the defeat at Marignan. Excited, he rushed to the Vatican early in the morning. The pope came out of his chambers half-dressed to meet him. Upon hearing the news, Leo X revealed his fear. In this moment of panic, he could see only Francis I and hoped only in him. "Ambassador," he said, trembling to Zorsi, "we must turn to the king and plead for mercy." In their crisis, Luther and Zwingli sought a different source of support and called for a different kind of mercy.[655]
This second sojourn in Italy was not without use to Zuinglius. He observed the differences between the Ambrosian ritual used at Milan and that of Rome. He collected and compared together the most ancient canons of the mass. In this way a spirit of enquiry was developed in him even amid the tumult of camps. At the same time the sight of his countrymen led away beyond the Alps, and given up, like cattle, to the slaughter, filled him with indignation. "The flesh of the confederates," it was said, "is cheaper than that of their oxen and their calves." The disloyalty and ambition of the pope,[656] the avarice and ignorance of the priests, the licentiousness and dissipation of the monks, the pride and luxury of prelates, the corruption and venality employed on all hands to win the Swiss, being forced on his view more strongly than ever, made him still more alive to the necessity of a reform in the Church.
This second trip to Italy was quite beneficial for Zuinglius. He noted the differences between the Ambrosian ritual in Milan and the one in Rome. He gathered and compared the oldest canons of the mass. This fueled a spirit of inquiry in him, even amidst the chaos of battle. At the same time, seeing his fellow countrymen, taken beyond the Alps and treated like cattle heading to slaughter, filled him with anger. "The flesh of the confederates," people said, "is cheaper than that of their oxen and calves." The betrayal and ambition of the pope, the greed and ignorance of the priests, the immorality and excess of the monks, the arrogance and luxury of the bishops, and the corruption and bribery used to win over the Swiss all weighed heavily on his mind, making him even more aware of the need for reform in the Church.
From this time Zuinglius preached the Word of God more clearly. In explaining the portions of the gospel and epistles selected for public worship, he always compared Scripture with Scripture.[657] He spoke with animation and force,[658] and followed with his hearers the same course which God was following with him. He did not, like Luther, proclaim the sores of the Church; but as often as the study of the Bible suggested some useful instruction to himself, he communicated it to his hearers. He tried to make them receive the truth into their hearts, and then trusted to it for the works which it behoved to produce.[659] "If they understand what is true," thought he, "they will discern what is false." This maxim is good at the commencement of a Reformation, but a time comes when error must be boldly stigmatised. This Zuinglius knew very well. "The spring," said he, "is the season to sow;" and with him it was now spring.
From this point on, Zuinglius preached the Word of God more clearly. When explaining the parts of the gospel and epistles chosen for public worship, he consistently compared Scripture with Scripture.[657] He spoke with enthusiasm and strength,[658] and followed the same path that God was taking with him. Unlike Luther, he didn't focus on the Church's wounds; instead, whenever the study of the Bible revealed some valuable insight to him, he shared it with his listeners. He aimed to help them welcome the truth into their hearts and then relied on it to guide their actions.[659] "If they understand what is true," he thought, "they will recognize what is false." This principle is helpful at the beginning of a Reformation, but there comes a time when error must be clearly identified. Zuinglius was well aware of this. "Spring," he said, "is the season to sow;" and for him, it was now spring.
Zuinglius has marked out this period (1516) as the commencement of the Swiss Reformation. In fact, if four years before he had bent his head over the Word of God, he now raised it, and turned it toward his people, to make them share in the light which he had found. This forms a new and important epoch in the history of the development of the religious revolution of those countries, but it has been erroneously concluded, from these dates, that the Reformation of Zuinglius preceded that of Luther. It may be that Zuinglius preached the gospel a year before Luther's Theses, but Luther himself preached it four years before these famous propositions.[660] Had Luther and Zuinglius confined themselves merely to sermons, the Reformation would not have so quickly gained ground in the Church. Neither Luther nor Zuinglius was the first monk or the first priest who preached a purer doctrine than that of the schoolmen. But Luther was the first who publicly, and with indomitable courage, raised the standard of truth against the empire of error, called general attention to the fundamental doctrine of the gospel—salvation by grace, introduced his age to that new career of knowledge, faith, and life, out of which a new world has arisen; in a word, began a true and salutary revolution. The great struggle, of which the Theses of 1517 were the signal, was truly the birth-throe of the Reformation, giving it at once both a body and a soul. Luther was the first Reformer.
Zwingli marked this period (1516) as the start of the Swiss Reformation. In fact, while four years earlier he had been deeply engaged with the Word of God, he now lifted his head and turned it toward his people, eager to share the light he had discovered. This marks a new and significant moment in the history of the religious revolution in those regions, but it has been mistakenly assumed from these dates that Zwingli's Reformation came before Luther's. It might be true that Zwingli preached the gospel a year before Luther's Theses were published, but Luther himself had been preaching it four years prior to those famous propositions.[660] If Luther and Zwingli had limited themselves to just sermons, the Reformation wouldn't have spread so rapidly within the Church. Neither Luther nor Zwingli was the first monk or priest to preach a purer doctrine than the scholars of their time. However, Luther was the first to publicly and bravely stand up for the truth against a tide of error, drawing widespread attention to the core teaching of the gospel—salvation by grace. He introduced his time to a transformative journey of knowledge, faith, and life, from which a new world emerged; in short, he initiated a genuine and beneficial revolution. The major conflict that began with the Theses of 1517 was truly the birth pangs of the Reformation, giving it both substance and spirit. Luther was the first Reformer.
A spirit of enquiry began to breathe on the mountains of Switzerland. One day the curate of Glaris, happening to be in the smiling district of Mollis, with Adam its curate, Bunzli, curate of Wesen, and Varachon, curate of Kerensen, these friends discovered an old liturgy, in which they read these words: "After baptising the child, we give him the sacrament of the Eucharist and the cup of blood."[661] "Then," said Zuinglius, "the supper was at that period dispensed in our churches under the two kinds." The liturgy was about two hundred years old. This was a great discovery for these priests of the Alps.
A spirit of inquiry started to take hold in the mountains of Switzerland. One day, the curate of Glaris, while visiting the beautiful area of Mollis, along with Adam, its curate, Bunzli, the curate of Wesen, and Varachon, the curate of Kerensen, these friends found an old liturgy which included these words: "After baptizing the child, we give him the sacrament of the Eucharist and the cup of blood."[661] "Then," said Zuinglius, "the supper was given in our churches at that time in both forms." The liturgy was about two hundred years old. This was a significant discovery for these priests of the Alps.
The defeat of Marignan had important results in the interior of the cantons. The conqueror, Francis I, lavished gold and flattery in order to gain the confederates, while the emperor besought them by their honour, by the tears of widows and orphans, and the blood of their brethren, not to sell themselves to their murderers. The French party gained the ascendancy at Glaris, which, from that time, was an uncomfortable residence to Ulric.
The defeat at Marignan had significant effects within the cantons. The victor, Francis I, showered the confederates with gold and compliments to win them over, while the emperor appealed to their honor, invoking the tears of widows and orphans, and the blood of their fellow countrymen, urging them not to betray themselves to their killers. The French faction gained the upper hand in Glaris, which became an uneasy place for Ulric to live from that point on.
Zuinglius, at Glaris, might perhaps have remained a man of the world. Party intrigues, political questions, the empire, France, or the Duke of Milan, might have absorbed his whole life. Those whom God means to prepare for great services he never leaves amid the turmoil of the world. He leads them apart, and places them in a retreat where they commune with Him and their own consciences, and receive lessons never to be effaced. The Son of God himself, who in this was a type of the training given to his servants, spent forty days in the desert. It was time to remove Zuinglius from political movements, which, continually pressing upon his thoughts, might have banished the Spirit of God from them. It was time to train him for another stage than that on which courtiers, cabinets, and parties move, and where he should have wasted powers worthy of nobler employment. His country, indeed, needed something else. It was necessary that a new life should now come down from heaven, and that he who was to be the instrument in communicating it should unlearn worldly things, in order to learn things above. The two spheres are entirely distinct; a wide space separates these two worlds, and before passing entirely from the one to the other, Zuinglius was to sojourn for a time on neutral ground, in a kind of intermediate and preparatory state, to be there taught of God. God accordingly took him away from the factions of Glaris; and, with a view to this noviciate, placed him in the solitude of a hermitage—confining within the narrow walls of an abbey this noble germ of the Reformation, which was shortly after to be transplanted to a better soil, and cover the mountains with its shadow.
Zwingli, in Glaris, could have easily remained a man of the world. Political intrigue, party issues, the empire, France, or the Duke of Milan could have consumed his entire life. Those whom God intends to prepare for significant roles are never left in the chaos of the world. He takes them aside and places them in solitude where they can connect with Him and their own consciences, learning lessons that will never fade away. The Son of God himself, who exemplified the training given to his followers, spent forty days in the desert. It was time to pull Zwingli away from political activities that, constantly occupying his thoughts, might push away the Spirit of God. It was time to prepare him for a new path, one beyond that of courtiers, government bodies, and parties, where he could avoid squandering talents meant for greater purposes. His country, indeed, needed something different. A new life was necessary to descend from heaven, and the one chosen as the instrument to bring it forth needed to unlearn worldly matters to grasp higher truths. The two realms are entirely distinct; a vast chasm separates these two worlds, and before fully transitioning from one to the other, Zwingli was to stay for a while on neutral ground, in a sort of intermediate and preparatory state, to be taught by God. God removed him from the factions of Glaris and, for this training period, placed him in the solitude of a hermitage—confined within the narrow walls of an abbey, where this noble seed of the Reformation would soon be transplanted to a better environment, spreading its influence across the mountains.
CHAP. V.
Meinrad of Hohenzollern—Our Lady of Einsidlen—Calling of Zuinglius—The Abbot—Geroldsek—Companionship in Study—The Bible copied—Zuinglius and Superstition—First Opposition to Error—Sensation—Hedio—Zuinglius and the Legates—The Honours of Rome—The Bishop of Constance—Samson and Indulgences—Stapfer—Charity of Zuinglius—His Friends.
Meinrad of Hohenzollern—Our Lady of Einsidlen—The Call of Zuinglius—The Abbot—Geroldsek—Friendship in Study—The Bible Copied—Zuinglius and Superstition—Initial Opposition to Error—Reactions—Hedio—Zuinglius and the Legates—The Honors of Rome—The Bishop of Constance—Samson and Indulgences—Stapfer—Zuinglius's Charity—His Friends.
Meinrad of Hohenzollern, a German monk, about the middle of the ninth century, wandering on till he came between the lakes of Zurich and Wallstetten, had stopped upon a hill, resting on an amphitheatre of firs, and there built a cell. Banditti imbrued their hands in the blood of the saint. The bloody cell was long deserted, but towards the end of the tenth century, a convent and a church, in honour of the Virgin, were erected on the sacred spot. On the eve of the day of consecration, when the Bishop of Constance and his priests were at prayers in the church, a celestial chant, proceeding from invisible voices, suddenly echoed through the chapel. They prostrated themselves and listened in amaze. The next day, when the bishop was going to consecrate the chapel, a voice repeated thrice, "Stop, brother, stop! God himself has consecrated it!"[662] It was said, that Christ in person had blessed it during the night, that the chant which they had heard proceeded from angels, apostles, and saints, and that the Virgin, standing upon the altar, had blazed forth like a flash of lightning. A bull of Pope Leo VII forbade the faithful to question the truth of this legend. Thenceforward an immense crowd of pilgrims ceased not to repair to Our Lady of the Eremites to the "consecration of angels." Delphi and Ephesus, in ancient, and Loretto in modern times, alone have equalled the fame of Einsidlen. It was in this strange place that, in 1516, Ulric Zuinglius was called as priest and preacher.
Meinrad of Hohenzollern, a German monk, wandered around the middle of the ninth century until he reached the area between Lake Zurich and Wallstetten. He stopped on a hill, resting among a circle of fir trees, and built a small cell there. Bandits stained their hands with the blood of the saint. The bloody cell was abandoned for a long time, but toward the end of the tenth century, a convent and a church dedicated to the Virgin were built on that sacred ground. On the eve of the consecration, while the Bishop of Constance and his priests were praying in the church, a heavenly chant from invisible voices suddenly filled the chapel. They fell to the ground in amazement and listened. The next day, as the bishop was about to consecrate the chapel, a voice called out three times, "Stop, brother, stop! God Himself has consecrated it!" It was said that Christ had blessed it during the night, that the chant they heard came from angels, apostles, and saints, and that the Virgin had appeared on the altar, shining like a bolt of lightning. A decree from Pope Leo VII prohibited the faithful from questioning the truth of this legend. From then on, a large number of pilgrims continuously journeyed to Our Lady of the Eremites for the "consecration of angels." Only Delphi and Ephesus in ancient times, and Loretto in modern times, have matched the renown of Einsidlen. It was in this remarkable place that, in 1516, Ulric Zuinglius was appointed as priest and preacher.
Zuinglius hesitated not. "Neither ambition nor avarice takes me there," said he; "but the intrigues of the French."[663] Higher motives determined him. On the one hand, having more solitude, more calmness, and a less extensive parish, he could devote more time to study and meditation; on the other hand, this place of pilgrimage would give him facilities for spreading the knowledge of Jesus Christ to the remotest countries.[664]
Zuinglius didn't hesitate. "I'm not driven by ambition or greed," he said, "but by the French intrigues." [663] Higher motives guided his decision. On one hand, with more solitude, more peace, and a smaller parish, he could spend more time on study and meditation; on the other hand, this pilgrimage site would provide him opportunities to share the knowledge of Jesus Christ with even the most distant places.[664]
The friends of evangelical preaching at Glaris expressed deep grief. "What worse could happen to Glaris," said Peter Tschudi, one of the most distinguished citizens of the canton, "than to be deprived of so great a man."[665] His parishioners finding him immovable, resolved to leave him the title of pastor of Glaris, with part of the benefice, and the means of returning when he chose.[666]
The friends of evangelical preaching in Glaris were heartbroken. "What could be worse for Glaris," said Peter Tschudi, one of the most respected citizens of the canton, "than losing such a great man."[665] His parishioners, finding him resolute, decided to leave him the title of pastor of Glaris, along with part of the benefits and the option to return whenever he wanted.[666]
Conrad of Rechberg, a gentleman of ancient family, grave, candid, intrepid, and occasionally somewhat rude, was one of the most celebrated sportsmen of the district to which Zuinglius was removed. He had established on one of his farms a manêge in which he reared a breed of horses which became celebrated in Italy. Such was the abbot of our Lady of the Eremites. Rechberg was equally averse to the pretensions of Rome and the discussions of theologians. One day, during a visitation of the Order, some observations were made to him. "I am master here, not you," said he, somewhat rudely; "get along." One day at table when Leo Juda was discussing some difficult point with the administrator of the convent, the hunting abbot exclaimed, "You, there, leave your disputes to me. I exclaim with David, 'Have pity on me, O God, according to thy goodness, and enter not into judgment with thy servant.' I have no need to know any more."[667]
Conrad of Rechberg, a man from an old family, serious, honest, brave, and sometimes a bit blunt, was one of the most well-known sportsmen in the area where Zuinglius had moved. He had set up a riding school on one of his farms where he bred a type of horse that became famous in Italy. Such was the abbot of Our Lady of the Eremites. Rechberg was equally opposed to the pretensions of Rome and the arguments of theologians. One day, during an Order visit, someone made a comment to him. "I am in charge here, not you," he replied somewhat rudely; "move along." One day at the dinner table, when Leo Juda was debating a tricky issue with the convent's administrator, the hunting abbot interrupted, "You, over there, leave your arguments to me. I echo David, 'Have pity on me, O God, according to thy goodness, and enter not into judgment with thy servant.' I don’t need to hear any more."
Baron Theobald of Geroldsek was administrator of the monastery. He was of a meek spirit, sincerely pious, and had a great love of literature. His favourite design was to form a society of well-informed men in his convent; and it was for this reason he had given a call to Zuinglius. Eager for instruction and reading, he begged his new friend to direct him. "Read the Holy Scriptures," replied Zuinglius, "and that you may the better understand them, study Jerome. However," added he, "the time will come, (and, by God's help, it is not far off,) when Christians will not set a high value either on Jerome or any other doctor, but only on the word of God."[668] The conduct of Geroldsek gave indication of his progress in the faith. He allowed the nuns of a convent dependent on Einsidlen to read the Bible in the vulgar tongue; and, some years after, Geroldsek came to live at Zurich beside Zuinglius, and to die with him on the field of Cappel. The charm which hung about Zuinglius soon united him in tender friendship, not only with Geroldsek, but also the chaplain Zink, the excellent Œxlin, and other inmates of the abbey. These studious men, far from the noise of party, joined together in reading the Scriptures, the Fathers of the Church, the master-pieces of antiquity, and the writings of the restorers of letters. This interesting society was often enlarged by friends from a distance. Among others, Capito one day arrived at Einsidlen. The two old friends of Bâle walked together over the convent and the wild scenery in its neighbourhood, absorbed in conversation, examining the Scriptures, and seeking to know the Divine will. There was a point on which they were agreed, and it was this—"The pope of Rome must fall." At this time Capito was more courageous than he was at a later period.
Baron Theobald of Geroldsek was the administrator of the monastery. He had a humble spirit, was genuinely devout, and had a deep love for literature. His main goal was to create a community of knowledgeable individuals in his convent, which is why he reached out to Zuinglius. Eager to learn and read, he asked his new friend for guidance. "Read the Holy Scriptures," Zuinglius replied, "and to understand them better, study Jerome. However," he added, "the time will come (and, with God's help, it won’t be long) when Christians will value neither Jerome nor any other scholar, but only the word of God." The actions of Geroldsek showed his growth in faith. He allowed the nuns of a convent under Einsidlen to read the Bible in the common language; and a few years later, Geroldsek moved to Zurich to be near Zuinglius, eventually dying alongside him on the battlefield at Cappel. The charisma of Zuinglius quickly formed a close friendship not just with Geroldsek, but also with the chaplain Zink, the excellent Œxlin, and other members of the abbey. These scholarly men, distanced from party conflicts, gathered to read the Scriptures, the early Church Fathers, the great works of antiquity, and the writings of the humanist reformers. This engaging group often welcomed friends from afar. One day, Capito arrived at Einsidlen. The two old friends from Basel strolled together around the convent and its stunning surroundings, deeply engrossed in conversation, studying the Scriptures, and seeking to know the Divine will. They agreed on one thing—"The pope of Rome must fall." At that time, Capito was bolder than he later became.
Repose, leisure, books, friends—all these Zuinglius had in this tranquil retreat—and he accordingly grew in understanding and in faith. At this period (May, 1517) he commenced a work which was of great utility to him. As in old time the kings of Israel wrote the law of God with their own hand, so Zuinglius with his copied the Epistles of St. Paul. The only editions of the New Testament then in existence were of large size, and Zuinglius wished to have one which he could carry about with him.[669] These Epistles he learned by heart, as he did afterwards the other books of the New, and a part of the Old Testament. Thus his heart became always more attached to the sovereign authority of the Word of God. He was not satisfied with merely acknowledging this; he was, moreover, desirous to bring his life into true subjection to it. His views gradually became more decidedly Christian. The end for which he had been brought into this desert was accomplished. It is no doubt true that Zurich is the place where his whole soul became thoroughly pervaded with Christian principle; but even now at Einsidlen he made decided progress in the work of sanctification. At Glaris he had taken part in the amusements of the world; at Einsidlen he was more anxious for a life unsullied by any taint of worldliness. Beginning to have a better idea of the great spiritual interests of the people, he gradually learned what God designed to teach him.
Repose, leisure, books, friends—all these Zuinglius enjoyed in his peaceful retreat—and he grew in understanding and faith as a result. Around this time (May, 1517), he started a project that was very beneficial to him. Just like the kings of Israel wrote the law of God by hand, Zuinglius copied the Epistles of St. Paul. The only available editions of the New Testament were quite large, and Zuinglius wanted one he could easily carry. These Epistles he memorized, just as he later did with the other books of the New Testament and part of the Old Testament. In this way, his heart became increasingly attached to the supreme authority of the Word of God. He wasn’t content just to acknowledge this; he also wanted to align his life with it. His beliefs gradually became more distinctly Christian. The purpose for which he had come to this secluded place was being fulfilled. It’s true that Zurich is where his entire being was deeply infused with Christian principles; however, even then at Einsidlen, he made significant strides in his journey of sanctification. At Glaris, he had engaged in worldly pleasures; at Einsidlen, he was more focused on living a life free from any worldly corruption. As he began to grasp the spiritual needs of the people better, he slowly learned what God intended to teach him.
Providence had also other views in bringing him to Einsidlen. Here he obtained a nearer view of the superstitions and abuses which had invaded the Church. An image of the Virgin which was carefully preserved in this monastery, had, it was said, the power of working miracles. Above the gate of the Abbey appeared this presumptuous inscription:—"Here is obtained a plenary remission of all sins." A multitude of pilgrims flocked to Einsidlen from all parts of Christendom, to merit this grace by their pilgrimage. The church, the abbey, and the whole valley were crowded with devout worshippers on the festivals of the Virgin. But it was especially at the grand festival of "the consecration of the angels," that the hermitage was crowded to overflowing. Thousands of individuals of both sexes climbed the acclivity of the hill leading to the oratory, singing hymns and counting their beads. These devout pilgrims crowded into the Church, thinking they were there nearer God than any where else.
Providence had other intentions in bringing him to Einsidlen. Here, he got a closer look at the superstitions and abuses that had taken over the Church. An image of the Virgin, carefully preserved in this monastery, was said to have the power to work miracles. Above the Abbey gate was this bold inscription: "Here you can receive a full remission of all sins." A huge number of pilgrims flocked to Einsidlen from all over Christendom, hoping to earn this grace through their pilgrimage. The church, the abbey, and the entire valley were packed with devoted worshippers on the festivals of the Virgin. But it was especially during the grand festival of "the consecration of the angels" that the hermitage overflowed with crowds. Thousands of people, both men and women, climbed the hill to the oratory, singing hymns and counting their rosaries. These devoted pilgrims packed into the Church, believing they were closer to God there than anywhere else.
The residence of Zuinglius at Einsidlen was, in regard to the exposure of papal abuses, similar in effect to Luther's visit to Rome. Zuinglius' education for reformer was completed at Einsidlen. God alone is the source of salvation, and he is so every where,—these were the two truths which he learned at Einsidlen, and they became fundamental articles in his creed. The serious impression produced on his soul soon manifested itself externally. Struck with the many prevailing evils, he resolved to oppose them boldly. Not hesitating between his conscience and his interest, he stood up openly, and, in plain and energetic terms, attacked the superstition of the surrounding crowds: "Think not," said he from the pulpit, "that God is in this temple more than in any other part of his creation. Whatever be the country in which you dwell, God encompasses you, and hears you as well as in our Lady of Einsidlen. Can useless works, long pilgrimages, offerings, images, the invocation of the Virgin, or the saints, obtain the grace of God?... What avails the multitude of words in which we embody our prayers? What avails a glossy hood—a head well shaven—a long robe with its neat folds, and mules caparisoned with gold? God looks to the heart, but our heart is alienated from God."[670]
The residence of Zwingli at Einsiedeln had a similar impact on exposing papal abuses as Luther's visit to Rome. Zwingli's training as a reformer was completed at Einsiedeln. God alone is the source of salvation, and He is everywhere—these were the two truths he learned at Einsiedeln, and they became foundational beliefs in his faith. The deep impression made on his soul soon showed itself outwardly. Alarmed by the many prevalent evils, he decided to confront them boldly. Without hesitation between his conscience and his self-interest, he stood up openly and, in clear and strong terms, challenged the superstitions of the crowds around him: "Don’t think," he said from the pulpit, "that God is in this temple any more than He is in any other part of His creation. No matter where you live, God surrounds you and hears you just as much as He does at Our Lady of Einsiedeln. Can useless rituals, long pilgrimages, offerings, images, or the invocation of the Virgin and the saints earn the grace of God?... What good are all the fancy words we use in our prayers? What good is a shiny hood, a closely shaved head, a long robe with its neat folds, and mules adorned with gold? God cares about the heart, but our hearts are distant from God."[670]
But Zuinglius wished to do more than lift his voice against superstition. He wished to satisfy that eager longing for reconciliation with God, felt by many of the pilgrims who had flocked to the chapel of our Lady of Einsidlen. "Christ," cried he, like a John Baptist in this new wilderness of Judea, "Christ, who was once offered on the cross, is the expiatory victim, who, even through eternity, makes satisfaction for the sins of all believers."[671] Thus Zuinglius advanced. The day when this bold sermon was heard in the most venerated sanctuary of Switzerland, the standard prepared against Rome began to be more distinctly displayed on its mountain heights, and there was, so to speak, a heaving of reform reaching even to their deepest foundations.
But Zwingli wanted to do more than just speak out against superstition. He wanted to address the deep desire for reconciliation with God that many of the pilgrims felt as they rushed to the chapel of Our Lady of Einsiedlen. "Christ," he exclaimed, like a John the Baptist in this modern wilderness of Judea, "Christ, who was once offered on the cross, is the sacrificial victim who, even through eternity, makes amends for the sins of all believers."[671] This is how Zwingli moved forward. On the day this bold sermon echoed in Switzerland’s most revered sanctuary, the banner prepared against Rome began to be more clearly shown on its mountain peaks, and there was, so to speak, a surge of reform reaching even to their deepest foundations.
In fact, universal astonishment seized the multitude on hearing the discourse of the eloquent priest. Some walked off in horror; others hesitated between the faith of their fathers and the doctrine fitted to secure their peace, while several came to Jesus Christ who was thus preached to them, and finding rest to their souls, took back the tapers which they had intended to present to the Virgin. A crowd of pilgrims returned to their homes, announcing every where what they had heard at Einsidlen. "Christ ALONE saves, and saves EVERYWHERE." Bands, astonished at what they heard, stopped short without finishing their pilgrimage. The worshippers of Mary diminished from day to day. Their offerings formed almost the whole income of Zuinglius and Geroldsek; but the intrepid witness of the truth felt happy to be impoverished in order that souls might be spiritually enriched.
In fact, everyone was completely stunned when they heard the speech from the eloquent priest. Some walked away in shock; others wavered between the beliefs of their ancestors and the teachings that promised them peace, while some approached Jesus Christ, whom the priest preached about, and finding comfort for their souls, returned the candles they had planned to give to the Virgin. A group of pilgrims went back home, spreading the news of what they had heard in Einsidlen. "Christ ALONE saves, and saves EVERYWHERE." Groups, amazed by what they heard, suddenly stopped their pilgrimage before completing it. The number of Mary worshippers decreased daily. Their donations made up almost the entire income of Zuinglius and Geroldsek; however, the fearless witness of the truth was happy to be poor, knowing that souls were being spiritually enriched.
During the feast of Pentecost, in the year 1518, among the numerous hearers of Zuinglius, was a learned man of meek temper and active charity, named Gaspard Hedio, doctor of theology at Bâle. Zuinglius preached on the cure of the paralytic, (Luke, v,) where our Saviour declares, "The Son of Man hath power upon earth to forgive sins," words well fitted to strike the crowd assembled in the Church of the Virgin. The preacher roused, enraptured, and inflamed his audience, especially the doctor from Bâle.[672] A long time after, Hedio expressed his high admiration; "How beautiful," said he, "this discourse, how profound, weighty, complete, penetrating, and evangelical; how much it reminds one of the ενεργεια (energy) of the ancient doctors."[673] From that moment Hedio admired and loved Zuinglius.[674] He would fain have gone to him, and opened his heart; he wandered around the abbey but durst not approach, kept back, as he expresses it, by a superstitious timidity. He again mounted his horse and slowly retired from our Lady, ever and again turning his head to the spot which contained so great a treasure, and feeling in his heart the keenest regret.[675]
During the Pentecost feast in 1518, among the many listeners of Zuinglius was a learned man named Gaspard Hedio, a kind-hearted and charitable doctor of theology from Bâle. Zuinglius preached about the healing of the paralytic (Luke 5), where our Savior states, "The Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins," words that deeply resonated with the crowd gathered in the Church of the Virgin. The preacher energized and captivated his audience, especially the doctor from Bâle.[672] Later on, Hedio expressed his admiration, saying, "How beautiful this discourse is, how profound, significant, complete, penetrating, and evangelical; it reminds me so much of the ενεργεια (energy) of the ancient doctors."[673] From that moment, Hedio admired and appreciated Zuinglius.[674] He wanted to approach him and share his thoughts, but he wandered around the abbey, hesitant to come closer, held back by a superstitious timidity, as he put it. He eventually got back on his horse and slowly left our Lady, repeatedly glancing back at the place that held such a great treasure, feeling a deep sense of regret in his heart.[675]
Thus Zuinglius preached; less forcibly, no doubt, than Luther, but with more moderation, and not less success. He did nothing precipitately, and did not come so violently into collision with men's minds as the Saxon Reformer; he expected every thing from the power of truth. He displayed the same wisdom in his relations with the heads of the Church. Far from immediately declaring himself their enemy, he long remained their friend. They were exceedingly indulgent to him, not only because of his learning and talents, (Luther had the same claims to the regard of the bishops of Mentz and Brandenburg,) but especially because of his attachment to the pope's political party, and the influence possessed by such a man as Zuinglius in a republican state.
Thus Zwingli preached; less forcefully, no doubt, than Luther, but with more moderation, and just as much success. He acted with caution and didn’t clash as violently with people's beliefs as the Saxon Reformer did; he relied on the strength of truth. He showed the same wisdom in his dealings with church leaders. Rather than quickly declaring himself their enemy, he remained their friend for a long time. They were very lenient toward him, not only because of his knowledge and abilities (Luther had the same reasons to gain the bishops of Mainz and Brandenburg's respect), but also due to his loyalty to the pope’s political faction and the influence someone like Zwingli held in a republic.
In fact, several cantons, disgusted with the service of the pope, were disposed to break with him. But the legates flattered themselves they might retain several of them by gaining Zuinglius, as they gained Erasmus, with pensions and honours. At this time the legates, Ennius and Pucci, went frequently to Einsidlen, where from its proximity to the democratic cantons, it was more easy to carry on negotiations with them. But Zuinglius, far from sacrificing the truth to the demands and offers of Rome, omitted no opportunity of defending the gospel. The famous Schinner, who had then some disturbance in his diocese, passed some time at Einsidlen. "The whole papacy," said Zuinglius one day, "rests on a bad foundation.[676] Put your hand to the work, remove errors and abuses, or you will see the whole edifice crumble to pieces with fearful uproar".[677]
In fact, several cantons, upset with the pope's service, were ready to break away from him. But the envoys believed they could keep some of them by winning over Zuinglius, just as they had with Erasmus, offering pensions and honors. During this time, the envoys, Ennius and Pucci, often went to Einsidlen, where it was easier to negotiate with the nearby democratic cantons. However, Zuinglius, instead of compromising the truth for Rome's demands and offers, took every chance to defend the gospel. The well-known Schinner, who was dealing with some issues in his diocese, spent some time at Einsidlen. "The whole papacy," Zuinglius said one day, "is built on a shaky foundation.[676] Get to work, correct the errors and abuses, or you will watch the entire structure come crashing down with a terrible clamor."[677]
He spoke with the same frankness to legate Pucci. Four times did he return to the charge. "With the help of God," said he to him, "I will continue to preach the gospel, and this preaching will shake Rome." Then he pointed out to him what was necessary to save the Church. Pucci promised every thing, but did nothing. Zuinglius declared that he renounced the pension from the pope. The legate entreated him to retain it; and Zuinglius, who at that time had no thought of placing himself in open hostility to the head of the Church, consented for three years to receive it. "But think not," added he, "that for the love of money I retrench a single syllable of the truth."[678] Pucci, alarmed, made the Reformer be appointed chaplain acolyte to the pope. It was an avenue to new honours. Rome thought to frighten Luther by sentences of condemnation, and to win Zuinglius by favours—darting her excommunications at the one, and displaying her gold and magnificence to the other. She thus endeavoured, by two different methods, to attain the same end, and silence the bold lips which dared, in spite of the pope, to proclaim the Word of God in Germany and Switzerland. The latter method was the more skilful, but neither of them succeeded. The enfranchised souls of the preachers of truth were equally inaccessible to menace and favour.
He spoke just as sincerely to legate Pucci. He brought it up four times. "With God's help," he told him, "I will keep preaching the gospel, and this preaching will shake Rome." Then he pointed out what was needed to save the Church. Pucci promised everything but did nothing. Zuinglius announced that he was giving up the pension from the pope. The legate urged him to keep it, and Zuinglius, who at that time didn’t want to openly oppose the head of the Church, agreed to accept it for three years. "But don’t think," he added, "that I hold back any truth for the love of money." [678] Pucci, worried, got the Reformer appointed as chaplain acolyte to the pope. It was a pathway to new honors. Rome aimed to intimidate Luther with threats of condemnation and to win over Zuinglius with favors—casting her excommunications at one, and flaunting her wealth and splendor to the other. In this way, she tried two different strategies to achieve the same goal and silence the bold voices that dared, despite the pope, to proclaim the Word of God in Germany and Switzerland. The latter approach was more cunning, but neither strategy worked. The liberated hearts of those preaching the truth were equally immune to both threats and favors.
Another Swiss prelate, Hugo of Landenberg, bishop of Constance, at this time gave some hopes to Zuinglius. He ordered a general visitation of the churches. But Landenberg, a man of no character, allowed himself to be led alternately by Faber, his vicar, and by an abandoned female, from whose sway he was unable to escape. He occasionally appeared to honour the gospel, and yet any one who preached it boldly was in his eyes only a disturber. He was one of those men too common in the Church, who, though loving truth better than error, have more indulgence for error than for truth, and often end by turning against those with whom they ought to make common cause. Zuinglius applied to him, but in vain. He was to have the same experience which Luther had; to be convinced that it was useless to invoke the heads of the Church, and that the only method of restoring Christianity was to act as a faithful teacher of the Word of God. An opportunity of doing so soon occurred.
Another Swiss church leader, Hugo of Landenberg, the bishop of Constance, gave Zuinglius some hope during this time. He initiated a general inspection of the churches. However, Landenberg, a man without integrity, let himself be swayed back and forth by Faber, his vicar, and by a scandalous woman, from whom he couldn't break free. He sometimes seemed to support the gospel, but anyone who preached it boldly was just seen by him as a troublemaker. He was one of those people often found in the Church who, while they prefer the truth over falsehood, show more tolerance for falsehood than for the truth, often ending up opposing those they should join forces with. Zuinglius reached out to him, but it was futile. He was destined to have the same realization that Luther faced: it was pointless to appeal to the leaders of the Church, and the only way to restore Christianity was to serve as a sincere teacher of God's Word. An opportunity to do so soon presented itself.
In August, 1518, a Franciscan monk was seen travelling on the heights of St. Gothard, in those lofty passes which have been laboriously cut across the steep rocks separating Switzerland from Italy. Having come forth from an Italian convent, he was the bearer of papal indulgences which he was commissioned to sell to the good Christians of the Helvetic league. Brilliant success, obtained under two preceding popes, had signalised his exertions in this shameful traffic. Companions, intended to puff off the merchandise which he was going to sell, were accompanying him across mountains of snow and ice coeval with the world. This avaricious band, in appearance miserable enough, and not unlike a band of adventurers roaming for plunder, walked in silence, amid the noise of the foaming torrents which give rise to the Rhine, the Reuss, the Aar, the Rhone, the Tessino, and other rivers, meditating how they were to plunder the simple population of Helvetia. Samson (this was the Franciscan's name) and his company first arrived in Uri, and there commenced their traffic. They had soon done with these poor peasants, and passed into the canton of Schwitz. Here Zuinglius was, and here the combat between these two servants of two very different masters was to take place. "I can pardon all sins," said the Italian monk, the Tezel of Switzerland. "Heaven and hell are subject to my power, and I sell the merits of Jesus Christ to whoever will purchase them, by paying in cash for an indulgence."
In August 1518, a Franciscan monk was spotted traveling in the heights of St. Gothard, in those high passes that have been painstakingly carved through the steep rocks separating Switzerland from Italy. Having come from an Italian convent, he was carrying papal indulgences that he was tasked with selling to the good Christians of the Helvetic league. He had already experienced significant success under two previous popes, which marked his efforts in this disreputable trade. Accompanying him were companions meant to help sell the merchandise he was bringing, as they crossed mountains of snow and ice that have existed since time began. This greedy group, looking rather miserable and reminiscent of adventurers on the lookout for loot, walked silently among the sounds of the roaring torrents that give rise to the Rhine, the Reuss, the Aar, the Rhone, the Tessino, and other rivers, contemplating how they would exploit the unsuspecting people of Helvetia. Samson (that was the Franciscan's name) and his companions first arrived in Uri and began their trade there. They quickly dealt with the poor peasants and moved on to the canton of Schwitz. Here was Zuinglius, and it was here that the clash between these two servants of very different masters was about to unfold. "I can forgive all sins," declared the Italian monk, the Tezel of Switzerland. "Heaven and hell are under my authority, and I sell the merits of Jesus Christ to anyone willing to buy them by paying cash for an indulgence."
Zuinglius heard of these discourses, and his zeal was inflamed.
Zwingli heard about these discussions, and his enthusiasm was ignited.
He preached powerfully against them. "Jesus Christ, the Son of God," said he, "thus speaks, 'Come unto ME, all ye that labour and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest.' Is it not then audacious folly and insensate temerity to say on the contrary, Purchase letters of indulgence! run to Rome! give to the monks! sacrifice to the priests! If you do these things I will absolve you from your sins![679] Jesus Christ is the only offering; Jesus Christ is the only sacrifice; Jesus Christ is the only way."[680]
He preached powerfully against them. "Jesus Christ, the Son of God," he said, "says this: 'Come to ME, all of you who are weary and burdened, and I will give you rest.' So isn't it completely ridiculous and foolish to say the opposite, like buying letters of indulgence? Running to Rome? Giving money to the monks? Sacrificing to the priests? If you do these things, I will forgive you for your sins![679] Jesus Christ is the only offering; Jesus Christ is the only sacrifice; Jesus Christ is the only way."[680]
Every body at Schwitz began to call Samson rogue and cheat. He took the road to Zug, and for this time the two champions failed to meet.
Every person at Schwitz started calling Samson a rogue and a cheat. He headed toward Zug, and this time the two champions didn’t cross paths.
Scarcely had Samson left Schwitz when a citizen of this canton, named Stapfer, a man of distinguished talent, and afterward secretary of state, was with his family reduced to great distress. "Alas," said he, when applying in agony to Zuinglius, "I know not how to satisfy my own hunger and the hunger of my poor children."[681] Zuinglius knew to give where Rome knew to take; he was as ready to practise good works, as to combat those who taught that they were the means of obtaining salvation. He daily gave liberally to Stapfer.[682] "It is God," said he, anxious not to take any glory to himself, "It is God who begets charity in the believer, and gives him at once the thought, the resolution, and the work itself. Whatever good a righteous man does it is God who does it by his own power."[683] Stapfer remained attached to him through life; and, four years after, when he had become secretary of state, and felt wants of a higher kind, he turned towards Zuinglius, and said to him with noble candour, "Since you provided for my temporal wants, how much more may I now expect from you wherewith to appease the hunger of my soul!"
Scarcely had Samson left Schwitz when a local resident named Stapfer, a talented man who would later become secretary of state, found himself and his family in deep distress. "Oh no," he lamented in desperation to Zuinglius, "I don't know how to feed myself and my poor children." [681] Zuinglius was quick to give where others took; he was just as eager to do good deeds as he was to fight against those who preached that good works were the way to achieve salvation. He gave generously to Stapfer every day. [682] "It is God," he said, eager not to claim any credit for himself, "It is God who inspires charity in the believer, giving him not just the thought and intention but the ability to act. Any good work a righteous person does is actually God working through him." [683] Stapfer remained loyal to him throughout his life; and four years later, after becoming secretary of state and facing greater needs, he turned to Zuinglius and said with sincere honesty, "Since you took care of my physical needs, how much more can I now expect from you to satisfy the hunger of my soul!"
The friends of Zuinglius increased. Not only at Glaris, Bâle, and Schwitz, did he find men of like spirit with himself; in Uri there was the secretary of state, Schmidt; at Zug, Colin Müller and Werner Steiner, his old companions in arms at Marignan: at Lucerne, Xylotect and Kilchmeyer; Wittembach at Berne, and many others in many other places. But the curate of Einsidlen had no more devoted friend than Oswald Myconius. Oswald had quitted Bâle in 1516, to take charge of the cathedral school at Zurich. In this town there were no learned men, and no schools of learning. Oswald laboured along with some well-disposed individuals, among others, Utinger, notary to the pope, to raise the Zurich population out of ignorance and initiate them in ancient literature. At the same time he defended the immutable truth of the Holy Scriptures, and declared that if the pope or emperor gave commands contrary to the gospel, obedience was due to God alone, who is above both emperor and pope.
The friends of Zuinglius grew in number. Not only in Glaris, Bâle, and Schwitz did he find like-minded people; in Uri, there was the state secretary, Schmidt; in Zug, Colin Müller and Werner Steiner, his old comrades from Marignan; in Lucerne, Xylotect and Kilchmeyer; Wittembach in Berne, and many others in various places. But the curate of Einsidlen had no more devoted friend than Oswald Myconius. Oswald had left Bâle in 1516 to take over the cathedral school in Zurich. In this city, there were no scholars, and no places of learning. Oswald worked alongside some willing individuals, including Utinger, the pope's notary, to educate the people of Zurich and introduce them to classical literature. At the same time, he stood up for the unchanging truth of the Holy Scriptures, asserting that if the pope or emperor issued commands that went against the gospel, loyalty was only owed to God, who is above both the emperor and the pope.
CHAP. VI.
Zurich—The College of Canons—Election to the Cathedral—Fable—Accusations—Confession of Zuinglius—The Designs of God Unfolded—Farewell to Einsidlen—Arrival at Zurich—Courageous Declaration of Zuinglius—First Sermons—Effects—Opposition—Character of Zuinglius—Taste for Music—Arrangement of the Day—Circulation by Hawkers.
Zurich—The College of Canons—Election to the Cathedral—Fable—Accusations—Confession of Zuinglius—The Plans of God Revealed—Goodbye to Einsidlen—Arrival in Zurich—Bold Statement by Zuinglius—First Sermons—Impact—Opposition—Zuinglius' Character—Love for Music—Daily Schedule—Distribution by Vendors.
Seven centuries had elapsed since Charlemagne had attached a college of canons to this cathedral, over whose school Oswald Myconius then presided. These canons having degenerated from their first institution, and desiring in their benefices to enjoy the sweets of indolence, elected a priest to preach and take the cure of souls. This situation having become vacant some time after Oswald's arrival, he immediately thought of his friend. What a prize it would be for Zurich! Zuinglius' appearance was prepossessing. He was a handsome man,[684] of graceful address, and pleasing manners. His eloquence had already given him celebrity, while the lustre of his genius made him conspicuous among all the confederates. Myconius spoke of him to the provost of the chapter, Felix Frey, (who from the appearance and talents of Zuinglius was already prepossessed in his favour,)[685] to Utinger, an old man who was held in high respect, and to canon Hoffman, a man of an upright open disposition, who, having long preached against foreign service, was favourably inclined to Ulric. Other Zurichers had, on different occasions, heard Zuinglius at Einsidlen, and had returned full of admiration. The election of preacher to the cathedral soon set all the inhabitants of Zurich in motion. Different parties were formed. Several laboured night and day for the election of the eloquent preacher of Our Lady of the Eremites.[686] Myconius having informed his friend—"Wednesday next," replied Zuinglius, "I will come and dine at Zurich, and talk over matters." He accordingly arrived. A canon to whom he was paying a visit said to him, "Could you come among us to preach the word of God?" "I could," replied he; "but will not come unless I am called." He then returned to his abbey.
Seven centuries had passed since Charlemagne had established a college of canons at this cathedral, where Oswald Myconius was then the head. These canons, having strayed from their original purpose and wanting to enjoy the comforts of idleness, elected a priest to preach and take care of the congregation. When this position became available some time after Oswald's arrival, he immediately thought of his friend. What a great opportunity it would be for Zurich! Zwingli had an appealing presence. He was a handsome man, with a graceful demeanor and charming manners. His eloquence had already made him well-known, and the brilliance of his intellect set him apart among all the confederates. Myconius spoke of Zwingli to the provost of the chapter, Felix Frey, who, impressed by Zwingli's appearance and talents, was already inclined to support him, to Utinger, an older man who was highly respected, and to Canon Hoffman, a man of integrity who, having long preached against foreign service, was favorably disposed towards Ulric. Other people from Zurich had, on various occasions, heard Zwingli at Einsidlen and had come back full of admiration. The election of a preacher for the cathedral soon got everyone in Zurich buzzing. Different factions formed. Many worked tirelessly for the election of the eloquent preacher from Our Lady of the Eremites. When Myconius informed his friend, Zwingli replied, "Next Wednesday, I will come to Zurich for dinner and discuss everything." He did arrive as planned. A canon he visited asked him, "Could you join us to preach the word of God?" "I could," he replied, "but I won’t come unless I’m invited." He then returned to his abbey.
This visit spread alarm in the camp of his enemies. Several priests were urged to apply for the vacancy. A Suabian, named Laurent Fable, even preached as a candidate, and the rumour went that he was elected. "It is then quite true," said Zuinglius, on learning it, "that a prophet has no honour in his own country, since a Suabian is preferred to a Swiss. I know what value to set on popular applause."[687] Zuinglius immediately after received a letter from the secretary of Cardinal Schinner, informing him, that the election had not taken place. But the false news which he had at first received nettled the curate of Einsidlen. Knowing that a person so unworthy as this Fable aspired to the place, he was more desirous to obtain it for himself, and wrote about it to Myconius, who next day replied, "Fable will always continue fable: my masters have learned that he is already the father of six boys, and possesses I know not how many benefices."[688]
This visit caused panic among his enemies. Several priests were encouraged to apply for the open position. A Suabian named Laurent Fable even campaigned as a candidate, and rumors spread that he was chosen. "It’s true then," Zuinglius said upon hearing this, "that a prophet has no honor in his own land, since they choose a Suabian over a Swiss. I know how much to value public praise."[687] Zuinglius soon received a letter from Cardinal Schinner’s secretary, informing him that the election hadn’t actually happened. However, the false news he had initially received frustrated the curate of Einsidlen. Knowing that someone as unworthy as Fable was aiming for the position, he was even more eager to secure it for himself and wrote to Myconius about it. The next day, Myconius responded, "Fable will always be a fable: my masters have found out that he already has six sons and holds, I don't know how many, benefices."[688]
The enemies of Zuinglius did not abandon their opposition. All, it is true, agreed in extolling his learning to the skies;[689] but said some, "He is too fond of music;" others, "He loves the world and pleasure;" others again, "In early life he was too closely connected with giddy companions." There was even one individual who charged him with an instance of seduction. Zuinglius was not without blemish. Though superior to the ecclesiastics of his time he more than once, in the first years of his ministry, gave way to youthful propensities. It is difficult to estimate the influence of an impure atmosphere on those who live in it. There were in the papacy certain established irregularities, allowed and sanctioned as conformable to the laws of nature. A saying of Æneas Sylvius, afterwards pope under the name of Pius II, gives an idea of the sad state of public morals at this period. We give it in a note.[690] Disorder had become the rule, order the exception.
The enemies of Zwingli did not give up their opposition. It's true that everyone praised his intellect to high heavens; [689] but some said, "He's too into music;" others, "He loves the world and pleasure;" and still others claimed, "In his youth, he hung out with irresponsible friends." There was even one person who accused him of seducing someone. Zwingli wasn’t without flaws. Although he was better than the clergy of his time, he sometimes succumbed to youthful temptations during the early years of his ministry. It's hard to gauge how much an unclean environment affects those living in it. In the papacy, there were established irregularities that were accepted and approved as being natural. A remark from Æneas Sylvius, who later became pope under the name Pius II, reflects the poor state of public morals during this time. We provide it in a note.[690] Disorder had become the norm, and order the exception.
Oswald displayed the greatest activity in favour of his friend. He exerted all his powers in defending him, and happily succeeded.[691] He went to burgomaster Roust, to Hoffman, Frey, and Utinger. He praised Zuinglius for his probity, honesty, and purity, and confirmed the Zurichers in the favourable opinion which they had of the curate of Einsidlen. Little credit was given to the speeches of his adversaries. The most influential persons said, that Zuinglius should be preacher at Zurich. The canons said so also, but in a whisper. "Hope," wrote Oswald to him with a full heart, "for I hope." At the same time he told him of the accusations of his enemies. Although Zuinglius was not yet become altogether a new man, he belonged to the class of those whose conscience is awakened, and who may fall into sin, but never without a struggle, or without remorse. It had often been his resolution to stand alone in the midst of the world, and maintain a life of holiness. But when he saw himself accused, he did not pretend to boast that he was without sin. Writing to canon Utinger, he said, "Having nobody to go along with me in the resolutions which I had formed, several even of those about me, being offended at them, alas! I fell, and like the dog of whom St. Peter speaks, (2 Ep. ii, 22,) returned to my vomit.[692] Ah! God knows with what shame and anguish I have torn up these faults from the depths of my heart, and laid them before Almighty God, to whom, however, I would be less afraid to confess my misery than to mortal man."[693] But while Zuinglius confessed himself to be a sinner, he, at the same time vindicated himself from the most offensive charges which were brought against him. He declared that he had ever abhorred the idea of invading the sanctity of married life, or seducing innocence,[694]—vices at that time but too common, "or the truth of this," says he, "I appeal to all with whom I have lived."[695]
Oswald worked tirelessly to support his friend. He used all his abilities to defend him and, fortunately, was successful. He approached burgomaster Roust, Hoffman, Frey, and Utinger. He praised Zuinglius for his integrity, honesty, and purity, and reinforced the positive view that the Zurichers had of the curate of Einsidlen. The statements from his opponents were not taken seriously. The most influential people believed that Zuinglius should be the preacher at Zurich. The canons agreed too, but only in hushed tones. "Have hope," Oswald wrote to him with a full heart, "for I have hope." At the same time, he informed him of the accusations from his enemies. Although Zuinglius hadn’t fully transformed into a new man, he was among those whose conscience is stirred, who might stumble into sin but always struggles with it and feels remorse. He often resolved to stand alone in the world and lead a holy life. Yet, when he faced accusations, he didn't pretend to be without sin. Writing to canon Utinger, he said, "With no one to support me in the resolutions I had made, and many around me being offended by them, I fell, and like the dog that St. Peter speaks of, (2 Ep. ii, 22,) I returned to my vomit. Ah! God knows with what shame and anguish I have uprooted these faults from the depths of my heart and laid them before Almighty God, to whom I would be less afraid to confess my misery than to any mortal." But while Zuinglius admitted he was a sinner, he also defended himself against the most serious accusations made against him. He stated that he had always detested the idea of violating the sanctity of married life or corrupting innocence—vices that were sadly common at the time. "To prove this," he said, "I appeal to all those with whom I have lived."
The election took place on the 11th December, and out of the twenty-four votes which were given, Zuinglius had seventeen. It was time that the Reformation should begin in Switzerland. The chosen instrument which Divine Providence had been preparing during three years in the retreat of Einsidlen, was ready and must now be translated elsewhere. God, who had chosen the new university of Wittemberg, situated in the heart of Germany, and under the protection of the wisest of princes, to call Luther thither, made choice in Switzerland of the city of Zurich, regarded as the head of the confederation, there to station Zuinglius, and to bring him into contact not only with one of the most intelligent, simple, resolute, and intrepid communities of Switzerland, but also with all the cantons which are grouped around this ancient and powerful state. The hand which had taken hold of a young shepherd of Sentis, and led him to the school of Wesen, now brought him forward, powerful in word and in deed, in the face of all, to regenerate his countrymen. Zurich was about to become a focus of light to Switzerland.
The election happened on December 11th, and out of the twenty-four votes cast, Zuinglius received seventeen. It was time for the Reformation to start in Switzerland. The chosen leader that Divine Providence had been preparing for three years in the retreat of Einsidlen was ready and needed to be moved elsewhere. God, who selected the new university of Wittemberg, located in the heart of Germany and under the guidance of the wisest of princes, to call Luther there, decided on the city of Zurich in Switzerland, seen as the center of the confederation, to station Zuinglius. This would connect him not only with one of the most intelligent, straightforward, determined, and fearless communities in Switzerland but also with all the cantons surrounding this historic and powerful state. The hand that had guided a young shepherd from Sentis and led him to the school of Wesen now brought him forth, strong in both word and action, to inspire change among his fellow countrymen. Zurich was about to become a beacon of light for Switzerland.
The day which announced the election of Zuinglius was to Einsidlen a day at once of joy and grief. The circle which had been formed there was about to be broken up by the withdrawal of its most valuable member, and who could say whether superstition was not going again to take possession of this ancient place of pilgrimage?... The council of state in Schwitz conveyed the expression of its sentiments to Ulric by designating him as "reverend, learned, most gracious master, and good friend."[696] "At least do you yourself give us a successor worthy of you," said Geroldsek in despair to Zuinglius. "I have got for you," replied he, "a little lion, simple and wise; a man initiated in the mysteries of sacred science." "Let me have him," immediately rejoined the administrator. It was Leo Juda, at once the gentle and intrepid friend with whom Zuinglius had been so intimate at Bâle. Leo accepted the call which brought him near his dear Ulric. Ulric took farewell of his friends, quitted the solitude of Einsidlen, and arrived at that delightful spot where, smiling and instinct with life, rises the town of Zurich, surrounded by its amphitheatre of vine-clad hills, enamelled with meadows and orchards, crowned with forests, and overtopped by the lofty peaks of the Albis.
The day that announced the election of Zuinglius was, for Einsidlen, a mix of joy and sadness. The close-knit community that had formed there was about to be disrupted by the departure of its most valuable member, and who could say if superstition would reclaim this ancient pilgrimage site? The state council in Schwitz expressed its sentiments to Ulric by referring to him as "reverend, learned, most gracious master, and good friend."[696] "At least you should give us a successor worthy of you," Geroldsek said in despair to Zuinglius. "I've got someone for you," he replied, "a little lion, simple and wise; a man well-versed in the secrets of sacred knowledge." "Let me have him," the administrator immediately responded. It was Leo Juda, both a gentle and brave friend with whom Zuinglius had been very close in Bâle. Leo accepted the invitation that brought him closer to his dear Ulric. Ulric said goodbye to his friends, left the solitude of Einsidlen, and arrived at that beautiful place where the town of Zurich rises, vibrant and life-filled, surrounded by hills covered in vines, dotted with meadows and orchards, crowned with forests, and overshadowed by the towering peaks of the Albis.
Zurich, the centre of the political interests of Switzerland, where the most influential persons in the nation frequently assembled, was the place best fitted to act upon the whole country, and shed the seeds of truth over all its cantons. Accordingly, the friends of letters and the Bible hailed the appointment of Zuinglius with acclamation. At Paris, in particular, the Swiss students, who were there in great numbers, were enraptured with the news.[697] But if Zuinglius had the prospect of a great victory at Zurich, he had also the prospect of a severe contest. Glarean wrote him from Paris, "I foresee that your learning will stir up great enmity;[698] but be of good courage, and you will, like Hercules, subdue monsters."[699]
Zurich, the hub of Switzerland's political affairs, where the nation’s most powerful figures often gathered, was the ideal location to influence the entire country and spread the seeds of truth across all its regions. Consequently, the supporters of literature and the Bible celebrated Zuinglius's appointment with enthusiasm. In Paris, especially, the Swiss students, who were there in large numbers, were thrilled with the news.[697] However, while Zuinglius faced the potential for great success in Zurich, he also anticipated a tough battle ahead. Glarean wrote to him from Paris, "I foresee that your knowledge will provoke significant hostility;[698] but stay strong, and like Hercules, you'll conquer the monsters."[699]
On the 27th December, 1518, Zuinglius arrived at Zurich, and took up his quarters at the hotel of Einsidlen. He received a cordial and honourable welcome. The chapter immediately met to receive him, and invited him to take his seat in the midst of them. Felix Frey presided; the canons, friendly or hostile to Zuinglius, sat indiscriminately around their provost. There was considerable excitement in the meeting; every one felt, perhaps without distinctly acknowledging it to himself, how serious the commencement of this ministry was likely to prove. Some apprehension being entertained of the innovating spirit of the young priest, it was agreed to set before him the most important duties of his office. "You will use your utmost endeavour," he was gravely told, "to secure payment of the revenues of the chapter, without neglecting the least of them. You will exhort the faithful both from the pulpit and in the confessional, to pay the first fruits and tithes, and to show by their offerings that they love the Church. You will make it your business to increase the revenues which are derived from the sick, from sacrifices, and generally from every ecclesiastical act." The chapter added, "As to the administration of the sacraments, preaching, and personal presence, amid the flock, these too are duties of the priest. However, in these different respects, and particularly in regard to preaching, you may supply your place by a vicar. You should administer the sacraments only to persons of distinction, and after being requested. You are expressly forbidden to do it to all persons indiscriminately."[700]
On December 27, 1518, Zwingli arrived in Zurich and settled down at the Einsidlen hotel. He received a warm and respectful welcome. The chapter quickly gathered to greet him and invited him to take a seat among them. Felix Frey was in charge; the canons, whether supportive or opposed to Zwingli, sat mixed together around their leader. There was a lot of excitement in the meeting; everyone sensed, even if they didn't admit it to themselves, how serious the start of this ministry might be. Some concerns were raised about the young priest's innovative ideas, so they agreed to outline the most important responsibilities of his role. "You will do your best," they told him seriously, "to ensure the collection of the chapter's revenues, paying attention to even the smallest details. You will encourage the faithful from both the pulpit and in confession to pay their first fruits and tithes and to demonstrate their love for the Church through their offerings. You will focus on increasing the income from the sick, from sacrifices, and generally from every church-related act." The chapter added, "As for administering the sacraments, preaching, and being present among your congregation, these are also part of a priest's duties. However, in these areas, especially preaching, you can have a vicar take your place. You should only administer the sacraments to notable individuals and only when asked. You are explicitly forbidden to do so for everyone indiscriminately." [700]
Strange rule to be given to Zuinglius! Money, money, still money!... Was it then for this that Christ established his ministry? Still prudence tempers his zeal; he knows that we cannot all at once deposit the seed in the ground, see the growth of the tree, and gather its fruit. Zuinglius, therefore, without explaining his views on what was enjoined him, humbly expressed his gratitude for the honourable appointment which he had received, and stated what he calculated on being able to do. "The life of Jesus," said he, "has been too long hidden from the people. I will preach on the whole gospel of St. Matthew, chapter by chapter, following the mind of the Holy Spirit, drawing only at the well-springs of Scripture,[701] digging deep into it, and seeking the understanding of it by persevering fervent prayer.[702] I will consecrate my ministry to the glory of God; the praise of His only Son; the real salvation of souls, and their instruction in the true faith."[703] This new language made a deep impression on the chapter. Some expressed joy, but the majority openly disapproved.[704] "This mode of preaching is an innovation," exclaimed they, "this innovation will soon lead to others, and where is it to stop?" Canon Hoffman in particular thought it his duty to prevent the fatal effects of a choice which he had himself patronised. "This exposition of Scripture," said he, "will be more hurtful than useful to the people." "It is not a new method," replied Zuinglius, "it is the ancient method. Recollect the homilies of St. Chrysostom on St. Matthew, and of St. Augustine on St. John. Besides, I will use moderation, and give none any reason to complain."
Strange directive for Zuinglius! Money, money, always money!... Was this really what Christ intended for his ministry? Yet he remains reasonable amidst his passion; he understands that we can’t all plant the seeds, see the tree grow, and harvest the fruit all at once. Therefore, without elaborating on his assigned task, Zuinglius humbly expressed his gratitude for the honorable position he received and shared what he expected to accomplish. "The life of Jesus," he said, "has been hidden from the people for too long. I will preach through the entire gospel of St. Matthew, chapter by chapter, guided by the Holy Spirit, drawing solely from the wellsprings of Scripture,[701] digging deep into it, and seeking understanding through persistent, heartfelt prayer.[702] I will dedicate my ministry to God's glory; the praise of His only Son; the true salvation of souls, and their education in the genuine faith."[703] This fresh approach left a significant mark on the chapter. Some were happy, but the majority openly disapproved.[704] "This style of preaching is a departure," they exclaimed, "and this departure will lead to more changes—where will it end?" Canon Hoffman, in particular, felt compelled to halt the potentially harmful consequences of a decision he had supported. "This interpretation of Scripture," he said, "will do more harm than good for the people." "This isn't a new method," Zuinglius replied, "it's the traditional method. Remember the homilies of St. Chrysostom on St. Matthew, and St. Augustine on St. John. Besides, I’ll act with moderation and give no one cause for complaint."
Thus Zuinglius abandoned the exclusive use of fragments of the gospel as practised since the days of Charlemagne; re-establishing the Scripture in its ancient rights, he, from the commencement of his ministry, united the Reformation to the primitive ages of Christianity, and prepared a more profound study of the Word of God for ages to come. But he did more. The strong and independent position which he took up in the face of the Church showed that the work in which he had engaged was new. The figure of the Reformer stood out in bold relief to the public eye, and the Reformation advanced.
Thus, Zuinglius moved away from only using fragments of the gospel, a practice that had been in place since Charlemagne's time. By restoring Scripture to its rightful place, he connected the Reformation with the early days of Christianity from the start of his ministry, paving the way for a deeper understanding of God's Word for future generations. But he did even more. His strong and independent stance against the Church demonstrated that the work he was doing was new. The image of the Reformer became prominent in the public eye, and the Reformation progressed.
Hoffman, having failed in the chapter, addressed a written request to the provost to prohibit Zuinglius from shaking the popular belief. The provost sent for the new preacher, and spoke to him with great kindness. But no human power could close his lips. On the 31st December, he wrote to the council of Glaris, that he entirely resigned the cure of souls which had hitherto been reserved for him, and gave himself wholly to Zurich, and to the work which God was preparing for him in this town.
Hoffman, after failing in the chapter, sent a written request to the provost asking to stop Zuinglius from challenging popular beliefs. The provost called for the new preacher and spoke to him kindly. But no human power could silence him. On December 31st, he wrote to the council of Glaris, saying that he was fully resigning from the pastoral duties that had been assigned to him and was dedicating himself entirely to Zurich and the work that God was preparing for him in this city.
On Saturday, being new-year's-day, and also the birthday of Zuinglius, who had completed his thirty-fifth year, he mounted the pulpit of the cathedral. A great crowd, eager to see a man who had already acquired so much celebrity, and to hear this new gospel, of which every one began to speak, filled the church. "It is to Christ," said Zuinglius, "that I wish to conduct you; to Christ, the true source of salvation. His divine word is the only nourishment which I would give to your heart and life." Then he announced that to-morrow, the first Sunday of the year, he would begin to expound the gospel according to St. Matthew. Accordingly, the preacher, and a still larger audience than the day before, were at their posts. Zuinglius opened the gospel—the gospel which had so long been a sealed book—and read the first page, going over the history of the patriarchs and prophets mentioned in the first chapter of St. Matthew, and expounding it in such a way that all were astonished and delighted, and exclaimed, "We never heard anything like this."[705]
On Saturday, being New Year’s Day and also the birthday of Zwingli, who had just turned thirty-five, he stepped up to the pulpit of the cathedral. A large crowd, eager to see someone who had gained so much fame and to hear this new gospel that everyone was talking about, filled the church. "I want to lead you to Christ," said Zwingli, "to Christ, the true source of salvation. His divine word is the only nourishment I want to provide for your heart and your life." He then announced that tomorrow, the first Sunday of the year, he would start explaining the gospel according to St. Matthew. As a result, the preacher, along with an even bigger audience than the day before, took their places. Zwingli opened the gospel—the gospel that had been a closed book for so long—and read the first page, discussing the history of the patriarchs and prophets mentioned in the first chapter of St. Matthew, and explained it in such a way that everyone was amazed and delighted, exclaiming, "We've never heard anything like this."
He continued thus to expound St. Matthew, according to the original Greek. He showed how the whole Bible found at once its exposition and its application in the very nature of man. Delivering the loftiest truths of the gospel in simple language, his preaching reached all classes, the learned and the wise, as well as the ignorant and simple.[706] He extolled the infinite mercies of God the Father, and implored all his hearers to put their confidence in Jesus Christ alone as the only Saviour.[707] At the same time, he earnestly called them to repentance; forcibly attacked the errors which prevailed among the people; fearlessly rebuked luxury, intemperance, extravagance in dress, the oppression of the poor, idleness, foreign service, and foreign pensions. "In the pulpit," says one of his companions, "he spared no one, pope, emperor, kings, dukes, princes, lords, not even the confederates. All his energy, and all the joy of his heart were in God: accordingly he exhorted all the inhabitants of Zurich to put their confidence in Him only."[708] "Never was man heard to speak with so much authority," says Oswald Myconius, who with joy and high hopes watched the labours of his friend.
He continued to explain St. Matthew based on the original Greek. He demonstrated how the entire Bible offered both understanding and relevance in human nature. By sharing profound truths of the gospel in everyday language, his preaching resonated with everyone, from the educated and wise to the uneducated and simple.[706] He praised the limitless mercies of God the Father and urged all his listeners to place their trust in Jesus Christ alone as the sole Savior.[707] At the same time, he passionately called them to repentance; he strongly challenged the prevalent errors among the people; he boldly criticized excess, lack of moderation, extravagant clothing, the oppression of the poor, laziness, foreign service, and foreign pensions. "In the pulpit," one of his companions noted, "he held nothing back from anyone, not the pope, emperor, kings, dukes, princes, lords, or even the confederates. All his energy and joy came from God: therefore, he urged all the people of Zurich to trust in Him alone."[708] "Never has anyone been heard speaking with such authority," said Oswald Myconius, who watched his friend's efforts with joy and high hopes.
The gospel could not be preached in vain in Zurich. A continually increasing multitude of men of all classes, and more especially of the common people, flocked to hear him.[709] Several Zurichers had ceased to attend on public worship. "I derive no benefit from the discourses of these priests," often exclaimed Füsslin, a poet, historian, and counsellor of state; "they do not preach the things of salvation; for they do not comprehend them. I see nothing in them but covetousness and voluptuousness." Henry Räuschlin, treasurer of state, one who diligently read the Scriptures, was of the same opinion: "The priests," said he, "met in thousands at the Council of Constance ... to burn the best man among them." These distinguished men, led by curiosity, went to hear Zuinglius' first sermon. Their countenances bespoke the emotion with which they followed the orator. "Glory to God!" said they, on coming out; "this is a preacher of the truth. He will be our Moses to deliver us from Egyptian darkness."[710] From this moment they became the Reformer's intimate friends. "Powers of the world," said Füsslin, "cease to proscribe the doctrine of Christ! After Christ the Son of God was put to death, sinners were raised up. And now, should you destroy the preachers of truth, you will see their places supplied by glaziers, carpenters, potters, founders, shoemakers, and tailors, who will teach with power."[711]
The gospel couldn’t be preached in vain in Zurich. An ever-growing crowd of people from all walks of life, especially the common folk, gathered to hear him.[709] Some Zurich residents had stopped attending public worship. "I get no benefit from the sermons of these priests," often exclaimed Füsslin, a poet, historian, and state counselor; "they don’t preach about salvation because they don’t understand it. I see nothing in them but greed and indulgence." Henry Räuschlin, the state treasurer and a dedicated reader of the Scriptures, shared the same view: "The priests," he said, "met in thousands at the Council of Constance ... to burn the best man among them." These notable figures, driven by curiosity, attended Zuinglius' first sermon. Their expressions revealed the emotion with which they listened to the speaker. "Glory to God!" they said upon leaving; "this is a preacher of the truth. He will be our Moses to lead us out of Egyptian darkness."[710] From that moment on, they became close friends of the Reformer. "Worldly powers," said Füsslin, "stop trying to suppress Christ's doctrine! After Christ, the Son of God, was killed, sinners were revived. And now, if you destroy the preachers of truth, you'll find their places filled by glaziers, carpenters, potters, founders, shoemakers, and tailors, who will teach with power."[711]
In Zurich, at the outset, there was only one shout of admiration, but when the first moment of enthusiasm was over, the adversary resumed courage. Worthy persons alarmed at the idea of a Reformation, gradually drew off from Zuinglius. The violence of the monks which had been veiled for an instant, reappeared, and the college of canons resounded with complaints. Zuinglius stood immovable. His friends beholding his courage, felt in his presence as if a man of apostolic times had reappeared.[712] Among his enemies, some scoffed and jeered; others uttered insulting menaces, but he endured all with Christian patience.[713] "Whoso," he was wont to say, "would gain the wicked to Jesus Christ must wink at many things,"[714]—an admirable saying which ought not to be lost sight of.
In Zurich, at first, there was just one shout of admiration, but once the initial excitement faded, the opposition regained their courage. Concerned individuals alarmed by the thought of a Reformation slowly distanced themselves from Zuinglius. The monks, who had briefly held back their aggression, soon became vocal again, and the college of canons was filled with complaints. Zuinglius remained steadfast. His friends, witnessing his bravery, felt as if an apostolic figure from the past had reemerged. Among his enemies, some mocked and laughed; others made threatening remarks, but he bore it all with Christian patience. “Anyone,” he often said, “who wants to win the wicked to Jesus Christ must overlook many things”—a remarkable saying that should not be forgotten.
His character and general bearing towards all contributed as much as his discourses to win their hearts. He was at once a true Christian and a true republican. The equality of mankind was not with him a mere watchword; it was written on his heart and manifested in his life. He had neither that pharisaical pride, nor that monastic gruffness, which are equally offensive to the simple and the wise of the world. Men were drawn towards him, and felt at ease when conversing with him. Strong and mighty in the pulpit, he was affable to all whom he met in the streets, or in the public squares. At the places where the merchants or incorporations met he was often seen among the citizens expounding the leading points of Christian doctrine, or conversing familiarly with them. He gave the same cordial reception to peasant and patrician. "He invited country folks to dine with him," says one of his bitterest enemies, "walked with them, spoke to them of God, made the devil enter into their hearts and his writings into their pockets. He even went so far that the leading persons in Zurich visited those peasants, entertained them, and walked over the town with them, showing them all sorts of attention."[715]
His character and general attitude towards everyone played as big a role as his speeches in winning their hearts. He was genuinely both a true Christian and a true republican. For him, the equality of all people wasn’t just a slogan; it was deeply rooted in his heart and shown in his actions. He lacked both the pharisaical arrogance and the monastic sternness that can be off-putting to both the simple and the wise. People were naturally attracted to him and felt comfortable talking to him. Strong and powerful in the pulpit, he was friendly with everyone he encountered on the streets or in public squares. He was often seen among citizens at the market or civic gatherings, discussing key points of Christian doctrine or chatting casually with them. He treated both the peasant and the nobleman with the same warmth. “He invited country folks to dinner,” says one of his most vocal adversaries, “walked with them, talked to them about God, planted the devil in their hearts and his writings in their pockets. He even went so far that the prominent people in Zurich visited those peasants, entertained them, and strolled around town with them, showing them all kinds of consideration.”[715]
He continued to cultivate music "with moderation," says Bullinger: nevertheless the enemies of the gospel took advantage of it, and called him "The evangelical flute and lute player."[716] Faber having one day reproached him with his fondness for music, Zuinglius, with noble candour, replied, "My dear Faber, you know not what music is. I have, it is true, learned to play on the lute, the violin, and other instruments, and am able by these means to pacify little children;[717] but you of course are too holy for music. Do you not know that David was a skilful player on the harp, and in this way drove the evil spirit out of Saul? ... Ah! if you knew the sound of the heavenly lute, the evil spirit of ambition and avarice by which you are possessed would come out of you also." Perhaps this was Zuinglius' foible, though it was in a spirit of cheerfulness and Christian liberty that he cultivated this art, which religion has always associated with her sublimest flights. He set some of his Christian poems to music, and did not scruple sometimes to amuse the youngest of his flock with his lute. He showed the same good nature to the poor. "He ate and drank," says one of his contemporaries, "with all who invited him,—he despised no one; he was most compassionate to the poor; always firm and always joyful in bad as in good fortune. No evil made him afraid; his words were at all times full of energy, and his heart full of consolation."[718] Thus Zuinglius increased in popularity—after the example of his Master, seated alternately at the table of the common people and the banquet of the great, but still constantly intent on the work to which God had called him.
He kept pursuing music "in moderation," says Bullinger: yet the enemies of the gospel took advantage of this and called him "The evangelical flute and lute player." Faber once criticized him for his love of music, and Zuinglius, with noble honesty, replied, "My dear Faber, you don’t understand what music is. It's true that I've learned to play the lute, violin, and other instruments and can soothe little children with them; but you, of course, are too holy for music. Don't you know that David was a skilled harp player, and he used it to drive the evil spirit out of Saul? ... Ah! if you could hear the heavenly lute, the evil spirit of ambition and greed that possesses you would leave you too." This might have been Zuinglius' weakness, but he approached this art with a spirit of joy and Christian freedom, which religion has always linked with its most elevated expressions. He set some of his Christian poems to music and didn't hesitate to entertain the youngest members of his congregation with his lute. He extended the same kindness to the poor. "He shared meals and drinks," says one of his contemporaries, "with everyone who invited him—he looked down on no one; he was very compassionate to the poor; always steadfast and joyful, whether in good times or bad. No fear ever troubled him; his words were always full of strength, and his heart full of comfort." Thus Zuinglius grew in popularity—following the example of his Master, who dined alternately with the common people and the rich, while always focused on the mission God had called him to.
At the same time he was an indefatigable student. In the morning, till ten, he read, wrote, and translated: Hebrew in particular engaged his attention. After dinner he attended to those who had any thing to tell him, or any advice to ask of him: took a walk with his friends and visited his hearers. At two he resumed his studies. He took a short walk after supper, and afterwards wrote letters which often occupied him till midnight. He always stood when he studied, and did not allow himself to be interrupted unless on important business.[719]
At the same time, he was a tireless student. In the morning, until ten, he read, wrote, and translated; Hebrew especially captured his interest. After lunch, he focused on those who had something to share with him or needed his advice: he took walks with his friends and visited his audience. At two, he went back to his studies. He took a short walk after dinner and then often wrote letters that kept him busy until midnight. He always stood while he studied and didn't let himself be interrupted unless it was for something important.[719]
But the labours of a single individual were not sufficient. A person, named Lucian, one day came to him with the writings of the German Reformer. He had been sent by Rhenan, a learned man, then resident at Bâle, and indefatigable in circulating the Reformer's writings throughout Switzerland. Rhenan had become aware that the hawking of books was an important means of diffusing evangelical doctrine. Lucian had travelled almost over the whole of Switzerland, and knew everybody. "See," said Rhenan to Zuinglius, "whether this Lucian has the necessary prudence and ability; if he has, let him go from town to town, burgh to burgh, village to village, and even from house to house, among the Swiss, with Luther's writings, especially his exposition on the Lord's Prayer, written for the laity.[720] The more he is known the more purchasers will he find. But care must be taken not to let him hawk other books. If he has none but Luther's, his sale of them will be the greater." Thus the humble roof of many a Swiss family was penetrated with some rays of light. There was one other book, however, which Zuinglius should have caused to be hawked with those of Luther—the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
But the efforts of just one person weren't enough. One day, a guy named Lucian came to him with the writings of the German Reformer. He had been sent by Rhenan, an educated man living in Bâle, who was tireless in spreading the Reformer's writings throughout Switzerland. Rhenan realized that selling books was a key way to promote evangelical teachings. Lucian had traveled almost all over Switzerland and knew everyone. "See," Rhenan told Zuinglius, "if Lucian has the necessary discretion and skills; if he does, let him go from town to town, city to city, village to village, and even from house to house among the Swiss, with Luther's writings, especially his explanation of the Lord's Prayer, written for the general public.[720] The more he is known, the more buyers he will attract. But be careful not to let him sell any other books. If he only has Luther's, his sales will be even better." Thus, the simple homes of many Swiss families were illuminated with some rays of understanding. However, there was one other book that Zuinglius should have had sold alongside Luther's— the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
CHAP. VII
Indulgences—Samson at Berne—Samson at Baden—The Dean of Bremgarten—Young Henry Bullinger—Samson and the Dean—Internal struggles of Zuinglius—Zuinglius against Indulgences—Samson dismissed.
Indulgences—Samson in Bern—Samson in Baden—The Dean of Bremgarten—Young Henry Bullinger—Samson and the Dean—Zwingli's internal conflicts—Zwingli opposed to indulgences—Samson is let go.
Zuinglius had not long to wait for an opportunity of displaying his zeal in a new vocation. Samson, the famous indulgence merchant, was slowly approaching Zurich. This miserable trafficker had come from Schwitz to Zug, 20th September, 1518, and had remained there three days. An immense crowd had gathered round him. The poorest were the most eager, so that they prevented the rich from coming forward. This did not suit the monk; accordingly, one of his attendants began to bawl out to the populace, "Good people, do not throng so! Let those come who have money. We will afterwards try to content those who have none." From Zug Samson and his band repaired to Lucerne; from Lucerne to Underwald; then crossing the fertile Alps with their rich valleys, passing beneath the eternal ice of Oberland, and in these spots, the grandest in Switzerland, exposing their Roman merchandise, they arrived near Berne. The monk was at first prohibited to enter the town, but succeeded at last in obtaining an introduction by means of persons whom he had in his pay. Exhibiting his wares in the church of St. Vincent he began to cry louder than ever. "Here," said he to the rich, "are indulgences on parchment for a crown." "There," said he to the poor, "are indulgences on ordinary paper for two farthings!" One day, a celebrated knight, James de Stein, came up prancing on a dapple grey horse; the monk greatly admired the horse. "Give me," says the knight, "an indulgence for myself, for my troop of five hundred strong, for all my vassals of Belp, and all my ancestors; I will give you my dapple grey horse in exchange." It was a high price for the horse, but the courser pleased the Franciscan, and the bargain was struck. The horse went to the monk's stable, and all these souls were declared for ever exempted from hell.[721] Another day, he give a burgher, for thirteen florins, an indulgence, in virtue of which his confessor was authorised to absolve him from any species of perjury.[722] So much was Samson in repute, that Counsellor May, an enlightened old man, having said something against him, was obliged to go down on his knees, and ask pardon of the arrogant monk.
Zuinglius didn’t have to wait long for a chance to show his passion in a new role. Samson, the notorious indulgence seller, was making his way to Zurich. This pitiful trader had traveled from Schwitz to Zug on September 20, 1518, and stayed there for three days. An enormous crowd had gathered around him. The poorest people were the most eager, preventing the wealthy from stepping forward. This didn’t sit well with the monk; so, one of his helpers began shouting to the crowd, "Hey everyone, don’t crowd so much! Let those with money come forward first. We’ll try to take care of those who can’t pay later." From Zug, Samson and his team moved on to Lucerne; from Lucerne to Underwald; then crossing the lush Alps with their beautiful valleys, passing under the eternal ice of Oberland, showcasing their Roman wares at these stunning spots in Switzerland, they finally reached near Bern. Initially, the monk was barred from entering the town but eventually managed to gain an introduction through people he had bribed. Displaying his products in the church of St. Vincent, he began to shout louder than ever. "Here," he said to the wealthy, "are indulgences on parchment for a crown." "And there," he said to the poor, "are indulgences on regular paper for two farthings!" One day, a famous knight, James de Stein, rode up on a dapple gray horse; the monk admired the horse greatly. "Give me," said the knight, "an indulgence for myself, for my troop of five hundred, for all my vassals in Belp, and my ancestors; I will give you my dapple gray horse in exchange." It was a high price for the horse, but the steed impressed the Franciscan, and the deal was made. The horse went to the monk's stable, and all those souls were declared forever saved from hell.[721] Another day, he sold a burgher an indulgence for thirteen florins, which allowed his confessor to absolve him from any kind of perjury.[722] Samson was so well-known that a counselor named May, an educated old man, had to kneel and apologize to the arrogant monk after saying something against him.
This was the monk's last day, and a loud ringing of bells announced his immediate departure from Berne. Samson was in the church standing on the steps of the high altar. Canon Henry Lupulus, formerly Zuinglius's master, was acting as his interpreter. "When the wolf and the fox rendezvous together in the field," said canon Anselm, turning to the Schulthess of Walleville, "the best thing for you, worthy Sir, is to put your sheep and geese in safety." But the monk cared little for these sarcasms, which, besides, did not reach his ear. "Kneel," said he to the superstitious crowd, "repeat three Paters, three Ave Marias, and your souls will forthwith be as pure as at the moment of baptism." Then all the people fell upon their knees. Samson wishing even to outdo himself, exclaimed, "I deliver from the torments of purgatory and hell all the spirits of the departed Bernese, whatever may have been the manner and place of their death." These jugglers, like those at fairs, kept their finest feat for the last.
This was the monk's last day, and a loud ringing of bells signaled his immediate departure from Berne. Samson was in the church standing on the steps of the high altar. Canon Henry Lupulus, who had been Zuinglius's mentor, was serving as his interpreter. "When the wolf and the fox meet in the field," said Canon Anselm, turning to the Schulthess of Walleville, "the best thing for you, Sir, is to put your sheep and geese in safety." But the monk paid little attention to these jabs, which didn’t even reach his ears. "Kneel," he told the superstitious crowd, "repeat three Paters, three Ave Marias, and your souls will be as pure as they were at the moment of baptism." Then everyone dropped to their knees. Samson, wanting to impress even more, declared, "I release the spirits of all the departed Bernese from the torments of purgatory and hell, no matter how or where they died." These tricksters, like those at fairs, saved their best act for last.
Samson set out with a heavy purse towards Zurich, crossing Argovia and Baden. The farther on he got, the monk, whose appearance on passing the Alps was so shabby, proceeded with more pride and splendour. The Bishop of Constance, irritated that Samson had not employed him to legalise his bulls, had forbidden all the curates of his diocese to open their churches to him. At Baden, nevertheless, the curate durst not long oppose his traffic. This redoubled the monk's effrontery. Making the round of the burying ground at the head of a procession, he seemed to fix his eyes on some object in the air, while his acolytes sung the hymn for the dead, and pretending to see souls flying from the burying ground to heaven, he exclaimed—"Ecce volant! See how they fly." One day, an inhabitant of the place getting up into the church steeple, a great number of feathers were soon seen in the air falling down on the astonished procession; "See how they fly," exclaimed the wag of Baden, shaking a feather cushion from the steeple. Many began to laugh.[723] Samson fell into a rage, and could not be appeased till he learned that the individual was subject to fits of derangement: he left Baden in a huff.
Samson headed out with a heavy bag of coins towards Zurich, passing through Argovia and Baden. The further he went, the more pride and grandeur the monk displayed, despite his shabby appearance when he crossed the Alps. The Bishop of Constance, annoyed that Samson hadn’t enlisted him to legitimize his bulls, had instructed all the priests in his diocese not to open their churches to him. At Baden, however, the priest couldn’t hold off his dealings for long. This only added to the monk's boldness. Leading a procession around the graveyard, he fixed his gaze on something in the air, while his assistants sang a hymn for the dead, and pretending to see souls flying from the graveyard to heaven, he shouted—"Ecce volant! See how they fly." One day, a townsman climbed up into the church steeple, and soon a flurry of feathers rained down on the bewildered procession; "See how they fly," shouted the prankster from Baden, shaking a feather cushion from the steeple. Many people started to laugh.[723] Samson became furious and wouldn’t calm down until he learned that the person was known to have fits of insanity; he stormed out of Baden.
Continuing his journey, he arrived, towards the end of February, 1519, at Bremgarten, at the solicitation of the Schulthess and second curate, who had seen him at Baden. No individual in that district had a higher reputation than dean Bullinger of Bremgarten. Though far from enlightened as to the errors of the Church and the Word of God, being open, zealous, eloquent, kind to the poor, and ready to do a service to the humblest, he was loved by every body. He had in his youth formed a connection with the daughter of a counsellor of the place. This was the usual expedient of such of the priests as were unwilling to live in general licentiousness. Anna had borne him five sons, but this had in no way lessened the respect which the dean enjoyed. There was not in Switzerland a more hospitable house than his. A great lover of the chace, he was seen surrounded with ten or twelve dogs, and accompanied by the barons of Hallwyll, the abbot Mury, and the gentry of Zurich, scouring the fields and forests around. He kept open table, and none of his guests was more jovial than himself. When the deputies to the Diet were on their way to Baden, on passing through Bremgarten they failed not to take their seats at the dean's table. "Bullinger," said they, "keeps court like the most powerful baron."
Continuing his journey, he arrived in late February 1519 at Bremgarten, invited by Schulthess and the second curate, who had seen him in Baden. No one in that area was more respected than Dean Bullinger of Bremgarten. Although he was not fully aware of the church's mistakes and the true Word of God, he was open, passionate, articulate, kind to the poor, and always willing to help anyone in need, which made him loved by everyone. In his youth, he formed a relationship with the daughter of a local counselor. This was a common practice among priests who didn’t want to engage in general promiscuity. Anna had given him five sons, but this did not diminish the respect the dean received. There was no more welcoming home in Switzerland than his. A big fan of hunting, he was often seen with ten or twelve dogs, accompanied by the barons of Hallwyll, Abbot Mury, and local gentry from Zurich, exploring the fields and forests nearby. He hosted an open table, and none of his guests was more cheerful than he was. When the deputies to the Diet were on their way to Baden, they made sure to stop at the dean's table in Bremgarten. "Bullinger," they said, "holds court like the most powerful baron."
In this house strangers remarked a child of an intelligent countenance. Henry, one of the dean's sons, from his earliest years, had many narrow escapes. Having been seized with the plague, preparations were making for his funeral when he showed some signs of life, and was restored to his delighted parents. On another occasion, a wandering beggar, having won him by caresses, was carrying him off from his family, when some persons in passing recognised and rescued him. At three years of age he could repeat the Lord's prayer and the apostles' creed. One day having slipt into the church, he got into his father's pulpit, stood up gravely, and at the full stretch of his voice, cried out, "I believe in God the Father," and so on. At twelve, he was sent to the Latin school of Emmeric, his heart overwhelmed with fear; for those times were dangerous for a young boy without experience. When the students of an university thought its discipline too severe, they not unfrequently left it in troops, carrying the children with them, and encamped in the woods, from which they sent the youngest of their number to beg, or sometimes with arms in their hands they rushed forth on the passing traveller, robbed him, and then consumed their booty in debauchery. Henry was happily kept from evil in this distant abode. Like Luther, he gained his livelihood by singing before the houses, for his father wished to teach him to live by his own shifts. He was sixteen when he opened a New Testament. "I found in it," says he, "every thing necessary for man's salvation, and thenceforth I laid it down as a principle to follow the Holy Scriptures alone, and reject all human additions. I believe neither the fathers nor myself, but explain Scripture by Scripture, without adding any thing or taking any thing away."[724] God was thus preparing this young man who was one day to succeed Zuinglius. He is the author of the manuscript journal which we often quote.
In this house, strangers commented on a child with an intelligent face. Henry, one of the dean's sons, faced many narrow escapes from a young age. After he was stricken with the plague, preparations were being made for his funeral when he showed signs of life and was joyfully returned to his parents. On another occasion, a wandering beggar charmed him and tried to take him away from his family, but passersby recognized him and rescued him. By the time he was three years old, he could recite the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles' Creed. One day, he slipped into the church, climbed into his father's pulpit, stood seriously, and loudly proclaimed, "I believe in God the Father," and so on. At twelve, he was sent to the Latin school in Emmeric, feeling overwhelmed with fear because those times were dangerous for an inexperienced young boy. When students at a university found its rules too harsh, they often left in groups, taking the children with them to camp in the woods. From there, they would send the youngest to beg or sometimes ambush passing travelers, robbing them and then wasting their loot on partying. Fortunately, Henry was kept away from such evils in that remote place. Like Luther, he made a living by singing outside houses because his father wanted him to learn to fend for himself. He was sixteen when he opened a New Testament. "I found in it," he said, "everything necessary for man's salvation, and from then on, I committed to following the Holy Scriptures only, rejecting all human additions. I trust neither the church fathers nor my own interpretations, but explain Scripture by Scripture, without adding or taking anything away." God was thus preparing this young man who would one day succeed Zuinglius. He is the author of the manuscript journal that we often reference.
About this time Samson arrived at Bremgarten with all his train. The bold dean undismayed by this petty Italian army, prohibited the monk from vending his wares in his neighbourhood. The Schulthess, town clerk, and second pastor, Samson's friends, had met in a room of the inn at which he had alighted, and were standing quite disconcerted around the impatient monk. The dean arrived—"Here are the papal bulls," said the monk to him, "open your church."
About this time, Samson arrived at Bremgarten with all his entourage. The fearless dean, unfazed by this small Italian army, forbade the monk from selling his goods in his area. The Schulthess, the town clerk, and second pastor, who were Samson's friends, had gathered in a room at the inn where he had stayed, looking quite uneasy around the impatient monk. The dean arrived—"Here are the papal bulls," the monk said to him, "open your church."
The Dean.—"I will not allow the purses of my parishioners to be emptied by means of letters not authenticated, for the bishop has not legalised them."
The Dean.—"I won't allow my parishioners to be exploited by unverified letters, especially since the bishop hasn’t endorsed them."
The Monk (in a solemn tone).—"The pope is above the bishop. I enjoin you not to deprive your flock of this distinguished grace."
The Monk (seriously).—"The pope is above the bishop. I urge you not to deny this crucial blessing to your congregation."
The Dean.—"Should it cost me my life, I won't open my church."
The Dean.—"I won't open my church, even if it costs me my life."
The Monk (with indignation).—"Rebellious priest! in the name of our most holy lord the pope, I pronounce against you the greater excommunication, and will not absolve you till you ransom your unheard-of audacity at the price of three hundred ducats."...
The Monk (angrily).—"Rebellious priest! In the name of our holy lord the pope, I impose the highest excommunication against you and will not absolve you until you pay three hundred ducats for your outrageous actions."...
The Dean (turning on his heel and retiring).—"I will know how to answer before my lawful judges: as for you and your excommunication I have nothing to do with them."
The Dean (turning on his heel and leaving).—"I will respond to my rightful judges: as for you and your excommunication, I want nothing to do with it."
The Monk (transported with rage).—"Impudent brute! I am on my way to Zurich, and will there lay my complaint before the deputies of the Confederation."[725]
The Monk (fuming).—"You disrespectful beast! I’m going to Zurich to file my complaint with the Confederation's deputies."[725]
The Dean.—"I can appear there as well as you, and this instant I set out."
The Dean.—"I'll show up there just as easily as you, and I'm leaving right now."
While these things were taking place at Bremgarten, Zuinglius, who saw the enemy gradually approaching, kept preaching vigorously against indulgences.[726] Vicar Faber of Constance encouraged him, promising him the bishop's support.[727] "I know," said Samson, while proceeding towards Zurich, "that Zuinglius will attack me, but I will stop his mouth." Zuinglius was in truth too much alive to the value of pardon by Christ not to attack the paper indulgences of these men. Often, like Luther, he trembled because of sin; but in the Saviour found deliverance from his fears. This modest but brave man was advancing in the knowledge of God. "When Satan frightens me," said he, "by crying to me: You do not this, and you do not that, and yet God commands them!—immediately the soft voice of the gospel consoles me, saying: What thou canst not do (and assuredly thou canst do nothing,) Christ does for thee." "Yes," continues the pious evangelist, "when my heart is agonised because of my powerlessness, and the feebleness of my flesh, my spirit revives at the sound of this glad news: Christ is thy innocence! Christ is thy righteousness! Christ is thy salvation! Thou art nothing, thou canst do nothing! Christ is the Alpha and the Omega! Christ is all, and can do all.[728] All created things will forsake and deceive thee, but Christ, the Holy and Righteous One, will receive and justify thee...." "Yes," exclaims Zuinglius, "He is our righteousness, and the righteousness of all who shall ever appear as righteous before the judgment seat of God!..."
While all this was happening in Bremgarten, Zwingli, who saw the enemy getting closer, kept preaching passionately against indulgences.[726] Vicar Faber from Constance supported him, promising the bishop's backing.[727] "I know," said Samson, on his way to Zurich, "that Zwingli will confront me, but I will silence him." Zwingli was indeed too aware of the importance of Christ's forgiveness to avoid criticizing the paper indulgences sold by these men. Often, like Luther, he felt shaken by sin; yet in the Savior, he found relief from his fears. This humble but courageous man was growing in his understanding of God. "When Satan scares me," he said, "by shouting: You’re not doing this, and you’re not doing that, and yet God demands them!—right away, the gentle voice of the gospel comforts me, saying: What you can’t do (and you really can’t do anything), Christ does for you." "Yes," the devoted evangelist continues, "when my heart is in turmoil because of my helplessness, and the weakness of my flesh, my spirit is uplifted by this joyful message: Christ is your innocence! Christ is your righteousness! Christ is your salvation! You are nothing, you can do nothing! Christ is the Alpha and the Omega! Christ is everything, and can do everything.[728] All created things will abandon and betray you, but Christ, the Holy and Righteous One, will accept and justify you...." "Yes," exclaims Zwingli, "He is our righteousness, and the righteousness of all who will ever stand as righteous before the judgment seat of God!..."
Indulgences could not stand a moment when confronted with such truths; and hence Zuinglius never hesitated to attack them. "No man," said he, "is able to forgive sins. Christ alone, very God and very man, is able to do it.[729] Go, buy indulgences ... but rest assured you are not at all forgiven. Those who vend forgiveness of sins for money are the companions of Simon Magus, the friends of Balaam and the ambassadors of Satan."
Indulgences couldn’t survive for even a second when faced with such truths, so Zwingli never held back in attacking them. “No one,” he said, “can forgive sins. Only Christ, who is both true God and true man, can do that.[729] Go ahead, buy indulgences... but know that you’re not forgiven at all. Those who sell forgiveness of sins for money are like Simon Magus, the allies of Balaam, and the representatives of Satan.”
Dean Bullinger, still warm from his conference with the monk, arrived at Zurich before him. He came to complain to the Diet against this shameless dealer and his traffic. Envoys from the bishop had arrived for the same purpose. They made common cause, and promised to support each other. The spirit which animated Zuinglius breathed upon this town, and the council of State resolved to oppose the monk's entry into Zurich.
Dean Bullinger, having just finished his meeting with the monk, reached Zurich ahead of him. He came to file a complaint with the Diet against this brazen trader and his activities. Envoys from the bishop had come for the same reason. They united their efforts and pledged to back each other. The influence of Zuinglius was felt in this town, and the council of State decided to block the monk's entry into Zurich.
Samson had arrived in the suburbs, and alighted at an inn. One foot was already on the stirrup preparatory to his entry, when deputies from the council arrived, and while making the customary offer of wine to him as a papal envoy, intimated to him that he might dispense with appearing in Zurich. "I have something to communicate to the Diet in the name of his holiness," replied the monk. It was a trick. However, it was resolved to admit him; but as he spoke only of his bulls he was dismissed, after being compelled to retract the excommunication which he had pronounced against the dean of Bremgarton. He went off in a rage, and the pope shortly after recalled him to Italy. A car drawn by three horses, and loaded with the money of which his lies had robbed the poor, preceded him on the steep tracts of St. Gothard, which eight months before he had crossed in poverty, without style, merely the bearer of a few papers.[730]
Samson had arrived in the suburbs and got off at an inn. He was just about to climb into the stirrup when delegates from the council showed up. While offering him wine as a papal envoy, they informed him that he didn't need to show up in Zurich. "I have something to communicate to the Diet in the name of his holiness," the monk replied. It was a trick. Still, they decided to let him in; but since he only talked about his bulls, he was dismissed after being forced to take back the excommunication he had issued against the dean of Bremgarten. He left in a fury, and shortly after, the pope recalled him to Italy. A carriage pulled by three horses, loaded with the money his lies had taken from the poor, led the way for him along the steep paths of St. Gothard, which he had crossed eight months earlier in poverty, without any fanfare, just carrying a few papers.[730]
On this occasion the Helvetic showed more firmness than the Germanic Diet. The reason was, because no cardinals and bishops sat in it. Hence the pope deprived of these supports dealt more gently with Switzerland than Germany. In other respects, the affair of indulgences, which played so important a part in the Reformation of Germany, is only an episode in that of Switzerland.
On this occasion, the Helvetic showed more determination than the Germanic Diet. The reason was that no cardinals and bishops were part of it. As a result, the pope, lacking these resources, treated Switzerland more leniently than Germany. In other ways, the issue of indulgences, which was so significant in the Reformation of Germany, is just a minor incident in Switzerland’s situation.
CHAP. VIII.
The Labours of Zuinglius—The Baths of Pfeffers—God's time—The Great Death—Zuinglius seized with the Plague—His Enemies—His Friends—Convalescence—General Joy—Effect of the Plague—Myconius at Lucerne—Oswald encourages Zuinglius—Zuinglius at Bâle—Capito called to Mentz—Hedio at Bâle—An Unnatural Son—Preparation for Battle.
The Work of Zuinglius—The Baths of Pfeffers—God's Timing—The Great Plague—Zuinglius Affected by the Plague—His Opponents—His Supporters—Healing—Overall Joy—Effects of the Plague—Myconius in Lucerne—Oswald Backs Zuinglius—Zuinglius in Basel—Capito Invited to Mainz—Hedio in Basel—An Unnatural Son—Preparing for Battle.
Zuinglius did not spare himself. His many labours called for some relaxation, and he was ordered to the baths of Pfeffers. "Ah!" said Herus, one of the pupils who lodged with him, and who thus expressed the feeling of all who knew Zuinglius, "had I a hundred tongues, a hundred mouths, a brazen throat, as Virgil expresses it; or rather had I the eloquence of Cicero, how could I express all I owe you, and all that I feel at this separation."[731] Zuinglius, however, set out and reached Pfeffers through the astonishing gorge formed by the impetuous torrent of the Jamina. He descended into that infernal abyss, as the hermit David called it, and arrived at the baths, which are perpetually agitated by the dashing of the torrent, and bedewed by the spray of its foaming water. Where Zuinglius lodged it was so dark that candles were burnt at mid-day. He was even assured by the inmates, that frightful phantoms sometimes appeared in the darkness.
Zuinglius didn't hold back. His many tasks required some downtime, so he was sent to the baths of Pfeffers. "Ah!" exclaimed Herus, one of the students who lived with him, expressing what everyone felt about Zuinglius, "if I had a hundred tongues, a hundred mouths, a brass throat, as Virgil says; or better yet, if I had Cicero's eloquence, how could I ever express all I owe you and how I feel about this separation?"[731] Zuinglius, however, set off and reached Pfeffers through the stunning gorge created by the raging torrent of the Jamina. He descended into that hellish abyss, as the hermit David called it, and arrived at the baths, which are constantly stirred by the rush of the torrent and misted by the spray of its foaming water. Where Zuinglius stayed, it was so dark that candles were lit even at noon. The people there even told him that terrifying phantoms sometimes showed up in the darkness.
Even here Zuinglius found opportunity to serve his Master. His affability won the heart of several of the patients, among others a celebrated poet, Philip Ingentinus, professor at Friburg, in Brigau,[732] who thenceforward became a zealous supporter of the Reformation.
Even here, Zuinglius found a way to serve his Master. His friendliness won over several patients, including a well-known poet, Philip Ingentinus, a professor at Friburg, in Brigau,[732] who then became a passionate supporter of the Reformation.
God watched over his own work, and was pleased to hasten it. Zuinglius' defect lay in his strength. Strong in body, strong in character, strong in talents, he was to see all these varieties of strength broken, that he might thereby become such an instrument as God loves to employ. He stood in need of a baptism, that of adversity, infirmity, feebleness, and pain. Such a baptism Luther had received at that period of agony when the cell and long passages of the convent of Erfurt resounded with his cries. Zuinglius was to receive it by being brought into contact with sickness and death. The heroes of this world—the Charles Twelfths and Napoleons—have a moment which is decisive of their career and their glory, and it is when they all at once become conscious of their strength. There is an analogous moment in the life of God's heroes, but it is in a contrary direction; it is when they recognise their impotence and nothingness; thenceforth they receive strength from on high. Such a work as that of which Zuinglius was to be the instrument is never accomplished by man's natural strength; it would immediately wither away like a tree transplanted after its full growth, and when in full leaf. A plant must be feeble in order to take root, and a grain of corn must die in the ground before it can yield a full return. God led Zuinglius, and with him the work of which he was the stay, to the gates of the grave. It is from among bones and darkness, and the dust of the dead, that God is pleased to take the instruments, by means of which he illumines, regenerates, and revives the earth.
God watched over His creation and was happy to speed it along. Zwingli's flaw was his strength. Strong in body, strong in character, strong in skills, he was to see all these forms of strength broken so he could become the kind of instrument God loves to use. He needed a baptism—one of adversity, weakness, fragility, and pain. Luther had gone through such a baptism during that painful period when the cell and long hallways of the Erfurt convent echoed with his cries. Zwingli was to experience it by facing sickness and death. The heroes of this world—like Charles XII and Napoleon—have a critical moment that defines their careers and glory, and it’s when they suddenly realize their strength. In contrast, there’s a similar moment in the lives of God’s heroes, but it happens in the opposite direction; it’s when they acknowledge their powerlessness and insignificance; from then on, they receive strength from above. A task like the one Zwingli was meant to be part of is never achieved through human strength alone; it would quickly wither like a fully grown tree that’s been transplanted. A plant needs to be weak to take root, and a grain of corn must die in the ground before it can produce a full crop. God led Zwingli, along with the work he was supporting, to the edge of the grave. It is from among bones and darkness, and the dust of the dead, that God likes to choose the instruments through which He brings light, renewal, and revival to the earth.
Zuinglius was hidden among the immense rocks which hem in the furious torrent of the Jamina, when he unexpectedly learned that the plague, or as it was termed "the great death,"[733] was at Zurich. This dreadful scourge broke out in August, on St. Lawrence day, lasted till Candlemas, and carried off two thousand five hundred persons. The young people who lodged with Zuinglius had immediately left, conformably to directions which he had given. His house was empty, but it was to him the very moment to return. He hurriedly quitted Pfeffers, and reappearing in the bosom of his flock, now decimated by the plague, he immediately sent to Wildhaus for his young brother Andrew, who wished to attend him. From that moment he devoted himself entirely to the victims of this dreadful scourge. Every day he preached Christ and his consolations to the sick.[734] His friends delighted to see him safe and sound in the midst of so many fatal darts,[735] still felt a secret alarm. Conrad Brunner, who himself died of the plague a few months after, writing him from Bâle said; "Do good, but at the same time remember to take care of your life." It was too late: Zuinglius was seized with the plague. The great preacher of Switzerland was stretched on a bed from which, perhaps, he was never again to rise. He communed with himself, and turned his eye heavenward. He knew that Christ had given him a sure inheritance, and disclosing the feelings of his heart in a hymn remarkable for unction and simplicity, of which, not being able to give the antique and expressive phraseology, we have endeavoured to preserve the rhythm and literal meaning, he exclaimed:—
Zuinglius was hidden among the massive rocks that surround the raging torrent of the Jamina when he suddenly learned that the plague, or as it was called "the great death,"[733] had struck Zurich. This terrible scourge broke out in August, on St. Lawrence Day, lasted until Candlemas, and claimed two thousand five hundred lives. The young people who stayed with Zuinglius had immediately left, following his instructions. His house was empty, but it was the perfect time for him to return. He quickly left Pfeffers and reappeared among his flock, now ravaged by the plague, and he promptly sent for his younger brother Andrew from Wildhaus, who wanted to be with him. From that point on, he completely dedicated himself to the victims of this awful scourge. Every day he preached about Christ and his comforts to the sick.[734] His friends were relieved to see him safe among so many dangers,[735] but still felt a hidden worry. Conrad Brunner, who himself died from the plague a few months later, wrote to him from Bâle saying, "Do good, but at the same time remember to take care of yourself." It was too late: Zuinglius contracted the plague. The great preacher of Switzerland lay on a bed from which, perhaps, he would never rise again. He reflected inwardly and looked up to heaven. He knew that Christ had granted him a secure inheritance, and expressing the feelings of his heart in a hymn notable for its sincerity and simplicity, which we have tried to preserve in rhythm and meaning, he exclaimed:—
Meanwhile the disease gains ground, and this man, the hope of the Church and of Switzerland, is beheld by his despairing friends as about to become the prey of the tomb. His senses and strength forsake him. His heart becomes alarmed, but he is still able to turn towards God, and exclaims:—
Meanwhile, the illness is advancing, and this man, the hope of the Church and Switzerland, is seen by his desperate friends as someone who is about to succumb to the grave. His senses and strength abandon him. His heart feels anxious, but he is still able to reach out to God and cries out:—
Canon Hoffman, sincere in his own belief, could not bear the idea of allowing Zuinglius to die in the errors which he had preached. Accordingly he waited on the provost of the Chapter, and said to him, "Think of the danger of his soul. Does he not give the name of fantastical innovators to all the doctors who have appeared for the last three hundred and eighty years and more—to Alexander Hales, St. Bonaventura, Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, and all the canonists? Does he not maintain that their doctrines are the dreams which they dreamed in their cowls within the walls of their cloisters? Better had it been for the town of Zurich that Zuinglius had, for a series of years, destroyed our vintage and harvest! There he lies at the brink of death! Do, I beseech you, save his poor soul!" It would seem that the provost was more enlightened than the canon, and deemed it unnecessary to convert Zuinglius to St. Bonaventura and Albert the Great. He was left at peace.
Canon Hoffman, genuinely convinced of his beliefs, couldn't stand the thought of letting Zuinglius die in the mistakes he had preached. So, he approached the provost of the Chapter and said, "Consider the danger to his soul. Doesn't he label all the doctors from the last three hundred and eighty years and more as fantastical innovators—like Alexander Hales, St. Bonaventura, Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, and all the canonists? Doesn't he claim that their teachings are just the fantasies they've imagined in their cowls behind the walls of their cloisters? It would have been better for the town of Zurich if Zuinglius had, for years, ruined our harvest and vintage! Here he is, on the edge of death! I beg you, save his poor soul!" It seems the provost was more enlightened than the canon and believed there was no need to convert Zuinglius to St. Bonaventura and Albert the Great. He left him undisturbed.
The whole town was in mourning. All the faithful cried to God night and day, beseeching him to restore their faithful pastor.[739] Terror had passed from Zurich to the mountains of the Tockenburg, where also the plague had appeared. Seven or eight persons had perished in the village, among them a servant of Nicolas, a brother of Zuinglius.[740] No letter was received from the Reformer, and his young brother Andrew wrote, "Tell me, my dear brother, in what state you are. The abbot and all our brothers desire to be remembered." As the parents of Zuinglius are not mentioned it would seem that they were now dead.
The whole town was in mourning. Everyone prayed to God day and night, asking Him to bring back their devoted pastor.[739] Fear had spread from Zurich to the mountains of Tockenburg, where the plague had also shown up. Seven or eight people had died in the village, including a servant of Nicolas, a brother of Zuinglius.[740] No letter was received from the Reformer, and his young brother Andrew wrote, "Tell me, dear brother, how you are doing. The abbot and all our brothers want to be remembered." Since Zuinglius's parents are not mentioned, it appears that they had passed away.
The news of Zuinglius' illness, and even a rumour of his death, spread in Switzerland and Germany. "Alas!" exclaimed Hedio in tears, "the safety of the country, the gospel trumpet, the magnanimous herald of truth is smitten with death in the flower of his life, and, so to speak, in the spring tide of his days."[741] When the news reached Bâle the whole town was filled with lamentation and mourning.[742]
The news of Zuinglius' illness, and even a rumor of his death, spread across Switzerland and Germany. "Oh no!" cried Hedio in tears, "the safety of the country, the gospel trumpet, the noble messenger of truth is struck down in the prime of his life, in the spring of his days." [741] When the news reached Bâle, the entire town was filled with sorrow and mourning. [742]
The spark of life which remained in Zuinglius was, however, rekindled. Though his body was still feeble, his soul was impressed with the unaltered conviction that God had called him to replace the torch of his Word on the candlestick of the Church. The plague had abandoned its victim, and Zuinglius exclaims with emotion:—
The spark of life that was left in Zuinglius was, however, reignited. Although his body was still weak, his spirit was filled with the unwavering belief that God had summoned him to put the torch of His Word back on the candlestick of the Church. The plague had released its grip on him, and Zuinglius exclaims with emotion:—
Zuinglius was no sooner able to hold the pen (this was in the beginning of November) than he wrote to his family. This gave inexpressible delight to them all,[745] especially to his young brother Andrew, who himself died of the plague the following year, and at whose death Ulric, to use his own words, wept and cried like a woman.[746] At Bâle Conrad Brunner, a friend of Zuinglius, and Bruno Amerbach, a famous printer, both young men, were cut off after three days' illness. The rumour having spread in this town that Zuinglius also had fallen, the whole university was in mourning. "He whom God loves is perfected in the flower of his life," said they.[747] How great was their joy when Collinus, a student of Lucerne, and afterwards a merchant in Zurich, brought word that Zuinglius had escaped the jaws of death.[748] John Faber, vicar to the bishop of Constance, long the friend and afterwards the most violent adversary of Zuinglius, wrote to him. "O my dear Ulric, how delighted I am to learn that you have escaped the jaws of cruel death. When you are in danger, the Christian commonwealth is threatened. The design of the Lord in these trials is to urge you forward in the pursuit of eternal life."
Zuinglius could barely hold the pen (this was in early November) when he wrote to his family. This brought immense joy to all of them,[745] especially to his younger brother Andrew, who unfortunately died of the plague the following year, and at whose death Ulric, in his own words, wept and cried like a woman.[746] In Bâle, Conrad Brunner, a friend of Zuinglius, and Bruno Amerbach, a well-known printer, both young men, passed away after three days of illness. When the news spread in the town that Zuinglius had also fallen ill, the entire university was in mourning. "He whom God loves is taken in the prime of his life," they said.[747] Their joy was immense when Collinus, a student from Lucerne who later became a merchant in Zurich, delivered the news that Zuinglius had escaped death.[748] John Faber, vicar to the bishop of Constance, who had long been a friend and later became the fiercest opponent of Zuinglius, wrote to him. "O my dear Ulric, how happy I am to hear that you have escaped the grips of cruel death. When you are in danger, the Christian community is in jeopardy. The Lord's purpose in these trials is to push you forward in the quest for eternal life."
This was, indeed, the design, and it was accomplished, though in a different way from what Faber anticipated. The plague of 1519, which made such fearful ravages in the north of Switzerland, was, in the hand of God, a powerful means of converting a great number of persons.[749] But on none had it a greater influence than on Zuinglius. Hitherto he had been too much disposed to regard the gospel as mere doctrine; but now it became a great reality. He returned from the gates of the grave with a new heart. His zeal was more active, his life more holy, his word more free, Christian, and powerful. This was the period of Zuinglius' complete emancipation. He from this time devoted himself to God. The new life thus given to the Reformer was communicated at the same time to the Swiss Reformation. The Divine rod, the great death, in passing over all their mountains and descending into all their valleys, added to the sacredness of the movement which was then taking place. The Reformation being plunged, like Zuinglius, into the waters of affliction and of grace, came forth purer and more animated. In regard to the regeneration of Switzerland, the gospel sun was now at its height.
This was, indeed, the plan, and it was achieved, though in a different way than Faber expected. The plague of 1519, which caused terrible destruction in the north of Switzerland, was, in God's hands, a powerful means of converting many people.[749] But it had the greatest impact on Zuinglius. Up until then, he had been too inclined to see the gospel as just a set of doctrines; but now it became a profound reality. He returned from the brink of death with a renewed spirit. His zeal was more vibrant, his life more righteous, and his words more open, Christian, and impactful. This was the time of Zuinglius' complete liberation. From this moment on, he dedicated himself to God. The new life given to the Reformer was also shared with the Swiss Reformation. The Divine rod, the great death, sweeping over all their mountains and into all their valleys, added to the significance of the movement that was unfolding. The Reformation, like Zuinglius, immersed in both suffering and grace, emerged purer and more energized. Regarding the revival of Switzerland, the gospel sun was now at its peak.
Zuinglius, who still strongly felt the want of new strength, received it in intercourse with his friends. His closest intimacy was with Myconius. They walked hand in hand, like Luther and Melancthon. Oswald was happy at Zurich. It is true, his position was cramped; but every thing was softened by the virtues of his modest spouse. It was of her that Glarean said, "Were I to meet a young girl resembling her, I would prefer her to the daughter of a king." But a faithful voice was often heard disturbing the sweet friendship of Zuinglius and Myconius. It was that of canon Xylotect, who, calling to Oswald from Lucerne, summoned him to return to his country. "Lucerne," said he to him, "not Zurich, is your country. You say that the Zurichers are your friends: granted; but do you know what the evening star will bring you? Serve your country.[750] This I advise; I implore; and, if I am able, command." Xylotect, not confining himself to words, procured the appointment of Myconius to the college school of Lucerne. After this Oswald no longer hesitated. He saw the finger of God in the appointment, and determined to make the sacrifice, how great soever it might be. Who could say whether he might not be an instrument in the hand of the Lord to diffuse the doctrine of peace in warlike Lucerne? But how painful the separation between Zuinglius and Myconius! They parted in tears. Ulric shortly after wrote to Oswald, "Your departure has been as serious a loss to the cause which I defend, as that which is sustained by an army in battle array when one of its wings is destroyed.[751] Ah! I now am aware of all that my Myconius was able to do, and how often, without my knowing it, he maintained the cause of Christ."
Zwingli, who still felt the strong need for new strength, found it in his interactions with friends. His closest bond was with Myconius. They walked side by side, like Luther and Melanchthon. Oswald was content in Zurich. True, his situation was limited, but everything was softened by the virtues of his humble wife. Glarean remarked about her, "If I were to meet a young girl like her, I would choose her over a king's daughter." However, a persistent voice often disrupted the sweet friendship between Zwingli and Myconius. It was Canon Xylotect, who, calling out to Oswald from Lucerne, urged him to return to his homeland. "Lucerne," he said, "not Zurich, is your true home. You say the people of Zurich are your friends: that's fine; but do you know what the evening star will bring you? Serve your country. This I advise; I implore; and, if I can, command.” Not stopping at words, Xylotect arranged for Myconius to be appointed to the college school in Lucerne. After this, Oswald no longer hesitated. He saw God's hand in the appointment and decided to make the sacrifice, no matter how great it might be. Who could say he wouldn’t be an instrument in the Lord’s hands to spread the doctrine of peace in warlike Lucerne? But the separation between Zwingli and Myconius was painful! They parted in tears. Soon after, Ulric wrote to Oswald, "Your departure has been as serious a loss to the cause I defend as when an army loses one of its wings in battle. Ah! I now realize all that Myconius was capable of and how often, without my knowledge, he upheld the cause of Christ."
Zuinglius felt the loss of his friend the more, because the plague had left him in a state of great feebleness. Writing on the 30th November, 1519, he says, "It has weakened my memory and wasted my intellect." When scarcely convalescent, he had resumed all his labours. "But," said he, "in preaching I often lose the thread of my discourse. I feel languid in all my members, and somewhat as if I were dead." Moreover, Zuinglius, by his opposition to indulgences, had excited the wrath of their partisans. Oswald strengthened his friend by letters which he wrote him from Lucerne. And did he not also receive pledges of assistance from the Lord in the protection which He gave to the Saxon champion who was gaining such important victories over Rome? "What think you," said Myconius to Zuinglius, "of the cause of Luther? For my part I have no fear either for the gospel or for him. If God does not protect his truth, who will protect it? All that I ask of the Lord is, not to withdraw his aid from those who hold nothing dearer than his gospel. Continue as you have begun, and an abundant recompence awaits you in heaven."
Zwingli felt the loss of his friend even more because the plague had left him very weak. Writing on November 30, 1519, he says, "It has weakened my memory and drained my intellect." When he was just starting to recover, he took up all his work again. "But," he said, "in preaching, I often lose the thread of my message. I feel weak all over, almost as if I’m dead." Additionally, Zwingli had angered the supporters of indulgences by opposing them. Oswald supported his friend with letters he wrote from Lucerne. And didn’t he also receive signs of support from the Lord through the protection given to the Saxon champion who was achieving significant victories over Rome? "What do you think," Myconius asked Zwingli, "about Luther's cause? Personally, I have no worries about the gospel or about him. If God doesn’t protect his truth, who will? All I ask of the Lord is not to withdraw his help from those who value nothing more than his gospel. Keep going as you have started, and you will receive great rewards in heaven."
The visit of an old friend helped to console Zuinglius for the loss of Myconius. Bunzli, who had been his teacher at Bâle, and had succeeded the dean of Wesen, the Reformer's uncle, arrived at Zurich, in the first week of the year 1520, and Zuinglius and he thereafter resolved to set out together to Bâle to see their common friends.[752] This visit of Zuinglius bore fruit. "Oh, my dear Zuinglius!" wrote John Glother to him at a later period, "never will I forget you. The thing which binds me to you is the goodness with which, during your stay at Bâle, you came to see me, me, a petty schoolmaster, living in obscurity without learning or merit, and of humble station! What wins me is the elegance of your manners, and that indescribable meekness with which you subdue all hearts, even stones, if I may so speak."[753] But Zuinglius' visit was still more useful to his old friends. Capito, Hedio, and others, were electrified by the power of his eloquence. The former commencing in Bâle the work which Zuinglius was doing at Zurich, began to expound the gospel of St. Matthew before an auditory which continued to increase. The doctrine of Christ penetrated and inflamed all hearts. The people received it joyfully, and with acclamation hailed the revival of Christianity.[754] It was the aurora of the Reformation. Accordingly a conspiracy of monks and priests was soon formed against Capito. It was at this time that Albert, the young cardinal-archbishop of Mentz, who felt desirous of attaching a man of so much learning to his person, called him to his court.[755] Capito, seeing the difficulties which were thrown in his way, accepted the invitation. The people were moved, and, turning with indignation against the priests, raised a tumult in the town.[756] Hedio was proposed as his successor, but some objected to his youth, while others said, "He is his pupil." "Truth bites," said Hedio: "it is not advantageous to offend too delicate ears by telling it.[757] No matter, nothing will turn me from the straight path." The monks redoubled their efforts. "Believe not those," exclaimed they from the pulpit, "who say that the sum of Christian doctrine is found in the Gospel and in St. Paul. Scotus has done more for Christianity than St. Paul himself. All the learning that has ever been spoken or printed has been stolen from Scotus. All that has been done since by men eager for fame has been to throw in some Greek and Hebrew terms, which have only darkened the matter."[758]
The visit of an old friend helped to comfort Zuinglius for the loss of Myconius. Bunzli, who had been his teacher in Bâle and succeeded the dean of Wesen, the Reformer's uncle, arrived in Zurich during the first week of 1520. Zuinglius and he then decided to travel together to Bâle to visit their mutual friends.[752] This visit turned out to be beneficial for Zuinglius. "Oh, my dear Zuinglius!" John Glother later wrote to him, "I will never forget you. What connects me to you is the kindness with which you visited me during your time in Bâle, me, a mere schoolteacher, living in obscurity without learning or merit, and of humble status! What wins me over is your gracious manners and the indescribable gentleness with which you win over all hearts, even stones, if I may say so."[753] But Zuinglius' visit was even more beneficial to his old friends. Capito, Hedio, and others were electrified by the strength of his speech. The former started in Bâle the work Zuinglius was doing in Zurich, beginning to explain the gospel of St. Matthew to an ever-growing audience. The message of Christ filled and ignited all hearts. The people accepted it joyfully and applauded the resurgence of Christianity.[754] It was the dawn of the Reformation. Consequently, a conspiracy of monks and priests soon formed against Capito. At that time, Albert, the young cardinal-archbishop of Mentz, who wanted to bring a man of such knowledge to his court, invited him to join.[755] Capito, seeing the obstacles being placed in front of him, accepted the invitation. The people were upset and, outraged by the priests, created a commotion in the town.[756] Hedio was suggested as his successor, but some objected to his youth, while others commented, "He is his student." "Truth hurts," said Hedio: "it is not wise to offend overly sensitive ears by telling it.[757] No matter, nothing will distract me from the straight path." The monks intensified their efforts. "Don’t believe those," they shouted from the pulpit, "who say that the essence of Christian doctrine is found in the Gospel and in St. Paul. Scotus has contributed more to Christianity than St. Paul himself. All the knowledge that has ever been mentioned or printed has been taken from Scotus. Everything done since by fame-seeking men has merely added some Greek and Hebrew terms, which have only made things more confusing."[758]
The tumult increased; and there was reason to fear that, on Capito's departure, it would become still more serious. "I will be almost alone," thought Hedio, "poor I, to struggle with these formidable monsters."[759] Accordingly, he invoked the assistance of God, and wrote to Zuinglius. "Inflame my courage by writing often. Learning and Christianity are now placed between the hammer and the anvil. Luther has just been condemned by the universities of Louvain and Cologne. If ever the Church was in imminent danger, it is at this hour."[760]
The chaos grew louder, and there was reason to worry that, once Capito left, it would get even worse. "I'll be almost by myself," Hedio thought, "poor me, facing these terrifying monsters." [759] So, he called on God's help and wrote to Zuinglius. "Please boost my courage by writing to me frequently. Learning and Christianity are now caught between a rock and a hard place. Luther has just been condemned by the universities of Louvain and Cologne. If there was ever a time when the Church was in serious danger, it’s now." [760]
Capito left Bâle for Mentz, 28th April, and Hedio succeeded him. Not content with the public assemblies in the church at which he continued his exposition of St. Matthew, he proposed, in the month of June, as he wrote Luther, to have private meetings in his own house, to give more thorough evangelical instruction to those who might feel the want of it. This powerful method of communicating the truth, and exciting in the faithful an interest and zeal in divine things, could not fail then, as it never does, to awaken opposition in the men of the world and in domineering priests, both of whom, though from different motives, are equally desirous that God should be worshipped only within the precincts of a particular building. But Hedio was invincible.
Capito left Basel for Mainz on April 28th, and Hedio took over his position. Unsatisfied with the public gatherings at the church where he continued his explanation of St. Matthew, he suggested, in June, as he wrote to Luther, that he should host private meetings at his own home to provide more in-depth evangelical teaching to those who might need it. This effective way of sharing the truth and inspiring the faithful to engage with divine matters was bound to provoke resistance from worldly people and authoritative priests, who, for different reasons, both wanted God to be worshipped only within the walls of a specific building. But Hedio remained unshakeable.
At the same period when he formed this good resolution at Bâle, there arrived at Zurich one of those characters who often emerge, like impure froth, from the vortex of revolutions.
At the same time he made this positive decision in Bâle, someone like those shady figures who often pop up, like dirty foam, from the chaos of revolutions, showed up in Zurich.
Senator Grebel, a man of great influence in Zurich, had a son named Conrad, a youth of remarkable talents, and a relentless enemy of ignorance and superstition, which he attacked with cutting satire. He was boisterous, violent, sarcastic, and bitter in his expression, without natural affection, given to debauchery, always talking loudly of his own innocence, while he could see nothing but what was wrong in others. We speak of him here because he is afterwards to play a melancholy part. At this period, Vadian married a sister of Conrad, and Conrad, who was studying at Paris where his misconduct had deprived him of the use of his limbs, desiring to be present at the marriage, appeared suddenly about the beginning of June amidst his family. The poor father received the prodigal son with a gentle smile, his fond mother with tears. The tenderness of his parents made no change on his unnatural heart. His kind and unhappy mother having some time after been brought to the gates of death, Conrad wrote his brother-in-law Vadian:—"My mother is recovered; she again rules the house, sleeps, awakes, grumbles, breakfasts, scolds, dines, makes a racket, sups, and is perpetually a burden to us. She runs, cooks, re-cooks, sweeps the house, toils, kills herself with fatigue, and will shortly bring on a relapse."[761]
Senator Grebel, a highly influential man in Zurich, had a son named Conrad, a young man with outstanding talents and a fierce opponent of ignorance and superstition, which he attacked with sharp satire. He was loud, aggressive, sarcastic, and bitter in his expressions, lacking natural affection, indulging in excess, and always boasting of his own innocence while seeing nothing but faults in others. We mention him here because he is set to play a sad role later. At this time, Vadian married Conrad's sister, and Conrad, who had been studying in Paris but had lost the use of his limbs due to his misconduct, wanted to attend the wedding. He suddenly appeared around the beginning of June among his family. The poor father welcomed the wayward son with a gentle smile, and his loving mother with tears. The affection of his parents softened nothing in his cold heart. Some time later, when his kind and troubled mother was close to death, Conrad wrote to his brother-in-law Vadian:—"My mother has recovered; she’s back in charge of the house, sleeps, wakes up, complains, has breakfast, scolds, eats dinner, makes noise, and is constantly a burden to us. She runs around, cooks, re-cooks, cleans the house, works hard, exhausts herself, and will soon trigger another crisis."
Such was the man who, at a later period, pretended to lord it over Zuinglius, and who took the lead among fanatical anabaptists. Divine Providence perhaps allowed such characters to appear at the period of the Reformation that their disorders might the better bring out the wise, Christian, and orderly spirit of the Reformers.
Such was the man who, later on, claimed to have authority over Zuinglius and who led the extreme anabaptists. Maybe Divine Providence allowed such individuals to emerge during the Reformation so that their chaos could highlight the wise, Christian, and organized nature of the Reformers.
Everything announced that the battle between the gospel and the papacy was about to commence. "Let us stir up the temporisers," wrote Hedio to Zurich; "the peace is broken, let us arm our hearts: the enemies we shall have to combat are most fierce."[762] Myconius wrote in the same strain to Ulric, who, however, answered their warlike appeals with admirable meekness. "I should like," said he, "to gain these obstinate men by kindness and good offices, rather than overcome them by violence and disputation.[763] That they call our doctrine, (which however is not ours,) a doctrine of the devil, is nothing more than natural. It proves to me that we are indeed the ambassadors of Christ. The devils cannot be silent in his presence."
Everything suggested that the struggle between the gospel and the papacy was about to begin. "Let’s rally those who are hesitant," Hedio wrote to Zurich; "the peace is shattered, let’s prepare ourselves: the enemies we’ll face are incredibly fierce."[762] Myconius expressed similar thoughts to Ulric, who, however, responded to their calls for battle with remarkable calm. "I would prefer," he said, "to win over these stubborn individuals through kindness and helpful actions, rather than defeat them with force and arguments.[763] That they label our teaching, which really isn’t ours, as a doctrine of the devil is only to be expected. It shows me that we are truly the messengers of Christ. The devils cannot remain silent in His presence."
CHAP. IX.
The Two Reformers—The Fall of Man—Expiation of the God-Man—No merit in Works—Objections refuted—Power of Love to Christ—Election—Christ alone Master—Effects of this Preaching—Despondency and Courage—First Act of the Magistrate—Church and State—Attacks—Galster.
The Two Reformers—The Fall of Humanity—Redemption through the God-Man—No value in Good Deeds—Counterarguments addressed—The Influence of Love for Christ—Chosen People—Christ as the Only Authority—Impact of this Teaching—Despair and Bravery—Initial Action of the Magistrate—The Relationship between Church and State—Attacks—Galster.
Though desirous to follow the path of meekness, Zuinglius was not idle. Since his illness his preaching had become more profound and enlivening. More than two thousand persons in Zurich had received the word of God into their heart, made profession of the evangelical doctrine, and were themselves able to announce it.[764]
Though eager to embrace humility, Zuinglius was not inactive. Since his illness, his preaching had become deeper and more inspiring. More than two thousand people in Zurich had welcomed the word of God into their hearts, professed the evangelical teachings, and were able to share it themselves.[764]
Zuinglius' faith was the same as Luther's, but more the result of reasoning. Luther advances with a bound. Zuinglius owes more to clearness of perception. Luther's writings are pervaded with a thorough personal conviction of the benefits which the cross of Christ confers upon himself, and this conviction, glowing with heat and life, is the soul of all he says. The same thing doubtless exists in Zuinglius, but in an inferior degree. He had looked more to the Christian system as a whole, and admired it particularly for its beauty, for the light which it sheds into the human mind, and the eternal life which it brings to the world. The one is more the man of heart, the other more the man of intellect; and hence it is that those who do not experimentally know the faith which animated these two great disciples of the Lord, fall into the grossest error, making the one a mystic and the other a rationalist. The one is more pathetic, perhaps, in the exposition of his faith, and the other more philosophical, but both believe the same truths. They do not, however, look at all secondary questions from the same point of view, but that faith which is one, that faith which quickens and justifies its possessor, that faith which no confession, no article of doctrine can express, is in the one as in the other. The doctrine of Zuinglius has often been so much misrepresented, that it seems proper here to give an account of what he preached at this time to the increasing crowds who flocked to the cathedral of Zurich.
Zwingli's faith was similar to Luther's, but it was more based on reasoning. Luther moves forward decisively. Zwingli relies more on clarity of understanding. Luther's writings are filled with a deep personal conviction about the benefits of Christ’s cross for himself, and this passionate belief is the essence of everything he says. The same conviction exists in Zwingli, but to a lesser extent. He focuses more on the Christian faith as a whole and admires it especially for its beauty, the understanding it provides to the human mind, and the eternal life it offers to the world. One is more of a heartfelt person, while the other is more intellectual; this is why those who don’t personally experience the faith that drove these two great followers of the Lord often make the mistake of labeling one as a mystic and the other as a rationalist. One may be more emotional in expressing his faith, while the other is more philosophical, but both believe the same truths. They approach secondary questions from different perspectives, yet the faith that is singular, that gives life and justifies its holder, a faith that no confession or doctrinal article can capture, exists in both. Zwingli's teachings have often been misrepresented, so it's important to clarify what he preached during this time to the growing crowds that gathered at the cathedral in Zurich.
The fall of Adam, Zuinglius regarded as the key to man's history. "Before the fall," said he one day, "man had been created with a free will, so that he was able, if he chose, to keep the law, his nature was pure, being as yet untainted by the malady of sin; his life was in his own hand. But wishing to be equal to God, he died ... and not he only, but every one of his descendants. All men being dead in Adam none can be recalled to life until the Spirit, who is God himself, raise them from death."[765]
The fall of Adam was seen by Zuinglius as the crucial moment in human history. "Before the fall," he said one day, "man was created with free will, so he had the ability, if he chose, to follow the law. His nature was pure, not yet corrupted by the sickness of sin; his life was in his own hands. But wanting to be equal to God, he died ... and not just him, but everyone who came after him. All people are dead in Adam, and none can be brought back to life until the Spirit, who is God himself, raises them from the dead."[765]
The people of Zurich who listened eagerly to this powerful orator were saddened when he set before them the sinful state into which human nature has fallen, but soon after heard words of joy, and learned to know the remedy which is able to recall man to life. "Christ very man and very God,"[766] said the eloquent voice of this shepherd—son of the Tockenburg, "has purchased for us a redemption which will never terminate. The eternal God died for us: His passion then is eternal: it brings salvation for ever and ever:[767] it appeases divine justice for ever in favour of all those who lean upon this sacrifice with firm and immovable faith." "Wherever sin exists," exclaimed the Reformer, "death must necessarily supervene. Christ had no sin, there was no guile in his mouth, and yet he died! Ah! it was because he died in our stead. He was pleased to die in order to restore us to life, and as he had no sins of his own, the Father, who is full of mercy, laid the burden of our sins upon him.[768]" The Christian orator continued, "Since the will of man rebelled against the supreme God, it was necessary, if eternal order was to be re-established and man saved, that the human will should be made subject in Christ to the divine will."[769] He often repeated that it was for the faithful people of God, that the expiatory death of Jesus Christ had been endured.[770]
The people of Zurich, who listened eagerly to this powerful speaker, felt sad as he described the sinful state that human nature has fallen into, but soon they heard words of joy and learned about the remedy that can bring people back to life. "Christ, fully man and fully God,"[766] said the eloquent voice of this shepherd—son of the Tockenburg, "has bought us a redemption that will never end. The eternal God died for us: His suffering is eternal: it brings salvation forever:[767] it satisfies divine justice forever for all those who trust in this sacrifice with firm and unwavering faith." "Wherever sin exists," the Reformer exclaimed, "death must inevitably follow. Christ had no sin; there was no deceit in his mouth, and yet he died! Ah! It was because he died in our place. He willingly died to restore us to life, and since he had no sins of his own, the Father, who is full of mercy, placed the weight of our sins on him.[768]" The Christian speaker continued, "Since the will of man rebelled against the supreme God, it was necessary to re-establish eternal order and save mankind that the human will should be made subordinate in Christ to the divine will."[769] He often repeated that it was for the faithful people of God that the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ was endured.[770]
Those in the city of Zurich who were eager for salvation, found rest on hearing these good news. But old errors still remained, and these it was necessary to destroy. Setting out from this great truth of a salvation which is the gift of God, Zuinglius forcibly discoursed against the pretended merit of human works. "Since eternal salvation," said he, "proceeds solely from the merits and death of Jesus Christ, the merit of our works is nothing better than folly, not to say rash impiety.[771] Could we have been saved by our works it had not been necessary for Jesus Christ to die. All who have ever come to God came to him by the death of Jesus Christ."[772]
Those in the city of Zurich who were looking for salvation found peace upon hearing this good news. However, old mistakes still lingered, and it was essential to eliminate them. Starting from this profound truth that salvation is a gift from God, Zwingli passionately spoke out against the false idea that human efforts have any real merit. "Since eternal salvation," he said, "comes only from the merits and death of Jesus Christ, the value of our works is nothing more than foolishness, if not outright impiety.[771] If we could have been saved by our actions, there would have been no need for Jesus Christ to die. Everyone who has ever come to God has done so through the death of Jesus Christ."[772]
Zuinglius perceived the objections which some of his hearers felt against these doctrines. Some of them called upon him and stated them. He mounted the pulpit and said—"People, more curious perhaps than pious, object that this doctrine makes men giddy and dissolute. But of what consequence are the objections or fears which human curiosity may suggest? Whosoever believes in Jesus Christ is certain that every thing which comes from God is necessarily good. If, then, the gospel is of God it is good.[773] And what other power would be capable of implanting among men innocence, truth, and love? O God! most compassionate, most just, Father of mercies," exclaimed he in the overflowing of his piety, "with what love hast thou embraced us, us thy enemies![774] With what great and certain hopes hast thou inspired us, us who should have known nothing but despair: and to what glory hast thou in thy Son called our littleness and nothingness! Thy purpose in this ineffable love is to constrain us to yield thee love for love!..."
Zuinglius noticed the objections that some of his listeners had about these teachings. A few of them approached him and voiced their concerns. He stepped up to the pulpit and said—"People, maybe more curious than pious, claim that this doctrine leads to confusion and disarray. But what do the objections or fears born out of human curiosity really matter? Anyone who believes in Jesus Christ knows that everything that comes from God is inherently good. If the gospel is from God, then it is good.[773] And what other force could instill innocence, truth, and love among people? O God! most compassionate, most just, Father of mercies," he exclaimed in an overflow of his devotion, "with what love have you embraced us, even being your enemies![774] With what great and certain hopes have you inspired us, who should have known nothing but despair: and to what glory have you called our insignificance through your Son! Your purpose in this incredible love is to compel us to give you love in return for your love!..."
Then dwelling on this idea, he showed that love to the Redeemer is a more powerful law than the commandments. "The Christian," said he, "delivered from the law depends entirely on Christ. Christ is his reason, his counsel, his righteousness, and whole salvation. Christ lives in him and acts in him. Christ alone guides him, and he needs no other guide."[775] And making use of a comparison adapted to his hearers, he added, "If a government prohibits its citizens, under pain of death, from receiving pensions and presents at the hands of princes, how gentle and easy this law is to those who, from love to their country and to liberty, would, of their own accord, refrain from so culpable a proceeding; but on the contrary, how tormenting and oppressive it feels to those who think only of their own interest. Thus the righteous man lives joyful in the love of righteousness, whereas the unrighteous walks groaning under the heavy weight of the law which oppresses him."[776]
Then reflecting on this idea, he explained that love for the Redeemer is a stronger law than the commandments. "The Christian," he said, "freed from the law relies completely on Christ. Christ is his reason, his guidance, his righteousness, and his entire salvation. Christ lives in him and acts through him. Christ alone leads him, and he needs no other guide."[775] And using a relatable comparison, he added, "If a government forbids its citizens, under penalty of death, from accepting pensions and gifts from rulers, how gentle and easy this law is for those who, out of love for their country and freedom, would willingly avoid such wrongful actions; however, how tormenting and oppressive it is for those who think only of their own interests. Thus, the righteous person lives happily in the love of righteousness, while the unrighteous person struggles under the heavy burden of the law that weighs him down."[776]
In the cathedral of Zurich was a considerable number of veteran soldiers who felt the truth of these words. Is not love the mightiest of legislators? Is not every thing that it commands instantly accomplished? Does not he whom we love dwell in our heart, and does it not of itself perform what he enjoins? Accordingly, Zuinglius, waxing bold, declared to the people of Zurich that love to the Redeemer was alone capable of making man do things agreeable to God. "Works done out of Jesus Christ are not useful," said the Christian orator; "since every thing is done of him, in him, and by him, what do we pretend to arrogate to ourselves? Wherever faith in God is, there God is, and wherever God is, there is a zeal which presses and urges men to good works.[777] Only take care that Christ be in thee and thou in Christ, and then doubt not but he will work. The life of the Christian is just one continued work by which God begins, continues, and perfects in man every thing that is good."[778]
In the Zurich cathedral, there were many veteran soldiers who understood the truth of these words. Isn’t love the strongest force of all? Doesn’t everything it commands happen right away? Doesn’t the one we love live in our hearts, and doesn’t it automatically do what they ask? So, Zuinglius, growing bold, told the people of Zurich that love for the Redeemer is the only thing that can make a person act in ways pleasing to God. "Actions taken outside of Jesus Christ are not beneficial," said the Christian speaker; "since everything is done through him, in him, and by him, what right do we have to take credit for ourselves? Wherever there is faith in God, there is God, and where God is, there is a drive that pushes and inspires people to do good works.[777] Just make sure that Christ is in you and you are in Christ, and then don’t doubt that he will act. The life of a Christian is simply a continuous work that God starts, continues, and completes in a person everything that is good."[778]
Struck with the grandeur of this divine love which existed from eternity, the herald of grace raised his voice to all the timid or irresolute. "Can you fear," said he, "to approach the tender Father who has chosen you? Why has he chosen us in his grace? Why has he called us? Why has he drawn us? Was it that we might not dare to go to him?"...[779]
Struck by the greatness of this divine love that has existed forever, the messenger of grace called out to all the fearful and uncertain. "Why would you be afraid," he asked, "to come to the loving Father who has chosen you? Why has he chosen us by his grace? Why has he reached out to us? Was it so that we wouldn't feel we could go to him?"...[779]
Such was the doctrine of Zuinglius. It was the doctrine of Christ himself. "If Luther preaches Christ he does what I do," said the preacher of Zurich; "those who have been brought to Christ by him are more numerous than those who have been brought by me. But no matter! I am unwilling to bear any other name than that of Christ, whose soldier I am, and who alone is my head. Never was a single scrap written by me to Luther, or by Luther to me. And why? In order to show to all how well the spirit of God accords with himself, since, without having heard each other, we so harmoniously teach the doctrine of Jesus Christ."[780]
Such was Zwingli's teaching. It was the teaching of Christ himself. "If Luther preaches Christ, he's doing what I do," said the preacher from Zurich; "those who have come to Christ through him are more numerous than those who came through me. But it doesn't matter! I refuse to be known by any name other than Christ's, whose soldier I am, and who is my only leader. I have never written a single word to Luther, nor has he written to me. And why? To demonstrate how well the spirit of God aligns with itself, since, without having heard each other, we teach the doctrine of Jesus Christ so harmoniously."[780]
Thus Zuinglius preached with energy and might.[781] The large cathedral could not contain the crowds of hearers. All thanked God that a new life was beginning to animate the lifeless body of the Church. Swiss from all the cantons, brought to Zurich either by the Diet or by other causes, being touched by this new preaching, carried its precious seeds into all the Helvetic valleys. One acclamation arose from mountains and cities. Nicolas Hageus, writing from Lucerne to Zurich, says, "Switzerland has hitherto given birth to Scipios, Cæsars, and Brutuses, but has scarcely produced two men who had the knowledge of Jesus Christ, and could nourish men's hearts, not with vain disputes, but with the Word of God. Now that Divine Providence gives Switzerland Zuinglius for its orator, and Oswald Myconius for its teacher, virtue and sacred literature revive among us. O happy Helvetia! could you but resolve at length to rest from all your wars, and, already so celebrated, become still more celebrated for righteousness and peace."[782] "It was said," wrote Myconius to Zuinglius, "that your voice could not be heard three yards off. But I now see it was a falsehood; for all Switzerland hears you."[783] "You possess intrepid courage," wrote Hedio to him from Bâle, "I will follow you as far as I am able."[784] "I have heard you," said Sebastian Hofmeister of Schaffausen, writing to him from Constance. "Ah, would to God that Zurich, which is at the head of our happy confederation was delivered from the disease, and health thus restored to the whole body."[785]
Zwingli preached with energy and passion.[781] The large cathedral couldn't hold the crowds of listeners. Everyone thanked God that a new spirit was starting to breathe life into the lifeless Church. People from all the cantons, brought to Zurich by the Diet or for other reasons, inspired by this new preaching, took its valuable message into all the valleys of Switzerland. A single shout of approval arose from the mountains and cities. Nicolas Hageus, writing from Lucerne to Zurich, says, "Switzerland has previously produced Scipios, Caesars, and Brutus, but has hardly had two men who knew Jesus Christ and could feed people's hearts, not with empty arguments, but with the Word of God. Now, as Divine Providence gives Switzerland Zwingli as its speaker and Oswald Myconius as its teacher, virtue and sacred literature are reviving among us. O happy Helvetia! if only you could decide to finally rest from all your wars, and, already so renowned, become even more renowned for righteousness and peace."[782] "It was said," Myconius wrote to Zwingli, "that your voice couldn't be heard three yards away. But now I see that was a lie; all of Switzerland hears you."[783] "You have fearless courage," Hedio wrote to him from Basel, "I will support you as much as I can."[784] "I have heard you," said Sebastian Hofmeister of Schaffhausen, writing to him from Constance. "Ah, would to God that Zurich, which leads our happy confederation, was freed from its troubles, and health restored to the whole body."[785]
But Zuinglius met with opponents as well as admirers. "To what end," said some, "does he intermeddle with the affairs of Switzerland?" "Why," said others, "does he, in his religious instructions, constantly repeat the same things?" Amid all these combats the soul of Zuinglius was often filled with sadness. All seemed to be in confusion, as if society were turned upside down.[786] He thought it impossible that any thing new should appear without something of an opposite nature being immediately displayed.[787] When a hope sprang up in his heart, a fear immediately sprang up beside it. Still he soon raised his head. "The life of man here below," said he, "is a war; he who desires to obtain glory must attack the world in front, and, like David, make this haughty Goliath, who seems so proud of his stature, to bite the dust. The Church," said he, like Luther, "has been acquired by blood, and must be renewed by blood.[788] The more numerous the defilements in it, the more must we arm ourselves, like Hercules, in order to clean out these Augean stables.[789] I have little fear for Luther," added he, "even should he be thundered against by the bolts of this Jupiter."[790]
But Zwingli faced both opponents and supporters. "What’s the point," some questioned, "of getting involved in Switzerland’s affairs?" "Why," others asked, "does he always repeat the same messages in his teachings?" Through all these struggles, Zwingli often felt sad. It all seemed chaotic, as if society was turned upside down.[786] He believed it was impossible for anything new to emerge without an opposing force showing up right away.[787] Whenever hope blossomed in his heart, fear immediately followed. Still, he quickly lifted his spirits. "Life here," he said, "is a battle; anyone who wants to achieve glory must confront the world head-on and, like David, force this arrogant Goliath, who takes pride in his size, to fall. The Church," he said, like Luther, "was won through sacrifice and must be renewed through sacrifice.[788] The more corruption there is, the more we must arm ourselves, like Hercules, to clean out these Augean stables.[789] I’m not too worried about Luther," he added, "even if he’s struck by the thunderbolts of this Jupiter."[790]
Zuinglius stood in need of repose, and repaired to the waters of Baden. The curate of the place, an old papal guard, a man of good temper, but completely ignorant, had obtained his benefice by carrying a halberd. True to his soldier habits, he spent the day and part of the night in jovial company, while Stäheli, his vicar, was indefatigable in fulfilling the duties of his office.[791] Zuinglius invited the young minister to his house. "I have need of Swiss help," said he to him, and from this moment Stäheli was his fellow-labourer. Zuinglius, Stäheli, and Luti, afterwards pastor of Winterthur, lived under the same roof.
Zuinglius needed a break and went to the waters of Baden. The local curate, an old papal guard who was good-natured but completely clueless, had gotten his position by wielding a halberd. True to his soldier habits, he spent the day and part of the night enjoying himself with friends, while Stäheli, his vicar, tirelessly fulfilled his responsibilities. Zuinglius invited the young minister to his home. "I need Swiss help," he told him, and from that point on, Stäheli became his co-worker. Zuinglius, Stäheli, and Luti, who later became the pastor of Winterthur, all lived under the same roof.
The devotedness of Zuinglius was not to pass unrewarded. The Word of God, preached with so much energy, could not fail to produce fruit. Several magistrates were gained, experiencing the Word to be their consolation and their strength. The Council, grieved at seeing the priests, and especially the monks, shamelessly delivering from the pulpit whatever came into their heads, passed a resolution, ordering them not to advance anything in their discourses "that they did not draw from the sacred sources of the Old and New Testament."[792] It was in 1520 that the civil power thus interposed for the first time in the work of the Reformation; acting as a Christian magistrate, say some—since the first duty of the magistrate is to maintain the Word of God and defend the best interests of the citizens; depriving the Church of its liberty, say others,—by subjecting it to secular power, and giving the signal for the series of evils which have since been engendered by the connection between Church and State. We will not give any opinion here on this great controversy which in our day is carried on with so much warmth in several countries. It is sufficient for us to point out its commencement at the period of the Reformation. But there is another thing also to be pointed out—the act of these magistrates was itself one of the effects produced by the preaching of the Word of God. At this period the Reformation in Switzerland ceased to be the work of private individuals, and began to be included within the national domain. Born in the heart of a few priests and literary men, it extended, rose, and took up elevated ground. Like the waters of the ocean, it gradually increased till it had overflowed an immense extent.
The dedication of Zuinglius was not going to go unrecognized. The powerful preaching of the Word of God was bound to bear fruit. Several officials were convinced, finding comfort and strength in the Word. The Council, upset by the priests, particularly the monks, recklessly saying whatever crossed their minds from the pulpit, passed a resolution instructing them not to share anything in their sermons "that they did not draw from the sacred sources of the Old and New Testament."[792] In 1520, this was the first time civil authority intervened in the Reformation; some say acting as a Christian magistrate—since a magistrate's primary duty is to uphold the Word of God and defend the best interests of the citizens; while others argue it deprived the Church of its freedom by placing it under secular power, setting off a chain of troubles caused by the alliance between Church and State. We won’t weigh in on this significant debate that is still passionately discussed in various countries today. It's enough for us to highlight that it began during the Reformation. Moreover, it’s important to note that the actions of these officials were themselves a reaction to the preaching of the Word of God. At this time, the Reformation in Switzerland transitioned from being a movement of private individuals to becoming part of the national landscape. Originating in the hearts of a few priests and scholars, it grew, rose, and reached higher ground. Like the ocean's waters, it gradually expanded until it overflowed an immense area.
The monks were confounded: they were ordered to preach nothing but the Word of God, and the greater part of them had never read it. Opposition provokes opposition. The resolution of the council became the signal of more violent attacks on the Reformation. Plots began to be formed against the curate of Zurich. His life was in danger. One evening, when Zuinglius and his vicars were quietly conversing in their house, some citizens arrived in great haste, and asked, "Are your doors well bolted? Be this night on your guard." "Such alarms were frequent," adds Stäheli; "but we were well armed,[793] and a guard was stationed for us in the street."
The monks were confused: they were told to preach only the Word of God, and most of them had never even read it. Opposition leads to more opposition. The council's decision sparked even more intense attacks on the Reformation. Plans began to emerge against the curate of Zurich. His life was at risk. One evening, while Zuinglius and his assistants were having a quiet conversation at their home, some citizens rushed in and asked, "Are your doors bolted securely? Stay alert tonight." "Such warnings were common," Stäheli adds; "but we were well armed,[793] and a guard had been placed for us in the street."
In other places, means still more violent were resorted to. An old man of Shaffausen, named Galster, a man of piety, and of an ardour rare at his period of life, happy in the light which he had found in the gospel, laboured to communicate it to his wife and children. His zeal, perhaps indiscreet, openly attacked the relics, priests, and superstitions with which this canton abounded. He soon became an object of hatred and terror even to his own family. The old man, penetrating their fatal designs, left his home broken-hearted, and fled to the neighbouring forest. There he lived several days subsisting on whatever he could find, when suddenly, on the last night of the year 1520, torches blazed in all directions through the forest, and the cries of men and the barking of dogs re-echoed under its dark shades. The council had ordered a hunt in the woods to discover him. The dogs scented him out, and the unhappy old man was dragged before the magistrate. He was ordered to abjure his faith, but remained immovable, and was beheaded.[794]
In other places, even more violent measures were taken. An old man from Shaffausen named Galster, a religious and passionate man for his age, was happy with the enlightenment he found in the gospel and worked to share it with his wife and children. His fervor, perhaps a bit reckless, openly challenged the relics, priests, and superstitions that were prevalent in the area. He quickly became a target of hatred and fear, even from his own family. Realizing their deadly intentions, he left home heartbroken and fled to the nearby forest. He survived for several days on whatever he could find, until suddenly, on the last night of 1520, torches lit up all around the forest, and the sounds of men yelling and dogs barking echoed in the darkness. The council had organized a hunt in the woods to find him. The dogs tracked him down, and the unfortunate old man was brought before the magistrate. He was ordered to renounce his faith, but he stood firm and was executed by beheading.[794]
CHAP. X.
A new Combatant—The Reformer of Berne—Zuinglius encourages Haller—The Gospel at Lucerne—Oswald Persecuted—Preaching of Zuinglius—Henry Bullinger and Gerold of Knonan—Rubli at Bâle—The Chaplain of the Hospital—War in Italy—Zuinglius against Foreign Service.
A new Combatant—The Reformer of Bern—Zwingli supports Haller—The Gospel in Lucerne—Oswald Persecuted—Zwingli’s Preaching—Henry Bullinger and Gerold of Knonan—Rubli in Basel—The Chaplain of the Hospital—War in Italy—Zwingli opposes Foreign Service.
The year, the first day of which was signalised by this bloody execution, had scarcely commenced when Zuinglius was waited on in his house at Zurich by a young man, of about twenty-eight years of age, tall in stature, and with an exterior which bespoke candour, simplicity, and diffidence.[795] He said his name was Berthold Haller. Zuinglius, on hearing the name, embraced the celebrated preacher of Berne, with that affability which made him so engaging. Haller, born at Aldingen in Wurtemberg,[796] had first studied at Rotweil under Rubellus, and afterwards at Pforzheim, where Simler was his teacher, and Melancthon his fellow-student. The Bernese, who had already distinguished themselves by arms, at this time resolved to invite literature into the bosom of their republic. Rubellus, and Berthold, not twenty-one years of age, repaired thither. Sometime after, the latter was appointed canon, and ultimately preacher of the cathedral. The gospel which Zuinglius preached had extended to Berne; Haller believed, and thenceforth longed to see the distinguished man, whom he now looked up to as his father. He went to Zurich after Myconius had announced his intended visit. Thus met Haller and Zuinglius. The former, a man of great meekness, unbosomed his griefs; and the latter, a man of might, inspired him with courage. One day, Berthold said to Zuinglius, "My spirit is overwhelmed.... I am not able to bear all this injustice. I mean to give up the pulpit and retire to Bâle beside Wittembach, and there occupy myself exclusively with sacred literature." "Ah!" replied Zuinglius, "I too have my feelings of despondency, when unjust attacks are made upon me; but Christ awakens my conscience, and urges me on by his terrors and his promises. He alarms me when he says, 'Whoso shall be ashamed of me before men, of him will I be ashamed before my Father;' and he sets my mind at ease when he adds, 'Whoso shall confess me before men, him will I confess before my Father.' My dear Berthold, rejoice! Our name is written in indelible characters in the register of citizenship on high.[797] I am ready to die for Christ.[798] Let your wild cubs," added he, "hear the doctrine of Jesus Christ, and you will see them become tame.[799] But this task must be performed with great gentleness, lest they turn again and rend you." Haller's courage revived. "My soul," said he to Zuinglius, "is awakened out of its sleep. I must preach the gospel. Jesus Christ must again be established in this city, from which he has been so long exiled."[800] Thus the torch of Berthold was kindled at the torch of Zuinglius, and the timid Haller threw himself into the midst of the ferocious bears, who, as Zuinglius expresses it, "were gnashing their teeth, and seeking to devour him."
The year, which began with a brutal execution, had barely started when Zuinglius was visited at his home in Zurich by a young man, around twenty-eight years old, tall and with an appearance that suggested honesty, simplicity, and modesty.[795] He introduced himself as Berthold Haller. Upon hearing the name, Zuinglius welcomed the famous preacher from Berne with the warmth that made him so likable. Haller, born in Aldingen, Wurtemberg,[796] had first studied at Rotweil under Rubellus, and later at Pforzheim, where Simler was his teacher and Melancthon was a fellow student. The people of Bern, who had already made a name for themselves in battle, decided to invite literature into their republic. Rubellus and Berthold, who was not yet twenty-one, went there. Shortly after, Berthold became a canon and eventually a preacher at the cathedral. The gospel that Zuinglius preached had reached Berne; Haller believed it and yearned to meet the remarkable man whom he now saw as a father figure. He traveled to Zurich after Myconius mentioned his upcoming visit. This is how Haller and Zuinglius met. Haller, a man of great humility, shared his troubles, while Zuinglius, a strong figure, gave him courage. One day, Berthold said to Zuinglius, "I’m overwhelmed.... I can’t bear all this injustice. I plan to step down from preaching and move to Bâle with Wittembach to focus solely on sacred literature." "Ah!" replied Zuinglius, "I too feel discouraged when I face unfair attacks; but Christ stirs my conscience and drives me forward with his fears and promises. He unsettles me when he says, 'Whosoever is ashamed of me before men, of him will I be ashamed before my Father;' and he reassures me when he adds, 'Whosoever confesses me before men, him will I confess before my Father.' My dear Berthold, take heart! Our names are written in indelible ink in the register of citizenship above.[797] I’m ready to die for Christ.[798] Let your wild youths," he continued, "hear the teachings of Jesus Christ, and you will see them grow tame.[799] But this must be done with great care, or they might turn on you." Haller felt his strength return. "My spirit," he said to Zuinglius, "has awakened from its slumber. I must preach the gospel. Jesus Christ must be brought back to this city, where he has been absent for so long."[800] Thus, Berthold's flame was ignited by Zuinglius's fire, and the timid Haller plunged into the midst of the fierce opponents who, as Zuinglius put it, "were gnashing their teeth and trying to devour him."
It was in another part of Switzerland, however, that persecution was to begin. Warlike Lucerne came forward, like a foe in full armour couching his lance. In this canton, which was favourable to foreign service, a martial spirit predominated, and the leading men knit their brows when they heard words of peace fitted to curb their warlike temper. Meanwhile the writings of Luther having found their way into the town, some of the inhabitants began to examine them, and were horrified. It seemed to them that an infernal hand had traced the lines; their imagination was excited, their senses became bewildered, and their rooms seemed as if filled with demons, flocking around them, and glaring upon them with a sarcastic smile.[801] They hastily closed the book, and dashed it from them in dismay. Oswald, who had heard of these singular visions, did not speak of Luther to any but his most intimate friends, and contented himself with simply preaching the gospel of Christ. Nevertheless, the cry which rung through the town was, "Luther and the schoolmaster (Myconius) must be burnt."[802] "I am driven by my adversaries like a ship by the raging billows,"[803] said Oswald to one of his friends. One day, in the beginning of the year 1520, he was unexpectedly summoned to appear before the council, and told, "Your orders are, not to read the writings of Luther to your pupils, not to name him in their presence, and not even to think of him."[804] The lords of Lucerne pretended, it seems, to have a very extensive jurisdiction. Shortly after, a preacher delivered a sermon against heresy. The whole audience was moved, and every eye was turned on Myconius; for whom but he could the preacher have in his eye? Oswald kept quietly in his seat, as if the matter had not concerned him. But on leaving the church, as he was walking with his friend, Canon Xylotect, one of the counsellors, still under great excitement, passed close to them, and passionately exclaimed, "Well, disciples of Luther, why don't you defend your master?" They made no answer. "I live," said Myconius, "among fierce wolves; but I have this consolation, that the most of them are without teeth. They would bite if they could, but not being able, they bark."
It was in another part of Switzerland, however, that persecution was set to begin. Aggressive Lucerne came forward, like an enemy in full armor ready to strike. In this canton, which supported military service, a combative spirit ruled, and the prominent figures frowned when they heard talk of peace meant to temper their warlike nature. Meanwhile, Luther's writings made their way into the town, and some residents began to examine them, horrified by what they found. It seemed to them that an evil hand had penned the words; their imaginations were stirred, their senses became confused, and their rooms felt filled with demons, surrounding them and glaring with mocking smiles. They quickly shut the book and threw it away in distress. Oswald, having heard of these strange visions, didn't mention Luther except to his closest friends, choosing instead to simply preach the gospel of Christ. Nevertheless, the cry that echoed through the town was, "Luther and the schoolmaster (Myconius) must be burned." "I am driven by my enemies like a ship tossed by raging waves," Oswald said to one of his friends. One day, at the beginning of 1520, he was unexpectedly called to appear before the council and was told, "You are ordered not to read Luther's writings to your students, not to mention him in their presence, and not even to think of him." The leaders of Lucerne seemed to believe they had very broad authority. Shortly after, a preacher gave a sermon against heresy. The entire audience was moved, and every gaze turned toward Myconius; who else could the preacher be targeting? Oswald remained quietly in his seat, as if the situation did not concern him. But as he left the church with his friend, Canon Xylotect, one of the council members, still very agitated, passed by them and fervently exclaimed, "Well, disciples of Luther, why don’t you defend your master?" They didn’t respond. "I live," said Myconius, "among fierce wolves; but I take comfort in knowing that most of them are toothless. They would bite if they could, but since they can’t, they just bark."
The senate assembled: for the people began to be tumultuous. "He is a Lutheran," said one of the counsellors: "he is a propagator of new doctrines," said another: "he is a seducer of youth," said a third. "Let him appear, let him appear." The poor schoolmaster appeared and again listened to prohibitions and menaces. His unsophisticated soul was torn and overwhelmed. His gentle spouse could only console him by shedding tears. "Every one is rising up against me," exclaimed he in his agony. "Assailed by so many tempests, whither shall I turn, how shall I escape?... Were it not for Christ I would long ago have fallen under these assaults."[805] "What matters it," wrote Doctor Sebastian Hofmeister of Constance to him, "whether Lucerne chooses to keep you or not? The whole earth is the Lord's. Every land is a home to the brave. Though we should be the most wicked of men our enterprise is just, for we teach the Word of Christ."
The senate gathered because the people were getting restless. “He’s a Lutheran,” said one of the advisors. “He spreads new ideas,” said another. “He corrupts the youth,” said a third. “Let him come forward, let him come forward.” The poor schoolmaster stepped up and once again faced threats and warnings. His innocent heart was torn apart and overwhelmed. His gentle wife could only comfort him with her tears. “Everyone is turning against me,” he cried out in his despair. “With so many storms attacking me, where can I turn, how can I escape? … If it weren't for Christ, I would have fallen to these attacks long ago.” [805] “What does it matter," wrote Doctor Sebastian Hofmeister of Constance to him, "whether Lucerne chooses to keep you or not? The whole earth belongs to the Lord. Every country is a home for the brave. Even if we were the most wicked of people, our mission is just because we teach the Word of Christ.”
While the truth encountered so many obstacles at Lucerne it was victorious at Zurich. Zuinglius was incessant in his labours. Wishing to examine the whole sacred volume in the original tongues, he zealously engaged in the study of Hebrew, under the direction of John Boschenstein, a pupil of Reuchlin. But if he studied Scripture, it was to preach it. The peasants who flocked to the market on Friday to dispose of their goods, showed an eagerness to receive the Word of God. To satisfy their longings, Zuinglius had begun, in December 1520, to expound the Psalms every Friday after studying the original. The Reformers always combined learned with practical labours—the latter forming the end, the former only the means. They were at once students and popular teachers. This union of learning and charity is characteristic of the period. In regard to his services on Sunday, Zuinglius, after lecturing from St. Matthew on the life of our Saviour, proceeded afterwards to show from the Acts of the Apostles how the gospel was propagated. Thereafter he laid down the rules of the Christian life according to the Epistles to Timothy, employed the Epistle to the Galatians in combating doctrinal errors, combined with it the two Epistles of St. Peter, in order to show to the despisers of St. Paul that both apostles were animated by the same spirit, and concluded with the Epistle to the Hebrews, in order to give a full display of the benefits which Christians derive from Jesus Christ their sovereign priest.
While the truth faced many challenges in Lucerne, it triumphed in Zurich. Zuinglius worked tirelessly. Wanting to study the entire sacred text in its original languages, he passionately learned Hebrew under John Boschenstein, a student of Reuchlin. But if he studied Scripture, it was to preach it. The farmers who came to the market on Fridays to sell their goods were eager to hear the Word of God. To meet their needs, Zuinglius started, in December 1520, to explain the Psalms every Friday after studying the originals. The Reformers consistently combined scholarly work with practical efforts—the latter being the goal, while the former was merely the means. They were both scholars and community educators. This blend of knowledge and compassion is typical of the era. Regarding his Sunday services, Zuinglius, after speaking from St. Matthew on the life of our Savior, went on to demonstrate from the Acts of the Apostles how the gospel spread. He then outlined the rules for Christian living based on the Epistles to Timothy, used the Epistle to the Galatians to address doctrinal errors, combined it with the two Epistles of St. Peter to show that both apostles shared the same spirit, and concluded with the Epistle to the Hebrews to fully illustrate the benefits Christians receive from Jesus Christ, their supreme priest.
But Zuinglius did not confine his attention to adults; he sought also to inspire youth with the sacred flame by which his own breast was animated. One day in 1521, while he was sitting in his study reading the Fathers of the Church, taking extracts of the most striking passages, and carefully arranging them into a large volume, his door opened, and a young man entered whose appearance interested him exceedingly.[806] It was Henry Bullinger, who was returning from Germany, and impatient to become acquainted with the teacher of his country, whose name was already famous in Christendom. The handsome youth fixed his eye first on Zuinglius, and then on the books, and felt his vocation to do what Zuinglius was doing. Zuinglius received him with his usual cordiality which won all hearts. This first visit had great influence on the future life of the student, who was on his return to the paternal hearth. Another youth had also won Zuinglius' heart: this was Gerold Meyer of Knonau. His mother, Anna Reinhardt, who afterwards occupied an important place in the Reformer's life, had been a great beauty, and was still distinguished for her virtues. John Meyer of Knonau, a youth of a noble family, who had been brought up at the court of the bishop of Constance, had conceived a strong passion for Anna, who, however, belonged to a plebeian family. Old Meyer of Knonau had refused his consent to their marriage, and after it took place disinherited his son. In 1513 Anna was left a widow with a son and two daughters, and devoted herself entirely to the education of her poor orphans. The grandfather was inexorable. One day, however, the widow's maid-servant having in her arms young Gerold, then a beautiful sprightly child of three years of age, stopped at the fish market, when old Meyer, who was looking out at a window,[807] observed him, and, continuing to gaze after him, asked to whom that beautiful lively child belonged. "It is your son's child," was the answer. The heart of the old man was moved—the ice immediately melted—all was forgotten, and he clasped in his arms the widow and children of his son. Zuinglius loved, as if he had been his own son, the noble and intrepid youth Gerold, who was to die in the flower of his age side by side with the Reformer, with his sword in his hand, and surrounded alas! with the dead bodies of his enemies. Thinking that Gerold would not be able to prosecute his studies at Zurich, Zuinglius, in 1521, sent him to Bâle.
But Zwingli didn’t just focus on adults; he aimed to ignite the same sacred passion in the youth that fueled him. One day in 1521, while sitting in his study reading the Church Fathers and taking notes on the most impactful passages to compile into a large volume, his door opened, and a young man walked in who piqued his interest. It was Henry Bullinger, returning from Germany, eager to meet his country’s celebrated teacher, already well-known throughout Christendom. The attractive young man first looked at Zwingli and then at the books, feeling inspired to follow in Zwingli’s footsteps. Zwingli welcomed him with his usual warmth, which endeared him to everyone. This first visit significantly influenced the student’s future as he returned to his family home. Another young man had also captured Zwingli’s heart: Gerold Meyer from Knonau. His mother, Anna Reinhardt, who later played an important role in the Reformer’s life, had been a great beauty and was still recognized for her virtues. John Meyer of Knonau, from a noble family and raised at the court of the bishop of Constance, had fallen deeply in love with Anna, who came from a lower-class background. Old Meyer of Knonau denied his consent to their marriage and disinherited his son afterward. In 1513, Anna became a widow, left with a son and two daughters, and devoted herself to raising her children in poverty. The grandfather was unyielding. One day, however, Anna’s maid, carrying young Gerold—then a charming, lively three-year-old—stopped at the fish market when old Meyer, looking out a window, spotted him and asked who the beautiful, spirited child belonged to. "It’s your son’s child," came the reply. The old man’s heart softened—the ice melted away, and he embraced the widow and his son’s children. Zwingli loved noble and brave Gerold as if he were his own son; Gerold would later die in his prime alongside the Reformer, sword in hand and surrounded, sadly, by the bodies of his enemies. Believing Gerold wouldn’t be able to continue his studies in Zurich, Zwingli sent him to Basel in 1521.
Young Knonau did not find Hedio the friend of Zuinglius there. Capito being obliged to accompany the archbishop Albert to the coronation of Charles V, had procured Hedio to supply his place. Bâle having thus, one after another, lost her most faithful preachers, the church there seemed forsaken; but other men appeared. Four thousand hearers squeezed into the church of William Roubli, curate of St. Alban. He attacked the mass, purgatory, and the invocation of saints; but this turbulent man who was eager to draw the public attention upon himself, declaimed more against error than in support of truth. On Corpus Christi day he joined the public procession, but in place of the customary relics, caused the Holy Scriptures to be carried before him, splendidly bound, and bearing this inscription:—"The Bible; this is the true relic, the others are only dead bones." Courage adorns the servant of God; affectation disgraces him. The work of an evangelist is to preach the Bible, and not to make a presumptuous display of it. The enraged priests accused Roubli before the council. A mob immediately gathered in Cordelier Square. "Protect our preacher," said the citizens to the council. Fifty Ladies of distinction interceded in his behalf; but Roubli was obliged to quit Bâle. At a later period he took part like Grebel in Anabaptist disorders. The Reformation, in the course of its development, every where threw off the chaff which mingled with the good grain.
Young Knonau did not find Hedio, Zuinglius's friend, there. Capito had to accompany Archbishop Albert to the coronation of Charles V, so he arranged for Hedio to take his place. Bâle, having now lost its most loyal preachers one by one, seemed to have a forsaken church, but other men stepped up. Four thousand listeners packed into the church of William Roubli, the curate of St. Alban. He criticized the mass, purgatory, and the invocation of saints; however, this restless man, eager to draw public attention to himself, focused more on condemning errors than supporting the truth. On Corpus Christi day, he joined the public procession, but instead of the usual relics, he had the Holy Scriptures carried in front of him, beautifully bound and inscribed with: "The Bible; this is the true relic, the others are only dead bones." Courage enhances the servant of God; pretentiousness devalues him. The role of an evangelist is to preach the Bible, not to boastfully display it. Furious priests accused Roubli before the council, and a crowd quickly gathered in Cordelier Square. "Protect our preacher," the citizens urged the council. Fifty distinguished ladies interceded on his behalf, but Roubli had to leave Bâle. Later on, he became involved in Anabaptist troubles like Grebel. As the Reformation progressed, it consistently sifted out the chaff that mixed with the good grain.
At this period a modest voice was heard from the humblest of the chapels, clearly proclaiming the evangelical doctrine. It was that of young Wolfgang Wissemberger, son of a counsellor of state and chaplain of the hospital. All in Bâle who felt new religious wants attached themselves to the gentle chaplain, preferring him to the presumptuous Roubli. Wolfgang began to read the mass in German. The monks renewed their clamour, but this time they failed, and Wissemberger continued to preach the gospel; "for," says an old chronicler, "he was a burgess and his father a counsellor."[808] This first success of the Reformation in Bâle, while it was the prelude of still greater success, at the same time tended greatly to promote the progress of the work throughout the Confederation. Zurich no longer stood alone. Learned Bâle began to be charmed with the new doctrine. The foundations of the new temple were enlarged. The Reformation in Switzerland obtained a fuller development.
During this time, a quiet voice was heard from the simplest of chapels, clearly stating the evangelical message. It was that of young Wolfgang Wissemberger, the son of a state counselor and hospital chaplain. Everyone in Bâle who felt new spiritual needs connected with the gentle chaplain, choosing him over the arrogant Roubli. Wolfgang started to read the mass in German. The monks raised their protests again, but this time they were unsuccessful, and Wissemberger continued to preach the gospel; "for," says an old chronicler, "he was a citizen and his father was a counselor."[808] This initial success of the Reformation in Bâle was just the beginning of even greater achievements, greatly helping to advance the movement across the Confederation. Zurich was no longer isolated. Educated Bâle began to embrace the new doctrine. The foundations of the new temple were expanded. The Reformation in Switzerland gained greater momentum.
The centre of the movement was, however, at Zurich. But, to the deep grief of Zuinglius, important political events occurred in 1521, and in some measure distracted men's minds from the preaching of the gospel. Leo X, who had offered his alliance at once to Charles V and Francis I, had at last declared for the emperor. War between the two rivals was on the point of breaking out in Italy. The French general Lautrec had said, "There will be nothing left of the pope but his ears."[809] This bad jest increased the pontiff's anger. The king of France claimed the aid of the Swiss cantons, all of which, with the exception of Zurich, had formed an alliance with him; he obtained it. The pope flattered himself he would gain Zurich, and the cardinal of Sion, ever given to intrigue, and confident in his ability and his finesse, hastened thither to obtain soldiers for his master. But from his old friend Zuinglius he encountered a vigorous opposition. He was indignant that the Swiss should sell their blood to strangers, and his imagination figured to itself the swords of the Zurichers under the standard of the pope and the emperor in the plains of Italy crossing the swords of the confederates united under the colours of France. At such scenes of fratricide his patriotic and Christian soul shuddered with horror. Thundering from the pulpit he exclaimed, "Would you rend and overthrow the confederation?[810] ... We attack the wolves which devour our flocks, but offer no resistance to those who prowl around seeking to devour men.... Ah! it is not without cause that these hats and mantles are of scarlet. Shake their robes and ducats and crowns will tumble out of them, twist them and you will see the blood of your brother, your father, your son, and your dearest friend trickling down from them."[811] The energetic voice of Zuinglius was heard in vain. The cardinal with the red hat succeeded, and two thousand seven hundred Zurichers set out under the command of George Berguer. Zuinglius was heart-broken. Still, however, his influence was not lost. For a long time the banners of Zurich were not again to be unfurled, and pass the gates of the town in the cause of foreign powers.
The center of the movement was in Zurich. However, to Zuinglius's deep sorrow, important political events in 1521 distracted people's attention from preaching the gospel. Leo X, who had offered his support to both Charles V and Francis I, ultimately sided with the emperor. War was about to break out between the two rivals in Italy. The French general Lautrec joked, "There will be nothing left of the pope but his ears." This joke only fueled the pontiff's anger. The king of France sought the assistance of the Swiss cantons, all of which, except Zurich, had formed an alliance with him; he got what he wanted. The pope believed he could win over Zurich, and the cardinal of Sion, always intrigued and confident in his skills, rushed there to gather soldiers for his master. But he faced strong opposition from his old friend Zuinglius. He was outraged that the Swiss would sell their blood to strangers, picturing the Zurich swords under the pope's and emperor's banner battling against the confederates fighting for France in Italy. Such scenes of brother killing brother horrified his patriotic and Christian soul. Thundering from the pulpit, he exclaimed, "Would you tear apart and destroy the confederation? ... We fight against the wolves that devour our flocks but offer no resistance to those who lurk, seeking to consume men… Ah! It's no wonder these hats and robes are scarlet. Shake them and crowns, money, and blood from your brother, your father, your son, and your closest friend will spill out." Zuinglius's passionate voice fell on deaf ears. The cardinal with the red hat succeeded, and two thousand seven hundred Zurichers set out under George Berguer’s command. Zuinglius was heartbroken. Nevertheless, his influence was not entirely lost. For a long time, the banners of Zurich would not fly again, nor would they pass beyond the town gates for foreign powers.
CHAP. XI.
Zuinglius against the Precepts of Man—Fermentation during Lent—Truth advances during Combat—The Deputies of the Bishops—Accusation before the Clergy and Council—Appeal to the Great Council—The Coadjutor and Zuinglius—Decree of the Grand Council—State of Matters—Attack by Hoffman.
Zwingli vs. Human Rules—Fermentation During Lent—Truth Advances in Conflict—The Bishops' Delegates—Accusations Before the Clergy and Council—Appeal to the Main Council—The Coadjutor and Zwingli—Grand Council's Decision—Current Status—Hoffman's Assault.
Torn in his feelings as a citizen, Zuinglius devoted himself with new zeal to the preaching of the gospel, urging it with growing energy. "I will not cease," said he, "to labour to restore the ancient unity of the Church of Christ."[812] He began the year 1522 by showing what difference there is between the precepts of the gospel and the precepts of men. The season of Lent having arrived, he raised his voice still more loudly. After laying the foundation of the new edifice, he wished to clear away the rubbish of the old. "For four years," said he to the multitude assembled in the cathedral, "you with ardent thirst received the holy doctrine of the gospel. Enkindled by the flames of charity, fed with the sweets of heavenly manna, it is impossible to have still any relish for the sad element of human traditions."[813] Then attacking compulsory abstinence from flesh for a certain time, he exclaimed in his bold eloquence, "There are some who pretend that it is an evil, and even a great sin, to eat flesh, although God never forbade it; and yet do not consider it a crime to sell human flesh to the foreigner, and drag it to slaughter."[814] The friends of foreign service who were present were filled with indignation and rage at these bold words, and vowed not to forget them.
Torn in his feelings as a citizen, Zwingli committed himself with renewed passion to preaching the gospel, emphasizing it with increasing vigor. "I will not stop," he declared, "to work on restoring the ancient unity of the Church of Christ." He kicked off the year 1522 by illustrating the difference between the teachings of the gospel and those of humans. With Lent upon them, he raised his voice even more. After laying the foundation of the new structure, he sought to remove the remnants of the old. "For four years," he told the crowd gathered in the cathedral, "you have eagerly embraced the holy teachings of the gospel. Fueled by the flames of love and nourished by the sweetness of divine manna, it is impossible to still find any appeal in the sad aspects of human traditions." Then, critiquing the enforced abstinence from meat for a certain period, he exclaimed with bold eloquence, "Some claim that eating meat is wrong and even a serious sin, even though God never prohibited it; yet they don't view it as a crime to sell human flesh to foreigners and lead it to slaughter." The friends of foreign service present were filled with indignation and anger at these audacious words, vowing never to forget them.
While preaching thus forcibly, Zuinglius still continued to say mass: he observed the usages established by the Church, and even abstained from meat on the forbidden days. He was persuaded that the first thing necessary was to enlighten the people. But certain turbulent spirits did not act with so much wisdom. Roubli, who had become a refugee at Zurich, allowed himself to be carried away by the impulse of an extravagant zeal. The old curate of St. Alban, a Bernese captain, and Conrad Huber, a member of the great Council, often met at the house of the last to eat meat on Friday and Saturday, and made a boast of it. The question of abstinence was the engrossing topic. An inhabitant of Lucerne, who had come to Zurich, said to one of his friends there, "You do wrong in eating flesh during Lent." The friend answered, "You Lucerne folks also take the liberty of eating it on the forbidden days." The inhabitant of Lucerne rejoined, "We have purchased it from the pope." The friend—"And we from the butcher. If it is a question of money, the one is surely as good as the other."[815] The council, a complaint having been lodged against the transgressors of the ecclesiastical ordinances, asked the advice of the curates. Zuinglius answered that the act of eating meat every day was not blameable in itself; but that it ought to be abstained from so long as competent authority had not given any decision on the point. The other members of the clergy concurred in this opinion.
While preaching with great intensity, Zuinglius continued to say mass. He followed the practices established by the Church and even avoided meat on the designated days. He believed that the first priority was to educate the people. However, some restless individuals weren't as wise. Roubli, who had become a refugee in Zurich, let himself be swept away by an extreme zeal. The old curate of St. Alban, a captain from Bern, and Conrad Huber, a member of the Great Council, frequently gathered at Huber's house to eat meat on Fridays and Saturdays, boasting about it. The issue of abstaining from meat was a hot topic. An inhabitant of Lucerne who had come to Zurich said to one of his friends, "You're wrong for eating meat during Lent." The friend replied, "You Lucerne folks also indulge in eating it on the forbidden days." The Lucerne resident responded, "We bought it from the pope." The friend shot back, "And we got ours from the butcher. If it's a matter of money, one is definitely as good as the other." The council, after receiving a complaint against those who violated ecclesiastical rules, sought advice from the curates. Zuinglius stated that eating meat every day is not inherently wrong, but it should be avoided until competent authority makes a decision on the matter. The other members of the clergy agreed with this view.
The enemies of the truth took advantage of this favourable circumstance. Their influence was on the wane. Victory was on the side of Zuinglius. It was necessary, therefore, to make haste and strike a decisive blow. They importuned the Bishop of Constance. "Zuinglius," exclaimed they, "is the destroyer of the flock, and not its shepherd."[816]
The enemies of the truth took advantage of this favorable situation. Their influence was declining. Victory belonged to Zuinglius. Therefore, they needed to act quickly and deliver a decisive blow. They pressured the Bishop of Constance. "Zuinglius," they exclaimed, "is the destroyer of the flock, not its shepherd."[816]
Ambitious Faber, the old friend of Zuinglius, had returned full of zeal for the papacy from a visit which he had just paid to Rome. From the inspiration of this proud city the first troubles of Switzerland were to proceed. It was necessary that there should be a decisive struggle between evangelical truth and the representatives of the pontiff. It is especially when attacked that the truth manifests its whole power. Under the shade of opposition and persecution, Christianity at first acquired the power which overthrew her enemies. God was pleased, in like manner, to conduct his truth through difficult paths at the period of revival which we now describe. The priests then, as in the days of the apostles, assailed the new doctrine. But for their attacks it might, perhaps, have remained obscurely hid in some faithful souls. But God watched over it to manifest it to the world. Opposition struck out new paths for it, launched it on a new career, and fixed the eyes of the nation upon it. It was like a breath of wind scattering far and wide seeds which might otherwise have remained inert in the spots on which they fell. The tree destined to shelter the Helvetic population was indeed planted in the bosom of their valleys, but storms were necessary to strengthen the roots and give full development to the branches. The partisans of the papacy, seeing the fire which was slowly burning in Zurich, threw themselves upon it to extinguish it, and thereby only caused its flames to spread.
Ambitious Faber, the old friend of Zuinglius, had returned from a visit to Rome, filled with enthusiasm for the papacy. From this proud city, the first troubles of Switzerland were set to arise. A decisive struggle between evangelical truth and the representatives of the pope was necessary. It's especially in times of conflict that truth shows its full strength. Under the shadow of opposition and persecution, Christianity initially gained the power to overthrow its enemies. Similarly, God guided His truth through difficult paths during the revival period we are describing. The priests, just as in the days of the apostles, attacked the new doctrine. Without their attacks, it might have remained obscure, hidden within a few devoted souls. But God watched over it to reveal it to the world. Opposition opened up new paths for it, launched it on a new journey, and garnered the attention of the nation. It was like a gust of wind scattering seeds that might otherwise have stayed dormant where they landed. The tree meant to shelter the Helvetic people was indeed planted in the heart of their valleys, but storms were necessary to strengthen the roots and allow the branches to grow fully. The supporters of the papacy, noticing the fire slowly burning in Zurich, rushed to extinguish it, but instead only caused its flames to spread.
On the afternoon of the 7th April, 1522, three ecclesiastic deputies from the Bishop of Constance were seen entering the town of Zurich. Two of them had a stern and angry, the third, a gentle expression of countenance. It was the coadjutor of the Bishop Melchior Battli, Doctor Brendi, and John Vanner, preacher of the cathedral, an evangelical man who, during the whole affair, remained silent.[817] It was night when Luti called in haste on Zuinglius, and said, "Officers from the bishop have arrived; a great blow is preparing: all the partisans of ancient customs are in motion. A notary has called a meeting of all the priests at an early hour to morrow morning, in the hall of the Chapter."
On the afternoon of April 7, 1522, three representatives from the Bishop of Constance were seen entering the town of Zurich. Two of them had serious and angry expressions, while the third looked gentle. They were the Bishop's coadjutor Melchior Battli, Doctor Brendi, and John Vanner, the preacher of the cathedral, an evangelical man who stayed silent throughout the whole situation.[817] It was night when Luti hurriedly called on Zuinglius and said, "The bishop's officers have arrived; something big is brewing: all the supporters of old traditions are in action. A notary has called a meeting for all the priests early tomorrow morning in the Chapter hall."
The assembly of the clergy having accordingly met next day, the coadjutor rose and delivered a speech, which seemed to his opponents full of violence and pride.[818] He affected, however, not to mention Zuinglius by name. Some priests, who had been recently gained to the gospel, and were still irresolute, were terrified; their pale cheeks, their silence, and their sighs, showed that they had lost all courage.[819] Zuinglius rose and delivered a speech, which closed the mouths of his adversaries. At Zurich, as in the other cantons, the most violent enemies of the new doctrine were in the Lesser Council. The deputation, defeated before the clergy, carried their complaints before the magistrates. Zuinglius was absent, and there was no reply to be dreaded. The result appeared decisive. The gospel and its defenders were on the point of being condemned without a hearing. Never was the Reformation of Switzerland in greater danger. It was going to be stifled in the cradle. The counsellors in favour of Zuinglius appealed to the Great Council. It was the only remaining plank for escape, and God employed it to save the cause of the gospel. The two hundred were convened. The partisans of the papacy used every mean to exclude Zuinglius, who, on the other hand, did all he could to gain admission. As he himself expresses it, he knocked at every door, and left not a stone unturned,[820] but all in vain! "The thing is impossible," said the burgomasters; "the Council has decreed the contrary." "Then," relates Zuinglius, "I remained quiet, and with deep sighs carried the matter before Him who hears the groaning of the prisoner, supplicating him to defend His own gospel."[821] The patient, resigned waiting of the servants of God is never disappointed.
The assembly of the clergy met the next day, and the coadjutor stood up and gave a speech that seemed to his opponents filled with anger and arrogance.[818] He purposely didn’t mention Zuinglius by name. Some priests, who had recently converted to the gospel and were still unsure, looked scared; their pale faces, silence, and sighs showed that they had lost all courage.[819] Zuinglius then spoke and silenced his opponents. In Zurich, as in the other cantons, the fiercest enemies of the new doctrine were in the Lesser Council. The delegation, defeated in the clergy meeting, took their complaints to the magistrates. Zuinglius was absent, so there was nothing to fear in terms of a response. The outcome seemed decisive. The gospel and its supporters were about to be condemned without a fair hearing. Never had the Reformation in Switzerland faced greater danger. It was on the verge of being extinguished right from the start. Zuinglius’s supporters appealed to the Great Council. It was their last chance for escape, and God used it to save the cause of the gospel. The two hundred were convened. The supporters of the papacy did everything they could to keep Zuinglius out, while he did everything possible to gain entry. As he put it, he knocked on every door and left no stone unturned,[820] but it was all in vain! "It’s impossible," said the burgomasters; "the Council has decided otherwise." "Then," Zuinglius recounted, "I remained silent and, with deep sighs, took the matter before Him who hears the groans of the prisoner, pleading with Him to defend His own gospel."[821] The patient and resigned waiting of God’s servants is never in vain.
On the 9th April, the Two Hundred assembled. "We wish to have our pastors here," immediately exclaimed the members who were in favour of the Reformation. The Lesser Council resisted. but the Great Council decided that the pastors should be present to hear the charge, and answer it, if they thought fit. The deputies from Constance were introduced, and then the three curates of Zurich, Zuinglius, Engelhard, and old Röschli.
On April 9th, the Two Hundred gathered. "We want our pastors here," immediately shouted the members who supported the Reformation. The Lesser Council opposed it, but the Great Council decided that the pastors should be present to hear the accusation and respond if they wanted to. The representatives from Constance were introduced, followed by the three curates of Zurich: Zuinglius, Engelhard, and the elderly Röschli.
After the parties thus brought face to face had for some time eyed each other, the coadjutor rose. "Had his heart and his head been equal to his voice," says Zuinglius, "he would, in sweetness, have surpassed Apollo and Orpheus, and in force the Gracchi and Demosthenes."
After the parties were finally face to face and had been looking at each other for a while, the coadjutor stood up. "If his heart and mind had matched his voice," says Zuinglius, "he would have surpassed Apollo and Orpheus in sweetness, and the Gracchi and Demosthenes in power."
"The civil constitution," said the champion of the papacy, "and Christianity itself, are threatened. Men have appeared teaching new, offensive and seditious doctrines." Then, after speaking at great length, he fixed his eye on the assembled senate, and said, "Remain with the Church, remain in the Church. Out of it none can be saved. Ceremonies alone can bring the simple to the knowledge of salvation,[822] and the pastors of the flocks have nothing else to do than explain their meaning to the people."
"The civil constitution," said the supporter of the papacy, "and Christianity itself are in danger. People have emerged teaching new, offensive, and rebellious ideas." Then, after speaking at length, he focused his gaze on the assembled senate and declared, "Stay with the Church, stay in the Church. No one can be saved outside of it. Only ceremonies can guide the simple to the knowledge of salvation,[822] and the pastors of the congregations have nothing else to do but explain their meaning to the people."
As soon as the coadjutor had finished his speech, he and his party were preparing to leave the council-hall, when Zuinglius said to him, warmly, "Mr. Coadjutor, and you who accompany him, remain, I pray you, till I have defended myself."
As soon as the assistant finished his speech, he and his group were getting ready to leave the council hall when Zuinglius said to him, warmly, "Mr. Assistant, and everyone with you, please stay until I can defend myself."
The Coadjutor.—"We are not employed to dispute with any man whatever."
The Coadjutor.—"We're not here to argue with anyone."
Zuinglius.—"I mean not to dispute, but to explain to you, without fear, what I have taught up to this hour."
Zuinglius.—"I'm not here to argue, but to confidently explain to you what I've taught up until now."
Burgomaster Roust to the Deputies of Constance.—"I pray you listen to the curate's reply."
Burgomaster Roust to the Deputies of Constance.—"I ask you to pay attention to the curate's response."
The Coadjutor.—"I too well know the man with whom I would have to do. Ulric Zuinglius is too violent for any man to dispute with!"
The Coadjutor.—"I know the man I’d be dealing with all too well. Ulric Zuinglius is too intense for anyone to argue with!"
Zuinglius.—"When did it become the practice to attack an innocent man so strongly, and afterwards refuse to hear him? In the name of our common faith—in the name of the baptism which both of us have received—in the name of Christ, the author of salvation and life, listen to me.[823] If you cannot as deputies, at least do it as Christians."
Zuinglius.—"When did it become normal to harshly attack an innocent person and then refuse to listen to them? In the name of our shared faith—in the name of the baptism we both received—in the name of Christ, the source of salvation and life, hear me.[823] If you can't do it as representatives, at least do it as Christians."
After firing a volley into the air, Rome retired with hasty steps from the field of battle. The Reformer only asked to speak, and the agent of the papacy thought only of flight. A cause thus pleaded was already gained on the one side and lost on the other. The two hundred could not contain their indignation; a murmur burst forth in the assembly.[824] The burgomaster again pressed the deputies. They felt ashamed, and silently resumed their seats. Then Zuinglius said:
After firing a shot into the air, Rome quickly left the battlefield. The Reformer just wanted to talk, while the papal agent was only thinking about escaping. With such a plea, one side had already won, and the other had lost. The two hundred couldn’t hold back their anger; a murmur rose in the assembly.[824] The mayor urged the delegates again. They felt embarrassed and silently returned to their seats. Then Zuinglius said:
"The Coadjutor speaks of seditious doctrines subversive of civil laws. Let him know that Zurich is quieter, and more obedient to the laws than any other town in Switzerland, and this all good citizens attribute to the gospel. Is not Christianity the most powerful safeguard of justice among a people?[825] What are ceremonies good for, unless it be to sully the face of Christ and Christians?[826] Yes, there is another method than these vain observances to bring simple people to the knowledge of the truth—a method which Christ and the Apostles followed in the gospel itself! Have no dread of its not being comprehended by the people! Whoever believes comprehends. The people can believe, and therefore can comprehend. This is a work of the Divine Spirit, and not of human reason.[827] For the rest, he who does not find forty days sufficient may, for me, if he likes, fast every day in the year! All I ask is, that nobody be compelled to do so, and that, for neglect of the minutest observance, the Zurichers be not accused of separating from the communion of Christians...."
"The Coadjutor talks about rebellious ideas that undermine civil laws. He should know that Zurich is calmer and more law-abiding than any other city in Switzerland, and the good citizens credit this to the gospel. Isn't Christianity the strongest protector of justice among the people?[825] What purpose do rituals serve, if not to tarnish the face of Christ and Christians?[826] Yes, there’s a better way than these empty practices to guide simple people to the truth—a way that Christ and the Apostles demonstrated through the gospel itself! Don’t worry about it not being understood by the people! Anyone who believes understands. The people can believe, and therefore can understand. This is the work of the Divine Spirit, not human reasoning.[827] If someone doesn’t find forty days enough, they can fast every day of the year if they want! All I ask is that no one be forced to do so, and that the Zurichers not be accused of breaking away from the Christian community for neglecting even the smallest ritual...."
"I did not say so," exclaimed the Coadjutor. "No," said his colleague, Dr. Brendi, "he did not say it." But the whole senate confirmed the assertion of Zuinglius, who continued:
"I didn't say that," shouted the Coadjutor. "No," replied his colleague, Dr. Brendi, "he didn't say it." But the whole senate backed up Zuinglius's claim, and he went on:
"Worthy citizens, let not this accusation move you! The foundation of the Church is that rock, that Christ, who gave Peter his name, because he confessed him faithfully. In every nation whosoever believeth with the heart in the Lord Jesus Christ is saved. This is the Church out of which no man can be saved.[828] As to us ministers of Christ, to explain the gospel and follow it is the whole of our duty. Let those who live by ceremonies make it their business to explain them." This was to touch the sore part.
"Worthy citizens, don’t let this accusation sway you! The foundation of the Church is that rock, Christ, who gave Peter his name because he faithfully confessed him. In every nation, anyone who believes in their heart in the Lord Jesus Christ is saved. This is the Church from which no one can be saved.[828] For us ministers of Christ, explaining the gospel and following it is our entire duty. Let those who rely on ceremonies focus on explaining them." This was meant to highlight the sensitive issue.
The Coadjutor blushed and said nothing. The two hundred adjourned, and afterwards, the same day, decided that the pope and cardinals should be requested to explain the controverted point, and that in the meantime flesh should not be eaten during Lent. This was to leave matters on the old footing, and answer the bishop in such a way as to gain time.
The Coadjutor blushed and said nothing. The two hundred adjourned, and later that same day, they decided to ask the pope and cardinals to clarify the disputed issue, and that in the meantime, no one should eat meat during Lent. This was meant to maintain the status quo and respond to the bishop in a way that bought them some time.
This struggle had advanced the work of the Reformation. The champions of Rome and of the Reformation had been in presence of each other, and before the eyes of the whole community, and the advantage had not been on the side of the pope. This was the first engagement in what was to be a long and severe campaign, and to exhibit many alternations of grief and joy. But a first victory at the outset gives courage to the whole army, and fills the enemy with dismay. The Reformation had obtained possession of a territory of which it was not again to be deprived. If the Council deemed it necessary to proceed with some degree of caution, the people loudly proclaimed the defeat of Rome. "Never," said they in the exultation of the moment, "never will they be able to reassemble their beaten and scattered troops."[829] "You," said they to Zuinglius, "have with the spirit of St. Paul attacked these false apostles and their Ananias, their whited walls.... The utmost the satellites of antichrist can now do is to gnash their teeth against you!" Voices were heard from the centre of Germany joyfully proclaiming "the glory of reviving theology."[830]
This struggle had pushed the Reformation forward. The defenders of Rome and the Reformation faced each other openly, in front of the entire community, and the pope didn’t have the upper hand. This was the first battle in what would be a long and tough campaign, showing many ups and downs of sorrow and joy. But a first victory at the beginning boosts the entire army's confidence and strikes fear into the enemy. The Reformation had taken control of a territory that it wouldn’t lose again. While the Council felt the need to proceed with some caution, the people were loudly celebrating Rome's defeat. "Never," they proclaimed in their excitement, "will they be able to regroup their beaten and scattered forces." [829] "You," they told Zuinglius, "have, with the spirit of St. Paul, taken on these false apostles and their Ananias, their whitewashed walls.... The most that the followers of antichrist can do now is to grit their teeth at you!" Joyful voices were heard from central Germany proclaiming "the glory of reviving theology." [830]
At the same time, however, the enemies of the gospel mustered their forces. If they were to strike there was no time to be lost, for it would soon be beyond the reach of their blows. Hoffman laid before the chapter a long accusation against the Reformer. "Were the curate even able," said he, "to prove by witnesses what sins, what irregularities have been committed by ecclesiastics in such a convent, such a street, such a tavern, it would still be his duty not to give any names. Why does he give out (it is true I have scarcely ever heard him myself) that he alone draws his doctrine at the fountain-head, and that others search for it only in sinks and puddles?[831] Is it not impossible, seeing the diversity of spirits, for all to preach the same thing?"
At the same time, the enemies of the gospel were gathering their forces. If they were going to strike, there was no time to waste, as it would soon be out of their reach. Hoffman presented a lengthy accusation against the Reformer to the chapter. "Even if the curate could prove by witnesses what sins and irregularities have been committed by clergy in a certain convent, street, or tavern, it would still be his duty not to reveal any names. Why does he claim (it's true I've hardly ever heard him myself) that he alone gets his doctrine straight from the source, while others only look for it in dirty water and puddles? Is it really possible, given the variety of beliefs, for everyone to preach the same message?"[831]
Zuinglius defended himself at a full meeting of the Chapter, scattering the accusations of his opponent "as a bull with his horns tosses straw into the air."[832] The affair which had appeared so serious ended in laughter at the canon's expence. But Zuinglius did not stop here; on the 16th April, he published a treatise On the free use of food.[833]
Zuinglius defended himself at a full meeting of the Chapter, tossing aside the accusations of his opponent "like a bull tossing straw into the air."[832] What seemed like a serious matter ended in laughter at the canon's expense. But Zuinglius didn’t stop there; on April 16th, he published a treatise On the Free Use of Food.[833]
CHAP. XII.
Grief and Joy in Germany—Ambush against Zuinglius—Mandate of the Bishop—Archeteles—The Bishop addresses the Diet—Prohibition to attack the Monks—Declaration of Zuinglius—The Nuns of Œtenbach—Zuinglius' address to Schwitz.
Grief and Joy in Germany—Ambush against Zuinglius—Bishop's Mandate—Archeteles—The Bishop speaks to the Diet—Order not to attack the Monks—Zuinglius' Declaration—The Nuns of Œtenbach—Zuinglius' address to Schwitz.
The Reformer's immovable firmness delighted the friends of truth, and particularly the Evangelical Christians of Germany, so long deprived by the captivity of the Wartburg, of the mighty apostle who had first raised his head in the bosom of the Church. Pastors and faithful people, now exiled by the inexorable decree which the papacy had obtained at Worms from Charles V, found an asylum in Zurich. Nesse, the professor of Frankfort, whom Luther visited when on his way to Worms, in a letter to Zuinglius says—"Oh, how I am delighted to learn with what authority you preach Christ. Speak words of encouragement to those who, by the cruelty of wicked bishops, are obliged to flee far from our churches in sorrow."[834]
The Reformer's unwavering strength thrilled the supporters of truth, especially the Evangelical Christians in Germany, who had long been deprived of the powerful leader that had first emerged from the Church during the Wartburg captivity. Pastors and faithful followers, now exiled due to the harsh decree the papacy secured from Charles V at Worms, found refuge in Zurich. Nesse, the professor from Frankfurt, whom Luther visited on his way to Worms, wrote to Zuinglius, "Oh, how happy I am to hear how confidently you preach Christ. Offer words of encouragement to those who, suffering under cruel bishops, are forced to flee far from our churches in distress."[834]
But the adversaries of the Reformation did not confine their cruel plots against its friends to Germany. Scarcely an hour passed at Zurich in which the means of getting rid of Zuinglius were not under consideration.[835] One day he received an anonymous letter, which he immediately communicated to his two vicars. It said, "Snares environ you on every side, mortal poison is ready to deprive you of life.[836] Eat only in your own house, and of bread baked by your own cook. The walls of Zurich contain men who are plotting your ruin. The oracle which revealed this to me is truer than that of Delphi. I am on your side, you will yet know me."[837]
But the opponents of the Reformation didn’t limit their cruel schemes against its supporters to Germany. Hardly an hour went by in Zurich without discussions about how to eliminate Zuinglius.[835] One day, he got an anonymous letter, which he quickly shared with his two vicars. It said, "You are surrounded by traps, deadly poison is ready to take your life.[836] Only eat at home, and stick to bread baked by your own cook. The walls of Zurich hold people who are plotting your downfall. The source that revealed this to me is more reliable than the oracle at Delphi. I am on your side, you will eventually know who I am."[837]
The day following that on which Zuinglius received this mysterious letter, at the moment when Staheli was going to enter the church of Eau, a chaplain stopped him and said, "Make all haste and quit the house of Zuinglius; a catastrophe is preparing." Fanatics in despair of being able to arrest the Reformation by word, armed themselves with the poniard. When mighty revolutions are accomplished in society, assassins are often thrown up from the impure dregs of the agitated population. God guarded Zuinglius.
The day after Zuinglius got that mysterious letter, just as Staheli was about to enter the church of Eau, a chaplain stopped him and said, "Hurry and leave Zuinglius's house; a disaster is coming." Desperate fanatics, unable to stop the Reformation with words, armed themselves with daggers. When major changes happen in society, assassins often emerge from the troubled masses. God protected Zuinglius.
While murderers saw their plots defeated, the legitimate organs of the papacy again began to agitate. The bishop and his counsellors were determined to renew the war. From every quarter information to this effect reached Zuinglius, who, leaning on the divine promise, exclaimed with noble confidence, "I fear them ... as a lofty shore fears the threatening waves... συν τῶ Θεῳ with God," added he.[838] On the 2nd May, the Bishop of Constance published an order in which, without naming either Zurich or Zuinglius, he complained of the attempts of artful persons to renew the condemned doctrines, and of discussions by the learned and the ignorant, in all places on the most solemn mysteries. John Wanner, the preacher of the cathedral of Constance, was the first that was attacked. "I would rather," said he, "be a Christian with the hatred of many, than abandon Christ for the friendship of the world."[839]
While murderers saw their plans fall apart, the legitimate authorities of the papacy began to rally again. The bishop and his advisors were determined to reignite the conflict. News of this reached Zuinglius from every direction, who, leaning on the divine promise, responded with noble confidence, "I fear them ... like a high shore fears the threatening waves... συν τῶ Θεῳ with God," he added.[838] On May 2nd, the Bishop of Constance issued an order in which, without naming Zurich or Zuinglius, he expressed concern about the efforts of crafty individuals to revive the condemned doctrines, and about debates by both the learned and the uneducated, everywhere on the most sacred mysteries. John Wanner, the preacher at the cathedral of Constance, was the first one attacked. "I would rather," he said, "be a Christian with the hatred of many, than abandon Christ for the friendship of the world."[839]
But it was at Zurich that the growing heresy required to be crushed. Faber and the bishop knew that Zuinglius had several enemies among the canons, and they were desirous to turn this hatred to account. Toward the end of May, a letter from the bishop arrived at Zurich addressed to the provost and his chapter. "Sons of the church," said the prelate, "let them perish that will perish, but let no one sever you from the church."[840] At the same time the bishop urged the canons to prevent the false doctrines engendered by pernicious sects from being preached and discussed, whether in private or in public. When this letter was read in the chapter, all eyes were turned upon Zuinglius, who, understanding what was meant, said, "I see you think that this letter concerns me; have the goodness to put it into my hand, and by the help of God I will answer it."
But it was in Zurich that the rising heresy needed to be dealt with. Faber and the bishop knew that Zuinglius had several enemies among the canons, and they wanted to take advantage of this animosity. Toward the end of May, a letter from the bishop arrived in Zurich addressed to the provost and his chapter. "Sons of the church," said the bishop, "let those who want to perish do so, but let no one separate you from the church."[840] At the same time, the bishop urged the canons to stop the false teachings promoted by harmful sects from being preached or discussed, whether in private or in public. When this letter was read in the chapter, all eyes turned to Zuinglius, who, realizing what it meant, said, "I see you think this letter is about me; please hand it to me, and with God's help, I will respond."
Zuinglius did reply in his "Archêtelés," a word which signifies the beginning and end, "for I hope," said he, "that this first answer will also be the last." He spoke in it in very respectful terms of the bishop, and attributed all the attacks of his enemies to some intriguers. "What then have I done?" said he, "I have called all men to the knowledge of their maladies, I have laboured to bring them to the true God and to his Son Jesus Christ. With that view I have employed not captious exhortations, but words simple and true, such as the sons of Switzerland can comprehend." Then passing from the defensive and becoming the assailant, he finely adds, "Julius Cæsar, feeling himself mortally wounded, endeavoured to draw up the folds of his robe that he might fall in a becoming manner. The fall of your ceremonies is at hand; act so at least that they may fall decently, and that in every place light may be quickly substituted for darkness."[841]
Zuinglius responded in his "Archêtelés," which means the beginning and end, saying, "I hope that this first reply will also be my last." He spoke very respectfully about the bishop and claimed that all the attacks from his enemies were due to some instigators. "So what have I done?" he asked. "I've called everyone to recognize their problems, and I've worked to lead them to the true God and His Son, Jesus Christ. To do this, I haven't used tricky arguments, but rather simple and honest words that the people of Switzerland can understand." Then, shifting from defense to offense, he clever remarks, "Julius Caesar, feeling mortally wounded, tried to adjust his robe so he could fall gracefully. The fall of your ceremonies is near; at least ensure they come down gracefully, allowing light to quickly replace darkness everywhere." [841]
This was all that the bishop gained by his letter to the chapter of Zurich. Now, therefore, that friendly remonstrances were vain, it was necessary to strike more decisive blows. Faber and Landenberg turned in another direction—towards the Diet, the national council.[842] There deputies from the bishop arrived to state that their master had issued an order, prohibiting all the priests of his diocese from innovating in matters of doctrine, but that his authority being disregarded he now wished the aid of the heads of the confederation to assist him in bringing the rebellious to obedience, and defending the true and ancient faith.[843] The enemies of the Reformation were in a majority in this first assembly of the nation, which a short time before had issued a decree prohibiting the preaching of all priests whose discourses, as it was expressed, produced discord among the people. This decree of the Diet, which thus, for the first time, took up the question of the Reformation, had no result, but now having determined on vigorous measures, this body summoned before it Urban Weiss, pastor of Feilispach, near Baden, whom public rumour charged with preaching the new faith and rejecting the old. Weiss was respited for some time on the intercession of several individuals, and on bail for a hundred florins offered by his parishioners.
This was all the bishop got from his letter to the chapter of Zurich. Since friendly reminders were useless, it was time to take more decisive action. Faber and Landenberg shifted their focus toward the Diet, the national council.[842] Delegates from the bishop arrived to announce that their leader had issued an order banning all the priests in his diocese from changing doctrine, but since his authority was being ignored, he now sought the help of the heads of the confederation to get the rebels to comply and to defend the true and traditional faith.[843] The opponents of the Reformation held the majority in this first national assembly, which had recently passed a decree forbidding the preaching of all priests whose sermons were said to cause division among the people. This decree of the Diet, which for the first time addressed the Reformation issue, had no outcome, but now determined to take vigorous action, this body called Urban Weiss, pastor of Feilispach, near Baden, to appear before them, as public rumor accused him of preaching the new faith and rejecting the old. Weiss was given a delay for a while due to the intervention of several individuals and on bail of a hundred florins offered by his parishioners.
But the Diet had taken its part, and having just given proof of it, the priests and monks began every where to resume courage. At Zurich, even after the first decree, they had begun to behave more imperiously. Several members of council were in the practice, morning and evening, of visiting the three convents, and even taking their victuals there. The monks laboured to indoctrinate their kind table companions, and urged them to procure a decree of the government in their favour. "If Zuinglius won't be silent," said they, "we will cry louder still!" The Diet had taken part with the oppressors. The council of Zurich knew not what to do. On the 7th of June, it issued an order forbidding any one to preach against the monks, "but scarcely was the order resolved upon, than," says the chronicle of Bullinger, "a sudden noise was heard in the council chamber, and made every one look at his neighbour."[844] Peace was not re-established. The war waged from the pulpit waxed hotter and hotter. The council named a deputation who called the pastors of Zurich and the readers and preachers of the convents to meet them in the provost's house; after a keen discussion, the burgomaster enjoined the two parties not to preach any thing which might interrupt concord. "I cannot accept this injunction," said Zuinglius; "I mean to preach the gospel freely and unconditionally in conformity to the resolution previously adopted. I am bishop and pastor of Zurich; it is to me that the care of souls has been entrusted. It was I that took the oath, not the monks. They ought to yield, not I. If they preach lies I will contradict them, and that even in the pulpit of their own convent. If I myself preach a doctrine contrary to the Holy Gospel, then I ask to be rebuked, not only by the chapter, but by any citizen whatever, and moreover, to be punished by the Council."[845] "We," said the monks, "we demand to be permitted to preach the doctrines of St. Thomas." The committee of the Council having deliberated, ordered that Thomas, Scotus, and the other doctors, should be let alone, and nothing preached but the Holy Gospel. Thus the truth had once more gained the victory. But the wrath of the partisans of the papacy increased. The Ultra-Montane canons could not conceal their anger. They impertinently eyed Zuinglius in the chapter, and by their looks seemed to demand his life.[846]
But the Diet had taken a stand, and having just shown it, the priests and monks everywhere started to regain confidence. In Zurich, even after the first decree, they began to act more arrogantly. Several council members regularly visited the three convents, even taking their meals there. The monks worked to influence their dining companions, urging them to get a government decree in their favor. "If Zuinglius won't be quiet," they said, "we'll just shout louder!" The Diet had sided with the oppressors. The Zurich council didn’t know what to do. On June 7th, they issued an order prohibiting anyone from preaching against the monks, "but as soon as the order was decided," says Bullinger's chronicle, "a sudden uproar was heard in the council chamber, making everyone glance at one another." Peace was not restored. The conflict from the pulpit escalated. The council appointed a delegation to gather the pastors of Zurich and the readers and preachers from the convents at the provost's house; after a heated discussion, the burgomaster instructed both sides not to preach anything that might disrupt harmony. "I cannot accept this order," Zuinglius replied; "I intend to preach the gospel freely and without conditions, in line with the resolution already accepted. I am the bishop and pastor of Zurich; the care of souls has been entrusted to me. I took the oath, not the monks. They should yield, not me. If they preach falsehoods, I will counter them, even from the pulpit of their own convent. If I preach anything contrary to the Holy Gospel, then I invite anyone—be it the chapter or any citizen—to reprimand me and for the Council to punish me." "We," the monks said, "demand permission to preach the doctrines of St. Thomas." After deliberation, the Council’s committee decided that Thomas, Scotus, and the other doctors should be left alone, and that only the Holy Gospel should be preached. Thus, the truth emerged victorious once again. But the anger of the papacy’s supporters grew. The Ultra-Montane canons couldn’t hide their fury. They shot Zuinglius hostile glances in the chapter, their expressions seemingly demanding his life.
Zuinglius was not deterred by their menaces. There was one place in Zurich where, thanks to the Dominicans, the light had not yet penetrated; this was the nunnery of Œtenbach. The daughters of the first families of Zurich there took the veil. It seemed unjust that these poor females, confined within the walls of their monastery, should alone be excluded from hearing the Word of God. The Great Council ordered Zuinglius to repair to it, and the Reformer having mounted a pulpit which had hitherto been given up to the Dominicans, preached "on the clearness and certainty of the Word of God."[847] He at a later period published this remarkable discourse, which was not without fruit, and irritated the monks still more.
Zuinglius was not intimidated by their threats. There was one place in Zurich where, thanks to the Dominicans, the light had yet to shine; this was the nunnery of Œtenbach. The daughters of the prominent families of Zurich there took their vows. It seemed unfair that these poor women, stuck behind the walls of their monastery, should be excluded from hearing the Word of God. The Great Council instructed Zuinglius to go there, and the Reformer, after taking a pulpit that had previously been used by the Dominicans, preached "on the clarity and certainty of the Word of God."[847] He later published this impressive sermon, which had a significant impact and further irritated the monks.
A circumstance occurred to augment this hatred, and give it a place in many other hearts. The Swiss, headed by Stein and Winkelried, had just experienced a bloody defeat at Bicoque. They had rushed impetuously on the enemy, but the artillery of Pescaire and the lancers of that Freundsberg, whom Luther had met at the door of the hall of Worms, had thrown down both leaders and colours, whole companies falling and disappearing at once. Winkelried and Stein, Mulinen, Diesbachs, Bonstettens, Tschudis, and Pfyffers, were left on the battle-field. Schwitz, especially, had been mown down. The bloody wrecks of this dreadful conflict had returned to Switzerland, spreading mourning at every step. A wail of grief had resounded from the Alps to the Jura, and from the Rhone to the Rhine.
A situation arose that fueled this hatred and spread it to many others. The Swiss, led by Stein and Winkelried, had just suffered a brutal defeat at Bicoque. They charged recklessly at the enemy, but the artillery from Pescaire and the lancers of Freundsberg, whom Luther had encountered at the door of the hall in Worms, had taken down both leaders and their colors, with entire companies collapsing and vanishing simultaneously. Winkelried, Stein, Mulinen, Diesbachs, Bonstettens, Tschudis, and Pfyffers were left on the battlefield. Schwitz, in particular, had been cut down. The bloody remains of this horrific battle returned to Switzerland, bringing sadness with them at every turn. A cry of grief echoed from the Alps to the Jura, and from the Rhone to the Rhine.
But none had felt a deeper pang than Zuinglius. He immediately sent an address to Schwitz dissuading its citizens from foreign service. "Your ancestors," said he to them, with all the warmth of a Swiss heart, "forgot their enemies in defence of their liberties, but they never put Christians to death in order to gain money. These foreign wars bring innumerable calamities on our country. The scourges of God chastise our confederacy, and Helvetic freedom is on the eve of being lost between the selfish caresses and the mortal hatred of foreign princes."[848] Zuinglius went hand in hand with Nicolas Flue, and renewed the entreaties of that man of peace. This exhortation having been presented to the assembly of the people of Schwitz had such an effect that a resolution was passed to desist prospectively for twenty-five years from capitulation. But the French party soon succeeded in getting the generous resolution rescinded, and Schwitz was thenceforth the canton most decidedly opposed to Zuinglius and his works. The very disasters which the partisans of foreign capitulation brought upon their country only increased the hatred of those men against the bold minister, who endeavoured to rescue his country from all this misfortune and all this disgrace. Thus throughout the confederation a party which daily grew more and more violent was formed against Zurich and Zuinglius. The customs of the Church and the practices of the recruiters being at once attacked, they made common cause in resisting the impetus of Reform by which their existence was threatened. At the same time external enemies multiplied. Not merely the pope but other foreign princes also vowed inextinguishable hatred to the Reformation, because it was aiming to deprive them of those Helvetic halberds, to which their ambition and their pride owed so many triumphs? But the cause of the gospel had still God on its side and the best among the people: this was sufficient. Besides, individuals from different countries exiled for their faith were led by the hand of Providence to give Switzerland their aid.
But none felt a deeper hurt than Zuinglius. He immediately sent a message to Schwitz, advising its citizens against foreign service. "Your ancestors," he told them passionately, "forgot their enemies to defend their liberties, but they never killed Christians to make money. These foreign wars bring countless tragedies to our country. The scourges of God punish our confederacy, and Helvetic freedom is on the verge of being lost between the selfish embraces and the deadly hatred of foreign rulers." [848] Zuinglius worked closely with Nicolas Flue, renewing the pleas of that man of peace. This appeal, presented to the assembly of the people of Schwitz, had such an impact that a resolution was passed to refrain from capitulation for the next twenty-five years. However, the French faction quickly managed to overturn this generous resolution, and Schwitz subsequently became the canton most opposed to Zuinglius and his efforts. The very disasters brought upon their country by the supporters of foreign capitulation only fueled their animosity towards the bold minister, who tried to save his country from all this misfortune and disgrace. Thus, throughout the confederation, a faction that became increasingly violent formed against Zurich and Zuinglius. The customs of the Church and the practices of the recruiters were simultaneously attacked, and they united to resist the push for Reform that threatened their existence. Meanwhile, external enemies multiplied. Not only the pope but other foreign rulers as well swore eternal hatred against the Reformation because it aimed to take away those Helvetic halberds, which had brought them many triumphs due to their ambition and pride. Yet, the cause of the gospel still had God on its side and the support of the best among the people: this was enough. Additionally, individuals from different countries, exiled for their faith, were guided by Providence to offer Switzerland their support.
CHAP. XIII.
A French monk—He teaches in Switzerland—Dispute between the Monk and Zuinglius—Discourse of the Leader of the Johannites—The Carnival at Berne—The Eaters of the Dead—The Skull of St. Anne—Appenzel—The Grisons—Murder and Adultery—Marriage of Zuinglius.
A French monk—He teaches in Switzerland—Conflict between the monk and Zwingli—Discussion about the leader of the Johannites—The Carnival in Bern—The Eaters of the Dead—The skull of St. Anne—Appenzell—The Grisons—Murder and adultery—Zwingli's marriage.
On Saturday the 12th July there was seen entering the streets of Zurich a monk, tall, thin, stiff, gaunt, clad in a grey cordelier frock, and mounted upon an ass. He had the look of a foreigner, and his bare feet almost touched the ground.[849] He arrived thus by the road from Avignon. He did not know one word of German, but by means of Latin succeeded in making himself understood. Francis Lambert (this was his name) asked for Zuinglius and delivered him a letter from Berthold Haller. "The Franciscan father," wrote the Bernese curate, "who is no less than the apostolic preacher of the general convent of Avignon, has, for nearly five years, been teaching Christian truth: he has preached in Latin to our priests at Geneva, at Lausanne in presence of the bishop, at Friburg, and finally at Berne. His subjects were, the Church, the priesthood, the sacrifice of the mass, the traditions of the Roman bishops, and the superstitions of the religious orders. It seemed to me wonderful to hear such things from a cordelier and a Frenchman—circumstances, both of which, as you know, imply a host of superstitions."[850] The Frenchman himself related to Zuinglius how the writings of Luther having been discovered in his cell, he had been obliged to take a hasty leave of Avignon; how he had first preached the gospel at Geneva, and thereafter at Lausanne. Zuinglius, overjoyed, gave the monk access to the church of Notre Dame, assigning him a seat in the choir near the high altar. Lambert here delivered four sermons, in which he forcibly attacked the errors of Rome, but in the fourth he defended the invocation of the saints and the Virgin.
On Saturday, July 12th, a tall, thin, stiff, gaunt monk dressed in a gray cordelier robe rode into the streets of Zurich on a donkey. He looked like a foreigner, and his bare feet nearly touched the ground. He had come by the road from Avignon. Not knowing a word of German, he managed to communicate using Latin. Francis Lambert (that was his name) asked for Zuinglius and delivered a letter from Berthold Haller. "The Franciscan father," wrote the Bernese curate, "who is none other than the apostolic preacher of the general convent of Avignon, has been teaching Christian truth for nearly five years: he has preached in Latin to our priests in Geneva, in Lausanne in front of the bishop, in Friburg, and finally in Berne. His topics included the Church, the priesthood, the sacrifice of the mass, the traditions of the Roman bishops, and the superstitions of the religious orders. It seemed remarkable to hear such things from a cordelier and a Frenchman—both factors that usually involve a lot of superstitions." The Frenchman himself told Zuinglius how the discovery of Luther's writings in his cell forced him to leave Avignon quickly; how he first preached the gospel in Geneva and then at Lausanne. Zuinglius, thrilled, allowed the monk access to the church of Notre Dame, giving him a seat in the choir near the high altar. Lambert then delivered four sermons here, where he strongly criticized the errors of Rome, but in the fourth sermon, he defended the invocation of saints and the Virgin.
"Brother, you are in error,"[851] immediately exclaimed an animated voice. It was the voice of Zuinglius. Canons and chaplains thrilled with joy when they saw a quarrel rising between the Frenchman and the heretical curate. "He has attacked you," said they all to Lambert: "demand a public discussion." The man of Avignon did so, and at ten o'clock on the morning of the 12th of July, the two chaplains met in the hall of the canons. Zuinglius opened the Old and New Testament in Greek and Latin: he discussed and lectured till two. Then the French monk, clasping his hands, and raising them towards heaven, exclaimed,[852] "I thank thee, O God, that thou hast by this illustrious instrument given me such a clear knowledge of the truth! Henceforth," added he, turning towards the assembly, "in all my distresses I will invoke God only and leave off my beads. To-morrow I resume my journey. I go to Bâle to see Erasmus of Rotterdam, and thence to Wittemberg to see the monk Martin Luther." He accordingly remounted his ass and set out. We will again meet with him. He was the first exile from France, for the cause of the gospel, who appeared in Switzerland and Germany—a modest fore-runner of many thousands of refugees and confessors.
"Brother, you’re mistaken,"[851] immediately shouted an excited voice. It was Zuinglius. The canons and chaplains felt joy when they saw a confrontation brewing between the Frenchman and the heretical curate. "He’s challenged you," they all told Lambert: "demand a public debate." The man from Avignon agreed, and at ten o'clock on the morning of July 12th, the two chaplains met in the hall of the canons. Zuinglius opened the Old and New Testament in Greek and Latin: he discussed and lectured until two. Then the French monk, clasping his hands and raising them towards heaven, exclaimed,[852] "I thank you, O God, for, through this remarkable instrument, you’ve given me such a clear understanding of the truth! From now on," he added, turning to the assembly, "in all my troubles, I will call on God alone and give up my beads. Tomorrow I’ll continue my journey. I’m going to Bâle to see Erasmus of Rotterdam, and then to Wittenberg to meet the monk Martin Luther." He then got back on his donkey and set off. We will see him again. He was the first exile from France for the sake of the gospel to appear in Switzerland and Germany—a humble precursor to many thousands of refugees and confessors.
Myconius had no such consolation. On the contrary he saw Sebastian Hofmeister, who had come from Constance to Lucerne, and there boldly preached the gospel, obliged to quit the city. Then Oswald's grief increased. The moist climate of Lucerne disagreed with him. He was wasted by fever; and the physicians declared that if he did not change his residence he would die. Writing to Zuinglius, he says, "There is no place I should like better to be than beside yourself, and no place worse than at Lucerne. Men torture, and the climate consumes me. My disease, some say, is the punishment of my iniquity. Ah, it is vain to speak, vain to act: every thing is poison to them. There is One in heaven on whom alone my hope depends."[853]
Myconius had no such comfort. On the contrary, he saw Sebastian Hofmeister, who had come from Constance to Lucerne and boldly preached the gospel there, forced to leave the city. Then Oswald's grief grew deeper. The damp climate of Lucerne didn't agree with him. He was weakened by fever, and the doctors said that if he didn’t change his location, he would die. Writing to Zuinglius, he says, "There’s no place I’d rather be than with you, and no place worse than Lucerne. People torture me, and the climate is draining me. Some say my illness is the punishment for my wrongdoings. Ah, it’s pointless to talk, pointless to act: everything is poison to them. There is One in heaven on whom my hope solely rests."[853]
This hope was not vain. It was towards the end of March, and the feast of the Annunciation was at hand. The evening before there was a great solemnity in commemoration of a fire which in 1540 had reduced the greater part of the town to ashes. Multitudes from the surrounding districts had flocked into Lucerne, and several hundreds of priests were then assembled. Some distinguished orator was usually employed to preach on this great occasion. Conrad Schmid, commander of the Johannites, arrived to discharge the duty. An immense crowd thronged the church. What was the general astonishment on hearing the commander lay aside the pompous Latin to which they had been accustomed, and speak in good German,[854] so that all could comprehend him, enforce with authority and holy fervour the love of God in sending his Son, eloquently prove that external works cannot save, and that the promises of God are truly the power of the gospel. "God forbid," said the commander to his astonished audience, "that we should receive a chief so full of lies as the Bishop of Rome, and reject Jesus Christ.[855] If the Bishop of Rome dispenses the bread of the gospel, let us receive him as pastor, but not as head; and if he does not dispense it, let us not receive him in any way whatever." Oswald was unable to restrain his joy. "What a man!" exclaimed he: "what a discourse! what majesty! what authority! what overflowing of the Spirit of Christ!" The impression was general. To the agitation which filled the town succeeded a solemn silence; but all this was transient. When nations shut their ears against the calls of God, these calls are diminished from day to day, and soon cease. Thus it was at Lucerne.
This hope was not in vain. It was nearing the end of March, and the feast of the Annunciation was approaching. The evening before, there was a significant event to commemorate a fire that had mostly destroyed the town in 1540. Crowds from the surrounding areas had gathered in Lucerne, and several hundred priests were present. A distinguished speaker was usually invited to give a sermon on this important occasion. Conrad Schmid, the commander of the Johannites, arrived to fulfill this role. An enormous crowd filled the church. Everyone was shocked when the commander set aside the grand Latin they were used to and spoke in clear German, so that everyone could understand him. He strongly and passionately emphasized the love of God in sending His Son, convincingly argued that external actions cannot lead to salvation, and that the promises of God truly embody the power of the gospel. "God forbid," the commander told his astonished audience, "that we should accept a leader as deceitful as the Bishop of Rome, and reject Jesus Christ. If the Bishop of Rome provides the bread of the gospel, let us accept him as pastor, but not as head; and if he does not provide it, let us not accept him in any way." Oswald could not contain his joy. "What a man!" he exclaimed, "what a sermon! what majesty! what authority! what a flood of the Spirit of Christ!" The impression was widespread. The excitement that had filled the town gave way to a solemn silence; but this was fleeting. When nations ignore the calls of God, those calls diminish day by day and soon disappear. It was the same in Lucerne.
At Berne, while the truth was preached from the pulpit, the papacy was attacked at the merry-makings of the people. Nicolas Manuel, a distinguished layman, celebrated for his poetical talents, and advanced to the first offices in the state, indignant at seeing his countrymen pillaged by Samson, composed carnival dramas, in which, with the keen weapon of satire, he attacked the avarice, pride, and luxury of the pope and the clergy. On the Shrove Tuesday "of the Lords," (the clergy were at this time the lords, and began Lent eight days before the common people,) all Berne was engrossed with a drama or mystery entitled, "The Eaters of the Dead," which young boys were going to perform in the street of La Croix. The people flocked to it in crowds. In regard to the progress of art, these dramatic sketches of the beginning of the sixteenth century are of some interest; but we give them here with a very different view. We would have been better pleased not to have had to quote squibs of this description on the part of the Reformation, for truth triumphs by other arms. But the historian does not make his facts. He must give them as he finds them.
At Berne, while the truth was preached from the pulpit, the papacy was criticized during the people's celebrations. Nicolas Manuel, a well-known layman celebrated for his poetic skills and who held top positions in the government, was outraged to see his fellow citizens being exploited by Samson. He wrote carnival plays that satirized the greed, arrogance, and extravagance of the pope and the clergy. On Shrove Tuesday, "of the Lords," (when the clergy were considered the lords and began Lent eight days before everyone else), all of Berne was captivated by a play called "The Eaters of the Dead," which young boys were set to perform in the street of La Croix. The crowds gathered to watch. These early sixteenth-century dramatic pieces are interesting in terms of the evolution of art, but we present them here for a different reason. We would have preferred not to reference such jabs during the Reformation, as truth prevails through different means. However, the historian doesn’t create the facts; he must present them as they are.
At length, to the delight of the eager crowds assembled in the street of La Croix, the representation began. The pope is seen clad in gorgeous robes, and seated on a throne. Around him stand his courtiers, his body guards, and a promiscuous band of priests of high and low degree; behind are nobles, laymen, and mendicants. A funeral train shortly appears: it is a rich farmer on the way to his last home. Two of his relatives walk slowly in front of the coffin with napkins in their hand. The train having arrived in front of the pope, the bier is laid down at his feet, and the drama begins:
At last, to the excitement of the eager crowds gathered in the street of La Croix, the performance started. The pope was shown dressed in beautiful robes and seated on a throne. Surrounding him were his courtiers, bodyguards, and a mixed group of priests of all ranks; behind them were nobles, common people, and beggars. A funeral procession soon appeared: it was a wealthy farmer on his way to his final resting place. Two of his relatives walked slowly in front of the coffin, holding napkins in their hands. Once the procession reached the pope, the bier was placed at his feet, and the drama began:
The Sacristan, breaking off from the band surrounding the pope, and running hastily to Curate Robert Ever-More—
The Church caretaker, stepping away from the group around the pope, and rushing over to Curate Robert Evermore—
Cardinal High-Pride adorned with a red hat, and close by the pope:—
Cardinal High Pride wearing a red hat, standing next to the pope:—
We will not continue this literal translation of Manuel's drama. The agony of the clergy on learning the efforts of the Reformers, and their rage against those who threaten to interfere with their irregularities, are painted in lively colours. The dissolute manners of which this piece gave so vivid a representation were too common not to strike the spectator with the truth of the picture. The people were excited. Many jibes were heard as they retired from the play in the street of La Croix; but some who took the matter more seriously, spoke of Christian liberty and papal despotism, and contrasted the simplicity of the gospel with the pomp of Rome. The contempt of the people was soon displayed in the public streets. On Ash Wednesday, the indulgences were promenaded through the town amid satirical songs. In Berne, and throughout Switzerland a severe blow had been given to the ancient edifice of the papacy.
We won’t keep going with this literal translation of Manuel's play. The anguish of the clergy upon discovering the Reformers' actions, along with their fury towards those threatening their misdeeds, is portrayed vividly. The immoral behaviors depicted in this piece were so prevalent that they struck the audience with the authenticity of the portrayal. The crowd was charged with emotion. Many jokes were overheard as they left the theater on the street of La Croix; however, some who took it more seriously discussed Christian freedom and papal tyranny, contrasting the simplicity of the gospel with the grandeur of Rome. The public’s disdain soon became evident in the streets. On Ash Wednesday, indulgences were paraded through town to the tune of mocking songs. In Bern, and across Switzerland, a serious blow had been dealt to the longstanding structure of the papacy.
Sometime after this representation, another comedy was acted at Berne, but there was no fiction in it. The clergy, council, and corporation had assembled in front of the Upper Gate, waiting for the skull of St. Anne, which the famous knight, Albert of Stein, had gone to fetch from Lyons. At length Stein appeared, holding the holy relic wrapt in a covering of silk. As it passed, the Bishop of Lausanne knelt down before it. This precious skull, the skull of the Virgin's mother, is carried in procession to the church of the Dominicans, and, amid the ringing of bells, enters the church, where it is placed with great solemnity on the altar consecrated to it, behind a splendid grating. But amid all this joy, a letter arrives from the abbot of the convent of Lyon, where the relics of the saint were deposited, intimating that what the monks had sold to the knight was a profane bone taken at random from the burying ground. The trick thus played off on the illustrious city of Berne filled its citizens with deep indignation.
Sometime after this event, another play was performed in Bern, but it was not a made-up story. The clergy, council, and townspeople gathered in front of the Upper Gate, waiting for the skull of St. Anne, which the renowned knight, Albert of Stein, had gone to retrieve from Lyon. Finally, Stein showed up, holding the holy relic wrapped in silk. As it passed by, the Bishop of Lausanne knelt down before it. This precious skull, belonging to the Virgin's mother, is carried in a procession to the Dominican church, and amid the ringing of bells, it enters the church, where it is placed with great ceremony on the altar dedicated to it, behind a beautiful grating. However, in the midst of all this joy, a letter arrives from the abbot of the convent in Lyon, where the saint's relics were kept, stating that what the monks sold to the knight was just a random bone taken from the graveyard. The deception played on the esteemed city of Bern left its citizens deeply outraged.
The Reformation was making progress in other parts of Switzerland. In 1521, Walter Klarer, a young man of Appenzel, returned to his native canton from the university of Paris. Luther's writings fell into his hands, and, in 1522, he preached the evangelical doctrine with all the ardour of a young convert. An innkeeper, named Rausberg, a wealthy and pious man, and a member of the council of Appenzel, opened his house to all the friends of truth. Bartholomew Berweger, a famous captain, who had fought for Julius II and for Leo X, having at this time returned from Rome, began forthwith to persecute the evangelical ministers. One day, however, remembering how much vice he had seen at Rome, he began to read the Bible, and to attend the sermons of the new preachers; his eyes were opened, and he embraced the gospel. Seeing that the crowds could not be contained in the churches, he proposed that they should preach in the fields and the public squares, and, notwithstanding of keen opposition, the hills, meadows, and mountains of Appenzel, thenceforward often echoed with the glad tidings of salvation.
The Reformation was advancing in other parts of Switzerland. In 1521, Walter Klarer, a young man from Appenzel, returned to his home canton after studying at the University of Paris. He came across Luther's writings, and in 1522, he passionately preached the evangelical doctrine like a new convert. An innkeeper named Rausberg, who was wealthy, devout, and a member of the Appenzel council, welcomed all truth-seekers into his home. Bartholomew Berweger, a well-known captain who had fought for Julius II and Leo X, returned from Rome around this time and immediately began to persecute the evangelical ministers. However, one day, reflecting on the amount of vice he had witnessed in Rome, he started reading the Bible and attending the sermons of the new preachers; his eyes were opened, and he accepted the gospel. Noticing that the crowds couldn’t fit into the churches, he suggested they preach in the fields and public squares, and despite strong opposition, the hills, meadows, and mountains of Appenzel regularly echoed with the joyful message of salvation from that point on.
The reformed doctrine, ascending the Rhine, made its way as far as ancient Rhætia. One day, a stranger from Zurich crossed the river, and waited on the saddler of Flasch, the frontier village of the Grisons. Christian Anhorn, the saddler, listened in astonishment to the language of his visitor. "Preach," said the whole village to the stranger, who was called James Burkli. He accordingly took his station in front of the altar. A number of persons arrived, with Anhorn at their head, and stood round to defend him from a sudden attack while he preached the gospel. The rumour of this preaching spread far and wide; and, on the following Sunday, an immense crowd assembled. Shortly after, a great proportion of the inhabitants of the district desired to have the Lord's Supper dispensed to them according to its original institution. But one day the tocsin suddenly sounded in Mayenfield; the people ran in alarm; and the priests, after pointing out the danger which threatened the Church, hastened at the head of the fanatical population to Flasch. Anhorn, who was working in the field, astonished at hearing the sound of bells at so unusual an hour, hastened home and concealed Burkli in a deep hole dug in his cellar. The house was by this time surrounded; the door was forced open, and the heretical preacher everywhere searched for in vain. At length the persecutors withdrew.[863]
The reformed doctrine made its way up the Rhine and reached ancient Rhætia. One day, a stranger from Zurich crossed the river and visited the saddler in Flasch, a border village of the Grisons. Christian Anhorn, the saddler, listened in amazement to the words of his visitor. "Preach," the entire village urged the stranger, who was named James Burkli. He then took his place in front of the altar. A group of people, led by Anhorn, gathered around to protect him from any sudden attacks while he preached the gospel. News of this preaching spread widely, and the following Sunday, a huge crowd gathered. Soon after, a large number of the local residents wanted to receive the Lord's Supper according to its original practice. But one day, the alarm bell suddenly rang in Mayenfield; people fled in panic, and the priests, highlighting the danger threatening the Church, rushed with the frenzied crowd towards Flasch. Anhorn, who was working in the field, surprised to hear the bells ringing at such an odd time, hurried home and hid Burkli in a deep hole he had dug in his cellar. By that time, the house was surrounded; the door was broken down, and the heretical preacher was searched for everywhere without success. Eventually, the pursuers withdrew.[863]
The Word of God spread over the extent of the ten jurisdictions. The curate of Mayenfield, on returning from Rome, to which he had fled infuriated at the success of the gospel, exclaimed, "Rome has made me evangelical," and became a zealous reformer. The Reformation soon extended to the league of "the House of God." "Oh!" exclaimed Salandronius to Vadian, "if you but saw how the inhabitants of the mountains of Rhætia cast far from them the yoke of the Babylonish captivity!"
The Word of God spread across the ten jurisdictions. The curate of Mayenfield, upon returning from Rome, where he had fled in anger over the success of the gospel, exclaimed, "Rome has made me evangelical," and became a passionate reformer. The Reformation quickly spread to the league known as "the House of God." "Oh!" Salandronius said to Vadian, "if only you could see how the people of the Rhætian mountains are throwing off the yoke of Babylonian captivity!"
Shocking disorders hastened the day when Zurich and the neighbouring districts were to shake off the yoke. A married schoolmaster wishing to become a priest, obtained his wife's consent, and they separated. The new curate was unable to keep his vow of celibacy, but not to outrage his wife's feelings quitted the place where she lived, and, having taken up his residence in the diocese of Constance, formed a licentious connection. His wife hastened to the place. The poor priest took compassion on her, and dismissing the person who had usurped her rights, took back his lawful spouse. The procurator-fiscal forthwith drew up a charge against him: the vicar-general began to move; the council of the consistory deliberated ... and the curate was ordered to abandon his wife or his benefice. The poor wife left the house weeping bitterly, and her rival returned in triumph. The Church declared itself satisfied, and thenceforth let the adulterous priest alone.[864]
Shocking events led to the day when Zurich and the surrounding areas would break free from oppression. A married schoolteacher who wanted to become a priest got his wife's permission, and they separated. The new curate couldn't keep his vow of celibacy, but to avoid hurting his wife's feelings, he left the area where she lived and moved to the diocese of Constance, where he entered into an immoral relationship. His wife quickly followed him. The poor priest felt sorry for her and, dismissing the person who had taken her place, took back his legal wife. The prosecutor immediately filed charges against him: the vicar-general took action; the consistory council debated... and the curate was told to choose between his wife and his position. The poor wife left the house in tears, and her rival returned in triumph. The Church declared itself satisfied and then left the adulterous priest alone.[864]
Shortly after a curate of Lucerne eloped with a married woman, and lived with her. The husband went to Lucerne and taking advantage of the priest's absence brought away his wife. While returning they were met by the seducer, who immediately attacked the injured husband, and gave him a wound of which he died.[865] All good men felt the necessity of re-establishing the divine law, which declares marriage honorable in all.[866] The evangelical ministers had taught that the law of celibacy was of merely human origin, imposed by Roman pontiffs in opposition to the Word of God, which, when describing a true bishop, represents him as a husband and father. (1 Tim. iii, 2 and 4.) They saw at the same time, that of all the abuses which had crept into the Church none had caused more numerous vices and scandals. They considered it not only as a thing lawful but as a duty in the sight of God to withdraw from its authority. Several of them at this time returned to the ancient practice of apostolic times. Xylotect was married. Zuinglius also married at this period. No lady was more respected in Zurich than Anna Reinhard, widow of Meyer of Knonau, the mother of Gerold. From the arrival of Zuinglius she had been one of his most attentive hearers: she lived in his neighbourhood, and he observed her piety, modesty, and fondness for her children. Young Gerold, who had become as it were his adopted son, brought him into closer connection with his mother. The trials already endured by this Christian woman, who was one day to be the most cruelly tried of all the women whose history is on record, had given her a gravity which made her evangelical virtues still more prominent.[867] She was now about thirty-five years of age, and her own fortune amounted only to four hundred florins. It was on her that Zuinglius, on looking out for a companion for life, turned his eye. He felt how sacred and intimate the conjugal union is. He termed it "a most holy alliance."[868] "As Christ," said he, "died for his people, and gave himself to them entirely, so ought husband and wife to do and suffer every thing for each other." But Zuinglius, when he took Anna Reinhard to wife, did not immediately publish his marriage. This was undoubtedly a culpable weakness in a man otherwise so resolute. The light which he and his friends had acquired on the subject of celibacy was not generally diffused. The weak might have been offended. He feared that his usefulness in the Church might be paralysed if his marriage were made public.[869] He sacrificed part of his happiness to these fears—fears to which, though respectable perhaps, he should have been superior.[870]
Shortly after a curate from Lucerne ran off with a married woman and lived with her, the woman's husband went to Lucerne. Taking advantage of the priest's absence, he brought his wife back. On their way home, they encountered the seducer, who immediately attacked the wronged husband and inflicted a wound that led to his death.[865] All good people felt the need to re-establish the divine law that states marriage is honorable in all.[866] The evangelical ministers taught that the rule of celibacy was a human invention imposed by Roman leaders against the Word of God, which describes a true bishop as a husband and father (1 Tim. iii, 2 and 4). They also recognized that among all the abuses that had entered the Church, none caused more vices and scandals. They viewed it not only as lawful but as a duty before God to withdraw from this authority. At that time, several of them returned to the ancient practices of apostolic times. Xylotect was married, and Zuinglius also married around this time. No woman was more respected in Zurich than Anna Reinhard, the widow of Meyer of Knonau and the mother of Gerold. From the time Zuinglius arrived, she had been one of his most attentive listeners; she lived nearby, and he noticed her piety, modesty, and love for her children. Young Gerold, who had become like an adopted son to him, brought Zuinglius closer to his mother. The trials that this Christian woman had already faced—who would one day endure the most terrible hardships of any woman in recorded history—had given her a seriousness that highlighted her evangelical virtues even more.[867] She was now about thirty-five years old, and her personal fortune totaled only four hundred florins. Zuinglius, while looking for a life partner, focused his attention on her. He understood how sacred and intimate the marital bond is, calling it "a most holy alliance."[868] "Just as Christ," he said, "died for his people and fully dedicated himself to them, so should husbands and wives do everything and suffer for each other." However, when Zuinglius married Anna Reinhard, he did not immediately announce his marriage. This was surely a notable weakness for a man otherwise so determined. The understanding he and his friends had gained regarding celibacy was not widely shared. He feared that weaker individuals might be offended, and that his effectiveness in the Church could be undermined if his marriage became public.[869] He sacrificed part of his happiness to these fears—fears which, while perhaps respectable, he should have risen above.[870]
CHAP. XIV.
How Truth triumphs—Society at Einsidlen—Request to the Bishops—to the Confederates—The Men of Einsidlen separate—A Scene in a Convent—A Dinner by Myconius—The Strength of the Reformers—Effect of the Petitions to Lucerne—The Council of the Diet—Haller at the Town-House—Friburg—Destitution of Oswald—Zuinglius comforts him—Oswald quits Lucerne—First severity of the Diet—Consternation of the Brothers of Zuinglius—His Resolution—The Future—The Prayer of Zuinglius.
How Truth Wins—Community in Einsidlen—Appeal to the Bishops—to the Confederates—The People of Einsidlen Separate—A Moment in a Convent—A Dinner by Myconius—The Strength of the Reformers—Effects of the Petitions to Lucerne—The Council of the Diet—Haller at the Town Hall—Friburg—Oswald's Struggles—Zuinglius Offers Support—Oswald Departs from Lucerne—Initial Severity of the Diet—Shock of Zuinglius' Brothers—His Resolve—The Future—Zuinglius' Prayer.
Meanwhile still higher interests occupied the friends of truth. The Diet, as we have seen, urged by the enemies of the Reformation, had ordered the evangelical preachers to desist from preaching the doctrines which troubled the people. Zuinglius felt that the moment for action had arrived, and with the energy which characterised him, called a meeting of the ministers of the Lord, the friends of the gospel, at Einsidlen. The strength of Christians is neither in carnal weapons, nor the flames of martyrdom—it is in a simple but unanimous and intrepid profession of these great truths to which the world must one day be subjugated. In particular, God calls upon those who serve him to hold these heavenly doctrines prominently forth in presence of the whole people without being dismayed by the clamour of adversaries. Those truths are able of themselves to secure their triumph, and as of old with the ark of God, idols cannot stand in their presence. The time had come when God willed that the great doctrine of salvation should be confessed in Switzerland. It was necessary that the gospel standard should be planted on some eminence. Providence was going to draw humble but intrepid men out of unknown retreats that they might bear a striking testimony in presence of the nation.
Meanwhile, higher interests occupied the friends of truth. The Diet, as we’ve seen, urged by the enemies of the Reformation, had ordered the evangelical preachers to stop preaching the doctrines that troubled the people. Zuinglius felt that the time for action had come, and with the energy that characterized him, called a meeting of the ministers of the Lord, the friends of the gospel, at Einsidlen. The strength of Christians is not in physical weapons or the flames of martyrdom—it lies in a simple yet unanimous and fearless declaration of these great truths to which the world must someday submit. In particular, God calls on those who serve Him to boldly present these heavenly doctrines before all the people, without being afraid of the outcry of opponents. Those truths are powerful enough to ensure their victory, and just like in the past with the ark of God, idols cannot withstand their presence. The time had come when God wanted the great doctrine of salvation to be proclaimed in Switzerland. It was essential for the gospel banner to be raised on some high ground. Providence was set to bring forth humble yet fearless men from unknown places so they could deliver a powerful testimony in front of the nation.
Towards the end of June and the beginning of July, 1522, pious ministers were seen proceeding in all directions towards the celebrated chapel of Einsidlen on a new pilgrimage.[871] From Art, in the canton of Schwitz, came its curate, Balthasar Traschel; from Weiningen near Baden, curate Staheli; from Zug, Werner Steiner; from Lucerne, canon Kilchmeyer; from Uster, curate Pfister; from Hongg, near Zurich, curate Stumpff; from Zurich itself, canon Fabricius, chaplain Schmid, the preacher of the hospital, Grosmann, and Zuinglius. Leo Juda, curate of Einsidlen, most cordially welcomed all these ministers of Jesus Christ to the ancient abbey. Since the time when Zuinglius took up his residence in it, this place had been a citadel of truth, and a hotel of the just.[872] In like manner had thirty-three bold patriots, resolved to break the yoke of Austria, met two hundred years before in the solitary plain of Grutli. The object of the meeting at Einsidlen was to break the yoke of human authority in the things of God. Zuinglius proposed to his friends to present earnest addresses to the cantons, and to the bishop, praying for the free preaching of the gospel, and at the same time for the abolition of compulsory celibacy, the source of so many irregularities. The proposal was unanimously adopted.[873] Ulric had himself prepared the addresses. That to the bishop was first read. It was dated 2nd July, 1522, and signed by all the evangelists we have mentioned. The preachers of the truth in Switzerland were united in cordial affection. Many others besides sympathised with the party at Einsidlen: such were Haller, Myconius, Hedio, Capito, Œcolampadius, Sebastian Meyer, Hoffmeister, and Wanner. This harmony is one of the finest traits in the Swiss Reformation. These excellent persons always acted as one man, and remained friends till death.
Towards the end of June and the beginning of July, 1522, devoted ministers were seen heading in all directions towards the famous chapel of Einsidlen on a new pilgrimage.[871] From Art in the canton of Schwitz, came its curate, Balthasar Traschel; from Weiningen near Baden, curate Staheli; from Zug, Werner Steiner; from Lucerne, canon Kilchmeyer; from Uster, curate Pfister; from Hongg near Zurich, curate Stumpff; and from Zurich itself, canon Fabricius, chaplain Schmid, the hospital preacher, Grosmann, and Zuinglius. Leo Juda, the curate of Einsidlen, warmly welcomed all these ministers of Jesus Christ to the ancient abbey. Since Zuinglius made it his residence, this place had become a stronghold of truth and a sanctuary for the righteous.[872] Similarly, thirty-three brave patriots, determined to throw off the yoke of Austria, had gathered two hundred years earlier in the desolate plain of Grutli. The purpose of the meeting at Einsidlen was to liberate themselves from human authority in matters of God. Zuinglius suggested to his friends that they send urgent requests to the cantons and the bishop, asking for free preaching of the gospel and the abolition of mandatory celibacy, which caused so many irregularities. The proposal was unanimously accepted.[873] Ulric had personally prepared the addresses. The one to the bishop was read first. Dated July 2, 1522, it was signed by all the evangelists mentioned above. The preachers of the truth in Switzerland united in strong friendship. Many others also supported the group at Einsidlen, including Haller, Myconius, Hedio, Capito, Œcolampadius, Sebastian Meyer, Hoffmeister, and Wanner. This unity is one of the most admirable aspects of the Swiss Reformation. These remarkable individuals always acted as one and remained friends until death.
The men of Einsidlen were aware that it was only by the power of faith that the members of the Confederation, divided by foreign enlistments, could become one body. But their views were carried higher. "The celestial doctrine," said they to their ecclesiastical head, in the address of 2nd July, "that truth which God the Creator has manifested by his Son to the human race now plunged in evil, has been long veiled from our eyes by the ignorance, not to say the malice of certain men. But God Almighty has resolved to re-establish it in its primitive condition. Join yourself to those who demand that the multitude of the faithful return to their head, who is Christ.[874] For our part we have resolved to promulgate his gospel with indefatigable perseverance, and at same time with such wisdom that none can complain.[875] Favour this enterprise; astonishing, perhaps, but not rash. Be like Moses on the march at the head of the people coming out of Egypt, and overthrow the obstacles which oppose the triumphant progress of truth."
The people of Einsidlen understood that only through faith could the members of the Confederation, split by foreign loyalties, become united. However, they had bigger aspirations. "The divine truth," they said to their spiritual leader in a message dated July 2nd, "the truth that God the Creator revealed through His Son to a world steeped in wrongdoing, has long been obscured from us by the ignorance, if not the malice, of certain individuals. But God Almighty has decided to restore it to its original state. Join those who call for the faithful to return to their leader, who is Christ.[874] We, for our part, have decided to spread His gospel with tireless dedication, and do so wisely enough that no one can raise objections.[875] Support this venture; it may seem astonishing, but it is not reckless. Be like Moses leading the people out of Egypt, and remove the barriers that stand in the way of the victorious advance of truth."
After this warm appeal, the evangelists met at Einsidlen came to celibacy. Zuinglius had no longer any demand to make on this head for himself, having already one answering the description given by Paul of what a minister's wife ought to be, grave, sober, faithful in all things. (1 Tim. iii, 2.) But he thought of his brethren, whose consciences were not yet like his, emancipated from human ordinances. He sighed moreover for the time when all the servants of God might live openly and without fear in the bosom of their own family, keeping their children, says the apostle, in subjection, with all gravity. (1 Tim. iii, 4.) "You are not ignorant," said the men of Einsidlen, "that hitherto chastity has been deplorably violated by the priests. When on the consecration of the servants of the Lord he who speaks for all is asked, 'Are those whom you present righteous? He answers—They are righteous. Are they learned? They are learned. But when he is asked—Are they chaste? he answers: As far as human weakness permits.'[876] Everything in the New Testament condemns licentiousness: every thing in it sanctions marriage." Then follows the quotation of a great number of passages. "Wherefore," they continued, "we implore you by the love of Christ, by the liberty which he has purchased for us, by the misery of so many weak and wavering souls, by the wounds of so many ulcerated consciences, by every thing human and divine; ... allow that which was rashly done to be wisely repealed, lest the majestic edifice of the Church fall with fearful uproar, and drag boundless ruin after it.[877] See with what storms the world is threatened. If wisdom interpose not it is all over with the priesthood."
After this heartfelt appeal, the evangelists who met at Einsidlen discussed celibacy. Zuinglius no longer had any personal concerns about this, as he already had a wife who fit the description given by Paul of what a minister's wife should be, serious, reliable, faithful in all matters. (1 Tim. iii, 2.) However, he thought about his fellow ministers, whose consciences weren't yet as free from human rules as his own. He also longed for the time when all of God's servants could live openly and without fear within their own families, keeping their children, as the apostle says, in subjection, with all seriousness. (1 Tim. iii, 4.) "You know," said the men of Einsidlen, "that up until now, chastity has been sadly neglected by the priests. When, during the ordination of the Lord's servants, the person representing everyone is asked, 'Are those you present righteous?' he responds—They are righteous. Are they educated? They are educated. But when he is asked—Are they chaste? he replies: As far as human weakness allows.'[876] Everything in the New Testament condemns immoral behavior: everything in it supports marriage." Then they quoted many passages. "Therefore," they continued, "we urge you by the love of Christ, by the freedom he has bought for us, by the suffering of countless weak and uncertain souls, by the wounds of many troubled consciences, by everything human and divine; ... allow what was hastily done to be wisely undone, so that the grand structure of the Church doesn’t collapse in a terrifying crash and bring with it endless destruction.[877] Consider how much turmoil the world faces. If wisdom does not intervene, it will be the end for the priesthood."
The petition to the Confederation was of greater length. The band of Einsidlen addressing the confederates, thus conclude: "Honoured Sirs,—we are all Swiss, and you are our fathers. There are some among us who have shown themselves faithful in combat, in plague, and other calamities.[878] It is in the name of true chastity that we speak to you. Who knows not that we could satisfy sensual appetite far better by not submitting to the laws of a legitimate union? But it is necessary to put an end to the scandals which afflict the church of Christ. If the tyranny of the Roman pontiff would oppress us, fear nothing, brave heroes! The authority of the Word of God, the rights of Christian liberty, and the sovereign power of grace, guard around us.[879] We have the same country, we have the same faith, we are Swiss, and the valour of our illustrious ancestors always manifested its power by an indomitable defence of those oppressed by injustice."
The petition to the Confederation was quite lengthy. The group from Einsidlen addressed the confederates, concluding: "Honored Sirs, we are all Swiss, and you are our fathers. Some among us have proven themselves loyal in battle, during plagues, and in other disasters.[878] We speak to you in the name of true chastity. Who doesn’t know that we could satisfy our desires much better by not adhering to the laws of a legitimate union? However, we need to put an end to the scandals that afflict the church of Christ. If the tyranny of the Pope tries to oppress us, don’t be afraid, brave heroes! The authority of the Word of God, the rights of Christian liberty, and the sovereign power of grace protect us.[879] We share the same country, the same faith; we are Swiss, and the courage of our esteemed ancestors has always shown its strength through an unyielding defense of those suffering from injustice."
Thus in Einsidlen itself, in this old rampart of superstition, which is still, in our day, one of the most famous sanctuaries of Roman superstition, Zuinglius and his friends boldly raised the standard of truth and freedom. They appealed to the heads of the State and the Church. They fixed their thesis, like Luther, both on the gate of the episcopal palace and on that of the national council. The friends met at Einsidlen parted calm, joyful, full of hope in that God to whom they had committed their cause. Some passing near the battle-field of Morgarten, others over the chain of the Albis, and others again by different valleys or mountains, all returned to their posts. "There was truly something grand in these times,"[880] says Henry Bullinger, "in men thus daring to put themselves forward, rallying around the gospel, and exposing themselves to all dangers. But God defended them so, that no evil reached them: for God preserves his people at all times." It was indeed something grand, it was a great step in the progress of the Reformation, one of the brightest days of religious revival in Switzerland. A holy confederation was formed at Einsidlen. Humble and courageous men had seized the sword of the Spirit, which is the Word of God, and the shield of faith. The gauntlet was thrown down, and the challenge given, not by a single man, but by men of different cantons, ready to sacrifice their lives. It only remained to await the battle.
So, in Einsidlen itself, this old stronghold of superstition, which is still, to this day, one of the most famous sanctuaries of Roman superstition, Zwingli and his friends confidently raised the banner of truth and freedom. They reached out to the leaders of the State and the Church. Like Luther, they posted their thesis on both the gate of the bishop's palace and that of the national council. The friends who gathered in Einsidlen parted ways feeling calm, joyful, and hopeful in God, to whom they had entrusted their cause. Some passed near the battlefield of Morgarten, others over the Albis chain, and others again through different valleys or mountains, all returning to their positions. "There was truly something grand in these times," [880] says Henry Bullinger, "in men thus daring to put themselves forward, rallying around the gospel, and exposing themselves to all dangers. But God defended them, so that no harm came to them: for God preserves his people at all times." It was indeed something grand; it marked a significant step in the Reformation's progress, one of the brightest days of religious revival in Switzerland. A sacred confederation was established at Einsidlen. Humble yet courageous individuals took up the sword of the Spirit, which is the Word of God, and the shield of faith. The challenge was thrown down, not by one individual, but by men from various cantons, willing to lay down their lives. All that was left was to await the battle.
Everything announced that it was to be fierce. Five days after (7th July), the magistracy of Zurich, wishing to give some satisfaction to the Roman party, summoned before them Conrad Grebel and Claus Hottinger, two of those extreme men who seemed desirous to go beyond the bounds of a wise Reformation. "We forbid you," said Burgomaster Roust, "to speak against the monks or on controverted points." At these words, a loud noise was heard in the chamber, says an ancient chronicle. God was so manifestly in favour of the work, that people were everywhere anticipating signs of his interposition. All present looked around in astonishment, without being able to discover the cause of this mysterious circumstance.[881]
Everything signaled that it was going to be intense. Five days later (July 7th), the magistracy of Zurich, wanting to appease the Roman party, summoned Conrad Grebel and Claus Hottinger, two of the extreme figures who seemed eager to push beyond the limits of a sensible Reformation. "We forbid you," said Burgomaster Roust, "to speak against the monks or on disputed issues." At these words, a loud noise erupted in the chamber, according to an old chronicle. God was clearly supporting the cause, and people everywhere were expecting signs of His intervention. Everyone present looked around in shock, unable to understand the reason behind this mysterious event.[881]
But indignation was carried to its greatest height in convents. Every meeting held in them, whether for discipline or festivity, witnessed some new attack. One day, when a great festival was celebrated in the convent of Fraubrunn, the wine having got into the heads of the guests, they began to shoot the most envenomed arrows at the gospel.[882] What especially excited the rage of these priests and monks was the evangelical doctrine—that in the Christian Church there ought to be no sacerdotal caste above believers. Only one friend of the Reformation, a simple layman, Macrin, schoolmaster at Soleure, was present. He at first shunned the contest by changing his seat to another table. But at last, no longer able to endure the furious invectives of the guests, he stood up boldly, and exclaimed, "Yes, all true Christians are priests, and offer sacrifice according to the words of St. Peter, 'You are a royal priesthood.'" At these words, one of the most intrepid bawlers, the dean of Burgdorff, a tall, stout man, with a stentorian voice, uttered a loud laugh. "You little Greeks and school rats! You a royal priesthood!... Beautiful priesthood!... Mendicant kings!... priests without prebends and benefices!"[883] And instantly all the priests and monks fell with one accord on the impudent laic.
But anger reached its peak in convents. Every meeting there, whether for discipline or celebration, saw some new attack. One day, during a big festival at the convent of Fraubrunn, the wine got to the heads of the guests, and they began to launch some seriously harsh criticisms at the gospel.[882] What really fueled the rage of these priests and monks was the evangelical idea that in the Christian Church, there shouldn’t be a priestly caste above the believers. Only one supporter of the Reformation, an ordinary layman named Macrin, who was a schoolmaster in Soleure, was present. At first, he avoided the confrontation by moving to another table. But eventually, unable to withstand the furious attacks from the guests, he stood up confidently and declared, "Yes, all true Christians are priests and offer sacrifice according to the words of St. Peter, 'You are a royal priesthood'." At these words, one of the most outspoken critics, the dean of Burgdorff—a tall, hefty man with a booming voice—let out a loud laugh. "You little Greeks and school rats! You a royal priesthood!... What a wonderful priesthood!... Begging kings!... priests without stipends and benefices!"[883] And immediately, all the priests and monks united to attack the bold layman.
But it was in Lucerne that the bold step of the men of Einsidlen was to produce the strongest sensation. The Diet had met in this town, and complaints arrived from all quarters against the rash preachers who were preventing Helvetia from quietly selling the blood of her sons to the stranger. On the 22nd July, as Oswald Myconius was entertaining canon Kilchmeyer, and several other friends of the gospel, at dinner, a boy, sent by Zuinglius, knocked at the door.[884] He was the bearer of the two famous petitions from Einsidlen, and of a letter from Zuinglius, which requested Oswald to circulate them in Lucerne. "My advice is, that the thing be done quietly, by degrees, rather than all at once; but, for the love of Christ, it is necessary to forsake everything, even wife."
But it was in Lucerne that the bold actions of the men from Einsidlen created the biggest stir. The Diet had gathered in this town, and complaints were pouring in from everywhere about the reckless preachers who were stopping Helvetia from calmly selling the blood of her sons to outsiders. On July 22nd, while Oswald Myconius was having dinner with canon Kilchmeyer and several other friends of the gospel, a boy, sent by Zuinglius, knocked at the door.[884] He brought the two well-known petitions from Einsidlen and a letter from Zuinglius asking Oswald to share them in Lucerne. "My advice is to handle this quietly, step by step, rather than all at once; however, for the love of Christ, it’s essential to let go of everything, even your wife."
Thus the crisis approached in Lucerne: the shell had fallen, and could not but burst. The guests read the petitions. "May God bless this beginning,"[885] said Oswald, looking up to heaven, and then added, "This prayer must, from this moment, be the constant occupation of our hearts." The petitions were forthwith circulated, perhaps with more ardour than Zuinglius had requested. But the moment was singular. Eleven individuals, the flower of the clergy, had placed themselves in the breach: it was necessary to enlighten men's minds, to fix the irresolute, and gain over the most influential members of the Diet.
Thus the crisis approached in Lucerne: the shell had fallen, and it couldn’t help but explode. The guests read the petitions. "May God bless this beginning,"[885] said Oswald, looking up to heaven, and then added, "This prayer must, from this moment, be the constant focus of our hearts." The petitions were quickly circulated, perhaps with more enthusiasm than Zuinglius had requested. But the moment was unique. Eleven individuals, the best of the clergy, had stepped into the gap: it was essential to enlighten people's minds, to stabilize the uncertain, and to win over the most influential members of the Diet.
Oswald, in the midst of this labour, did not forget his friend. The young messenger had told him of the attacks which Zuinglius had to endure from the monks at Zurich. Writing him the same day, he says, "The truth of the Holy Spirit is invincible. Armed with the shield of the Holy Scriptures you have remained conqueror, not in one combat only, nor in two, but in three, and the fourth is now commencing.... Seize those powerful weapons which are harder than diamond! Christ, in order to protect his people, has need only of his Word. Your struggles give indomitable courage to all who have devoted themselves to Jesus Christ."[886]
Oswald, while working hard, didn’t forget about his friend. The young messenger had told him about the attacks Zuinglius was facing from the monks in Zurich. Writing to him the same day, he says, "The truth of the Holy Spirit is unbeatable. Armed with the shield of the Holy Scriptures, you've emerged victorious, not just once, not twice, but three times, and the fourth battle is now starting... Grab those mighty weapons that are tougher than diamond! Christ only needs His Word to protect His people. Your struggles inspire unyielding courage in everyone who has committed themselves to Jesus Christ."[886]
At Lucerne, the petitions did not produce the result anticipated. Some pious men approved of them, but these were few in number. Several, fearing to compromise themselves, were unwilling either to praise or blame.[887] "These folks," said others, "will never bring this affair to a good end!" All the priests murmured, grumbled, and muttered between their teeth. As to the people, they were loud against the gospel. A rage for war was awakened in Lucerne after the bloody defeat of Bicoque, and engrossed all thoughts.[888] Oswald, who was an attentive observer of these different impressions, felt his courage shaken. The evangelical future which he had anticipated for Lucerne and Switzerland seemed to vanish. "Our people," said he, uttering a deep sigh, "are blind to the things of heaven. In regard to the glory of Christ, there is no hope of the Swiss."[889]
At Lucerne, the petitions didn’t lead to the expected outcome. Some devout individuals supported them, but they were few in number. Many, afraid of compromising themselves, were reluctant to either praise or criticize. [887] "These people," others said, "will never resolve this issue!" All the priests murmured, complained, and grumbled under their breath. As for the public, they were vocally against the gospel. A desire for war ignited in Lucerne after the bloody defeat at Bicoque, consuming everyone’s thoughts. [888] Oswald, who carefully observed these various reactions, felt his courage waver. The hopeful future he envisioned for Lucerne and Switzerland seemed to disappear. "Our people," he said with a deep sigh, "are blind to heavenly matters. There’s no hope for the Swiss when it comes to the glory of Christ." [889]
Wrath prevailed, especially in the Council and the Diet. The pope, France, England, and the empire, all around Switzerland, was in agitation after the defeat of Bicoque, and the evacuation of Lombardy by the French under Lautrec. Were not political interests at that moment complicated enough before these eleven men came with their petitions to mingle religious questions with them? The deputies of Zurich alone were favourably disposed to the gospel. Canon Xylotect, afraid for his own life and that of his wife, (he had married into one of the first families in the country,) had refused, with tears of regret, to repair to Einsidlen and sign the addresses. Canon Kilchmeyer had shown greater courage. He, too, had everything to fear. "Condemnation threatens me," he writes to Zuinglius, on the 13th August; "I await it without fear...." As he was writing these words, an officer of the council entered the room, and cited him to appear next day.[890] "If they put me in irons," said he, continuing his letter, "I claim your help; but it will be easier to transport a rock from our Alps than to move me a finger's breadth from the word of Jesus Christ." The regard which was deemed due to his family, and the resolution which they had taken to let the storm fall upon Oswald, saved the canon.
Anger was everywhere, especially in the Council and the Diet. The pope, France, England, and the empire, all around Switzerland, were in turmoil after the defeat at Bicoque and the French evacuation of Lombardy under Lautrec. Were political interests not complicated enough already before these eleven men came with their petitions to mix religious issues in? The representatives from Zurich were the only ones supportive of the gospel. Canon Xylotect, fearing for his own life and that of his wife—he had married into one of the top families in the country—refused, with tears of regret, to go to Einsidlen and sign the addresses. Canon Kilchmeyer showed more bravery. He, too, had everything to dread. "Condemnation threatens me," he wrote to Zuinglius on August 13; "I await it without fear...." As he was writing this, an officer from the council entered the room and summoned him to appear the next day. "If they put me in chains," he said, continuing his letter, "I call on you for help; but it will be easier to move a rock from our Alps than to budge even an inch from the word of Jesus Christ." The respect due to his family and their decision to let the storm fall on Oswald saved the canon.
Berthold Haller, probably because he was not a Swiss, had not signed the petitions. But full of courage, he, like Zuinglius, expounded the gospel according to Matthew. A vast crowd filled the cathedral of Berne. The word of God operated more powerfully on the people than Manuel's dramas. Haller was summoned to the Town House; the people accompanied their good-natured pastor, and remained around the spot. The council was divided. "This concerns the bishop," said the leading men. "The preacher must be handed over to my lord of Lausanne." The friends of Haller trembled at these words, and told him to withdraw as quickly as possible. The people flocked round, and accompanied him to his house, where a great number of burghers remained in arms prepared to make a rampart of their bodies in defence of their humble pastor. The bishop and council were overawed by this energetic demonstration, and Haller was saved. Haller was not the only combatant at Berne. Sebastian Meyer at this time refuted the pastoral letter of the Bishop of Constance, and in particular the formidable charge, "that the gospellers teach a new doctrine, but that the old doctrine is the true." "To be wrong for two thousand years," said Meyer, "is not to be right for a single hour; otherwise the heathen ought to have adhered to their belief. If the most ancient doctrines must carry the day, fifteen hundred years are more than five hundred years, and the gospel is more ancient than the ordinances of the pope."[891]
Berthold Haller, likely because he wasn't Swiss, hadn't signed the petitions. But filled with courage, he, like Zuinglius, preached the gospel according to Matthew. A huge crowd filled the cathedral in Bern. The word of God impacted the people more deeply than Manuel's plays. Haller was called to the Town House; the people followed their good-natured pastor and stayed nearby. The council was split. "This involves the bishop," said the leading figures. "The preacher must be handed over to my lord of Lausanne." Haller's friends were alarmed by these words and urged him to leave as quickly as possible. The crowd gathered around him and accompanied him to his home, where many citizens stood ready to form a protective barrier for their humble pastor. The bishop and council were intimidated by this spirited show of support, and Haller was saved. Haller wasn't the only fighter in Bern. At this time, Sebastian Meyer challenged the pastoral letter from the Bishop of Constance, specifically addressing the serious claim that "the gospellers teach a new doctrine, while the old doctrine is the true one." "Being wrong for two thousand years," Meyer said, "doesn't make you right for a single hour; otherwise, the pagans should have stuck to their beliefs. If the oldest doctrines must win out, then fifteen hundred years outweigh five hundred years, and the gospel is older than the pope's decrees."[891]
At this period the magistrates of Friburg intercepted letters addressed to Haller and Meyer by a canon of Friburg, named John Hollard, a native of Orb. They imprisoned, then deposed, and at last banished him. John Vannius, a chorister in the cathedral, shortly after embraced the evangelical doctrine; for in the Christian warfare one soldier no sooner falls than another takes his place. "How could the muddy water of the Tiber," said Vannius, "subsist beside the pure water which Luther has drawn from the spring of St. Paul." But the chorister's mouth was also closed. Myconius wrote to Zuinglius, "Scarcely will you find in Switzerland men more averse to the gospel than the Friburghers."[892]
At this time, the officials in Friburg intercepted letters meant for Haller and Meyer from a Friburg canon named John Hollard, who was from Orb. They imprisoned him, then removed him from his position, and finally banished him. John Vannius, a choir member in the cathedral, soon after adopted the evangelical faith; because in the fight for Christianity, when one soldier falls, another takes his place. "How could the dirty water of the Tiber," Vannius said, "stand next to the clear water that Luther has drawn from the spring of St. Paul?" But Vannius was silenced as well. Myconius wrote to Zuinglius, "You will hardly find anyone in Switzerland more opposed to the gospel than the people of Friburg."[892]
Lucerne ought to have been stated as an exception. This Myconius knew. He had not signed the famous petitions, but his friends had if he had not, and a victim was required. The ancient literature of Greece and Rome began, thanks to him, to shed some light in Lucerne; numbers arrived from different quarters to attend the learned professor, and the friends of peace were charmed with sounds sweeter than those of halberds, swords, and cuirasses, which alone had hitherto resounded in the warlike city. Oswald had sacrificed everything for his country. He had quitted Zurich and Zuinglius; he had lost his health; his wife was pining;[893] his son was in childhood; if even Lucerne rejected him he could nowhere hope for an asylum. But no matter; factions have no pity, and the thing which ought to excite their compassion stimulates their rage. Herbenstein, burgomaster of Lucerne, an old and valiant warrior who had gained a distinguished name in the wars of Suabia and Burgundy, followed up the deposition of the teacher, and wished to banish, from the canton, with himself, his Greek, his Latin, and his gospel. He succeeded. On coming out of the Council, after the sederunt at which Myconius had been deposed, Herbenstein met the Zurich deputy, Berguer. "We are sending you back your schoolmaster," said he to him ironically, "get a good lodging for him." "We won't let him sleep in the open air,"[894] immediately replied the courageous deputy. But Berguer promised more than he could perform.
Lucerne should have been mentioned as an exception. Myconius was aware of this. He hadn’t signed the well-known petitions, but his friends had if he hadn’t, and a scapegoat was needed. Thanks to him, the ancient literature of Greece and Rome began to brighten Lucerne; people came from various places to learn from the professor, and the supporters of peace enjoyed sounds sweeter than the clashing of halberds, swords, and armor that had previously dominated the warlike city. Oswald had given up everything for his country. He had left Zurich and Zuinglius; he had lost his health; his wife was suffering; his son was still a child; if even Lucerne turned him away, he couldn’t find refuge anywhere else. But it didn’t matter; factions have no mercy, and what should evoke their sympathy only fuels their anger. Herbenstein, the burgomaster of Lucerne, an old and brave warrior who had made a name for himself in the wars of Suabia and Burgundy, pursued the removal of the teacher and wanted to expel his Greek, Latin, and gospel from the canton along with himself. He succeeded. After leaving the Council meeting where Myconius had been deposed, Herbenstein ran into the Zurich deputy, Berguer. “We’re sending your schoolmaster back,” he said ironically, “find him a good place to stay.” “We won’t let him sleep outside,” responded the brave deputy immediately. But Berguer promised more than he could deliver.
The news given by the burgomaster were but too true, and were soon intimated to the unhappy Myconius. He is deposed and banished, and the only crime laid to his charge is that of being a disciple of Luther.[895] He looks all around but nowhere finds a shelter. He sees his wife, his son, and himself, all three feeble and sickly, exiled from their country, and Switzerland, all around agitated by a whirlwind, which breaks and destroys every thing that stands in its way. "Here," said he then to Zuinglius, "is poor Myconius banished by the council of Lucerne.[896]... Whither shall I go? I know not.... Assailed yourself by these furious storms how could you shelter me? I cry then in my distress to that God who is the first in whom I hope, who is ever bountiful, ever kind, and who never calls upon any to seek his face in vain. May He supply my wants!"
The news from the mayor was all too true and quickly reached the unfortunate Myconius. He has been removed from his position and exiled, with the only accusation against him being that he followed Luther. [895] He looks around but finds no refuge. He sees his wife, his son, and himself, all three weak and sickly, cast out from their home, while Switzerland is in turmoil, destroying everything in its path. "Here," he said to Zuinglius, "is poor Myconius banished by the council of Lucerne. [896]... Where should I go? I don't know... With you being attacked by these fierce storms, how could you possibly shelter me? I cry out in my distress to the God who is my first hope, who is always generous, always kind, and who never asks anyone to seek Him in vain. May He meet my needs!"
Thus spoke Oswald, and he was not obliged to wait long for a word of consolation. There was one in Switzerland inured to the battles of the faith. Zuinglius drew near to his friend, and comforting him, thus expressed himself, "The blows by which men attempt to overthrow the house of God are so violent, and the assaults which they make upon it so frequent that not only do the wind and rain beat upon it, as our Saviour predicted, (Matt. vii, 27,) but the hail and the thunder.[897] Had I not perceived the Lord guiding the ship I should, long ere now, have cast the helm into the sea, but I see him amid the tempest, strengthening the tackling, arranging the yards, stretching the sails, what do I say? commanding the very winds.... Should I not then be a coward unworthy of the name of a man if I abandoned my post and fled to a shameful death? I confide entirely in his sovereign goodness. Let him govern, transport, hasten, retard, precipitate, arrest, break down, let him even plunge us to the bottom of the abyss, we fear nothing.[898] We are vessels which belong to him. He can use us as he pleases, for honour or disgrace." After words thus full of faith Zuinglius continues. "As to your case this is my opinion. Present yourself before the council, and there deliver an address worthy of Christ and of yourself, that is to say, proper to touch and not to irritate men's hearts. Deny that you are a disciple of Luther, declare that you are a disciple of Jesus Christ. Let your pupils surround you, and let them speak, and if all this does not succeed, come to your friend, come to Zuinglius, and consider our home as your own fireside."
Thus spoke Oswald, and he didn't have to wait long for a word of comfort. There was someone in Switzerland who had endured the struggles of faith. Zuinglius stepped closer to his friend and, offering his support, said, "The attacks people make to bring down the house of God are so fierce, and their assaults are so frequent that not only do the wind and rain beat against it, as our Savior predicted (Matt. vii, 27), but also hail and thunder.[897] If I hadn't seen the Lord steering the ship, I would have thrown the helm into the sea long ago, but I see Him amid the storm, strengthening the rigging, organizing the sails, what do I mean? Commanding even the winds.... Should I not be a coward unworthy of the name 'man' if I deserted my post and ran away to a disgraceful end? I trust completely in His supreme goodness. Let Him guide, move, speed up, slow down, push forward, hold back, break down, let Him even sink us to the bottom of the abyss; we fear nothing.[898] We are vessels that belong to Him. He can use us however He wishes, for honor or disgrace." After such faith-filled words, Zuinglius continued. "Regarding your situation, this is my opinion: Present yourself before the council and give a speech worthy of Christ and yourself—one that will touch hearts rather than provoke them. Deny that you are a follower of Luther, and state that you are a follower of Jesus Christ. Let your students gather around you and let them speak, and if that doesn’t work, come to your friend, come to Zuinglius, and consider our home as your own."
Oswald, strengthened by these words, followed the noble counsel of the Reformer, but all his efforts were useless. The witness to the truth behoved to quit his country. His enemies in Lucerne were so loud against him, that the magistrates would not allow any one to give him an asylum. Broken-hearted at the sight of so much enmity, the confessor of Jesus Christ exclaimed, "All that now remains for me is to beg from door to door to sustain my miserable life."[899] Shortly after, the friend and most powerful assistant of Zuinglius, the first man in Switzerland who had united literary instruction with the love of the gospel, the reformer of Lucerne, and at a later period one of the leaders of the Helvetic church, was obliged, with his sickly wife and little boy, to quit this ungrateful city, where, out of all his family, the only one who had received the gospel was a sister. He crossed its ancient bridges, and bade adieu to those mountains which seem to rise from the bosom of the lake of Waldstetten up to the clouds. Canons Xylotect and Kilchmeyer, the only friends whom the Reformation yet numbered among his countrymen, followed shortly after. And, at the moment when this poor man, with two feeble companions, whose existence depended on him, with his eye turned towards its lake, and shedding tears for his deluded country, took leave of those sublime scenes which had surrounded his cradle, the gospel itself took leave of Lucerne, and Rome reigns in it to this day.
Oswald, encouraged by these words, followed the valuable advice of the Reformer, but all his efforts were in vain. The witness to the truth had to leave his country. His enemies in Lucerne were so vocal against him that the authorities wouldn't allow anyone to give him shelter. Heartbroken by so much hostility, the confessor of Jesus Christ exclaimed, "All that is left for me is to beg from door to door to survive this miserable life."[899] Shortly after, the friend and most powerful ally of Zwingli, the first person in Switzerland to combine education with a love for the gospel, the reformer of Lucerne, and later one of the leaders of the Helvetic church, had to leave this ungrateful city with his sickly wife and young son. Out of all his family, the only one who had embraced the gospel was his sister. He crossed the ancient bridges and said goodbye to those mountains that seemed to rise from the depths of Lake Waldstetten into the clouds. Canons Xylotect and Kilchmeyer, the only friends the Reformation had among his countrymen, followed soon after. And at the moment when this poor man, with his two weak companions whose survival depended on him, looked back at the lake and wept for his misguided country, he took leave of the majestic scenes that surrounded his childhood, and the gospel itself departed from Lucerne, leaving Rome to reign there to this day.
Shortly after the Diet itself, which was assembled at Baden, stung by the petitions of Einsidlen, (which, being printed, produced a great sensation,) and urged by the Bishop of Constance to strike a blow at innovations, had recourse to measures of persecution, ordered the authorities of the villages to bring before it all priests and laymen who should speak against the faith, seized, in its impatience, on the evangelist, who happened to be nearest at hand, Urban Weiss, pastor of Filispach, who had been previously released on caution, made him be brought to Constance, and then gave him up to the bishop, by whom he was long kept in prison. "Thus," says the Chronicle of Bullinger, "the persecution of the gospel by the confederates commenced, and that at the instigation of the clergy, who have at all times delivered Jesus Christ to Herod and Pilate."[900]
Shortly after the Diet, which was held in Baden, stirred by the petitions from Einsidlen (which were published and created quite a stir), and pushed by the Bishop of Constance to take action against new ideas, took measures of persecution. They ordered village authorities to bring before them all priests and laypeople who spoke out against the faith. In their impatience, they captured the nearest evangelist, Urban Weiss, the pastor of Filispach, who had previously been released on bail, and brought him to Constance. They then handed him over to the bishop, who kept him imprisoned for a long time. "Thus," says the Chronicle of Bullinger, "the persecution of the gospel by the confederates began, and that at the instigation of the clergy, who have always delivered Jesus Christ to Herod and Pilate."[900]
Zuinglius was not to escape his share of trial. Blows to which he was most sensible were then struck at him. The rumour of his doctrines and his contests had passed Santis, penetrated the Tockenburg, and reached the heights of Wildhaus. The pastoral family from whom the Reformer had sprung were moved. Of the four brothers of Zuinglius, some had continued peacefully to occupy themselves with their mountain toils, whilst others, to the great grief of their brother, had quitted their flocks and served foreign princes. All were alarmed at the news which rumour brought as far as their chalets. They already saw their brother seized, dragged perhaps to Constance to his bishop, and a pile erected for him at the same place which had consumed the body of John Huss. These proud shepherds could not bear the idea of being called the brother of a heretic. They wrote to Ulric, describing their sorrow and their fears. Zuinglius replied, "So long as God permits, I will perform the task which he has entrusted to me, without fearing the world and its proud tyrants. I know the worst that can happen to me. There is no danger, no misfortune which I have not long carefully weighed. My own strength is mere nothingness, and I know the power of my enemies, but I know also that I can do everything through Christ strengthening me. Were I silent, some other would be constrained to do what God now does by me, and I would be punished by God. Cast far from you all your anxiety, my dear brothers. If I have a fear, it is that I have been gentler and more easily persuaded than is suitable for this age.[901] What shame, you say, will be cast on all our family if you are burnt, or put to death in some other way![902] O, dearly beloved brethren! the gospel derives from the blood of Christ this wondrous nature, that the most violent persecutions far from arresting, only hasten its progress. Those only are true soldiers of Christ who fear not to bear in their body the wounds of their Master. All my labours have no other end than to make men know the treasures of happiness which Christ has acquired for us, in order that all may flee to the Father through the death of his Son. If his doctrine offends you, your anger cannot stop me. You are my brothers, yes, my own brothers, the sons of my father, and the offspring of the same mother ... but if you were not my brethren in Christ, and in the work of faith, my grief would be so extreme that nothing could equal it. Adieu. I will never cease to be your true brother, provided you do not yourselves cease to be the brethren of Jesus Christ."[903]
Zwingli couldn't avoid his share of trials. He faced blows that struck him deeply. The news of his teachings and his disputes had spread beyond Santis, reached the Tockenburg, and climbed up to the heights of Wildhaus. The pastoral family from which the Reformer came was stirred. Among Zwingli's four brothers, some continued to peacefully work their mountain lands, while others, to their brother's great sorrow, left their herds to serve foreign princes. All were anxious about the news that reached their chalets. They feared their brother might be captured and possibly taken to Constance to face his bishop, and that a pyre would be built in the same place that had burned John Huss. These proud shepherds could not bear the thought of being known as the brother of a heretic. They wrote to Ulrich, expressing their sorrow and fears. Zwingli replied, “As long as God allows it, I will carry out the task He has given me, without fearing the world and its proud tyrants. I know the worst that could happen to me. There's no danger, no misfortune I've not already considered. My own strength is nothing, and I know the power of my enemies, but I also know that I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me. If I stay silent, someone else would have to do what God is currently doing through me, and I would be punished by God. Cast aside all your worries, my dear brothers. If I have any fear, it's that I've been too gentle and easily swayed for this time. What shame, you say, will come upon our entire family if you are burned or killed in some other way! Oh, beloved brothers! The gospel, stemming from the blood of Christ, has this amazing nature: the fiercest persecutions do not halt its progress; they actually speed it up. True soldiers of Christ are those who are unafraid to bear the wounds of their Master in their bodies. All my efforts have no other purpose than to help people discover the treasures of happiness that Christ has won for us, so that everyone can run to the Father through the death of His Son. If His teachings offend you, your anger cannot deter me. You are my brothers, yes, my own brothers, the sons of my father and the children of the same mother... but if you were not my brothers in Christ and in the work of faith, my sorrow would be so immense that nothing could compare. Farewell. I will always be your true brother, as long as you do not cease to be the brethren of Jesus Christ."
The confederates seemed to rise against the gospel as one man. The petitions of Einsidlen had been the signal. Zuinglius, concerned for the lot of his dear Myconius, saw in this misfortune only the beginning of calamity. Enemies in Zurich: enemies abroad—a man's own relatives becoming his enemies,—a furious opposition on the part of monks and priests,—violent measures of the Diet and the councils,—rude, perhaps bloody, assaults on the part of the partisans of foreign service,—the highest valleys of Switzerland, the cradle of the confederation, sending forth phalanxes of invincible soldiers to save Rome, and, at the sacrifice of life, annihilating the growing faith of the sons of the Reformation—such was the prospect at which the penetrating mind of the Reformer shuddered when he beheld it in the distance. What a prospect! Was not the work, scarcely well begun, on the point of being destroyed? Zuinglius, thoughtful and agitated, spread all his anguish before his God. "O Jesus," said he, "you see how wicked men and blasphemers stun the ears of thy people with their cries.[904] Thou knowest that from my infancy I have hated disputes, and yet in spite of myself thou hast ceased not to urge me on to the combat.... Wherefore, I confidently call upon thee, as thou hast begun so to finish. If in any thing I have built up improperly, beat it down with thy mighty hand. If I have laid some other foundation beside thine let thy powerful arm overthrow it.[905] O most beloved vine, of which the Father is the vine-dresser, and of which we are the branches, forsake not thy offspring.[906] For thou hast promised to be with us, even to the end of the world!"
The confederates seemed to rise up against the gospel as one. The petitions from Einsidlen had triggered this unrest. Zuinglius, worried about his dear friend Myconius, could only see this misfortune as the start of further troubles. Enemies in Zurich, enemies from abroad—relatives turning into foes—fierce opposition from monks and priests—harsh actions from the Diet and the councils—brutal, possibly violent attacks from supporters of foreign service—the highest valleys of Switzerland, the birthplace of the confederation, sending out waves of unstoppable soldiers to protect Rome, even at the cost of lives, wiping out the growing faith of the Reformation’s followers—this was the grim future that horrified the keen mind of the Reformer as he observed it from afar. What a terrible future! Wasn’t the work, barely started, on the verge of being destroyed? Zuinglius, pensive and distressed, laid all his worries before God. "O Jesus," he said, "you see how wicked men and blasphemers pound the ears of your people with their shouts. You know that from my childhood I have despised arguments, yet despite my resistance, you have persistently pushed me into battle.... Therefore, I confidently call on you, as you have begun, so let it be finished. If I have built anything improperly, tear it down with your mighty hand. If I have laid any other foundation besides yours, let your powerful arm destroy it. O most beloved vine, of which the Father is the gardener, and of which we are the branches, do not abandon your offspring. For you have promised to be with us, even to the end of the world!"
It was on the 22nd of August, 1522, that Ulrich Zuinglius, the Reformer of Switzerland, when he saw violent storms descending from the mountains on the frail bark of faith, thus expressed the troubles and hopes of his soul in the presence of his God.
It was on August 22, 1522, that Ulrich Zwingli, the Reformer of Switzerland, when he saw fierce storms coming down from the mountains threatening the fragile vessel of faith, expressed the struggles and hopes of his soul before his God.
END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
END OF VOLUME TWO.
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ESSAYS AND DISCOURSES BY J. H. MERLE D'AUBIGNE, D.D., Author of the History of the Reformation. Translated from the French. With a Frontispiece of Dr. D'Aubigne's Residence on Lake Leman.
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CHEEVER'S WANDERINGS of a PILGRIM in the SHADOW of MONT BLANC, and the JUNGFRAU ALP.
CHEEVER'S WANDERINGS of a PILGRIM in the SHADOW of MONT BLANC, and the JUNGFRAU ALP.
BUNYAN'S PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. With the Rev. T. Scott's Notes, and an Introductory Essay by James Montgomery, Esq.
BUNYAN'S PILGRIM'S PROGRESS. With the Rev. T. Scott's Notes, and an Introductory Essay by James Montgomery, Esq.
DICK'S PHILOSOPHY of RELIGION; or, an Illustration of the Moral Laws of the Universe.
DICK'S PHILOSOPHY of RELIGION; or, an Illustration of the Moral Laws of the Universe.
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FOOTNOTES:
[3] Roscoe's Life of Leo X.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Roscoe's Life of Leo X.
[5] "Sciscitatus per viam Miltitxius quanam esset in æstimatione Lutherus ... sensit de eo cum admiratione homines loqui." (Pallavicini, Hist. Concil. Trid. Tom. i, p. 51.)
[5] "As he traveled, Miltitxius wondered about Luther's reputation ... he sensed that people spoke of him with admiration." (Pallavicini, Hist. Concil. Trid. Tom. i, p. 51.)
[12] Löscher, ii, 567.
[17] L. Op. (W.) xxii.
[21] L. Ep. i, 209.
[32] L. Op. (L.) xvii, 224.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ L. Op. (L.) xvii, 224.
[41] Defensio adversus Echii monomachiam.
[44] 1st vol. p. 402
[46] L. Ep. i, p. 237.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ L. Ep. i, p. 237.
[50] Et sola sit veritas, quæ salvet se dexterâ suâ, non meâ, non tuâ, non ullius hominis.... (L. Ep. i, 261.) And let truth stand alone; she will save herself by her own right hand—not by yours or mine, or that of any man.... (L. Ep. i, 261.)
[50] And let truth stand alone; it will save itself by its own power—not by yours or mine, or by anyone else’s.... (L. Ep. i, 261.)
[56] Scheinder, Lips. Chr. iv, 168.
[59] Seckend., p. 201.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Seckend., p. 201.
[62] Nec cum carne et sanguine diu contulit, sed statim palam ad alios fidei confessionem constanter edidit. (M. Adami. Vita Amsdorf.) Nor did he confer with flesh and blood, but forthwith made a public and firm profession of his faith.
[62] He didn't consult with anyone else, but immediately made a public and strong declaration of his faith. (M. Adami. Vita Amsdorf.)
[66] First vol., p. 172.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ First vol., p. 172.
[67] Seckend. p. 190.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Seckend. p. 190.
[70] "Aiebat, ad universos mortales pertinebat judicium, hoc est ad tribunal cujus colligendis calculis nulla urna satis capax." (Pallavicini, T. i, p. 55.)
[70] "It was said that the judgment applied to all humanity, meaning that the court, which tabulated its accounts, had no urn large enough." (Pallavicini, T. i, p. 55.)
[72] Ibid., p. 246.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Ibid., p. 246.
[73] Seckend., p. 209.
[74] Seine Gelehrsamkeit aber und Verstand in heiliger Schrift ist unvergleichlich, so dass er fast alles im Griff hat. (Mosellanus in Seckend., 206.)
[74] His knowledge and understanding of the holy scriptures are unmatched, so he seems to have everything under control. (Mosellanus in Seckend., 206.)
[77] Pallavicini, i, 65.
[78] Philippians, ii, 13.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Philippians 2:13.
[79] Meritum congruum.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Fair merit.
[80] Planck, i, p. 176.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Planck, i, p. 176.
[81] Quanquam totum opus Dei sit, non tamen totaliter a Deo esse, quemadmodum totum pomum efficitur a sole, sed non a sole totaliter et sine plantæ efficentiâ. (Pallavicini, Tom. i, p. 58.) Although the whole work is of God, it is not wholly of God—just as the whole apple is produced by the sun, but not wholly by the sun, and without the co-operation of the plant.
[81] Although the entire work is from God, it is not completely from God—just as the whole apple is produced by the sun, but not entirely by the sun, and without the help of the plant.
[86] Seckendorf, p. 192.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Seckendorf, p. 192.
[90] Melancth. Op., p. 134.
[94] Löscher, iii, 278.
[95] Faciebat hoc Eccius quia certam sibi gloriam propositam cernebat, propter propositionem meam, in qua negabam Papam esse jure divino caput Ecclesiæ; hic patuit ei campus magnus. (L. Op. in Præf.) Eccius did so because he anticipated certain victory, in consequence of my proposition, in which I denied that the pope was jure divino head of the church; here he had a wide field in which to expatiate.
[95] Eccius did this because he saw a clear path to glory due to my statement, where I claimed that the pope was not the divinely appointed head of the church; this gave him plenty of room to elaborate. (L. Op. in Præf.)
[97] I Cor. xv, 25.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ 1 Cor. 15:25.
[98] "Prorsus audiendi non sunt qui Christum extra Ecclesiam militantem tendunt in triumphantem, cum sit regnum fidei. Caput nostrum non videmus; tamen habemus." (L. Op. Lat. i, p. 243.)
[98] "We should not listen to those who claim that Christ exists outside of the Church while it is still growing, since His kingdom is one of faith. We do not see our head; however, we have Him." (L. Op. Lat. i, p. 243.)
[104] Primus inter pares.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ First among equals.
[108] 1 Cor. iii, 11.
[109] 1 Peter, ii, 4, 5.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ 1 Peter 2:4-5.
[113] Das walt die Sucht!
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ That's addiction for you!
[115] Nec potest fidelis Christianus cogi ultra Sacram Scripturam, quæ est proprie jus divinum. (L. Op. Lat. i, 252.) Nor can a Christian believer be forced beyond the Sacred Scripture, which is properly divine law.
[115] A Christian believer cannot be compelled beyond Sacred Scripture, which is considered divine law.
[116] "At Rev. Pater, artis coquinariæ minus instructus, commiscet sanctos græcos cum schismaticis et hæreticis, ut fuco sanctitatis Patrum, hæreticorum tueatur perfidiam." (Ibid.) But the Rev. Father, imperfectly skilled in the culinary art, confounds Greek saints with schismatics and heretics, that by the sanctity of the Fathers he may disguise the perfidy of the heretics.
[116] "At Rev. Father, the art of cooking less equipped, mixes Greek saints with schismatics and heretics, so that by the appearance of the holiness of the Fathers, he may mask the deceit of the heretics." (Ibid.) But the Rev. Father, not fully skilled in the culinary art, confuses Greek saints with schismatics and heretics, in order to use the holiness of the Fathers to cover up the treachery of the heretics.
[119] L. Op. (L.) xvii, 246.
[121] Videtur fugere a facie Scripturarum, sicut diabolus crucem. Quare, salvis reverentiis Patrum, præfero ego auctoritatem Scripturæ, quod commendo judicibus futuris. (L. Op. Lat. i, p. 291.)
[121] It seems to avoid the face of the Scriptures, just like the devil flees from the cross. Therefore, respecting the authorities of the Fathers, I prefer the authority of Scripture, which I commend to future judges. (L. Op. Lat. i, p. 291.)
[122] "Ad exitum certaminis, uti solet, nulla prodiit decisio." (Pallavicini, i, 65.) As usual no decision was given on the conclusion of the debate.
[122] "At the end of the debate, as is often the case, no decision was reached." (Pallavicini, i, 65.) As usual, no decision was provided at the conclusion of the debate.
[123] "Totam istam conclusionum cohortem multo acrius et validius nostri Wittembergenses . . . oppugnaverunt et ita examinaverunt ut ossa eorum numerare licuerit, quas Eccius vix in facie eutis leviter perstriuxit." (L. Ep. i, 291.) This whole host of conclusions our Wittembergers boldly and vigorously assailed, and so exposed that all their bones might have been counted, whereas Eck scarcely pierced their skin.
[123] "Our scholars from Wittenberg confronted this entire set of conclusions with much more intensity and strength, exposing them so thoroughly that one could have counted their bones, while Eck barely scratched the surface." (L. Ep. i, 291.)
[127] "Lutheri Sieg sey um so viel weniger berühmt, weil der Gelehrten, Verstandigen, und derer die sich selbst nicht hoch rühmen, wenig seyen." (Seckendorff, 207.)
[127] "Luther's victory is less famous because there are few scholars, wise people, and those who don’t boast about themselves." (Seckendorff, 207.)
[131] Peifer Histor. Lipsiensis, 356.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Peifer Hist. Leipzig, 356.
[134] L. Op. (W.) xiv, 200.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ L. Op. (W.) xiv, 200.
[147] Ut hominum sententias, decretaque, ad ipsas, ceu ad Lydium lapidem exigamus. (Ibid. p. 115.) By it (Scripture), as by a Lydian stone, let us test the decisions and opinions of men.
[147] Just as we use a Lydian stone, let’s use Scripture to evaluate the judgments and opinions of people. (Ibid. p. 115.)
[149] L. Op. Lat. i, 252.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ L. Op. Lat. i, 252.
[152] Intellexit princeps artes Romanæ curiæ et eos (legatos) digne tractare novit. (Ibid.) The prince understood the arts of the Roman Court, and knew what treatment was due to them (the legates).
[152] The leader understood the ways of the Roman Court and knew how to handle the legates appropriately. (Ibid.)
[153] 3rd September, 1519.
[154] L. Op. (L.) x, 461.
[158] Ibid. p. 281.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Same source, p. 281.
[159] "Si quis dixerit per ipsa novæ legis sacramenta ex opere operato non conferri gratiam, sed solam fidem divinæ promissionis, ad gratiam consequendam sufficere, anathema sit." (Council of Trent, Sess. 7, can. 8.) If any man says that grace is not bestowed through the Sacraments of the New Covenant, by the mere act, (ex opere operato,) but that faith alone in the divine promise is sufficient to obtain grace, let him be anathema.
[159] "If anyone says that grace is not given through the Sacraments of the New Covenant, by the mere act (ex opere operato), but that faith alone in the divine promise is enough to receive grace, let him be anathema." (Council of Trent, Sess. 7, can. 8.)
[171] L. Op. (W.) xxii, 1869.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ L. Op. (W.) xxii, 1869.
[172] Memoires de Bellay, i, 45.
[173] L. Op. (W.) xxii, 1874.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ L. Op. (W.) xxii, 1874.
[192] (Ibid.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ (Same source.)
[199] "Scripturam sacram nolim alicujus nomini nisi Dei servire." (Ibid. p. 431.) I would not have sacred Scripture subservient to any name but that of God.
[199] "I don't want sacred Scripture to serve any name other than God's." (Ibid. p. 431.) I would not have sacred Scripture subservient to any name but that of God.
[201] Wenn ein Mensch tausend, oder alle Menschen, oder alle Creaturen wäre. (L. Op. (L.) p. 398.) "Were one man a thousand, or all men, or all creatures."
[201] If one person were a thousand, or all people, or all creatures. (L. Op. (L.) p. 398.) "Were one man a thousand, or all men, or all creatures."
[203] "Erit meo judicio omnium quæ ediderim, optimum: quanquam scio quæ mihi mea placent, hoc ipso fermento infecta, non solere aliis placere." (L. Ep. i, p. 431.)
[203] "In my opinion, this is the best of all that I’ve published: although I know that what I like might not necessarily appeal to others." (L. Ep. i, p. 431.)
[205] L. Op. (L.) xvii, 457-502.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ L. Op. (L.) xvii, 457-502.
[212] Ibid. p. 478.
Ibid. p. 478.
[213] Sopra tutto musico eccellentissimo, e quando el canta con qualche uno, li fa donar cento e più ducati.... (Zorsi. MS. C.) And above all a most excellent musician, and any person with whom he sings he presents with a hundred ducats.
[213] Above all, he is an outstanding musician, and anyone he sings with receives a gift of a hundred ducats.
[218] Caput orbis et consequenter orbis totus in virtute (De juridica et irrefragabili veritate Romanæ Ecclesiæ. Bibl. Max. xix, cap. iv.)
[218] The capital of the world and consequently the whole world is in the authority (Of the lawful and undeniable truth of the Roman Church. Bibl. Max. xix, chap. iv.)
[220] Hoc unum Christum obtestans, ut masculo omnia pectore ferre donet, et me figulinum suum rumpat aut firmet, ut illi placitum sit. (Zwinglii Epistolæ, curant. Schulero et Schulthessio, p. 144.)
[220] This one thing I beseech Christ, that He may grant strength to bear everything with a masculine heart, and either break or strengthen me as He wishes. (Zwinglii Epistolæ, curant. Schulero et Schulthessio, p. 144.)
[222] Nam si feratur, auguror Germanos cum excommunicatione pontificem quoque contempturos. (Zwinglii Epistolæ, curant. Schulero et Schulthessio, p. 144.)
[222] If he is carried away, I predict that the Germans will also disregard the Pope's excommunication. (Zwinglii Epistolæ, edited by Schulero and Schulthessio, p. 144.)
[225] Sub prædictis pœnis, præfatum Lutherum, complices adhærentes, receptatores et fautores, personaliter capiant et ad nos mittant. (Bulla Leonis, loc. cit.)
[225] Under the aforementioned penalties, let the aforementioned Luther, along with his accomplices, supporters, and patrons, be personally captured and sent to us. (Bulla Leonis, loc. cit.)
[230] Videres in ædibus illis perpetuo accedentes et introeuntes et discedentes atque exeuntes aliquos. (Camerar. Vita Melancth. p. 40.) In that house you would constantly see persons approaching and entering, or coming out and going away.
[230] You would always see people coming and going in that house. (Camerar. Vita Melancth. p. 40.)
[237] Commendans potestatem magistratuum. (Ibid.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Commendation of the officials' power. (Ibid.)
[243] "Sicut enim verbum Dei potens est dum sonat, etiam impii cor immutare, quod non minus est surdum et incapax quam ullus parvulus, ita per orationem Ecclesiæ offerentis et credentis parvulus, fide infusa mutatur, mundatur, et renovatur." (L. Op. Lat. ii, p. 77.)
[243] "Just as the word of God is powerful when it speaks, and can change the heart of the wicked, which is just as deaf and incapable as any little child, so through the prayer of the Church, offering and believing like a child, one is transformed, purified, and renewed by faith." (L. Op. Lat. ii, p. 77.)
[244] "Dico itaque, neque papa, neque episcopus, neque ullus hominum habet jus unius syllabæ constituendæ super Christianum hominem, nisi id fiat ejusdem consensu; quidquid aliter fit, tyrannico spiritu fit." (Ibid. p. 77.)
[244] "So I say, neither the pope, nor a bishop, nor any man has the right to impose even one syllable on a Christian person, unless it is done with their consent; anything done otherwise is done with a tyrannical spirit." (Ibid. p. 77.)
[245] "Generali edicto tollere vota .... abunde enim vovimus in baptismo, et plus quam possimus implere." (Ibid, p. 78.) There ought to be a general edict abolishing vows ... for in baptism we vow enough, and more than we can perform.
[245] "A general decree should eliminate vows... because in baptism we take on enough commitments, and more than we can actually fulfill." (Ibid, p. 78.)
[246] "Opera quantum libet sacra et ardua religiosorum et sacerdotum, in oculis Dei prorsus nihil distare ab operibus rustici in agro laborantis aut mulieris in domo sua curantis." (Ibid.)
[246] "No matter how sacred or demanding the work of religious figures and priests may seem, in the eyes of God, it is truly no different from the tasks of a farmer toiling in the fields or a woman caring for her home." (Ibid.)
[260] Seckend, p. 268.
[266] Jeremiah, li. 9.
[268] Rev. xxii, 11.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Rev. 22:11.
[270] Ist nun das nicht eine fröhliche Wirthschaft, da der reiche, edle, fromme Bräutigam Christus, das arme, verachtete, böse Huhrlein zur Ehe nimmt (L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 385.)
[270] Isn't this a joyful situation, where the rich, noble, pious groom Christ takes the poor, despised, sinful harlot as his bride? (L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 385.)
[277] Consilium cujusdam ex animo cupientis esse consultum et pontificis dignitati, et Christianæ religionis tranquillitati (Zuinglii Opera, curant. Schulero et Schulthessio, iii, p. 1-5.)
[277] A certain council aims to advise on the desires of those wishing for guidance, to uphold the dignity of the clergy, and to maintain peace within the Christian faith (Zuinglii Opera, curant. Schulero et Schulthessio, iii, p. 1-5.)
[278] Multum degenerasse ab illa sincera Christi evangelica doctrina, adeo ut nemo non fateatur opus esse publica aliqua et insigni legum ac morum instauratione. (Ibid., p. 3.)
[278] The Christian gospel has deteriorated so much from its original purity that everyone agrees there is a need for a significant and public restoration of laws and morals. (Ibid., p. 3.)
[284] Pirckheimeri Op. Francof.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Pirckheimeri Op. Francof.
[291] Seckend. p. 289.
[297] "Ab erroneo, indurato, per Scripturas sanctas damnato, hæretico et apostata." (L. Op. Lat. ii, p. 50.) See also (L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 332.) The German copy has a few paragraphs that are not in the Latin.
[297] "From one who is mistaken, hardened, condemned by the holy Scriptures, heretical, and apostate." (L. Op. Lat. ii, p. 50.) See also (L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 332.) The German version includes a few paragraphs that are absent in the Latin.
[309] ... primum trepidus et orans, sed nunc lætior quam ullo totius vitæ meæ facto. (Ibid.) ... at first trembling and praying, but now more joyful than at any action of my whole life.
[309] ... at first I was anxious and praying, but now I feel happier than I ever have in my entire life. (Ibid.) ...
[319] Capello, Venetian ambassador at Rome, in 1500, says of him, "Tutta Roma trema di esso ducha non li faza amazzar"... (Relatione M.S. Archives of Vienna, extracted by Ranke.)
[319] Capello, the Venetian ambassador in Rome in 1500, says about him, "All of Rome trembles because of him; he should not be killed"... (Relatione M.S. Archives of Vienna, extracted by Ranke.)
[320] Er wird übel als ein gebohrner Jude und schaendlicher Epicurer beschrieben. (Seckend. 286.)—Integritas vitæ qua prænoscebatur... (Pallavicini, i, p. 84.)
[320] He is poorly described as a born Jew and a disgraceful Epicurean. (Seckend. 286.) — The integrity of life by which he was known... (Pallavicini, i, p. 84.)
[330] ... Sonderliche Gunst und Gnade zu mir unwürdiglich und den grossen Willen und Lust zer der heiligen göttlichen Wahrheit ... (L. Ep. i, p. 548, to John Frederick, 30th October, 1520.)
[330] ... Special favor and grace that I do not deserve and the great will and desire for the holy divine truth ... (L. Ep. i, p. 548, to John Frederick, 30th October, 1520.)
[332] Evangelium si tale esset, quod potentatibus mundi aut propagaretur aut servaretur, non illud piscatoribus Deus demandasset. (L. Ep. i, p. 521.)
[332] If the Gospel were something that was meant to be spread or preserved by worldly authorities, God wouldn't have entrusted it to fishermen. (L. Ep. i, p. 521.)
[336] "Et futurum erat .... ut tandem prorsus extingueretur illa scintilla Christianæ pietatis; hæc moverunt animum Lutheri .... qui nec honores ambit nec pecuniam cupit." (Erasm. Ep. Londini, 1642, p. 586.)
[336] "And it was going to be .... that eventually that spark of Christian piety would be completely extinguished; these things stirred Luther’s spirit .... who neither seeks honors nor craves money." (Erasm. Ep. Londini, 1642, p. 586.)
[343] Urgent ardua negotia.... (Ibid.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Urgent difficult matters.... (Ibid.)
[346] Quæ male torquebant Aleandrum. (Ibid.)
They falsely accused Alexander. (Ibid.)
[349] Pallav. p. 91.
[350] Vol. i, to p. 20.
[360] "Ablata illa est a vobis inducta olim nostris oculis caligo, prædicatur Evangelium .. spes est libertatis" ... (Ulric ab Hütten Eques Mar. Carrac. L. Op. Lat. ii, p. 176.)
[360] "That darkness, which was once brought before our eyes, has been removed from you; the Gospel is proclaimed... there is hope for freedom." ... (Ulric ab Hütten Eques Mar. Carrac. L. Op. Lat. ii, p. 176.)
[363] Bonus est pro laicis liber. (L. Ep. i, p. 571.) It would be worth while to make a new impression of this work; I found a copy of it in the library of Zurich.
[363] It's a great book for laypeople. (L. Ep. i, p. 571.) It would be a good idea to print a new edition of this work; I came across a copy in the Zurich library.
[367] ... Fugitivum cum Cardinalibus, Episcopia, famulisque suis, in diversas partes oppidi disperserunt et insecuti sunt. (Ibid. 17th Feb. 1521.)
[367] ... They scattered the fugitive with the Cardinals, Bishops, and their servants to different parts of the town and pursued them. (Ibid. 17th Feb. 1521.)
[376] Sleidan, vol. i, p. 80.
[386] Magis invidiâ et vindictæ libidine quam zelo pietatis. (Historia Johnnis Cochlœi de actis et scriptis Martini Lutheri. Parisus, 1565, p. 27, verso. Cochlœus was all his life one of Luther's greatest enemies. We will soon see him appear.)
[386] More out of envy and the desire for revenge than from zeal for piety. (History of John Cochlaeus on the deeds and writings of Martin Luther. Paris, 1565, p. 27, verso. Cochlaeus was one of Luther's biggest adversaries throughout his life. We'll soon see him come into play.)
[390] "Periculum denique amittendæ Germaniæ ex parcimonia monetæ cujusdam." (Ibid.) In fine, the danger of losing Germany from niggardliness in withholding a sum of money.
[390] "Finally, the danger of losing Germany due to the stinginess in providing a certain amount of money." (Ibid.) In short, the risk of losing Germany from being too frugal with funds.
[392] Exodus, xxvi, 7, 14.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Exodus 26:7-14.
[394] "Causam, quæ, Christo teste, Dei, Christiani orbis, Ecclesiæ Catholicæ, et totius Germanicæ Nationis, et non unius, et privati est hominis" .... (L. Ep. i, p. 551.)
[394] "The reason, which, according to Christ, is for God, the Christian world, the Catholic Church, and the entire German Nation, and not just for one individual" .... (L. Ep. i, p. 551.)
[403] L. Op. (W. xxii, 1655.)
[405] Spalatinus scribit tantum favoris Evangelio esse istic, ut me inauditum et inconvictum damnari non speret. (L. Ep. i, p. 556, 9th Feb.) Spalatin writes that the gospel is so much in favour there that he hopes I cannot be condemned unheard and unconvicted.
[405] Spalatin writes that the gospel is so well-regarded there that he hopes I can't be condemned without a hearing or evidence against me. (L. Ep. i, p. 556, 9th Feb.)
[415] Luke, xxiii, 2.
[417] "Dummodo mecum una monstrum nascentis hæresis arderet." (Pallavicini, i, p. 97.) Seckendorff, and after him several Protestant historians, insist that Pallavicini himself composed the address which he puts in the mouth of Aleander. It is true the Cardinal historian states, that he gave it the form in which it appears; but he intimates the sources from which he drew it, particularly the letters of Aleander deposited in the archives of the Vatican. (Acta Wormatiæ, fol. 66 and 99.) I think, therefore, that to reject it altogether would betray partiality. I have collected some additional passages of the speech from other sources, Protestant and Romish....
[417] "As long as the monster of a new heresy burns with me." (Pallavicini, i, p. 97.) Seckendorff, along with several Protestant historians after him, claims that Pallavicini himself wrote the speech that he attributes to Aleander. It's true that the Cardinal historian says he shaped it into the form we see, but he hints at the sources he used, especially the letters of Aleander stored in the Vatican archives. (Acta Wormatiæ, fol. 66 and 99.) Therefore, I believe that completely rejecting it would show bias. I've gathered some extra parts of the speech from other sources, both Protestant and Catholic....
[418] "Baptismum neminem justificare, sed fidem in verbum promissionis cui additur Baptismus." (Cochlœus, Act. Luth. 28.) That no man is justified by baptism, but only by faith, in the word of the promise to which baptism is annexed.
[418] "No one is justified by baptism, but only by faith in the word of the promise to which baptism is attached." (Cochlœus, Act. Luth. 28.)
[427] Dass sie Weibesbilder unter mancherley schein beschicken, selbige sodann mit Drohungen und Geschenken su fällen suchen, oder in einen bosen verdacht bringen. (Weimar Arch. Seck., p. 330.)
[427] That they portray women in various ways, then try to seduce them with threats and gifts, or cast them in a bad light. (Weimar Arch. Seck., p. 330.)
[428] L. Op. (W.) xxii, 748-752.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ L. Op. (W.) xxii, 748-752.
[429] Seckend. Vorrede von Frick.
[438] Luke, i, 46-55.
[447] This ceremony is described in different works, among others—" Tagebuch einer Reise durch Deutschland und Italien." (Berlin, 1817, iv, p. 94.) The principal formalities are of earlier date than the days of Luther.
[447] This ceremony is detailed in various works, including "Diary of a Journey through Germany and Italy." (Berlin, 1817, iv, p. 94.) The main formalities date back before Luther's time.
[459] Corp. Refor., i, p. 361.
[468] L. Ep. i, p. 580.
[482] "In diversortis multa propinatio, læta compotatio, musices quoque gaudia; adeo ut Lutherus ipse alicubi sonora testudine ludens, omnium in se oculos converteret, velut Orpheus quidam, sed rasus adhuc et cucullatus, eoque mirabilior." (Cochlœus, p. 29.) "In the inns there was much quaffing and joyous carousing, nor were the pleasures of music wanting; Luther himself sometimes playing on a sonorous harp, turned all eyes upon him, as if he had been a kind of Orpheus, shaven and cowled, no doubt, but on that account the greater wonder."
[482] "In various taverns, there was plenty of drinking and cheerful partying, and the enjoyment of music as well; Luther himself sometimes played a beautiful harp, drawing all eyes towards him, like a kind of Orpheus, though shaven and wearing a hood, which only made him more remarkable." (Cochlœus, p. 29.)
[485] Lutherum illac transeuntem subsequutus ut pro honore ecclesiæ vitam suam....exponeret (Cochlœus, p. 6.) This Cochlœus is the writer whom we frequently quote.
[485] Lutherum passing by, he followed him to dedicate his life for the honor of the church.... (Cochlœus, p. 6.) This Cochlœus is the author we often reference.
[487] Condoce faciebat τα αναγκαια a probabilibus distinguerie, ut scirent quæ retinenda ... (Melch. Adam. Vit. Buceri, p. 223.) He taught that a distinction should be made between the necessary and the probable in order to ascertain what ought to be retained.
[487] He taught that a distinction should be made between what is necessary and what is probable so that one could determine what should be kept. ... (Melch. Adam. Vit. Buceri, p. 223.)
[495] L. Op. xvii, p. 587.
[497] See Book viii.
[504] David, Psalm XX.
[509] Münchlein, Münchlein, du gehest jetzt einen Gang, einen solchen Stand zu thun, dergleichen Ich und mancher Obrister, auch in unser allerernestesten Schlacht-Ordnung nicht gethan haben ... (Ibid.)
[509] Münchlein, Münchlein, you're going to take a walk now, a kind of stance to take, like I and many higher-ups haven't done even in our most serious battle formation... (Ibid.)
[510] Proverbs, xvi, 32.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Proverbs 16:32.
[522] "Die Seele est dien." (Ibid.)
"The soul is yours." (Ibid.)
[527] "Non clamose at modeste, non tamen sine Christianâ animositate et constantiâ." (L. Op. Lat. ii. p. 165.) Not clamorously, but modestly; yet not without Christian warmth and firmness.
[527] "Not loudly, but modestly; yet with a strong sense of Christian warmth and determination." (L. Op. Lat. ii. p. 165.)
[532] L. Op. (W.) xv, 2286.
[534] Matt. x, 18, 20.
[537] Guicciardini, p. 175. Dumont Corp. Dipl. t. iv, p. 96. Dicesi del papa Leone, che quando l'aveva fatto lega con alcuno, prima soleva dir che pero non si dovea restar de tratar cum lo altro principe opposto. It is said of Leo X, that after entering into league with any one, he was wont to say there was no occasion to cease treating with princes on the opposite side. (Suriano, Venetian Ambassador at Rome, M.S. Archives of Venice.)
[537] Guicciardini, p. 175. Dumont Corp. Dipl. t. iv, p. 96. It is said of Pope Leo X that whenever he formed an alliance with someone, he would usually state that there was no reason to stop negotiations with the opposing princes. (Suriano, Venetian Ambassador at Rome, M.S. Archives of Venice.)
[542] Sandoval Hist. de Carlos V, quoted in Llorente, History of the Inquisition, ii, p. 57. According to Llorente, the idea that Charles, toward the close of his life, inclined to evangelical opinions, is a mere invention of Protestants and the enemies of Philip II. This question forms a historical problem which the numerous quotations of Llorente appear unhappily to solve in conformity to his view.
[542] Sandoval Hist. de Carlos V, cited in Llorente, History of the Inquisition, ii, p. 57. Llorente claims that the notion that Charles leaned towards evangelical beliefs in his later years is simply a fabrication by Protestants and opponents of Philip II. This issue presents a historical dilemma, and the many quotations from Llorente regrettably seem to support his perspective.
[546] "Carlo si excusò di non poter procedere piu oltre, rispetto al salvocondotto, ma la verità fu che conoscendo che il Papa temeva molto di questa doctrina di Luthero, lo volle tenere con questo freno." Charles pretended that he could not go farther from regard to the safe-conduct; but the truth was that, knowing the pope was much afraid of this doctrine, he wished to hold him with this bridle. (Vettori, Istoria d'Italia M.S. Biblioth. Corsini at Rome, extracted by Ranke.)
[546] "Carlo claimed he couldn't proceed with the safe-conduct any further; however, the truth was that he knew the Pope was quite afraid of this doctrine, so he wanted to keep him in check with this restriction." (Vettori, Istoria d'Italia M.S. Biblioth. Corsini at Rome, extracted by Ranke.)
[549] Wunde hören werden. (Seckend. 365.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Wunde hören werden. (Seckend. 365.)
[562] Peracto prandio. (Cochlœus.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ After lunch. (Cochlœus.)
[566] "Es müsse Gift darinnen gewesen seyn."—Luther does not mention the circumstance, but Razeburg, a friend of Luther, and physician to the Elector John Frederick, relates it in a manuscript history which is extant in the library of Gotha, and says he had it from an eye-witness.
[566] "It must have had poison in it."—Luther doesn’t talk about this event, but Razeburg, a friend of Luther and doctor to Elector John Frederick, describes it in a manuscript history that is available in the library of Gotha, stating he got it from someone who saw it happen.
[575] Horat. Od. lib. iii, 3.
Horace. Odes Book III, 3.
[579] "Es müssen die Juden einmal singen, Io, Io, Io!..." (L. Ep. i, p. 589.) These cries of joy by the Jews at the time of the crucifixion represent the songs of triumph by the partisans of the papacy on occasion of the catastrophe which is going to befall Luther; but the Reformer discovers in the distance hallelujahs of deliverance.
[579] "The Jews must sing once, Io, Io, Io!..." (L. Ep. i, p. 589.) These joyful cries from the Jews during the crucifixion symbolize the triumphant songs of the papacy's supporters in response to the disaster that's about to happen to Luther; yet the Reformer sees in the distance hallelujahs of liberation.
[582] Per chalcographos multiplicata et in populos dispersa est ea epistola ... Cæsari autem et clericis odium populare, etc. (Cochlœus, p. 386.)
[582] The letter was multiplied by the engraver and spread among the people... However, there was popular hatred towards Caesar and the clerics, etc. (Cochlœus, p. 386.)
[586] "Festivissimo vultu." (Ibid.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ "Very festive face." (Ibid.)
[587] "Et undique pervulgata." (Ibid.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ "And widely disseminated." (Ibid.)
[598] Seckend., p. 265.
[599] ...1516, eo scilicet tempore, quum Lutheri nomen in nostris regionibus inauditum adhuc erat...doctrinam Christi non a Luthero, sed ex verbo Dei didici. (Zwinglii Opera, curant. Schulero et Schulthesio, Turici, 1829, vol. i, p. 273, 276.)
[599] ...1516, at that time when Luther's name was still unheard of in our regions...I learned Christ's teachings not from Luther, but from the word of God. (Zwinglii Opera, edited by Schulero and Schulthesio, Zurich, 1829, vol. i, p. 273, 276.)
[600] First Volume.
[603] The Tokenburg.
The Tokenburg.
[605] Diss Geschlächt der Zwinglinen, wass in guter Achtung diesser Landen, als ein gut alt ehrlich Geschlächt. (H. Bullinger's Histor. Beschreibung der Eidg. Geschichten.) This valuable work existed only in manuscript in 1837, and was communicated to me by the kindness of M. J. G. Hess. In the quotations I preserve the orthography of the period and of the manuscript. The friends of history have since caused it to be printed.
[605] This noble family of the Zwinglians, held in high regard in this region, is a well-respected and honorable lineage. (H. Bullinger's Historical Description of the Federal Histories.) This important work was only available as a manuscript in 1837, and I received it through the generosity of M. J. G. Hess. In the quotations, I maintain the spelling of the period and of the manuscript. Since then, history enthusiasts have arranged for it to be printed.
[606] Ein verrumbter Mann. (Ibid.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ A crazy man. (Ibid.)
[610] Schulers Zw. Bildung, p. 291.
[616] Wirz, Helvetische Kirchen Gesch. vol. iii, p. 387. Aushelms Cronik, iii and iv. No event of the period of the Reformation has given rise to so many writings. See Haller's Biblioth. der Schw. Gesch. iii.
[616] Wirz, Helvetic Church History, vol. iii, p. 387. Aushelm's Chronicle, iii and iv. No event from the Reformation era has led to as many writings. See Haller's Library of Swiss History, vol. iii.
[630] Ante decem annos, operam dedi græcis literis, ut ex fontibus doctrinam Christi haurire possem. (Zw. Op. i, p. 274, in his Explan. Artic. dated 1523.)
[630] Ten years ago, I focused on Greek literature to draw from the sources the teachings of Christ. (Zw. Op. i, p. 274, in his Explan. Artic. dated 1523.)
[632] Nihil sublimius de evangelio sentiunt, quam quod, quidquid eorum rationi non est consentaneum, hoc iniquum, vanum et frivolum existimant. (Zw. Op. i, p. 202.)
[632] Nothing is more sublime than the gospel, as they believe that anything not in line with their reasoning is unjust, vain, and trivial. (Zw. Op. i, p. 202.)
[639] Dass Christus unser armen seelen ein einziger Schatz sey. (Zw. Op. i, p. 398.) Zuinglius says in 1522 that he had read the poem of Erasmus eight or nine years before.
[639] That Christ is a unique treasure for our poor souls. (Zw. Op. i, p. 398.) Zwingli mentions in 1522 that he had read Erasmus's poem eight or nine years earlier.
[640] Spiritus ille cœlestis non solam Palestinam vel creaverat vel fovebat, sed mundum universum...... (Œcol. et Zw. Ep. p. 9.) That celestial Spirit had created and continued to cherish not only Palestine, but the whole world.
[640] That heavenly Spirit had created and continued to nurture not just Palestine, but the entire world.
[645] Et corpusculo hoc tuo minuto, verum minime inconcinno, urbanissime gestientem videre videar. (Ibid.) Methinks I see you with your diminutive, but by no means inelegant, person, showing the greatest politeness.
[645] I can see you, with your small but definitely not awkward presence, carrying yourself with great grace. (Ibid.)
[647] Equidem humi repere didici hactenus, et est natura nescio quid humile vel a cunabulis in me. (Osw. Myc. Vit Zw.) Hitherto I have learned to creep on the ground; and there is in me naturally, even from the cradle, a feeling of the humble.
[647] I have learned to crawl on the ground; and there is something naturally humble in me, even from my early days. (Osw. Myc. Vit Zw.)
[656] Bellissimo parlador; prometea assa ma non attendea ... Most beautiful speechifier; he (Leo X) promised largely, but did not perform. (Relatione MS. di Gradenigo venuto orator di Roma.)
[656] Most beautiful speaker; he (Leo X) made grand promises, but didn't deliver. (Relatione MS. di Gradenigo venuto orator di Roma.)
[660] First Volume.
First Volume.
[668] Fore, idque brevi, Deo sic juvante, ut neque Hieronymus neque cæteri, sed sola Scriptura divina apud Christianos in prætio sit futura. (Zw. Op. i, p. 273)
[668] Indeed, and soon, with God's help, that neither Jerome nor the others, but only divine Scripture will be valued among Christians. (Zw. Op. i, p. 273)
[678] Frustra sperari me vel verbulum de veritate diminiturum esse, pecuniæ gratia. (Zw. Op. i, p. 365.) It was vain to hope that I would keep back one iota of the truth for the sake of money.
[678] It was pointless to expect that I would withhold even the smallest piece of the truth for the sake of money. (Zw. Op. i, p. 365.)
[693] En, cum verecundia (Deus novit!) magna, hæc ex pectoris specubus depromsi, apud eum scilicet, cum quo etiam coram minus quam cum ullo ferme mortalium confiteri vererer. (Zw. Ep.)
[693] And, with great humility (God knows!), I brought forth this from the depths of my heart, especially before him, with whom I felt more shy to confess than with almost any other human being. (Zw. Ep.)
[700] Schuler's, Zwinglis Bildung, p. 227.
[713] Obganniunt quidam, rident, minantur, petulanter incessunt ... at tu vere, Christianâ patientiâ, suffers omnia. (Ibid. 7th May, 1519.) Some jeer, laugh, menace, and petulantly assail, ... but you with truly Christian patience submit to all.
[713] Some mock, laugh, threaten, and annoy... but you, with true Christian patience, endure it all. (Ibid. 7th May, 1519.)
[728] Christus est innocentia tua; Christus est justitia et puritas tua; Christus est salus tua; tu nihil es, tu nihil potes; Christus est Α et Ω; Christus est prora et puppis; Christus est omnia. . . . (Zw. Op. i, p. 207.)
[728] Christ is your innocence; Christ is your righteousness and purity; Christ is your salvation; you are nothing, you can do nothing; Christ is the Alpha and Omega; Christ is the bow and stern; Christ is everything... (Zw. Op. i, p. 207.)
[732] Illic tum comitatem tuam e sinu uberrimo profluentem, non injucunde sum expertus. (Zw. Ep. p. 119.) Then I had the pleasure of experiencing your affability, the offspring of an exhuberant heart.
[732] There I had the pleasure of experiencing your friendliness, which flowed from your generous heart.
[733] Der Grosse Tod. (Bullinger, MS.)
The Great Death. (Bullinger, MS.)
[734] Ut in majori periculo sis, quod in dies te novo exponas, dum invisis ægrotos. (Ibid., MS. 87.) Chateaubriand had forgotten this fact, and thousands similar to it, when he said, "the protestant pastor abandons the poor man on his death-bed, and rushes not into the midst of the plague." (Essai sur la Literature Anglaise.)
[734] You are in greater danger because you expose yourself to new risks every day while visiting the sick. (Ibid., MS. 87.) Chateaubriand had overlooked this fact, along with many others like it, when he stated, "the Protestant pastor leaves the poor man on his deathbed and does not rush into the midst of the plague." (Essai sur la Literature Anglaise.)
[741] Quis non enim doleat, publicam patriæ salutem, tubam Evangelii, magnanimum veritatis buccinatorem languere, intercidere ... (Zw. Ep. p. 90.)
[741] Who wouldn’t be saddened to see the public well-being of the country, the trumpet of the Gospel, and the noble herald of truth struggling and fading away ... (Zw. Ep. p. 90.)
Although these three poetical fragments are dated "the beginning, middle, and end of the malady," and express the feelings which Zuinglius truly experienced at these different moments, it is probable that they were not put into their present form till afterwards. (See Bullinger MS.)
Although these three poetic fragments are dated "the beginning, middle, and end of the malady," and convey the emotions that Zuinglius genuinely felt at these different times, it's likely they weren't finalized in their current form until later. (See Bullinger MS.)
[748] E diris te mortis fancibus feliciter ereptum negotiator quidam Tigurinus ... (Ibid., p. 91.) A trader from Zurich informed me that you had been happily rescued from the dire jaws of death.
[748] A trader from Zurich informed me that you had been happily rescued from the dire jaws of death. (Ibid., p. 91.)
[749] Als die Pestilenz in Jahre, 1519, in dieser Gegend grassirte, viele neigten sich zu einem bessern Leben. (Georg. Vögelin. Ref. Hist. Füsslin Beytr., iv, 174.)
[749] When the plague ravaged this area in 1519, many turned to a better way of life. (Georg. Vögelin. Ref. Hist. Füsslin Beytr., iv, 174.)
[764] Non enim soli sumus Tiguri plus duobus millibus permultorum est rationalium qui lac jam Spirituali sugentes.... (Ibid., p. 104.) For we are not alone: at Zurich are more than two thousand of very rational beings, who now seek spiritual food.
[764] For we are not alone: in Zurich, there are over two thousand very rational beings who are now seeking spiritual nourishment. (Ibid., p. 104.)
[765] Quum ergo omnes homines in Adamo mortui sunt.....donec per Spiritum et gratiam Dei ad vitam quæ Deus est excitentur. (Zw. Op. i, p. 203.) Seeing, then, that all men are dead in Adam ... until they are awakened by the Spirit and grace of God to the life of God. These words, and others which we have quoted, or will quote, are taken from a work which Zuinglius published in 1523, and in which he gave a summary of the doctrine which he had preached for several years. "Hic recensere cœpi quæ ex verbo Dei prædicavi." (Ibid., p. 228.) These are his own words.
[765] Therefore, since all people are dead in Adam...until they are brought to life by the Spirit and grace of God. (Zw. Op. i, p. 203.) So, all humans are spiritually dead in Adam...until they are revived by the Spirit and grace of God to experience the life that God offers. These words, along with others we've mentioned or will mention, come from a work published by Zwingli in 1523, where he summarized the doctrine he had been preaching for several years. "Here I began to recount what I preached from the Word of God." (Ibid., p. 228.) These are his own words.
[767] Deus enim æternus quum sit qui pro nobis moritur, passionem ejus æternam et perpetuò salutarum esse oportet. (Zw. Op. i, p. 206.) Since he who dies for us is the eternal God, his passion must be eternal and for ever saving.
[767] Since God is eternal and dies for us, his suffering must be eternal and always salvific. (Zw. Op. i, p. 206.)
[770] Hostia est et victima satisfaciens in æternum pro peccatis omnium fidelium. (Ibid., p. 253.) Expurgata peccata multitudinis, hoc est, fidelis populi. (Ibid., p. 264.)
[770] It is the offering and sacrifice that makes amends forever for the sins of all believers. (Ibid., p. 253.) Cleansed are the sins of the multitude, that is, of the faithful people. (Ibid., p. 264.)
[771] Sequitur meritum nostrorum operum nihil esse quam vanitatem et stultitiam, ne dicam impietatem et ignorantem impudentiam. (Ibid., p. 290.) It follows that the merit of our works is nothing but vanity and folly, not to say impiety and ignorant impudence.
[771] It follows that the value of our actions is nothing but vanity and foolishness, not to mention impiety and shameless ignorance. (Ibid., p. 290.)
[775] Tum enim totus a Christo pendet. Christus est ei ratio, consilium, justitia, innocentia et tota salus. Christus in eo vivit, in eo agit. (Ibid., p. 233.)
[775] Because everything depends on Christ. Christ is their reason, plan, righteousness, innocence, and complete salvation. Christ lives in them and works through them. (Ibid., p. 233.)
[778] Vita ergo pii hominis nihil aliud est nisi perpetua quædam et indefessa boni operatio, quam Deus incipit, ducit et absolvit ... (Ibid., p. 295.)
[778] The life of a good person is nothing more than a continuous and unwavering effort to do good, which God starts, guides, and completes... (Ibid., p. 295.)
[780] Quam concors sit Spiritus Dei, dum nos tam procul dissiti, nihil colludentes, tam concorditer Christi doctrinam docemus. (Ibid., p. 276.) How well the Spirit of God accords, since we, who are placed at such a distance from each other, with no collusion, so harmoniously teach the doctrine of Christ.
[780] How well the Spirit of God aligns, even though we are so far apart from each other, with no collusion, we still teach the doctrine of Christ in such harmony. (Ibid., p. 276.)
[800] Donec Christum, cucultatis nugis longe a nobis exulem ... pro virili restituerim.... (Ibid., p. 187.) Until I have done my utmost to restore Christ, who has long been exiled from us by monkish trifles.
[800] Until I have done everything I can to bring back Christ, who has been far away from us because of pointless monkish distractions... (Ibid., p. 187.)
[806] Ich hab by Ihm ein gross Buch gesehen, Locorum communium, als Ich by Ihm wass, an. 1521, dorinnen er Sententias und dogmata Patrum, flyssig jedes an seinem ort verzeichnet. (Bullinger, MS.)
[806] I saw a big book by him, Locorum communium, when I was with him in 1521, in which he listed Sententias and dogmata Patrum, fluidly noted at each relevant point. (Bullinger, MS.)
[807] Lüget des Kindts grossvater zum fauster uss, und ersach das kind in der fischer bränter (Kufe.) so fräch (frisch) und frölich sitzen ... (Archives of Meyer de Knonau quoted in a notice on Anna Rheinardt, Erlanger, 1835, by M. Gerold Meyer de Knonau.) I am indebted to my friend for some elucidations of obscure points in the life of Zuinglius.
[807] Lüget des Kindts Großvater zum Fauster aus, und sah das Kind in der Fischerbränter (Kufe) so frisch und fröhlich sitzen ... (Archives of Meyer de Knonau quoted in a notice on Anna Rheinardt, Erlanger, 1835, by M. Gerold Meyer de Knonau.) I am grateful to my friend for clarifying some unclear aspects of Zuinglius's life.
[809] Disse che M. di Lutrech et M. de l' Escu havia ditto che'l voleva che le recchia del papa fusse la major parte retaste di la so persona. (Gradenigo, the Venitian ambassador at Rome, MS., 1523.)
[809] He said that Mr. di Lutrech and Mr. de l' Escu had stated that he wanted the Pope's ear to be mostly kept out of his affairs. (Gradenigo, the Venetian ambassador at Rome, MS., 1523.)
[811] Sic tragen billig rothe hüt und mäntel, dan schüte man sie, so fallen Cronen und Duggaten heraus, winde man sie, so rünt deines Bruders, Vaters, Sohns und guten freunds Blut heraus. (Ibid.)
[811] This is how cheap red hats and coats are worn, because if you shake them, crowns and ducats fall out, but if you twist them, your brother's, father's, son's, and good friend's blood comes out. (Ibid.)
[817] Zw. Op. iii, p. 8.—J. J. Hottinger (iii, 77.) Ruchat (i, 134. 2d edit.) and others say that Faber was at the head of the deputation. Zuinglius mentions the three deputies and does not speak of Faber. These authors have doubtless confounded two different officers of the Roman hierarchy—that of coadjutor and that of vicar-general.
[817] Zw. Op. iii, p. 8.—J. J. Hottinger (iii, 77.) Ruchat (i, 134. 2nd ed.) and others state that Faber led the delegation. Zuinglius refers to the three delegates and doesn't mention Faber. These authors have likely confused two different roles in the Roman hierarchy—coadjutor and vicar-general.
[819] Infirmos quosdam nuper Christo lucrifactos sacerdotes offensos ea sentirem ex tacitis palloribus ac suspiriis. (Ibid., p. 9.) I could see, by the silent paleness and sighs of certain priests lately gained to Christ, and not well confirmed, that they were overpowered.
[819] I noticed from the quiet paleness and sighs of some priests who had recently come to Christ and were still unsure in their faith that they were feeling overwhelmed. (Ibid., p. 9.)
[821] Ibi ego quiescere ac suspiriis rem agere cœpi apud eum qui audit gemitum compeditorum. (Ibid.) Then I began to be quiet, and to plead the cause with sighs before Him who hears the groaning of the prisoners.
[821] Then I started to find peace and to express my concerns through sighs before Him who listens to the cries of the imprisoned. (Ibid.)
[836] Ἔτοιμα φαρμακα λυγρὰ (Zw. Ep. 199.) Poisoned draughts are ready.
Poisoned drinks are ready.
(Bern. Mausol. iv, Wirz, K. Gesch. 1. 3.)
[861] The German is very strong.
The German is very strong.
So bin Ich auf gut Deutsch ein Hurenwirth, etc. (Ibid.)
So, in plain English, I'm a brothel keeper, etc. (Ibid.)
[866] Hebrews, xiii, 4.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Hebrews 13:4.
[868] Ein hochheiliges Bündniss. (Ibid.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ A holy alliance. (Ibid.)
[869] Qui veritus sis, te marito non tam feliciter usurum Christum in negotio verbi sui. (Zw. Ep. p. 335.) Who feared that Christ would not use you as a husband so advantageously in the ministry of his Word.
[869] Who was worried that Christ would not use you as a husband as effectively in the work of his Word. (Zw. Ep. p. 335.)
[870] Biographers, most respectable historians, and all the authors who have copied them, place Zuinglius' marriage two years later, viz., in April 1524. Without going at length into the reasons which satisfy me that this is a mistake, I will merely indicate the most decisive proofs. A letter from Zuinglius' friend Myconius, 22nd July, 1522, says, "Vale cum uxore quam felicissime." "All happiness to you and your wife." Another letter from the same friend, written towards the close of this year, has the words, "Vale cum uxore." The contents of the letters prove that they are correctly dated. But what is still stronger is, a letter of Bucer, from Strasburg, at the time when the marriage was made public, 14th April, 1524, (the date of the year is wanting, but it is clearly 1524.) This letter contains several passages which show that Zuinglius had been for some time married. In addition to the one given in the previous note, we quote the following:—"Professum palam te maritum legi. Unum hoc desiderabam in te." I read that you openly professed to be a husband. This was the only thing in you I regretted the want of. "Quæ multum facilius quam connubii tui confessionem. Antichristus posset ferre." These things Antichrist could bear more easily than the confession of your marriage.—"Αγαμον ab eo, quod cum fratribus ... episcopo Constantiensi congressus es, nullus credidi." That you were unmarried I did not believe from your disputes with the friars ... the Bishop of Constance. "Qua ratione id tam diu celares ... non dubitarim, rationibus hue adductum, quæ apud virum evangelicum non queant omnino repudiari" ... etc. On what account you concealed it so long ... I doubt not you were influenced by reasons which ought not to be entirely rejected by a Christian man. (Zw. Ep. p. 335.) In 1524, then, Zuinglius did not marry, but publish his marriage contracted two years before. The learned editors of the letters of Zuinglius ask, "Num forte jam Zuinglius Annam Reinhardam, clandestino in matrimonio habebat?" May not Zuinglius have already been secretly married to Anna Reinhard? p. 210. This seems to me not a matter of doubt, but a well ascertained historical fact.
[870] Biographers, reputable historians, and all the authors who have referenced them claim that Zwingli married two years later, specifically in April 1524. Without going into detail about why I believe this is incorrect, I’ll just point out the most conclusive evidence. A letter from Zwingli's friend Myconius, dated July 22, 1522, states, "Vale cum uxore quam felicissime." "Wishing all happiness to you and your wife." Another letter from the same friend, written later that year, includes the phrase, "Vale cum uxore." The contents of these letters show they are dated accurately. However, even more compelling is a letter from Bucer in Strasbourg, at the time when the marriage was made public, on April 14, 1524 (the specific year isn’t mentioned, but it is clearly 1524). This letter includes several passages indicating that Zwingli had been married for some time. In addition to the one mentioned earlier, we quote the following: “I read that you openly professed to be a husband. This was the only thing I regretted you lacked.” “Antichrist would bear these things more easily than the confession of your marriage.” “I couldn’t believe you were unmarried based on your disputes with the friars ... the Bishop of Constance.” “What reasons you had to conceal it for so long ... I have no doubt you were influenced by reasons that should not be entirely dismissed by a Christian.” (Zw. Ep. p. 335.) Therefore, in 1524, Zwingli didn’t marry; he revealed the marriage he entered into two years prior. The learned editors of Zwingli’s letters ask, “Is it possible that Zwingli was already secretly married to Anna Reinhard?” p. 210. I see this not as a question but as a well-established historical fact.
[874] Et universa Christianorum multitudo ad caput suum quod Christus est redeat. (Supplicatio quorundam apud Helvetios Evangelistarum. Zw. Op. iii, 18.)
[874] And let all the multitude of Christians return to their head, which is Christ. (Supplicatio quorundam apud Helvetios Evangelistarum. Zw. Op. iii, 18.)
[877] Ne quando moles ista non ex patris cœlestis sententia constructa, cum fragore longe perniciosiore corruat. (Ibid., 24.) Lest one day that edifice, not built according to the view of the heavenly parent, fall with a much more dreadful crash.
[877] If that structure isn't built according to the perspective of the heavenly Father, it may one day collapse with a much more terrifying crash. (Ibid., 24.)
[878] Amica et piu paraenesis ad communem Helvetiorum civitatem scripta, ne evangelicæ doctrinæ cursum impediant, etc. (Zw. Op. i, 89.)
[878] A friend and further exhortation written to the common community of the Swiss, to prevent the course of evangelical teaching from being hindered, etc. (Zw. Op. i, 89.)
[891] Simmi. Samml. vi.
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Simmi. Collection. vi.
[893] Conjux infirma. (Ibid. p. 192.)
__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Weak Conjunction. (Ibid. p. 192.)
[904] Vides enim, piissime Jesu, aures eorum septas esse nequissimis susurronibus, sycophantis, lucrionibus.... (Zw. Op. iii, p. 74.) For thou seest, O most beloved Jesus how these ears are beset with whisperers, sycophants, and lovers of lucre.
[904] For you see, O most beloved Jesus, how these ears are surrounded by whisperers, manipulators, and those who love profit.
Transcriber's note:
Transcriber's note:
Variations in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained except in obvious cases of typographical error.
Variations in spelling, punctuation, and hyphenation have been kept except in clear cases of typing errors.
Footnote 11: "Tunc desiit paululum" is unclear.
Footnote 11: "Then it stopped for a moment" is unclear.
Footnote 110: "On this article of faith the Church is founded. (L. Op. Lat. i, p. 254.)" The number 254 is unclear.
Footnote 110: "This article of faith is the foundation of the Church. (L. Op. Lat. i, p. 254.)" The number 254 is unclear.
Footnote 111: "Et, ut fama est, de hoc plurimum gratulantur. (L. Op. Lat. i, p. 250.)" The number 250 is unclear.
Footnote 111: "And, as the rumor goes, many are very grateful for this. (L. Op. Lat. i, p. 250.)" The number 250 is unclear.
Footnote 148: "Præsens male judicat ætas; judicium menus posteritatis erit." (L. Op. Lat. i, 310.)" The number 310 is not clear.
Footnote 148: "The present age judges poorly; the judgment of future generations will be." (L. Op. Lat. i, 310.)" The number 310 is not clear.
Footnote 224: "L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 305, and Op. Lat. i, p. 32." The (L.) is unclear.
Footnote 224: "L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 305, and Op. Lat. i, p. 32." The (L.) is unclear.
Footnote 479 is unclear: "Quacunque iter faciebant, frequens erat concursus hominum, videndi Lutheri studio. (Cochlœus, p. 29)."
Footnote 479 is unclear: "Wherever they traveled, there was a large gathering of people eager to see Luther. (Cochlœus, p. 29)."
Footnote 485: There is possibly a digit missing before the number 6 in this footnote: "Lutherum illac transeuntem subsequutus ut pro honore ecclesiæ vitam suam....exponeret (Cochlœus, p. 6.)"
Footnote 485: There might be a missing digit before the number 6 in this footnote: "Following Luther as he passed by, he would expose his life for the honor of the church....(Cochlœus, p. 6.)"
In footnote 506, "Bucerus eodem nit. (M. Adam, Vit. Buceri. p. 212.)" the transcriber has added "ve" to "nit" to make "venit".
In footnote 506, "Bucerus eodem nit. (M. Adam, Vit. Buceri. p. 212.)" the transcriber has added "ve" to "nit" to change it to "venit".
The number in footnote 532 is unclear "L. Op. (W.) xv, 2286".
The number in footnote 532 is unclear: "L. Op. (W.) xv, 2286".
In footnote 582, "Per chalcographos multiplicata et in populos dispersa est ea epistola ... Cæsari autem et clericis odium populare, etc. (Cochlœus, p.386.)" The number 386 is unclear.
In footnote 582, "The letter was multiplied by the engraver and spread among the people ... However, there was popular hatred against Caesar and the clerics, etc. (Cochlœus, p.386.)" The number 386 is unclear.
Footnote 859: The final number is unclear. "Wenn mir nicht wär' mit Todten wohl, So läg nicht mancher Acker, voll, ac. (Bern. Mausol. iv, Wirz, K. Gesch. 1. 3.)"
Footnote 859: The final number is unclear. "If it weren't for the dead, many a field would be lying full, etc. (Bern. Mausol. iv, Wirz, K. Gesch. 1. 3.)"
The transcriber has added footnote anchors for the following
footnotes:
The transcriber has added footnote links for these footnotes:
Page 21, footnote 66: First vol., p. 172.
Page 21, footnote 66: First vol., p. 172.
Page 21, footnote 68: Si tecum non licet disputare, neque cum Carlstatio volo: propter te enim huc veni. (L. Op. in Præf.)
Page 21, footnote 68: If I can't debate with you, I don’t want to debate with Carlstadt either: I came here because of you. (L. Op. in Præf.)
Page 53, footnote 167: Ego nihil quæro; est qui quærat. Stet ergo, sive cadat; ego nihil lucror, aut amitto. (Ibid. p. 418.)
Page 53, footnote 167: I seek nothing; there is someone who seeks. Let it stand or fall; I gain or lose nothing. (Ibid. p. 418.)
Page 92, footnote 267: Olim janua cœli, nunc patens quoddam os inferni et tale os, quod urgente ira Dei, obstrui non potest.... (L. Ep. i, p. 501.)
Page 92, footnote 267: Once the gateway to heaven, now a certain mouth of hell is open, and that mouth, when God's wrath is pressing, cannot be blocked.... (L. Ep. i, p. 501.)
Page 94, footnote 270: Ist nun das nicht eine fröhliche Wirthschaft, da der reiche, edle, fromme Bräutigam Christus, das arme, verachtete, bose Huhrlein zur Ehe nimmt (L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 385.)
Page 94, footnote 270: Is this not a joyful arrangement, where the rich, noble, devout groom Christ takes the poor, despised, wicked little harlot as his bride (L. Op. (L.) xvii, p. 385.)
Page 116 footnote 334: Quo audito, Marinus et Aleander...
Page 116 footnote 334: Upon hearing this, Marinus and Aleander...
Page 118, footnote 337: Favent vero ferme boni omnes.
Page 118, footnote 337: Most good people actually support this.
Page 159 footnote 466: Omnem nunc Germaniam quasi ad genua provolutum tibi.... (Ibid., p. 184.)
Page 159 footnote 466: Now all of Germany seems to be bowed down before you.... (Ibid., p. 184.)
Page 160 footnote 468: L. Ep. i, p. 580.
Page 160 footnote 468: L. Ep. i, p. 580.
Page 164 footnote 478: Iter faciente occurrebant populi. (Pallavicini, Hist. C. Tr. i, p. 114.)
Page 164 footnote 478: As he journeyed, the people would encounter him. (Pallavicini, Hist. C. Tr. i, p. 114.)
Page 164 footnote 479: Quacunque iter faciebant, frequens erat concursus hominum, videndi Lutheri studio. (Cochlœus, p. 29).
Page 164 footnote 479: Wherever they went, there was a constant gathering of people eager to see Luther. (Cochlœus, p. 29).
Page 166, footnote 486: Dass der Keyser seinen Beichtvater und Ihrer Majest. Ober-Kammerling, zu. Seckingen schickt. (L. Op. xvii, p. 587.)
Page 166, footnote 486: That the Emperor sends his confessor and Your Majesty's chief chamberlain to Seckingen. (L. Op. xvii, p. 587.)
Page 203, footnote 593: Dejecto in solum auriga et verberato. (Ibid.)
Page 203, footnote 593: The driver was thrown down to the ground and beaten. (Ibid.)
Page 203, footnote 594: Longo itinere, novus eques, fessus. (L. Ep. ii, p. 3.)
Page 203, footnote 594: After a long journey, the new knight was tired. (L. Ep. ii, p. 3.)
Page 226 footnote 654: In den Schlachten sich redlich und dapfer gestellt mit Rathen, Worten, und Thaten. (Ibid.)
Page 226 footnote 654: In battles, they acted honestly and bravely with advice, words, and deeds. (Ibid.)
Page 240 footnote 699: Do er ehrlich und wol empfangen ward. (Bullinger, MS.)
Page 240 footnote 699: Be sincere and truly welcome. (Bullinger, MS.)
Page 253 footnote 736: Ich mein der Tod, Syg an der Thür. (Zw. Op. ii, 2nd part, p. 270.)
Page 253 footnote 736: I mean death, Syg at the door. (Zw. Op. ii, 2nd part, p. 270.)
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