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The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is in the public domain.

Publications
OF THE
Pennsylvania Historical Society.

HISTORY,

MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS
OF THE
INDIGENOUS NATIONS.

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John Heckewelder iii

HISTORY,
MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS
OF
The Indian Nations
WHO ONCE INHABITED PENNSYLVANIA AND
THE NEIGHBOURING STATES.

BY THE
REV. JOHN HECKEWELDER,
OF BETHLEHEM, PA.
New and Revised Edition.
WITH AN
INTRODUCTION AND NOTES
BY THE
REV. WILLIAM C. REICHEL,
OF BETHLEHEM, PA.
PHILADELPHIA: PUBLICATION FUND OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, No. 820 SPRUCE STREET. 1881.

HISTORY
Manners and Customs
OF
The Indian Nations
WHO ONCE LIVED IN PENNSYLVANIA AND
THE SURROUNDING STATES.

BY THE
REV. JOHN HECKEWELDER,
From Bethlehem, PA.
Updated Edition.
WITH AN
Introduction and Notes
BY THE
REV. WILLIAM C. REICHEL,
From Bethlehem, PA.
PHILADELPHIA: PUBLICATION FUND OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, 820 SPRUCE STREET. 1881.


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“The Trustees of the Publication Fund of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania” have published nine volumes, viz.:

“The Trustees of the Publication Fund of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania” have published nine volumes, namely:

  • The History of Braddock’s Expedition.
  • Contributions to American History.
  • Record of Upland, and Denny’s Journal.
  • Reissue of Vol. 1 of the Memoirs.
  • Minutes of Defence of Philadelphia, 1814-1815.
  • Correspondence of Penn and Logan, Vols. 1 and 2.
  • History of New Sweden, by Israel Acrelius.
  • Heckewelder’s History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations.

The investments held by the trustees of the Fund now amount to twenty-three thousand dollars, the interest only of which is applied to publishing. By the payment of twenty-five dollars, any one may become entitled to receive, during his or her life, all the publications of the Society. Libraries so subscribing are entitled to receive books for the term of twenty years.

The investments held by the trustees of the Fund now total twenty-three thousand dollars, and only the interest from this amount is used for publishing. By paying twenty-five dollars, anyone can receive all the Society's publications for life. Libraries that subscribe are entitled to receive books for a period of twenty years.

The Society desire it to be understood that they are not answerable for any opinions or observations that may appear in their publications: the Editors of the several works being alone responsible for the same.

The Society wants it to be clear that they are not responsible for any opinions or comments that may appear in their publications: only the Editors of the various works are accountable for them.

John Jordan Jr., }
Aubrey H. Smith, }Trustees.
Fairman Rogers, }

Entered, in accordance with the Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by THE PENNSYLVANIA HISTORICAL SOCIETY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress in Washington.

PHILADELPHIA.
LIPPINCOTT’S PRESS. v

PHILADELPHIA.
LIPPINCOTT’S PRESS. v

MEMOIRS
OF THE
HISTORICAL SOCIETY
OF
PENNSYLVANIA.
VOL. XII.
PHILADELPHIA: PUBLICATION FUND OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, No. 820 SPRUCE STREET. 1881. vi

MEMOIRS
OF THE
HISTORICAL SOCIETY
OF
PENNSYLVANIA.
VOL. 12.
PHILADELPHIA: PUBLICATION FUND OF THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF PENNSYLVANIA, 820 SPRUCE STREET. 1881. vi


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INTRODUCTION.
FROM THE EDITOR.

J

John Gottlieb Ernestus Heckewelder, the author of “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring States,” was born March 12th, 1743, at Bedford, England. His father, who was a native of Moravia, a few years after his arrival at Herrnhut, Saxony, was summoned to England to assist in the religious movement which his church had inaugurated in that country in 1734. In his eleventh year, the subject of this sketch accompanied his parents to the New World, and became a resident of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Here he was placed at school, and next apprenticed to a cedar-cooper. While thus employed, he was permitted to gratify a desire he had frequently expressed of becoming an evangelist to the Indians, when in the spring of 1762 he was called to accompany the well-known Christian Frederic Post, who had planned a mission among the tribes of the then far west, to the Tuscarawas branch of the Muskingum. Here Post, in the summer of 1761, had built himself a cabin (it stood near the site of the present town of Bolivar), and here on the 11th day of April, 1762, the intrepid missionary and his youthful assistant began their labors in the Gospel. But the times were unpropitious, and the hostile viii attitude of the Indians indicating a speedy resumption of hostilities with the whites, the adventurous enterprise was abandoned before the expiration of the year. Young Heckewelder returned to Bethlehem, and the war of Pontiac’s conspiracy opened in the spring of 1763.

John Heckewelder, the author of “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring States,” was born on March 12, 1743, in Bedford, England. His father, a native of Moravia, was called to England a few years after arriving in Herrnhut, Saxony, to help with the religious movement initiated by his church in that country in 1734. At the age of eleven, Heckewelder moved to the New World with his parents and became a resident of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. He attended school and was later apprenticed to a cedar cooper. While working, he expressed a strong desire to become an evangelist to the Indians, and in the spring of 1762, he was invited to accompany the well-known Christian, Frederic Post, who was planning a mission among the tribes of the then far west, to the Tuscarawas branch of the Muskingum. Post had built a cabin there in the summer of 1761 (near what is now the town of Bolivar), and on April 11, 1762, the brave missionary and his young assistant began their work spreading the Gospel. However, the situation was unfavorable, and the hostile attitude of the Indians suggested that conflict with the whites was imminent, leading to the abandonment of the ambitious project within that year. Young Heckewelder returned to Bethlehem just as the war of Pontiac’s conspiracy began in the spring of 1763.

In the interval between 1765 and 1771, Mr. Heckewelder was, on several occasions, summoned from his cooper’s shop to do service for the mission. Thus, in the summer of the first mentioned year, he spent several months at Friedenshütten, on the Susquehanna (Wyalusing, Bradford county, Pennsylvania), where the Moravian Indians had been recently settled in a body, after a series of most trying experiences, to which their residence on the frontiers and in the settlements of the Province subjected them, at a time when the inroads of the savages embittered the public mind indiscriminately against the entire race. This post he visited subsequently on several occasions, and also the town of Schechschiquanink (Sheshequin), some thirty miles north of Wyalusing, the seat of a second mission on the Susquehanna.

In the time between 1765 and 1771, Mr. Heckewelder was called several times from his cooper’s shop to help with the mission. In the summer of the first year mentioned, he spent several months at Friedenshütten, on the Susquehanna (Wyalusing, Bradford County, Pennsylvania), where the Moravian Indians had recently settled together after going through a series of very challenging experiences due to their lives on the frontiers and in the settlements of the Province. This was a difficult time when attacks from Native Americans led the public to feel hostile towards the entire group. He visited this location several more times afterward, as well as the town of Schechschiquanink (Sheshequin), which is about thirty miles north of Wyalusing and the site of a second mission on the Susquehanna.

A new period in the life of Mr. Heckewelder opened with the autumn of 1771, when he entered upon his actual career as an evangelist to the Indians, sharing the various fortunes of the Moravian mission among that people for fifteen years, than which none perhaps in its history were more eventful. The well-known missionary David Zeisberger, having in 1768 established a mission among a clan of Monseys on the Allegheny, within the limits of what is now Venango county, was induced in the spring of 1770 to migrate with his charge to the Big Beaver, and to settle at a point within the jurisdiction of the Delawares of Kaskaskunk. Here he built Friedensstadt, and hither the Moravian Indians of Friedenshütten and Schechschiquanink removed in the summer ix of 1772. Mr. Heckewelder was appointed Zeisberger’s assistant in the autumn of 1771, and when in the spring of 1773 Friedensstadt was evacuated (it stood on the Beaver, between the Shenango and the Slippery Rock, within the limits of the present Lawrence county), and the seat of the mission was transferred to the valley of the Muskingum, Mr. Heckewelder became a resident of the Ohio country. Here in succession were built Schönbrunn, Gnadenhütten, Lichtenau and Salem, flourishing towns of Moravian Indians, and here our missionary labored with his associates hopefully, and with the promise of a great ingathering, when the rupture between the mother country and her transatlantic colonies, gradually involved them and their cause in the most perplexing complications. On the opening of the western border-war of the Revolution in the spring of 1777, the Moravian missionaries on the Muskingum realized the danger of their position. Strictly neutral as they and their converts were in reference to the great question at issue, their presence on debatable ground rendered them objects of suspicion alternately to each of the contending parties; and when, in 1780, the major part of the Delaware nation declared openly for the British crown, it was evident that the mission could not much longer hold its ground. It was for the British to solve the problem; and at their instigation, in the autumn of 1781, the missionaries and their converts in part were removed to Upper Sandusky, as prisoners of war, under suspicion of favoring the American cause. Thence the former were twice summoned to Detroit, the seat of British dominion in the then Northwest, and arraigned before the commandant of that post. Having established their innocence, and at liberty once more to resume their Christian work, the Moravians resolved upon establishing themselves in the x neighborhood of Detroit, with the view of collecting their scattered converts, and gradually resuscitating the mission. The point selected was on the Huron (now the Clinton), forty miles by water northwest of Detroit. Here they built New Gnadenhütten, in 1782. Four years later, New Gnadenhütten was abandoned, and a settlement effected on the Cuyahoga, in the present county of that name in northern Ohio. It was here that Mr. Heckewelder closed his missionary labors, and years memorable in his life, in the course of which he was “in journeyings often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in perils of his countrymen, in perils by the heathen, in perils in the wilderness, in weariness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold and nakedness,” and yet spared, as to his life, to a good old age, in the quiet days of which, when resting from his labors, he drew up a narrative of this remarkable period in his own experience, and in the history of his church.

A new chapter in Mr. Heckewelder's life began in the autumn of 1771 when he started his career as an evangelist for the Indians, sharing in the ups and downs of the Moravian mission among them for fifteen years, which were perhaps the most eventful in its history. The well-known missionary David Zeisberger had established a mission among a group of Monseys on the Allegheny in 1768, in what is now Venango County. In the spring of 1770, he moved with his community to Big Beaver and set up at a site under the jurisdiction of the Delawares of Kaskaskunk. There, he built Friedensstadt, and in the summer of 1772, the Moravian Indians from Friedenshütten and Schechschiquanink relocated there. Mr. Heckewelder was appointed as Zeisberger's assistant in the autumn of 1771, and when Friedensstadt was abandoned in the spring of 1773 (it was located on the Beaver River, between the Shenango and Slippery Rock, in what is now Lawrence County) and the mission moved to the Muskingum Valley, Mr. Heckewelder became a resident of Ohio. Several flourishing towns of Moravian Indians were established here, including Schönbrunn, Gnadenhütten, Lichtenau, and Salem, where our missionary worked diligently with his colleagues, hopeful for a great harvest, until the conflict between the mother country and its North American colonies drew them into complicated circumstances. When the western border war of the Revolution began in the spring of 1777, the Moravian missionaries on the Muskingum saw the danger they faced. Although they and their converts maintained strict neutrality regarding the larger conflict, their presence in a contested area made them suspicious to both warring sides. When, in 1780, the majority of the Delaware nation openly sided with the British crown, it became clear that the mission couldn’t hold out much longer. The British were to resolve the issue, and at their urging, in the autumn of 1781, the missionaries and some of their converts were taken to Upper Sandusky as prisoners of war, suspected of supporting the American side. From there, they were summoned to Detroit, the center of British control in the Northwest at that time, to answer to the commandant. Having proven their innocence and being free to resume their Christian mission, the Moravians decided to settle near Detroit to gather their scattered converts and gradually revive the mission. They chose a spot on the Huron River (now the Clinton), forty miles by water northwest of Detroit, where they built New Gnadenhütten in 1782. Four years later, New Gnadenhütten was abandoned, and a settlement was established on the Cuyahoga River, in what is now named Cuyahoga County in northern Ohio. It was here that Mr. Heckewelder completed his missionary efforts and memorable years in his life, during which he faced many challenges: “in journeys often, in dangers from water, in dangers from robbers, in dangers from his own people, in dangers from non-believers, in dangers in the wilderness, in fatigue, in sleeplessness often, in hunger and thirst, in fasting often, in cold and exposure,” and yet he was spared to a good old age. In his later years, after resting from his work, he wrote a narrative about this remarkable period in his life and the history of his church.

On severing his connection with the mission on the Cuyahoga, in the autumn of 1786, Mr. Heckewelder settled with his wife (Sarah m. n. Ohneberg, whom he married in 1780), and two daughters at Bethlehem. This change, however, brought him no rest, as much of his time for the next fifteen years was devoted to the interests of his church’s work among the Indians, in behalf of which he made frequent and trying journeys to the west.

On ending his involvement with the mission on the Cuyahoga in the fall of 1786, Mr. Heckewelder moved with his wife (Sarah m. n. Ohneberg, whom he married in 1780) and their two daughters to Bethlehem. However, this change didn’t bring him any peace, as he spent much of the next fifteen years focused on his church’s work with the Indigenous people, for which he took many challenging trips to the west.

In the summer of 1792, Mr. Heckewelder was associated by Government with General Rufus Putnam (at that gentleman’s request), to treat for peace with the Indians of the Wabash, and journeyed on this mission as far as Post Vincennes, where, on the 27th of September, articles of peace were formally signed by thirty-one chiefs of the Seven Nations represented at the meeting. This was a high testimonial of confidence in his knowledge of Indian xi life and Indian affairs. In the spring of the following year, he was a second time commissioned to assist at a treaty which the United States purposed to ratify with the Indians of the Miami of the Lake, through its accredited agents, General Benjamin Lincoln, Colonel Timothy Pickering, and Beverly Randolph. On this mission he travelled as far as Detroit. The remuneration Mr. Heckewelder received for these services, was judiciously economized for his old age, his immediate wants being supplied by his handicraft, and the income accruing from a nursery which he planted on his return from the western country. In the interval between 1797 and 1800, the subject of this sketch visited the Ohio country four times, and in 1801 he removed with his family to Gnadenhütten, on the Tuscarawas branch of the Muskingum. Here he remained nine years, having been intrusted by the Society of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen, founded at Bethlehem, in 1788, with the superintendence of a reservation of 12,000 acres of land on the Tuscarawas, granted by Congress to the said Society for the benefit of the Moravian Indians, as a consideration for the losses they incurred in the border-war of the Revolution. During his residence in Ohio, Mr. Heckewelder was also for a time in the civil service, being a postmaster, a justice of the peace, and an associate judge of the Court of Common Pleas.

In the summer of 1792, Mr. Heckewelder was partnered with General Rufus Putnam by the Government (at the general's request) to negotiate peace with the Wabash Indians. He journeyed on this mission as far as Post Vincennes, where, on September 27th, peace articles were officially signed by thirty-one chiefs from the Seven Nations who attended the meeting. This was a strong endorsement of his understanding of Indian life and affairs. In the spring of the following year, he was commissioned again to assist at a treaty that the United States planned to ratify with the Miami Indians, through their appointed agents, General Benjamin Lincoln, Colonel Timothy Pickering, and Beverly Randolph. On this mission, he traveled as far as Detroit. Mr. Heckewelder wisely saved the payment he received for these services for his later years, with his immediate needs met through his craftsmanship and the income from a nursery he established after returning from the western territories. Between 1797 and 1800, he visited Ohio four times, and in 1801, he relocated with his family to Gnadenhütten, on the Tuscarawas branch of the Muskingum. He stayed there for nine years, having been entrusted by the Society of the United Brethren for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen, founded in Bethlehem in 1788, with overseeing a 12,000-acre reservation on the Tuscarawas granted by Congress to the Society for the benefit of the Moravian Indians, as compensation for their losses during the Revolutionary War. During his time in Ohio, Mr. Heckewelder also served in civil roles, including postmaster, justice of the peace, and associate judge of the Court of Common Pleas.

In 1810 he returned to Bethlehem, built a house of his own, which is still standing, planted the premises with trees and shrubs from their native forest, surrounded himself with birds and wild flowers, and through these beautiful things of nature, sought by association to prolong fellowship with his beloved Indians in their distant woodland homes. He was called in 1815 to mourn the departure of his wife to the eternal world. xii

In 1810, he came back to Bethlehem, built his own house, which still stands today, planted the area with trees and shrubs from the local forest, and surrounded himself with birds and wildflowers. Through these beautiful things in nature, he aimed to maintain a connection with his beloved Indigenous people in their remote woodland homes. In 1815, he was called upon to grieve the loss of his wife to the afterlife. xii

At a time when there was a growing spirit of inquiry among men of science in our country in the department of Indian archæology, it need not surprise us that Mr. Heckewelder was sought out in his retirement, and called upon to contribute from the treasure-house of his experience. In this way originated his intimacy with Du Ponceau and Wistar of the American Philosophical Society, and that career of literary labor to which he dedicated the latter years of his life. In addition to occasional essays, which are incorporated in the Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of that society, Mr. Heckewelder, in 1818, published under its auspices, the “Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring States.” His “Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohican Indians,” appeared in 1820, and in 1822 he prepared his well-known collection of “Names, which the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware Indians, gave to Rivers, Streams, and Localities within the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, with their Significations.” This was his last literary effort; another year of suffering, and on the 31st of January, 1823, the friend of the Delawares having lived to become a hoary old man of seventy-nine winters, passed away.

At a time when curiosity was growing among scientists in our country regarding Indian archaeology, it's not surprising that Mr. Heckewelder was approached during his retirement and asked to share his wealth of experience. This led to his close relationship with Du Ponceau and Wistar from the American Philosophical Society, as well as to the literary work he devoted the later years of his life to. Besides some essays included in the Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of that society, Mr. Heckewelder published in 1818, under its auspices, the “Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring States.” His “Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohican Indians” was published in 1820, and in 1822, he compiled his well-known collection of “Names, which the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware Indians, gave to Rivers, Streams, and Localities within the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, with their Significations.” This was his final literary work; after another year of suffering, on January 31, 1823, he passed away at the age of seventy-nine, having lived to become a wise old man and a friend of the Delawares.

He left three daughters, Johanna Maria, born April 6, 1781, at Salem, Tuscarawas county, Ohio—the first white female child born within the borders of that State (she died at Bethlehem, September 19, 1868); Anna Salome, born August 13, 1784, at New Gnadenhütten, on the River Huron (Clinton), Michigan; she married Mr. Joseph Rice, of Bethlehem, and died January 15, 1857; and Susanna, born at Bethlehem, December 31, 1786; she married Mr. J. Christian Luckenbach, of Bethlehem, and died February 8, 1867. xiii

He had three daughters: Johanna Maria, born on April 6, 1781, in Salem, Tuscarawas County, Ohio—the first white girl born in that state (she passed away in Bethlehem on September 19, 1868); Anna Salome, born on August 13, 1784, in New Gnadenhütten, on the River Huron (Clinton), Michigan; she married Joseph Rice from Bethlehem and died on January 15, 1857; and Susanna, born in Bethlehem on December 31, 1786; she married J. Christian Luckenbach from Bethlehem and died on February 8, 1867. xiii

Mr. Heckewelder was a fair representative of the Moravian missionaries of the last century, a class of men whose time was necessarily divided between the discharge of spiritual and secular duties; who preached the Gospel and administered the Sacraments in houses built by their own hands; who wielded the axe, as well as the sword of the Spirit, and who by lives of self-denial and patient endurance, sustained a mission among the aborigines of this country in the face of disappointments and obstacles, which would have discouraged any but men of their implicit faith in the Divine power of the Christian religion.

Mr. Heckewelder was a solid representative of the Moravian missionaries from the last century, a group of people whose time was split between spiritual and everyday responsibilities; they preached the Gospel and administered the Sacraments in homes they built themselves; they used the axe as well as the sword of the Spirit, and through lives of self-denial and patient endurance, they supported a mission among the indigenous people of this country despite disappointments and challenges that would have discouraged anyone but those with their deep faith in the Divine power of Christianity.

The subject of this notice made no pretensions to scholarship on taking the author’s pen in hand. He was eminently an artless man, and artlessness is his characteristic as a writer. The fascinating volume to which this brief sketch is deemed a sufficient introduction, was received with almost unqualified approbation on its appearance in 1818. It was translated into German by Fr. Hesse, a clergyman of Nienburg, and published at Göttingen in 1821. A French translation by Du Ponceau appeared in Paris in 1822. True, there were those who subsequently took exception to Mr. Heckewelder’s manifest predilection for the Lenape stock of the North American Indians, and others who charged him with credulity, because of the reception of their national traditions and myths upon the pages of his book. Knowing, as we do, that even the most prudent of men are liable to err in their search after truth, it would be presumptuous to claim infallibility for our author. It would, however, be as presumptuous to refuse his statements all claim to respect. Hence it may not be denied that John Heckewelder’s contributions to Indian archæology, touching their traditions, language, manners, customs, life, and character, while supplying a long-felt want, are worthy of the regard which is xiv usually accorded to the literary productions of men whose intelligence, honesty, and acquaintance with their subject have qualified them to be its expounders.

The person this notice is about didn’t pretend to be a scholar when he started writing. He was a genuinely straightforward man, and that simplicity defines him as a writer. The captivating book that this brief overview introduces received nearly universal praise when it was published in 1818. It was translated into German by Fr. Hesse, a clergyman from Nienburg, and released in Göttingen in 1821. A French translation by Du Ponceau came out in Paris in 1822. True, some later criticized Mr. Heckewelder for his clear favoritism towards the Lenape tribe of North American Indians, and others accused him of being gullible because of how he accepted their national stories and myths in his book. Knowing that even the wisest individuals can make mistakes while seeking the truth, it would be arrogant to claim our author is infallible. However, it would be just as arrogant to dismiss his statements without respect. Therefore, it cannot be denied that John Heckewelder’s contributions to Indian archaeology, regarding their traditions, language, customs, lifestyle, and character, while fulfilling a long-standing need, deserve the respect typically given to the works of individuals whose intelligence, honesty, and knowledge of the subject make them qualified to discuss it. xiv

In the preparation of his account, Mr. Heckewelder acknowledges his indebtedness to Moravian authorities, contemporaries, or colleagues of his in the work of missions among the aborigines of this country. He refers frequently to the Rev. J. Christopher Pyrlæus, and introduces extracts from the collection of notes and memoranda made by that clergyman during his sojourn in America. His references to Loskiel, the historian of the Moravian mission among the North American Indians, are more frequent. In fact, it is evident that he availed himself largely of the introductory chapters of that history, the material of which was furnished to Loskiel by the veteran missionary, David Zeisberger. In this way then, Mr. Heckewelder supplemented his personal experience, and the knowledge he had gained by intercourse with the Indians, touching those subjects of which he treats in his charming narrative.

In preparing his account, Mr. Heckewelder acknowledges his debt to Moravian officials, peers, and colleagues involved in missions with the indigenous peoples of this country. He often cites Rev. J. Christopher Pyrlæus and includes excerpts from the notes and memos that clergyman made during his time in America. His references to Loskiel, the historian of the Moravian mission among North American Indians, are even more frequent. In fact, it's clear that he heavily relied on the introductory chapters of that history, which were provided to Loskiel by the veteran missionary, David Zeisberger. Through this approach, Mr. Heckewelder enriched his personal experiences and the knowledge he gained from interacting with the Indians regarding the topics he explores in his captivating narrative.

Both the text and the author’s footnotes, as found in the edition of 1818, are faithfully reproduced in the present issue; neither have been tampered with in a single instance. Such a course was deemed the only proper one, although it was conceded that the omission of occasionally recurrent passages, and a reconstruction of portions of the volume might render the matter more perspicuous, and the book more readable, without detracting from its value as a repository of well authenticated facts.1

Both the text and the author's footnotes from the 1818 edition are carefully reproduced in this edition; neither has been modified at all. This approach was considered the only appropriate one, although it was acknowledged that leaving out some repeated sections and reorganizing parts of the book could make the content clearer and the book easier to read, without diminishing its value as a collection of well-established facts.1

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xv


AN ACCOUNT
OF THE
HISTORY, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS
OF THE
Indian Nations,
WHO ONCE INHABITED PENNSYLVANIA AND
THE NEIGHBOURING STATES.

BY THE REV. JOHN HECKEWELDER, OF BETHLEHEM. PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY ABRAHAM SMALL, No. 112 Chestnut Street. 1819. xvi

A RECORD
OF THE
History, Culture, and Traditions
OF THE
Native American Nations,
WHO ONCE LIVED IN PENNSYLVANIA AND
THE NEARBY STATES.

BY THE REV. JOHN HECKEWELDER, FROM BETHLEHEM. PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY ABRAHAM SMALL, No. 112 Chestnut Street. 1819. xvi


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DEDICATION

DEDICATION

DEDICATION
To
CASPAR WISTAR, M.D.,
PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, ETC.

Dear Sir.—Having, at your particular request, undertaken the arduous task of giving to the Historical Committee of our Society an Account of those Indian Nations and Tribes which once inhabited Pennsylvania and the adjoining States, including those who are known by the name of the “Six Nations;” I have now, as far as has been in my power, complied with your wishes, or at least I have endeavoured so to do.

Dear Sir,—At your specific request, I have taken on the challenging task of providing the Historical Committee of our Society with a report on the Indian nations and tribes that once lived in Pennsylvania and the surrounding states, including those known as the “Six Nations.” I have now done my best to meet your wishes, or at least I have tried to do so.

Foreseeing the difficulties I should labour under, in writing the history of a people, of whom so many had already written, I could not but consider the undertaking both as unpleasant and hazardous; being aware, that it would be impossible for me in all respects to coincide with those who have written before me; among whom there are not a few, who, although their good intentions cannot be doubted, yet from their too short residence in the country of the Indians, have not had sufficient opportunities to acquire the knowledge which they undertake to communicate. Ignorant of the language, or being but superficially acquainted with it, they have relied on ignorant or careless interpreters, by whom they have been most frequently led astray; in what manner, this little work will abundantly shew.

Foreseeing the challenges I would face in writing the history of a people that many others have already covered, I couldn't help but view the task as both daunting and risky. I knew it would be impossible for me to fully agree with those who came before me; among them are several who, although their intentions are good, haven’t spent enough time in the Indian lands to gain the knowledge they claim to share. Unfamiliar with the language or only having a superficial understanding of it, they’ve often depended on uninformed or careless interpreters, which has frequently led them astray. This little work will clearly illustrate how.

The sure way to obtain correct ideas, and a true knowledge of the characters, customs, manners, &c., of the Indians, and to learn their history, is to dwell among them for some time, and having acquired their language, the information wished for will be obtained in the common way; that is, by paying attention to their discourses with each other on different subjects, and occasionally asking them questions; always watching for the proper opportunity, when they do not suspect your motives, and are disposed to be free and open with you.

The best way to get accurate insights and a genuine understanding of the characters, customs, and ways of the Indians, as well as to learn their history, is to live among them for a while. Once you've learned their language, you'll get the information you're looking for in the usual way — by listening to their conversations on various topics and sometimes asking them questions. It's important to wait for the right moment when they don't suspect your intentions and are willing to be open with you.

The political state and connexions of the two once great and rival nations, the Mengwe, (or Six Nations) and the Lenape (or Delawares, as we call them), being little, or but imperfectly known to many of us, I have been at some pains in unfolding the origin and true cause of their rivalship; and the means resorted to by the one nation, to bring xviii themselves into consequence with the white people, for the purpose of subduing the other.

The political situation and connections of the two once-powerful and rival nations, the Mengwe (or Six Nations) and the Lenape (or Delawares, as we refer to them), are not well known to many of us. I have made an effort to explain the origin and true reasons for their rivalry, as well as the tactics used by one nation to gain favor with white people in order to overpower the other. xviii

How far the Six Nations have succeeded in this, we know; at least, we know so much, that they sold the country of the Lenape, Mohicans, and other tribes connected with them, by piecemeals to the English, so that they were finally obliged to wander to the West, while their enemies, during all this time, remained in full and quiet possession of their country.

How successful the Six Nations have been in this, we know; at the very least, we know this much: they sold the land of the Lenape, Mohicans, and other related tribes, bit by bit to the English, which ultimately forced them to move west, while their enemies, all this time, kept full and peaceful control of their land.

If we ought, or wish to know the history of those nations from whom we have obtained the country we now live in, we must also wish to be informed of the means by which that country fell into our hands, and what has become of its original inhabitants. To meet this object, I have given their traditions respecting their first coming into our country, and their own history of the causes of their emigrating from it.

If we want to understand the history of the nations from which we got the land we now live on, we also need to know how that land came into our possession and what happened to its original inhabitants. To address this, I’ve shared their traditions about their initial arrival in our country and their own account of why they left it.

On all the subjects which I have treated respecting the different tribes, I have endeavoured to be impartial. Yet, if I should still be thought to have shewn some partiality for the Delawares and their connexions, with respect to the affairs between them and the Six Nations, I have only to reply, that we have been attentive to all the Six Nations told us of these people, until we got possession of their whole country; and now, having what we wanted, we ought not to turn them off with this story on their backs, but rather, out of gratitude and compassion, give them also a hearing, and acquit them honourably, if we find them deserving of it.

On all the topics I've covered about the different tribes, I've tried to be fair. However, if I still seem to show some favoritism towards the Delawares and their connections regarding their dealings with the Six Nations, I can only say that we've listened to everything the Six Nations told us about these people until we gained control of their entire territory. Now that we have what we wanted, we shouldn't just dismiss them with that history weighing on them. Instead, out of gratitude and compassion, we should give them a chance to speak and treat them honorably if they deserve it.

What I have written, concerning their character, their customs, manners, and usages, is from personal knowledge, and from such other information as may be relied on; and in order to be the better understood, I have frequently added anecdotes, remarks, and relations of particular events. In some instances I have had reference to authors, and manuscript notes taken down upwards of seventy years since, by individuals well deserving of credit.

What I've written about their character, customs, manners, and practices is based on my personal experience and other reliable sources. To make my points clearer, I've often included anecdotes, comments, and accounts of specific events. In some cases, I've referenced authors and handwritten notes taken over seventy years ago by trustworthy individuals.

To you, Sir, I need not apologise for my deficiency in point of style and language, which has been known to you long since. I have endeavoured to make amends for this defect, by being the more careful and correct in my narrations, so as at least to make up in matter what in manner may be deficient.

To you, Sir, I don’t need to apologize for my lack of style and language, which you have been aware of for a while now. I’ve tried to compensate for this shortcoming by being more careful and precise in my storytelling, so that at least the content makes up for what might be lacking in form.

I am, Sir, with great respect, Your obedient humble servant, November, 1817. JOHN HECKEWELDER.

I am, Sir, with much respect, Your loyal and humble servant, November, 1817. JOHN HECKEWELDER.

Since the above was written, my excellent friend Dr. Wistar has departed this life, lamented by the whole country, of which he was an ornament. To me he was more than I can express; he directed and encouraged my humble labours, and to his approbation I looked up as my best reward. He is gone, but his name and his virtues will long be held in remembrance. By me, at least, they shall never be forgotten. This Dedication, therefore, will remain, as a testimony of the high respect I bore to this great and good man while living, and as a tribute justly due to his memory.

Since this was written, my dear friend Dr. Wistar has passed away, and the entire country is mourning his loss, as he was a valued member of our community. To me, he was more than I can express; he guided and inspired my humble efforts, and I treasured his approval as my greatest achievement. He may be gone, but his name and his qualities will be remembered for a long time. For me, they will never be forgotten. This Dedication will serve as a tribute to the deep respect I had for this great and kind man while he was alive, and as a fitting honor to his memory.

J. H.

J. H.

Bethlehem, March, 1818.

Bethlehem, March, 1818.

xix

xix


CONTENTS

CONTENTS

CONTENTS
PART I.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORY, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE INDIAN NATIONS WHO ONCE INHABITED PENNSYLVANIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING STATES.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORY, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS OF THE INDIAN NATIONS WHO ONCE INHABITED PENNSYLVANIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING STATES.

PAGE
Introduction by the Editor vii
Dedication xvii
Introduction by the Author xxiii
CHAPTER
I. Historical Traditions of the Indians 47
II. Indian Account of the first arrival of the Dutch at New York Island 71
III. Indian Relations of the conduct of the Europeans towards them 76
IV. Subsequent fate of the Lenape and their kindred tribes 83
V. The Iroquois 95
VI. General character of the Indians 100
VII. Government 107
VIII. Education 113
IX. Languages 118
X. Signs and hieroglyphics 128
XI. Oratory 132
XII. Metaphorical expressions 137
XIII. Indian names 141
XIV. Intercourse with each other 145
XV. Political manœuvres 150
XVI. Marriage and treatment of their wives 154
XVII. Respect for the aged 163
XVIII. Pride and greatness of mind 170
XIX. Wars and the causes which lead to them 175
XX. Manner of surprising their enemies 177
XXI. Peace messengers 181
XXII. Treaties 185xx
XXIII. XIIIGeneral observations of the Indians on the white people 187
XXIV. Food and cookery 193
XXV. Dress and ornamenting of their persons 202
XXVI. Dances, songs, and sacrifices 208
XXVII. Scalping—whoops or yells—prisoners 215
XXVIII. Bodily constitution and diseases 220
XXIX. Remedies 224
XXX. Physicians and surgeons 228
XXXI. Doctors or jugglers 231
XXXII. Superstition 239
XXXIII. Initiation of boys 245
XXXIV. Indian mythology 249
XXXV. Insanity—suicide 257
XXXVI. Drunkenness 261
XXXVII. Funerals 268
XXXVIII. Friendship 277
XXXIX. Preachers and prophets 290
XL. Short notice of the Indian chiefs Tamanend and Tadeuskund 300
XLI. Computation of time—astronomical and geographical knowledge 306
XLII. General observations and anecdotes 310
XLIII. Advice to travellers 318
XLIV. The Indians and the whites compared 328
Conclusion 346

PART II.
CORRESPONDENCE RESPECTING THE INDIAN LANGUAGES.

PART II.
Correspondence Regarding Indian Languages.

PAGE
Introduction 351
LETTER
I. Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder, 9th January, 1816 353
II. Dr. C. Wistar to Mr. Heckewelder (same date) 354
III. Mr. Heckewelder to Dr. Wistar, 24th March 356
IV. The Same to the Same, 3d April 358
V. Mr. Duponceau to Dr. Wistar, 14th May 359
VI. Dr. Wistar to Mr. Heckewelder, 21st May 359
VII. Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau, 27th May 361
VIII. Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder, 10th June 364
IX. The Same to the Same, 13th June 369
X. Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau, 20th June 371xxi
XI. The Same to the Same, 24th June 375
XII. Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder, 13th July 376
XIII. The Same to the Same, 18th July 379
XIV. Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau, 22d July 380
XV. The Same to the Same, 24th July 383
XVI. Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder, 31st July 387
XVII. The Same to the Same, 3d August 392
XVIII. Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau, 12th August 395
XIX. The Same to the Same, 15th August 399
XX. Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder, 21st August 403
XXI. Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau, 26th August 409
XXII. The Same to the Same, 27th August 414
XXIII. Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder, 30th August 416
XXIV. Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau, 5th September 422
XXV. Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder, 1st October 426
XXVI. Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau, 10th October 430

PART III.

Part 3.

WORDS, PHRASES, AND SHORT DIALOGUES 437

xxii xxiii

xxii xxiii


INTRODUCTION

T

The reader of the following pages, having already seen what has induced me to come forward with an historical account of the Indians, after so many have written on the same subject, will perhaps look for something more extraordinary in this than in other works of the kind which he has seen. Not wishing any one to raise his expectations too high, I shall briefly state that I have not written to excite astonishment, but for the information of those who are desirous of knowing the true history of those people, who, for centuries, have been in full possession of the country we now inhabit; but who have since emigrated to a great distance. I can only assure them, that I have not taken the information here communicated from the writings of others, but from the mouths of the very people I am going to speak of, and from my own observation of what I have witnessed while living among them. I have, however, occasionally quoted other authors, and in some instances copied short passages from their works, especially where I have thought it necessary to illustrate or corroborate my own statements of facts.

The reader of the following pages, having already seen what led me to present a historical account of the Indians after so many others have written on the same topic, might expect something more extraordinary in this than in other similar works he has come across. Not wanting anyone to get their hopes up too high, I'll just say that I haven't written this to astonish but to inform those who want to know the true history of the people who have inhabited this land for centuries and who have since moved far away. I can assure you that I haven't gathered the information here from the writings of others but from the voices of the very people I will discuss and from my own observations while living among them. However, I have occasionally quoted other authors and, in some cases, copied short passages from their works, especially when I thought it was necessary to illustrate or support my own statements of fact.

In what I have written concerning the character, customs, manners, and usages of these people, I cannot have been deceived, since it is the result of personal knowledge, of what I myself have seen, heard, and witnessed, while residing among and near them, for more than thirty years. I have however to remark, that this history, like other histories of former times, will not in every respect comport with the character of the Indians at the present time, since all these nations and tribes, by xxiv their intercourse with the white people, have lost much of the honourable and virtuous qualities which they once possessed, and added to their vices and immorality. Of this, no one can be a better judge than a missionary residing among them. And if,2 what these people told us more than half a century ago; that lying, stealing, and other vicious acts, before the white men came among them, were considered as crimes, we may safely conclude—and we know it to be fact—that from that time to this, and especially within the last forty years, they have so much degenerated, that a delineation of their present character would bear no resemblance to what it was before.—It is therefore the history of early times, not of the present, that I have written; and to those times my delineations of their character must be considered to apply; yet, to shew the contrast, I have also delineated some of their present features.

In what I’ve written about the character, customs, manners, and practices of these people, I can’t have been mistaken, since it comes from personal knowledge—what I have seen, heard, and experienced while living among and near them for over thirty years. However, I must point out that this history, like other histories from the past, doesn’t fully reflect the character of the Indians today. All these nations and tribes, through their interactions with white people, have lost many of the honorable and virtuous qualities they once had, while gaining vices and immorality. No one can judge this better than a missionary living among them. And if we consider what these people told us more than fifty years ago—that lying, stealing, and other bad behaviors were seen as crimes before white men came—it’s safe to conclude—and we know it to be true—that from that time until now, especially in the last forty years, they have degenerated so much that a description of their current character would look nothing like what it was before. So, I’ve written about the history of earlier times, not of the present, and my portrayals of their character should be seen as applying to those times; still, to show the contrast, I’ve also included some of their current traits.

It may be proper to mention in this place, that I have made use of the proper national name of the people whom we call Delawares, which is: “Lenni Lenape.” Yet, as they, in the common way of speaking, merely pronounce the word “Lenape,” I have, in most instances, when speaking of them, used this word singly. I have also made use of the word “Mengwe,” or Mingoes, the name by which the Lenape commonly designate the people known to us by the name of the Iroquois, and Five or Six Nations. I shall give at the end a general list of all the names I have made use of in this communication, to which I refer the reader for instruction.

It might be worth mentioning here that I have used the proper national name of the people we call Delawares, which is: “Lenni Lenape.” However, as they often just say the word “Lenape,” I have mostly used this term by itself when referring to them. I've also used the term “Mengwe,” or Mingoes, which is how the Lenape typically refer to the people we know as the Iroquois or the Five or Six Nations. At the end, I will provide a general list of all the names I've used in this document for the reader’s reference.

As the Indians, in all their public speeches and addresses, speak in the singular number, I have sometimes been led to follow their example, when reporting what they have said; I have also frequently, by attending particularly to the identical words spoken by them, copied their peculiar phrases, when I might have given their meaning in other words.

As the Indians always speak in the singular during their public speeches and addresses, I’ve occasionally been influenced to do the same when reporting their statements. I’ve also often focused on their exact words and used their unique phrases, even when I could have expressed their meaning in different terms.

On the origin of the Indians, I have been silent, leaving this speculation to abler historians than myself. To their history, and notions with regard to their creation, I have given a place; and have also briefly related the traditions of the Lenape on the xxv subject of their arrival at, and crossing the river Mississippi, their coming to the Atlantic coast, what occurred to them while in this country, and their retreat back again.

On the origin of the Native Americans, I haven’t said much, allowing more capable historians to handle that discussion. I’ve included their history and ideas about their creation and also briefly shared the Lenape traditions regarding their arrival at and crossing of the Mississippi River, their journey to the Atlantic coast, what happened to them while they were here, and their return home.

As the relation of the Delawares and Mohicans, concerning the policy adopted and pursued by the Six Nations towards them, may perhaps appear strange to many, and it may excite some astonishment, that a matter of such importance was not earlier set forth in the same light, I shall here, by way of introduction, and for the better understanding of the account which they give of this matter, examine into some facts, partly known to us already, and partly now told us in their relation; so that we may see how far these agree together, and know what we may rely upon.

As the relationship between the Delawares and Mohicans regarding the approach taken by the Six Nations towards them might seem unusual to many, and it may come as a surprise that such an important issue wasn’t highlighted earlier, I will, as an introduction, look into some facts—some of which we already know and some that are presented in their account. This way, we can see how much they align and understand what we can trust.

It is conceded on all sides that the Lenape and Iroquois carried on long and bloody wars with each other; but while the one party assert, that they completely conquered the other, and reduced them by force to the condition of women, this assertion is as strongly and pointedly denied by the other side; I have therefore thought that the real truth of this fact was well deserving of investigation.

It is agreed by everyone that the Lenape and Iroquois fought long and brutal wars against each other; however, while one side claims they completely defeated the other and subdued them, this claim is just as firmly and clearly denied by the other side. Therefore, I believe that the actual truth of this matter is worth exploring.

The story told by the Mingoes to the white people, of their having conquered the Lenape and made women of them, was much too implicitly believed; for the whites always acted towards the Delawares under the impression that it was true, refused even to hear their own account of the matter, and “shut their ears” against them, when they attempted to inform them of the real fact. This denial of common justice, is one of the principal complaints of the Lenape against the English, and makes a part of the tradition or history which they preserve for posterity.

The story the Mingoes told the white people about conquering the Lenape and making them submit was taken far too seriously; the whites consistently treated the Delawares as if it were true, refusing to listen to their side of the story and "shutting their ears" when they tried to explain what actually happened. This denial of basic fairness is one of the main grievances the Lenape have against the English, and it forms part of the tradition or history they pass down to future generations.

This complaint indeed, bears hard upon us, and should, at least, operate as a solemn call to rectify the error, if such it is found to be; that we, in our history, may not record and transmit erroneous statements of those Aborigines, from whom we have received the country we now so happily inhabit. We are bound in honour to acquit ourselves of all charges of the kind which those people may have against us, who, in the beginning welcomed us to their shores, in hopes that “they and we would xxvi sit beside each other as brothers;” and it should not be said, that now, when they have surrendered their whole country to us, and retired to the wilds of a distant country, we turn our backs upon them with contempt.

This complaint really weighs heavily on us and should, at the very least, serve as a serious reminder to fix any mistakes, if that’s what we find; so that our history doesn’t record and pass down inaccurate statements about the Indigenous people from whom we received the land we now happily call home. We have a duty to clear ourselves of any accusations those people might have against us, who originally welcomed us to their shores, hoping that “they and we would sit beside each other as brothers;” and it should not be said that now, when they have given up their entire country to us and retreated to the wilderness of a far-off land, we turn our backs on them with disdain.

We know that all Indians have the custom of transmitting to posterity, by a regular chain of tradition, the remarkable events which have taken place with them at any time, even often events of a trivial nature, of which I could mention a number. Ought we then, when such a source of information is at hand, to believe the story told by the Six Nations, of their having conquered the Lenape, (a powerful nation with a very large train of connexions and allies) and forcibly made them women? Ought we not, before we believe this, to look for a tradition of the circumstances of so important an event; for some account, at least, of the time, place, or places, where those battles were fought, which decided the fate of the Lenape, the Mohicans, and of a number of tribes connected with them? Are we to be left altogether ignorant of the numbers that were slain at the time, and the country in which this memorable event took place; whether on the St. Lawrence, on the Lakes, in the country of the conquerors, or of the conquered? All these I am inclined to call first considerations, while a second would be: How does this story accord with the situation the first Europeans found these people in on their arrival in this country? Were not those who are said to be a conquered people, thickly settled on the whole length of the sea coast, and far inland, in and from Virginia to and beyond the Province of Maine, and had they not yet, at that very time, a great National Council Fire burning on the banks of the Delaware? Does not the joint tradition of the Delawares, Mohicans and Nanticokes, inform us, that their great National Council House3 then extended from the head of the tide on the (now) Hudson river, to the head of the tide on the Potomack? All this we shall find faithfully copied or written down from their verbal tradition, and that this Council House “was pulled down by the white people!”4 and of course was xxvii yet standing when they came into the country; which alone is sufficient to prove that the Lenape, at that time, were not a conquered people; and if they had been conquered since, we might expect to find the fact, with its particulars, somewhere on record.

We know that all Indigenous people have the tradition of passing down significant events that have happened to them, even often trivial events, which I could list. Should we, then, when we have such a source of information, believe the story from the Six Nations that they defeated the Lenape (a powerful nation with extensive connections and allies) and made them subservient? Shouldn't we, before accepting this, seek a tradition regarding the details of such a major event? At the very least, we should look for an account of the time, location, or locations where those battles occurred that determined the fate of the Lenape, the Mohicans, and the various tribes associated with them. Are we supposed to remain completely unaware of the number of people killed and the region where this notable event happened—whether along the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, in the land of the conquerors or the conquered? I consider all of these to be the first questions, and a second question would be: How does this story fit with the situation the first Europeans found these people in upon their arrival? Were those said to have been conquered not densely settled along the entire coastline and deep into the interior, from Virginia to beyond Maine, and didn't they also have a significant National Council Fire burning on the banks of the Delaware at that time? Doesn't the shared tradition of the Delawares, Mohicans, and Nanticokes tell us that their main National Council House 3 stretched from the head of the tide on what is now the Hudson River to the head of the tide on the Potomac? All of this will be found faithfully documented or transcribed from their oral traditions, and that this Council House “was taken down by the white people!” 4 and thus must have still been standing when they arrived; this alone is enough to demonstrate that the Lenape, at that time, were not a conquered people. If they had been conquered since then, we should expect to find records of that fact and its details.

It is admitted, however, by the Lenape themselves, that they and their allies were made women by the Iroquois. But how did this happen? Not surely by conquest, or the fate of battle. Strange as it may appear, it was not produced by the effects of superior force, but by successful intrigue. Here, if my informants were correct, and I trust they were, rests the great mystery, for the particulars of which, I refer the reader to the history of the Lenape and Mohicans themselves, as related in part by Loskiel in his “History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the North American Indians,”5 and in this work. In the first, he will find three material points ascertained, viz. 1st, “that the Delawares were too strong for the Iroquois, and could not be conquered by them by force of arms, but were subdued by insidious means. 2d, that the making women of the Delawares xxviii was not an act of compulsion, but the result of their own free will and consent; and 3d, that the whites were already in the country at the time this ceremony took place, since they were to hold one end of the great Peace Belt in their hands.”6 In the following History, which I have taken from the relation of the most intelligent and creditable old Indians, both Delawares and Mohicans, not only the same facts will be found, but also a more minute account of this transaction; in which it will be shewn, that the Dutch not only were present at, but were parties to it, that it was in this manner that the Six Nations were relieved from the critical situation they were in, at that very time, with regard to their enemies, the Delawares, Mohicans, and their connexions, and that the white people present coaxed and persuaded them to cause the hatchet to be buried, declaring at the same time7 that they “would fall on those who should dig it up again;” which was, on the part of the Hollanders, a declaration of war against the Delawares and their allies, if they, or any of them, should attempt again to act hostilely against the Six Nations. All this, according to the tradition of the Lenape, was transacted at a place, since called “Nordman’s Kill,” a few miles from the spot where afterwards Albany was built, and but a short time after the Dutch had arrived at New York Island, probably between the years 1609 and 1620.

The Lenape themselves admit that they and their allies were made women by the Iroquois. But how did this happen? It definitely wasn’t through conquest or the outcome of battle. As strange as it may seem, it wasn’t due to superior force, but rather through successful intrigue. Here lies the great mystery, which I believe my sources accurately conveyed. For the details, I refer the reader to the history of the Lenape and Mohicans, as partly shared by Loskiel in his “History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the North American Indians,”5 and in this work. In the first, he identifies three key points: 1st, “that the Delawares were too strong for the Iroquois and could not be conquered by force, but were subdued by deceitful means; 2d, that the making of the Delawares into women was not forced, but was the result of their own free will and consent; and 3d, that the whites were already in the country when this ceremony occurred, as they were meant to hold one end of the great Peace Belt.”6 In the following History, based on accounts from the most knowledgeable and trustworthy old Indians, both Delawares and Mohicans, you will not only find these same facts but also a more detailed explanation of this event. It will show that the Dutch were not only present at this event but were also involved, and that in this way the Six Nations were relieved from their precarious situation at that time with respect to their enemies, the Delawares, Mohicans, and their connections. The white people present encouraged and persuaded them to bury the hatchet, declaring at the same time7 that they “would attack anyone who tried to dig it up again;” which was, on the part of the Dutch, a declaration of war against the Delawares and their allies if they or any of them attempted to act hostilely towards the Six Nations again. According to Lenape tradition, all this took place at a location now called “Nordman’s Kill,” a few miles from where Albany would eventually be built, and only a short time after the Dutch arrived on New York Island, likely between the years 1609 and 1620.

The Rev. Mr. Pyrlæus,8 who had learned the Mohawk language xxix of Conrad Weiser, and was stationed on the river of that name, for some time between the years 1742 and 1748, has noted down in a large manuscript book, that his friend there, the Mohawk chief, had told him, that at a place about four miles from Albany, now called Nordman’s Kill,10 the first covenant had been made between the Six Nations and the white people; which is in confirmation of the correctness of the above tradition of the Mohicans.11

The Rev. Mr. Pyrlæus, 8 who learned the Mohawk language from Conrad Weiser and was stationed by the river of the same name between the years 1742 and 1748, documented in a large manuscript that his friend, the Mohawk chief, told him that at a spot about four miles from Albany, now known as Nordman’s Kill, 10 the first agreement was made between the Six Nations and the white settlers; this supports the accuracy of the above tradition of the Mohicans. 11

This was then, according to the best accounts we have, the time when this pretended “conquest” took place; and the Delawares, (as the Six Nations have since said) were by them made women. It was, however, a conquest of a singular nature, effected through duplicity and intrigue, at a council fire, not in battle. “And, (say the Delawares and Mohicans, in their tradition,) xxx when the English took the country from the Dutchemaan, (Hollanders) they stepped into the same alliance with the Six Nations, which their predecessors had established with them.”

This was, according to the best accounts we have, the time when this so-called “conquest” happened; and the Delawares, as the Six Nations have since said, were basically turned into women. It was, however, a unique kind of conquest, achieved through deceit and manipulation, at a council fire, not in battle. “And, say the Delawares and Mohicans in their tradition, when the English took the country from the Dutchemaan (Hollanders), they formed the same alliance with the Six Nations that their predecessors had established with them.”

Colden, in his “History of the Five Nations,”12 informs us, page 34, that this took place in the year 1664; and in page 36, gives us full proof of this alliance, by the following account—He says: “The Five Nations being now amply supplied by the English with fire-arms and ammunition, gave full swing to their warlike genius, and soon resolved to revenge the affronts they had at any time received from the Indian nations that lived at a greater distance from them. The nearest nations, as they were attacked, commonly fled to those that were further off, and the Five Nations pursued them. This, together with the desire they had of conquering, or ambition of making all the nations around them their tributaries, or to make them acknowledge the Five Nations to be so far their masters, as to be absolutely directed by them in all affairs of peace and war with their neighbours, made them overrun great part of North America. They carried their arms as far south as Carolina; to the northward of New England; and as far west as the river Mississippi; over a vast country, which extends twelve hundred miles in length, from north to south, and about six hundred miles in breadth; where they entirely destroyed many nations, of whom there are now no accounts remaining among the English,” &c.

Colden, in his “History of the Five Nations,” informs us, page 34, that this happened in 1664; and on page 36, he provides strong evidence of this alliance with the following account—He says: “The Five Nations, now well-equipped by the English with firearms and ammunition, fully embraced their warrior nature and soon decided to take revenge on the Indian nations that had ever offended them, particularly those located further away. The closer nations, when attacked, usually fled to those that were further off, and the Five Nations pursued them. This, combined with their desire to conquer and their ambition to make all surrounding nations their tributaries—or to have them acknowledge the Five Nations as their masters, directing them in all matters of peace and war with their neighbors—led them to dominate a large part of North America. They extended their reach as far south as Carolina, north of New England, and west to the Mississippi River; across a vast territory stretching twelve hundred miles from north to south and about six hundred miles wide, where they completely wiped out many nations, of whom there are now no remaining accounts among the English,” &c.

To what a number of important questions would not the above statement give rise? But I will confine myself to a few, and enquire first, for what purpose the Five Nations were armed, and so “amply supplied with ammunition?” and secondly, what use did they make of those arms? The Delawares xxxi and Mohicans believed that the white people, first the Dutch and then the English, did all that was in their power to make the Mengwe a great people, so that they might rule over them and all other nations, and “that they had done what they wanted them to do,” &c. For an answer to the second question, we have only to believe what Colden himself tells us, of what the same Mengwe or Iroquois did, after having received arms and ammunition from the English, which it clearly appears they could not have done before. Now, if we even were willing to admit that they had only gone off, “to revenge the affronts they had at any time received from the Indian Nations,” yet, we would be willing to know, of what nature those affronts had been; otherwise we might conclude, that they were no other than that those nations had refused “to become tributary to them; would not submit to their mandates, nor have them for their masters;” and therefore had beaten them off, when they came into their country for the purpose of bringing them under subjection, and perhaps also paid them a visit in return, after they had murdered some of their people.

To what important questions does the above statement raise? I’ll focus on a few and first ask, why were the Five Nations armed and so “well supplied with ammunition?” Second, how did they use those weapons? The Delawares xxxi and Mohicans thought that the white people—first the Dutch, then the English—did everything they could to make the Mengwe a powerful people so they could rule over them and other nations, and “that they had done what they wanted them to do,” etc. To answer the second question, we just need to trust what Colden himself wrote about what the Mengwe or Iroquois did after they received arms and ammunition from the English, which it is clear they couldn't have done before. Now, even if we were willing to accept that they left “to avenge the insults they had received from the Indian Nations,” we would still want to know what those insults were; otherwise, we might conclude that those nations simply refused “to become tributary to them; would not submit to their demands, nor accept them as their masters;” and therefore had pushed them away when they came into their territory to conquer them, and perhaps even retaliated after they had killed some of their people.

If we were permitted to omit the words, “revenge the affronts they had received from other nations,” &c., we need not one moment be at a loss to know precisely what they went out for, as the historian himself tells us, that they, soon after receiving fire-arms and ammunition, “gave full swing to their warlike genius, and went off with a desire of conquering nations—of making all those around them their tributaries, and compelling them all to acknowledge the Five Nations to be their masters, and to be absolutely directed by them, in all affairs of peace and war.” We then know with certainty, what the object was for which they took the field.

If we could skip the phrase, “revenge the insults they received from other nations,” we wouldn’t have any trouble understanding why they set out. The historian clearly states that soon after getting firearms and ammunition, they “fully unleashed their warrior spirit and went off with the intention of conquering nations—making all those around them their subjects and forcing them to recognize the Five Nations as their rulers, completely guided by them in all matters of peace and war.” So, we can be certain of their objective for going into battle.

We are here also told, of the vast tract of country over which the Six Nations had carried their arms, subduing, and even “so destroying many nations, that no account of them was now remaining with the English!”

We are also told about the large area of land that the Six Nations had conquered, defeating and even “so destroying many nations that no record of them was now left with the English!”

In reply to this I might bring forward some sayings and assertions of the Delawares and Mohicans, which would not comport with the above story, nor apply to the great name the Six Nations have given themselves, which, as Colden tells us, is xxxii Ongwe-honwe, and signifies “men surpassing all others, superior to the rest of mankind:” but my object here is merely to discuss the fact, whether, previous to the white people’s coming into the country, and while unsupplied with fire-arms, hatchets, &c., those Iroquois had done such wonders among nations as they report; or, whether all this was done since that time, and in consequence of their being put into possession of those destructive weapons which they had not before; for how are we to judge, and decide on the comparative bravery of two different nations, without knowing whether or not the combatants were placed on an equal footing with regard to the weapons they used against each other?

In response to this, I could point out some statements and claims from the Delawares and Mohicans that don’t align with the story above, nor do they fit the impressive name that the Six Nations have given themselves, which, as Colden mentions, is xxxii Ongwe-honwe, meaning “men surpassing all others, superior to the rest of mankind.” However, my aim here is just to discuss whether, before the arrival of white people in the country, and when they didn’t have access to firearms, hatchets, etc., the Iroquois really accomplished the great feats they claim; or if all this was achieved after that time because they got their hands on those deadly weapons that they didn’t have before. How can we judge and compare the bravery of two different nations without knowing if the fighters had an equal standing in terms of the weapons they used against one another?

I might ask the simple question, whether the Dutch, and afterwards the English, have favoured their “brethren,” the Delawares, Mohicans, and other tribes connected with them, who lived between them and the Six Nations, and on the land which they wanted to have, in the same manner that they have favoured their enemies?

I might pose the straightforward question of whether the Dutch, and later the English, supported their "brothers," the Delawares, Mohicans, and other tribes linked to them, who lived between them and the Six Nations, and on the land they sought to claim, in the same way they supported their enemies?

Colden, in his Introduction to the History of the Five Nations, page 3, says: “I have been told by old men in New England, who remembered the time when the Mohawks made war on their Indians,” (meaning here the Mohicans, or River Indians, as they often were called,) “that as soon as a single Mohawk was discovered in the country, their Indians raised a cry, from hill to hill, a Mohawk! a Mohawk! upon which they all fled, like sheep before wolves, without attempting to make the least resistance, whatever odds were on their side,” and that, “the poor New England Indians immediately ran to the Christian houses, and the Mohawks often pursued them so closely, that they entered along with them, and knocked their brains out in the presence of the people of the house,” &c.

Colden, in his Introduction to the History of the Five Nations, page 3, says: “I’ve heard from older men in New England who remember when the Mohawks fought against their Indians” (meaning the Mohicans, or River Indians, as they were often called), “that as soon as a single Mohawk was spotted in the area, their Indians would shout, from hill to hill, ‘A Mohawk! A Mohawk!’ and they all ran away, like sheep before wolves, without making any attempt to resist, regardless of the odds in their favor,” and that, “the poor New England Indians immediately ran to the Christian houses, and the Mohawks often chased them so closely that they entered with them and killed them right in front of the people in the house,” etc.

This is indeed a lamentable story! It might be asked, How could the white people, whom those very Mohicans had hospitably welcomed, and permitted to live with them on their land, suffer an enemy to come into the country to destroy their benefactors, without making any opposition? Why did these Indians suffer this? Why did they not with spirit meet this enemy?

This is truly a sad story! One might wonder, how could the white people, whom those same Mohicans had warmly welcomed and allowed to live on their land, let an enemy come into the country and harm their supporters without putting up a fight? Why did these Indians allow this? Why didn’t they bravely confront this enemy?

The answer to this last question will be found in their traditional xxxiii history of the great meeting at Nordman’s Kill, where they were expressly told, after they had consented to bury the hatchet, wherewith they warred against the Six Nations, “That whatsoever nation, (meaning the Mohicans and Delawares) should dig up the hatchet again, on them would the white people fall and take revenge!”

The answer to this last question can be found in their traditional xxxiii history of the big meeting at Nordman’s Kill, where they were clearly told, after agreeing to bury the hatchet they used to fight against the Six Nations, “That any nation (referring to the Mohicans and Delawares) that digs up the hatchet again will face the white people and suffer their revenge!”

Thus, then, arms were put into the hands of the Six Nations, and with them the Dutch, and afterwards the English, sided; but the Delawares and Mohicans were compelled to remain unarmed, for fear of being cut up by the white people, who had taken part with their enemies. May we not conclude, that these poor New England Indians were placed between two fires?

Thus, arms were given to the Six Nations, and the Dutch, followed by the English, allied with them; but the Delawares and Mohicans were forced to stay unarmed, fearing they would be harmed by the white people who had sided with their enemies. Can we not conclude that these poor New England Indians were caught between two fires?

We do not, I believe, find that in the then middle colonies, the Mohawks, or any of the Five Nations, had ventured so far in their hostile conduct against the Delawares, as they had done to the Mohicans of New England, though the alliance between the Dutch and the Five Nations, and afterwards between the English and the latter, was much against both, and indeed more against the Delawares than the Mohicans: yet, by turning to treaties and councils, held with these nations between the years 1740 and 1760, in Pennsylvania,13 we find much insolent language, which the Iroquois were, I will say, permitted, but which, the people concerned say, they were “bid or hired to make against the Delawares, for the purpose of stopping their mouths, preventing them from stating their complaints and grievances, and asking redress from the colonial government.”

We see that in the middle colonies back then, the Mohawks or any of the Five Nations didn't go as far in their aggressive behavior towards the Delawares as they did with the Mohicans in New England. Although the alliance between the Dutch and the Five Nations, and later between the English and the Five Nations, was mostly against both groups—and even more so against the Delawares than the Mohicans—if we look at the treaties and councils held with these nations between 1740 and 1760 in Pennsylvania, we find a lot of disrespectful language. The Iroquois were, I’d say, allowed to say these things, but the people involved claimed they were “told or paid to make statements against the Delawares to silence them, stop them from voicing their complaints and grievances, and asking for help from the colonial government.”

The result of such high toned language, as that which was made use of to the Delawares, by the Six Nations, at a council held at the proprietors, in July, 1742, and at other times afterwards,14 might easily have been foretold. For although now, these defenceless people had to submit to such gross insults, instead of seeing their grievances redressed, yet they were not ignorant of the manner in which they one day might take xxxiv revenge, the door to the French, who were enemies to the English, being always open to them; they had but to go “on one side” (as they expressed themselves) to be out of the way of the Iroquois, and they could obtain from the possessors of Canada, and Louisiana, all that they wanted, fire-arms, hatchets, scalping-knives, ammunition, &c. They did so, and withdrew to the Ohio country, whither they were followed by others from time to time, and by the time the French war broke out, they were in perfect readiness, and joining the enemies of Britain, they murdered great numbers of the defenceless inhabitants of Pennsylvania, laid the whole frontier waste, and spread terror and misery far and wide by the outrages they committed; I have been myself a witness to those scenes, and to the distresses of hundreds of poor people, only in this one quarter.

The outcome of the sophisticated language used by the Six Nations towards the Delawares at a council held with the proprietors in July 1742, and at other times afterwards, might have easily been predicted. Even though these defenseless people had to endure such blatant insults, rather than seeing their issues addressed, they were not unaware of how they might one day take revenge. The option to turn to the French, who were enemies of the English, was always available to them; they just had to “go on one side” (as they put it) to stay out of the Iroquois' way, and they could acquire from the French in Canada and Louisiana all that they needed: firearms, hatchets, scalping knives, ammunition, etc. They did this and retreated to the Ohio country, where others joined them over time. By the time the French war started, they were fully prepared, and aligning themselves with Britain’s enemies, they killed many defenseless residents of Pennsylvania, devastated the entire frontier, and spread fear and misery widely through their atrocities. I have personally witnessed these events and the suffering of hundreds of innocent people, just in this one area.

A work, entitled: “An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians from the British Interest,” written by Charles Thompson,15 Esq., and printed in London, in 1759, which some time since fell into my hands, well merits to be read with attention, on account of the correctness of the information that it contains.

A work titled “An Enquiry into the Causes of the Alienation of the Delaware and Shawanese Indians from the British Interest,” written by Charles Thompson, Esq., and published in London in 1759, recently came into my possession and deserves to be read carefully because of the accuracy of the information it provides.

By this time, the Delawares were sensible of the imposition which had been practised upon them. They saw that a plan had been organised for their destruction, and that not only their independence, but their very existence, was at stake; they therefore took measures to defend themselves, by abandoning the system of neutrality into which they had been insidiously drawn.

By this time, the Delawares realized the deception that had been played on them. They recognized that there was a plan in place for their destruction and that not only their independence but their very existence was at risk; therefore, they took steps to defend themselves by abandoning the neutral stance they had been cleverly led into.

It was not without difficulty that I obtained from them these interesting details, for they felt ashamed of their own conduct; they were afraid of being charged with cowardice, or at least with want of forethought, in having acted as they did, and not having discovered their error until it was too late.

It wasn't easy for me to get these interesting details from them, as they felt embarrassed about their own behavior; they were worried about being seen as cowards, or at the very least, as lacking foresight for acting the way they did and not realizing their mistake until it was too late.

And yet, in my opinion, those fears were entirely groundless, and there appears nothing in their whole conduct disparaging to the courage and high sense of honour of that brave nation. Let us for a moment place ourselves in the situation of the Delawares, Mohicans, and the other tribes connected with them, at the time when the Europeans first landed on New York Island. xxxv They were then in the height of their glory, pursuing their successes against the Iroquois, with whom they had long been at war. They were in possession of the whole country, from the sea coast to the Mississippi, from the River St. Lawrence to the frontier of Carolina, while the habitations of their enemies did not extend far beyond the great Lakes. In this situation, they are on a sudden checked in their career, by a phenomenon they had till then never beheld; immense canoes arriving at their shores, filled with people of a different colour, language, dress, and manners, from themselves! In their astonishment they call out to one another: “Behold! the Gods are come to visit us!”16 They at first considered these astonishing beings, as messengers of peace, sent from the abode of the Great Spirit, and therefore, employed their time in preparing and making sacrifices to that Great Being who had so highly honoured them. Lost in amazement, fond of the enjoyment of this new spectacle, and anxious to know the result, they were unmindful of those matters which hitherto had taken up their minds, and had been the object of their pursuits; they thought of nothing else but the wonders which now struck their eyes, and their sharpest wits were constantly employed in endeavouring to divine this great mystery! Such is the manner in which they relate that event, the strong impression of which is not yet obliterated from their minds.

And yet, in my opinion, those fears were completely unfounded, and there’s nothing in their entire behavior that shows a lack of courage or high honor in that brave nation. Let’s for a moment imagine ourselves in the shoes of the Delawares, Mohicans, and the other tribes connected to them when the Europeans first arrived on New York Island. They were at the peak of their power, achieving victories against the Iroquois, with whom they had long been at war. They controlled the entire land, from the coast to the Mississippi, from the St. Lawrence River to the border of Carolina, while their enemies' settlements barely reached beyond the Great Lakes. Suddenly, their progress was interrupted by a sight they had never seen before: massive canoes arriving at their shores, filled with people who looked, spoke, dressed, and behaved completely differently from them! In their shock, they called out to one another: “Look! The Gods have come to visit us!” They initially viewed these astonishing beings as messengers of peace sent from the Great Spirit’s realm, and so, they spent their time preparing and making sacrifices to that Great Being who had honored them so highly. Dazed by the spectacle, captivated by this new experience, and eager to understand what would happen next, they forgot about their previous concerns and pursuits; all they could think about were the wonders before their eyes, and their sharpest minds were constantly trying to figure out this great mystery! This is how they recount that event, the strong impression of which still lingers in their memories.

It was the Delawares who first received and welcomed these new guests on New York Island; the Mohicans who inhabited the whole of the North River above, on its eastern side, were sent for to participate in the joy which was felt on being honoured by such visitants. Their tradition of this event is clear and explicit. None of the enemy, say they, (meaning the Five Nations17) were present.

It was the Delawares who first welcomed these new guests on New York Island; the Mohicans, who lived all along the eastern side of the North River above, were invited to join in the celebration of being honored by such visitors. Their story about this event is straightforward and clear. They say that none of their enemies, referring to the Five Nations17, were there.

It may possibly be asked, how the Dutch could favour the Five Nations so much, when none of them were present at the meetings which took place on their arrival in America? how they came to abandon their first friends, and take part against xxxvi them with strangers? and how the Dutch became acquainted with those strangers? I shall simply, in answer, give the traditional accounts of the Mohicans in their own words: “The Dutch Traders (say they) penetrating into our country, high up the Mohicanichtuck (the Hudson River), fell in with some of the Mingo warriors, who told them that they were warring against the very people, (the Delawares and Mohicans) who had so kindly received them; they easily foresaw, that they could not carry on their trade with their old friends, while this was the case; neither would the Mingoes suffer them to trade with their enemies, unless they (the Dutch) assisted them in bringing about a peace between them. They also made these traders sensible, that they at that time, were at war with a people of the same colour with theirs (meaning the French), who had, by means of a very large river which lay to the North, come into the country; that they (the Mengwe) were the greatest and most powerful of all the Indian nations; that if the people they belonged to, were friends to their enemies, and sided with them in their wars, they would turn their whole force against them; but if, on the other hand, the Dutch would join them in effecting a peace with them, so that their hatchet should be buried forever, they would support and protect them in all their undertakings;18 that these traders being frightened, had returned home, and having stated the matter to their chief (the Dutch Governor), a vessel soon after went high up the river to an appointed place, where meeting with the Maqua (Five Nations), a conference was held, at which the Dutch promised them, that they would use their best endeavours to persuade their enemies to give up the hatchet to be buried, which, some time afterwards, actually took place.”

It might be wondered how the Dutch could support the Five Nations so much when none of them were present at the meetings that happened when they arrived in America. How did they decide to abandon their original allies and side with strangers against them? And how did the Dutch get to know those strangers? In response, I'll share the traditional accounts from the Mohicans in their own words: “The Dutch traders say they came into our land, far up the Mohicanichtuck (the Hudson River), and encountered some Mingo warriors, who told them they were at war with the very people (the Delawares and Mohicans) who had welcomed them kindly. They quickly realized that they couldn't continue trading with their old friends while this was going on; the Mingoes also wouldn't let them trade with their enemies unless the Dutch helped them achieve peace between the two sides. The Mingoes also made it clear to these traders that they were at war with a group of the same skin color as theirs (referring to the French), who had come into the area through a large river to the north. They emphasized that they (the Mengwe) were the largest and most powerful of all the Indian nations. If their people were allies of their enemies and sided with them in their conflicts, they would direct all their strength against them. On the other hand, if the Dutch joined them in making peace, so that the hatchet could be buried forever, they would support and protect them in all their efforts; 18 worried by this, the traders returned home, and after reporting the situation to their chief (the Dutch Governor), a ship soon traveled up the river to a designated spot, where they met with the Maqua (Five Nations) for a conference. During this meeting, the Dutch promised to do their best to convince their enemies to lay down their arms, which ultimately happened some time later.”

These are (as they say) the circumstances which led to the league which was afterwards established between the white people and the Five Nations, which was the cause of much dissatisfaction, injustice, and bloodshed, and which would not have taken place, if the rights and privileges of the different nations xxxvii and tribes had been respected, and each left to act for itself, especially in selling their lands to the Europeans.

These are, as the saying goes, the circumstances that led to the alliance later formed between the white settlers and the Five Nations. This alliance caused a lot of dissatisfaction, injustice, and violence, and it wouldn’t have occurred if the rights and privileges of the various nations and tribes had been respected, allowing each to act independently, particularly when it came to selling their lands to the Europeans. xxxvii

Having seen how the Five, afterwards Six Nations, rose to power, we have next to state by what means they lost the ascendancy which they had thus acquired.

Having seen how the Five, later Six Nations, gained power, we now need to explain how they lost the dominance they had achieved.

The withdrawing of the principal part of the Delawares, and the Shawanos, from the Atlantic coast, between the years 1740 and 1760, afforded them an opportunity of consulting with the western tribes, on the manner of taking revenge on the Iroquois for the many provocations, wrongs and insults they had received from them; when ten nations immediately entered into an alliance for that purpose, the French having promised to assist them.19 In the year 1756, they agreed to move on in detached bodies, as though they meant to attack the English, with whom they and the French were then at war, and then turn suddenly on the Six Nations and make a bold stroke. Though, for various reasons, their designs could not at that time be carried into effect, yet they did not lose sight of the object, waiting only for a proper opportunity.

The withdrawal of the main groups of the Delawares and the Shawanos from the Atlantic coast between 1740 and 1760 allowed them to strategize with the western tribes about how to take revenge on the Iroquois for the numerous provocations, wrongs, and insults they had endured from them; at that point, ten nations quickly formed an alliance for this purpose, with the French promising to provide support. In 1756, they planned to move in separate groups as if they intended to attack the English, with whom they were at war alongside the French, and then suddenly turn against the Six Nations for a surprise attack. Although their plans couldn’t be executed at that time for various reasons, they remained focused on their goal, just waiting for the right opportunity.

It would, however, have been next to impossible, under existing circumstances, and while the Six Nations were supported by such a powerful ally as the English, for the Delawares and their allies, to subdue, or even effectually to chastise them. These Nations, however, at the commencement of a war between the English nation and the Colonies, were become so far independent, that such of them as lived remote from the British stations or garrisons, or were not immediately under their eye, were at full liberty to side with whom they pleased; and though the Six Nations attempted to dictate to the Western Delawares, what side they should take, their spirited chief, Captain White Eyes, did not hesitate to reply, in the name of his nation: “that he should do as he pleased; that he wore no petticoats, as they falsely pretended; he was no woman, but a man, and they should find him to act as such.” That this brave chief was in earnest, was soon after verified, by a party of Delawares joining the American army.

It would have been almost impossible, given the current situation, and while the Six Nations had such a powerful ally in the English, for the Delawares and their allies to defeat or even effectively challenge them. However, at the start of a war between the English and the Colonies, these Nations became so independent that those living far from British posts or garrisons, or not under their direct watch, were free to choose sides as they wanted. Although the Six Nations tried to dictate to the Western Delawares which side to take, their bold chief, Captain White Eyes, confidently replied on behalf of his nation: “I will do as I please; I wear no petticoats, as you falsely claim; I am no woman, but a man, and you will see me act like one.” That this courageous chief meant what he said was soon confirmed when a group of Delawares joined the American army.

In 1781, when almost all the Indian nations were in the British xxxviii interest, except a part of the Delawares, among whom were the Christian Indians between 2 and 300 souls in number,20 the British Indian agent at Detroit applied to the great council of the Six Nations at Niagara, to remove those Christian Indians out of the country: the Iroquois upon this sent a war message to the Chippeways and Ottawas,21 to this effect: “We herewith make you a present of the Christian Indians, to make soup of;22” which in the war language of the Indians, is saying: “We deliver these people to you to be murdered!” These brave Indians sent the message immediately back again with the reply: “We have no cause for doing this!”

In 1781, when almost all the Indian nations were aligned with the British, except for some of the Delawares, including around 200 to 300 Christian Indians, the British Indian agent at Detroit reached out to the large council of the Six Nations at Niagara, requesting that they remove those Christian Indians from the area: the Iroquois responded by sending a war message to the Chippeways and Ottawas, saying: “We’re giving you these Christian Indians as a gift to make soup from;” which in the war language of the Indians means: “We are handing these people over to you to be killed!” The brave Indians quickly sent the message back with the reply: “We have no reason to do this!”

The same message being next sent to the Wyandots, they likewise disobeyed their orders, and did not make the least attempt to murder those innocent people. The Iroquois, therefore, were completely at a loss how to think and act, seeing that their orders were every where disregarded.

The same message was then sent to the Wyandots, who also ignored the orders and made no attempt to harm those innocent people. The Iroquois were completely confused about what to think and do, as their orders were being ignored everywhere.

At the conclusion of the revolutionary war, they had the mortification to see, that the trade which they had hitherto carried on, and to them was so agreeable and profitable, that of selling to the English the land of other nations, to which they had no possible claim, was at once and forever put an end to by the liberal line of conduct which the American Government adopted with the Indian Nations, leaving each at liberty to sell its own lands, reserving, only to themselves the right of purchase, to the exclusion of foreigners of every description.

At the end of the revolutionary war, they were embarrassed to realize that the trade they had always found enjoyable and profitable—selling to the English the land of other nations, which they had no right to—was instantly and permanently halted by the fair approach the American Government took with the Indian Nations. This approach allowed each nation to sell its own lands, while reserving the right to purchase exclusively for themselves, excluding all foreign buyers.

In addition to this, the bond of connexion which subsisted between these Six Nations, if it was not entirely broken, yet was much obstructed, by a separation which took place at the close of that war, when a part, and the most active body of them, retired into Canada. No nation then any more regarded their commands, nor even their advice, when it did not accord with their will and inclination; all which became evident during xxxix the whole time the Western Nations were at war with the United States, and until the peace made with them in 1795.23

In addition to this, the connection among these Six Nations, while not completely broken, was significantly weakened by a separation that occurred at the end of that war, when some of the most active members withdrew to Canada. No nation paid attention to their commands anymore, nor even their advice, unless it matched their own desires; this became clear throughout the period when the Western Nations were at war with the United States, and until the peace agreement made with them in 1795.23

At last, being sensible of their humbled situation, and probably dreading the consequence of their former insolent conduct to the other Indian Nations, and principally the Delawares, whom they had so long and so much insulted, were they not to make some amends for all this contumely? They came forward, at the critical moment, just previous to the Treaty concluded by General Wayne, and formally declared the Delaware nation to be no longer Women, but Men.

At last, realizing their humbled situation and likely fearing the repercussions of their previous arrogant behavior towards other Native Nations, especially the Delawares, who they had insulted for such a long time, weren’t they obligated to make some amends for all this disrespect? They stepped up at a crucial moment, just before the Treaty signed by General Wayne, and officially declared the Delaware nation to no longer be Women, but Guys.

I hope to be believed in the solemn assertion which I now make: That in all that I have written on the subject of the history and politics of the Indian Nations, I have neither been influenced by partiality for the one, or undue prejudice against the other, but having had the best opportunities of obtaining from authentic sources, such information in matters of fact, as has enabled me to make up my mind on the subject, I have taken the liberty of expressing my opinion as I have honestly formed it, leaving the reader, however, at liberty to judge and decide for himself as he may deem most proper.

I hope to earn your trust with this serious statement: In everything I’ve written about the history and politics of the Indian Nations, I haven’t been swayed by favoritism toward one side or unfair bias against the other. Having had the best opportunities to gather factual information from reliable sources, I feel confident in expressing my honest opinion on the matter. However, I encourage the reader to think for themselves and make their own judgments as they see fit.

I wish once more to observe, that in this history it is principally meant to shew, rather what the Indians of this country were previous to the white people’s arrival, than what they now are; for now, the two great nations, the Iroquois and the Delawares, are no longer the same people that they formerly were. The former, who, as their rivals would assert, were more like beasts than human beings, and made intrigue their only study, have, by their intercourse with the whites, become an industrious and somewhat civilised people; at least many of them are so, which is probably owing to their having been permitted to live so long, (indeed, for more than a century) in the same district xl of country, and while the British possessed it, under the protection of the superintendent of Indian affairs; while the latter have always been oppressed and persecuted, disturbed and driven from place to place, scarcely enjoying themselves at any place for a dozen years at a time; having constantly the lowest class of whites for their neighbours, and having no opportunity of displaying their true character and the talents that nature had bestowed upon them.

I want to point out again that this history mainly aims to show what the Native Americans of this country were like before the arrival of white people, rather than what they are now. Today, the two major nations, the Iroquois and the Delawares, are no longer the same as they used to be. The Iroquois, who their rivals would claim were more like animals than humans and focused only on schemes, have, through their interactions with white people, become a hardworking and somewhat civilized group; at least many of them are, likely because they’ve been allowed to live in the same area for so long—indeed, for more than a century—while the British were in control and under the protection of the superintendent of Indian affairs. In contrast, the Delawares have always faced oppression and persecution, constantly being disturbed and forced to move around, barely managing to settle in any place for more than a dozen years at a time. They have always been surrounded by the lowest class of white people, with no chances to show their true characteristics and the talents that nature gave them.

My long residence among those nations in the constant habit of unrestrained familiarity, has enabled me to know them well, and made me intimately acquainted with the manners, customs, character and disposition of those men of nature, when uncorrupted by European vices. Of these, I think I could draw a highly interesting picture, if I only possessed adequate powers of description: but the talent of writing is not to be acquired in the wilderness, among savages. I have felt it, however, to be a duty incumbent upon me to make the attempt, and I have done it in the following pages, with a rude but faithful pencil. I have spent a great part of my life among those people, and have been treated by them with uniform kindness and hospitality. I have witnessed their virtues and experienced their goodness. I owe them a debt of gratitude, which I cannot acquit better than by presenting to the world this plain unadorned picture, which I have drawn in the spirit of candour and truth. Alas! in a few years, perhaps, they will have entirely disappeared from the face of the earth, and all that will be remembered of them will be that they existed and were numbered among the barbarous tribes that once inhabited this vast continent. At least, let it not be said, that among the whole race of white Christian men, not one single individual could be found, who, rising above the cloud of prejudice with which the pride of civilisation has surrounded the original inhabitants of this land, would undertake the task of doing justice to their many excellent qualities, and raise a small frail monument to their memory.

My long time living among those nations, where people are used to open familiarity, has allowed me to truly understand them and become familiar with their manners, customs, character, and nature when unaffected by European vices. I believe I could create a captivating portrayal of them if I had better descriptive skills; however, you don't gain the art of writing in the wilderness among savages. Still, I felt it was my responsibility to try, and I have done so in the following pages, using a rough but honest approach. I’ve spent a significant part of my life with these people, and they have consistently shown me kindness and hospitality. I’ve seen their virtues and felt their goodness. I owe them a debt of gratitude that I can repay by sharing this simple, unembellished depiction I’ve created in a spirit of honesty and truth. Sadly, in a few years, they might completely vanish from the earth, and all that will remain is that they existed, deemed as one of the barbaric tribes that once lived on this vast continent. At the very least, let it not be said that among all white Christian men, not one person could rise above the biases created by the pride of civilization around the original inhabitants of this land to acknowledge their many admirable qualities and create a small, fragile tribute to their memory.

I shall conclude with a few necessary remarks for the information of the reader.

I’ll wrap up with a few important comments for the reader’s information.

Lenni Lenape being the national and proper name of the people we call “Delawares,” I have retained this name, or for xli brevity’s sake, called them simply Lenape, as they do themselves in most instances. Their name signifies “original people,” a race of human beings who are the same that they were in the beginning, unchanged and unmixed.24

Lenni Lenape is the official name of the people commonly referred to as “Delawares.” For simplicity, I've used the name Lenape, which is how they usually refer to themselves. Their name means “original people,” representing a group of human beings who remain as they always were, unchanged and unmixed. 24

These people (the Lenni Lenape) are known and called by all the western, northern, and some of the southern nations, by the name of Wapanachki, which the Europeans have corrupted into Apenaki, Openagi, Abenaquis,25 and Abenakis.26 All these names, however differently written, and improperly understood by authors, point to one and the same people, the Lenape, who are by this compound word, called “people at the rising of the Sun,” or as we would say, Eastlanders; and are acknowledged by near forty Indian tribes, whom we call nations, as being their grandfathers. All these nations, derived from the same stock, recognise each other as Wapanachki, which among them is a generic name.

These people (the Lenni Lenape) are known and referred to by all the western, northern, and some of the southern nations as Wapanachki, a name that Europeans have changed into Apenaki, Openagi, Abenaquis,25 and Abenakis.26 Although these names are written differently and often misunderstood by writers, they all refer to the same people, the Lenape, who are described by this term as “people at the rising of the Sun,” or what we would call Eastlanders; and are recognized by nearly forty Indian tribes, which we refer to as nations, as their ancestors. All these nations, coming from the same lineage, acknowledge each other as Wapanachki, which is a collective name among them.

The name “Delawares,” which we give to these people, is unknown in their language, and I well remember the time when they thought the whites had given it to them in derision; but they were reconciled to it, on being told that it was the name of a great white chief, Lord de la War, which had been given to them and their river. As they are fond of being named after distinguished men, they were rather pleased, considering it as a compliment.

The name “Delawares,” which we use for these people, doesn’t exist in their language, and I remember when they believed the white people had given it to them as a joke. However, they accepted it once they learned it was the name of a great white leader, Lord de la War, who it was given to them and their river. Since they like being named after notable individuals, they were somewhat pleased, viewing it as a compliment.

The Mahicanni have been called by so many different names,27 that I was at a loss which to adopt, so that the reader might know what people were meant. Loskiel calls them “Mohicans,” which is nearest to their real name Mahicanni, which, of course, I have adopted.

The Mahicanni have been referred to by many different names,27 that I didn’t know which one to use, so the reader would understand who I was talking about. Loskiel calls them “Mohicans,” which is closest to their actual name Mahicanni, and that’s the one I’ve chosen.

The name “Nanticokes” I have left as generally used, though xlii properly it should be Néntico, or after the English pronunciation Nantico.

The name “Nanticokes” is what I’ve kept since it’s commonly used, although technically it should be Néntico, or as the English pronunciation goes, Nantico.

The “Canai,” I call by their proper name. I allude here to those people we call Canais, Conois, Conoys, Canaways, Kanhawas, Canawese.

The “Canai,” I refer to by their proper name. I'm talking about those people we call Canais, Conois, Conoys, Canaways, Kanhawas, Canawese.

With regard to the Five, or Six Nations, I have called them by different names, such as are most common, and well understood. The Lenape (Delawares) are never heard to say “Six Nations,” and it is a rare thing to hear these people named by them otherwise than Mengwe; the Mahicanni call them Maqua, and even most white people call them Mingoes. When therefore I have said the Five or Six Nations, I have only used our own mode of speaking, not that of the Indians, who never look upon them as having been so many nations; but divisions, and tribes, who, as united, have become a nation. Thus, when the Lenape (Delawares) happen to name them as one body, the word they make use of implies “the five divisions together, or united,” as will be seen in another place of this work. I call them also Iroquois, after the French and some English writers.

Regarding the Five or Six Nations, I've referred to them by different names that are most commonly used and understood. The Lenape (Delawares) never say “Six Nations,” and it's rare for them to refer to these people by any other name than Mengwe; the Mahicanni call them Maqua, and even most white people call them Mingoes. So when I mention the Five or Six Nations, I'm using our own terminology, not that of the Indians, who don't view them as distinct nations, but rather as divisions and tribes that have come together to form a nation. Thus, when the Lenape (Delawares) refer to them as one group, the term they use suggests “the five divisions together, or united,” as will be explained later in this work. I also call them Iroquois, following some French and English writers.

The Wyandots, or Wyondots, are the same whom the French call Hurons, and sometimes Guyandots. Father Sagard, a French Missionary, who lived among them in the 17th century, and has written an account of his mission, and a kind of dictionary of their language, says their proper name is Ahouandâte, from whence it is evident that the English appellation Wyandots has been derived.

The Wyandots, or Wyondots, are the same people the French refer to as Hurons, and sometimes Guyandots. Father Sagard, a French missionary who lived among them in the 17th century and wrote about his mission along with a sort of dictionary of their language, states that their actual name is Ahouandâte, which shows that the English name Wyandots comes from it.

There being so many words in the language of the Lenape and their kindred tribes, the sound of which cannot well be represented according to the English pronunciation, I have in general adopted for them the German mode of spelling. The ch, particularly before a consonant, is a strong guttural, and unless an Englishman has the use of the Greek χ, he will not be able to pronounce it, as in the words Chasquem (Indian corn), Cheltol (many), Ches (a skin), Chauchschisis (an old woman), and a great many more. Sometimes, indeed, in the middle of a word substitutes may be found which may do, as in the word Nimachtak (brethren), which might be written Nemaughtok, but this will seldom answer. This is probably the reason that most of the xliii English authors have written Indian words so incorrectly, far more so than French authors.

Since there are so many words in the Lenape language and its related tribes, which can't easily be represented according to English pronunciation, I've generally used the German spelling method for them. The ch, especially before a consonant, is a strong guttural sound, and unless an English speaker is familiar with the Greek χ, they won't be able to pronounce it, as in Chasquem (Indian corn), Cheltol (many), Ches (a skin), Chauchschisis (an old woman), and many more. Sometimes, in the middle of a word, substitutes can work, as seen in Nimachtak (brethren), which could be written as Nemaughtok, but this is rarely effective. This is likely why most xliii English authors have written Indian words so inaccurately, even more so than French authors.

The Delawares have neither of the letters R, F, nor V, in their language, though they easily learn to pronounce them. They have a consonant peculiar to them and other Indians, which is a sibilant, and which we represent by W. It is produced by a soft whistling, and is not unpleasant to the ear, although it comes before a consonant. It is not much unlike the English sound wh in what, but not so round or full, and rather more whistled. W before a vowel is pronounced as in English.

The Delawares don't have the letters R, F, or V in their language, but they can easily learn to pronounce them. They have a consonant that's unique to them and other Indigenous peoples, which is a sibilant that we represent with W. It's created by a soft whistling and is actually quite pleasant to hear, even though it appears before a consonant. It's somewhat similar to the English sound wh in what, but less rounded and full, and a bit more whistled. W before a vowel is pronounced like it is in English.

xliv xlv

xliv xlv


PART I.



HISTORY, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS
OF
THE INDIAN TRIBES,
WHO ONCE LIVED IN PENNSYLVANIA AND
THE SURROUNDING STATES.

xlvi

xlvi


(Note.—In annotating this work, the editor consulted, among other authorities, The Life of John Heckewelder, by the Rev. Edward Rondthaler, Heckewelder’s Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians, History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America, The Life and Times of David Zeisberger, Memorials of the Moravian Church, The Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society, The Moravians in New York and Connecticut, and Butterfield’s Crawford’s Campaign against Sandusky.

(Note.—To annotate this work, the editor consulted various sources, including The Life of John Heckewelder, by the Rev. Edward Rondthaler, Heckewelder’s Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians, History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America, The Life and Times of David Zeisberger, Memorials of the Moravian Church, The Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society, The Moravians in New York and Connecticut, and Butterfield’s Crawford’s Campaign against Sandusky.

He omitted to state, in the course of the introductory biographical sketch of the missionary, that his Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of Indian Nations has been translated into both French and German. The French translation was published at Paris, in 1822; it is entitled, “Histoire, Mœurs et Coutumes des Nations Indiennes qui habitaient autrefois la Pennsylvanie et les Etats voisins; par le Révérend Jean Heckewelder, Missionnaire Morave, traduit de l’Anglais, par le Chevalier Du Ponceau.” The German translation, published at Göttingen in 1821, is entitled, “Johann Heckewelder’s evangelischen Predigers zu Bethlehem, Nachricht von der Geschichte, den Sitten und Gebräuchen der Indianischen Völkerschaften, welche ehemals Pennsylvanien und die benachbarten Staaten bewohnten. Aus dem Englischen übersetzt und mit den Angaben anderer Schriftsteller über eben dieselben Gegenstände (Carver, Loskiel, Ling, Volney), vermehrt von Fr. Hesse, evangelischen Prediger zu Nienburg. Nebst einem die Glaubwürdigkeit und den anthropologischen Werth der Nachrichten Heckewelder’s betreffenden Zusatze von G. E. Schulze.”)

He failed to mention, in the introductory biographical sketch of the missionary, that his Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of Indian Nations has been translated into both French and German. The French translation was published in Paris in 1822; it is titled, “Histoire, Mœurs et Coutumes des Nations Indiennes qui habitaient autrefois la Pennsylvanie et les Etats voisins; par le Révérend Jean Heckewelder, Missionnaire Morave, traduit de l’Anglais, par le Chevalier Du Ponceau.” The German translation, published in Göttingen in 1821, is titled, “Johann Heckewelder’s evangelischen Predigers zu Bethlehem, Nachricht von der Geschichte, den Sitten und Gebräuchen der Indianischen Völkerschaften, welche ehemals Pennsylvanien und die benachbarten Staaten bewohnten. Aus dem Englischen übersetzt und mit den Angaben anderer Schriftsteller über eben dieselben Gegenstände (Carver, Loskiel, Ling, Volney), vermehrt von Fr. Hesse, evangelischen Prediger zu Nienburg. Nebst einem die Glaubwürdigkeit und den anthropologischen Werth der Nachrichten Heckewelder’s betreffenden Zusatze von G. E. Schulze.”


47

47

History, Traditions, and Culture
OF THE
INDIAN NATIONS.
CHAPTER 1.
HISTORICAL TRADITIONS OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES.

T

The Lenni Lenape (according to the traditions handed down to them by their ancestors) resided many hundred years ago, in a very distant country in the western part of the American continent. For some reason, which I do not find accounted for, they determined on migrating to the eastward, and accordingly set out together in a body. After a very long journey, and many nights’ encampments28 by the way, they at length arrived on the Namæsi Sipu,29 where they fell in with the Mengwe,30 who had likewise emigrated from a distant country, and had struck upon this river somewhat higher up. Their object was the same with that of the Delawares; they were proceeding on to the eastward, until they should find a country that pleased them. The spies which the Lenape had sent forward for the purpose of reconnoitring, 48 had long before their arrival discovered that the country east of the Mississippi was inhabited by a very powerful nation, who had many large towns built on the great rivers flowing through their land. Those people (as I was told) called themselves Talligeu or Talligewi. Colonel John Gibson,31 however, a gentleman who has a thorough knowledge of the Indians, and speaks several of their languages, is of opinion that they were not called Talligewi, but Alligewi, and it would seem that he is right, from the traces of their name which still remain in the country, the Allegheny river and mountains having indubitably been named after them. The Delawares still call the former Alligéwi Sipu, the River of the Alligewi. We have adopted, I know not for what reason, its Iroquois name, Ohio, which the French had literally translated into La Belle Riviere, The Beautiful River.32 A branch of it, however, still retains the ancient name Allegheny.

The Lenni Lenape (according to the traditions passed down from their ancestors) lived many hundreds of years ago in a faraway land in the western part of the American continent. For reasons I can’t explain, they decided to migrate eastward and set out together. After a long journey filled with many nights of camping along the way, they finally arrived at the Namæsi Sipu,28 where they encountered the Mengwe,29 who had also migrated from a distant land and reached this river a bit further upstream. Their goal was the same as that of the Delawares; they were heading east until they found a place that suited them. The scouts the Lenape had sent ahead to explore had discovered long before their arrival that the land east of the Mississippi was occupied by a very powerful nation, which had many large towns built along the major rivers in their territory. Those people (as I was informed) referred to themselves as Talligeu or Talligewi. Colonel John Gibson,30 however, who has a deep understanding of the Native Americans and speaks several of their languages, believes that they were actually called Alligewi, and he seems to be correct based on the remnants of their name that still exist in the region, as both the Allegheny River and the mountains were undoubtedly named after them. The Delawares still refer to the former as Alligéwi Sipu, the River of the Alligewi. For reasons unknown to me, we have adopted its Iroquois name, Ohio, which the French literally translated as La Belle Riviere, the Beautiful River.31 However, a branch of it still retains the ancient name Allegheny.

Many wonderful things are told of this famous people. They are said to have been remarkably tall and stout, and there is a tradition that there were giants among them, people of a much larger size than the tallest of the Lenape. It is related that they had built to themselves regular fortifications or entrenchments, from whence they would sally out, but were generally repulsed. I have seen many of the fortifications said to have been built by 49 them, two of which, in particular, were remarkable. One of them was near the mouth of the river Huron, which empties itself into the Lake St. Clair, on the north side of that lake, at the distance of about 20 miles N. E. of Detroit. This spot of ground was, in the year 1786, owned and occupied by a Mr. Tucker. The other works, properly entrenchments, being walls or banks of earth regularly thrown up, with a deep ditch on the outside, were on the Huron river, east of the Sandusky, about six or eight miles from Lake Erie. Outside of the gateways of each of these two entrenchments, which lay within a mile of each other, were a number of large flat mounds, in which, the Indian pilot said, were buried hundreds of the slain Talligewi, whom I shall hereafter with Colonel Gibson call Alligewi. Of these entrenchments, Mr. Abraham Steiner, who was with me at the time when I saw them, gave a very accurate description, which was published at Philadelphia, in 1789 or 1790, in some periodical work the name of which I cannot at present remember.33

Many amazing stories are told about this famous people. They are said to have been notably tall and sturdy, and there is a legend that there were giants among them, individuals much larger than the tallest of the Lenape. It is reported that they built proper fortifications or moats, from which they would charge out, but they were usually pushed back. I've seen many of the fortifications said to have been constructed by them, two of which stood out in particular. One was near the mouth of the Huron River, which flows into Lake St. Clair, about 20 miles northeast of Detroit. This land was owned and occupied by a Mr. Tucker in 1786. The other defensive works, consisting of walls or banks of earth carefully built up, with a deep ditch in front, were located on the Huron River, east of Sandusky, about six or eight miles from Lake Erie. Outside the gates of each of these two fortifications, which were within a mile of one another, there were several large flat mounds, where, according to the Indian guide, hundreds of the fallen Talligewi were buried, who I will refer to as Alligewi later, alongside Colonel Gibson. Mr. Abraham Steiner, who was with me when I saw them, gave a very detailed description of these fortifications, which was published in Philadelphia around 1789 or 1790 in a periodical that I can’t recall the name of at the moment.

When the Lenape arrived on the banks of the Mississippi, they sent a message to the Alligewi to request permission to settle themselves in their neighbourhood. This was refused them, but they obtained leave to pass through the country and seek a settlement farther to the eastward. They accordingly began to cross the Namæsi Sipu, when the Alligewi, seeing that their numbers were so very great, and in fact they consisted of many thousands, made a furious attack on those who had crossed, threatening them all with destruction, if they dared to persist in coming over to their side of the river. Fired at the treachery of these people, and the great loss of men they had sustained, and besides, not being prepared for a conflict, the Lenape consulted on what was to be done; whether to retreat in the best manner they could, or try their strength, and let the enemy see that they were not cowards, but men, and too high-minded to suffer themselves to be driven off before they had 50 made a trial of their strength, and were convinced that the enemy was too powerful for them. The Mengwe, who had hitherto been satisfied with being spectators from a distance, offered to join them, on condition that, after conquering the country, they should be entitled to share it with them; their proposal was accepted, and the resolution was taken by the two nations, to conquer or die.

When the Lenape reached the banks of the Mississippi, they sent a message to the Alligewi asking for permission to settle in their area. This was denied, but they were allowed to pass through the land and look for a settlement further east. They began to cross the Namæsi Sipu when the Alligewi, noticing their huge numbers—which amounted to thousands—launched a fierce attack on those who had crossed, threatening total destruction if they dared to continue moving to their side of the river. Outraged by the treachery of the Alligewi and the heavy losses they had suffered, and also being unprepared for a fight, the Lenape held a discussion about their next move: whether to retreat as best as they could or to stand their ground and show the enemy that they weren’t cowards, but proud people unwilling to be driven off without first testing their strength to see if the enemy was too powerful. The Mengwe, who had been watching from a distance, offered to join them on the condition that they would share the land after defeating the enemy. This proposal was accepted, leading both nations to resolve to conquer or die.

Having thus united their forces, the Lenape and Mengwe declared war against the Alligewi, and great battles were fought, in which many warriors fell on both sides. The enemy fortified their large towns and erected fortifications, especially on large rivers, and near lakes, where they were successively attacked and sometimes stormed by the allies. An engagement took place in which hundreds fell, who were afterwards buried in holes or laid together in heaps and covered over with earth. No quarter was given, so that the Alligewi, at last, finding that their destruction was inevitable if they persisted in their obstinacy, abandoned the country to the conquerors, and fled down the Mississippi river, from whence they never returned. The war which was carried on with this nation, lasted many years, during which the Lenape lost a great number of their warriors, while the Mengwe would always hang back in the rear, leaving them to face the enemy. In the end, the conquerors divided the country between themselves; the Mengwe made choice of the lands in the vicinity of the great lakes, and on their tributary streams, and the Lenape took possession of the country to the south. For a long period of time, some say many hundred years, the two nations resided peaceably in this country, and increased very fast; some of their most enterprising huntsmen and warriors crossed the great swamps,34 and falling on streams running to the eastward, followed them down to the great Bay River,35 thence into the Bay itself, which we call Chesapeak. As they pursued their travels, partly by land and partly by water, sometimes near and at other times on the great Saltwater Lake, as they call the Sea, they discovered the great River, which we call the Delaware; and thence exploring still eastward, the 51 Scheyichbi country, now named New Jersey, they arrived at another great stream, that which we call the Hudson or North River. Satisfied with what they had seen, they, (or some of them) after a long absence, returned to their nation and reported the discoveries they had made; they described the country they had discovered, as abounding in game and various kinds of fruits; and the rivers and bays, with fish, tortoises, &c., together with abundance of water-fowl, and no enemy to be dreaded. They considered the event as a fortunate one for them, and concluding this to be the country destined for them by the Great Spirit, they began to emigrate thither, as yet but in small bodies, so as not to be straitened for want of provisions by the way, some even laying by for a whole year; at last they settled on the four great rivers (which we call Delaware, Hudson, Susquehannah, and Potomack) making the Delaware, to which they gave the name of “Lenapewihittuck,”36 (the river or stream of the Lenape) the centre of their possessions.

Having united their forces, the Lenape and Mengwe declared war on the Alligewi, leading to intense battles where many warriors from both sides fell. The enemy fortified their large towns and built defenses, especially near major rivers and lakes, where they were repeatedly attacked and sometimes assaulted by the allies. One battle resulted in hundreds of casualties, who were buried in holes or piled together and covered with dirt. No mercy was given, and ultimately, the Alligewi realized their defeat was unavoidable if they kept resisting. They abandoned their land to the victors and fled down the Mississippi River, never to return. The war against this group lasted many years, during which the Lenape lost a significant number of warriors, while the Mengwe typically held back, leaving the Lenape to confront the enemy alone. In the end, the victors divided the territory between them; the Mengwe chose lands near the Great Lakes and their tributary streams, while the Lenape claimed the southern areas. For a long time, some say many hundreds of years, the two nations lived peacefully in this land and grew rapidly. Some of their most adventurous hunters and warriors crossed the vast swamps, and following streams that flowed eastward, reached the great Bay River, eventually reaching the Bay we now call Chesapeake. As they traveled, partly by land and partly by water, sometimes along the shores and other times on the vast Saltwater Lake, referred to as the Sea, they discovered the great River we now call the Delaware. Continuing to explore eastward, they entered the Scheyichbi country, now known as New Jersey, and encountered another major stream, which we call the Hudson or North River. Pleased with their findings, some of them returned home after a long absence to report their discoveries; they described the land as rich in game and various fruits, with rivers and bays teeming with fish, turtles, and plenty of waterfowl, with no enemies to fear. They considered this a fortunate event and believed this land had been destined for them by the Great Spirit. They began migrating there in small groups to avoid running low on supplies, with some even preparing for a whole year. Eventually, they settled along the four major rivers (which we refer to as the Delaware, Hudson, Susquehanna, and Potomac), making the Delaware—named “Lenapewihittuck” (the river or stream of the Lenape)—the center of their territory.

They say, however, that the whole of their nation did not reach this country; that many remained behind in order to aid and assist that great body of their people, which had not crossed the Namæsi Sipu, but had retreated into the interior of the country on the other side, on being informed of the reception which those who had crossed had met with, and probably thinking that they had all been killed by the enemy.

They say, however, that not all of their nation made it to this country; many stayed behind to help the large group of their people who didn’t cross the Namæsi Sipu but instead retreated further into the interior on the other side after hearing about the treatment those who had crossed received, likely thinking that all of them had been killed by the enemy.

Their nation finally became divided into three separate bodies; the larger body, which they suppose to have been one half of the whole, was settled on the Atlantic, and the other half was again divided into two parts, one of which, the strongest as they suppose, remained beyond the Mississippi, and the remainder where they left them, on this side of that river.

Their nation eventually split into three separate groups; the larger group, which they believed was about half of the total, settled along the Atlantic, while the other half was further divided into two parts. One part, which they thought was the strongest, stayed beyond the Mississippi, and the other part was left on this side of the river.

Those of the Delawares who fixed their abode on the shores of the Atlantic divided themselves into three tribes. Two of them, distinguished by the names of the Turtle and the Turkey, the former calling themselves Unâmis and the other Unalâchtgo, chose those grounds to settle on, which lay nearest to the sea, between the coast and the high mountains. As they multiplied, 52 their settlements extended from the Mohicannittuck (river of the Mohicans, which we call the North or Hudson river) to beyond the Potomack. Many families with their connexions choosing to live by themselves, were scattered not only on the larger, but also on the small streams throughout the country, having towns and villages, where they lived together in separate bodies, in each of which a chief resided; those chiefs, however, were subordinate (by their own free will, the only kind of subordination which the Indians know) to the head chiefs or great council of the nation, whom they officially informed of all events or occurrences affecting the general interest which came to their knowledge. The third tribe, the Wolf, commonly called the Minsi, which we have corrupted into Monseys, had chosen to live back of the two other tribes, and formed a kind of bulwark for their protection, watching the motions of the Mengwe, and being at hand to afford their aid in case of a rupture with them. The Minsi were considered the most warlike and active branch of the Lenape. They extended their settlements, from the Minisink, a place named after them, where they had their council seat and fire, quite up to the Hudson on the east; and to the west or south west far beyond the Susquehannah: their northern boundaries were supposed originally to be the heads of the great rivers Susquehannah and Delaware, and their southern boundaries that ridge of hills known in New Jersey by the name of Muskanecun, and in Pennsylvania, by those of Lehigh, Coghnewago, &c. Within this boundary were their principal settlements; and even as late as the year 1742, they had a town, with a large peach orchard, on the tract of land where Nazareth, in Pennsylvania, has since been built;37 another on Lehigh (the west branch of the Delaware), and others beyond the blue ridge, besides small family settlements here and there scattered. 53

Those Delawares who settled along the Atlantic coast divided themselves into three tribes. Two of them, named the Turtle and the Turkey, called themselves Unâmis and Unalâchtgo, respectively, and they chose to live in areas closest to the sea, between the coast and the high mountains. As their population grew, their settlements spread from the Mohicannittuck (the river of the Mohicans, which we now call the North or Hudson River) to beyond the Potomac. Many families preferred to live independently and settled along not only the larger rivers but also the smaller streams throughout the region, establishing towns and villages where they lived in separate communities, each led by a chief. However, these chiefs willingly accepted the authority of the head chiefs or the great council of the nation, keeping them informed about any events or happenings that affected the common interests they learned about. The third tribe, the Wolf, commonly known as the Minsi (which we have turned into Monseys), chose to live behind the other two tribes, effectively providing a barrier for their protection while keeping watch on the Mengwe and being ready to assist them in case of conflict. The Minsi were regarded as the most warlike and active branch of the Lenape. They extended their settlements from the Minisink, named after them, where they held their council and hearth, all the way to the Hudson on the east, and to the west or southwest far beyond the Susquehanna. Their northern borders were originally thought to be at the sources of the great rivers Susquehanna and Delaware, while the southern limit was the ridge of hills known in New Jersey as Muskanecun, and in Pennsylvania as Lehigh, Coghnewago, etc. Their main settlements were within these boundaries, and even as late as 1742, they had a town with a large peach orchard on the land where Nazareth in Pennsylvania now stands; another on Lehigh (the west branch of the Delaware), and more beyond the Blue Ridge, along with small family settlements scattered throughout.

From the above three tribes, the Unâmis, Unalâchtgo, and the Minsi, comprising together the body of those people we call Delawares, had in the course of time, sprung many others, who, having for their own conveniency, chosen distant spots to settle on, and increasing in numbers, gave themselves names or received them from others. Those names, generally given after some simple natural objects, or after something striking or extraordinary, they continued to bear even after they ceased to be applicable, when they removed to other places, where the object after which they were named was not to be found; thus they formed separate and distinct tribes, yet did not deny their origin, but retained their affection for the parent tribe, of which they were even proud to be called the grandchildren.

From the three tribes, the Unâmis, Unalâchtgo, and the Minsi, which together make up the group we refer to as Delawares, over time, many others emerged. These additional tribes chose remote areas to settle for their convenience and, as their numbers grew, they adopted names or were given them by others. These names were usually based on simple natural objects or something remarkable or unique. They continued to use these names even after they no longer fit, especially when they moved to places where the original reference was absent. This led to the formation of separate and distinct tribes, but they still acknowledged their roots and maintained their connection to the parent tribe, proudly considering themselves the grandchildren of it.

This was the case with the Mahicanni or Mohicans, in the east, a people who by intermarriages had become a detached body, mixing two languages together, and forming out of the two a dialect of their own: choosing to live by themselves, they had crossed the Hudson River, naming it Mahicannituck River after their assumed name, and spread themselves over all that country which now composes the eastern states. New tribes again sprung from them who assumed distinct names; still however not breaking off from the parent stock, but acknowledging the Lenni Lenape to be their grandfather: the Delawares, at last, thought proper to enlarge their council house for their Mahicanni grandchildren, that they might come to their fire, that is to say, be benefited by their advice, and also in order to keep alive their family connexions and remain in league with each other.

This was true for the Mahicanni or Mohicans in the east, a group that had become separate through intermarriage, blending two languages to create their own dialect. Choosing to live independently, they crossed the Hudson River, which they named Mahicannituck River after their name, and settled throughout the region that now makes up the eastern states. New tribes emerged from them, taking on distinct names but still acknowledging the Lenni Lenape as their ancestor. The Delawares eventually decided to expand their council house for their Mahicanni grandchildren so they could gather for advice and maintain their family connections while remaining united.

Much the same thing happened with a body of the Lenape, called Nanticokes, who had, together with their offspring, proceeded far to the south, in Maryland and Virginia; the council house was by their grandfather (the Delawares), extended to the Potomack, in the same manner and for the same motives as had been done with the Mahicanni.

Much the same thing happened with a group of the Lenape, called Nanticokes, who, along with their children, moved far south into Maryland and Virginia; the council house was, by their grandfather (the Delawares), expanded to include the Potomac, in the same way and for the same reasons as it had been done with the Mahicanni.

Meanwhile the Mengwe, who had first settled on the great Lakes between them, had always kept a number of canoes in readiness to save themselves, in case the Alligewi should return, and their number also increasing, they had in time proceeded 54 farther, and settled below the Lakes along the River St. Lawrence, so that they were now become, on the north side, neighbours of the Lenape tribes.

Meanwhile, the Mengwe, who originally settled around the great Lakes between them, always kept a few canoes ready to escape in case the Alligewi returned. As their numbers increased, they eventually moved farther down and settled along the River St. Lawrence, making them neighbors of the Lenape tribes on the north side. 54

These Mengwe now began to look upon their southern neighbours with a jealous eye, became afraid of their growing power, and of being dispossessed by them of the lands they occupied. To meet this evil in time, they first sought to raise quarrels and disturbances, which in the end might lead to wars between distant tribes and the Lenape, for which purpose, they clandestinely murdered people on one or the other side, seeking to induce the injured party to believe, that some particular nation or tribe had been the aggressor; and having actually succeeded to their wishes, they now stole into the country of the Lenape and their associates, frequently surprising them at their hunting camps, occasionally committing murders, and making off with the plunder. Foreseeing, however, that they could not go on in this way without being detected, they had recourse to other artful means, by which they actually succeeded in setting tribe against tribe, and nation against nation. As each nation or tribe has a particular mark on their war clubs, different from that of the others; and as on seeing one of these near the dead body of a murdered person, it is immediately known what nation or tribe has been the aggressor; so the Mengwe having left a war club, such as the Lenape made use of, in the Cherokee country, where they had purposely committed a murder, of course the Cherokees naturally concluding that it had been committed by the Lenape, fell suddenly upon them, which produced a most bloody war between the two nations. The treachery of the Mengwe, however, having been at length discovered, the Lenape determined on taking an exemplary revenge, and, indeed, nothing short of a total extirpation38 of that deceitful race was resolved on; they were, besides, known to eat human flesh,39 to kill men for the purpose of devouring them; 55 and therefore were not considered by the Lenape as a pure race, or as rational beings; but as a mixture of the human and brutal kinds.

These Mengwe started to view their southern neighbors with jealousy, fearing their growing power and the potential loss of their own land. To address this threat, they first tried to instigate conflicts and disturbances that could eventually lead to wars between distant tribes and the Lenape. For this reason, they secretly killed people from both sides, trying to convince the affected party that a specific nation or tribe was responsible. Having succeeded in their plan, they then infiltrated Lenape territory and that of their allies, often catching them off guard at their hunting camps, committing murders, and stealing their goods. However, realizing they couldn't keep this up without getting caught, they resorted to other cunning strategies that allowed them to turn tribe against tribe and nation against nation. Since each nation or tribe had a unique mark on their war clubs, which indicated their identity, seeing one of these next to a murder victim would immediately reveal who the aggressor was. The Mengwe left a war club identical to those used by the Lenape in Cherokee territory after committing a murder there, leading the Cherokees to wrongly believe that the Lenape were responsible for the crime. This misunderstanding led to a brutal war between the two nations. Eventually, the Mengwe's treachery was uncovered, and the Lenape decided to take significant revenge, resolving nothing less than the complete destruction of that deceitful race. The Mengwe were also known for cannibalism, killing men to eat them; thus, the Lenape did not regard them as a pure race or rational beings, but as a mix of human and animal traits.

War being now openly declared against the Mengwe, it was carried on with vigour; until, at last, finding that they were no match for so powerful an enemy as the Lenape, who had such a train of connexions, ready to join them if necessity required, they fell upon the plan of entering into a confederacy with each other, by which they would be bound to make a common cause, and meet the common enemy with their united force, and not, as the present prospect was, be destroyed by tribes, which threatened in the end the destruction of the whole. Until this time, each tribe of the Mengwe had acted independent of the others, and they were not inclined to come under any supreme authority, which might counteract their base designs; for now, a single tribe, or even individuals of a tribe, by the commission of wanton hostilities, would draw the more peaceable among them into wars and bloodshed, as particularly had been the case with the Senecas, who were the most restless of the whole; and though the Lenape had directed their force principally against the aggressors, yet the body of the nation became thereby weaker; so that they saw the necessity of coming under some better regulations and government.40

With war now openly declared against the Mengwe, it was fought with determination. Eventually, realizing they couldn’t compete with such a powerful enemy as the Lenape, who had many allies ready to join them if needed, they came up with a plan to form a confederacy. This would unite them to face their common enemy together, rather than risk being wiped out by tribes that threatened their survival. Up until that moment, each Mengwe tribe had acted independently, unwilling to submit to any higher authority that might interfere with their schemes. One tribe or even individuals within a tribe could provoke conflicts, dragging the more peaceful ones into wars and violence, as had often happened with the Senecas, who were the most restless of them all. Although the Lenape mainly targeted the aggressors, the entire nation became weaker as a result. They recognized the need to adopt better organizational structures and governance. 40

This confederation took place some time between the 15th 56 and 16th century;41 the most bloody wars were afterwards carried on for a great length of time, between the confederated Iroquois, and the Delawares and their connexions, in which the Lenape say that they generally came off victorious. While these wars were carrying on with vigour, the French landed in Canada, and it was not long before they and the now combined Five Nations, or tribes, were at war with each other, the latter not being willing to permit that the French should establish themselves in that country. At last the Iroquois, finding themselves between two fires, and without any prospect of conquering the Lenape by arms, and seeing the necessity of withdrawing with their families, from the shores of the St. Lawrence, to the interior of the country, where the French could not easily reach them, fell upon a stratagem, which they flattered themselves would, if successful, secure to them not only a peace with the Lenape, but also with all the other tribes connected with them; so that they would then have but one enemy (the French) to contend with.

This confederation happened sometime between the 15th and 16th centuries; the most brutal wars were fought for a long time between the allied Iroquois and the Delawares and their connections, in which the Lenape claim they usually emerged victorious. While these wars were being fought intensely, the French arrived in Canada, and it wasn't long before they and the now united Five Nations, or tribes, were at war with each other, as the Iroquois were unwilling to let the French settle in that territory. Eventually, the Iroquois, realizing they were caught between two threats and having no hope of defeating the Lenape through military means, understood they needed to move their families from the St. Lawrence shores to the interior of the country, where the French couldn’t easily reach them. They devised a plan that they believed, if successful, would not only bring them peace with the Lenape but also with all the other tribes linked to them; then they would have just one enemy (the French) to face.

This plan was very deeply laid, and was calculated to deprive the Lenape and their allies, not only of their power but of their military fame, which had exalted them above all the other Indian nations. They were to be persuaded to abstain from the use of arms, and assume the station of mediators and umpires among their warlike neighbours. In the language of the Indians, they were to be made women.42 It must be understood that among these nations wars are never brought to an end but by the interference of the weaker sex. The men, however tired of fighting, are afraid of being considered as cowards if 57 they should intimate a desire for peace. It is not becoming, say they, for a warrior, with the bloody weapon in his hand, to hold pacific language to his enemy. He must shew to the end a determined courage, and appear as ready and willing to fight as at the beginning of the contest. Neither, say they, is it proper, to threaten and to sue in the same breath, to hold the peace belt in one hand, and the tomahawk in the other; men’s words, as well as their actions, should be of a piece, all good or all bad; for it is a fixed maxim of theirs, which they apply on all occasions, that good can never dwell with evil. They also think that a treaty produced by threats or by force, cannot be binding. With these dispositions, war would never have ceased among Indians, until the extermination of one or the other party, if the tender and compassionate sex had not come forward, and by their moving speeches persuaded the enraged combatants to bury their hatchets, and make peace with each other. On these occasions they were very eloquent, they would lament with great feeling the losses suffered on both sides, when there was not a warrior, perhaps, who had not lost a son, a brother, or a friend. They would describe the sorrows of widowed wives, and, above all, of bereaved mothers. The pains of child-birth, the anxieties attending the progress of their sons from infancy to manhood, they had willingly and even cheerfully suffered; but after all these trials, how cruel was it for them to see those promising youths whom they had reared with so much care, fall victims to the rage of war, and a prey to a relentless enemy; to see them slaughtered on the field of battle, or put to death, as prisoners, by a protracted torture, in the midst of the most exquisite torments. The thought of such scenes made them curse their own existence, and shudder at the idea of bearing children. Then they would conjure the warriors by every thing that was dear to them, to take pity on the sufferings of their wives and helpless infants, to turn their faces once more towards their homes, families, and friends, to forgive the wrongs suffered from each other, to lay aside their deadly weapons, and smoke together the pipe of amity and peace. They had given on both sides sufficient proofs of their courage; the contending nations were alike high-minded and brave, and 58 they must now embrace as friends those whom they had learned to respect as enemies. Speeches like these seldom failed of their intended effect, and the women by this honorable function of peace-makers, were placed in a situation by no means undignified. It would not be a disgrace, therefore; on the contrary, it would be an honour to a powerful nation, who could not be suspected of wanting either strength or courage, to assume that station by which they would be the means, and the only means, of preserving the general peace and saving the Indian race from utter extirpation.

This plan was meticulously devised to strip the Lenape and their allies of not just their power but also their military reputation, which had elevated them above other Native American nations. They were to be convinced to stop fighting and take on the role of mediators and referees among their warlike neighbors. In Indigenous terms, they were to be made women.42 It should be noted that in these nations, wars never end without intervention from the weaker sex. Men, however tired of fighting, fear being seen as cowards if they express a wish for peace. They believe it isn’t right for a warrior, armed and ready for battle, to speak kindly to his enemy. They feel he must maintain his determination and appear just as eager to fight as he was at the start of the conflict. They also argue that it's inappropriate to threaten someone while simultaneously asking for peace, to hold a peace belt in one hand and a tomahawk in the other; a man’s words and actions should align, either all good or all bad, because they are firmly convinced that good cannot coexist with evil. They also believe that any treaty made through threats or force cannot be valid. With these beliefs, war among Native Americans would never have ceased until one side was completely wiped out, if it weren't for the compassionate women stepping in and using their heartfelt speeches to convince the angry combatants to lay down their weapons and make peace. In these moments, they spoke passionately, mourning the losses on both sides, considering that nearly every warrior had lost a son, brother, or friend. They would express the grief of widowed wives, and especially of grieving mothers. The pains of childbirth and the worries of raising their sons from childhood to adulthood were burdens they had taken on willingly and, often, happily; but after all these struggles, how cruel it was for them to witness the promising young men they had nurtured fall victim to the horrors of war and to a merciless enemy—either slaughtered in battle or executed as prisoners, enduring prolonged torture amid unimaginable suffering. The thought of such atrocities made them curse their own existence and dread the idea of having more children. They would implore the warriors, invoking everything dear to them, to have mercy on the suffering of their wives and helpless infants, to turn back to their homes, families, and friends, to forgive each other for past wrongs, to set aside their lethal weapons, and to smoke together the peace pipe. Both sides had demonstrated ample proof of their bravery; the opposing nations were equally noble and courageous, and they should now embrace as friends those they had come to respect as adversaries. Speeches like these rarely missed their target, and by serving as peace-makers, women found themselves in a position that was far from undignified. It would not be a disgrace, but rather an honor, for a powerful nation, beyond any suspicion of lacking strength or courage, to take on the role that would make them the sole means of preserving peace and saving the Indigenous people from total destruction.

Such were the arguments which the artful Mengwe urged to the Lenape to make them fall into the snare which they had prepared for them. They had reflected, they said, deeply reflected on their critical situation; there remained no resource for them, but that some magnanimous nation should assume the part and situation of the woman. It could not be given to a weak or contemptible tribe, such would not be listened to; but the Lenape and their allies would at once possess influence and command respect. As men they had been dreaded; as women they would be respected and honored, none would be so daring or so base as to attack or insult them; as women they would have a right to interfere in all the quarrels of other nations, and to stop or prevent the effusion of Indian blood. They entreated them, therefore, to become the woman in name and, in fact, to lay down their arms and all the insignia of warriors, to devote themselves to agriculture and other pacific employments, and thus become the means of preserving peace and harmony among the nations.

Such were the arguments that the cunning Mengwe used to persuade the Lenape to fall into the trap they had set for them. They claimed to have thought deeply about their critical situation; they had no other options left but for some noble nation to take on the role and status of the woman. It couldn't be a weak or insignificant tribe, as they wouldn't be taken seriously; but the Lenape and their allies would immediately hold influence and command respect. As men, they were feared; as women, they would be respected and honored, and no one would be bold enough to attack or insult them. As women, they would have the right to get involved in all the conflicts of other nations and to stop or prevent the spilling of Indian blood. They urged them, therefore, to become the woman in name and reality, to lay down their weapons and all signs of being warriors, to focus on farming and other peaceful pursuits, and thus become the means to maintain peace and harmony among the nations.

The Lenape, unfortunately for themselves, listened to the voice of their enemies. They knew it was too true, that the Indian nations, excited by their own unbridled passions, and not a little by their European neighbours, were in the way of total extirpation by each other’s hands. They believed that the Mengwe were sincere, and that their proposal had no object in view but the preservation of the Indian race. In a luckless hour they gave their consent, and agreed to become women. This consent was received with great joy. A feast was prepared for the purpose of confirming and proclaiming the new order of 59 things. With appropriate ceremonies, of which Loskiel has given a particular description,43 the Delawares were installed in their new functions, eloquent speeches were delivered, accompanied, as usual, with belts of wampum. The great peace belt and the chain of friendship (in the figurative language of the Indians) was laid across the shoulders of the new mediator, one end of which, it was said, was to be taken hold of by all the Indian nations, and the other by the Europeans.44 The Lenape say that the Dutch were present at that ceremony, and had no inconsiderable share in the intrigue.45 60

The Lenape, unfortunately for themselves, listened to the voices of their enemies. They knew it was all too true that the Indian nations, driven by their own unchecked emotions and, to some extent, by their European neighbors, were on the brink of complete destruction at each other's hands. They believed that the Mengwe were genuine and that their proposal aimed solely at preserving the Indian race. In a fateful moment, they gave their consent and agreed to become women. This agreement was met with great joy. A feast was organized to confirm and announce the new order of things. With the appropriate ceremonies, which Loskiel describes in detail, the Delawares were installed in their new roles, and eloquent speeches were made, accompanied, as usual, by belts of wampum. The great peace belt and the chain of friendship (in the figurative language of the Indians) were placed across the shoulders of the new mediator, one end meant to be held by all the Indian nations and the other by the Europeans. The Lenape say that the Dutch were present at that ceremony and played a significant role in the scheme.

The old and intelligent Mahicanni, whose forefathers inhabited the country on the east side of the North river, gave many years since the following account of the above transaction. They said that their grandfather (the Lenni Lenape), and the nations or tribes connected with them, were so united, that whatsoever nation attacked the one, it was the same as attacking the whole; all in such cases would unite and make a common cause. That the long house (council house) of all those who were of the same blood, and united under this kind of tacit alliance, reached from the head of the tide, at some distance above where Gaaschtinick (Albany) now stands, to the head of the tide water on the Potomack. That at each end of this house there was a door for the tribes to enter at. That the Mengwe were in no way connected with those who had access to this house; but were looked upon as strangers. That the Lenape, with the Mohicans and all the other tribes in their connexion, were on the point of extirpating the Five Nations, when they applied to the Dutchemaan, who were now making a settlement at or near Gaaschtinick, to assist them in bringing about a peace with the Lenape. That accordingly these new comers invited the Lenape and Mohicans to a grand council, at a place situated at some distance from where Albany now stands, which the white people have since called by the name of Nordman’s Kill. That when at length, by their united supplications and fair speeches, they had got the hatchet out of the hands of the Lenape, they buried that weapon at Gaaschtinick, and said that they would build a church over the spot, so that the weapon could never any more be got at, otherwise than by lifting up the whole church, and 61 whatever nation should dare to do this, on them the Dutchemaan would take revenge. That now, having succeeded in getting the weapon out of the hands of the Lenape, the ceremony of placing them in the situation of “the woman,” for the purpose of being mediators, took place, when the Mengwe declared them henceforth to be their cousins, and the Mahicanni, they said, they would call their nephews.

The wise and elder Mahicanni, whose ancestors lived on the east side of the North River, shared a story from many years ago about the events mentioned above. They said that their grandfather, the Lenni Lenape, along with the nations or tribes connected to them, were so united that if one nation was attacked, it was like attacking them all; everyone would come together to defend their common cause. They explained that the long house (council house) of all those with the same blood, bound by this unspoken alliance, stretched from the head of the tide, above where Gaaschtinick (Albany) now stands, to the head of the tidewater on the Potomac. Each end of this house had a door for the tribes to enter. The Mengwe had no connection to those who could access this house and were seen as outsiders. The Lenape, along with the Mohicans and other related tribes, were about to eliminate the Five Nations when they reached out to the Dutchemaan, who were settling at or near Gaaschtinick, asking for help in achieving peace with the Lenape. In response, these newcomers invited the Lenape and Mohicans to a major council at a location somewhat distant from where Albany now stands, which white people later named Nordman’s Kill. Eventually, through their combined pleas and persuasive words, they convinced the Lenape to give up their weapon, the hatchet, which they then buried at Gaaschtinick, declaring that they would build a church over the spot so the weapon could never be reached again unless the entire church was lifted. They warned that any nation daring to do this would face the wrath of the Dutchemaan. Now that they had successfully disarmed the Lenape, the ceremony took place to put them in the role of "the woman," to act as mediators, during which the Mengwe declared them their cousins and said they would refer to the Mahicanni as their nephews. 61

The Mahicanni further say, that it was fear which induced the Dutchemaan to aid the Five Nations in bringing about this peace, because at the place where they were at that time making their settlement, great bodies of warriors would pass and repass, so that they could not avoid being interrupted in their undertakings, and probably molested, if not destroyed, by one or the other of the war parties, as their wars, at that time, were carried on with great rage, and no quarter was given. That in producing this peace, the white people had effected for the Mengwe, what no other nation could have done, and had laid the foundation of the future greatness of their Iroquois friends, as the same policy was pursued by the English, after they came into possession of this country.—So far the tradition of the Mahicanni.

The Mahicanni also say that it was fear that led the Dutchemaan to help the Five Nations achieve this peace, because at the location where they were settling, large groups of warriors would constantly come and go, which meant they couldn't avoid interruptions in their activities and could likely be disturbed, if not destroyed, by one or another of the warring factions. Their conflicts at that time were intense, and no mercy was shown. By achieving this peace, the white people had accomplished for the Mengwe what no other nation could have done and had laid the groundwork for the future success of their Iroquois allies, as the same strategy was later followed by the English after they took over this land. —So far the tradition of the Mahicanni.

The Rev. Mr. Pyrlæus, in his notes, after fixing as near as he could the time when the Five Nations confederated with each other, proceeds in these words: “According to my informant, Sganarady, a creditable aged Indian, his grandfather had been one of the deputies sent for the purpose of entering into a covenant with the white Europeans; they met at a place since called Nordman’s Kill, about four miles below where afterwards Albany was built, where this covenant of friendship was first established, and the Mohawks were the active body in effecting this work.”

The Rev. Mr. Pyrlæus, in his notes, after trying to pinpoint the time when the Five Nations came together, states: “According to my source, Sganarady, a reliable older Indian, his grandfather was one of the representatives sent to create a pact with the white Europeans; they met at a location now known as Nordman’s Kill, about four miles south of where Albany was later established, where this friendship agreement was first made, and the Mohawks played a key role in making it happen.”

From these three separate accounts of the Lenape, of the Mahicanni, and of the Mohawks, as related by Mr. Pyrlæus, it appears to be conclusively proved, that the Europeans were already in this country, when the Lenape were persuaded to assume the station of the woman, and that the Dutch were assisting in the plot, and were at least the instigators, if not the authors of it. It was the Dutch who summoned the great council near Albany; the tomahawk was buried deep in the ground, 62 and the vengeance of the Dutch was threatened if it should ever be taken up again; the peace belt was laid across the shoulders of the unfortunate Delawares, supported at one end by the Five Nations, and at the other by the Europeans; all these circumstances point so clearly to European intrigue, that it is impossible to resist the conclusion that the whites adopted this means to neutralize the power of the Delawares and their friends, whom they dreaded, and strengthen the hands of the Iroquois, who were in their alliance.

From these three separate accounts of the Lenape, the Mahicanni, and the Mohawks, as told by Mr. Pyrlæus, it seems to be clearly proven that the Europeans were already in this country when the Lenape were convinced to take on the role of the woman. The Dutch were involved in the scheme and were at least the instigators, if not the creators of it. It was the Dutch who called the great council near Albany; the tomahawk was buried deep in the ground, and the Dutch threatened vengeance if it was ever taken up again. The peace belt was placed across the shoulders of the unfortunate Delawares, supported at one end by the Five Nations and at the other by the Europeans. All these details clearly indicate European intrigue, making it impossible to deny that the whites used this tactic to undermine the power of the Delawares and their allies, whom they feared, and to strengthen the Iroquois, who were part of their alliance.

The Iroquois have denied that these machinations ever took place, and say that they conquered the Delawares in fair battle, and compelled them by force to become women, or in other words that they obliged them to submit to the greatest humiliation to which a warlike spirited people can ever be reduced; not a momentary humiliation, as when the Romans were compelled by the Samnites to pass under the Caudine forks, but a permanent disgrace, which was to last as long as their national existence. If this were true, the Lenape and their allies, who, like all other Indian nations, never considered a treaty binding when entered into under any kind of compulsion, would not have submitted to this any longer than until they could again have rallied their forces and fallen upon their enemy; they would have done long before the year 1755, what they did at last at that time, joined the French in their wars against the Iroquois and English, and would not have patiently waited more than a century before they took their revenge for so flagrant an outrage. Their numbers, acknowledged to have been far superior to that of their Indian enemies, and the vast extent of territory which they possessed, furnished them with ample means to have acted hostilely, if they had thought proper. On the contrary, they lived at peace with the Iroquois, and their European allies, until that decisive war, by which the French lost at once all their extensive possessions on the continent of America.

The Iroquois have denied that any such scheming ever occurred, claiming that they defeated the Delawares in a fair fight and forced them to submit, or in other words, that they made them endure the greatest humiliation a warrior people can experience; not a fleeting disgrace, like when the Romans were made by the Samnites to pass under the Caudine Forks, but a lasting shame that would remain as long as their nation existed. If this were true, the Lenape and their allies, who, like all other Native American nations, never considered a treaty legitimate if made under duress, wouldn’t have accepted this situation for long. They would have quickly regrouped and attacked their enemies again; long before 1755, they would have joined the French in their wars against the Iroquois and English and would not have waited over a century to take revenge for such a blatant injustice. Their numbers, which were recognized to be much greater than their Indian foes, along with the vast territory they held, provided them plenty of resources to act aggressively if they had chosen to. Instead, they coexisted peacefully with the Iroquois and their European allies until the decisive war that caused the French to lose all their extensive holdings in North America.

In addition to these positive proofs, negative evidence of the strongest kind may be adduced. The Iroquois say, indeed, that they conquered the Delawares and their allies, and compelled them to become women. But there is no tradition among them of the particulars of this important event. Neither Mr. Pyrlæus, 63 nor Mr. Zeisberger,46 who both lived long among the Five Nations, and spoke and understood their language well, could obtain from them any details relative to this supposed conquest; they ought, certainly, to have been able to say how it was effected; whether by one decisive fight or by successive engagements, or at least, when the last battle took place; who were the nations or tribes engaged in it; who the chiefs or commanders; what numbers fell on each side; and a variety of other facts, by which the truth of their assertion might have been proved: the total absence of such details appears to me to militate against them in the strongest manner, and to corroborate the statement of their adversaries.

In addition to these positive proofs, there’s strong negative evidence to consider. The Iroquois claim they defeated the Delawares and their allies, forcing them to become submissive. However, they have no detailed accounts of this significant event. Neither Mr. Pyrlæus 63 nor Mr. Zeisberger, who both lived for a long time among the Five Nations and were fluent in their language, could get any specifics about this supposed conquest. They should have been able to explain how it happened, whether through one major battle or several smaller ones, at least stating when the last battle occurred, which nations or tribes were involved, who the leaders were, how many were lost on each side, and many other facts that could support their claim. The complete lack of these details strongly argues against their assertion and supports the statements of their opponents.

The Delawares are of opinion, that this scheme of the Five Nations, however deeply laid, and meant essentially to injure them, would not, however, have operated against them, but on the contrary, have greatly subserved their national interest, if the Europeans had not afterwards come into the country in such great numbers, and multiplied so rapidly as they did. For their neutral position would greatly have favoured their increase, while the numbers of the other Indian nations would have been reduced by the wars in which they were continually engaged. But unfortunately for them, it happened that the Europeans successively invaded the country which they occupied, and now forms what are called the middle states, and as they advanced from the Atlantic into the interior, drove before them the Lenape and their allies, and obtained possession of their lands; while the Iroquois, who happened to be placed in the neighbourhood of Canada, between the French and English, who were 64 frequently at war with each other, had an enemy, it is true, in the French nation, but had strong protectors in the English, who considered them as a check upon their enemies, and, being the most numerous people, were best able to afford them protection; thus they were suffered to increase and become powerful, while the Lenape, having no friend near them, the French being then at too great a distance, were entirely at the mercy of their English neighbours, who, advancing fast on their lands, gradually dispersed them, and other causes concurring, produced at last their almost entire destruction. Among those causes the treacherous conduct of the Five Nations may be considered as the principal one.

The Delawares believe that the plan of the Five Nations, no matter how carefully it was devised and aimed mainly at harming them, wouldn’t have worked against them. Instead, it would have actually benefited their national interests if the Europeans hadn’t come into the region in such large numbers and multiplied so quickly. Their neutral stance would have greatly supported their growth, while the populations of the other Indian nations would have shrunk due to the constant wars they were involved in. Unfortunately for the Delawares, Europeans gradually invaded the territory they inhabited, which now makes up what we call the middle states. As they moved from the Atlantic into the interior, they pushed the Lenape and their allies ahead of them and took possession of their lands. Meanwhile, the Iroquois, located near Canada between the French and English who were frequently at war, faced the French as an enemy but had strong support from the English, who saw them as a buffer against their foes. Being the larger population, the English were better positioned to offer protection, allowing the Iroquois to grow and gain strength. In contrast, the Lenape had no nearby allies; the French were too far away, leaving them completely at the mercy of their English neighbors. As the English rapidly encroached on their lands, the Lenape were gradually scattered, and other contributing factors ultimately led to their near-total annihilation. Among those factors, the betrayal by the Five Nations is considered the main one.

Before that strange metamorphosis took place, of a great and powerful nation being transformed into a band of defenceless women, the Iroquois had never been permitted to visit the Lenape, even when they were at peace with each other. Whenever a Mengwe appeared in their country, he was hunted down as a beast of prey, and it was lawful for every one to destroy him. But now, the woman could not, consistently with her new station and her engagements, make use of destructive weapons, and she was bound to abstain from all violence against the human species. Her late enemies, therefore, found no difficulty in travelling, under various pretences, through her country, and those of her allies, and leaving here and there a few of their people to remain among them as long as they pleased, for the purpose, as they said, of keeping up a good understanding, and assisting them in the preservation of the general peace. But while they were amusing the Lenape with flattering language, they were concerting measures to disturb their quiet by involving them in difficulties with the neighbouring nations. I shall relate one among many instances of a similar conduct. They once sent their men into the Cherokee country, who were instructed secretly to kill one of that nation, and to leave a war club near the person murdered, which had been purposely made after the manner and in the shape of those of the Delawares. Now leaving a war club in an Indian country, is considered by those nations as a formal challenge or declaration of war. The Cherokees, deceived by appearances, and believing that their 65 grandfather the Lenape had committed the murder, collected a large party to go into their country and take their revenge. Meanwhile, the Iroquois sent a messenger to the Lenape, to inform them of the approach of an enemy, who, they had learned from their hunters, was coming towards their settlement, and to advise them to send a number of their men immediately to a certain place, where they would be met by a large body of the Five Nations, who would take the lead, march in front, and fight their battles, so that they would have little else to do than to look on and see how well their friends fought for them. The Lenape, being in no wise prepared to meet a powerful foe, assembled in haste a few of their men, and repaired to the place of rendezvous, where they were disappointed by not meeting any of their pretended protectors. The enemy, however, was close upon them; the Lenape fought with great courage, but were overpowered by an immense superiority of numbers, and defeated with considerable loss. Now the Iroquois made their appearance, and instead of attacking or pursuing the Cherokees, loaded the Delawares with reproaches, for their temerity, as they called it, in having dared, being women, to take the lead in attacking men. They told them that the Five Nations being their superiors, they ought to have waited for them before they attacked the Cherokees, that then their protectors would have fought and defeated them, but that as they had thought proper to act by themselves, they had received the punishment justly due to their presumption.

Before that strange change happened, turning a powerful nation into a defenseless group of women, the Iroquois had never been allowed to visit the Lenape, even when they were at peace. If a Mengwe showed up in their territory, he was hunted down like a wild animal, and anyone could kill him legally. But now, the woman, given her new role and commitments, couldn't use any weapons and had to avoid all violence against humans. Consequently, her former enemies easily traveled through her land and that of her allies under various pretenses, even leaving a few of their people behind as long as they wanted, claiming it was to maintain good relations and help preserve overall peace. Yet, while they entertained the Lenape with flattering words, they were secretly planning to disrupt their peace by getting them into trouble with neighboring nations. I'll share one example of this kind of behavior. They once sent some of their men into Cherokee territory, instructing them to secretly kill one of their people and leave a war club near the dead body, intentionally made in the style of the Delawares' weapons. Leaving a war club in an Indian territory is seen as a formal challenge or declaration of war. The Cherokees, misled by the situation and thinking that their grandfather, the Lenape, was responsible for the murder, gathered a large group to seek revenge. Meanwhile, the Iroquois sent a messenger to the Lenape to warn them about an approaching enemy, which their scouts had reported was headed for their settlement, advising them to send some men to a specific location where they would meet a large group from the Five Nations who would lead the way, fight their battles, and allow the Lenape to simply watch. Unprepared to face a powerful opponent, the Lenape quickly gathered a few warriors and went to the meeting place, only to be disappointed when they found none of their supposed protectors waiting for them. The enemy was right on their heels; the Lenape fought bravely but were overwhelmed by sheer numbers and suffered significant losses. Finally, the Iroquois showed up but instead of attacking or chasing the Cherokees, they criticized the Delawares for their boldness, as they called it, for daring to lead an attack as women. They told them that since the Five Nations were their superiors, they should have waited for them to confront the Cherokees, which would have ensured that their protectors would have fought and defeated them. Because they chose to act independently, they faced the consequences of their arrogance.

It was thus that the Five Nations rewarded the confidence that the Delawares had placed in them. Their treachery was not, however, suspected for a long time; but it was at last discovered; it was even found out that in this last engagement, a number of the Iroquois had joined in fight against them with their enemies. The Lenape then determined to unite their forces, and by one great effort to destroy entirely that perfidious nation. This, they say, they might easily have done, as they were then yet as numerous as the grasshoppers at particular seasons, and as destructive to their enemies as these insects are to the fruits of the earth; while they described the Mengwe as a number of croaking frogs in a pond, which make a great noise 66 when all is quiet, but at the first approach of danger, nay, at the very rustling of a leaf, immediately plunge into the water and are silent.

It was in this way that the Five Nations acknowledged the trust that the Delawares had placed in them. Their betrayal, however, went unnoticed for quite some time; but it was eventually uncovered. It was even revealed that in this last battle, several Iroquois fought against them alongside their enemies. The Lenape then decided to unite their forces and make one last effort to completely eliminate that treacherous nation. They claimed that they could have easily done so, as they were still as numerous as grasshoppers during certain seasons, and as damaging to their enemies as those insects are to crops. They described the Mengwe as a bunch of croaking frogs in a pond, making a lot of noise when everything is calm, but at the first sign of danger, even at the slightest rustle of a leaf, they immediately dive into the water and fall silent. 66

But their attention was now diverted by other scenes. The whites were again landing in great numbers on their coast, in the east and south, and this spectacle once more engaged all the capacity of their minds. They were lost in admiration at what they saw, and were consulting and deliberating together on what they should do. The Five Nations, who lived out of the reach of all danger, nevertheless also came; but bent on their own interest, while they were instigating the other nations to fall upon the new comers, or drive them off from their shores, by which they caused useless hostilities, in which they did not appear to participate, they were insinuating themselves into the favour of the powerful strangers, professing great friendship for them, persuading them that they were superior to the other Indian nations, that they had controul over them all, and would chastise those who should disturb their peace.

But now their attention was drawn to other events. The white settlers were landing in huge numbers on their eastern and southern coasts, and this sight captured all their thoughts. They were in awe of what they saw and were discussing and debating what action to take. The Five Nations, who were safe from any threat, also came, but with their own agendas. While they encouraged other nations to attack the newcomers or drive them away, causing unnecessary conflicts in which they did not involve themselves, they were also trying to gain favor with the powerful newcomers, claiming a strong friendship with them. They convinced the newcomers that they were superior to other Native nations, that they had control over them all, and that they would punish anyone who disturbed the peace.

William Penn came, with his train of pacific followers. Never will the Delawares forget their elder brother Miquon, as they affectionately and respectfully call him. From his first arrival in their country, a friendship was formed between them which was to last as long as the sun should shine, and the rivers flow with water. That friendship would undoubtedly have continued to the end of time, had their good brother always remained among them, but in his absence, mischievous people, say they, got into power, who, not content with the land which had been given to them, contrived to get all that they wanted; and when the Lenape looked round for the friends of their brother Miquon, to hear their just complaints, and redress their wrongs, they could not discover them, and had the misfortune to see their greatest enemies, the Mengwe, brought on for the purpose of shutting their mouths, and compelling them to submit to the injustice done them.

William Penn arrived with his group of peaceful followers. The Delawares will never forget their elder brother Miquon, as they affectionately and respectfully call him. From the moment he arrived in their land, a friendship was formed that was meant to last as long as the sun shines and the rivers flow with water. That friendship would have surely continued forever if their good brother had always stayed with them, but in his absence, troublemakers, as they say, gained power. Not satisfied with the land they had been given, they schemed to take everything they wanted. When the Lenape looked for the friends of their brother Miquon to listen to their rightful complaints and address their grievances, they couldn't find them. Instead, they were unfortunate to see their greatest enemies, the Mengwe, brought in to silence them and force them to accept the injustices they suffered.

They cannot conceive how the English could turn from the people by whom they had been so kindly received and welcomed with open arms; from those who had permitted them to sit down upon their lands in peace, and without fear of being 67 molested by them; who had taken delight in supplying all their wants,47 and who were happy in smoking the pipe of friendship with them at one and the same fire; how they could not only see them degraded and injured by a base and perfidious nation, but join with that nation in sinking them still lower. For to the countenance of the English, they say, is entirely owing the great preponderance which the Iroquois at last attained: they complain that the English did support that enemy against them, that they even sanctioned their insolence, by telling them to make use of their authority as men, and bring these women (the Lenape) to their senses. That they were even insulted and treated in a degrading manner, in treaties to which the English were parties, and particularly in that which took place at Easton,48 in Pennsylvania, in July, 1742,49 when the Six Nations were publicly called on to compel the Delawares to give up the land taken from them by the long day’s walk. But for these repeated outrages, they would not have taken part with the French in the memorable war of 1755.50 Nor, perhaps, would they have done so, had not they been seduced into the measure by the perfidious Iroquois. At the commencement of that war, they brought the war belt, with a piece of tobacco, to the Delawares, and told them: “Remember that the English have unjustly deprived you 68 of much of your land, which they took from you by force. Your cause is just; therefore smoke of this tobacco, and arise; join with us our fathers, the French, and take your revenge. You are women, it is true, but we will shorten your petticoats, and though you may appear by your dress to be women, yet by your conduct and language you will convince your enemies that you are determined not tamely to suffer the wrongs and injuries inflicted upon you.”

They can't understand how the English could turn their backs on the people who had welcomed them with open arms; the ones who had allowed them to settle peacefully on their land without fear of being harmed; those who were happy to meet all their needs, and who enjoyed sharing moments of friendship with them. They wonder how the English could not only watch them be mistreated and harmed by a deceitful and treacherous nation, but also team up with that nation to push them even lower. They argue that the English are entirely responsible for the dominance the Iroquois eventually achieved. They complain that the English supported their enemy against them, even encouraging their arrogance by telling them to use their authority as men and bring the Lenape women to their senses. They felt insulted and demeaned in treaties that the English were involved in, especially in the one that took place in Easton, in Pennsylvania, in July 1742, when the Six Nations were publicly called to force the Delawares to give up the land taken from them by the long day’s walk. If it weren't for these repeated offenses, they might not have sided with the French in the significant war of 1755. Most likely, they wouldn't have joined them had they not been misled into it by the treacherous Iroquois. At the start of that war, they presented the war belt and a piece of tobacco to the Delawares, saying: “Remember that the English have unjustly taken much of your land by force. Your cause is just; so smoke this tobacco, and rise; join us and our fathers, the French, and get your revenge. It’s true you are women, but we will shorten your skirts, and while your appearance may suggest you are women, your actions and words will show your enemies that you are determined not to passively accept the wrongs and injuries inflicted upon you.”

Yielding to these solicitations, the Delawares and their connexions took up arms against the English in favor of the French, and committed many hostilities, in which the Iroquois appeared to take no part. Sir William Johnson requested them to use their ascendancy and to persuade the hostile Indians to lay down the hatchet, instead of which, instead of conforming to the ancient custom of Indian nations, which was simply to take the war-hatchet back from those to whom they had given it, they fell on a sudden on the unsuspecting Lenape, killed their cattle, and destroyed their town on the Susquehannah, and having taken a number of them prisoners, carried them to Sir William Johnson, who confined and put them in irons. This cruel act of treachery, the Delawares say, they will never forget nor forgive.

Yielding to these requests, the Delawares and their connections took up arms against the English in support of the French and committed various acts of hostility, in which the Iroquois seemed to have no involvement. Sir William Johnson asked them to use their influence to convince the hostile Indians to stop fighting, but instead of following the traditional practice of Indian nations, which was simply to take back the war-hatchet from those to whom they had given it, they suddenly attacked the unsuspecting Lenape, killed their livestock, and destroyed their town on the Susquehanna. They captured several of them and brought them to Sir William Johnson, who imprisoned them and put them in chains. The Delawares say they will never forget or forgive this cruel act of betrayal.

Thus the Lenape, whose principal settlements were then on the frontier of Pennsylvania, took part with the French, and acted hostilely against the English during the whole of the war of 1755. The animosity which mutual hostilities produced between them and the settlers concurred, no doubt, with other causes, in producing the murder of the Conestogo Indians, which took place at the close of that war, in December, 1763, and is feelingly related by Loskiel, part I., ch. 14 and 15.51 69

Thus the Lenape, whose main settlements were on the edge of Pennsylvania at the time, allied with the French and acted aggressively against the English throughout the war of 1755. The hostility that arose from their conflicts with the settlers likely contributed, along with other factors, to the massacre of the Conestogo Indians, which occurred at the end of that war in December 1763, and is vividly described by Loskiel, part I., ch. 14 and 15.51 69

The revolutionary war put an end to the exorbitant power of the Iroquois. They were, indeed, still supported by the British government, but the Americans were now the strongest party, and of course against them. They endeavored to persuade the other Indian nations to join them, but their expectations were deceived. At a meeting which took place at Pittsburg in 1775, for the express purpose of deliberating on the part which it became Indians to take in the disturbances which had arisen between the King of Great Britain and his subjects, Capt. White Eyes, a sensible and very spirited warrior of the Lenape,52 boldly declared to a select body of the Senecas, that his Indians would never join any nation or power, for the purpose of destroying a people who were born on the same soil with them. That the Americans were his friends and brothers, and that no nation should dictate to him what part he should take in the existing war. Anticipating the measure which the American Congress took in the succeeding year, he declared himself,53 in behalf of his nation, free and independent of the Iroquois; they had pretended that they had conquered him, they had made a woman of him and dressed him in woman’s apparel, but now he was again a man, he stood before them as a man, and with the weapons of a man he would assert his claim to all yonder country, pointing to the land on the west side of the Allegheny river; for to him it belonged, and not to the Six Nations, who falsely asserted that they had acquired it by conquest. In the 70 year 1778 or 1779, the Lenape bravely asserted their national independence by joining Col. Brodhead’s troops in an expedition against the Senecas.54 If they did not do as much in that war as might have been expected of them, and took only a partial revenge, it was owing to the death of their brave chief, White Eyes, who died of the small pox at Pittsburg, I think, in the year 1780. He was a Christian in his heart, but did not live to make a public profession of our religion, though it is well known that he persuaded many Indians to embrace it.55

The Revolutionary War ended the exceptional power of the Iroquois. They were still supported by the British government, but the Americans had become the strongest group, and naturally, they were opposed to the Iroquois. The Iroquois tried to convince other Native nations to ally with them, but their hopes were dashed. At a meeting in Pittsburgh in 1775, specifically to discuss the role of Native Americans in the conflict between the King of Great Britain and his subjects, Captain White Eyes, a thoughtful and spirited warrior of the Lenape, boldly told a select group of Senecas that his people would never ally with anyone to destroy a nation that shared the same land with them. He stated that the Americans were his friends and brothers and that no nation should dictate his stance in this war. Anticipating the action the American Congress would take the following year, he declared himself, on behalf of his nation, free and independent from the Iroquois. They had claimed they had conquered him, had treated him like a woman and dressed him in women's clothing, but now he was a man again, standing before them as a man, asserting his claim to all the land over there, pointing to the land on the west side of the Allegheny River; it belonged to him, not to the Six Nations, who wrongly claimed they had acquired it through conquest. In the year 1778 or 1779, the Lenape courageously declared their national independence by joining Colonel Brodhead’s troops in an expedition against the Senecas. If they didn't accomplish as much in that war as expected and only took partial revenge, it was because of the death of their brave chief, White Eyes, who died of smallpox in Pittsburgh, I believe, in 1780. He was a Christian at heart but did not live long enough to publicly profess his faith, though it is well known that he encouraged many Native Americans to adopt it.

Although the Lenape acted independently in the war of 1755, and made a formal declaration of their independence at the beginning of the revolutionary war, yet the Six Nations persevered in their pretensions, and still affected to consider them as women. Finding, however, that this obsolete claim was no longer acknowledged, and that it was useless to insist upon it any longer, they came forward of their own accord, about the time of Wayne’s treaty, and formally declared that the Lenape and their allies were no longer women, but MEN.

Although the Lenape acted independently in the war of 1755 and declared their independence at the start of the revolutionary war, the Six Nations continued to make their claims and still pretended to see them as women. However, realizing that this outdated claim was no longer recognized and that it was pointless to keep insisting on it, they stepped forward on their own around the time of Wayne’s treaty and officially declared that the Lenape and their allies were no longer women, but GUYS.

The Delawares and Mohicans agree in saying, that from the time of the fatal treaty in which they were persuaded to assimilate themselves to women, and, indeed, ever since the Europeans first came into the country, the conduct of the Iroquois was treacherous and perfidious in the extreme. That it was their constant practice to sally out secretly and commit depredations on the neighbouring nations, with intent to involve them in wars with each other. That they would also commit murders on the frontier settlers, from Virginia to New England, and charge the tribes who were settled in the neighbourhood with the commission of those crimes. That they would then turn negotiators, and effect a peace, always at the expense of the nation whom they had injured. They would sell the lands of other nations to the English and receive the money, pretending to a paramount right to the whole territory, and this, say the Lenape, was their manner of CONQUERING NATIONS! 71

The Delawares and Mohicans agree that since the disastrous treaty that convinced them to behave like women, and really ever since the Europeans first arrived in the country, the Iroquois have acted in an extremely treacherous and deceitful manner. They constantly sneaked out to raid neighboring nations, aiming to stir up conflicts between them. They also committed murders against settlers from Virginia to New England, blaming those crimes on the tribes living nearby. Afterwards, they would negotiate peace, always at the expense of the nation they had harmed. They would sell the land of other nations to the English and pocket the money, pretending they had the ultimate right to the entire territory, and this, the Lenape say, was their way of Conquering Nations! 71


CHAPTER II.
INDIAN ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST ARRIVAL OF THE DUTCH AT NEW YORK ISLAND.

T

The Lenni Lenape claim the honour of having received and welcomed the Europeans on their first arrival in the country, situated between New England and Virginia. It is probable, however, that the Mahicanni or Mohicans, who then inhabited the banks of the Hudson, concurred in the hospitable act. The relation I am going to make was taken down many years since from the mouth of an intelligent Delaware Indian, and may be considered as a correct account of the tradition existing among them of this momentous event. I give it as much as possible in their own language.

The Lenni Lenape take pride in being the first to greet and welcome Europeans when they arrived in the area between New England and Virginia. However, it's likely that the Mahicanni or Mohicans, who lived along the Hudson River at that time, also participated in this welcoming gesture. The story I’m about to share was recorded many years ago from the account of a knowledgeable Delaware Indian, and it can be seen as an accurate representation of their tradition regarding this significant event. I present it as closely as possible in their own words.

A great many years ago, when men with a white skin had never yet been seen in this land, some Indians who were out a fishing, at a place where the sea widens, espied at a great distance something remarkably large floating on the water, and such as they had never seen before. These Indians immediately returning to the shore, apprised their countrymen of what they had observed, and pressed them to go out with them and discover what it might be. They hurried out together, and saw with astonishment the phenomenon which now appeared to their sight, but could not agree upon what it was; some believed it to be an uncommonly large fish or animal, while others were of opinion it must be a very big house floating on the sea. At length the spectators concluded that this wonderful object was moving towards the land, and that it must be an animal or something else that had life in it; it would therefore be proper to inform all the Indians on the inhabited islands of what they 72 had seen, and put them on their guard. Accordingly they sent off a number of runners and watermen to carry the news to their scattered chiefs, that they might send off in every direction for the warriors, with a message that they should come on immediately. These arriving in numbers, and having themselves viewed the strange appearance, and observing that it was actually moving towards the entrance of the river or bay; concluded it to be a remarkably large house in which the Mannitto (the Great or Supreme Being) himself was present, and that he probably was coming to visit them.56 By this time the chiefs were assembled at York island, and deliberating in what manner in which57 they should receive their Mannitto on his arrival. Every measure was taken to be well provided with plenty of meat for a sacrifice. The women were desired to prepare the best victuals. All the idols or images were examined and put in order, and a grand dance was supposed not only to be an agreeable entertainment for the Great Being, but it was believed that it might, with the addition of a sacrifice, contribute to appease him if he was angry with them. The conjurers were also set to work, to determine what this phenomenon portended, and what the possible result of it might be. To these and to the chiefs and wise men of the nations, men, women, and children were looking up for advice and protection. Distracted between hope and fear, they were at a loss what to do; a dance, however, commenced in great confusion. While in this situation, fresh runners arrive declaring it to be a large house of various colours, and crowded with living creatures. It appears now to be certain, that it is the great Mannitto, bringing them some kind of game, such as he had not given them before, but other runners soon after arriving declare that it is positively a house full of human beings, of quite a different colour from that of the Indians, and dressed differently from them; that in particular one of them was dressed entirely in red, who must be the Mannitto himself. 73 They are hailed from the vessel in a language they do not understand, yet they shout or yell in return by way of answer, according to the custom of their country; many are for running off to the woods, but are pressed by others to stay, in order not to give offence to their visitor, who might find them out and destroy them. The house, some say, large canoe, at last stops, and a canoe of a smaller size comes on shore with the red man, and some others in it; some stay with his canoe to guard it. The chiefs and wise men, assembled in council, form themselves into a large circle, towards which the man in red clothes approaches with two others. He salutes them with a friendly countenance, and they return the salute after their manner. They are lost in admiration; the dress, the manners, the whole appearance of the unknown strangers is to them a subject of wonder; but they are particularly struck with him who wore the red coat all glittering with gold lace, which they could in no manner account for. He, surely, must be the great Mannitto, but why should he have a white skin? Meanwhile, a large Hackhack58 is brought by one of his servants, from which an unknown substance is poured out into a small cup or glass, and handed to the supposed Mannitto. He drinks—has the glass filled again, and hands it to the chief standing next to him. The chief receives it, but only smells the contents and passes it on to the next chief, who does the same. The glass or cup thus passes through the circle, without the liquor being tasted by any one, and is upon the point of being returned to the red clothed Mannitto, when one of the Indians, a brave man and a great warrior, suddenly jumps up and harangues the assembly on the impropriety of returning the cup with its contents. It was handed to them, says he, by the Mannitto, that they should drink out of it, as he himself had done. To follow his example would be pleasing to him; but to return what he had given them might provoke his wrath, and bring destruction on them. And since the orator believed it for the good of the nation that the contents offered them should be drunk, and as no one else would do it, he would drink it himself, let the consequence be 74 what it might; it was better for one man to die, than that a whole nation should be destroyed. He then took the glass, and bidding the assembly a solemn farewell, at once drank up its whole contents. Every eye was fixed on the resolute chief, to see what effect the unknown liquor would produce. He soon began to stagger, and at last fell prostrate on the ground. His companions now bemoan his fate, he falls into a sound sleep, and they think he has expired. He wakes again, jumps up and declares, that he has enjoyed the most delicious sensations, and that he never before felt himself so happy as after he had drunk the cup. He asks for more, his wish is granted; the whole assembly then imitate him, and all become intoxicated.

Many years ago, when white-skinned people had never been seen in this land, some Native Americans who were out fishing in a spot where the sea widens saw something large floating in the distance, something they had never seen before. They quickly returned to shore and told their fellow tribespeople about their discovery, urging them to join in finding out what it might be. They rushed out together and, to their astonishment, saw the extraordinary sight before them, but they couldn't agree on what it was; some thought it was an unusually large fish or animal, while others believed it might be a very large house floating on the water. Eventually, the onlookers concluded that this magnificent object was moving toward the land and must be some kind of living creature; thus, it was important to inform all the Native Americans on the nearby islands of what they had witnessed and keep them alert. They sent out several runners and boaters to deliver the news to their scattered leaders, so they could call upon the warriors to come immediately. As the warriors arrived in groups and witnessed the strange appearance, seeing it actually moving toward the entrance of the river or bay, they decided it was a large house that had the Great or Supreme Being, Mannitto, inside, and he was probably coming to visit them. By this time, the chiefs had gathered at York Island and were discussing how they should greet Mannitto upon his arrival. They made every effort to have plenty of food ready for a sacrifice. The women were asked to prepare the best dishes. Every idol was examined and arranged, and they planned a grand dance not only as an enjoyable entertainment for Mannitto but also because they believed it might appease him if he was angry with them. The conjurers were also asked to interpret what this phenomenon meant and what may come of it. Men, women, and children looked up to the chiefs and wise leaders for guidance and protection. Torn between hope and fear, they felt lost on what to do. A dance began amid great confusion. While in this state, new runners arrived claiming it was a large colorful house, filled with living creatures. It now seemed certain that it was Mannitto, bringing them some kind of game they had never received before, but soon after, more runners arrived claiming it was definitely a house full of people who looked very different from the Native Americans and were dressed differently; notably, one of them wore all red, who must be Mannitto himself. They were called from the vessel in a language they didn’t understand, yet they shouted back as was customary. Many wanted to flee into the woods, but others urged them to stay to avoid offending their visitor, who might find them and destroy them. The house, or as some said, large canoe, eventually stopped, and a smaller canoe came ashore with the red man and some others in it; some remained with his canoe to guard it. The chiefs and wise leaders gathered in a circle as the man in red approached, along with two others. He greeted them with a friendly expression, and they returned the gesture in their own way. They were in awe; the dress, the manners, the entire demeanor of the strangers fascinated them, but they were especially amazed by the man in the red coat, all adorned with gold lace, which they couldn't understand. He must surely be Mannitto, but why did he have a white skin? Meanwhile, one of his servants brought a large Hackhack, from which an unknown substance was poured into a small cup or glass and handed to the presumed Mannitto. He drank, refilled the glass, and handed it to the chief next to him. The chief accepted it, but only sniffed the contents before passing it on to the next chief, who did the same. The cup passed through the entire circle without anyone tasting the drink, and it was about to be returned to the red-clothed Mannitto when one brave man, a great warrior, suddenly stood up and addressed the assembly about the inappropriateness of returning the cup with its contents. He argued it was given to them by Mannitto so they should drink from it, just as he had. Following his lead would please Mannitto; returning what he had given could stir his anger and bring destruction upon them. Since the orator believed it was for the good of the nation for the offered contents to be consumed, and no one else would do it, he would drink it himself, regardless of the consequences; it was better for one man to die than for the entire nation to be wiped out. He took the glass, bid the assembly a solemn farewell, and drank the entire contents. Every eye was fixed on the determined chief to see how the unknown drink would affect him. He soon began to stagger and eventually collapsed on the ground. His friends cried over his fate, thinking he had died, but he woke up, jumped to his feet, and declared he had experienced the most delightful sensations and that he had never felt happier than after drinking from the cup. He asked for more, and his wish was granted; then the whole assembly followed his lead, and they all became intoxicated.

After this general intoxication had ceased, for they say that while it lasted the whites had confined themselves to their vessel, the man with the red clothes returned again, and distributed presents among them, consisting of beads, axes, hoes, and stockings such as the white people wear. They soon became familiar with each other, and began to converse by signs. The Dutch made them understand that they would not stay here, that they would return home again, but would pay them another visit the next year, when they would bring them more presents, and stay with them awhile; but as they could not live without eating, they should want a little land of them to sow seeds, in order to raise herbs and vegetables to put into their broth. They went away as they had said, and returned in the following season, when both parties were much rejoiced to see each other; but the whites laughed at the Indians, seeing that they knew not the use of the axes and hoes they had given them the year before; for they had these hanging to their breasts as ornaments, and the stockings were made use of as tobacco pouches. The whites now put handles to the former for them, and cut trees down before their eyes, hoed up the ground, and put the stockings on their legs. Here, they say, a general laughter ensued among the Indians, that they had remained ignorant of the use of such valuable implements, and had borne the weight of such heavy metal hanging to their necks, for such a length of time. They took every white man they saw for an inferior Mannitto attendant upon the supreme 75 Deity who shone superior in the red and laced clothes. As the whites became daily more familiar with the Indians, they at last proposed to stay with them, and asked only for so much ground for a garden spot as, they said, the hide of a bullock would cover or encompass, which hide was spread before them. The Indians readily granted this apparently reasonable request; but the whites then took a knife, and beginning at one end of the hide, cut it up to a long rope, not thicker than a child’s finger, so that by the time the whole was cut up, it made a great heap; they then took the rope at one end, and drew it gently along, carefully avoiding its breaking. It was drawn out into a circular form, and being closed at its ends, encompassed a large piece of ground. The Indians were surprised at the superior wit of the whites,59 but did not wish to contend with them about a little land, as they had still enough themselves. The white and red men lived contentedly together for a long time, though the former from time to time asked for more land, which was readily obtained, and thus they gradually proceeded higher up the Mahicannittuck, until the Indians began to believe that they would soon want all their country, which in the end proved true. 76

After the general excitement had died down, as they say the whites had stayed on their ship during that time, the man in red clothes came back and handed out gifts, which included beads, axes, hoes, and stockings like those worn by white people. They quickly got comfortable with each other and started communicating through gestures. The Dutch made it clear they wouldn’t stay there, that they would return home, but they planned to visit again the next year with more gifts and stay a while. However, since they couldn't live without food, they needed a small piece of land to plant seeds for herbs and vegetables to add to their stew. They left as promised and returned the following season, with both sides very happy to see each other. The whites laughed at the Indians, noticing they still didn’t know how to use the axes and hoes they'd been given the year before; instead, the Indians wore them as decorations, and used the stockings as pouches for tobacco. The whites attached handles to the axes and hoes for them, chopped down trees in front of them, tilled the soil, and put the stockings on their legs. It caused a lot of laughter among the Indians, realizing they had been unaware of how to use such valuable tools and had carried heavy metal around their necks for so long. They assumed every white man they saw was an inferior servant to the supreme Deity, who appeared superior in red and decorated clothing. As the whites became more familiar with the Indians, they eventually suggested staying with them and asked for just enough land for a little garden, marked by the hide of a bullock they spread out before them. The Indians agreed to this seemingly fair request, but the whites then took a knife and cut the hide into a long strip, about as thick as a child's finger. By the time they finished cutting, they had a big pile of strips. They took one end of the strip and carefully pulled it along, making sure it didn’t break. It formed into a circle, and when they closed the ends, it enclosed a large area of land. The Indians were impressed by the cleverness of the whites but didn’t want to argue over a small piece of land since they still had plenty of their own. The white and red men lived together happily for a long time, though the whites occasionally asked for more land, which they were given. This continued as they moved further up the Mahicannittuck, until the Indians began to think that the whites would eventually want all their land, which turned out to be true.


CHAPTER III.
INDIAN RELATIONS WITH EUROPEANS AND THEIR CONDUCT TOWARDS THEM.

L

Long and dismal are the complaints which the Indians make of European ingratitude and injustice. They love to repeat them, and always do it with the eloquence of nature, aided by an energetic and comprehensive language, which our polished idioms cannot imitate. Often I have listened to these descriptions of their hard sufferings, until I felt ashamed of being a white man.

Long and grim are the complaints that the Indigenous people express about European ingratitude and injustice. They love to share these stories, and they always do so with the raw emotion of nature, supported by a powerful and rich language that our refined expressions can't match. I’ve often listened to their accounts of tough struggles, and it made me feel ashamed of being a white man.

They are, in general, very minute in these recitals, and proceed with a great degree of order and regularity. They begin with the Virginians, whom they call the long knives, and who were the first European settlers in this part of the American continent. “It was we,” say the Lenape, Mohicans, and their kindred tribes, “who so kindly received them on their first arrival into our country. We took them by the hand, and bid them welcome to sit down by our side, and live with us as brothers; but how did they requite our kindness? They at first asked only for a little land on which to raise bread for themselves and their families, and pasture for their cattle, which we freely gave them. They soon wanted more, which we also gave them. They saw the game in the woods, which the Great Spirit had given us for our subsistence, and they wanted that too. They penetrated into the woods in quest of game; they discovered spots of land which pleased them; that land they also wanted, and because we were loth to part with it, as we saw they had already more than they had need of, they took it from 77 us by force, and drove us to a great distance from our ancient homes.”

They are generally very detailed in these accounts and proceed with a high level of order and regularity. They start with the Virginians, whom they refer to as the long knives, who were the first European settlers in this part of the American continent. “It was us,” say the Lenape, Mohicans, and their related tribes, “who warmly welcomed them when they first arrived in our land. We took them by the hand and invited them to sit with us and live as brothers; but how did they repay our kindness? At first, they only asked for a small piece of land to grow food for themselves and their families, and pasture for their livestock, which we gladly gave them. They soon wanted more, which we also gave them. They saw the game in the woods that the Great Spirit had provided us for our survival, and they wanted that too. They ventured into the woods in search of game; they found areas of land that they liked; they wanted that land as well, and because we were reluctant to give it up, seeing that they already had more than they needed, they took it from us by force and forced us far away from our ancestral homes.”

“By and by the Dutchemaan60 arrived at Manahachtánienk,”61 (here they relate with all its details what has been said in the preceding chapter.) “The great man wanted only a little, little land, on which to raise greens for his soup, just as much as a bullock’s hide would cover. Here we first might have observed their deceitful spirit. The bullock’s hide was cut up into little strips, and did not cover, indeed, but encircled a very large piece of land, which we foolishly granted to them. They were to raise greens on it, instead of which they planted great guns; afterwards they built strong houses, made themselves masters of the Island, then went up the river to our enemies, the Mengwe, made a league with them, persuaded us by their wicked arts to lay down our arms, and at last drove us entirely out of the country.” Here, of course, is related at full length, the story which we have told in the first chapter. Then the Delawares62 proceed.

“Eventually, the Dutchemaan60 arrived at Manahachtánienk,”61 (here they detail everything that was mentioned in the previous chapter). “The powerful man only wanted a tiny bit of land, just enough to grow vegetables for his soup, about the area that a bullock's hide could cover. Here we could have first seen their deceptive nature. The bullock’s hide was cut into small strips, and instead of covering a small area, it was used to encircle a very large piece of land, which we foolishly granted to them. They were supposed to grow greens on it, but instead, they planted great guns; then they built sturdy houses, took control of the Island, went up the river to our enemies, the Mengwe, formed an alliance with them, tricked us into laying down our arms, and ultimately drove us completely out of the country.” Here, of course, the full story is recounted, which we told in the first chapter. Then the Delawares62 continue.

“When the Yengeese63 arrived at Machtitschwanne,64 they looked about everywhere for good spots of land, and when they found one, they immediately and without ceremony possessed themselves of it; we were astonished, but still we let them go on, not thinking it worth while to contend for a little land. But when at last they came to our favourite spots, those which lay most convenient to our fisheries, then bloody wars ensued: we would have been contented that the white people and we should have lived quietly beside each other; but these white men encroached so fast upon us, that we saw at once we should lose all, if we did not resist them. The wars that we carried on against each other were long and cruel. We were enraged when 78 we saw the white people put our friends and relatives, whom they had taken prisoners, on board of their ships, and carry them off to sea, whether to drown or sell them as slaves, in the country from which they came, we knew not, but certain it is that none of them have ever returned or even been heard of. At last they got possession of the whole of the country which the Great Spirit had given us. One of our tribes was forced to wander far beyond Quebec; others dispersed in small bodies, and sought places of refuge where they could; some came to Pennsylvania; others went far to the westward and mingled with other tribes.

“When the Yengeese63 arrived at Machtitschwanne,64 they searched everywhere for good land. When they found a spot, they immediately took possession of it without any formalities. We were shocked, but we let them continue, not thinking it was worth it to fight over a bit of land. However, when they reached our favorite areas, the ones closest to our fishing spots, violent wars broke out. We would have been okay living peacefully alongside the white people, but they encroached on us so quickly that we realized we would lose everything if we didn’t stand up to them. The wars between us were long and brutal. We were furious when we saw the white people put our friends and relatives, whom they had captured, on their ships and carry them away at sea, whether to drown or sell them into slavery, we didn't know, but it was certain that none of them ever came back or were heard from again. In the end, they took over the entire country that the Great Spirit had given us. One of our tribes was forced to wander far beyond Quebec; others scattered into small groups and sought refuge wherever they could; some went to Pennsylvania, while others went far west and mixed with other tribes.”

“To many of those, Pennsylvania was a last, delightful asylum. But here, again, the Europeans disturbed them, and forced them to emigrate, although they had been most kindly and hospitably received. On which ever side of the Lenapewihittuck65 the white people landed, they were welcomed as brothers by our ancestors, who gave them lands to live on, and even hunted for them, and furnished them with meat out of the woods. Such was our conduct to the white men66 who inhabited this country, until our elder brother, the great and good Miquon,67 came and brought us words of peace and good will. We believed his words, and his memory is still held in veneration among us. But it was not long before our joy was turned into sorrow: our brother Miquon died, and those of his good counsellors who were of his mind, and knew what had passed between him and our ancestors, were no longer listened to; the strangers68 who had taken their places, no longer spoke to us of sitting down by the side of each other as brothers of one family; they forgot that friendship which their great man had established with us, and was to last to the end of time; they now only strove to get all our land from us by fraud or by force, and when we attempted to remind them of what our good brother had said, they became angry, and sent word to our enemies, 79 the Mengwe, to meet them at a great council which they were to hold with us at Læhauwake,69 where they should take us by the hair of our heads and shake us well. The Mengwe came; the council was held, and in the presence of the white men, who did not contradict them, they told us that we were women, and that they had made us such; that we had no right to any land, because it was all theirs; that we must be gone; and that as a great favour they permitted us to go and settle further into the country, at the place which they themselves pointed out at Wyoming.”70

“To many of them, Pennsylvania was a final, enjoyable refuge. But once again, the Europeans disrupted their peace and forced them to leave, even though they had been treated with kindness and hospitality. No matter where the white people landed on the Lenapewihittuck65, our ancestors welcomed them like brothers, providing them with land to live on, hunting for them, and supplying them with meat from the forests. This was how we treated the white men66 who inhabited this land until our elder brother, the great and good Miquon,67 came and brought us messages of peace and goodwill. We believed his words, and his memory is still revered among us. However, it wasn’t long before our joy turned to sorrow: our brother Miquon passed away, and those wise advisors who shared his views and remembered the agreements between him and our ancestors were no longer heard; the newcomers68 who replaced them no longer spoke to us about being united as one family; they forgot the friendship that their great leader had established with us, which was meant to last forever; instead, they tried to take all our land from us through deceit or force. When we tried to remind them of what our good brother had said, they grew angry and notified our enemies, the Mengwe, to meet them at a large council to be held with us at Læhauwake,69 where they intended to grab us by our hair and shake us. The Mengwe arrived; the council took place, and before the white men, who did not object to them, they told us that we were like women, and that they had made us so; that we had no claim to any land because it all belonged to them; that we must leave; and as a great favor, they allowed us to go and settle further into the country, at the location they specified in Wyoming.”70

Thus these good Indians, with a kind of melancholy pleasure, recite the long history of their sufferings. After having gone through these painful details, they seldom fail to indulge in bitter, but too just reflections, upon the men of Europe. “We and our kindred tribes,” say they, “lived in peace and harmony with each other before the white people came into this country; our council house71 extended far to the north and far to the south. In the middle of it we would meet from all parts to smoke the pipe of peace together. When the white men arrived in the south, we received them as friends; we did the same when they arrived in the east. It was we, it was our forefathers, who made them welcome, and let them sit down by our side. The land they settled on was ours. We knew not but the Great Spirit had sent them to us for some good purpose, and therefore we thought they must be a good people. We were mistaken; for no sooner had they obtained a footing on our lands, than they began to pull our council house down,72 first at one end and then at the other, and at last meeting each other at the centre, where the council fire was yet burning bright, they put it out,73 and extinguished it with our own blood!74 with the 80 blood of those75 who with us had received them! who had welcomed them in our land! Their blood ran in streams into our fire, and extinguished it so entirely, that not one spark was left us whereby to kindle a new fire;76 we were compelled to withdraw ourselves beyond the great swamp,77 and to fly to our good uncle, the Delamattenos,78 who kindly gave us a tract of land to live on. How long we shall be permitted to remain in this asylum, the Great Spirit only knows. The whites will not rest contented until they shall have destroyed the last of us, and made us disappear entirely from the face of the earth.”

Thus, these good Indians, with a mix of sorrow and pleasure, recount the long history of their sufferings. After detailing these painful experiences, they often reflect bitterly, but rightly, on the people of Europe. “We and our relatives,” they say, “lived in peace and harmony with each other before the white people came to this country; our council house71 stretched far to the north and far to the south. In the middle of it, we would gather from all parts to smoke the pipe of peace together. When the white men came from the south, we welcomed them as friends; we did the same when they came from the east. It was us, it was our ancestors, who greeted them and let them sit beside us. The land they settled on was ours. We thought the Great Spirit had sent them for some good purpose, and therefore we believed they must be good people. We were wrong; for as soon as they secured a place on our land, they began to tear down our council house,72 first at one end and then the other, and finally meeting in the center, where the council fire was still burning brightly, they extinguished it,73 putting it out with our own blood!74 with the 80 blood of those75 who had welcomed them in our land! Their blood flowed into our fire, putting it out completely, leaving not a single spark to rekindle it;76 we were forced to retreat beyond the great swamp,77 and seek refuge with our good uncle, the Delamattenos,78 who generously gave us land to live on. Only the Great Spirit knows how long we will be allowed to stay in this refuge. The whites will not be satisfied until they have eradicated the last of us and erased us completely from the face of the earth.”

I have given here only a brief specimen of the charges which they exhibit against the white people. There are men among them, who have by heart the whole history of what took place between the whites and the Indians, since the former first came into their country; and relate the whole with ease and with an eloquence not to be imitated. On the tablets of their memories they preserve this record for posterity. I, at one time, in April, 1787,79 was astonished when I heard one of their orators, a great chief of the Delaware nation,80 go over this ground, recapitulating the most extraordinary events which had before 81 happened, and concluding in these words: “I admit that there are good white men, but they bear no proportion to the bad; the bad must be the strongest, for they rule. They do what they please. They enslave those who are not of their colour, although created by the same Great Spirit who created us.81 They would make slaves of us if they could, but as they cannot do it, they kill us! There is no faith to be placed in their words. They are not like the Indians, who are only enemies, while at war, and are friends in peace. They will say to an Indian, ‘my friend! my brother!’ They will take him by the hand, and at the same moment destroy him. And so you (addressing himself to the Christian Indians) will also be treated by them before long. Remember! that this day I have warned you to beware of such friends as these. I know the long knives; they are not to be trusted.”

I’ve only shared a brief overview of the accusations they have against white people. Some of them know the entire history of what happened between whites and Indians since the first arrived in their land, and they can recount it all effortlessly and with an eloquence that can't be duplicated. They keep this history alive in their memories for future generations. Once, in April 1787, I was amazed when I heard one of their speakers, a prominent chief of the Delaware nation, cover this history, summarizing the most remarkable events that had occurred. He concluded with these words: “I acknowledge that there are good white men, but they are vastly outnumbered by the bad ones; the bad ones have the power because they control everything. They do as they wish. They enslave those who are not like them, despite being created by the same Great Spirit that created us. They would enslave us if they could, but since they can't, they kill us! Their words cannot be trusted. They are not like Indians, who may be enemies during war but are friends in peace. They will say to an Indian, ‘my friend! my brother!’ They will shake his hand, and at the same moment, betray him. And you (addressing the Christian Indians) will also be treated like this soon enough. Remember! Today, I have warned you to be cautious of friends like these. I know the long knives; they cannot be trusted.”

Eleven months after this speech was delivered by this prophetic chief, ninety-six of the same Christian Indians, about sixty of them women and children, were murdered at the place where these very words had been spoken, by the same men he had alluded to, and in the same manner that he had described. See Loskiel’s History, part III., ch. 10.82 82

Eleven months after this speech was given by this visionary leader, ninety-six of the same Christian Indians, around sixty of whom were women and children, were killed at the location where these very words had been spoken, by the same men he had referred to, and in the same way that he had described. See Loskiel’s History, part III., ch. 10.82 82

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CHAPTER IV.
THE FUTURE OF THE LENAPE AND THEIR RELATED TRIBES.

A

After the murder of the Conestogo Indians, the Lenni Lenape thought proper, for their safety, to withdraw altogether from the interior of the white settlements, into the wilds of the Susquehannah country; and Government, conscious that they could no longer protect any Indians, or body of Indians, whether Christians or not, in the settled parts of the province, advised the Christian Indians, whom, during the last troubles, they had with difficulty prevented from sharing the fate of the Conestogos, to retire into the back country. They did so, and settled at Wyalusing,83 which then became the nearest settlement of Indians to the white inhabitants, being upwards of 150 miles north of Philadelphia, and about 100 miles from the frontier settlers beyond the blue mountains; all the other Indians of that nation, together with the Nanticokes, lived then higher up the Susquehannah. For about five years, the Indians on this river enjoyed peace, and the Christian Indians lived quietly here and at another settlement they had made thirty miles higher, built good houses for themselves, together with a spacious church, planted fruit trees, and put large bodies of land under cultivation. But, while they were flattering themselves with the most favourable prospect, they were informed that the Six Nations had sold the whole country, including the land they lived on, to the English. 84 They soon saw the object of this clandestine proceeding, of which they had not received the least notice, and foreseeing what kind of neighbours they should have, if they should stay where they were, they determined to move off in a body to the Ohio, where they had received an invitation to settle from the grand council of their nation. Accordingly, two hundred and forty-one souls set off directly for the Muskingum river, where a large tract of land was given them, out of that which the Wyandots had formerly granted and confirmed to their people; the other Indians of the same nation residing on the Susquehannah soon followed, some settling at one place, some at another; the Mouseys,84 however, joined their own tribe, who long since had emigrated and were settled on the head waters of the Allegheny river; and so the whole country east of the Allegheny mountains was cleared of its original inhabitants.

After the murder of the Conestogo Indians, the Lenni Lenape decided it was best for their safety to completely withdraw from the white settlements and move into the wilds of the Susquehannah region. The government, realizing that they could no longer protect any group of Indians, whether Christian or not, in the settled areas of the province, advised the Christian Indians, whom they had struggled to keep safe during the recent troubles, to relocate to the backcountry. They did this and settled at Wyalusing, 83, which then became the closest Indian settlement to the white inhabitants, over 150 miles north of Philadelphia and about 100 miles from the frontier settlers beyond the blue mountains. All the other Indians of that nation, along with the Nanticokes, lived further up the Susquehannah. For about five years, the Indians along this river experienced peace, and the Christian Indians lived quietly there and at another settlement they established thirty miles higher, building good houses for themselves, a spacious church, planting fruit trees, and cultivating large areas of land. However, while they were feeling optimistic about their future, they learned that the Six Nations had sold the entire area, including the land they inhabited, to the English. 84 They quickly realized the purpose of this secret deal, of which they had received no prior notice, and anticipating the kind of neighbors they might have if they stayed, they decided to relocate en masse to the Ohio, where they had been invited by the grand council of their nation. Thus, two hundred and forty-one people set off directly for the Muskingum river, where a large piece of land was allocated to them from what the Wyandots had previously granted and confirmed to their people. The other Indians of the same nation living along the Susquehannah soon followed, some settling in one location, others in another; the Mouseys, however, joined their own tribe, who had long since migrated and settled in the upper waters of the Allegheny river, clearing the entire area east of the Allegheny mountains of its original inhabitants.

The Delawares thus became at once released from their troublesome neighbours the Iroquois, who had calculated on their settling near them, at a place they had already fixed upon; but they were mistaken, for with all their fair speeches they could not persuade the Lenape, who gave them plainly to understand that they were no longer inclined to listen to a people who had so long and so often deceived them.

The Delawares were suddenly free from their annoying neighbors, the Iroquois, who had expected them to settle nearby in a location they had already chosen. However, they were wrong, because no matter how nicely the Iroquois spoke, they couldn't convince the Lenape, who made it clear that they were no longer interested in listening to a group that had deceived them so many times in the past.

This happened in the year 1768,85 about six years before the beginning of the revolutionary war. During which short period of tranquillity, the numbers of the Christian Indians on the Ohio rapidly increased, and never was there such a fair prospect of their being fixed in a state of prosperous civilisation. But the revolution put an end to these hopes, and this opportunity was lost, perhaps, never to return again. It was not the fault of the American government, who were truly desirous of seeing the Indians adopt a neutral line of conduct, and repeatedly advised them not to interfere in the quarrel between the colonies and the mother country; happy would it have been if the British government had acted in the same manner; but they pursued a different plan. These poor deluded people were dragged into a war in which they had no concern, by which not only their 85 population was gradually reduced, but they lost the desire of becoming a civilised people; for the Americans, at last, become exasperated against them, and considering all Indians as their enemies, they sent parties out from time to time to destroy them. The murder of the Christian Indians on the Muskingum in 1782, completed their alienation. Those who yet remained were driven to despair, and finally dispersed.

This happened in the year 1768, 85 about six years before the start of the Revolutionary War. During this brief period of peace, the number of Christian Indians in Ohio grew quickly, and there was a genuine chance for them to establish a thriving civilization. However, the revolution dashed those hopes, and that opportunity may never come back. The American government was genuinely interested in seeing the Indians remain neutral and repeatedly advised them not to get involved in the conflict between the colonies and Britain; it would have been better if the British government had done the same, but they chose a different approach. These misguided people were pulled into a war that didn’t concern them, which not only led to a gradual decrease in their population but also diminished their desire to become a civilized society. Eventually, the Americans became angry with them and viewed all Indians as enemies, sending out groups to attack them periodically. The massacre of the Christian Indians on the Muskingum in 1782 completed their alienation. Those who remained were left in despair and eventually scattered.

It is not in my power to ascertain the whole number of the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware Indians, still existing at the present time. As far as I am informed, they are very much scattered, a number of them, chiefly of the Monsey tribe, living in Upper Canada, others are in the state of Ohio, and some on the waters of the Wabash in the Indiana territory. A considerable number of them has crossed the Mississippi. Their first emigrations to that country had already begun between the years 1780 and 1790. What the numbers of this nation were when the Europeans first came into this country is difficult to tell; all I can say is, that so early as 1760, their oldest men would say that they were not then as many hundreds as they had been thousands. They have considerably decreased since that period. I saw them myself between the years 1754 and 1760, by hundreds at a time, and Loskiel in his history gives an account of upwards of 800 having been fed at Bethlehem in one year. In the year 1762, while I lived at Tuscorawas on the Muskingum, they were settled on that river and its branches, and also on the Cayahoga river, which empties into Lake Erie, in the neighbourhood of which they had since a small Christian settlement called Pilgerruh (Pilgrim’s rest.)86,87

I can't provide an exact count of how many Lenni Lenape, or Delaware Indians, are still around today. From what I know, they are quite spread out. Some, mainly from the Monsey tribe, live in Upper Canada, others are in Ohio, and some are along the Wabash River in Indiana. A significant number have moved across the Mississippi River. Their first migrations to that area started between 1780 and 1790. It's hard to say how many there were when Europeans first arrived in this country; all I can mention is that as early as 1760, their oldest members claimed they were no longer in the hundreds but had once been in the thousands. They have decreased a lot since then. I saw them myself between 1754 and 1760, often in groups of hundreds, and Loskiel records that over 800 were fed in Bethlehem in one year. In 1762, when I lived at Tuscorawas on the Muskingum River, they were settled along that river and its branches, as well as on the Cuyahoga River, which flows into Lake Erie. Near there, they established a small Christian settlement called Pilgerruh (Pilgrim’s Rest).86,87

The Shawano or Sawano.88

The history of these people is here given, principally from 86 the relations of old Indians of the Mohican90 tribe, who say that they formerly inhabited the Southern country, Savannah in Georgia, and the Floridas. They were a restless people, delighting in wars, in which they were constantly engaged with some of the neighbouring nations. At last their neighbours, tired of being continually harassed by them, formed a league for their destruction. The Shawanos finding themselves thus dangerously situated, asked to be permitted to leave the country, which was granted to them, and they fled immediately to the Ohio. Here their main body settled, and sent messengers to their elder brother91 the Mohicans, requesting them to intercede for them with their grandfather the Lenni Lenape, that he might take them under his protection. This the Mohicans willingly did, and even sent a body of their own people to conduct their younger brother into the country of the Delawares. The Shawanos finding themselves safe under the protection of their grandfather, did not all choose to proceed farther to the eastward, but many of them remained on the Ohio, some of whom settled even as high up that river as the long island, above which the French afterwards built Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburg. Those who proceeded farther, were accompanied by their chief, named Gachgawatschiqua, and settled principally at and about the forks of Delaware, some few between that and the confluence of Delaware and Schuylkill, and some even on the spot where Philadelphia now stands; others were conducted by the Mohicans into their own country, where they intermarried with them and became one people. When those settled near the Delaware had multiplied, they returned to Wyoming on the Susquehannah, where they resided for a great number of years.

The history of these people is presented here, mainly based on the accounts of old members of the Mohican tribe, who say that they used to live in the Southern region, specifically Savannah in Georgia, and Florida. They were a restless people, enjoying wars, and were constantly engaged in battles with neighboring nations. Eventually, their neighbors, fed up with being continuously harassed by them, formed a coalition for their destruction. The Shawanos, realizing their dangerous position, asked to leave the area, which was granted to them, and they quickly fled to Ohio. There, their main group settled and sent messengers to their elder brother, the Mohicans, asking them to plead with their grandfather, the Lenni Lenape, to take them under his protection. The Mohicans gladly agreed and even sent a group of their own people to guide their younger brother into Delaware territory. The Shawanos, feeling safe under the protection of their grandfather, did not all move further east; many stayed in Ohio, with some settling as far up the river as the long island, above which the French later built Fort Duquesne, now Pittsburgh. Those who moved east were led by their chief, Gachgawatschiqua, and mostly settled at the forks of the Delaware, with a few between there and where the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers meet, and some even in the area where Philadelphia is now located; others were taken by the Mohicans into their own land, where they intermarried and became one people. When those settled near the Delaware increased in number, they returned to Wyoming on the Susquehanna River, where they lived for many years.

In the mean while, those who had remained on the Ohio increased in numbers, and in process of time began again to be troublesome to their neighbours. At last, they crossed the Allegheny mountains, and falling upon the camps of the Lenape on Juniata river, they committed several murders and went off with their plunder. It was soon discovered who were the aggressors; but the Lenape had now assumed the station of 87 “the woman,” and could not engage in wars. They could only apply for protection to the Five Nations, which they did, expecting that they would immediately pursue the offenders and inflict an exemplary punishment upon them, but the Five Nations found means to evade their demand for the present. They told the Delawares that the season was too far advanced to commence a war; that it was better to put off their intended expedition until the ensuing spring; that in the mean time, both nations should put themselves in readiness, and keep their preparations secret, and that as soon as the season should open, they would march off separately and meet together at an appointed time and place on the Allegheny, then push on together for the Shawano towns below the confluence of that river and the Monongahela, where they could fall together unawares on the aggressors and punish them. The Iroquois promised, as usual, that they would place themselves in the front of the battle, so that the Delawares would have nothing to do but to look on and see how bravely their protectors would fight for them, and if they were not satisfied with that, they might take their revenge themselves.

In the meantime, those who had stayed in Ohio increased in number and eventually began to trouble their neighbors again. Finally, they crossed the Allegheny Mountains and attacked the Lenape camps by the Juniata River, committing several murders and taking their loot. It quickly became known who the aggressors were, but the Lenape had now taken on the role of "the woman," meaning they couldn't engage in wars. They could only ask the Five Nations for protection, which they did, expecting that the Nations would immediately go after the offenders and punish them severely. However, the Five Nations found a way to delay their response. They told the Delawares that the season was too late to start a war and that it would be better to postpone their planned expedition until the following spring. In the meantime, both nations were advised to prepare in secret, and as soon as the season opened, they would march separately and meet at a designated time and place along the Allegheny, then advance together toward the Shawano towns below where the river meets the Monongahela. This way, they could catch the aggressors off guard and punish them. The Iroquois promised, as usual, that they would lead the charge, leaving the Delawares to watch and see how bravely their protectors fought for them, and if they weren’t satisfied, they could take their own revenge.

Agreeably to this plan, the Lenape remained quiet till the spring, when, with a body of their most valiant men, they marched to the appointed spot; but how great was their surprise when their pretended champions did not make their appearance? They suspected treachery, and were not mistaken; for having immediately marched forward to the Shawano towns, bent on taking an exemplary revenge, they had the disappointment to see on their arrival their enemies pushing off as fast as they could down the Ohio river in their canoes. Some of them were flying by land, as probably they had not a sufficient number of canoes to convey their whole number; these they pursued and attacked, beat them severely, and took several prisoners. Here they had a striking instance of the treachery of the Mengwe, who had warned the Shawanos of their approach. Some time after this, the Shawanos who resided on the north branch of the Susquehannah, began to draw off by degrees, first to the west branch of that river and the Juniata, and then to the Ohio; so that at the commencement of the 88 French war in 1755, they had all, except a few families, with whom was their chief Paxnos, retired to the Ohio, where they joined their countrymen in a war against the English.92

According to this plan, the Lenape stayed quiet until spring when a group of their bravest men marched to the designated location. They were shocked when their supposed allies didn’t show up. Suspecting betrayal, which turned out to be true, they immediately moved on to the Shawano towns, intending to take revenge. However, upon their arrival, they were disappointed to see their enemies fleeing down the Ohio River in their canoes. Some were escaping by land, likely because they didn’t have enough canoes for everyone. The Lenape pursued and attacked them, inflicting heavy damage and capturing several prisoners. This was a clear example of the Mengwe's treachery, as they had warned the Shawanos about the Lenape’s approach. Some time later, the Shawanos living on the north branch of the Susquehanna began to gradually move away, first to the west branch of that river and the Juniata, and then to the Ohio. So by the start of the French war in 1755, they had all left except for a few families, including their chief Paxnos, who had retreated to the Ohio to join their fellow countrymen in fighting against the English.

Peace was made in 1763 between Great Britain and France; but the restless spirit of the Shawanos did not permit them to remain quiet; they commenced war93 against their southern neighbours, the Cherokees, who, while in pursuit of the aggressors, would sometimes through mistake fall upon the Lenape, who resided in the same country with the Shawanos, through whom they also became involved in a war with that nation, which lasted some time. The Mengwe being then also at war with the Cherokees, and frequently returning with their prisoners and scalps through their country, the warlike spirit was kept alive among all, until at length, in 1768, the Cherokees sought a renewal of the friendship formerly existing between them and their grandfather, the Lenape, which being effected, they, by their mediation, also brought about a peace between them and the Five Nations.

Peace was established in 1763 between Great Britain and France, but the restless spirit of the Shawano people wouldn’t let them stay calm; they started a war against their southern neighbors, the Cherokees. While pursuing the aggressors, the Cherokees would sometimes mistakenly attack the Lenape, who lived in the same region as the Shawanos, dragging them into a conflict with that nation that lasted for a while. The Mengwe were also at war with the Cherokees and often returned through their territory with prisoners and scalps, fueling the fighting spirit among everyone. Eventually, in 1768, the Cherokees sought to restore the friendship that once existed between them and their "grandfather," the Lenape. Once this was achieved, they also helped mediate peace between the Cherokees and the Five Nations.

The Shawanos not being disposed to continue the war with the Cherokees by themselves, and having been reprimanded by their grandfather for being the instigators of all those troubles, willingly submitted to the dictates of the Lenape, and from that 89 time remained at peace with all the nations until the year 1774, when they were involved in a war with the people of Virginia, occasioned by some murders which were committed on Logan’s family connexions and others by white people. In this instance it cannot, I think, be said that they were the aggressors, yet their thirst for revenge was so great, and the injured Mengwe at their side called out so loudly for revenge, that they with great spirit engaged into a war with the Virginians, which, however, was of but short duration, as they were opposed with an equal degree of courage, and after a severe battle between the two rivals, at or near the mouth of the Great Kanhawa, and the destruction of many of their towns by the Virginians, the Shawanos were brought to make peace once more;94 which did not last long, as they joined the British against the American people, some time after the commencement of the Revolution, and remained our enemies after that time, never establishing a firm peace with us, until the memorable treaty which took place in 1795, after the decisive defeat of the nations by the late General Wayne.

The Shawanos, not wanting to continue the war with the Cherokees on their own and having been scolded by their elder for instigating those conflicts, willingly followed the guidance of the Lenape. From that point on, they stayed at peace with all nations until 1774, when they got involved in a war with the people of Virginia due to some murders committed against Logan’s family connections and others by white people. In this case, it can't really be said that they were the aggressors, but their desire for revenge was so intense, and the injured Mengwe were calling out for retribution so loudly, that they courageously entered into a war with the Virginians. However, this conflict was short-lived, as they faced an equally brave opposition. After a fierce battle between the two sides near the mouth of the Great Kanhawa, and after many of their towns were destroyed by the Virginians, the Shawanos had to make peace once again. This peace didn't last long, though, as they sided with the British against the American people some time after the Revolution began, remaining our enemies from that point on without establishing a lasting peace until the notable treaty in 1795, following the decisive defeat of the nations by the late General Wayne.

The Shawanos lost many of their men during these contests; but they were in a manner replaced by individuals of other nations joining them. Thus, during the Revolutionary war, about one hundred turbulent Cherokees, who could not be brought by their own nation to be at peace with the American people, and were on that account driven out of their country, came over to the Shawanos, while others from the Five Nations joined them or became their neighbours.

The Shawanos lost many of their men during these battles; however, they were somewhat replaced by people from other nations who joined them. So, during the Revolutionary War, about one hundred restless Cherokees, who couldn't be pacified by their own nation and were therefore forced out of their homeland, came over to the Shawanos. Others from the Five Nations either joined them or became their neighbors.

The Shawanos are considered to be good warriors and hunters. 90 They are courageous, high spirited and manly, and more careful in providing a supply of ammunition to keep in reserve for an emergency, than any other nation that I have heard of. Their language is more easily learned than that of the Lenape, and has a great affinity to the Mohican, Chippeway and other kindred languages. They generally place the accent on the last syllable.

The Shawanos are seen as skilled warriors and hunters. 90 They are brave, lively, and strong, and are more cautious about keeping a reserve supply of ammunition for emergencies than any other group I know of. Their language is easier to learn than that of the Lenape and is closely related to Mohican, Chippeway, and other similar languages. They usually emphasize the last syllable.

The Nanticoke Tribe.

The Delawares say that this nation has sprung from the same stock with them, and the fact was acknowledged by White,95 one of their chiefs, whom I have personally known. They call the Delawares their grandfathers. I shall relate the history of the Shawanos,96 as I had it from the mouth of White himself.

The Delawares say that this nation comes from the same family as they do, and White,95 one of their chiefs whom I've known personally, confirmed it. They refer to the Delawares as their grandfathers. I will share the history of the Shawanos,96 as I heard it directly from White.

Every Indian being at liberty to pursue what occupation he pleases, White’s ancestors, after the Lenape came into their country, preferred seeking a livelihood by fishing and trapping along the rivers and bays, to pursuing wild game in the forest; they therefore detached themselves, and sought the most convenient places for their purpose. In process of time, they became very numerous, partly by natural increase, and partly in consequence of being joined by a number of the Lenape, and spread themselves over a large tract of country. Thus they became divided into separate bodies, distinguished by different names; the Canai, they say, sprung from them, and settled at a distance on the shores of the Potomack and Susquehannah, where they lived when the white people first arrived in Virginia; but they removed farther on their account, and settled higher up the Susquehannah, not far from where John Harris afterwards established a ferry.97 The main branch, or the Nanticokes proper, were then living in what is now called the Eastern shore of 91 Maryland. At length, the white people crowded so much upon them, that they were also obliged to seek another abode, and as their grandfather was himself retreating back in consequence of the great influx of the whites, they took the advice of the Mengwe, and bent their course at once to the large flats at Wyoming, where they settled by themselves, in sight of the Shawanos town, while others settled higher up the river, even as high as Chemenk98 (Shenango) and Shummunk, to which places they all emigrated at the beginning of the French war. White’s tribe resided there until the Revolutionary war, when they went off to a place nearer to the British, whose part they had taken, and whose standard they joined. White himself had joined the Christian Indians at Schschequon,99 several years previous to the war, and remained with them.

Every Indian has the freedom to choose whatever job they want. White’s ancestors, after the Lenape arrived in their territory, preferred making a living by fishing and trapping along the rivers and bays rather than hunting wild game in the forests. They therefore separated themselves and looked for the most convenient spots to achieve this. Over time, their numbers grew significantly, both from natural population growth and by being joined by many Lenape, spreading out over a large area. As a result, they formed distinct groups identified by different names. They say the Canai originated from them and settled far away on the shores of the Potomac and Susquehanna, where they lived when the white people first came to Virginia. However, they moved farther away because of the white settlers and settled further up the Susquehanna, not far from where John Harris later started a ferry. The main group, the Nanticokes proper, were living in what is now known as the Eastern Shore of 91 Maryland. Eventually, the white settlers moved in so much that the Nanticokes had to find another home. As their ancestors were retreating due to the overwhelming number of whites, they followed the advice of the Mengwe and headed straight to the large flats at Wyoming, where they set up their own settlement, close to the Shawano town, while others moved further up the river to places like Chemenk98 (Shenango) and Shummunk, to which they all migrated at the start of the French war. White’s tribe lived there until the Revolutionary War, when they went to a place closer to the British, whose side they had taken and whose banner they followed. White himself had joined the Christian Indians at Schschequon,99 several years before the war and stayed with them.

Nothing, said White, had equalled the decline of his tribe since the white people had come into the country. They were destroyed in part by disorders which they brought with them, by the small pox, the venereal disease, and by the free use of spirituous liquors, to which great numbers fell victims.

Nothing, White said, compared to the decline of his tribe since white people arrived in the country. They were partly destroyed by the diseases they brought with them, like smallpox and venereal disease, and by the widespread use of alcohol, which claimed many victims.

The emigration of the Nanticokes from Maryland was well known to the Society of the United Brethren. At the time when these people were beginning their settlement in the forks of Delaware, the Rev. Christian100 Pyrlæus noted down in his memorandum book, “that on the 21st day of May, 1748, a number of the Nanticokes from Maryland, passed by Shamokin in ten canoes, on their way to Wyoming.” Others, travelling by land, would frequently pass through Bethlehem, and from thence through the Water Gap to Nescopeck or Susquehannah, and while they resided at Wyoming, they, together with the Shawanese, became the emissaries of the Five Nations, and in conjunction with them afterwards, endeavoured to remove the Christian Indians from Gnadenhütten, in Northampton county, to Wyoming; their private object being to have a full opportunity to murder the white inhabitants, in the war which they already knew would soon break out between the French and English. 92

The migration of the Nanticokes from Maryland was well known to the Society of the United Brethren. When these people were starting their settlement in the Delaware Valley, Rev. Christian100 Pyrlæus recorded in his notes, “on May 21, 1748, several Nanticokes from Maryland passed by Shamokin in ten canoes on their way to Wyoming.” Others traveling by land often passed through Bethlehem, then continued through the Water Gap to Nescopeck or Susquehannah. While they were living in Wyoming, they, along with the Shawanese, acted as messengers for the Five Nations, and later collaborated with them in their efforts to relocate the Christian Indians from Gnadenhütten in Northampton County to Wyoming. Their hidden agenda was to find the perfect chance to attack the white settlers during the war they knew was about to erupt between the French and the English. 92

These Nanticokes had the singular custom of removing the bones of their deceased friends from the burial place to a place of deposit in the country they dwell in. In earlier times, they were known to go from Wyoming and Chemenk, to fetch the bones of their dead from the Eastern shore of Maryland, even when the bodies were in a putrid state, so that they had to take off the flesh and scrape the bones clean, before they could carry them along. I well remember having seen them between the years 1750 and 1760, loaded with such bones, which, being fresh, caused a disagreeable stench, as they passed through the town of Bethlehem.

These Nanticokes had a unique practice of taking the bones of their deceased friends from the burial site to a storage place in their territory. In earlier days, they would travel from Wyoming and Chemenk to retrieve the bones of their dead from the Eastern shore of Maryland, even when the bodies were decaying, so they had to remove the flesh and clean the bones before transporting them. I clearly recall seeing them between 1750 and 1760, carrying such bones, which, being fresh, created an unpleasant smell as they passed through the town of Bethlehem.

They are also said to have been the inventors of a poisonous substance, by which they could destroy a whole settlement of people, and they are accused of being skilled in the arts of witchcraft; it is certain that they are very much dreaded on this account. I have known Indians who firmly believed that they had people among them who could, if they pleased, destroy a whole army, by merely blowing their breath towards them. Those of the Lenape101 and other tribes, who pretend to witchcraft, say that they learned the science from the Nanticokes; they are not unwilling to be taxed with being wizards, as it makes them feared by their neighbours.

They are also said to have created a poisonous substance that could wipe out an entire community, and they are accused of being skilled in witchcraft. It's clear that they are greatly feared because of this. I have known Native Americans who truly believed there were people among them who could, if they wanted to, wipe out an entire army just by blowing their breath in that direction. Those from the Lenape and other tribes who claim to practice witchcraft say they learned this knowledge from the Nanticokes; they're not shy about being called wizards, as it makes them intimidating to their neighbors.

Their national name, according to the report of their chief, White, is Nentégo. The Delawares call them Unéchtgo, and the Iroquois Sganiateratieh-rohne. These three names have the same meaning, and signify tide water people, or the sea shore settlers. They have besides other names, by-names, as it were, given them with reference to their occupation. The Mohicans, for instance, call them Otayáchgo, and the Delawares Tawachguáno,102 both which words in their respective languages, signify a “bridge,” a “dry passage over a stream;” which alludes to their being noted for felling great numbers of trees across streams, to set their traps on. They are also often called the Trappers.

Their national name, according to their chief, White, is Nentégo. The Delawares refer to them as Unéchtgo, and the Iroquois call them Sganiateratieh-rohne. All three names mean the same thing and refer to the tide water people or the sea shore settlers. They also have other nicknames related to their occupation. For example, the Mohicans call them Otayáchgo, and the Delawares call them Tawachguáno,102 both of which translate to a “bridge” or a “dry passage over a stream,” pointing to their reputation for cutting down lots of trees across streams to set their traps. They are often referred to as the Trappers.

In the year 1785, this tribe had so dwindled away, that their whole body, who came together to see their old chief, White, 93 then residing with the Christian Indians on the Huron river,103 north of Detroit, did not amount to 50 men. They were then going through Canada, to the Miami country, to settle beside the Shawanos, in consequence of an invitation they had received from them.

In 1785, this tribe had dwindled so much that when they gathered to see their old chief, White, who was living with the Christian Indians on the Huron River, north of Detroit, there were only about 50 men. They were on their way through Canada to the Miami country to settle next to the Shawanos, following an invitation they had received from them.

The Mahicanni, or Mohicans.

This once great and renowned nation has also almost entirely disappeared, as well as the numerous tribes who had descended from them; they have been destroyed by wars, and carried off by the small pox and other disorders, and great numbers have died in consequence of the introduction of spirituous liquors among them. The remainder have fled and removed in separate bodies to different parts, where they now are dispersed or mingled with other nations. So early as the year 1762, a number of them had emigrated to the Ohio, where I became acquainted with their chief who was called by the whites “Mohican John.” Others have fled to the shores of the St. Lawrence, where numbers of them incorporated themselves with the Iroquois, and where their descendants live at the present time, a mixed race, known by the name of the Cochnewago Indians. Upwards of one hundred of them, who lived in the colonies of Connecticut and New York, having through the labours of the United Brethren embraced Christianity, emigrated to Pennsylvania, some time between 1742 and 1760, where they afterwards became incorporated with the Delawares.104 A considerable number migrated from Hudson’s river about the year 1734, and settled at Stockbridge, in Massachusetts; between the year 1785 and 1787, they removed to Oneida, in the country of the Six Nations, and gave to their settlement the name of New Stockbridge. Before their removal their numbers had gradually diminished. In 1791, they were reduced to 191 persons.105 They 94 were once very numerous in Connecticut, and in the year 1799, there still were 84 individuals of them, in the county of New London,106 the remains of a once large and flourishing settlement. It is probable that by this time they are nearly if not entirely extinct.

This once great and famous nation has almost completely vanished, along with the many tribes that descended from them. They were devastated by wars, wiped out by smallpox and other diseases, and many died due to the introduction of alcohol. The rest fled and scattered in groups to different areas, where they are now mixed in with other nations. As early as 1762, some of them had moved to Ohio, where I met their chief, known to white settlers as “Mohican John.” Others escaped to the shores of the St. Lawrence, where many joined the Iroquois, and their descendants still live today as a mixed group called the Cochnewago Indians. Over a hundred of them, living in the colonies of Connecticut and New York, embraced Christianity through the efforts of the United Brethren and moved to Pennsylvania at some point between 1742 and 1760, later merging with the Delawares. A significant number migrated from the Hudson River around 1734 and settled in Stockbridge, Massachusetts; between 1785 and 1787, they relocated to Oneida in the territory of the Six Nations and named their new settlement New Stockbridge. Before this move, their numbers had slowly declined. By 1791, only 191 individuals remained. They had once been very numerous in Connecticut, and in 1799, there were still 84 of them in New London County, the remnants of what was once a large and thriving settlement. It is likely that by now they are nearly, if not completely, extinct.

It is believed that the Mahicanni are the same nation who are so celebrated in the History of New England, under the name of Pequods or Pequots.107 The Rev. Jonathan Edwards, late President of Union College at Schenectady, in the State of New York, published in the year 1788 in a pamphlet form, some observations on their language, which were republished at New York in 1801. This small tract, as well as the translation of the Bible into the Natick, by the venerable Eliot, and his grammar of that language, put it beyond a doubt that the idiom of the Mohicans and those of the other New England Indians proceeded from the same source with that of the Lenni Lenape.

It is thought that the Mahicanni are the same nation that is well-known in the History of New England, under the name of Pequods or Pequots. 107 The Rev. Jonathan Edwards, former President of Union College in Schenectady, New York, published a pamphlet in 1788 with some observations on their language, which was republished in New York in 1801. This small work, along with the translation of the Bible into Natick by the esteemed Eliot and his grammar of that language, shows clearly that the language of the Mohicans and the other New England Indians originated from the same source as that of the Lenni Lenape.

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CHAPTER V.
THE IROQUOIS.

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The most intelligent and credible Indians of the Lenape stock, including the Mohicans, have ever asserted, that in the whole country bounded on the north by the river St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes (including what is now Nova Scotia and New Brunswick), on the west by the Mississippi, on the east by the Great Salt-water Lake,108 and on the south by the country of the Creeks, Cherokees, and other Florida Indians, there were but two nations, the Mengwe, and themselves. Theirs was by far the most numerous and the most extensively settled, for their tribes extended even beyond the Mississippi. On the other side of the St. Lawrence, the Algonquins, the Killistenos or Knisteneaux, and others, speaking dialects of their language, prove their origin from the same stock. The Mengwe, on the contrary, were comparatively few, and occupied a much less portion of territory, being almost confined to the vicinity of the great lakes. But few tribes are known to be connected with them by descent and language; the principal ones are the Wyandots, otherwise called Hurons, and the Naudowessies. Almost every other nation within the boundaries described, is of the Lenape family.

The smartest and most reliable Indians of the Lenape heritage, including the Mohicans, have always claimed that in the entire region bordered to the north by the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes (which includes present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick), to the west by the Mississippi River, to the east by the Great Saltwater Lake, and to the south by the lands of the Creeks, Cherokees, and other Native Americans in Florida, there were only two nations: the Mengwe and themselves. Their population was by far the largest and their settlements were the most widespread, with their tribes stretching even beyond the Mississippi. On the other side of the St. Lawrence, the Algonquins, the Killistenos or Knisteneaux, and others who speak dialects of their language, show their connection to the same ancestry. The Mengwe, in contrast, were relatively small in number and occupied a much smaller area, being mostly concentrated around the Great Lakes. Very few tribes are known to be connected to them by descent and language; the main ones are the Wyandots, also known as Hurons, and the Naudowessies. Almost every other nation within the described boundaries is part of the Lenape family.

Each of these two great nations, say the Delawares, had an ancient national name, and a tradition of their respective origin, handed down to them by their ancestors, and diffused among all the kindred tribes. By whatsoever names those tribes might be called, and whatever their numbers were, still they considered 96 themselves, and were considered by others, as the offspring of the same original stock. All the tribes who had sprung from the Lenape called the mother nation grandfather, and received, in return, the appellation of grandchildren. They were all united by the strongest ties of friendship and alliance; in their own expressive language, they made but one house, one fire, and one canoe, that is to say, that they constituted together, one people, one family. The same thing took place between the Mengwe and the tribes descended from them. They and the Lenape had no relationship with each other, though they came over the Mississippi together at the same time. They considered each other as nations entirely distinct.

Each of these two great nations, the Delawares say, had an ancient national name and a tradition about their origins passed down from their ancestors, which was shared among all the related tribes. No matter what names those tribes were given or how many there were, they saw themselves, and were seen by others, as descendants of the same original group. All the tribes that came from the Lenape called the mother nation grandfather and, in return, were called grandchildren. They were all connected by strong bonds of friendship and alliance; in their own expressive language, they formed one house, one fire, and one canoe, meaning they were one people, one family. The same was true for the Mengwe and the tribes that descended from them. They and the Lenape had no connections to each other, even though they crossed the Mississippi at the same time. They viewed each other as entirely separate nations.

The Mengwe or Iroquois were always considered by the Lenape as only one nation, consisting of several confederated tribes. The name of Five and afterwards Six Nations, was given to them by the English, whose allies they were, probably to raise their consequence, and magnify the idea of their strength; but the Indian nations never did flatter them with that high sounding appellation, and considered them merely as confederated tribes.

The Mengwe or Iroquois were always seen by the Lenape as just one nation made up of several allied tribes. The English, who were their allies, gave them the name Five and later Six Nations, likely to enhance their status and amplify their strength; however, the Indian nations never referred to them with that lofty title and viewed them simply as allied tribes.

The late Rev. Mr. Pyrlæus, in a large volume of MS. notes which he wrote between the years 1740 and 1760 (upwards of 70 years ago), has taken down on this subject the account given by the Iroquois themselves, as he had it from the mouth of an intelligent Mohawk chief,109 whose veracity might be depended upon. After giving some details respecting the origin of their confederation, the time about which it took place, the names of the delegates from each of the confederated tribes, &c., he proceeds thus: “They then gave themselves the name Aquanoshioni, which means one house, one family, and consisted of the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagoes, Cayugas, and Senecas. This alliance having been first proposed by a Mohawk chief, the Mohawks rank in the family as the eldest brother, the Oneidas, as the eldest son; the Senecas, who were the last who at that time had consented to the alliance, were called the youngest son; but the Tuscaroras, who joined the confederacy probably one hundred 97 years afterwards, assumed that name, and the Senecas ranked in precedence before them, as being the next youngest son, or as we would say, the youngest son but one.”

The late Rev. Mr. Pyrlæus, in a large collection of notes he wrote between 1740 and 1760 (over 70 years ago), recorded the account given by the Iroquois themselves, as he heard it from an insightful Mohawk chief, 109 whose honesty could be trusted. After sharing some details about the origin of their confederation, the timing of its establishment, and the names of the delegates from each of the tribes involved, he continues: “They then named themselves Aquanoshioni, meaning one house, one family, which included the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas. This alliance was first proposed by a Mohawk chief, so the Mohawks are considered the eldest brother in the family, the Oneidas are regarded as the eldest son; the Senecas, who were the last to agree to the alliance at that time, were called the youngest son; but the Tuscaroras, who joined the confederacy about a hundred years later, took that name, and the Senecas rank before them as the next youngest son, or as we would say, the youngest son but one.”

The Rev. David Zeisberger also says: “That the Iroquois call themselves Aquanoschioni, which means united people, having united for the purpose of always reminding each other that their safety and power consist in a mutual and strict adherence to their alliance.”110 He adds, that Onondago is the chief town of the Iroquois.

The Rev. David Zeisberger also says: “That the Iroquois call themselves Aquanoschioni, which means united people, having come together to always remind each other that their safety and strength come from a mutual and strict commitment to their alliance.”110 He adds that Onondaga is the main town of the Iroquois.

Thus, in the different translations of the name which these people gave themselves, we find nothing that conveys the ideas of nations, it implies no more than a family, an united people, a family compact. The different sections take ranks in this family, of which the Onondagoes are the head, while the others are brothers and sons; all which tends clearly to prove, that they were originally but tribes, detached bodies of the same people, who, when brought together in close union, formed a complete family and became entitled to the name of a Nation.

Thus, in the various translations of the name that these people used for themselves, we find nothing that suggests the concept of nations; it implies nothing more than a family, an united people, a family compact. The different groups have ranks within this family, with the Onondagoes as the leaders, while the others are brothers and sons; all of this clearly demonstrates that they were originally just tribes, separate parts of the same people, who, when brought together in a close union, formed a complete family and earned the title of a Country.

We also see that self-preservation was the cause of their uniting, and that they were compelled by necessity to this measure, on which their existence depended. And though we have a right to suppose that that tribe which always takes the lead in the government of an Indian nation (the Turtle tribe), existed among them, yet it is evident that its authority at that time was either wholly disregarded, or at least, was too weak to give complete efficacy to its measures.

We can also see that self-preservation drove them to come together, and they were forced by necessity to take this step, which was crucial for their survival. While we might assume that the tribe that typically leads in the governance of an Indian nation (the Turtle tribe) was present among them, it’s clear that its authority at that time was either completely ignored or, at the very least, too weak to implement its plans effectively.

If, then, we believe the information given us by both Pyrlæus and Zeisberger to be correct, we must be fully convinced that the Iroquois confederacy did not consist of Five or Six Nations, but of as many tribes or sections of the same people, forming together one nation. These two Missionaries are known to have been men of the strictest veracity; they were both, I may say, critically acquainted111 with the Mengwe idiom, and they had 98 their information from the most respectable and intelligent men among that nation, the former from the Mohawk, the latter from the Onondaga tribe. There is no reason, therefore, why the truth of their statements should be doubted.

If we believe the information provided by both Pyrlæus and Zeisberger is accurate, we must be completely convinced that the Iroquois confederacy didn't comprise Five or Six Nations, but instead consisted of multiple tribes or sections of the same people, forming one nation together. These two missionaries were known for their integrity; they were both, I can say, thoroughly knowledgeable about the Mengwe language, and they obtained their information from the most respected and informed individuals within that nation, the former from the Mohawk tribe and the latter from the Onondaga tribe. Therefore, there’s no reason to doubt the truth of their statements.

The Lenape and their kindred tribes never have called the Iroquois “the Five or Six Nations.” In conversation, they call them the Mengwe, and never make use of any other but this generic name when speaking of them. In their councils, however, they occasionally distinguished them by the name Palenach endchiesktajeet.113 These two words, literally translated mean “the five divisions, sections or parts together,” and does not in any manner imply the idea of nations. Had they meant to say “the Five Nations,” they would have expressed it by the words Palenach ekhokewit; those which they used, on the contrary, expressly imply sectional divisions, and leave no doubt about their meaning.

The Lenape and their related tribes have never referred to the Iroquois as “the Five or Six Nations.” In conversation, they call them the Mengwe, and they always use this generic name when talking about them. In their councils, though, they sometimes refer to them by the name Palenach endchiesktajeet.113 These two words literally translate to “the five divisions, sections, or parts together,” and do not imply the idea of nations in any way. If they had meant to say “the Five Nations,” they would have used the words Palenach ekhokewit; the terms they used instead clearly denote sectional divisions and leave no doubt about their meaning.

The Iroquois themselves, as we have already seen, had adopted a name, Aquanoschioni, merely indicative of their close union. After, however, they came to be informed of the meaning of the name which the English had given them, they were willing to let it pass as correct. The Indians are very fond of high sounding names; I have known myself chiefs who delighted to be called Kings, after they had learned from us that the rulers of the English and French nations were distinguished by that title.

The Iroquois, as we've already noted, had chosen the name Aquanoschioni to reflect their strong unity. However, once they learned what the English name meant, they accepted it as accurate. Native Americans appreciate grand titles; I've seen chiefs who were thrilled to be called Kings after discovering that the leaders of the English and French were referred to by that title.

Thus the proper name of those six united tribes is in their own language Aquanoschioni. By other nations they are called Mengwe, Maquas, Mingoes, and Iroquois. The Lenape call them by the first, the Mohicans and Dutch by the second, the English and Americans by the third, and the French by the fourth. I employ these different names indiscriminately in the course of this work. 99

The proper name for those six united tribes in their own language is Aquanoschioni. Other nations refer to them as Mengwe, Maquas, Mingoes, and Iroquois. The Lenape use the first name, the Mohicans and Dutch the second, the English and Americans the third, and the French the fourth. I will use these different names interchangeably throughout this work. 99

As detached bodies or tribes, their names with the Lenape are the following:

As separate groups or tribes, their names with the Lenape are:

1. Sankhícani, the Mohawks, from Sankhican, a gunlock, this people being the first who were furnished with muskets by the Europeans, the locks of which, with their effect in striking fire, was a subject of great astonishment to them; and thus they were named, as it were, the fire-striking people.

1. Sankhícani, the Mohawks, from Sankhican, a gunlock, this people being the first who were provided with muskets by the Europeans, the locks of which, with their ability to create sparks, was a subject of great amazement to them; and thus they were named, in a way, the fire-striking people.

2. W’Tássone, the Oneidas. This name means the stone-pipe makers, and was given to them on account of their ingenuity in making tobacco pipes of stone.

2. W’Tássone, the Oneidas. This name means the stone-pipe makers, and was given to them because of their skill in crafting tobacco pipes from stone.

3. Onondágoes, the Onondagoes. This name signifies in their own language on the top of the hill, their town being so situated.

3. Onondágoes, the Onondagoes. This name means in their own language on the top of the hill, as their town is located that way.

4. Queúgue, Cayugas, thus called after a lake of the same name.

4. Queúgue, Cayugas, named after a lake with the same name.

5. Mæchachtínni, the Senecas. This name means Mountaineers, and was given them because they inhabited the hilly parts of the country.

5. Mæchachtínni, the Senecas. This name means Mountaineers, and was given to them because they lived in the hilly areas of the region.

6. The Tuscaroras, the sixth and last tribe in the league, they call by the same name, yet I have never heard the Lenape speak of the six divisions or tribes; when they describe them in that manner, it is always by the number Five.

6. The Tuscaroras, the sixth and final tribe in the league, call themselves by that name, but I've never heard the Lenape refer to the six divisions or tribes; when they talk about them that way, it’s always as Five.

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CHAPTER VI.
GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE NATIVE AMERICANS.

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The Indian considers himself as a being created by an all-powerful, wise, and benevolent Mannitto;114 all that he possesses, all that he enjoys, he looks upon as given to him or allotted for his use by the Great Spirit who gave him life: he therefore believes it to be his duty to adore and worship his Creator and benefactor; to acknowledge with gratitude his past favours, thank him for present blessings, and solicit the continuation of his good will.115

The Indian sees himself as a being created by an all-powerful, wise, and kind Mannitto;114 everything he has and enjoys, he views as given to him or assigned for his use by the Great Spirit who gave him life: he believes it is his duty to honor and worship his Creator and benefactor; to recognize with gratitude his past blessings, thank him for current gifts, and ask for the continuation of his goodwill.115

As beings who have control over all beasts and living creatures, they feel their importance; before they saw white people or men of a different colour from their own, they considered themselves as God’s favourites, and believed that if the Great Mannitto could reside on earth he would associate with them and be their great chief.

As beings who have control over all animals and living creatures, they understand their significance; before they encountered white people or individuals of a different color, they viewed themselves as God's chosen ones and believed that if the Great Mannitto could exist on earth, he would join them and be their great leader.

The Indian also believes, that he is highly favoured by his Maker, not only in having been created different in shape and in mental and bodily powers from other animals, but in being enabled to controul and master them all, even those of an enormous size and of the most ferocious kinds; and therefore, when he worships his Creator in his way, he does not omit in his supplications to pray that he may be endowed with courage to 101 fight and conquer his enemies, among whom he includes all savage beasts; and when he has performed some heroic act, he will not forget to acknowledge it as a mark of divine favour, by making a sacrifice to the great and good Mannitto, or by publicly announcing that his success was entirely owing to the courage given him by the all-powerful Spirit. Thus, habitual devotion to the great First Cause, and a strong feeling of gratitude for the benefits which he confers, is one of the prominent traits which characterise the mind of the untutored Indian.

The Indian believes that he is highly favored by his Creator, not only because he is created differently in shape and mental and physical abilities compared to other animals, but also because he has the ability to control and master them all, even those that are huge and most ferocious. Because of this, when he worships his Creator in his own way, he always includes prayers for courage to fight and conquer his enemies, which includes all wild beasts. When he has accomplished some heroic deed, he remembers to recognize it as a sign of divine favor by making a sacrifice to the great and good Mannitto, or by publicly stating that his success was entirely due to the courage granted to him by the all-powerful Spirit. Thus, a consistent devotion to the great First Cause and a strong sense of gratitude for the blessings he provides are key traits that define the mindset of the untutored Indian.

Not satisfied with paying this first of duties to the Lord of all, in the best manner they are able, the Indians also endeavour to fulfil the views which they suppose he had in creating the world. They think that he made the earth and all that it contains for the common good of mankind; when he stocked the country that he gave them with plenty of game, it was not for the benefit of a few, but of all. Every thing was given in common to the sons of men. Whatever liveth on the land, whatsoever groweth out of the earth, and all that is in the rivers and waters flowing through the same, was given jointly to all, and every one is entitled to his share. From this principle, hospitality flows as from its source. With them it is not a virtue but a strict duty. Hence they are never in search of excuses to avoid giving, but freely supply their neighbour’s wants from the stock prepared for their own use. They give and are hospitable to all, without exception, and will always share with each other and often with the stranger, even to their last morsel. They rather would lie down themselves on an empty stomach, than have it laid to their charge that they had neglected their duty, by not satisfying the wants of the stranger, the sick or the needy. The stranger has a claim to their hospitality, partly on account of his being at a distance from his family and friends, and partly because he has honoured them by his visit, and ought to leave them with a good impression upon his mind; the sick and the poor because they have a right to be helped out of the common stock: for if the meat they have been served with, was taken from the woods, it was common to all before the hunter took it; if corn or vegetables, it had grown out of the common ground, yet not by the power of man, but by that of the Great Spirit. Besides, on the principle, that all are descended from one parent, 102 they look upon themselves as but one great family, who therefore ought at all times and on all occasions, to be serviceable and kind to each other, and by that means make themselves acceptable to the head of the universal family, the great and good Mannitto. Let me be permitted to illustrate this by an example.

Not content with simply fulfilling their duty to the Lord of all in the best way they can, the Indigenous people also strive to achieve the purposes they believe he had in creating the world. They believe that he created the earth and everything on it for the common good of humanity; when he filled the land he gave them with abundant game, it was intended for everyone's benefit, not just a select few. Everything was provided equally for all of humanity. Everything that lives on land, grows from the earth, and exists in the rivers and waters belongs to everyone, and everyone is entitled to their fair share. This idea is the source of their hospitality. For them, it’s not just a nice thing to do but a strict obligation. They never look for excuses to avoid giving; instead, they generously meet their neighbor's needs from the supplies intended for their own use. They are open-handed and welcoming to everyone, without exceptions, and they are always willing to share with each other and often with strangers, even if it means giving away their last bite of food. They would rather go to bed hungry than feel guilty about not helping a stranger, the sick, or those in need. Strangers have a right to their hospitality partly because they are away from their families and friends, and partly because the visitors have honored them with their presence and should leave with a favorable impression. The sick and the poor deserve assistance from the shared resources because, whether the food comes from the woods or if it’s corn or vegetables, it was originally a communal resource before being claimed by the hunter; it grew from the common land, not by human effort, but by the will of the Great Spirit. Additionally, since they believe all people are descended from one parent, they see themselves as one large family that should always be helpful and kind to one another. In doing so, they make themselves pleasing to the head of the universal family, the great and good Mannitto. Let me illustrate this with an example.

Some travelling Indians having in the year 1777, put their horses over night to pasture in my little meadow, at Gnadenhütten on the Muskingum, I called on them in the morning to learn why they had done so. I endeavoured to make them sensible of the injury they had done me, especially as I intended to mow the meadow in a day or two. Having finished my complaint, one of them replied: “My friend, it seems you lay claim to the grass my horses have eaten, because you had enclosed it with a fence: now tell me, who caused the grass to grow? Can you make the grass grow? I think not, and no body can except the great Mannitto. He it is who causes it to grow both for my horses and for yours! See, friend! the grass which grows out of the earth is common to all; the game in the woods is common to all. Say, did you never eat venison and bear’s meat?—‘Yes, very often.’—Well, and did you ever hear me or any other Indian complain about that? No; then be not disturbed at my horses having eaten only once, of what you call your grass, though the grass my horses did eat, in like manner as the meat you did eat, was given to the Indians by the Great Spirit. Besides, if you will but consider, you will find that my horses did not eat all your grass. For friendship’s sake, however, I shall never put my horses in your meadow again.”

Some traveling Indians, in 1777, put their horses to graze overnight in my little meadow at Gnadenhütten on the Muskingum. In the morning, I went to ask them why they did that. I tried to explain how their actions affected me, especially since I was planning to mow the meadow in a day or two. After I finished my complaint, one of them responded: “My friend, it seems you think you own the grass my horses have eaten because you fenced it in. But tell me, who made the grass grow? Can you make the grass grow? I think not, and no one can except the great Mannitto. He is the one who makes it grow for both my horses and yours! Look, friend! The grass that grows from the earth belongs to everyone; the game in the woods is shared by all. Tell me, have you never eaten venison or bear meat?—‘Yes, very often.’—Well, have you ever heard me or any other Indian complain about that? No; so don’t be upset that my horses ate some of what you call your grass, just like the meat you ate was given to the Indians by the Great Spirit. Besides, if you think about it, you’ll see that my horses didn’t eat all your grass. For the sake of friendship, though, I will never let my horses into your meadow again.”

The Indians are not only just, they are also in many respects a generous people, and cannot see the sick and the aged suffer for want of clothing. To such they will give a blanket, a shirt, a pair of leggings, mocksens, &c. Otherwise, when they make presents, it is done with a view to receive an equivalent in return, and the receiver is given to understand what that ought to be. In making presents to strangers, they are content with some trifle in token of remembrance; but when they give any thing to a trader, they at least expect double the value in return, saying that he can afford to do it, since he had cheated them so often.

The Indigenous people are not only fair, but they are also very generous and cannot stand to see the sick and elderly suffer due to lack of clothing. They will give away a blanket, a shirt, a pair of leggings, moccasins, etc. However, when they give gifts, it's usually with the expectation of getting something of equal value in return, and the recipient is made aware of what they should give back. When giving gifts to strangers, they are satisfied with a small token as a memory; but when they give something to a trader, they expect at least double the value in return, saying that the trader can afford it since he has cheated them so many times.

They treat each other with civility, and shew much affection 103 on meeting after an absence. When they meet in the forenoon, they will compliment one another with saying, “a good morning to you!” and in the afternoon, “a good evening.” In the act of shaking hands with each other, they strictly attend to the distinguishing names of relations, which they utter at the time; as for instance, “a good morning, father, grandfather, uncle, aunt, cousin,” and so down to a small grandchild. They are also in the habit of saluting old people no ways related to them, by the names of grandfather and grandmother, not in a tone of condescending superiority or disguised contempt, but as a genuine mark of the respect which they feel for age. The common way of saluting where no relationship exists, is that of “friend;” when, however, the young people meet, they make use of words suitable to their years or stage in life; they will say “a good morning, comrade, favourite, beloved, &c.” Even the children salute each other affectionately. “I am glad to see you,” is the common way in which the Indians express themselves to one another after a short absence; but on meeting after a long absence, on the return of a messenger or a warrior from a critical or dangerous expedition, they have more to say; the former is saluted in the most cordial manner with some such expression: “I thank the Great Spirit, that he has preserved our lives to this time of our happily meeting again. I am, indeed, very glad to see you.” To which the other will reply: “you speak the truth; it is through the favour of the great and good Spirit that we are permitted to meet. I am equally glad to see you.” To the latter will be said: “I am glad that the Great Spirit has preserved your life and granted you a safe return to your family.”

They treat each other with politeness and show a lot of affection when they reunite after being apart. When they meet in the morning, they greet each other with "good morning!" and in the afternoon, they say "good evening." While shaking hands, they specifically refer to each other by their relationship names, like “good morning, father, grandfather, uncle, aunt, cousin,” all the way down to a small grandchild. They also greet elderly people they aren’t related to by calling them grandfather and grandmother, not in a condescending way, but out of genuine respect for age. When there's no relationship, they typically say "friend." However, when young people meet, they use suitable terms for their age or relationship, saying things like “good morning, comrade, favorite, beloved, etc.” Even children greet each other warmly. “I’m glad to see you” is the usual expression among the Indians after a short absence; but when they meet after a long separation, like when a messenger or warrior returns from a dangerous mission, they have more to say. The former is greeted very warmly with something like: “I thank the Great Spirit that we are together again. I’m really glad to see you.” To this, the other replies: “You speak the truth; it is by the grace of the great and good Spirit that we can meet. I’m also very glad to see you.” The response will include: “I’m happy that the Great Spirit has kept you safe and brought you back to your family.”

They are not quarrelsome, and are always on their guard, so as not to offend each other. When one supposes himself hurt or aggrieved by a word which has inadvertently fallen from the mouth of another, he will say to him: “Friend, you have caused me to become jealous of you,” (meaning that he begins to doubt the sincerity of his friendship,) when the other explaining and saying that he had no bad intention, all is done away again.

They aren’t argumentative and always stay on guard to avoid offending each other. When someone feels hurt or wronged by something another person has said unintentionally, they will say, “Friend, you’ve made me jealous of you,” (meaning they start to doubt the sincerity of their friendship). The other person then explains that they had no bad intentions, and everything is resolved.

They do not fight with each other; they say that fighting is only for dogs and beasts. They are, however, fond of play, and passing a joke, yet very careful that they do not offend.

They don’t argue with one another; they believe that arguing is only for dogs and animals. However, they really enjoy playing and joking around, while being careful not to offend anyone.

They are ingenious in making satirical observations, which 104 though they create laughter, do not, or but seldom give offence. For instance, seeing a bad hunter going out into the woods with his gun, they will ask him if he is going out for meat? or say to one another: “now we shall have meat, for such a one is gone a hunting,” (not believing any such thing.) If they see a coward joining a war party, they will ask him ironically at what time he intends to come back again? (knowing that he will return before he has met the enemy,) or they will say to one another: “will he return this way with his scalps?”

They are clever at making sarcastic comments that, while they may make people laugh, rarely offend anyone. For example, when they see a bad hunter heading into the woods with his gun, they'll ask him if he's going out for meat or say to each other, “Now we’ll have meat because that guy is off hunting,” knowing full well that’s not going to happen. If they notice a coward joining a war party, they'll jokingly ask him when he plans to come back, fully aware he’ll turn back long before facing the enemy, or they’ll remark to each other, “Will he come back this way with any scalps?”

Genuine wit, which one would hardly expect to find in a savage people, is not unfrequent among them. I have heard them, for instance, compare the English and American nations to a pair of scissors, an instrument composed of two sharp edged knives exactly alike, working against each other for the same purpose, that of cutting. By the construction of this instrument, they said, it would appear as if in shutting, these two sharp knives would strike together and destroy each other’s edges; but no such thing: they only cut what comes between them. And thus the English and Americans do when they go to war against one another. It is not each other that they want to destroy, but us, poor Indians, that are between them. By this means they get our land, and, when that is obtained, the scissors are closed again, and laid by for further use.

Genuine wit, which you'd hardly expect to find in a primitive people, is actually pretty common among them. For example, I've heard them compare the English and American nations to a pair of scissors, an instrument made up of two identical sharp knives that work against each other for the same purpose: cutting. They said that by the design of this tool, it seems like when they close, these two sharp knives would hit each other and ruin each other's edges; but that's not the case: they only cut what comes between them. And that's exactly what the English and Americans do when they go to war against each other. They're not out to destroy each other, but rather us, poor Indians, who are stuck in the middle. This way, they take our land, and once that’s done, the scissors are closed again and put away for later use.

They are remarkable for the particular respect which they pay to old age. In all their meetings, whether public or private, they pay the greatest attention to the observations and advice of the aged; no one will attempt to contradict them, nor to interfere in any manner or even to speak, unless he is specially called upon. “The aged,” they say, “have lived through the whole period of our lives, and long before we were born; they have not only all the knowledge we possess, but a great deal more. We, therefore, must submit our limited views to their experience.”

They stand out for the particular respect they show towards older people. In all their gatherings, whether public or private, they pay close attention to the insights and advice of the elderly; no one tries to argue with them, interfere in any way, or even speak unless specifically asked to. “The elderly,” they say, “have lived through our entire lives and long before we were born; they possess not only all the knowledge we have but a lot more. Therefore, we must accept our limited perspectives in light of their experience.”

In travelling, one of the oldest will always take the lead, unless another is specially appointed for that purpose. If such a one stops to hunt, or in order to stay and encamp at the place for some time, all halt together, all are pleased with the spot and declare it to be judiciously chosen. 105

When traveling, the oldest person will usually take the lead, unless someone else is specifically assigned to do so. If this person decides to stop and hunt, or to stay and camp at a location for a while, everyone stops together, everyone enjoys the place, and they all agree it was a good choice. 105

I shall expatiate further on this interesting part of the Indian character, in the sequel of this work.

I will elaborate more on this intriguing aspect of Indian character in the following sections of this work.

They have a strong innate sense of justice, which will lead them sometimes to acts which some men will call heroic, others romantic, and not a few, perhaps, will designate by the epithet barbarous; a vague indefinite word, which if it means anything, might, perhaps, be best explained by something not like ourselves. However that may be, this feeling certainly exists among the Indians, and as I cannot describe it better than by its effects, I shall content myself with relating on this subject a characteristic anecdote which happened in the year 1793, at an Indian village called La Chine, situated nine miles above Montreal, and was told me in the same year by Mr. La Ramée, a French Canadian inhabitant of that place, whom I believe to be a person of strict veracity. I was then on my return from Detroit, in company with General Lincoln and several other gentlemen, who were present at the relation, and gave it their full belief. I thought it then so interesting, that I inserted it in my journal, from which I now extract it.

They have a strong natural sense of justice, which sometimes leads them to actions that some people might call heroic, others might see as romantic, and quite a few might label as barbarous; a vague and unclear word that, if it means anything, might best be defined as something not like us. Regardless, this feeling definitely exists among the Indians, and since I can't describe it any better than by its effects, I’ll share a notable story about it that took place in 1793 at an Indian village called La Chine, located nine miles above Montreal. I heard this story that same year from Mr. La Ramée, a French Canadian who lived there, whom I believe to be a reliable person. At the time, I was returning from Detroit, along with General Lincoln and several other gentlemen who were there and fully believed the story. I found it so interesting that I included it in my journal, from which I now extract it.

There were in the said village of La Chine two remarkable Indians, the one for his stature, being six feet four inches in height, and the other for his strength and activity. These two meeting together one day in the street, (a third being present,) the former in a high tone made use of some insulting language to the other, which he could not well put up with: he called him a coward, said he was his inferior in every respect, and so provoked his anger, that unable any longer to contain himself, the latter instantly replied: “You have grossly insulted me; but I will prevent you from doing the like again!” and at the same moment stabbed him through the body with his knife, so that he dropped down dead by his side. The alarm being immediately spread through the village, a crowd of Indians assembled, and the murderer having seated himself on the ground by the side of the dead body, coolly awaited his fate, which he could not expect to be any other than immediate death, particularly as the cry of the people was, “Kill him! Kill him!” But although he placed his body and head in a proper posture to receive the stroke of the tomahawk, no one attempted to lay hands on him; but after removing the dead body from where it lay, they left 106 him alone. Not meeting here with his expected fate, he rose from this place for a more public part of the village, and there lay down on the ground in the hope of being the sooner despatched; but the spectators, after viewing him, all retired again. Sensible that his life was justly forfeited, and anxious to be relieved from a state of suspense, he took the resolution to go to the mother of the deceased, an aged widow, whom he addressed in these words: “Woman, I have killed thy son; he had insulted me, it is true; but still he was thine, and his life was valuable to thee. I, therefore, now surrender myself up to thy will. Direct as thou wilt have it, and relieve me speedily from misery.” To which the woman answered: “Thou hast, indeed, killed my son, who was dear to me, and the only supporter I had in my old age. One life is already lost, and to take thine on that account, cannot be of any service to me, nor better my situation. Thou hast, however, a son, whom, if thou wilt give me in the place of my son, whom thou hast slain, all shall be wiped away.” The murderer then replied: “Mother, my son is yet but a child, ten years old, and can be of no service to thee, but rather a trouble and charge; but here am I, truly capable of supporting and maintaining thee: if thou wilt receive me as thy son, nothing shall be wanting on my part to make thee comfortable while thou livest.” The woman approving of the proposal, forthwith adopted him as her son, and took the whole family to her house.

In the village of La Chine, there were two remarkable Indians: one was notable for his height, standing at six feet four inches, and the other for his strength and agility. One day, the taller man insulted the other in the street, calling him a coward and claiming he was inferior in every way. This provoked the second man so much that he replied, “You've really insulted me, but I won’t let you get away with it again!” With that, he stabbed the taller man with his knife, killing him instantly. Word spread quickly through the village, and a crowd of Indians gathered. The murderer sat calmly next to the dead body, knowing he would likely face immediate death, especially as people shouted, “Kill him! Kill him!” However, while he readied himself for the blow of a tomahawk, no one came forward to harm him. After moving the deceased away, they left him alone. Not getting the expected punishment, he decided to move to a more public area of the village and lay down, hoping someone would end his life. But the onlookers, after glancing at him, eventually walked away. Realizing his life was rightfully at stake and wanting to escape his uncertainty, he approached the mother of the deceased, an elderly widow. He said to her, “Woman, I have killed your son; he did insult me, but he was yours, and his life meant a lot to you. I now surrender myself to your will. Do with me as you wish, and relieve me quickly from this misery.” The widow replied, “You have indeed killed my son, who was dear to me and the only support I had in my old age. One life is already lost, and taking yours won’t help me or improve my situation. However, if you give me your son in place of my son that you've taken, I will forgive you.” The murderer responded, “Mother, my son is only a child, just ten years old, and wouldn’t be able to help you; he would be more of a burden. But I am fully capable of supporting and taking care of you. If you accept me as your son, I will do everything to make sure you live comfortably.” The widow agreed to his proposal, adopting him as her son, and welcomed the whole family into her home.

But we must now look to the other side of the picture. It cannot but be acknowledged that the Indians are in general revengeful and cruel to their enemies. That even after the battle is over, they wreak their deliberate revenge on their defenceless prisoners; that in their wars they are indifferent about the means which they pursue for the annoyance and destruction of their adversaries, and that surprise and stratagem are as often employed by them as open force. This is all true. Deprived of the light of the only true Christian Religion, unchecked by the precepts and unswayed by the example of the God of peace, they indulge too much, sometimes, the violence of their passions, and commit actions which force the tear from the eye of humanity. But, upon the whole, are we better than they are? I reserve this question for a separate chapter. 107

But we need to consider the other side of the situation. It's clear that, in general, the Indians are vengeful and brutal towards their enemies. Even after a battle, they take deliberate revenge on their defenseless prisoners; in their wars, they often show little concern for the methods they use to annoy and destroy their opponents, employing surprise tactics and deception just as frequently as outright force. This is all true. Lacking the guidance of true Christian teachings and not influenced by the example of the God of peace, they sometimes give in to their intense emotions, committing acts that bring tears to the eyes of humanity. But overall, are we really any better than they are? I'll save this question for a separate chapter. 107


CHAPTER VII.
GOVERNMENT.

A

Although the Indians have no code of laws for their government, their chiefs find little or no difficulty in governing them. They are supported by able experienced counsellors; men who study the welfare of the nation, and are equally interested with themselves in its prosperity. On them the people rely entirely, believing that what they do, or determine upon, must be right and for the public good.

Although the Native Americans have no formal legal code for their governance, their leaders have little trouble managing their communities. They are backed by skilled and experienced advisors, who genuinely care about the nation's well-being and share a vested interest in its success. The people fully depend on them, trusting that their decisions and actions are always in the best interest of the community.

Proud of seeing such able men conduct the affairs of their nation, the Indians are little troubled about what they are doing, knowing that the result of their deliberations will be made public in due time, and sure that it will receive their approbation. This result is made known to them by the chief through the orator, for which purpose they are called together and assemble at the council-house; and if it be found necessary to require a contribution of wampum, for carrying the decision of the chiefs into effect, it is cheerfully complied with by the whole assembly.

Proud to see such capable leaders managing their nation's affairs, the Indians are not overly concerned about the details of their actions, knowing that the outcomes of their discussions will be shared with them in due time, and feeling confident that they will approve of it. This outcome is communicated to them by the chief through the orator, who gathers everyone together at the council house; if it becomes necessary to ask for a contribution of wampum to implement the chiefs' decisions, the entire assembly gladly agrees to it.

The chiefs are very careful in preserving for their own information, and that of future generations, all important deliberations and treaties made at any time between them and other nations. Thus, between the years 1770 and 1780, they could relate very minutely what had passed between William Penn and their forefathers, at their first meeting and afterwards, and also the transactions which took place with the governors who succeeded him. For the purpose of refreshing their own memories, and of instructing one or more of their most capable and promising 108 young men in these matters, they assemble once or twice a year. On these occasions they always meet at a chosen spot in the woods, at a small distance from the town, where a fire is kindled, and at the proper time provisions are brought out to them; there, on a large piece of bark or on a blanket, all the documents are laid out in such order, that they can at once distinguish each particular speech, the same as we know the principal contents of an instrument of writing by the endorsement on it. If any paper or parchment writings are connected with the belts, or strings of wampum, they apply to some trusty white man (if such can be had,) to read the contents to them. Their speaker then, who is always chosen from among those who are endowed with superior talents, and has already been trained up to the business, rises, and in an audible voice delivers, with the gravity that the subject requires, the contents, sentence after sentence, until he has finished the whole on one subject. On the manner in which the belts or strings of wampum are handled by the speaker, much depends; the turning116 of the belt which takes place when he has finished one half of his speech, is a material point, though this is not common in all speeches with belts; but when it is the case, and is done properly, it may be as well known by it how far the speaker has advanced in his speech, as with us on taking a glance at the pages of a book or pamphlet while reading; and a good speaker will be able to point out the exact place on a belt which is to answer to each particular sentence, the same as we can point out a passage in a book. Belts and strings, when done with by the speaker, are again handed to the chief, who puts them up carefully in the speech-bag or pouch.

The chiefs are very careful to preserve important discussions and treaties for themselves and future generations. Between 1770 and 1780, they could recall in detail everything that happened between William Penn and their ancestors during their first meeting and afterwards, as well as the interactions with the governors who followed him. To refresh their memories and teach one or more of their most talented young men about these matters, they gather once or twice a year. They always meet at a chosen spot in the woods, a short distance from town, where a fire is lit, and at the right time, food is brought to them. There, on a large piece of bark or a blanket, all the documents are laid out in order so they can easily identify each speech, just as we recognize the main points of a written document by its title. If there are any written papers or parchments associated with the belts or strings of wampum, they ask a trustworthy white man (if one is available) to read the contents to them. Their speaker, always selected from those with exceptional skills and already trained in this role, stands up and speaks clearly, delivering the content with the seriousness it deserves, sentence by sentence, until he finishes discussing one topic. The way the speaker handles the belts or strings of wampum is very important; the turning of the belt that occurs when he has finished the first half of his speech is significant, although this isn't standard in all speeches with belts. However, when it does happen and is done correctly, it’s just as easy to tell how far along the speaker is in his speech as it is for us to glance at the pages of a book or pamphlet while reading. A good speaker can indicate the exact spot on a belt that corresponds to each specific sentence, much like we can point out a passage in a book. After the speaker is finished, the belts and strings are returned to the chief, who carefully stores them in the speech bag or pouch.

A message of importance is generally sent on to the place of its destination, by an inferior chief, by a counsellor, or by the speaker, especially when an immediate answer is expected. In 109 other cases, where for instance only an answer to a speech is to be sent, two capable young men are selected for the purpose, the one to deliver the message or answer, and the other to pay attention while his companion is delivering it, that no part be forgotten or omitted. If the message be of a private nature, they are charged to draw or take it under ground, that is, not to make it known to any person whatsoever, except to him to whom it is directed. If they are told to enter into the earth with the message or speech, and rise again at the place where they are to deliver it, it is to desire them to be careful not to be seen by the way by any person, and for that purpose to avoid all paths, and travel through the woods.

A message of importance is usually delivered to its destination by a lower chief, a counselor, or the speaker, especially when a quick response is needed. In other situations, like when only a reply to a speech is required, two capable young men are chosen for the task: one to deliver the message or reply, and the other to make sure that nothing is forgotten or left out while his partner delivers it. If the message is private, they are instructed to keep it under ground, meaning they should not reveal it to anyone other than the intended recipient. If they are told to go into the earth with the message or speech and return at the place of delivery, it means they need to be careful not to be seen along the way by anyone, so they should avoid all paths and travel through the woods.

No chief pays any attention to reports, though they may carry with them the marks of truth. Until he is officially and in due form apprised of the matter, he will, if questioned on the subject, reply that he had not heard it. It will, until then, be considered by him as the song of a bird which had flown by; but as soon as he is officially informed, through a string of wampum from some distant chief or leading man of the nation, whose situation entitles him to receive credit, he then will say: “I have heard it;” and acts accordingly.

No chief pays attention to reports, even if they seem true. Until he is officially and properly informed about the issue, if you ask him, he’ll say that he has not heard it. Until then, he’ll see it as just the song of a bird that flew by; but once he gets an official word, like a string of wampum from a distant chief or a respected leader whose position gives him credibility, he will then say: “I have heard it;” and he’ll act accordingly.

The Indians generally, but their chiefs more particularly, have many figurative expressions in use, to understand which requires instruction. When a nation, by message or otherwise, speaks to another nation in this way, it is well understood; but when they speak to white people after this manner, who have not been accustomed to such language, explanations are necessary.

The Indigenous people, especially their leaders, often use many figurative expressions that require some teaching to understand. When one nation communicates with another in this way, it’s clear; however, when they talk to white people who aren’t familiar with this kind of language, explanations are needed.

Their belts of wampum are of different dimensions, both as to the length and breadth. White and black wampum are the kinds they use; the former denoting that which is good, as peace, friendship, good will, &c., the latter the reverse; yet occasionally the black also is made use of on peace errands, when the white cannot be procured; but previous to its being produced for such purpose, it must be daubed all over with chalk, white clay, or any thing which changes the colour from black to white. The pipe of peace, being either made of a black or red stone, must also be whitened before it is produced and smoked out of on such occasions. 110

Their belts of wampum come in various sizes, both in length and width. They use white and black wampum; the white represents things that are good, like peace, friendship, goodwill, etc., while the black represents the opposite. Sometimes, black wampum is used for peace missions when white is not available, but before it can be used for that purpose, it has to be covered all over with chalk, white clay, or anything that changes it from black to white. The peace pipe, made from either black or red stone, also needs to be whitened before it is presented and smoked during these occasions. 110

Roads from one friendly nation to another, are generally marked on the belt, by one or two rows of white wampum interwoven in the black, and running through the middle, and from end to end. It means that they are on good terms, and keep up a friendly intercourse with each other.

Roads connecting one friendly nation to another are usually marked on the belt with one or two rows of white wampum interwoven in black, running down the middle from end to end. This symbolizes that they have a good relationship and maintain friendly interactions with each other.

A black belt with the mark of a hatchet made on it with red paint, is a war belt, which, when sent to a nation together with a twist or roll of tobacco, is an invitation to join in a war. If the nation so invited smoke of this tobacco, and say it smokes well, they have given their consent, and are from that moment allies. If however they decline smoking, all further persuasion would be of no effect; yet it once117 happened, that war messengers endeavoured to persuade and compel a nation to accept the belt, by laying it on the shoulders or thigh of the chief, who, however, after shaking it off without touching it with his hands, afterwards, with a stick, threw it after them, as if he threw a snake or toad out of his way.

A black belt marked with a red-painted hatchet is a war belt. When this belt is sent to a nation along with a twist or roll of tobacco, it serves as an invitation to join a war. If the invited nation smokes the tobacco and remarks that it smokes well, they have given their consent and become allies from that moment on. However, if they refuse to smoke, any further persuasion will be ineffective. Still, there was one occasion when war messengers tried to pressure a nation into accepting the belt by placing it on the shoulders or thigh of the chief. The chief, however, shook it off without using his hands and then, with a stick, tossed it away as if he were throwing a snake or toad out of his path.

Although at their councils they do not seat themselves after the manner of the white people, yet the attitude they place themselves in is not chargeable to them as a want of respect. Faithful to the trust committed to them, they are careless of ceremonies, from which the nation cannot derive any benefit. They seat themselves promiscuously around a council fire, some leaning one way, some another, so that a stranger on viewing them, might be led to conclude they were inattentive to what was said, or had become tired of attending. Not so! even sitting in this posture gives them the opportunity of being intent on what is said, and attentive to the subject under their consideration. They have no object to look at, which might draw off their attention. They are all ears, though they do not stare at the speaker! The fact is, that nothing can draw their attention from the subject they are deliberating on, unless the house they are sitting in should take fire or be attacked by an enemy.

Although they don't sit at their councils like white people do, their choice of seating isn't a sign of disrespect. True to their duty, they ignore formalities that don't benefit the community. They gather randomly around a council fire, with some leaning this way and some that, so an outsider might think they aren’t paying attention or have lost interest. But that’s not true! Even in this relaxed position, they remain focused on what’s being said and the topic at hand. They have no distractions to pull their attention away. They are fully engaged, even if they aren’t staring at the speaker! The truth is, nothing will divert their attention from their discussion unless the building they’re in catches fire or is attacked by an enemy.

To prove the correctness of the above assertion, I shall relate the following fact, which happened at Detroit in the winter of 1785 and 1786. 111

To prove that my claim is accurate, I will share the following event that took place in Detroit during the winter of 1785 and 1786. 111

When two most audacious murderers of the Chippeway nation, who, for many months, had put the town and whole country in fear, by the threats and the daring murders they had committed in the settlement, were taken, and brought before the commandant (their chiefs having been previously sent for, and being now assembled in the council house), heard him pronounce the words: “that according to the laws of their Father (the English) they should118 be punished with death,” the younger of the two, who was the son of the other, sprang from his seat, and having forced his way to119 the door, endeavoured with a knife or dagger he had hidden under his blanket, to work his way through the strong guard placed outside of the door and120 in the street to prevent their escape; in this attempt, however, he was stabbed and fell; all which occasioned much noise and commotion without, and not a little fear and uneasiness within, among the spectators and officers of government; yet, not one of the chiefs, who were many in number, either moved from his seat, nor looked around, or even at one another; but they all remained sitting in the same posture as before, smoking their pipes as if nothing had happened.

When two of the boldest murderers from the Chippeway nation, who had terrified the town and the entire region for months with their threats and reckless killings, were captured and brought before the commandant (their chiefs having been called for and now gathered in the council house), they heard him declare that “according to the laws of their Father (the English) they should118 be punished with death.” The younger one, who was the son of the other, jumped up, pushed his way to119 the door, and tried to fight his way past the strong guard outside with a knife or dagger he had hidden under his blanket. In this attempt, however, he was stabbed and fell, causing a lot of noise and commotion outside, as well as significant fear and unease among the spectators and government officials inside. Despite this, none of the chiefs, who were numerous, moved from their seats, looked around, or even glanced at one another; they all stayed sitting in the same position, smoking their pipes as if nothing had happened.

Though there are sometimes individuals in a nation, who disregard the counsel and good advice given by the chiefs, yet they do not meet with support so as to be able to oppose the measures of government. They are generally looked upon as depraved beings, who not daring to associate with the others, lurk about by themselves, generally bent on mischief of a minor kind, such as pilfering small articles of goods and provisions. As soon, however, as they go a step further, and become known thieves and murderers, they are considered a disgrace to the nation, and being in a manner disowned by it, they are no longer entitled to their protection.

Though there are sometimes people in a nation who ignore the advice and good counsel of the leaders, they don't receive enough support to challenge the government's actions. They're usually seen as immoral individuals who, too scared to join others, keep to themselves and tend to engage in petty mischief, like stealing small items and food. However, as soon as they cross the line and become known thieves or murderers, they are viewed as a disgrace to the nation, and in a sense, they're disowned by it; they no longer have the right to its protection.

In the year 1785, an Indian of this description, murdered a Mr. Evans at Pittsburg; when, after a confinement of several months, his trial was to be brought on, the chiefs of his (the Delaware nation,) were invited to come to be present at the 112 proceedings and see how the trial would be conducted, and, also, if they chose, to speak in behalf of the accused. These chiefs, however, instead of coming, as wished for, sent to the civil officers of that place the following laconic answer: “Brethren! You inform us that N. N. who murdered one of your men at Pittsburg, is shortly to be tried by the laws of your country, at which trial you request that some of us may be present! Brethren! knowing N. N. to have been always a very bad man, we do not wish to see him! We, therefore, advise you to try him by your laws, and to hang him, so that he may never return to us again.”

In 1785, an Indian fitting this description killed a Mr. Evans in Pittsburgh. After several months in confinement, his trial was set to begin. The leaders of his (the Delaware nation) were invited to attend the proceedings and, if they wished, to speak on behalf of the accused. However, instead of attending as requested, these leaders sent the civil officials of the area a brief response: “Friends! You have informed us that N. N., who killed one of your men in Pittsburgh, is soon to be tried by your country’s laws, and you’ve asked us to be present! Friends! Knowing N. N. has always been a very bad man, we do not wish to see him! Therefore, we advise you to try him by your laws and to hang him, so that he may never return to us again.”

I shall conclude this subject with another anecdote. When in the winter of 1788 and 1789, the Indian nations were assembling at Fort Harmer, at the mouth of the Muskingum, where a treaty was to be held, an Indian of the Seneca nation was one morning found dead on the bank of the river. The Cornplanter, chief of this nation, observing some uneasiness among the officers and people of the place, and fearing the murder at this time and place, might perhaps create much disturbance, waited in the morning on the Governor, whom he desired “not to be uneasy about what had happened the preceding night, for the man who had been killed was of no consequence.” This meant in other words, that he was disowned for his bad conduct by his countrymen, and that his death would not be a loss to his nation.

I’ll wrap up this topic with another story. In the winter of 1788 and 1789, when the Indian nations were gathering at Fort Harmer, where a treaty was set to take place, a member of the Seneca nation was found dead on the riverbank one morning. The Cornplanter, the chief of this nation, noticed some worry among the officers and locals and, fearing that the murder at this time and place might cause significant trouble, went to see the Governor. He asked him “not to be concerned about what happened the night before, because the man who was killed didn't matter.” In other words, he was saying that the man was rejected by his people due to his bad behavior, and that his death would not be a loss to the nation.

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CHAPTER VIII.
EDUCATION.

I

It may justly be a subject of wonder, how a nation without a written code of laws or system of jurisprudence, without any form or constitution of government, and without even a single elective or hereditary magistrate, can subsist together in peace and harmony, and in the exercise of the moral virtues; how a people can be well and effectually governed without any external authority; by the mere force of the ascendancy which men of superior minds have over those of a more ordinary stamp; by a tacit, yet universal submission to the aristocracy of experience, talents and virtue! Such, nevertheless, is the spectacle which an Indian nation exhibits to the eye of a stranger. I have been a witness to it for a long series of years, and after much observation and reflection to discover the cause of this phenomenon, I think I have reason to be satisfied that it is in a great degree to be ascribed to the pains which the Indians take to instill at an early age honest and virtuous principles upon the minds of their children, and to the method which they pursue in educating them. This method I will not call a system; for systems are unknown to these sons of nature, who, by following alone her simple dictates, have at once discovered and follow without effort that plain obvious path which the philosophers of Europe have been so long in search of.

It is truly amazing how a nation without a written legal code or system of laws, lacking any form of government, and without a single elected or hereditary official, can live together in peace and harmony while practicing moral values. How can a society be effectively governed without any external authority? It's simply the influence that individuals with superior intellect and character have over those of more average capability, relying on a silent yet widespread acceptance of the leadership provided by experienced, talented, and virtuous individuals! Yet, this is exactly what an Indian nation presents to an outsider. I have observed this for many years, and after much thought and contemplation to understand this phenomenon, I believe I’m justified in concluding that it largely stems from the efforts of the Indians to instill honest and virtuous principles in their children from a young age, along with the way they educate them. I won't refer to this as a system, as these natural people are unfamiliar with systems; instead, by following nature's simple guidance, they have effortlessly discovered and adhered to that clear and straightforward path that European philosophers have been trying to find for so long.

The first step that parents take towards the education of their children, is to prepare them for future happiness, by impressing upon their tender minds, that they are indebted for their existence 114 to a great, good and benevolent Spirit, who not only has given them life, but has ordained them for certain great purposes. That he has given them a fertile extensive country well stocked with game of every kind for their subsistence, and that by one of his inferior spirits he has also sent down to them from above corn, pumpkins, squashes, beans and other vegetables for their nourishment; all which blessings their ancestors have enjoyed for a great number of ages. That this great Spirit looks down upon the Indians, to see whether they are grateful to him and make him a due return for the many benefits he has bestowed, and therefore that it is their duty to show their thankfulness by worshipping him, and doing that which is pleasing in his sight.

The first step parents take in educating their children is to prepare them for a happy future by teaching them that their existence is a gift from a great, good, and benevolent Spirit. This Spirit not only gave them life but also has plans for them. He has provided them with a vast, fertile land full of game for their survival, and through one of his lesser spirits, he has sent down valuable crops like corn, pumpkins, squashes, beans, and other vegetables for their nourishment—blessings that their ancestors have enjoyed for many generations. This great Spirit observes the Indians to see if they are grateful and if they give back in appreciation for the many benefits he has provided. Therefore, it is their duty to show gratitude by worshiping him and doing what pleases him.

This is in substance the first lesson taught, and from time to time repeated to the Indian children, which naturally leads them to reflect and gradually to understand that a being which hath done such great things for them, and all to make them happy, must be good indeed, and that it is surely their duty to do something that will please him. They are then told that their ancestors, who received all this from the hands of the great Spirit, and lived in the enjoyment of it, must have been informed of what would be most pleasing to this good being, and of the manner in which his favour could be most surely obtained, and they are directed to look up for instruction to those who know all this, to learn from them, and revere them for their wisdom and the knowledge which they possess; this creates in the children a strong sentiment of respect for their elders, and a desire to follow their advice and example. Their young ambition is then excited by telling them that they were made the superiors of all other creatures, and are to have power over them; great pains are taken to make this feeling take an early root, and it becomes in fact their ruling passion through life; for no pains are spared to instill into them that by following the advice of the most admired and extolled hunter, trapper or warrior, they will at a future day acquire a degree of fame and reputation, equal to that which he possesses; that by submitting to the counsels of the aged, the chiefs, the men superior in wisdom, they may also rise to glory, and be called Wisemen, an honourable title, to which no Indian is indifferent. They are 115 finally told that if they respect the aged and infirm, and are kind and obliging to them, they will be treated in the same manner when their turn comes to feel the infirmities of old age.

This is basically the first lesson taught and repeated to the Indian children, which naturally encourages them to think and gradually understand that a being who has done such great things for them, all to make them happy, must be truly good, and that it is definitely their duty to do something that will please him. They are then told that their ancestors, who received all this from the great Spirit and enjoyed it, must have known what would be most pleasing to this good being and how to earn his favor. They are encouraged to seek guidance from those who understand all this, to learn from them, and to respect them for their wisdom and knowledge; this builds in the children a strong sense of respect for their elders and a desire to follow their advice and example. Their young ambition is further sparked by telling them that they were made superior to all other creatures and are to have power over them; great effort is made to instill this feeling early on, and it becomes their main driving force throughout life. They are taught that by following the advice of the most admired hunters, trappers, or warriors, they will achieve fame and reputation equal to theirs; by heeding the counsel of the elderly, chiefs, and wise men, they too can rise to glory and be called Wisemen, an honorable title that every Indian values. They are finally told that if they respect the elderly and infirm, and are kind and helpful to them, they will be treated the same way when it is their turn to face the challenges of old age.

When this first and most important lesson is thought to be sufficiently impressed upon children’s minds, the parents next proceed to make them sensible of the distinction between good and evil; they tell them that there are good actions and bad actions, both equally open to them to do or commit; that good acts are pleasing to the good Spirit which gave them their existence, and that on the contrary, all that is bad proceeds from the bad spirit who has given them nothing, and who cannot give them any thing that is good, because he has it not, and therefore he envies them that which they have received from the good Spirit, who is far superior to the bad one.

When this first and most important lesson is thought to be sufficiently impressed upon children’s minds, the parents next proceed to help them understand the difference between good and evil. They explain that there are good actions and bad actions, both of which they can choose to do; that good acts are pleasing to the good Spirit that gave them life, while, on the other hand, everything bad comes from the bad spirit who has given them nothing and cannot provide anything good because he doesn’t possess it. Therefore, he envies what they have received from the good Spirit, who is far superior to the bad one.

This introductory lesson, if it may be so called, naturally makes them wish to know what is good and what is bad. This the parent teaches him in his own way, that is to say, in the way in which he was himself taught by his own parents. It is not the lesson of an hour nor of a day, it is rather a long course more of practical than of theoretical instruction, a lesson, which is not repeated at stated seasons or times, but which is shewn, pointed out, and demonstrated to the child, not only by those under whose immediate guardianship he is, but by the whole community, who consider themselves alike interested in the direction to be given to the rising generation.

This introductory lesson, if we can call it that, naturally makes kids curious about what is good and what is bad. Parents teach them in their own way, which is to say, the way they learned from their own parents. It’s not a lesson that happens in an hour or a day; it’s more of a long-term process focused on practical rather than theoretical learning. This lesson isn't repeated at specific times, but is shown, highlighted, and demonstrated to the child not just by their immediate guardians, but by the entire community, who all have a stake in guiding the next generation.

When this instruction is given in the form of precepts, it must not be supposed that it is done in an authoritative or forbidding tone, but, on the contrary, in the gentlest and most persuasive manner: nor is the parent’s authority ever supported by harsh or compulsive means; no whips, no punishments, no threats are even used to enforce commands or compel obedience. The child’s pride is the feeling to which an appeal is made, which proves successful in almost every instance. A father needs only to say in the presence of his children: “I want such a thing done; I want one of my children to go upon such an errand; let me see who is the good child that will do it!” This word good operates, as it were, by magic, and the children immediately vie with each other to comply with the wishes of their parent. 116 If a father sees an old decrepid man or woman pass by, led along by a child, he will draw the attention of his own children to the object by saying: “What a good child that must be, which pays such attention to the aged! That child, indeed, looks forward to the time when it will likewise be old!” or he will say, “May the great Spirit, who looks upon him, grant this good child a long life!”

When this guidance is given as rules, it shouldn't be thought of as coming across in an authoritative or strict way, but rather in the gentlest and most convincing manner. A parent's authority is never backed by harsh or forced methods; there are no whips, no punishments, and no threats used to enforce commands or demand obedience. The child's pride is the feeling that is appealed to, which usually works in almost every case. A father just needs to say in front of his kids: “I want this done; I want one of my children to run this errand; let me see who the good child is that will do it!” This word good acts almost like magic, and the kids instantly compete to meet their parent's wishes. 116 If a father sees an old, frail man or woman passing by, led by a child, he will point it out to his own kids by saying: “What a good child that must be, paying such attention to the elderly! That child really looks forward to the time when they will also be old!” or he might say, “May the great Spirit, who watches over him, grant this good child a long life!”

In this manner of bringing up children, the parents, as I have already said, are seconded by the whole community. If a child is sent from his father’s dwelling to carry a dish of victuals to an aged person, all in the house will join in calling him a good child. They will ask whose child he is, and on being told, will exclaim: what! has the Tortoise, or the little Bear (as the father’s name may be) got such a good child? If a child is seen passing through the streets leading an old decrepid person, the villagers will in his hearing, and to encourage all the other children who may be present to take example from him, call on one another to look on and see what a good child that must be. And so, in most instances, this method is resorted to, for the purpose of instructing children in things that are good, proper, or honourable in themselves; while, on the other hand, when a child has committed a bad act, the parent will say to him: “O! how grieved I am that my child has done this bad act! I hope he will never do so again.” This is generally effectual, particularly if said in the presence of others. The whole of the Indian plan of education tends to elevate rather than to depress the mind, and by that means to make determined hunters and fearless warriors.

In this way of raising children, the parents, as I mentioned earlier, are supported by the entire community. If a child is sent from their father's home to bring food to an elderly person, everyone at home will praise him as a good child. They will ask whose child he is, and upon learning his identity, they'll respond with surprise: "What! Has the Tortoise, or the little Bear (whichever the father’s name is) raised such a good child?" If someone sees a child walking through the streets helping an elderly person, the villagers will call out within earshot to encourage all the other children present, urging them to notice what a good child that is. This method is often used to teach children what is good, proper, or honorable; meanwhile, when a child does something bad, the parent will lament: “Oh! I’m so upset that my child has done this bad thing! I hope he never does it again.” This approach is usually effective, especially when expressed in front of others. The entire Indian educational philosophy aims to uplift rather than diminish the mind, thereby fostering determined hunters and fearless warriors.

Thus, when a lad has killed his first game, such as a deer or a bear, parents who have boys growing up will not fail to say to some person in the presence of their own children: “That boy must have listened attentively to the aged hunters, for, though young, he has already given a proof that he will become a good hunter himself.” If, on the other hand, a young man should fail of giving such a proof, it will be said of him “that he did not pay attention to the discourses of the aged.”

Thus, when a young man has killed his first game, like a deer or a bear, parents with boys will often remark to someone in front of their kids: “That boy must have listened closely to the experienced hunters, because, even though he’s young, he has already shown that he will be a good hunter himself.” On the other hand, if a young man does not show such proof, it will be said that “he did not pay attention to the wisdom of the older hunters.”

In this indirect manner is instruction on all subjects given to the young people. They are to learn the arts of hunting, trapping, 117 and making war, by listening to the aged when conversing together on those subjects, each, in his turn, relating how he acted, and opportunities are afforded to them for that purpose. By this mode of instructing youth, their respect for the aged is kept alive, and it is increased by the reflection that the same respect will be paid to them at a future day, when young persons will be attentive to what they shall relate.

In this indirect way, instruction on all topics is given to young people. They learn the skills of hunting, trapping, and warfare by listening to older individuals as they discuss these subjects. Each elder shares their experiences, and opportunities are provided for this purpose. This method of teaching youth not only keeps their respect for the elderly alive but also grows it, as they realize that one day, they too will receive the same respect from younger individuals when they share their own stories. 117

This method of conveying instruction is, I believe, common to most Indian nations; it is so, at least, amongst all those that I have become acquainted with, and lays the foundation for that voluntary submission to their chiefs, for which they are so remarkable. Thus has been maintained for ages, without convulsions and without civil discords, this traditional government, of which the world, perhaps, does not offer another example; a government in which there are no positive laws, but only long established habits and customs, no code of jurisprudence, but the experience of former times, no magistrates, but advisers, to whom the people, nevertheless, pay a willing and implicit obedience, in which age confers rank, wisdom gives power, and moral goodness secures a title to universal respect. All this seems to be effected by the simple means of an excellent mode of education, by which a strong attachment to ancient customs, respect for age, and the love of virtue are indelibly impressed upon the minds of youth, so that these impressions acquire strength as time pursues its course, and as they pass through successive generations.

This way of teaching is, I think, common among most Indian nations; at least, it's true for all the ones I've encountered, and it lays the groundwork for their willingness to follow their leaders, which is something they are well-known for. For ages, this traditional system of governance has persisted, without upheavals or civil conflicts, and it’s something the world may not have another example of; a system where there are no formal laws, only long-standing habits and customs, no legal code, but the experiences of the past, no judges, but advisors, to whom the people still give their willing and unquestioning obedience. In this system, age brings status, wisdom brings power, and moral integrity earns universal respect. All of this seems to be achieved through an effective educational approach, which deeply instills a strong attachment to ancient traditions, respect for elders, and a love for virtue in the minds of young people, so that these impressions grow stronger over time and are passed down through generations.

118

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CHAPTER IX.
LANGUAGES.

I

In all the North American territories bounded to the north and east by the Atlantic ocean, and to the south and west by the river Mississippi, and the possessions of the English Hudson’s Bay company, there appears to be but four principal languages, branching out, it is true, into various dialects, but all derived from one or the other of the four mother tongues, some of which extend even beyond the Mississippi, and perhaps, as far as the Rocky Mountains. These four languages are:

In all the North American areas bordered to the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, and to the south and west by the Mississippi River and the territories owned by the English Hudson’s Bay Company, there seem to be only four main languages. These do branch out into various dialects, but they all come from one of those four core languages, some of which reach even beyond the Mississippi, and possibly as far as the Rocky Mountains. The four languages are:

I. The Karalit.

This language is spoken by the inhabitants of Greenland and on the Continent by the Eskimaux Indians of the coast of Labrador. Its forms and principles are sufficiently known by means of the Grammar and Dictionary of the venerable Egede,121 and the works of Bartholinus, Wœldike, Thornhallesen,122 Cranz123 and others. It is much cultivated by the Missionaries of the Society of the United Brethren, by whom we may expect to see its principles 119 still further elucidated. It is in Greenland that begin those comprehensive grammatical forms which are said to characterise the languages of the vast American continent, as far as they are known, and are the more remarkable when contrasted with the simplicity of construction of the idioms spoken on the opposite European shores, in Iceland, Denmark, Sweden and other countries. It appears evident from this single circumstance, that America did not receive its original population from Europe.

This language is spoken by the people of Greenland and by the Eskimo Indians along the coast of Labrador. Its structure and rules are fairly well understood thanks to the Grammar and Dictionary of the respected Egede,121 along with the works of Bartholinus, Wœldike, Thornhallesen,122 Cranz123 and others. It is actively studied by the missionaries of the Society of the United Brethren, who we can expect will further clarify its principles. Greenland is where we find those extensive grammatical forms that are said to define the languages across the vast American continent, as far as they are known, and they stand out even more when compared to the simpler structure of the languages spoken on the opposite European shores, in Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, and other countries. This single fact strongly suggests that America did not derive its original population from Europe.

II. The Iroquois Confederacy.

This language in various dialects is spoken by the Mengwe or Six Nations, the Wyandots or Hurons, the Naudowessies, the Assinipoetuk, called by the French Assiniboils, Assinipoils, or Sioux, and by other tribes, particularly beyond the St. Lawrence. Father La Hontan distinguishes this class of languages by the name of the Huron, probably because that nation was better known to the French, whose allies they were, than the Iroquois, who were in alliance with the English.124 All these languages, however they may be called in a general sense, are dialects of the same mother tongue, and have considerable affinity with each other. Mr. Carver is mistaken when he describes the Naudowessie as belonging to a class different from the Iroquois.125 It is sufficient to compare the vocabularies that we have 120 of these two idioms, to see the great similitude that subsists between them. We do not, unfortunately, possess a single grammar of any of these dialects; we have nothing, in fact, besides the fragment of Zeisberger’s Dictionary, which I have already mentioned, but a large vocabulary of the Huron,126 composed by Father Sagard, a good and pious French Missionary, but of very limited abilities, and who also resided too short a time among that nation to be able to give a correct account of their language. He represents it in his preface, as poor, imperfect, anomalous, and inadequate to the clear expression of ideas, in which he is contradicted by others whom we have reason to believe better informed. Zeisberger considered the Iroquois (of which the Huron is a dialect,) as a rich and comprehensive idiom. It is to be regretted that a grammar which he had composed of it, and the best part of his Dictionary, are irretrievably lost. Sir William Johnson speaks highly of the powers of this language;127 Colden,128 though he did not know it himself, speaks in the same manner from the information of others. Indeed, Father Sagard’s Dictionary itself, when attentively read by a person acquainted with the forms of Indian languages, affords sufficient intrinsic evidence of the mistakes of the good father who composed it.

This language in various dialects is spoken by the Mengwe or Six Nations, the Wyandots or Hurons, the Naudowessies, the Assinipoetuk, known by the French as Assiniboils, Assinipoils, or Sioux, along with other tribes, especially those beyond the St. Lawrence. Father La Hontan refers to this group of languages as the Huron, likely because that nation was better known to the French, who were their allies, than the Iroquois, who were allied with the English.124 All these languages, however they might be generally classified, are dialects of the same mother tongue and have significant similarities with each other. Mr. Carver is wrong when he claims the Naudowessie belongs to a different class from the Iroquois.125 A simple comparison of the vocabularies we have of these two languages shows the strong similarities between them. Unfortunately, we don’t have a single grammar of any of these dialects; we only have the fragment of Zeisberger’s Dictionary that I previously mentioned, along with a substantial vocabulary of the Huron,126 compiled by Father Sagard, a decent but somewhat limited French Missionary who spent too little time among that nation to produce an accurate account of their language. He describes it in his preface as poor, imperfect, anomalous, and insufficient for clearly expressing ideas, which is contradicted by others whom we have reason to believe are more knowledgeable. Zeisberger regarded the Iroquois (of which Huron is a dialect) as a rich and comprehensive language. It's unfortunate that a grammar he created for it, along with the best parts of his Dictionary, are irretrievably lost. Sir William Johnson praises the strengths of this language;127 Colden,128 despite not knowing it himself, speaks similarly based on what others have told him. Indeed, Father Sagard’s Dictionary itself, when carefully read by someone familiar with the structure of Indian languages, reveals enough evidence of the mistakes made by the well-meaning father who compiled it.

III. The Lenape people.

This is the most widely extended language of any of those that are spoken on this side of the Mississippi. It prevails in the extensive regions of Canada, from the coast of Labrador to the mouth of Albany river which falls into the southernmost part of Hudson’s bay, and from thence to the Lake of the Woods, which forms the north-western boundary of the United States. It appears to be the language of all the Indians of that extensive country, except those of the Iroquois stock, which are by far the least numerous. Farther to the north-west, in the territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company, other Indian nations have 121 been discovered, such as the Blackfoot Indians, Sussee Indians, Snake Indians, and others, whose languages are said to be different from the Iroquois and the Lenape, but we are not able to form a very correct judgment respecting those idioms from the scanty vocabularies which have been given us by Mackenzie, Umfreville and other travellers. We must wait for further light before we decide.

This is the most widely spoken language of all those used on this side of the Mississippi. It is prevalent in the vast regions of Canada, from the coast of Labrador to the mouth of the Albany River, which flows into the southernmost part of Hudson’s Bay, and from there to the Lake of the Woods, which forms the northwestern boundary of the United States. It seems to be the language of all the Indigenous people in that large area, except for those of the Iroquois heritage, who are by far the least numerous. Further to the northwest, in the territories of the Hudson’s Bay Company, other Indigenous nations have been found, such as the Blackfoot, Sussee, Snake, and others, whose languages are said to be different from those of the Iroquois and the Lenape. However, we cannot make a very accurate judgment about those languages based on the limited vocabularies provided by Mackenzie, Umfreville, and other travelers. We will need to wait for more information before we make a conclusion.

Out of the limits of Canada few Iroquois are found, except the remnants of those who were once settled in the vicinity of the great Lakes, in the northern parts of the now State of New York. There are yet some Wyandots in the vicinity of Detroit. All the rest of the Indians who now inhabit this country to the Mississippi, are of the Lenape stock, and speak dialects of that language. It is certain that at the time of the arrival of the Europeans, they were in possession of all the coast from the northernmost point of Nova Scotia to the Roanoke. Hence they were called Wapanachki, or Abenakis, men of the East. La Hontan gives us a list of the Indian nations of ancient Acadia, all speaking dialects of the Abenaki, or as he calls it, of the Algonquin. They were the Abenakis, Micmacs, Canibas, Mahingans (Mohicans), Openangos, Soccokis, and Etchemins, from whom all Nova Scotia, (excepting the peninsula,) and a part of the now district of Maine, were once called by the French the country of the Etchemins. He does not speak of the Souriquois, who are also known to have inhabited Acadia, and likewise spoke a dialect of the Lenape.

Outside of Canada, there are few Iroquois left, except for the remnants of those who used to live around the Great Lakes in what is now northern New York. There are still some Wyandots near Detroit. All the other Indigenous people now living in this area up to the Mississippi are of Lenape ancestry and speak dialects of that language. It’s clear that when Europeans arrived, they controlled the coastline from the furthest point of Nova Scotia down to Roanoke. That’s why they were called Wapanachki or Abenakis, meaning people of the East. La Hontan provides a list of the Indigenous nations from ancient Acadia, all speaking dialects of Abenaki, or as he calls it, Algonquin. These included the Abenakis, Micmacs, Canibas, Mahingans (Mohicans), Openangos, Soccokis, and Etchemins, from whom all of Nova Scotia (except the peninsula) and part of what is now Maine were once referred to by the French as the country of the Etchemins. He does not mention the Souriquois, who are also known to have lived in Acadia and spoke a dialet of Lenape as well.

In the interior of the country we find every where the Lenape and their kindred tribes. The Miamis, or Twightwees, the Potowatomies, the Messissaugees, the Kickapoos, all those Indian nations who once inhabited, and parts of whom still inhabit the interior of our country on this side of the Mississippi and the great Lakes, are unquestionably, from their dialects, of Lenape origin. The Shawanos, it is said, formerly dwelt upon the river Savannah, in Georgia, and a part of them remaining in that country, associated with the Creeks, still retain their language.129 As far as we are able to judge from the little knowledge 122 that has been transmitted to us of the language of the Indians who once inhabited Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, they all appear to have belonged to the same stock, the Nanticokes have been shewn to have been intimately connected with the Lenape, and among those who called them grandfather. Two pretty copious vocabularies of their language, in the possession of the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society, one of them communicated by Mr. Jefferson and the other by myself, prove it beyond a doubt to have been a dialect of the Lenape.130 The Canai or Kanhawas, who have given their name to a river in Virginia which empties itself into the Ohio, are known to have been of the same stock. The Indian names of rivers, mountains, and towns, through that vast extent of country, appear generally derived from the Lenape language.

In the interior of the country, we can find the Lenape and their related tribes everywhere. The Miamis, or Twightwees, the Potowatomies, the Messissaugees, the Kickapoos—these Indian nations once lived in, and some still live in, the interior of our country on this side of the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. They are undoubtedly of Lenape origin based on their dialects. It is said that the Shawanos once lived along the Savannah River in Georgia, and part of them remains in that area, associated with the Creeks, still holding onto their language.129 From what little we know about the language of the Indians who once inhabited Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, they all seem to belong to the same family. The Nanticokes have been shown to be closely linked to the Lenape, and they referred to them as grandfather. Two extensive vocabularies of their language, held by the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society—one shared by Mr. Jefferson and the other by me—clearly demonstrate that it was a dialect of Lenape.130 The Canai or Kanhawas, who gave their name to a river in Virginia that flows into the Ohio, are known to have been of the same ancestry. The Indian names of rivers, mountains, and towns across that vast region seem to generally derive from the Lenape language.

The Baron de La Hontan, is one of the first writers, I believe, who have spoken of the universality of this idiom; but it is extraordinary that he has not said a word of the Lenni Lenape, that great and powerful nation. He calls this language the Algonquin tongue, although he describes that people as “an erratic sort of savages, who, like the Arabs, had no settled abode,”131 and admits, that at the time when he wrote, their number did not exceed 200. What he says on this subject, however, is so much to my purpose, that I hope I shall be permitted to make a small extract from it.

The Baron de La Hontan is one of the first writers, I believe, to talk about the universality of this language; however, it's surprising that he doesn't mention the Lenni Lenape, that great and powerful nation. He refers to this language as the Algonquin tongue, even though he describes those people as “an erratic sort of savages, who, like the Arabs, had no settled home,”131 and admits that at the time he wrote, their population was no more than 200. Nevertheless, what he says on this topic is so relevant to my purpose that I hope I can provide a brief excerpt from it.

“There are,” says the Baron, “but two mother tongues in the whole extent of Canada, which I confine within the limits of the Mississippi; they are the Huron and the Algonquin. The first is understood by the Iroquois, for the difference between these two is no greater than that between the Norman and the French. The second, namely the Algonquin, is as much esteemed among the savages as the Greek and Latin are in Europe; though it 123 would seem that the aborigines, to whom it owes its original, disgrace it by the thinness of their nation, for their whole number does not amount to two hundred.”133

“There are,” says the Baron, “only two native languages across all of Canada, which I limit to the area around the Mississippi; they are the Huron and the Algonquin. The Iroquois understand the first, since the difference between these two is no greater than that between Norman and French. The second, the Algonquin, is valued among the natives as much as Greek and Latin are in Europe; although it seems that the indigenous people, from whom it originated, diminish its status because their entire population is only about two hundred.”133

What the Baron says here of this language is very correct; but why does he call it the Algonquin, and ascribe its origin to that miserable wandering tribe? He had the Abenakis at hand, whom in another place he puts at the head of the tribes inhabiting Nova Scotia, and who still preserved the generic name of the whole nation, Wapanachki, which the French have softened to suit the analogy of their own tongue, by which name the different nations and tribes of the Lenape stock still recognise each other to this day. It is probable that he did not sufficiently understand their language,134 to have much conversation with them, otherwise they would have informed him that they derived their origin from a great and powerful nation residing in the interior of the country, whom they revered as their grandfather, at whose door the great national council fire was kept constantly burning, whose badge was the Turtle, and whose supremacy was acknowledged by all the kindred tribes.

What the Baron says about this language is quite accurate; however, why does he refer to it as Algonquin and trace its origin back to that unfortunate wandering tribe? He had the Abenakis nearby, whom he mentions elsewhere as the leading tribes in Nova Scotia, and who still kept the collective name of the entire nation, Wapanachki, which the French softened to match their own language. This is the name under which the different nations and tribes of the Lenape stock still recognize one another today. It’s likely he didn’t fully understand their language, 134 to have much of a discussion with them; otherwise, they would have told him that they traced their origin to a great and powerful nation living inland, whom they honored as their grandfather, at whose place the great national council fire was always kept burning, whose symbol was the Turtle, and whose authority was acknowledged by all the related tribes.

Father Charlevoix, who also speaks of the universality of this language, commits the same error in ascribing its origin to the Algonquins. “In the southern part of Hudson’s Bay,” says he, “the trade is carried on with the Matassins, the Monsonies, the Christinaux (Knisteneaux), and the Assinipoils, the three first of which speak the Algonquin language.”135 In a later publication, (I think by a Mr. Winterbotham,) of which, during my travels, some years ago, I had merely a glance, I found by some words he had put down in the language of those people, that they were Minsi or Monseys, a branch of the wolf tribe of the Lenape. So indeed, one of their names, Monsonies, seems of itself to indicate. The name of the Matassins, means in their language 124 a tobacco pipe, and so it does in the Monsey to this day. And they all speak the Algonquin, a language, say both Charlevoix and La Hontan, universally known for a thousand leagues round. The last mentioned author subjoins a vocabulary of what he calls the Algonquin tongue, which bears a greater affinity to the language of the Unamis or Turtle136 tribe of the Lenape than that does to the idiom of the Monsey or Wolf tribe of the same nation. I find many words in the Algonquin (as given by La Hontan), which are exactly the same as in the Unami, while others bear more resemblance to the Chippeway, also a dialect of the Lenape, spoken by a tribe in connexion with the Delawares, and who call them grandfather.

Father Charlevoix, who also talks about the universality of this language, makes the same mistake by claiming its origin is with the Algonquins. “In the southern part of Hudson’s Bay,” he says, “the trade is done with the Matassins, the Monsonies, the Christinaux (Knisteneaux), and the Assinipoils, the first three of which speak the Algonquin language.” 135 In a later publication, (I think by a Mr. Winterbotham,) which I caught a glimpse of during my travels some years ago, I noticed some words he recorded in the language of those people, indicating that they were Minsi or Monseys, a branch of the wolf tribe of the Lenape. Indeed, one of their names, Monsonies, seems to suggest this. The name of the Matassins means “tobacco pipe” in their language, and it still does in Monsey today. They all speak Algonquin, a language that both Charlevoix and La Hontan say is known for a thousand leagues around. The latter author provides a vocabulary of what he calls the Algonquin tongue, which is more similar to the language of the Unamis or Turtle 136 tribe of the Lenape than it is to the language of the Monsey or Wolf tribe of the same nation. I find many words in the Algonquin (as given by La Hontan) that are exactly the same as in Unami, while others are more similar to Chippeway, another dialect of the Lenape, spoken by a tribe connected with the Delawares, who refer to them as grandfather.

There can be no doubt, therefore, that this universal language, so much admired and so generally spoken by the Indian nations, is that of the Lenni Lenape, and is improperly named the Chippeway by Carver, and the Algonquin by La Hontan. The celebrated Professor Vater, in his excellent continuation of Adelung’s Mithridates, calls the class of languages derived from this source, “the Chippewayo-Delawarian, or Algonkino-Mohican stock.”137 It is, perhaps, indifferent for philological purposes, whether a language be called the Delaware or the Chippeway, the Algonquin or the Mohican; but every body must be sensible of the inconvenience of those long compound names, which leave no fixed or determinate idea upon the mind. For the purpose of general description it seems better to designate the languages of those connected tribes by the name of their common grandfather, the Lenni Lenape, or by the generic denomination universally adopted among them, Wapanachki, or Abenaki. I have preferred the former as a mark of respect to an ancient and once powerful nation, and in the hope that her name may be preserved, at least, in the records of philological science.

There’s no doubt that this universal language, widely admired and commonly spoken by Indian nations, is that of the Lenni Lenape, which was mistakenly called the Chippeway by Carver and the Algonquin by La Hontan. The well-known Professor Vater, in his excellent follow-up to Adelung’s Mithridates, refers to the group of languages derived from this source as “the Chippewayo-Delawarian, or Algonkino-Mohican stock.”137 For linguistic purposes, it may not matter whether we call a language Delaware or Chippeway, Algonquin or Mohican; however, everyone can recognize the inconvenience of those long compound names, which don’t provide a clear or definite idea. For a general description, it’s better to refer to the languages of these related tribes by the name of their common ancestor, the Lenni Lenape, or by the term commonly used among them, Wapanachki, or Abenaki. I prefer the former as a sign of respect for an ancient and once-powerful nation, and in the hope that its name may be preserved, at least in the records of linguistic science.

This beautiful language, and those which are derived from it, though more has been written upon them than on any of the other languages of these parts of the North American continent, 125 are as yet but little known. The grammar of the Natick dialect published by Eliot, at Cambridge in Massachusetts, in the year 1666, has long been out of print, and is to be found only in very few libraries in the United States; Dr. Edwards’s little tract on the Mohican language, although printed twice, does not appear to have had much circulation, and is not alone sufficient to give an idea of the forms and construction of these Indian dialects. Zeisberger’s Delaware spelling book is but a collection of words, and does not contain any grammatical explanations. The learned Vater has taken immense pains, from the scanty helps within his reach, to discover the grounds and principles of these idioms, and what he has written on the subject is a proof of what talents and industry can effect with little means. But still the matter is not sufficiently understood. There is in the library of the society of the United Brethren in this town, an excellent MS. grammar of the Lenni Lenape, written in German by Zeisberger. I understand that the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society are going to publish an English translation of this valuable work. I rejoice in the prospect of this publication, which will give a clear and satisfactory view of the true genius and character of the languages of the Indian nations. At the request of the same Committee, I have endeavoured to give some further development of the principles which that grammar contains, in a series of letters to their Secretary, which, I am informed, are also to be printed. This supersedes the necessity of my entering here into more details on this interesting subject. I hope the result of these publications will be to satisfy the world that the languages of the Indians are not so poor, so devoid of variety of expression, so inadequate to the communication even of abstract ideas, or in a word so barbarous, as has been generally imagined.

This beautiful language, along with those derived from it, has been written about more than any other languages in this part of North America, yet it remains largely unknown. The grammar of the Natick dialect published by Eliot in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1666 has long been out of print and can only be found in a few libraries in the United States. Dr. Edwards's short work on the Mohican language, though printed twice, hasn't circulated much and isn't enough to fully explain the forms and structure of these Native American dialects. Zeisberger's Delaware spelling book is just a collection of words and lacks any grammatical explanations. The learned Vater has worked hard, with limited resources, to uncover the foundations and principles of these languages, and what he has written demonstrates how much talent and effort can achieve with little means. However, the subject is still not thoroughly understood. In the library of the society of the United Brethren in this town, there is an excellent manuscript grammar of the Lenni Lenape written in German by Zeisberger. I’ve heard that the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society plans to publish an English translation of this valuable work. I'm excited about this upcoming publication, which will provide a clear and satisfactory view of the true nature and character of the languages of the Indian nations. At the request of the same Committee, I've tried to further elaborate on the principles in that grammar through a series of letters to their Secretary, which I’ve been told will also be printed. This makes it unnecessary for me to go into more details on this interesting topic here. I hope these publications will show the world that the languages of the Native Americans are not as poor, lacking in variety of expression, or inadequate for communicating abstract ideas as has generally been believed.

IV. The Florida resident.

I call by this generic name, the languages spoken by those Indian nations who inhabit the southern frontier of the United States and the Spanish Province of Florida. They are the Creeks or Muskohgees, Chickesaws, Choctaws, Pascagoulas, Cherokees or Cheerakees, and several others. It is said that 126 there once existed among them a powerful nation called the Natchez, whose language was the mother tongue of all those southern dialects. We are told also of an Apalachian nation, who it is said lived in the western parts of Louisiana, and were a part of the great nation of the Apalachians, who resided in the mountains which bear their name, and whose branches were settled under different denominations, in the vast extent of country situated between Louisiana, Canada and New England.138 In this great Apalachian nation we cannot help recognising our friends the Lenape, or Wapanachki, whose name the French in the south have as easily corrupted into Apalaches, as those in the north into Abenakis. It was they who gave their name to the Apalachian mountains, once so called, but which of late have resumed their former appellation of Alligewi, or Allegheny. Mr. Vater thinks that the remains of those Apalachians are still to be found in the Catawbas,139 who are sometimes named Chaktawas140 and probably are the same who by contraction are now called Choktaws.

I use this general term to refer to the languages spoken by the Indian nations living along the southern border of the United States and in the Spanish territory of Florida. These include the Creeks or Muskohgees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, Pascagoulas, Cherokees or Cheerakees, and several others. It's said that there was once a powerful nation among them called the Natchez, whose language served as the foundation for all those southern dialects. We also hear about a group known as the Apalachians, who are said to have lived in the western part of Louisiana and were part of the larger Apalachian nation that inhabited the mountains named after them. Their various branches were spread across the vast territory between Louisiana, Canada, and New England.138 In this extensive Apalachian nation, we can’t help but recognize our allies, the Lenape, or Wapanachki, a name that the French in the south have easily distorted into Apalaches, just as those in the north have turned it into Abenakis. They were the ones who named the Apalachian mountains, which were previously known by the name Alligewi or Allegheny. Mr. Vater believes that the remnants of those Apalachians can still be found among the Catawbas,139 who are sometimes referred to as Chaktawas140 and are likely related to the group currently known as Choktaws.

Other writers speak to us of the Mobilians,141 as the nation from which the neighbouring tribes derived their origin, and whose language was their mother tongue. The fact is, that we know very little about these southern Indians, and on the subject of their languages we have nothing to guide our enquiries, but a few words given us by Adair, and some that have been collected from various sources by the late Dr. Barton. We are not, however, without the means of obtaining full and accurate information on this interesting subject, and I hope the historical committee will be successful in the measures which they are about to take to procure it. Mr. Meigs, the United States agent with the Cherokees, Mr. Mitchell, agent to the Creeks, and the Rev. John Gambold, who has long lived as a Missionary of the 127 Society of the United Brethren with the former of these nations, are well able to satisfy their enquiries, and I have no doubt will be happy to give their aid to the advancement of the literature of their country.

Other writers tell us about the Mobilians, 141 as the nation from which the neighboring tribes originated and whose language was their native tongue. The truth is, we know very little about these southern Indians, and when it comes to their languages, we have nothing to guide our inquiries except a few words provided by Adair and some collected from various sources by the late Dr. Barton. However, we do have ways to obtain full and accurate information on this fascinating topic, and I hope the historical committee will succeed in their efforts to gather it. Mr. Meigs, the U.S. agent for the Cherokees, Mr. Mitchell, the agent for the Creeks, and Rev. John Gambold, who has been a missionary with the Society of the United Brethren among the former of these nations for a long time, are well-equipped to answer their questions, and I have no doubt they will be happy to support the development of the literature of their country.

It is a fact worthy of remark, and much to be regretted, that the French and English, who have been so long in possession of the immense country extending from Labrador to the Mississippi, have written so little respecting the Indian languages of this part of the American continent. Among the English, Eliot alone, and among the French, Father Sagard, can be said to have published anything on this subject that is worth notice. Zeisberger was a German, and Mr. Edwards an American. On the contrary, the Spaniards142 have published a great number of grammars and dictionaries of the Indian languages spoken within the limits of their American possessions, and deserve much credit for these exertions. It is not yet too late for the independent Americans to retrieve the neglect of their forefathers; but no time should be lost, as the Indian nations are fast disappearing from the face of our country, and our posterity may have to regret hereafter that greater pains were not taken to preserve the memory of their traditions, customs, manners, and LANGUAGES.

It's worth noting and regrettable that the French and English, who have long occupied the vast land stretching from Labrador to the Mississippi, have written so little about the Indigenous languages of this part of America. Among the English, Eliot is the only one, and among the French, Father Sagard is the only notable contributor to this topic. Zeisberger was German, and Mr. Edwards was American. In contrast, the Spaniards have published a substantial number of grammars and dictionaries of the Indigenous languages spoken in their American territories and deserve credit for these efforts. It's not too late for independent Americans to make up for the oversight of their ancestors; however, we shouldn’t waste any time, as Indigenous nations are quickly disappearing from our country, and future generations may regret that more effort wasn’t made to preserve the memory of their traditions, customs, manners, and LANGUAGES.

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CHAPTER X.
Signs and hieroglyphs.

I

It has been asserted by many persons that the languages of the Indians are deficient in words, and that, in order to make themselves understood, they are obliged to resort to motions and signs with their hands. This is entirely a mistake. I do not know a nation of whom foreigners do not say the same thing. The fact is, that in every country, signs and motions with the hands more or less accompany discourse, particularly when delivered with a certain degree of earnestness and warmth. Foreigners, who are not very conversant with a language, pay in general as much and sometimes more attention to these motions than to the words of the speaker, in order the better to be able to understand what falls from him. Hence, almost every nation charges the others with too much gesticulation in speaking. For a similar reason, a foreign language is generally thought to be spoken quicker than our own, while the truth is, that it is our ear which is slow in distinguishing the words, not the voice which speaks that is too quick in uttering them.

It has been claimed by many people that Native American languages lack words, and that to communicate effectively, they have to use hand gestures and signs. This is completely wrong. I don’t know of any culture that hasn’t faced the same criticism from outsiders. The truth is that in every country, gestures and hand movements often accompany speech, especially when it’s delivered with a certain level of passion and intensity. Foreigners who aren’t very familiar with a language generally focus just as much, if not more, on these gestures than on the speaker’s words to better grasp the meaning. As a result, nearly every culture accuses others of being overly expressive when speaking. Similarly, a foreign language is often perceived as being spoken more quickly than our own, when, in reality, it’s our ears that struggle to catch the words, not the speaker who is talking too fast.

The Indians do not gesticulate more when they speak than other nations do. In their public speeches they will, like our preachers and lawyers, enforce what they say by gestures and motions of the body and hands, in order to give greater weight to their observations, or to represent the subject they speak of in a more lively manner than can be done by words alone; but in common conversation they make few of those motions, and not more, I believe, than we do ourselves; even the women, who every where speak more than the men, never want words to express themselves, but rather seem to have too many, and 129 they do not oftener employ gestures in aid of their conversation than the vivacity of their sex induces them to do every where else.

The Indians don't use gestures more when they speak than other nations do. In their public speeches, they, like our preachers and lawyers, use gestures and body movements to emphasize what they're saying or to make the topic more vivid than words alone can achieve. However, in everyday conversation, they use fewer gestures and probably not more than we do. Even the women, who tend to speak more than men everywhere, seem to have plenty of words to express themselves and don’t rely on gestures in conversation more than women typically do elsewhere. 129

It is true that the Indians have a language of signs, by which they communicate with each other on occasions when speaking is not prudent or proper, as, for instance, when they are about to meet an enemy, and by speaking they would run the risk of being discovered. By this means they also make themselves understood to those nations of Indians whose languages they are not acquainted with, for all the Indian nations understand each other in this way. It is also, in many cases, a saving of words, which the Indians are much intent on, believing that too much talking disgraces a man. When, therefore, they will relate something extraordinary in a few words, they make use of corresponding signs, which is very entertaining to those who listen and attend to them, and who are acquainted both with the language and the signs, being very much as if somebody were to explain a picture set before them. But they never make use of signs to supply any deficiency of language, as they have words and phrases sufficient to express every thing.

It's true that Native Americans have a sign language that they use to communicate when speaking isn't wise or appropriate, like when they're about to encounter an enemy and need to avoid detection. This method also allows them to communicate with other tribes whose languages they don’t know, as all Native nations understand each other this way. Additionally, it often saves words, which is important to them because they believe that too much talking is shameful. So, when they want to recount something remarkable in just a few words, they use corresponding signs, which is entertaining for those who listen and understand both the language and the signs, much like explaining a picture that’s in front of them. However, they never use signs to fill gaps in their language since they already have enough words and phrases to express everything.

I have frequently questioned Indians who had been educated at our schools, and could understand, read, write, and speak both English and German, whether they could express their ideas better in either of those languages than in their own, and they have always and uniformly answered that they could express themselves with far the greatest ease in their own Indian, and that they never were at a loss for words or phrases in which to clothe every idea that occurred to them, without being in any case obliged to gesticulate or make motions with their hands or otherwise. From the knowledge which I have acquired of their language, I have reason to be satisfied that it is so. Indeed, how can it be doubted, when we have the whole of the Bible and New Testament translated into one of their dialects, and when we see our ministers, when once familiar with the language of the nation with which they reside, preach to them without the least difficulty on the most abstruse subjects of the Christian faith? It is true, that ideas are not always expressed in those languages in the same words, or under the same grammatical forms as in our own; where we would use one part of 130 speech, we are obliged to employ another, and one single word with them will not seldom serve a purpose for which we would have to employ several; but still, the ideas are communicated, and pass with clearness and precision from mind to mind. Thus the end of oral language is completely obtained, and more, I think, cannot be required.

I’ve often asked Indians who were educated in our schools and could understand, read, write, and speak both English and German whether they could express their ideas better in those languages than in their own. They have always replied, without exception, that they could express themselves much more easily in their own Indian language and that they never struggled to find the right words or phrases for any idea that came to mind, without needing to gesture or move their hands at all. Based on what I've learned about their language, I'm convinced that's true. How could it be otherwise when we have the entire Bible and New Testament translated into one of their dialects, and we see our ministers, once they're familiar with the language of the community they serve, preach to them without any difficulty on the most complex topics of the Christian faith? It's true that ideas may not always be expressed in those languages using the same words or grammatical structures as in our own; where we might use one part of speech, they might need to use another, and one single word in their language can often cover what we would need several words for. But still, the ideas are communicated clearly and accurately from one mind to another. Thus, the purpose of spoken language is fully achieved, and that's really all that can be asked for.

The Indians do not possess our art of writing, they have no alphabets, or143 any mode of representing to the eye the sounds of words spoken, yet they have certain hieroglyphics, by which they describe facts in so plain a manner, that those who are conversant with those marks can understand them with the greatest ease, as easily, indeed, as we can understand a piece of writing. For instance, on a piece of bark, or on a large tree with the bark taken off for the purpose, by the side of a path, they can and do give every necessary information to those who come by the same way; they will in that manner let them know, that they were a war party of so many men, from such a place, of such a nation and such a tribe; how many of each tribe were in the party; to which tribe the chief or captain belonged; in what direction they proceeded to meet the enemy; how many days they were out and how many returning; what number of the enemy they had killed, how many prisoners they had brought; how many scalps they had taken; whether they had lost any of their party, and how many; what enemies they had met with, and how many they consisted of; of what nation or tribe their captain was, &c.; all which, at a single glance, is perfectly well understood by them. In the same manner they describe a chase: all Indian nations can do this, although they have not all the same marks; yet I have seen the Delawares read with ease the drawings of the Chippeways, Mingoes, Shawanos, and Wyandots, on similar subjects.

The Indigenous people don’t have our writing system; they don’t use alphabets or any way to visually represent spoken words. However, they have certain symbols that allow them to communicate facts clearly, so those familiar with these symbols can understand them just as easily as we understand written text. For example, on a piece of bark or a large tree stripped of its bark by a path, they convey all the necessary information to anyone passing by. They can inform others that they were a war party made up of a specific number of men from a certain place, nation, and tribe; how many from each tribe were in the group; which tribe their leader came from; the direction they went to confront the enemy; how many days they were out and how many they were returning; how many enemies they killed, how many prisoners they captured; how many scalps they took; whether they lost any members of their party and how many; what enemies they encountered and their numbers; the nation or tribe of their leader, etc. All this information is understood at a glance. They use a similar method to describe a hunt: all Indigenous nations can do this, although they don’t all use the same symbols. I’ve seen the Delawares easily interpret the symbols of the Chippeways, Mingoes, Shawanos, and Wyandots on similar topics.

While Indians are travelling to the place of their destination, whether it be on a journey to their distant hunting grounds or on a war excursion, some of the young men are sent out to hunt by the way, who, when they have killed a deer, bear, or other animal, bring it to the path, ready to be taken away by those who are coming along, (often with horses) to the place of encampment, 131 when they all meet at night. Having hung up the meat by the side of the path, these young men make a kind of sun-dial, in order to inform those who are coming of the time of day it was at the time of their arrival and departure. A clear place in the path is sought for, and if not readily found, one is made by the side of it, and a circle or ring being drawn on the sand or earth, a stick of about two or three feet in length is fixed in the centre, with its upper end bent towards that spot in the horizon where the sun stood at the time of their arrival or departure. If both are to be noted down, two separate sticks are set; but generally one is sufficient, namely, for the time of departure.

While the Indians are traveling to their destination, whether it's to their distant hunting grounds or on a war expedition, some of the young men are sent out to hunt along the way. When they kill a deer, bear, or other animal, they bring it to the path, ready for those coming along—often on horseback—to take it to the campsite where they all gather at night. After hanging the meat by the side of the path, these young men create a kind of sun-dial to let those arriving know what time it was when they left. They look for a clear spot on the path, and if they can't find one, they make one beside it. They draw a circle or ring in the sand or dirt and place a stick about two to three feet long in the center, bending the top towards the spot in the horizon where the sun was at the time of their arrival or departure. If both times need to be noted, they set two separate sticks, but usually one is enough, specifically for the time of departure. 131

Hunters have particular marks, which they make on the trees, where they strike off from the path to their hunting grounds or place of encampment, which is often at the distance of many miles; yet the women, who come from their towns to fetch meat from these camps, will as readily find them as if they were conducted to the spot.

Hunters leave specific marks on trees where they veer off the path to their hunting grounds or camps, which can be many miles away. However, the women who come from their towns to gather meat from these camps can find them just as easily as if they were being guided to the locations.

I shall conclude this chapter with an anecdote, which will at once shew how expressive and energetic is this hieroglyphic writing of the Indians. A white man in the Indian country, met144 a Shawanos riding a horse which he recognised for his own, and claimed it from him as his property. The Indian calmly answered; “Friend! after a little while, I will call on you at your house, when we shall talk of this matter.” A few days145 afterwards, the Indian came to the white man’s house, who insisting on having his horse restored, the other then told him: “Friend! the horse which you claim belonged to my uncle who lately died; according to the Indian custom, I have become heir to all his property.” The white man not being satisfied, and renewing his demand, the Indian immediately took a coal from the fire-place, and made two striking figures on the door of the house, the one representing the white man taking the horse, and the other, himself, in the act of scalping him; then he coolly asked the trembling claimant “whether he could read this Indian writing?” The matter thus was settled at once, and the Indian rode off. 132

I’ll wrap up this chapter with a story that shows just how expressive and powerful the Indian hieroglyphic writing is. A white man in Indian territory encountered a Shawano who was riding a horse the man recognized as his own and claimed it back. The Indian calmly replied, “Friend! In a little while, I’ll visit you at your house, and we can discuss this.” A few days later, the Indian showed up at the white man’s house. When the white man insisted on getting his horse back, the Indian explained, “Friend! The horse you’re claiming belonged to my uncle who recently passed away; according to Indian tradition, I’ve inherited all his possessions.” Unsatisfied, the white man repeated his demand, and the Indian promptly took a coal from the fireplace and drew two striking figures on the door of the house: one showing the white man taking the horse and the other of himself scalping the man. Then he calmly asked the nervous claimant, “Can you read this Indian writing?” With that, the issue was settled, and the Indian rode away. 132


CHAPTER XI.
Public speaking.

T

The eloquence of the Indians is natural and simple; they speak what their feelings dictate without art and without rule; their speeches are forcible and impressive, their arguments few and pointed, and when they mean to persuade as well as convince, they take the shortest way to reach the heart. I know that their oratorical powers have been strongly controverted, and this is not astonishing, when we consider the prejudice that exists against their languages, which are in general believed to be poor, and inadequate to the expression of any but the most common ideas. Hence all the specimens that have been given to the world of their oratory have been viewed with a suspicious eye; the celebrated speech of Logan, authenticated as it is by the respectable authority of Col. John Gibson, has been denied to be genuine even in this country. For my part, I am convinced that it was delivered precisely as it is related to us, with this only difference, that it possessed a force and expression in the Indian language which it is impossible to transmit into our own.

The eloquence of the Indigenous peoples is natural and straightforward; they express what they feel without pretense or rules. Their speeches are powerful and impactful, their arguments are few and to the point, and when they aim to persuade as well as convince, they take the most direct route to the heart. I know that their speaking abilities have been heavily debated, which isn’t surprising considering the bias against their languages, which are often considered limited and only capable of conveying basic ideas. As a result, all the examples of their oratory that have been shared with the world have been viewed skeptically; even the famous speech of Logan, verified by the credible authority of Col. John Gibson, has been questioned as authentic in this country. As for me, I firmly believe it was delivered exactly as we are told, with just one difference: it had a power and expression in the Indigenous language that cannot be fully captured in our own.

I hope the exertions and researches of the Historical Committee will make the character and genius of the Indian languages better known than they have hitherto been. The world will then be better able to judge of their extent and powers, and to decide whether or not they are adequate to the purposes of oratory. In the meantime, I shall content myself with presenting another specimen of Indian eloquence; one which I did not receive at second hand, but at the delivery of which I was present in person. The translation which I offer will give but a 133 faint idea of the strength and spirit of the original; I vouch, however, for its being as correct as it has been in my power to make it.

I hope the efforts and research of the Historical Committee will help people understand the character and richness of Indian languages better than before. This way, the world will be more equipped to assess their depth and capabilities and to determine if they are suitable for oratory. In the meantime, I'll share another example of Indian eloquence; one that I didn’t hear from someone else, but directly attended myself. The translation I provide will only give a vague sense of the strength and vitality of the original; however, I assure you that it’s as accurate as I’ve been able to make it. 133

This speech was spoken at Detroit,146 on the frontier of Canada, on the 9th of December,147 1801, by Captain Pipe,148 a chief of the Delaware nation, and was addressed to the commanding officer of that post, then in possession of the British. The Delawares, it will be recollected, had been the steadfast friends of the French, in the war of 1756. The peace which was concluded in 1763, between the two great nations who then contended for the supremacy of this continent, was not for several years regarded by the Indians, and they continued their hostilities against the subjects and government of Great Britain. They were obliged, however, to submit to superior force; not without hopes that their father, the king of France, would soon send over a powerful army to retake Canada. They were in this situation when the war of the revolution broke out. It is well known that it was a part of the system of the British administration to employ the savages to subdue those whom they called their revolted subjects. The Delawares, in general, as I have before related, having in vain endeavoured to remain neutral, took part with the Americans. Captain Pipe, however, with a party of the Wolf tribe, joined the English in the beginning of the war, and 134 soon after repented it. But it was too late. He was now reluctantly compelled to go out against the Americans with the men under his command. On his return from one of those expeditions, he went to make his report to the British commandant at Detroit,149 by whom he was received in state at the council house, in the presence of a great number of Indians, British officers and others. There were several Missionaries present, among which I was. The chief was seated in front of his Indians, facing the commandant. He held in his left hand an human scalp tied to a short stick. After a pause of some minutes he rose, and addressing the governor, delivered the following speech:

This speech was delivered in Detroit, 146 on the border of Canada, on December 9, 147 1801, by Captain Pipe, 148 a chief of the Delaware nation, and was directed to the commanding officer of that post, who was then in control of the British. The Delawares, as you might remember, had been loyal allies of the French during the 1756 war. The peace agreement made in 1763 between the two major powers contending for dominance over the continent was not recognized by the Indians for several years, and they continued to confront the subjects and government of Great Britain. However, they had no choice but to yield to greater force, still holding onto the hope that their father, the king of France, would soon send a strong army to reclaim Canada. They were in this position when the Revolutionary War broke out. It is well-known that the British authorities had a strategy to use Native Americans to subdue what they referred to as their rebellious subjects. Generally, the Delawares, as I previously mentioned, attempted in vain to stay neutral but ultimately sided with the Americans. Captain Pipe, however, along with a group from the Wolf tribe, allied with the British at the beginning of the war, only to regret it soon after. But it was too late for him. He was now reluctantly forced to go against the Americans alongside the men under his command. After returning from one of those missions, he went to report to the British commander in Detroit, 149, who welcomed him formally at the council house, in front of many Indians, British officers, and others. Several missionaries were present, myself included. The chief was positioned in front of his men, facing the commander. He held a human scalp tied to a short stick in his left hand. After a few moments of silence, he stood up and addressed the governor, delivering the following speech:

Father!” (Here the orator stopped, and turning round to the audience, with a face full of meaning, and a sarcastic look, which I should in vain attempt to describe, he went on in a lower tone of voice, as addressing himself to them;)—“I have said father, although, indeed, I do not know why I am to call him so, having never known any other father than the French, and considering the English only as brothers. But as this name is also imposed upon us, I shall make use of it and say: (Here he fixed his eyes on the commandant.)

Dad!” (Here the speaker paused, turned to the audience with a meaningful expression and a sarcastic look, which I couldn’t even begin to describe, and continued in a lower voice, as if speaking directly to them;)—“I’ve said Dad, even though I honestly don’t know why I should call him that, since I’ve never known any father other than the French, and I see the English only as brothers. But since this title is also forced upon us, I’ll use it and say: (Here he focused his gaze on the commandant.)

Father! Some time ago you put a war hatchet into my hands, saying: Take this weapon and try it on the heads of my enemies the long knives, and let me afterwards know if it was sharp and good.

Dad! A while back, you handed me a war hatchet and said, ‘Take this weapon and test it against my enemies, the long knives, and then let me know if it’s sharp and effective.’”

Father! At the time when you gave me this weapon, I had neither cause nor inclination to go to war against a people who had done me no injury; yet in obedience to you, who say you are my father and call me your child, I received the hatchet; well knowing that if I did not obey, you would withhold from me150 the necessaries of life, without which I could not subsist, and which are not elsewhere to be procured but at the house of my father.

Dad! When you gave me this weapon, I had no reason or desire to go to war against people who had harmed me in no way; yet out of respect for you, who claim to be my father and refer to me as your child, I accepted the hatchet; fully aware that if I disobeyed, you would deny me150 the essentials of life, which I cannot find anywhere else but at my father's house.”

Father! You may, perhaps, think me a fool, for risking 135 my life at your bidding, in a cause, too, by which I have no prospect of gaining anything; for it is your cause and not mine. It is your concern to fight the long knives; you have raised a quarrel amongst yourselves, and you ought yourselves to fight it out. You should not compel your children, the Indians, to expose themselves to danger for your sakes.

Dad! You might think I'm stupid for risking my life at your request, especially for a cause that doesn't benefit me; it's your cause, not mine. It's your struggle with the long knives; you started this conflict among yourselves, and you should be the ones to sort it out. You shouldn't force your kids, the Native Americans, to put themselves in danger for your sake.

Father! Many lives have already been lost on your account!—Nations have suffered and been weakened!—Children have lost parents, brothers and relatives!—Wives have lost husbands!—It is not known how many more may perish before your war will be at an end!

Dad! Many lives have already been lost because of you!—Nations have suffered and become weaker!—Children have lost parents, brothers, and relatives!—Wives have lost husbands!—It’s not clear how many more will die before your war comes to an end!

Father! I have said that you may, perhaps, think me a fool, for thus thoughtlessly rushing on your enemy!—Do not believe this, Father! Think not that I want sense to convince me, that although you now pretend to keep up a perpetual enmity to the long knives, you may, before long, conclude a peace with them.

Dad! I’ve said that you might think I’m a fool for recklessly charging at your enemy!—But don’t believe that, Dad! Don’t think I lack the awareness to see that even though you now act like you’ll always be against the long knives, you might soon decide to make peace with them.”

Father! You say you love your children, the Indians.—This you have often told them; and indeed it is your interest to say so to them, that you may have them at your service.

Dad! You claim that you love your children, the Indians. You’ve said this to them many times, and it’s in your best interest to say it so you can have their support.

“But, Father! who of us can believe that you can love a people of a different colour from your own, better than those who have a white skin, like yourselves?

“But, Dad! who among us can truly believe that you can love people of a different color more than those with white skin, like you?”

Father! Pay attention to what I am going to say. While you, Father, are setting me151 on your enemy, much in the same manner as a hunter sets his dog on the game; while I am in the act of rushing on that enemy of yours, with the bloody destructive weapon you gave me, I may, perchance, happen to look back to the place from whence you started me, and what shall I see? Perhaps, I may see my father shaking hands with the long knives; yes, with those very people he now calls his enemies. I may, then, see him laugh at my folly for having obeyed his orders; and yet I am now risking my life at his command! Father! keep what I have said in remembrance.

Dad! Listen to what I’m about to say. While you, Dad, are sending me151 against your enemy, just like a hunter sends his dog after the prey; while I’m charging at that enemy of yours, with the bloody destructive weapon you gave me, I might, by chance, look back to where you sent me from, and what will I see? Maybe I’ll see my dad shaking hands with the long knives; yes, with those very people he now calls his enemies. I might then see him laugh at my foolishness for following his orders; and yet I’m risking my life at his command! Dad! Keep what I’ve said in mind.

“Now, Father! here is what has been done with the hatchet you gave me.” (Handing the stick with the scalp on it.) “I have done with the hatchet what you ordered me to do, and found it sharp. Nevertheless, I did not do all that I might have done. 136 No, I did not. My heart failed within me. I felt compassion for your enemy. Innocence152 had no part in your quarrels; therefore I distinguished—I spared. I took some live flesh,153 which, while I was bringing to you, I spied one of your large canoes, on which I put it for you. In a few days you will receive this flesh, and find that the skin is of the same colour with your own.

“Now, Dad! here’s what I did with the hatchet you gave me.” (Handing over the stick with the scalp on it.) “I followed your orders with the hatchet, and it was sharp. Still, I didn’t do everything I could have done. 136 No, I didn’t. I felt weak. I had compassion for your enemy. Innocence152 was not involved in your fights; so I made a distinction—I held back. I took some live flesh,153 which, as I was bringing it to you, I saw one of your large canoes, where I placed it for you. In a few days, you’ll receive this flesh, and see that the skin is the same color as yours.

Father! I hope you will not destroy what154 I have saved. You, Father! have the means of preserving that which with me would perish for want. The warrior is poor and his cabin is always empty; but your house, father! is always full.”

Dad! I hope you won’t ruin what154 I’ve saved. You, Dad! have the ability to keep safe what would otherwise be lost with me. The warrior has nothing, and his place is always empty; but your home, Dad! is always full.

Here we see boldness, frankness, dignity, and humanity happily blended together and most eloquently displayed. I am much mistaken if the component parts of this discourse are not put together much according to the rules of oratory which are taught in the schools, and which were certainly unknown to this savage. The peroration at the end is short, but truly pathetic, and I would even say, sublime; and then the admirable way in which it is prepared! I wish I could convey to the reader’s mind only a small part of the impression which this speech made on me and on all present when it was delivered.

Here we see boldness, honesty, dignity, and humanity happily combined and very effectively expressed. I'm mistaken if the different parts of this speech aren't put together according to the principles of oratory taught in schools, which this savage certainly didn't know. The conclusion is brief but genuinely moving, and I would even call it sublime; and the wonderful way it's set up! I wish I could share with the reader even a little of the impact this speech had on me and everyone there when it was delivered.

It is but justice here to say, that Capt. Pipe was well acquainted with the noble and generous character of the British officer to whom this speech was addressed. He is still living in his own country, an honour to the British name. He obeyed the orders of his superiors in employing the Indians to fight against us, but he did it with reluctance and softened as much as was in his power the horrors of that abominable warfare. He esteemed Captain Pipe, and I have no doubt, was well pleased with the humane conduct of this Indian chief, whose sagacity in this instance is no less deserving of praise than his eloquence. It is thus that great minds understand each other, and even in the most difficult and trying situations, find the means of making the cause of humanity triumph. 137

It’s only fair to mention that Capt. Pipe really understood the noble and generous nature of the British officer this speech was directed to. He is still living in his own country, a pride to the British name. He followed the orders of his superiors in using the Indians to fight against us, but he did so reluctantly and did his best to lessen the horrors of that awful warfare. He respected Captain Pipe, and I have no doubt he appreciated the humane actions of this Indian chief, whose insight in this situation is just as commendable as his eloquence. This is how great minds connect, and even in the toughest and most challenging circumstances, find a way to make the cause of humanity prevail. 137


CHAPTER XII.
METAPHORICAL PHRASES.

T

The Indians are fond of metaphors. They are to their discourse what feathers and beads are to their persons, a gaudy but tasteless ornament. Yet we must not judge them too severely on that account. There are other nations besides the American Indians who admire this mode of expression. Even in enlightened Europe, many centuries have not elapsed since the best and most celebrated writers employed this figure in a profuse manner, and thought it a great embellishment to their poetical and prose compositions; the immortal Shakspeare, himself, did not disdain it.

The Indians love metaphors. They are to their speech what feathers and beads are to their appearance, a flashy but unrefined decoration. However, we shouldn’t judge them too harshly for this. There are other cultures besides the American Indians that appreciate this form of expression. Even in sophisticated Europe, it's only been a few centuries since the best and most renowned writers used this technique extensively and considered it a significant enhancement to their poetry and prose; the immortal Shakespeare himself didn’t shy away from it.

The following examples will be sufficient to give an idea of the metaphorical language of the Indians.

The following examples will be enough to provide an idea of the metaphorical language used by the Indigenous peoples.

1. “The sky is overcast with dark blustering clouds.”—We shall have troublesome times; we shall have war.

1. “The sky is filled with dark, swirling clouds.”—We're in for tough times; we’re going to have war.

2. “A black cloud has arisen yonder.”—War is threatened from that quarter, or from that nation.

2. “A black cloud has appeared over there.”—War is looming from that direction, or from that country.

3. “Two black clouds are drawing towards each other.”—Two powerful enemies are in march against each other!

3. “Two black clouds are moving closer together.”—Two powerful enemies are heading towards each other!

4. “The path is already shut up!”—Hostilities have commenced. The war is begun.

4. “The path is already blocked!”—Conflict has started. The war has begun.

5. “The rivers run with blood!”—War rages in the country.

5. “The rivers run with blood!”—War is raging in the country.

6. “To bury the hatchet.”—To make, or conclude a peace.

6. “To bury the hatchet.”—To make peace or to come to an agreement.

7. “To lay down the hatchet, or to slip the hatchet under the bedstead.”—To cease fighting for a while, during a truce; or, to place the hatchet at hand, so that it may be taken up again at a moment’s warning. 138

7. “To put down the hatchet, or to hide the hatchet under the bed.”—To stop fighting for some time during a truce; or, to keep the hatchet nearby, so it can be picked up again at a moment’s notice. 138

8. “The hatchet you gave me to strike your enemies, proved to be very dull, or not to be sharp; my arm was wearied to little purpose!”—You supplied me so scantily with the articles I stood in need of, that I wanted strength to execute your orders. The presents you gave me were not sufficient for the task you imposed upon me, therefore I did little!

8. “The hatchet you gave me to fight your enemies was really dull; my effort was pretty much useless!” —You didn’t provide me with enough of what I needed, so I didn’t have the strength to carry out your commands. The gifts you gave me weren’t enough for the job you assigned to me, so I accomplished very little!

9. “The hatchet you gave me was very sharp!”—As you have satisfied me, I have done the same for you; I have killed many of your enemies.

9. “The hatchet you gave me was really sharp!”—Since you have pleased me, I've done the same for you; I've taken out many of your enemies.

10. “You did not make me strong!”—You gave me nothing, or but little.

10. “You didn't make me strong!”—You gave me nothing, or just a little.

11. “Make me very strong!”—Give me much, pay me well!

11. “Make me really strong!”—Give me a lot, pay me well!

12. “The stronger you make me, the more you will see!”—The more you give me, the more I will do for you!

12. “The stronger you make me, the more you'll see!”—The more you give me, the more I’ll do for you!

13. “I did as you bid me, but SEE nothing!”—I have performed my part, but you have not rewarded me; or, I did my part for you, but you have not kept your word!

13. “I did what you asked me to, but VIEW nothing!”—I’ve done my part, but you haven’t rewarded me; or, I did my part for you, but you didn’t keep your promise!

14. “You have spoken with your lips only, not from the heart!”—You endeavour to deceive me; you do not intend to do as you say!

14. “You’ve only spoken with your lips, not from the heart!”—You’re trying to trick me; you don’t really mean what you say!

15. “You now speak from the heart!”—Now you mean what you say!

15. “You’re really speaking from the heart now!”—Now you actually mean what you say!

16. “You keep me in the dark!”—You wish to deceive me; you conceal your intentions from me; you keep me in ignorance!

16. “You’re keeping me in the dark!”—You want to trick me; you hide your true intentions; you keep me uninformed!

17. “You stopped my ears!”—You kept the thing a secret from me; you did not wish me to know it!

17. “You blocked my hearing!”—You kept it a secret from me; you didn't want me to know!

18. “Now I believe you!”—Done! agreed! It shall be so!

18. “Now I believe you!”—Done! Agreed! It will be so!

19. “Your words have penetrated into my heart!”—I consent! am pleased with what you say!

19. “Your words have touched my heart!”—I agree! I'm happy with what you say!

20. “You have spoken good words!”—I am pleased, delighted with what you have said!

20. “You have spoken good words!”—I’m happy, thrilled with what you’ve said!

21. “You have spoken the truth!”—I am satisfied with what you have said!

21. “You’ve told the truth!”—I’m happy with what you’ve said!

22. “Singing birds!”—Tale bearers—story tellers—liars.

22. “Singing birds!”—Storytellers—liars.

23. “Don’t listen to the singing of the birds which fly by!”—Don’t believe what stragglers tell you!

23. “Don’t listen to the songs of the birds that fly by!”—Don’t believe what latecomers tell you!

24. “What bird was it that sung that song?”—Who was it that told that story, that lie? 139

24. “What bird was it that sang that song?”—Who was it that shared that story, that lie? 139

25. (To a chief,) “Have you heard the news?”—Have you been officially informed?

25. (To a chief,) “Did you hear the news?”—Have you been officially informed?

26. “I have not heard anything!”—I have no official information.

26. “I haven’t heard anything!”—I have no official information.

27. “To kindle a council fire at such a place.”—To appoint a place where the national business is to be transacted; to establish the seat of government there.

27. “To kindle a council fire at such a place.”—To choose a location where national matters will be discussed; to set up the government headquarters there.

28. “To remove the council fire to another place.”—To establish another place for the seat of government.

28. “To move the council fire to a different location.”—To set up another place for the government headquarters.

29. “The council fire has been extinguished.”—Blood has been shed by an enemy at the seat of government, which has put the fire out; the place has been polluted.

29. “The council fire has been put out.”—An enemy has spilled blood at the seat of government, which has extinguished the fire; the place has been tainted.

30. “Don’t look the other way!”—Don’t lean to that side; don’t join with those!

30. “Don’t look away!”—Don’t lean to that side; don’t team up with those!

31. “Look this way!”—Join us, join our party.

31. “Hey, over here!”—Come on, join our party.

32. “I have not room to spread my blanket!”—I am too much crowded on.

32. “I don’t have enough space to lay out my blanket!”—I’m too crowded here.

33. “Not to have room enough for an encampment.”—To be too much confined to a small district; not to have sufficient range for the cattle to feed on, or sufficient hunting ground.

33. “Not to have enough space for a campsite.”—To be too restricted to a small area; not having enough land for the cattle to graze or enough territory for hunting.

34. “I will place you under my wings!”—(meaning under my arm pits) I will protect you at all hazards! You shall be perfectly safe, nobody shall molest you!

34. “I’ll shelter you under my wings!”—(meaning under my armpits) I will protect you no matter what! You will be completely safe; no one will bother you!

35. “Suffer no grass to grow on the war path!”—Carry on the war with vigor!

35. “Don't let any grass grow on the war path!”—Keep fighting with energy!

36. “Never suffer grass to grow on this war path!”—Be at perpetual war with the nation this path leads to; never conclude a peace with them.

36. “Never let grass grow on this war path!”—Always be in a state of conflict with the nation this path leads to; never make peace with them.

37. “To open a path from one nation to another, by removing the logs, brush and briars out of the way.”—To invite the nation to which the path leads, to a friendly intercourse; to prepare the way to live on friendly terms with them.

37. “To create a route from one nation to another by clearing away obstacles like logs, brush, and thorns.”—To invite the nation that the route connects to engage in friendly relations; to make it easier to live peacefully with them.

38. “The path to that nation is again open!”—We are again on friendly terms; the path may again be travelled with safety.

38. “The path to that nation is open once more!”—We are once again on good terms; the path can now be traveled safely again.

39. “I hear sighing and sobbing in yonder direction!”—I think that a chief of a neighbouring nation has died.

39. “I hear sighing and sobbing over there!”—I think a leader from a nearby nation has passed away.

40. “I draw the thorns out of your feet and legs, grease your stiffened joints with oil, and wipe the sweat off your body!”—I 140 make you feel comfortable after your fatiguing journey, that you may enjoy yourself while with us.

40. “I pull the thorns out of your feet and legs, rub oil on your stiff joints, and wipe the sweat off your body!”—I 140 make you feel comfortable after your exhausting journey, so you can enjoy your time with us.

41. “I wipe the tears from your eyes, cleanse your ears, and place your aching heart, which bears you down to one side, in its proper position!”—I condole with you; dispel all sorrow! prepare yourself for business! (N. B. This is said when condoling with a nation on the death of a chief.)

41. “I wipe the tears from your eyes, clean your ears, and set your aching heart, which feels heavy on one side, back in its right place!”—I sympathize with you; banish all sadness! Get ready to take action! (N. B. This is stated when offering condolences to a nation upon the death of a leader.)

42. “I have discovered the cause of your grief!”—I have seen the grave (where the chief was buried.)

42. “I know why you're upset!”—I've seen the grave (where the chief was buried).

43. “I have covered yon spot with155 fresh earth; I have raked leaves, and planted trees thereon!”—means literally, I have hidden the grave from your eyes; and figuratively, “you must now be cheerful again!”

43. “I have covered that spot with155 fresh earth; I have raked leaves and planted trees there!”—means literally, I have hidden the grave from your view; and figuratively, “it’s time for you to be happy again!”

44. “I lift you up from this place, and set you down again at my dwelling place!”—I invite you to arise from hence, and come and live where I live.

44. “I lift you up from this place and set you down again at my home!”—I invite you to get up from here and come live where I live.

45. “I am much too heavy to rise at this present time!”—I have too much property! (corn, vegetables, &c.)

45. “I'm way too weighed down to lift off right now!”—I have too many possessions! (corn, vegetables, etc.)

46. “I will pass one night yet at this place.”—I will stay one year yet at this place.

46. “I will spend one more night here.”—I will stay one more year here.

47. “We have concluded a peace, which is to last as long as the sun shall shine, and the rivers flow with water!”—The peace we have made is to continue as long as the world stands, or to the end of time.

47. “We've made a peace that will last as long as the sun shines and the rivers flow!”—The peace we've established is meant to last as long as the world exists, or until the end of time.

48. “To bury the hatchet beneath the root of a tree!”—To put it quite out of sight.

48. “To bury the hatchet beneath the root of a tree!” — To put it entirely out of sight.

49. “To bury deep in the earth,” (an injury done)—To consign it to oblivion.

49. “To bury deep in the earth,” (an injury done)—To put it out of mind.

141

141


CHAPTER XIII.
Indian Names.

T

The proper names of Indians are in general given to them after animals of various kinds, and even fishes and reptiles. Thus they are called the Beaver, Otter, Sun-fish, Black-fish, Rattle-snake, Black-snake, &c. They have also other descriptive names, from their personal qualities or appearances, and sometimes from fancy or caprice; but many of those are given them by the whites, such as Pipe, White-eyes, Kill-buck, &c., which are not real Indian names. They do not always preserve the names first given to them, but often assume a new one after they have come to man’s estate.

The names of Native Americans are usually derived from various animals, including fish and reptiles. They might be called the Beaver, Otter, Sun-fish, Black-fish, Rattle-snake, Black-snake, etc. They also have other descriptive names based on their personal traits or looks, and sometimes from whimsy; however, many of these names are given by white people, such as Pipe, White-eyes, Kill-buck, etc., which are not authentic Native American names. They don’t always stick with the names they were originally given, often adopting new ones once they reach adulthood.

Indians, who have particularly distinguished themselves by their conduct, or by some meritorious act, or who have been the subjects of some remarkable occurrence, have names given to them in allusion to those circumstances. Thus, I have known a man whose name would signify in our language the beloved lover, and one who was named Met by love. Another, a great warrior, who had been impatiently waiting for day-light to engage the enemy, was afterwards called Cause day-light, or Make day-light appear. So, one who had come in with a heavy load of turkies on his back, was called The Carrier of Turkies, and another whose shoes were generally torn or patched, was called Bad Shoes. All those names are generally expressed in one single word, in compounding which the Indians are very ingenious. Thus, the name they had for the place where Philadelphia now stands, and which they have preserved notwithstanding 142 the great change which has taken place, is Kúequenáku,156 which means, The grove of the long pine trees.

Indians who have particularly stood out for their behavior, some noteworthy action, or who have been involved in some significant event, are given names that reference those situations. For example, I’ve known a man whose name translates to the beloved lover, and another who was named Met by love. There was also a great warrior who eagerly awaited daybreak to face the enemy, and he was later called Cause day-light or Make day-light appear. One individual who arrived with a heavy load of turkeys on his back was named The Carrier of Turkeys, while another, whose shoes were often worn out or patched, was called Bad Shoes. These names are typically expressed as a single word, and the Indians are quite creative in forming them. For instance, the name they used for the area where Philadelphia is located, which they have maintained despite the significant changes, is Kúequenáku,156 which means The grove of the long pine trees.

They have proper names, not only for all towns, villages, mountains, valleys, rivers, and streams, but for all remarkable spots, as for instance, those which are particularly infested with gnats or musquitoes, where snakes have their dens, &c. Those names always contain an allusion to such particular circumstance, so that foreigners, even though acquainted with their language, will often be at a loss to understand their discourse.

They have specific names, not just for towns, villages, mountains, valleys, rivers, and streams, but for all notable places, like those that are especially swarming with gnats or mosquitoes, or where snakes have their dens, etc. These names always reference such particular circumstances, so that outsiders, even if they know the language, will often struggle to grasp the conversation.

To strangers, white men for instance, they will give names derived from some remarkable quality which they have observed in them, or from some circumstance which remarkably strikes them. When they were told the meaning of the name of William Penn, they translated it into their own language by Miquon, which means a feather or quill. The Iroquois call him Onas, which in their idiom means the same thing.

To outsiders, like white men, they will give names based on some notable quality they’ve noticed in them or a circumstance that stands out to them. When they learned the meaning of William Penn’s name, they translated it into their own language as Miquon, which means a feather or quill. The Iroquois call him Onas, which means the same thing in their language.

The first name given by the Indians to the Europeans who landed in Virginia was Wapsid Lenape (white people;) when, however, afterwards they began to commit murders on the red men, whom they pierced with swords, they gave to the Virginians the name Mechanschican, (long knives,) to distinguish them from others of the same colour.

The first name given by the Native Americans to the Europeans who landed in Virginia was Wapsid Lenape (white people); however, later on, when they started killing the Native Americans, whom they attacked with swords, they referred to the Virginians as Mechanschican (long knives) to set them apart from others of the same skin color.

In New England, they at first endeavoured to imitate the sound of the national name of the English, which they pronounced Yengees. They also called them Chauquaquock, (men of knives) for having imported those instruments into the country, which they gave in presents to the natives.157 They thought them better men than the Virginians; but when they were afterwards cruelly treated by them, and their men shipped off to sea, the Mohicans of that country called them Tschachgoos; and when next the people of the middle colonies began to murder them, and called on the Iroquois to insult them and assist in depriving them of their lands, they then dropped that name, and called the whites by way of derision, Schwannack, which signifies salt beings, or bitter beings; for in their language 143 the word Schwan, is in general applied to things that have a salt, sharp, bitter, or sour taste. The object of this name, as well as of that which the Mohicans gave to the eastern people, was to express contempt as well as hatred or dislike, and to hold out the white inhabitants of the country as hateful and despicable beings. I have, however, in many instances observed that the Indians are careful not to apply this opprobrious name to any white person whom they know to be amicably disposed towards them, and whom they are sure to be a good, honest, well-meaning man. I have heard them charge their children not to call a particular white man Schwannack, but Friend. This name was first introduced about the year 1730. They never apply it to the Quakers, whom they greatly love and respect since the first arrival of William Penn into the country. They call them Quœkels, not having in their language the sound expressed by our letter R. They say they have always found them good, honest, affable and peaceable men, and never have had reason to complain of them.

In New England, they initially tried to mimic the sound of the national name of the English, which they pronounced as Yengees. They also referred to them as Chauquaquock (men of knives) because they brought those tools into the country, which they gave to the natives as gifts.157 They thought they were better men than the Virginians; however, when they were later mistreated by them and their men were shipped off to sea, the Mohicans in that area called them Tschachgoos. When the people of the middle colonies began to kill them and asked the Iroquois to insult them and help take their lands, they abandoned that name and mockingly referred to the whites as Schwannack, meaning salt beings or bitter beings. In their language, the word Schwan generally refers to things that have a salty, sharp, bitter, or sour taste. The aim of this name, as well as the one the Mohicans gave to the eastern people, was to show disdain as well as hatred or dislike, portraying the white residents of the country as loathsome and contemptible beings. However, I have often noticed that the Indians are careful not to use this derogatory name for any white person who they know is friendly towards them, and who they believe to be a decent, honest, good-hearted person. I've heard them instruct their children not to call a particular white man Schwannack, but rather Friend. This name first appeared around 1730. They never use it for the Quakers, whom they greatly appreciate and respect since the arrival of William Penn in the area. They call them Quœkels, not having the sound represented by our letter R in their language. They say they have always found the Quakers to be good, honest, friendly, and peaceful people, and they have never had any reason to complain about them.

These were the names which the Indians gave to the whites, until the middle of the Revolutionary war, when they were reduced to the following three:

These were the names that the Native Americans used for the Europeans, until the middle of the Revolutionary War, when they were simplified to the following three:

1. Mechanschican or Chanschican (long knives). This they no longer applied to the Virginians exclusively, but also to those of the people of the middle states, whom they considered as hostilely inclined towards them, particularly those who wore swords, dirks, or knives at their sides.

1. Mechanschican or Chanschican (long knives). This term was no longer used exclusively for Virginians, but also for people from the middle states, whom they viewed as potentially hostile, especially those who carried swords, dirks, or knives at their sides.

2. Yengees. This name they now exclusively applied to the people of New England, who, indeed, appeared to have adopted it, and were, as they still are, generally through the country called Yankees, which is evidently the same name with a trifling alteration. They say they know the Yengees, and can distinguish them by their dress and personal appearance, and that they were considered as less cruel than the Virginians or long knives. The proper English they158 call Saggenash.

2. Yengees. This name is now used exclusively for the people of New England, who have seemingly embraced it. They’re generally known across the country as Yankees, which is basically the same name with just a slight change. They claim to recognize the Yengees and can tell them apart by their clothing and looks, noting that they are seen as less brutal than the Virginians or long knives. The proper English they158 refer to as Saggenash.

3. Quœkels. They do not now apply this name exclusively to the members of the Society of Friends, but to all the white 144 people whom they love or respect, and whom they believe to have good intentions towards them.

3. Quœkels. They no longer use this name just for members of the Society of Friends, but for all the white people they care about or respect, and whom they think have good intentions toward them. 144

Not only the Delawares, but all the nations round them, make use of these names, and with the same relative application. I have myself, in 1782, while at Detroit, witnessed the Chippeways, who on meeting an American prisoner, who was walking about, called out Messamochkemaan (long knife), though he had no knife, sword, or dirk at his side. I was one day about the same time hailed in that manner as I was walking up the river, and apprehending that I might be seized as a runaway prisoner, I immediately answered: Kau! Saggenash; No! an Englishman; and they passed on. I might with great propriety make this answer, as I was born in England.

Not only the Delawares, but all the surrounding nations use these names with the same meaning. In 1782, when I was in Detroit, I saw the Chippewas call out Messamochkemaan (long knife) to an American prisoner who was just walking around, even though he wasn’t carrying a knife, sword, or dirk. Around the same time, I was also called out like that while walking up the river, and worried I might be mistaken for a runaway prisoner, I quickly replied: Kau! Saggenash; No! an Englishman; and they just moved on. I could rightly say that since I was born in England.

In the year 1808, while I was riding with a number of gentlemen through Greentown159 (an Indian town in the State of Ohio), I heard an Indian in his house, who through a crevice saw us passing, say in his language to his family: “See! what a number of people are coming along!—What! and among all these not one long knife! All Yengees!” Then, probably observing me, he said correcting himself, “No! one Quækel.”

In 1808, while I was riding with a group of gentlemen through Greentown159 (an Indian town in Ohio), I heard an Indian inside his house, who, through a crack, shouted to his family: “Look! So many people are coming!—What! Out of all these, not one long knife! All Yengees!” Then, probably noticing me, he corrected himself and said, “No! one Quækel.”

Such are the observations which the Indians make on the white people, and the names which they give to them. They may sometimes be in the wrong; but, as they make it their particular study to become acquainted with the actions, motions, deportment, and dress of the different nations, they seldom commit mistakes, and in general, they apply their different names precisely to those whom they are meant to designate or describe.

Such are the observations that the Indigenous people make about white people, and the names they give them. They may sometimes be mistaken; however, since they focus on understanding the behaviors, movements, manners, and clothing of different groups, they rarely make errors, and in general, they accurately use their various names for those they intend to identify or describe.

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145


CHAPTER XIV.
INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER.

I

It is a striking fact that the Indians, in their uncivilised state, should so behave towards each other as though they were a civilised people! I have in numerous instances witnessed their meeting together, their doing business and conversing with each other for hours, their labouring together, and their hunting and fishing in bodies or parties; I have seen them divide their game, venison, bear’s meat, fish, &c., among themselves, when they sometimes had many shares to make, and cannot recollect a single instance of their falling into a dispute or finding fault with the distribution, as being unequal, or otherwise objectionable. On the contrary, on such occasions they even receive what is allotted to them with thanks; they say “anischi” I am thankful! as if it was a present given to them.

It is a remarkable fact that the Indians, in their uncivilized state, behave toward each other as if they were a civilized people! I have seen many instances where they come together, conduct business, and talk for hours; I have watched them work, hunt, and fish in groups. I have observed them share their game—venison, bear meat, fish, etc.—among themselves, and I can't recall a single instance of them getting into a dispute or being dissatisfied with the distribution, whether they had many shares to deal out or not. On the contrary, during these times, they accept what they are given with gratitude; they say “anischi” which means I am thankful! as if it were a gift given to them.

They certainly (I am here speaking of the men) show a reverence for each other, which is visible on all occasions; they often meet for the purpose of conversation, and their sociability appears to be a recreation to them, a renewal of good fellowship. Their general principle, that good and bad cannot mingle or dwell together in one heart, and therefore must not come into contact, seems to be their guide on all occasions. So, likewise, when travelling, whether they are few, or many, they are cheerful, and resigned to the accidents which may befal them; never impatient, quarrelsome, or charging any one, or one another, with being in fault, or the occasion of what had happened; even though one should lose his all by the neglect or carelessness of 146 the other, yet they will not fly into a passion, but patiently bear with the loss, thinking within themselves that such a one feels sorry enough already, and therefore it would be unreasonable to add to his pain. They judge with calmness on all occasions, and decide with precision, or endeavour so to do, between an accident and a wilful act;—the first (they say) they are all liable to commit, and therefore it ought not to be noticed, or punished;—the second being a wilful or premeditated act, committed with a bad design, ought on the contrary to receive due punishment.

They definitely (I’m talking about the men here) show respect for each other that's obvious in every situation; they often get together to chat, and their social time seems to be a fun break for them, a refreshing time of camaraderie. Their main belief is that good and bad can't mix or coexist in one heart, so they avoid coming into contact, and this guide influences all their actions. Similarly, when they're traveling, whether it’s just a few of them or a larger group, they stay cheerful and accept whatever surprises come their way; they’re never impatient, argumentative, or blame each other for what happens, even if one person loses everything due to another’s carelessness. Instead of getting angry, they calmly handle the loss, thinking that the person at fault already feels bad enough, so it doesn’t make sense to make it worse. They judge situations calmly and strive to clearly distinguish between an accident and a deliberate act; the first (they say) can happen to anyone, so it shouldn’t be criticized or punished; the second, being a deliberate or premeditated act with malicious intent, deserves proper punishment.

To illustrate this subject, I shall relate a few of the cases of this description which have come within my knowledge. One morning early, an Indian came into the house of another who was yet abed, asking for the loan of his gun for a morning hunt, his own being out of repair; the owner readily consented, and said: “As my gun is not loaded, you will have to take a few balls out of your160 pouch!” In taking the gun down, it, however, by some accident went off, and lodged the contents in the owner’s head, who was still lying on the bed, and now expired. The gun, it appeared, was loaded, though unknown to him, and the lock left in such a condition that by a touch it went off. A cry was heard from all sides in the house: O! the accident! for such it was always considered to have been, and was treated as such.

To illustrate this topic, I’ll share a few cases I've encountered. One early morning, an Indian entered the house of another man who was still in bed, asking to borrow his gun for a morning hunt since his own was broken. The owner agreed without hesitation and said, “Since my gun isn’t loaded, you’ll need to take some bullets from your160 pouch!” However, while taking down the gun, it accidentally discharged and shot the owner, who was still lying in bed, resulting in his death. It turned out that the gun was loaded without the owner knowing, and the lock was in such a state that it fired with just a slight touch. A cry rang out from everyone in the house: “Oh! The accident!” as it was always considered just that and was treated accordingly.

A hunter went out to kill a bear, some of those animals having been seen in the neighbourhood. In an obscure part of a wood, he saw at a distance something black moving, which he took for a bear, the whole of the animal not being visible to him; he fired, and found he had shot a black horse. Having discovered the mistake, he informed the owner of what had happened, expressing at the same time his regret that he was not possessed of a single horse, with which he could replace the one he had shot. What! replied the Indian whose horse had been killed, do you think I would accept a horse from you, though you had one to give, after you have satisfied me that you killed mine by accident? No, indeed! for the same misfortune might also happen to me. 147

A hunter went out to hunt a bear, since some of those animals had been spotted nearby. In a hidden part of the woods, he saw something black moving in the distance, which he assumed was a bear, not being able to see the whole animal. He took a shot and discovered he had hit a black horse. After realizing his mistake, he told the owner what had happened, while also expressing his regret that he didn’t have a horse to replace the one he had shot. “What?” replied the Indian whose horse had been killed, “Do you think I would accept a horse from you, even if you had one, after you’ve made it clear that you killed mine by accident? No way! Because the same thing could easily happen to me.” 147

An aged Indian who had gone out to shoot a turkey, mistook a black hog in the bushes for one of those birds, and shot him; finding out by enquiry to whom the hog belonged, he informed the owner of the mistake he had made, offering to pay for the hog; which the other, however, not only would not accept of, but having brought the meat in, gave him a leg of the animal, because he thought that the unfortunate man, as well on account of his disappointment, in not feasting on turkey as he expected soon to do when he shot the hog, as for his honesty in informing of what he had done, was entitled to a share of what he had killed.

An elderly Indian went out to hunt a turkey but mistakenly shot a black hog hidden in the bushes. After finding out who owned the hog, he told the owner about his mistake and offered to pay for the animal. However, the owner not only refused the money but also brought the meat back and gave the man a leg of the hog. He believed that the unfortunate man deserved a share of the meat, both because he was disappointed in not getting the turkey he expected and because of his honesty in admitting what he had done.

Two Indians with a large canoe, going down the Muskingum river to a certain distance, were accosted by others going by land to the same place, who requested them to take their heavy articles, as kettles, axes, hoes, &c. into their canoe, which they freely did, but unfortunately were shipwrecked at the rocks of White Eyes’s falls (as the place is called,) where the whole cargo was lost, and the men saved themselves by swimming to the shore. The question being put and fully discussed, whether those men with the canoe, who had taken charge of the property of the others, and by this neglect lost the whole, were not liable to pay for the loss? it was decided in the negative, on the following grounds:

Two Native Americans with a large canoe were traveling down the Muskingum River when they were approached by others who were going overland to the same destination. The overland team asked them to load their heavy items, like kettles, axes, hoes, etc., into their canoe, which they did willingly. Unfortunately, they were shipwrecked at the rocks at White Eyes's Falls, where they lost everything, but managed to save themselves by swimming to shore. The question arose and was fully debated as to whether the canoeists, who had taken responsibility for the others' belongings and lost everything due to their negligence, should be held accountable for the losses. It was ultimately decided that they were not liable for compensation based on the following reasons:

1. That the canoe men had taken the articles on board, with the pleasing hope that they thereby would oblige their fellow men, and did not expect any recompense for that service.

1. The canoe men had loaded the items onto their boat, hoping it would help their fellow humans, and they didn't expect any reward for that service.

2. That although they might have avoided the danger and the loss, by unloading the canoe at the head of the fall, and carrying the cargo by land below it, (which was but a short distance,) as was customary, when the river was not in a proper state to run through, yet that, had those who travelled by land been in the place of those in the canoe, they might, like them, have attempted to have run through, as is sometimes done with success, and been equally unfortunate.

2. Even though they could have avoided the danger and the loss by unloading the canoe at the top of the falls and carrying the cargo by land for a short distance below it, which was the usual practice when the river wasn't safe to navigate, those who traveled by land might have tried to go through just like those in the canoe, and sometimes that works out, but they could have been just as unlucky.

3. That the canoe men having had all their own property on board, which was all lost at the same time, and was equally valuable to them, it was clear that they had expected to run safely through, and could not have intentionally or designedly brought on themselves and others the misfortune which had 148 happened, and therefore the circumstance must be ascribed entirely to accident.

3. The canoeists had all their personal belongings on board, which they lost at the same time, and it was all equally valuable to them. It was obvious that they had expected to get through safely and wouldn’t have intentionally caused the misfortune that occurred. Therefore, this situation must be entirely attributed to accident. 148

Such is the disposition of the Indians with regard to those who inadvertently meet with a disaster, whereby others are injured. They are ready to overlook a fault, and more disposed in such cases to commiserate, than to punish; but with those who wilfully and intentionally commit aggressions and injure others, they think and act quite differently; a malicious person is generally despised, and if he intrudes himself into good company, they will, without saying a word, steal off one by one, and leave him alone to suffer the mortification which it is intended he should feel. For murderers and thieves they have no compassion, and punish them according to the nature of their crimes, if not publicly, still privately, for they are considered as a nuisance, and a disgrace to the nation, and so much so were persons of this description considered and despised in former times among the Delawares, before the white people came, that it was a rare thing to hear of any such being among them. This I have repeatedly been told, between the years 1770 and 1780, by Indians of that nation; one of whom, when a boy, resided on the spot where Philadelphia now stands, when the first house was building there, and assisted in furnishing the workmen with fish, and caught rabbits for them; the other, who was still older, lived with his parents on the spot where afterwards was built Perth Amboy in New Jersey: both were respectable men, highly esteemed by all who knew them.

This is how the Indigenous people view those who accidentally face disasters that hurt others. They are willing to overlook mistakes and tend to feel sympathy rather than punish. However, their attitude changes dramatically towards those who intentionally harm others; they generally despise malicious individuals. If such a person tries to join a good group, people will silently leave one by one, allowing him to experience the embarrassment intended for him. They have no sympathy for murderers and thieves, punishing them based on the severity of their crimes—if not publicly, then privately—because these individuals are seen as a nuisance and a shame to the community. In fact, this view was deeply rooted among the Delawares long before the arrival of white settlers, to the point where it was rare to encounter anyone like that. I've heard this repeatedly from members of that nation between 1770 and 1780, including one man who, as a boy, lived where Philadelphia stands today while the first house was being built and helped supply workers with fish and caught rabbits for them. The other man, who was even older, lived with his family where Perth Amboy in New Jersey would later be established. Both were respected figures, well-regarded by everyone who knew them.

I do not believe that there exists a people more attentive to paying common civilities to each other than the Indians are; but this, from a want of understanding their language, as well as their customs and manners, generally escapes the notice of travellers, although some of them, better observers than the rest, have touched upon this subject. In more than one hundred instances, I have with astonishment and delight witnessed the attention paid to a person entering the house of another, where, in the first instance, he is desired to seat himself, with the words, “sit down, my friend!” if he is a stranger, or no relation; but if a relation, the proper title is added. A person is never left standing, there are seats for all; and if a dozen should follow 149 each other in succession, all are provided with seats, and the stranger, if a white person, with the best. The tobacco pouch next is handed round; it is the first treat, as with us a glass of wine or brandy. Without a single word passing between the man and his wife, she will go about preparing some victuals for the company, and having served the visiters, will retire to a neighbour’s house, to inform the family of the visit with which her husband is honoured, never grumbling on account of their eating up the provisions, even if it were what she had cooked for her own family, considering the friendly visit well worth this small trouble and expense.

I don't think there's a group of people more attentive to showing common courtesy to one another than the Indians. However, since many travelers don't understand their language or customs, this often goes unnoticed, even though some more observant individuals have commented on it. I've seen more than a hundred times, with surprise and joy, how much attention is paid when someone enters another person's home. Usually, the guest is invited to sit down with the greeting, “sit down, my friend!” if they’re a stranger, or with the appropriate title if they’re a relative. No one is ever left standing; there are seats for everyone. Even if a dozen people arrive in a row, there’s always a place for everyone, and if the visitor is a white person, they get the best seat. Next, the tobacco pouch is passed around; it's the first offering, similar to wine or brandy in our culture. Without exchanging a word with her husband, the wife will start preparing food for the guests, and after serving them, she'll go to a neighbor's house to let them know about her husband's visitors. She never complains about them eating the food, even if it was what she made for her own family, believing that this friendly visit is worth the little trouble and expense.

It is true, that among themselves, they expect the same attention and hospitality paid to them in return; yet that is not their main object, for I have seen a number of instances in which a return was out of the question, where poverty would not admit of it, or distance of abode put it out of the power of the visiter to return the same civilities to his host: when white people are treated in this way, with the best entertainment the house affords, they may be sure it is nothing else than a mark of respect paid to them, and that the attentions they receive do not proceed from any interested view.

It’s true that they expect the same level of attention and hospitality in return; however, that isn’t their main goal. I have seen many cases where returning the favor wasn’t possible due to poverty or the distance from the host making it impractical for the visitor to reciprocate the kindness. When white people are treated this way, enjoying the best accommodations the house has to offer, they can be sure that it’s simply a sign of respect for them, and the kindness they receive isn’t driven by any selfish motives.

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150


CHAPTER XV.
Political moves.

I

In the management of their national affairs, the Indians display as much skill and dexterity, perhaps, as any people upon earth. When a political message is sent to them from a neighbouring nation,161 they generally contrive to send an answer so ambiguously worded, that it is difficult to come at their real meaning; they conceive this to be the best way of getting rid of a proposal which they do not like, because those who sent them the message are for some time, at least, at a loss to comprehend the meaning, and not knowing whether the answer is favourable or unfavourable, their proceedings are necessarily suspended until they can discover its true sense; in this manner have operations been sometimes entirely prevented, and matters have remained in the same situation that they were in before.

In managing their national affairs, the Indians show just as much skill and cleverness, perhaps, as any people on Earth. When they receive a political message from a neighboring nation, 161 they usually respond with an answer that's so vaguely phrased that it's hard to understand their true intent; they see this as the best way to brush off a proposal they don't want, since those who sent the message are left puzzled for a while, unsure whether the response is positive or negative. Their actions are paused until they figure out its real meaning; this approach has sometimes completely halted operations, leaving matters unchanged from how they were before.

It may be supposed, perhaps, that such an artful manner of treating each other might be thought provoking, and cause jealousies and disputes among the different parties; such is not, however, the case, as nothing insulting is ever contained in those messages; and as offence is not meant, it is not taken. The Indians consider it on all sides as a kind of diplomatic proceeding, an exercise which tends to invigorate the mind, of which they are very fond. It gives them opportunities to reflect and think deeply on matters of importance, and of displaying their genius, when they have found or discovered the 151 secret of an answer sent to them, or hit upon the true meaning of an ambiguous message.

It might be assumed that such a clever way of interacting could spark jealousy and arguments among the different groups; however, that's not the situation. None of the messages contain anything insulting, and since there's no intention to offend, none is taken. The Indians view this as a diplomatic practice, a mental exercise they really enjoy. It provides them with opportunities to reflect deeply on important issues and to showcase their intellect when they uncover the answer to a message sent to them or grasp the true meaning behind an ambiguous statement. 151

At the time of the Revolutionary war I witnessed a curious scene of diplomatic manœuvres between two great men of the Delaware nation, both of whom had in their time signalised themselves as brave and courageous men, and had acquired the character of two great war chiefs. The war that I speak of, which had but lately begun, had made it necessary for the Indians to consult their present and future safety. Captain White Eyes, of the Turtle tribe, who was placed at the head of his nation, had its welfare much at heart. He was in favour of their following the advice given them by the American Congress, which was to remain neutral, and not to meddle in the quarrel between the Americans and the parent country. He advised his people, therefore, to remain in friendship with both sides, and not to take up arms against either, as it might bring them into trouble, and perhaps, in the end, effect their ruin.

During the Revolutionary War, I witnessed a strange scene of diplomatic maneuvers between two prominent leaders of the Delaware nation, both of whom had distinguished themselves as brave and courageous figures, earning a reputation as great war chiefs. The war I’m referring to, which had only recently started, made it crucial for the Indians to think about their current and future safety. Captain White Eyes, from the Turtle tribe, who led his nation, genuinely cared about their well-being. He supported following the advice from the American Congress, which suggested that they remain neutral and not get involved in the conflict between the Americans and their mother country. Therefore, he urged his people to keep friendly relations with both sides and avoid taking up arms against either, as it could lead to trouble and potentially result in their downfall.

On the other hand, Captain Pipe, of the Wolf tribe, who resided at the distance of fifteen miles, where he had his council fire, was of a different opinion, and leaned on the side of the British. He was an artful, ambitious man, yet not deficient in greatness of mind, as I have shewn in a preceding chapter. But his head at that time was full of the wrongs which the Indians had suffered from the Americans, from their first coming into the country; his soul panted for revenge, and he was glad to seize the opportunity that now offered. He professed his readiness to join in proper measures to save the nation, but not such measures as his antagonist proposed; what his real object was he did not openly declare, but privately endeavoured to counteract all that was done and proposed by the other. White Eyes, however, was a sensible upright man, and never was deficient in means to support his own measures, and extricate himself from the snares with which he was on all sides surrounded by Captain Pipe. Thus they went on for upwards of two years, Pipe working clandestinely, and keeping his spies continually on the watch upon the other, while White Eyes acted openly and publicly, as though he knew nothing of what was machinating against him. 152

On the other hand, Captain Pipe from the Wolf tribe, who lived fifteen miles away where he held his council meetings, had a different perspective and sided with the British. He was clever and ambitious, yet also had a sense of greatness, as I mentioned in an earlier chapter. However, at that time, he was consumed by the grievances the Indians had suffered from the Americans since their arrival in the country; he longed for revenge and was eager to seize the opportunity that had presented itself. He claimed he was ready to be part of effective efforts to save the nation, but he rejected the strategies proposed by his rival. While he didn’t openly share his true intentions, he secretly tried to undermine everything suggested by the other leader. On the other hand, White Eyes was a wise and honorable man, always resourceful enough to support his own plans and free himself from the traps set by Captain Pipe. For over two years, they operated this way: Pipe working behind the scenes and keeping his spies constantly watching White Eyes, while White Eyes acted openly and publicly, as if he were unaware of the schemes being plotted against him. 152

At last, a circumstance took place which apparently justified Captain Pipe in the measures he wished to pursue. In March 1778, a number of white people, of those whom we called Tories, among whom were M’Kee, Eliott, Girty,162 and several others, having escaped from Pittsburg, told the Indians wherever they came, “that they must arm and be off immediately, and kill all the Americans wherever they found them, for they had determined to destroy all the Indians, and possess themselves of their country.” White Eyes, not believing what these men said, advised his people to remain quiet, for this report could not be true. Pipe, on the contrary, called his men together, and in a speech which he addressed to them, pronounced every man an enemy to his country who endeavoured to dissuade them from going out against the Americans, and said that all such ought to be put to death. Captain White Eyes was not disconcerted; he immediately assembled his warriors, and told them “that if they meant in earnest to go out, as he observed some of them were preparing to do, they should not go without him. He had taken peace measures in order to save the nation from utter destruction. But if they believed that he was in the wrong, and gave more credit to vagabond fugitives, whom he knew to be such, than to himself, who was best acquainted with the real state of things; if they had determined to follow their advice, and go out against the Americans, he would go out with them; he would lead them on, place himself in the front, and be the first who should fall. They only had to determine on what they meant to do; for his own mind was fully made up not to survive his nation, and he would not spend the remainder of a miserable life in bewailing the total destruction of a brave people, who deserved a better fate.”

At last, a situation arose that seemingly justified Captain Pipe in the actions he wanted to take. In March 1778, several white people, whom we called Tories, including M’Kee, Eliott, Girty, 162 and others, escaped from Pittsburgh. They told the Indians they met that they needed to arm themselves immediately and kill any Americans they encountered, because the Americans had decided to wipe out all the Indians and take their land. White Eyes, not believing what these men said, urged his people to stay calm, as this report couldn't be true. Pipe, however, gathered his men and, in a speech, declared that anyone who tried to dissuade them from going against the Americans was an enemy to their country and deserved death. Captain White Eyes remained undeterred; he quickly summoned his warriors and told them that if they were serious about going out, as he saw some preparing to do, they couldn't go without him. He had been pursuing peace to save his nation from total destruction. But if they believed he was wrong and trusted the words of wandering fugitives, who he knew were unreliable, more than him, who understood the true situation; if they decided to follow their advice and fight the Americans, he would join them. He would lead the way, place himself at the front, and be the first to fall. They just needed to decide what they wanted to do, because he was fully resolved not to outlive his nation, and he would not spend the rest of his miserable life mourning the complete destruction of a brave people who deserved a better fate.

This spirited, and at the same time pathetic, speech of Captain White Eyes, made such an impression on the minds of the 153 audience, that they unanimously declared that they would obey his orders, and listen to no person but himself, either white or of their own colour. Indeed, there was too much force, too much majesty in this address to be resisted; when this was reported to Pipe by his emissaries, he was absolutely confounded, and knew not what to do. A few days afterwards, the council of the Delaware nation received the most friendly and flattering messages from the commandant and Indian agent at Pittsburg, cautioning them, “not to listen to those worthless men who had ran off from them in the night, and to be assured of the steady friendship of the Government of the United States.” Pipe was so put to the blush, and took this matter so much to heart, that he soon after threw off the mask, permitted his men to go out and murder the Americans, and afterwards went off with them to Sandusky, under the protection of the British Government. We have seen in a former chapter that he afterwards saw how impolitic his conduct had been, and probably wished to retrace his steps, but it was too late. He had suffered himself to be misled by his passions, excited by the remembrance of former wrongs, and thus was betrayed into his injudicious conduct. Perhaps also his jealousy of Captain White Eyes, whose superiority his proud mind could not bear, did not in a small degree contribute to it. Pipe was certainly a great man, but White Eyes was, in my opinion, the greatest of the two. I was present when he made the speech which I have related, and never shall forget the impression it made upon me.

This passionate yet somewhat heartbreaking speech by Captain White Eyes left such a strong impression on the audience that they all agreed to follow his orders and only listen to him, whether he was white or of their own race. The power and dignity in his words were impossible to resist; when Pipe heard about this from his messengers, he was completely stunned and didn't know what to do. A few days later, the council of the Delaware nation received very friendly and flattering messages from the commander and Indian agent in Pittsburgh, warning them “not to pay attention to those worthless men who had fled from them in the night, and to be assured of the steady friendship of the Government of the United States.” Pipe was so embarrassed and took this matter to heart that he soon revealed his true intentions, allowed his men to go out and kill Americans, and then left with them for Sandusky, under the protection of the British Government. As we saw in a previous chapter, he later realized how unwise his actions had been and probably wished he could take them back, but it was too late. He had let his emotions, fueled by the memory of past grievances, lead him into reckless behavior. His jealousy of Captain White Eyes, whose superiority he couldn't accept, may have also played a role. Pipe was certainly a significant figure, but in my view, White Eyes was the greater of the two. I was there when he gave the speech I've described, and I will never forget the impression it made on me.

Thus Indian politicians work and manage matters against each other without newspaper wrangles, abuse of character, personal quarrels, or open insults. Their ingenuity, when joined to a good cause, generally makes them come off victorious. In a bad cause, on the contrary, they sure163 to meet with detection and defeat, as Captain Pipe, for his misfortune, sadly experienced.

Thus, Indian politicians operate and handle issues with each other without media disputes, character attacks, personal conflicts, or blatant insults. Their cleverness, when combined with a good cause, usually leads them to success. In a bad cause, however, they are bound to encounter exposure and failure, as Captain Pipe, unfortunately, experienced.

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CHAPTER XVI.
MARRIAGE AND HOW THEY TREAT THEIR WIVES.

T

There are many persons who believe, from the labour that they see the Indian women perform, that they are in a manner treated as slaves. These labours, indeed, are hard, compared with the tasks that are imposed upon females in civilised society; but they are no more than their fair share, under every consideration and due allowance, of the hardships attendant on savage life. Therefore they are not only voluntarily, but cheerfully submitted to; and as women are not obliged to live with their husbands any longer than suits their pleasure or convenience, it cannot be supposed that they would submit to be loaded with unjust or unequal burdens.

There are many people who believe, based on the hard work they see Indian women doing, that these women are treated like slaves. These tasks are indeed tough compared to what women in modern society face; however, they are just a part of the challenges that come with a harsh lifestyle. So, they are not only willingly but also happily accepted. Since women are not required to stay with their husbands any longer than what makes them comfortable or convenient, it's hard to believe they would accept being burdened with unfair or unequal responsibilities.

Marriages among the Indians are not, as with us, contracted for life; it is understood on both sides that the parties are not to live together any longer than they shall be pleased with each other. The husband may put away his wife whenever he pleases, and the woman may in like manner abandon her husband. Therefore the connexion is not attended with any vows, promises, or ceremonies of any kind. An Indian takes a wife as it were on trial, determined, however, in his own mind not to forsake her if she behaves well, and particularly if he has children by her. The woman, sensible of this, does on her part every thing in her power to please her husband, particularly if he is a good hunter or trapper, capable of maintaining her by his skill and industry, and protecting her by his strength and courage.

Marriages among Native Americans aren't lifelong commitments like they are for us; both parties understand that they'll only stay together as long as they're happy with each other. The husband can choose to leave his wife whenever he wants, and the wife can do the same with her husband. Because of this, the relationship doesn't involve any vows, promises, or special ceremonies. An Indian man takes a wife almost as a test, intending to stick with her if she behaves well, especially if they have kids together. The woman, aware of this, does everything she can to make her husband happy, particularly if he's a skilled hunter or trapper who can provide for her and protect her with his strength and bravery.

When a marriage takes place, the duties and labours incumbent 155 on each party are well known to both. It is understood that the husband is to build a house for them to dwell in, to find the necessary implements of husbandry, as axes, hoes, &c., to provide a canoe, and also dishes, bowls, and other necessary vessels for house-keeping. The woman generally has a kettle or two, and some other articles of kitchen furniture, which she brings with her. The husband, as master of the family, considers himself bound to support it by his bodily exertions, as hunting, trapping, &c.; the woman, as his help-mate, takes upon herself the labours of the field, and is far from considering them as more important than those to which her husband is subjected, being well satisfied that with his gun and traps he can maintain a family in any place where game is to be found; nor do they think it any hardship imposed upon them; for they themselves say, that while their field labour employs them at most six weeks in the year, that of the men continues the whole year round.

When a couple gets married, the responsibilities and tasks expected of each person are clear to both. It's understood that the husband will build a home for them to live in, gather the necessary farming tools like axes and hoes, provide a canoe, and supply dishes, bowls, and other essentials for running the household. The woman typically brings one or two kettles and some other kitchen items with her. The husband, as the head of the household, feels responsible for its support through physical work like hunting and trapping; the wife, as his partner, takes on the fieldwork and doesn’t view it as more important than her husband’s tasks, knowing that with his gun and traps, he can provide for them wherever there’s game. They also don’t see this as a burden; they often say that while their fieldwork takes up at most six weeks each year, the men’s work goes on all year long.

When a couple is newly married, the husband (without saying a single word upon the subject) takes considerable pains to please his wife, and by repeated proofs of his skill and abilities in the art of hunting, to make her sensible that she can be happy with him, and that she will never want while they live together. At break of day he will be off with his gun, and often by breakfast time return home with a deer, turkey, or some other game. He endeavours to make it appear that it is in his power to bring provisions home whenever he pleases, and his wife, proud of having such a good hunter for her husband, does her utmost to serve and make herself agreeable to him.

When a couple is newly married, the husband works hard to please his wife without saying a word about it. He constantly shows off his skills in hunting to make her realize that she can be happy with him and that she will always have what she needs while they’re together. At dawn, he goes out with his gun and often comes back by breakfast time with a deer, turkey, or some other game. He tries to make it seem like he can bring home food whenever he wants, and his wife, proud to have such a skilled hunter as her husband, does everything she can to support him and make him happy.

The work of the women is not hard or difficult. They are both able and willing to do it, and always perform it with cheerfulness. Mothers teach their daughters those duties which common sense would otherwise point out to them when grown up. Within doors, their labour is very trifling; there is seldom more than one pot or kettle to attend to. There is no scrubbing of the house, and but little to wash, and that not often. Their principal occupations are to cut and fetch in the fire wood, till the ground, sow and reap the grain, and pound the corn in mortars for their pottage, and to make bread which they bake in 156 the ashes. When going on a journey, or to hunting camps with their husbands, if they have no horses, they carry a pack on their backs which often appears heavier than it really is; it generally consists of a blanket, a dressed deer skin for mocksens, a few articles of kitchen furniture, as a kettle, bowl, or dish, with spoons, and some bread, corn, salt, &c., for their nourishment. I have never known an Indian woman complain of the hardship of carrying this burden, which serves for their own comfort and support as well as of their husbands.

The work of the women isn't hard or difficult. They are both capable and willing to do it, and they always do so cheerfully. Mothers teach their daughters the responsibilities that common sense would later lead them to when they’re older. Inside the home, their work is quite light; there’s rarely more than one pot or kettle to manage. There’s no scrubbing of the house, and there’s not much to wash, and it doesn't happen often. Their main tasks include cutting and gathering firewood, tilling the ground, sowing and harvesting grain, and pounding corn in mortars for their porridge, as well as making bread that they bake in the ashes. When they go on trips or hunting camps with their husbands, if they don’t have horses, they carry a pack on their backs that often seems heavier than it really is; it usually contains a blanket, a dressed deer skin for mocksens, a few kitchen items like a kettle, bowl, or dish, along with spoons, and some bread, corn, salt, etc., for their nourishment. I've never known an Indian woman to complain about the difficulty of carrying this load, which provides comfort and support for both themselves and their husbands.

The tilling of the ground at home, getting of the fire wood, and pounding of corn in mortars, is frequently done by female parties, much in the manner of those husking, quilting, and other frolics (as they are called), which are so common in some parts of the United States, particularly to the eastward. The labour is thus quickly and easily performed; when it is over, and sometimes in intervals, they sit down to enjoy themselves by feasting on some good victuals, prepared for them by the person or family for whom they work, and which the man has taken care to provide before hand from the woods; for this is considered a principal part of the business, as there are generally more or less of the females assembled who have not, perhaps for a long time, tasted a morsel of meat, being either widows, or orphans, or otherwise in straitened circumstances. Even the chat which passes during their joint labours is highly diverting to them, and so they seek to be employed in this way as long as they can, by going round to all those in the village who have ground to till.

The work of tilling the land, gathering firewood, and grinding corn in mortars is often done by women, much like the husking, quilting, and other frolics that are common in some parts of the United States, especially in the east. This work gets done quickly and easily; once it’s finished, and sometimes in between tasks, they sit down to enjoy some good food prepared for them by the family they’re helping, with the man making sure to gather supplies from the woods in advance. This is seen as a key part of the job, as there are usually many women present who might not have had meat for a long time, often because they are widows, orphans, or in tough situations. Even the conversations that happen while they work together are very entertaining for them, so they look for these opportunities as long as possible by visiting everyone in the village who needs help with their land.

When the harvest is in, which generally happens by the end of September, the women have little else to do than to prepare the daily victuals, and get fire wood, until the latter end of February or beginning of March, as the season is more or less backward, when they go to their sugar camps, where they extract sugar from the maple tree. The men having built or repaired their temporary cabin, and made all the troughs of various sizes, the women commence making sugar, while the men are looking out for meat, at this time generally fat bears, which are still in their winter quarters. When at home, they will occasionally assist their wives in gathering the sap, and 157 watch the kettles in their absence, that the syrup may not boil over.

Once the harvest is finished, usually by the end of September, the women have very little to do other than prepare daily meals and gather firewood until late February or early March, depending on how the season is going. Then, they head to their sugar camps to collect sap from the maple trees and make sugar. The men, having built or repaired their temporary cabins and made various-sized troughs, help out by looking for meat, typically from overweight bears that are still in their winter dens. When they’re at home, they sometimes help their wives gather sap and keep an eye on the kettles while they're away to make sure the syrup doesn’t boil over. 157

A man who wishes his wife to be with him while he is out hunting in the woods, needs only tell her, that on such a day they will go to such a place, where he will hunt for a length of time, and she will be sure to have provisions and every thing else that is necessary in complete readiness, and well packed up to carry to the spot; for the man, as soon as he enters the woods, has to be looking out and about for game, and therefore cannot be encumbered with any burden; after wounding a deer, he may have to pursue it for several miles, often running it fairly down. The woman, therefore, takes charge of the baggage, brings it to the place of encampment, and there, immediately enters on the duties of housekeeping, as if they were at home; she moreover takes pains to dry as much meat as she can, that none may be lost; she carefully puts the tallow up, assists in drying the skins, gathers as much wild hemp as possible for the purpose of making strings, carrying-bands, bags and other necessary articles, collects roots for dyeing; in short, does every thing in her power to leave no care to her husband but the important one of providing meat for the family.

A man who wants his wife to be with him while he’s out hunting in the woods just needs to let her know that on a certain day they’ll go to a specific location where he’ll be hunting for a while. She’ll make sure to have food and everything else needed packed up and ready to go; once he’s in the woods, he has to stay focused on finding game and can’t carry any extra weight. After he injures a deer, he might have to chase it for several miles, often running it down. So, the woman takes care of the supplies, brings them to their campsite, and immediately starts taking care of things like they’re at home. She also makes an effort to dry as much meat as possible so nothing goes to waste. She carefully stores the tallow, helps dry the skins, gathers as much wild hemp as she can to make strings, carrying bands, bags, and other necessary items, and collects roots for dyeing. In short, she does everything she can to ensure her husband only has the important task of providing meat for the family.

After all, the fatigue of the women is by no means to be compared to that of the men. Their hard and difficult employments are periodical and of short duration, while their husband’s labours are constant and severe in the extreme. Were a man to take upon himself a part of his wife’s duty, in addition to his own, he must necessarily sink under the load, and of course his family must suffer with him. On his exertions as a hunter, their existence depends; in order to be able to follow that rough employment with success, he must keep his limbs as supple as he can, he must avoid hard labour as much as possible, that his joints may not become stiffened, and that he may preserve the necessary strength and agility of body to enable him to pursue the chase, and bear the unavoidable hardships attendant on it; for the fatigues of hunting wear out the body and constitution far more than manual labour. Neither creeks nor rivers, whether shallow or deep, frozen or free from ice, must be an obstacle to the hunter, when in pursuit of a wounded deer, bear, or other 158 animal, as is often the case. Nor has he then leisure to think on the state of his body, and to consider whether his blood is not too much heated to plunge without danger into the cold stream, since the game he is in pursuit of is running off from him with full speed. Many dangerous accidents often befal him, both as a hunter and a warrior (for he is both), and are seldom unattended with painful consequences, such as rheumatism, or consumption of the lungs, for which the sweat-house, on which they so much depend, and to which they often resort for relief, especially after a fatiguing hunt or warlike excursion, is not always a sure preservative or an effectual remedy.

After all, the fatigue of the women is nothing compared to that of the men. Their tough and demanding jobs are temporary and short-lived, while their husbands' work is constant and extremely intense. If a man were to take on some of his wife's responsibilities in addition to his own, he would inevitably buckle under the pressure, and naturally, his family would suffer too. Their survival depends on his efforts as a hunter; to succeed in this grueling job, he must keep his body as flexible as possible and avoid hard labor so his joints don’t stiffen, allowing him to maintain the strength and agility needed for the chase and to endure the inevitable hardships that come with it. The physical demands of hunting wear out the body and constitution much more than manual labor does. Neither creeks nor rivers, whether shallow or deep, frozen or flowing freely, should stand in the way of the hunter chasing a wounded deer, bear, or other animal, as is often the case. He doesn't have the luxury to think about his physical condition or whether his blood is too heated to safely plunge into the cold water, especially when the game he’s pursuing is darting away at full speed. He often faces dangerous accidents as both a hunter and a warrior (because he is both), which usually come with painful consequences, like rheumatism or lung issues. For these ailments, they rely heavily on the sweat-house, which they frequently visit for relief, especially after a tiring hunt or military campaign, but it’s not always a guaranteed way to prevent or cure their problems.

The husband generally leaves the skins and peltry which he has procured by hunting to the care of his wife, who sells or barters them away to the best advantage for such necessaries as are wanted in the family; not forgetting to supply her husband with what he stands in need of, who, when he receives it from her hands never fails to return her thanks in the kindest manner. If debts had been previously contracted, either by the woman, or by her and her husband jointly, or if a horse should be wanted, as much is laid aside as will be sufficient to pay the debts or purchase the horse.

The husband usually leaves the skins and fur he has hunted in the care of his wife, who sells or trades them for the best possible deal for the necessities the family needs; she also makes sure to provide her husband with what he needs, and when he gets it from her, he always thanks her in the nicest way. If they have any debts from before, either from the woman alone or together, or if they need a horse, they set aside enough money to pay those debts or buy the horse.

When a woman has got in her harvest of corn, it is considered as belonging to her husband, who, if he has suffering friends, may give them as much of it as he pleases, without consulting his wife, or being afraid of her being displeased; for she is in the firm belief that he is able to procure that article whenever it is wanted. The sugar which she makes out of the maple tree is also considered as belonging to her husband.

When a woman harvests her corn, it's seen as belonging to her husband, who can share it with friends in need as much as he wants, without asking her or worrying about her being upset. She firmly believes he can get more whenever it's needed. The sugar she makes from the maple tree is also regarded as belonging to her husband.

There is nothing in an Indian’s house or family without its particular owner. Every individual knows what belongs to him, from the horse or cow down to the dog, cat, kitten and little chicken. Parents make presents to their children, and they in return to their parents. A father will sometimes ask his wife or one of his children for the loan of his horse to go out a hunting. For a litter of kittens or brood of chickens, there are often as many different owners as there are individual animals. In purchasing a hen with her brood, one frequently has to deal for it with several children. Thus, while the principle of community 159 of goods prevails in the state, the rights of property are acknowledged among the members of a family. This is attended with a very good effect; for by this means every living creature is properly taken care of. It also promotes liberality among the children, which becomes a habit with them by the time they are grown up.

There is nothing in an Indian’s house or family without its specific owner. Every person knows what belongs to them, from the horse or cow down to the dog, cat, kitten, and little chicken. Parents give gifts to their children, and the children, in turn, give gifts to their parents. A father might sometimes ask his wife or one of his children to borrow his horse for a hunting trip. For a litter of kittens or a brood of chickens, there are often as many different owners as there are individual animals. When buying a hen with her chicks, you often have to negotiate with several children. So, while the idea of community property is present in the state, the rights of ownership are recognized among family members. This has a very positive effect; it ensures that every living creature is well taken care of. It also encourages generosity among the children, which becomes a habit by the time they grow up. 159

An Indian loves to see his wife well clothed, which is a proof that he is fond of her; at least, it is so considered. While his wife is bartering the skins and peltry he has taken in his hunt, he will seat himself at some distance, to observe her choice, and how she and the traders agree together. When she finds an article which she thinks will suit or please her husband, she never fails to purchase it for him; she tells him that it is her choice, and he is never dissatisfied.

An Indian enjoys seeing his wife dressed nicely, which shows that he cares about her; at least, that's the general belief. While his wife is trading the skins and furs he collected during his hunt, he sits a bit away to watch her selections and see how she interacts with the traders. When she comes across something she thinks her husband would like, she always makes sure to buy it for him; she tells him it's her choice, and he’s always pleased.

The more a man does for his wife the more he is esteemed, particularly by the women, who will say: “This man surely loves his wife.” Some men at their leisure hours make bowls and ladles, which, when finished, are at their wives’ disposal.

The more a man does for his wife, the more he is respected, especially by women, who will say, “This man really loves his wife.” Some men, in their free time, create bowls and ladles, which, when completed, are available for their wives to use.

If a sick or pregnant woman longs for any article of food, be it what it may, and however difficult to be procured, the husband immediately sets out to endeavour to get it. I have known a man to go forty or fifty miles for a mess of cranberries to satisfy his wife’s longing. In the year 1762 I was witness to a remarkable instance of the disposition of Indians to indulge their wives. There was a famine in the land, and a sick Indian woman expressed a great desire for a mess of Indian corn. Her husband having heard that a trader at Lower Sandusky had a little, set off on horseback for that place, one hundred miles distant, and returned with as much corn as filled the crown of his hat, for which he gave his horse in exchange, and came home on foot, bringing his saddle back with him. Squirrels, ducks, and other like delicacies, when most difficult to be obtained, are what women in the first stage of their pregnancy generally long for. The husband in every such case will go out and spare no pains nor trouble until he has procured what is wanted.

If a sick or pregnant woman craves something to eat, no matter what it is or how hard it is to find, her husband will immediately go out to try to get it. I've seen a man travel forty or fifty miles just to bring back some cranberries to satisfy his wife’s craving. In 1762, I witnessed a remarkable example of how Indian men cater to their wives’ needs. There was a famine, and a sick Indian woman really wanted some corn. Her husband heard that a trader in Lower Sandusky had some, so he set off on horseback for that place, which was one hundred miles away, and came back with enough corn to fill his hat. He traded his horse for it and walked home, bringing his saddle back with him. Women in the early stages of pregnancy often crave hard-to-get treats like squirrels and ducks. In every case, their husbands will go out and spare no effort to get what they want.

In other cases, the men and their wives do not in general trouble themselves with each other’s business; but the wife, knowing that the father is very fond of his children, is always 160 prepared to tell him some diverting anecdote of one or the other of them, especially if he has been absent for some time.

In other cases, the men and their wives usually don’t interfere in each other’s affairs; however, the wife, aware that the father is very fond of his children, is always ready to share a funny story about one of them, especially if he has been away for a while. 160

It very seldom happens that a man condescends to quarrel with his wife, or abuse her, though she has given him just cause. In such a case the man, without replying, or saying a single word, will take his gun and go into the woods, and remain there a week or perhaps a fortnight, living on the meat he has killed, before he returns home again; well knowing that he cannot inflict a greater punishment on his wife for her conduct to him than by absenting himself for a while; for she is not only kept in suspense, uncertain whether he will return again, but is soon reported as a bad and quarrelsome woman; for, as on those occasions, the man does not tell his wife on what day or at what time he will be back again, which he otherwise, when they are on good terms, never neglects to do, she is at once put to shame by her neighbours, who soon suspecting something, do not fail to put such questions to her, as she either cannot, or is ashamed to answer. When he at length does return, she endeavours to let him see by her attentions, that she has repented, though neither speak to each other a single word on the subject of what has passed. And as his children, if he has any, will on his return hang about him and soothe him with their caresses, he is, on their account, ready to forgive, or at least to say nothing unpleasant to their mother. She has, however, received by this a solemn warning, and must take care how she behaves in future, lest the next time her husband should stay away altogether and take another wife. It is very probable, that if at this time they had had no children, he would have left her, but then he would have taken his property with him at the same time.

It rarely happens that a man stoops to fight with his wife or mistreat her, even when she's given him a good reason. In such situations, he often doesn't say a word; instead, he grabs his gun and heads into the woods, staying there for a week or even two, living off the game he hunts, before he comes back home. He knows that he can't punish her more effectively for her behavior than by just staying away for a bit. This leaves her in suspense, unsure if he’ll come back, and soon she’s being labeled as a bad and quarrelsome woman. During these times, he doesn’t tell her when or what time he’ll return, something he usually does when things are good between them. Because of this, she faces shame from her neighbors, who start to suspect something and ask her questions she either can't or doesn’t want to answer. When he finally comes back, she tries to show him she regrets her behavior through her attentiveness, even though they don’t talk about what happened. His children, if he has any, will crowd around him and comfort him with their hugs, making him more inclined to forgive her or at least hold back on saying anything nasty to her. However, she’s received a serious warning and needs to watch how she acts in the future; otherwise, he might choose to stay away for good and find another wife. It's likely that if they hadn't had any children, he would have left her, but he would have taken his belongings with him too.

On the return of an Indian from a journey, or long absence, he will, on entering the house, say, “I am returned!” to which his wife will reply,164 “I rejoice!” and having cast his eyes around, he will enquire, whether all the children are well, when being answered in the affirmative, he replies, “I am glad!” which for the present is all the conversation that passes between them; nor does he relate anything at this present time that occurred on his 161 journey, but holds himself in readiness to partake of the nourishment which his wife is preparing for him. After a while, when the men of the village have assembled at his house, his wife, with the rest, hears his story at full length.

When an Indian returns from a journey or a long absence, he enters the house and says, “I’m back!” His wife responds, “I’m happy!” After looking around, he asks whether all the children are well, and when he hears that they are, he replies, “I’m glad!” For now, that’s all the conversation they have; he doesn’t share any details about his journey at this moment, but waits for the food his wife is preparing for him. After a while, when the men of the village gather at his house, his wife, along with the others, listens to his full story.

Marriages are proposed and concluded in different ways. The parents on both sides, having observed an attachment between two young persons, negotiate for them. This generally commences from the house where the bridegroom lives, whose mother is the negotiatrix for him, and begins her duties by taking a good leg of venison, or bear’s meat, or something else of the same kind, to the house where the bride dwells, not forgetting to mention, that her son has killed it: in return for this the mother of the bride, if she otherwise approves of the match, which she well understands by the presents to be intended, will prepare a good dish of victuals, the produce of the labour of woman, such as beans, Indian corn, or the like, and then taking it to the house where the bridegroom lives, will say, “This is the produce of my daughter’s field; and she also prepared it.” If afterwards the mothers of the parties are enabled to tell the good news to each other, that the young people have pronounced that which was sent them very good, the bargain is struck. It is as much as if the young man had said to the girl, “I am able to provide you at all times with meat to eat!” and she had replied, “and such good victuals from the field, you shall have from me!” From this time not only presents of this kind are continued on both sides, but articles of clothing are presented to the parents by each party, by way of return for what they have received, of which the young people always have a share. The friendship between the two families daily increasing, they do their domestic and field work jointly, and when the young people have agreed to live together, the parents supply them with necessaries, such as a kettle, dishes or bowls, and also what is required for the kitchen, and with axes, hoes, &c. to work in the field.

Marriages are proposed and finalized in various ways. The parents on both sides, having noticed a connection between two young people, negotiate for them. This typically starts from the home of the groom, where his mother acts as the negotiator, beginning her duties by bringing a good leg of venison or bear meat, or something similar, to the bride’s home, making sure to mention that her son hunted it. In return, if she approves of the match, the bride's mother will prepare a nice dish made from the produce of woman, such as beans, corn, or similar items, and take it to the groom's house, stating, “This is from my daughter’s field; she made it too.” If, afterwards, the mothers inform each other that the young people found the gifts very good, the deal is made. It’s as though the young man told the girl, “I can provide you with all the food you need!” and she replied, “and from the field, you’ll get good food from me!” From this point, not only are gifts like these exchanged on both sides, but each party also gives clothing to the parents to thank them for what they’ve received, and the couple always gets a share. As the friendship between the two families grows daily, they work together both at home and in the fields, and when the young couple decides to live together, the parents provide them with essentials like a kettle, dishes or bowls, and what they need for the kitchen, along with tools like axes and hoes for fieldwork.

The men who have no parents to negotiate for them, or otherwise choose to manage the matter for themselves, have two simple ways of attaining their object. The first is: by stepping up to the woman whom they wish to marry, saying: 162 “If you are willing I will take you as wife!” when if she answer in the affirmative, she either goes with him immediately, or meets him at an appointed time and place.

The men who don't have parents to advocate for them, or who decide to handle it themselves, have two straightforward ways to achieve their goal. The first is: by approaching the woman they want to marry and saying: 162 “If you agree, I will take you as my wife!” If she responds positively, she either goes with him right away or meets him at a specific time and place.

The other mode of celebrating marriage will appear from the following anecdote.

The other way of celebrating marriage will become clear from the following story.

An aged Indian, who for many years had spent much of his time among the white people, both in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, one day about the year 1770 observed, that the Indians had not only a much easier way of getting a wife than the whites, but were also more certain of getting a good one; “For,” (said he in his broken English,) “White man court,—court,—may be one whole year!—may be two year before he marry!—well!—may be then got very good wife—but may be not!—may be very cross!—Well now, suppose cross! scold so soon as get awake in the morning! scold all day! scold until sleep!—all one; he must keep him!165 White people have law forbidding throwing away wife, be he ever so cross! must keep him always! Well! how does Indian do?—Indian when he see industrious Squaw, which he like, he go to him, place his two forefingers close aside each other, make two look like one—look Squaw in the face—see him smile—which is all one he say, Yes! so he take him home—no danger he be cross! no! no! Squaw know too well what Indian do if he cross!—throw him away and take another! Squaw love to eat meat! no husband! no meat! Squaw do every thing to please husband! he do the same to please Squaw! live happy!”

An old Indian, who had spent many years living among white people in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, noticed around 1770 that it was much easier for Indians to get a wife than for whites, and they were also more likely to find a good one. “Because,” he said in his broken English, “White man courts—courts—might take a whole year!—maybe two years before he marries!—well!—he might get a very good wife—but he might not!—she could be very difficult!—Well now, suppose she is difficult! She scolds as soon as he wakes in the morning! She scolds all day! Scolds until he sleeps!—it’s all the same; he has to keep her! 165 White people have laws against getting rid of their wives, no matter how difficult she is! He has to keep her forever! Well! How does an Indian do it?—When an Indian sees a hard-working Squaw he likes, he goes to her, places his two forefingers close together to make them look like one—looks Squaw in the face—sees her smile—which is all like saying, Yes! So he takes her home—there’s no risk of her being difficult! No! No! The Squaw knows very well what the Indian would do if she were difficult!—he’d throw her away and get another! The Squaw loves to eat meat! No husband! No meat! The Squaw does everything to please her husband! He does the same to please the Squaw! They live happily!”

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CHAPTER XVII.
Respect for Elders.

T

There is no nation in the world who pay greater respect to old age than the American Indians. From their infancy they are taught to be kind and attentive to aged persons, and never to let them suffer for want of necessaries or comforts. The parents spare no pains to impress upon the minds of their children the conviction that they would draw down upon themselves the anger of the Great Spirit, were they to neglect those whom, in his goodness, he had permitted to attain such an advanced age, whom he had protected with his almighty power through all the perils and dangers of life, while so many had perished by wars, accidents, and sickness in various forms, by the incantations of the wizard, or the stroke of the murderer, and not a few by the consequences of their own imprudent conduct.

There is no nation in the world that shows more respect for older people than the American Indians. From a young age, they are taught to be kind and considerate to the elderly, ensuring they never have to suffer without basic needs or comforts. Parents go to great lengths to instill in their children the belief that neglecting the elderly would bring the anger of the Great Spirit upon themselves, as he has allowed these individuals to live to such an old age and has protected them through all the dangers and trials of life, while many others have fallen victim to wars, accidents, and various illnesses, through the spells of wizards, or the actions of murderers, and not a few have suffered due to their own reckless behavior.

It is a sacred principle among the Indians, and one of those moral and religious truths which they have always before their eyes, that the Great Spirit who created them, and provided them so abundantly with the means of subsistence, made it the duty of parents to maintain and take care of their children until they should be able to provide for themselves, and that having while weak and helpless received the benefits of maintenance, education, and protection, they are bound to repay them by a similar care of those who are labouring under the infirmities of old age, and are no longer able to supply their own wants.

It is a fundamental belief among Native Americans, one of the moral and spiritual truths they always keep in mind, that the Great Spirit who created them and generously provided for their needs made it the responsibility of parents to support and care for their children until they can fend for themselves. Having received maintenance, education, and protection when they were weak and vulnerable, they are obligated to give back by taking care of those who are struggling with the challenges of old age and can no longer meet their own needs.

Thus, a strong feeling of gratitude towards their elders, inculcated and cherished from their earliest infancy, is the solid 164 foundation on which rests that respect for old age for which Indians are so remarkable, and it is further supported by the well-founded hope of receiving the like succours and attentions in their turn, when the heavy hand of time shall have reduced them to the same helpless situation which they now commiserate in others, and seek by every means in their power to render more tolerable. Hence, they do not confine themselves to acts of absolute necessity; it is not enough for them that the old are not suffered to starve with hunger, or perish with cold, but they must be made as much as possible to share in the pleasures and comforts of life. It is, indeed, a moving spectacle to see the tender and delicate attentions which, on every occasion, they lavish upon aged and decrepid persons. When going out a hunting, they will put them on a horse or in a canoe, and take them into the woods to their hunting ground, in order to revive their spirits by making them enjoy the sight of a sport in which they can no longer participate. They place them in particular situations, where they are sure that the game they are in pursuit of will pass by, taking proper measures at the same time to prevent its escape, so that their aged parents and friends may, at least, as our sportsmen call it, be in at the death. Nor is this all; the hoary veterans must also enjoy the honours of the chase; when the animal, thus surrounded, is come within reach of their guns, when every possibility of escape is precluded, by the woods all around being set on fire, they all, young and old, fire together, so that it is difficult to decide166 whose ball it was that brought the animal to the ground. But they never are at a loss to decide, and always give it in favour of the oldest man167 in the party. So, when the young people have discovered a place where the bears have their haunts, or have resorted to for the winter, they frequently take with them to the spot, such of the old men as are yet able to walk or ride, where they not only have an opportunity of witnessing the sport, but receive their full share of the meat and oil.

A deep sense of gratitude for their elders, instilled and cherished from a young age, forms the strong foundation of the respect for old age that Indians are known for. This respect is reinforced by the hope of receiving similar care and attention when life's hardships leave them in a state of vulnerability, which they currently empathize with in others and strive to ease by all means possible. They don’t limit themselves to just basic necessities; it’s not enough for them that the elderly are not allowed to suffer from hunger or cold. They ensure that older individuals can also enjoy the pleasures and comforts of life as much as possible. It’s truly moving to witness the gentle and thoughtful attentions they consistently show to elderly and frail individuals. When going out hunting, they will help them onto a horse or into a canoe and take them into the woods to their hunting grounds to uplift their spirits by allowing them to experience a sport they can no longer partake in. They position them strategically where they know the game will pass by and take precautions to prevent its escape, so that their aged parents and friends can at least witness the thrill of the hunt. Moreover, the seasoned veterans also get to partake in the honors of the chase; when the animal is cornered and has no chance of escape because the surrounding woods are set on fire, everyone, young and old, shoots together, making it hard to determine whose shot brought the animal down. However, they never struggle to make a decision and always attribute the kill to the oldest person in the group. So, when the younger hunters find a place where bears dwell or have gathered for the winter, they often bring along any elderly men who are able to walk or ride, allowing them not only to watch the hunt but also to receive their fair share of the meat and oil.

At home the old are as well treated and taken care of as if 165 they were favourite children. They are cherished and even caressed; indulged in health and nursed in sickness; and all their wishes and wants are anticipated. Their company is sought by the young, to whom their conversation is considered an honour. Their advice is asked on all occasions, their words are listened to as oracles, and their occasional garrulity, nay, even the second childhood often attendant on extreme old age, is never with Indians a subject of ridicule, or laughter. Respect, gratitude, and love are too predominant in their minds to permit any degrading idea to mix itself with these truly honourable and generous feelings.

At home, the elderly are treated with as much care and respect as if they were beloved children. They are cherished and even pampered; looked after when they're healthy and nursed when they're sick, and all their wishes and needs are anticipated. Young people seek their company, valuing their conversations as a privilege. Their advice is asked for on all occasions, and their words are listened to like wise counsel. Even their occasional chatter, or the tendency to revert to a childlike state in extreme old age, is never ridiculed or laughed at among Indians. Respect, gratitude, and love are so deeply ingrained in their minds that no degrading thoughts can infiltrate these truly honorable and generous feelings.

On every occasion, and in every situation through life, age takes the lead among the Indians. Even little boys, when going on parties of pleasure, were it only to catch butterflies, strictly adhere to this rule, and submit to the direction of the oldest in their company, who is their chief, leader and spokesman; if they are accosted on the way by any person, and asked whither they are going, or any other question, no one will presume to answer but their speaker. The same rule is observed when they are grown up, and in no case whatever will one of a party, club or meeting, attempt to assume authority over the leader, or even to set him right if he should mistake the road or take a wrong course; much less will any one contradict what he says, unless his opinion should be particularly asked, in which case, and no other, he will give his advice, but with great modesty and diffidence.

In every situation and aspect of life, age takes the lead among the Indians. Even young boys, when they’re out having fun, even just to catch butterflies, strictly follow this rule and defer to the oldest member of their group, who acts as their chief, leader, and spokesperson. If someone approaches them on the way and asks where they’re going or any other question, no one will answer except their speaker. The same principle applies when they grow up, and at no time will anyone in a group, club, or meeting try to take authority away from the leader, nor will they correct him if he makes a mistake about the path or takes a wrong turn; even less will anyone contradict him, unless their opinion is specifically requested, in which case they will offer their input with great modesty and humility.

And yet there have been travellers who have ventured to assert that old people among the Indians are not only neglected and suffered to perish for want, but that they are even, when no longer able to take care of themselves, put out of the way of all trouble. I am free to declare, that among all the Indian nations that I have become acquainted with, if any one should kill an old man or woman for no other cause than that of having become useless or burdensome to society, it would be considered as an unpardonable crime, the general indignation would be excited, and the murderer instantly put to death. I cannot conceive any act that would produce such an universal horror and detestation, such is the veneration which is everywhere felt for old age. 166

And yet there have been travelers who have claimed that elderly people among the Indigenous people are not only neglected and allowed to suffer from lack of resources, but are also, when they can no longer care for themselves, removed to avoid any trouble. I can confidently say that among all the Indigenous nations I’ve come to know, if someone were to kill an elderly man or woman solely because they had become useless or a burden to society, it would be seen as an unforgivable crime. This would spark widespread outrage, and the murderer would be executed on the spot. I can't imagine any act that would cause such universal horror and loathing, given the deep respect that is felt for the elderly everywhere. 166

Indeed, I have had sufficient reason to be convinced that this principle, excellent as it is in itself, is168 even carried too far by the Indians, and that not a little inconvenience is occasioned by it. A few instances will make this better understood than any explanations that I could give.

Indeed, I have ample reason to believe that this principle, as great as it is on its own, is168 even taken too far by the Indians, resulting in a fair amount of inconvenience. A few examples will clarify this better than any explanations I could provide.

In the year 1765, the great body of Christian Indians, after having remained sixteen months at and near Philadelphia, were permitted to return to their own country, peace having been concluded with the Indian nations, who still continued at war, notwithstanding the pacification between the European powers. They resolved to open a path through the wilderness from the frontier settlements beyond the Blue Mountains, directly to Wyoming on the Susquehannah. This path they laid off and cut as they proceeded, two, three or four miles at a time, according to the nature of the ground and the convenience of water, bringing up their baggage by making two or more trips, as they had no horses to carry it. Having arrived at the great Pine Swamp, then supposed to be about fourteen miles wide, it was found very difficult to cut a passage on account of the thickets and of the great number of fallen trees which incumbered it; they were, besides, unacquainted with that part of the country. An old Indian,169 however, took the lead, and undertook to be their guide. After a tedious march of near two weeks, attended with much labour, he brought them across the Swamp, to the large creek which borders upon it on the opposite side. There they found a very steep mountain, through which no passage could be found either above or below. Discouraged at the prospect before them, they now saw no alternative but to return the same way they had come, and take the route by Fort Allen170 to Nescopeck, and so up the Susquehannah to Wyoming, a distance of nearly one hundred miles round. In this difficulty, it fortunately struck their Missionary, Mr. Zeisberger, that a certain Indian named David, who was one of their party and had followed 167 them all the way, was acquainted with that part of the country, and might, perhaps, be able to point out to them some better and shorter road. He soon found that he was not mistaken. David was perfectly acquainted with the country, and knew a good road, through which the party might easily pass, but not having been questioned on the subject, had hitherto kept silence, and followed with the rest, though he knew all the while they were going wrong. A dialogue then took place between him and the Missionary.

In 1765, the large group of Christian Indians, after spending sixteen months around Philadelphia, were allowed to return to their homeland, as peace had been made with the Indian nations that were still at war, despite the truce between the European countries. They decided to create a path through the wilderness from the frontier settlements past the Blue Mountains directly to Wyoming on the Susquehanna River. They outlined and cleared this path as they moved forward, making progress two, three, or four miles at a time, depending on the terrain and water availability, carrying their gear by making multiple trips since they had no horses to help. Upon reaching the great Pine Swamp, which was believed to be about fourteen miles wide, they found it very challenging to create a passage due to the dense underbrush and numerous fallen trees obstructing the area; also, they were unfamiliar with that part of the country. An older Indian, however, stepped up to lead and guide them. After a grueling two-week journey filled with hard labor, he managed to lead them across the Swamp to the large creek on the far side. There, they encountered a steep mountain with no way to get around it either above or below. Faced with this setback, they realized their only option was to retrace their steps and take the route via Fort Allen to Nescopeck, which added nearly a hundred miles to their journey to Wyoming. Just when they were feeling hopeless, their Missionary, Mr. Zeisberger, remembered an Indian named David, who was part of their group and had been following them the whole time. He figured that David might know the area well enough to suggest a better and shorter route. It turned out he was right. David was completely familiar with the region and knew a good path for the group to use, but since no one had asked him, he had kept quiet and followed along, aware that they were heading in the wrong direction. A conversation then started between him and the Missionary.

Zeisb.—David! You are, I believe, acquainted with this country; perhaps you know a better road171 and a shorter one than that which we are going to take.

Zeiss.—David! I think you know this country; maybe you know a better and shorter road than the one we're about to take.

David.—Yes, I do; there is such a road,171 which we may easily get through, and have a much shorter distance to travel than by that which is proposed; I am sure of it.

David.—Yes, I do; there's a road171 that we can take easily, and it will cut down our travel time compared to the one that's suggested; I’m certain of it.

Zeisb.—What; David! we were all going wrong, and yet you are with us?

Zeisb.—What’s going on, David? We were all making mistakes, and yet you’re still with us?

David.—Yes, ’tis so.

David.—Yes, it is.

Zeisb.—And yet you said nothing, and followed with the rest as if all had been right!

Zeiss.—And yet you didn't say anything, and just went along with everyone else as if everything was okay!

David.—Yes; the guides are somewhat older than myself; they took the lead, and never asked me whether I had any knowledge of the country. If they had enquired, I would have told them.

David.—Yes; the guides are a bit older than me; they took charge and never asked if I knew anything about the area. If they had asked, I would have let them know.

Zeisb.—Will you now tell them?

Zeisb.—Will you say it now?

David.—No, indeed; unless they ask me. It does not become an Indian to instruct his elders.

David.—No, not at all; unless they ask me. It’s not right for an Indian to teach his elders.

The question was then asked him at the instigation of Mr. Zeisberger, when he immediately told them that they must all return to a certain spot, six miles back, and then direct their course more to the north-east, which would bring them to a gap in the mountain, where they could pass through with great ease. They did so, and he followed them, and being now desired to take the lead, he did it, and brought them to the very spot he had described, and from thence led them all the way to Wyoming. This difficult part of the road, in the swamp, has 168 been since called David’s path, and the state road now passes through it.172

The question was then asked of him at Mr. Zeisberger's suggestion, and he immediately told them they needed to go back to a certain spot six miles away, then head more to the northeast, which would lead them to a gap in the mountain where they could easily pass through. They did as he said, and he followed them. His guidance was now requested, so he took the lead and brought them to the exact spot he had described, and from there he led them all the way to Wyoming. This challenging part of the road in the swamp is now called David’s path, and the state road now goes through it.168

This anecdote was told me by Mr. Zeisberger himself, whom I have never known to say anything that was not strictly true. I therefore give it full credit; the more so, as I have myself witnessed two similar instances, with the relation of which I shall conclude this chapter.

This story was shared with me by Mr. Zeisberger himself, who I have never known to say anything that wasn't completely true. So, I take it at face value; especially since I have personally seen two similar cases, which I will share to wrap up this chapter.

The first happened in the year 1791. I had parted by accident from the company I was with, and lost my way in the woods. I had with me an Indian lad about twelve or thirteen years of age, and wished him to take the lead, to which, however, he would not consent. We were at last found by our party, who had gone in search of us. I complained to them of the boy, for not doing what I had bidden him; but they answered, “that he had done right, and that it did not become a boy to walk before a man and be his leader.”

The first incident occurred in 1791. I had accidentally separated from the group I was with and got lost in the woods. I had an Indian boy with me, around twelve or thirteen years old, and I wanted him to lead the way, but he refused. Eventually, our party found us after searching. I complained to them about the boy not following my instructions, but they replied, “He did the right thing, and it’s not appropriate for a boy to lead a man.”

The second occurrence of the like kind, took place in the year 1798. I was on a journey with two young Indians, from Upper Canada to the Muskingum, round the head of Lake Erie.173 Neither of these Indians having ever been in the country we were going to, they received their instructions from others before their departure. The leader, however, whose name was Leonhard, having once mistaken a path, we travelled several miles in a wrong direction, until, at last, I discovered the mistake, by our having the Owl creek to our left, when we ought to have had it to our right. I observed this to Christian, the young Indian in the rear, who coinciding with me in opinion, I desired him to run forward to Leonhard, who was far ahead of us, and to bring him 169 back; but the lad answered that he could not do it. I asked him the reason. “It is,” said he, “because I am younger than he is.” “Will you then,” replied I, “take my message to him, and tell him that I desire him to return to this place, where I will wait for him?” The young man immediately consented, went forward to Leonhard, and brought him back, on which we took an eastward course through the wood to the Owl creek, and, after crossing it, fell into our right path.

The second similar incident happened in 1798. I was traveling with two young Native Americans from Upper Canada to the Muskingum, around the top of Lake Erie. Neither of these young men had ever been to the place we were headed, so they had gotten instructions from others before we left. The leader, named Leonhard, once took a wrong path, and we ended up traveling several miles in the wrong direction until I noticed our mistake when I saw Owl Creek on our left when it should have been on our right. I pointed this out to Christian, the young man lagging behind, and since he agreed with me, I asked him to run ahead to Leonhard, who was quite far in front of us, and bring him back. But the boy replied that he couldn’t do that. I asked him why. He said, “It’s because I’m younger than he is.” “Will you then,” I replied, “take my message to him and tell him I want him to come back to this spot, where I’ll wait for him?” The young man immediately agreed, went ahead to Leonhard, and brought him back. We then took an eastward route through the woods to the Owl Creek, and after crossing it, we were back on the right path.

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CHAPTER XVIII.
Pride and greatness of spirit.

T

The Indians are proud but not vain; they consider vanity as degrading and unworthy the character of a man. The hunter never boasts of his skill or strength, nor the warrior of his prowess. It is not right, they say, that one should value himself too much for an action which another may perform as well as himself, and when a man extols his own deeds, it seems as if he doubted his own capability to do the like again when he pleased. Therefore, they prefer in all cases to let their actions speak for themselves. The skins and peltry which the hunter brings home, the deer’s horns on the roof of his cabin, the horses, furniture and other property that he possesses, his apparel and that of his family, the visits with which he is honored by the first and best men among his nation; all these things show what he is and what he has done, and with this he rests satisfied.

The Native Americans are proud but not boastful; they see vanity as demeaning and unworthy of a person's character. The hunter never brags about his skill or strength, nor does the warrior boast about his bravery. They believe it’s not right for someone to think too highly of themselves for achievements that anyone else could also accomplish, and when someone praises their own actions, it suggests that they doubt their ability to do it again when they want. So, they prefer to let their actions speak for themselves. The skins and pelts the hunter brings home, the deer antlers on the roof of his cabin, the horses, furniture, and other belongings he has, along with the clothing of himself and his family, and the visits he receives from the most respected people in his community—all these things reflect who he is and what he has done, and he is content with that.

So with the warrior; it is enough for him that he is known to be a man of spirit and courage by the scalps and prisoners that he brings home; he never is seen going about boasting of his warlike exploits, and when questioned on the subject, he makes his answer as short as possible. Even when he is entering a town with his prisoners and scalps, he does not stare about to see whether the people are looking at him, but walks his usual steady pace and marches straight forward without appearing to see any body. When at some of their particular festivals, every warrior is called upon to relate his feats of arms, they make it a point to be as brief as possible, leaving it to those who have done 171 but little, to swell their actions into importance, and give themselves credit for what they have done. I cannot illustrate this subject better than by a few anecdotes.

So with the warrior; it's enough for him to be recognized as someone with strength and bravery by the scalps and prisoners he brings home. He never goes around bragging about his heroic deeds, and when asked about them, he keeps his responses as brief as possible. Even when he enters a town with his prisoners and scalps, he doesn’t look around to see if people are watching him; he just walks at his usual steady pace and marches straight ahead without acknowledging anyone. At specific festivals, when every warrior is asked to share their accomplishments, they make it a point to be as concise as possible, leaving those who haven't done much to exaggerate their actions and take credit for what they've done. I can’t illustrate this subject better than with a few anecdotes.

In the year 1779, two war chiefs, the one a young man of the Shawano tribe, and the other an old warrior of the Wyandots, living near Detroit, much celebrated for his great actions, but who during the whole of the Revolutionary war, could not be persuaded to take the field against the Americans, met accidentally at my house on Muskingum, where they had separately come to pay me a friendly visit. The Shawano (whose nation, by the bye, are noted for much talk,) entered upon the subject of war, and with much earnestness in words and gestures, related the actions he had been engaged in, showing at the same time on his arm the mark of a bullet wound. During all this time, the Wyandot, smoking his pipe, listened with great attention and apparent surprise; and having afterwards to answer, according to custom, by relating what he had done, he laid down his pipe, and deliberately drawing off his clothes, except the breech-cloth, rose up and said: “I have been in upwards of twenty engagements with the enemy and fought with the French against the English; I have warred against the southern nations, and my body shows that I have been struck and wounded by nine balls. These two wounds I received at the same moment, from two Cherokees, who, seeing me fall, rested their guns against a tree, and ran up with their tomahawks to dispatch me, and take off my scalp. With the aid of the Great Spirit I jumped up, just at the moment when they were about to give me the stroke. I struck them and they both fell at my feet. I took their scalps and returned home.” Thus this grave and respectable veteran gave a lesson to the young Shawano, which, if he well understood, he, no doubt, ever after remembered; for in a few words, and in less than five minutes, he showed him at once the contrast between great actions briefly and modestly told, and every day occurrences related and dwelt on with pompous minuteness. This contrast, indeed, was particularly striking, the more so as the modest warrior did not seem to enjoy his triumph, nor to be even conscious of the accession to his fame which must result from the publicity of the account which he had given. As both 172 parties spoke the Shawano language, I well understood every thing they said, and I paid the most particular attention to their discourse, which was of itself sufficiently interesting.

In 1779, two war chiefs met by chance at my house on the Muskingum River: a young man from the Shawano tribe and an old warrior from the Wyandots, known for his great deeds but who, throughout the Revolutionary War, couldn't be convinced to fight against the Americans. They had both come separately to visit me. The Shawano, known for being quite vocal, launched into a discussion about war, passionately recounting his experiences while showing off a bullet wound on his arm. Meanwhile, the Wyandot listened intently, smoking his pipe, clearly surprised. When it was his turn to share his stories, he followed custom and laid down his pipe. Slowly, he removed his clothes, except for his breech-cloth, stood up, and said: “I’ve fought in over twenty battles against the enemy and battled alongside the French against the English; I’ve warred against southern nations, and my body bears the marks of nine bullets. I got these two wounds at the same moment from two Cherokees who saw me fall, leaned their guns against a tree, and rushed at me with their tomahawks to finish me off and scalp me. With help from the Great Spirit, I managed to jump up just as they were about to strike. I fought back, and they both fell at my feet. I took their scalps and went home.” This serious and esteemed veteran provided the young Shawano with a lesson that, if he grasped it, he would surely remember for a long time. In just a few words and under five minutes, the Wyandot illustrated the difference between great deeds told succinctly and everyday events recounted with overblown detail. This difference was especially striking, as the humble warrior didn’t seem to bask in his glory or even realize that his story would boost his reputation. Since both spoke Shawano, I understood everything they said, and I paid close attention to their conversation, which was captivating on its own.

This passion of the Indians, which I have called pride, but which might, perhaps, be better denominated high-mindedness, is generally combined with a great sense of honour, and not seldom produces actions of the most heroic kind. I am now going to relate an instance of this honourable pride, which I have also witnessed. An Indian of the Lenape nation, who was considered as a very dangerous person, and was much dreaded on that account, had publicly declared that as soon as another Indian, who was then gone to Sandusky, should return from thence, he would certainly kill him. This dangerous Indian called in one day at my house on the Muskingum to ask me for some tobacco. While this unwelcome guest was smoking his pipe by my fire, behold! the other Indian whom he had threatened to kill, and who at that moment had just arrived, also entered the house. I was much frightened, as I feared the bad Indian would take that opportunity to carry his threat into execution, and that my house would be made the scene of a horrid murder. I walked to the door, in order not to witness a crime that I could not prevent, when to my great astonishment I heard the Indian whom I thought in danger, address the other in these words: “Uncle, you have threatened to kill me—you have declared that you would do it the first time we should meet. Now I am here, and we are together. Am I to take it for granted that you are in earnest, and that you are really determined to take my life as you have declared? Am I now to consider you as my avowed enemy, and in order to secure my own life against your murderous designs, to be the first to strike you and embrue my hands in your blood?—I will not, I cannot do it. Your heart is bad, it is true, but still you appear to be a generous foe, for you gave me notice of what you intended to do; you have put me on my guard, and did not attempt to assassinate me by surprise; I, therefore, will spare you until you lift up your arm to strike, and then, uncle, it will be seen which of us shall fall!” The murderer was thunderstruck, and without replying a word, slunk off and left the house. 173

This passion of the Indians, which I've referred to as pride, but might be better called high-mindedness, usually comes with a strong sense of honor and often leads to very heroic actions. I’m now going to share an example of this honorable pride that I also witnessed. An Indian from the Lenape nation, known as a very dangerous person and much feared for this reason, had publicly declared that as soon as another Indian, who had gone to Sandusky, returned, he would definitely kill him. One day, this threatening Indian came to my house on the Muskingum to ask for some tobacco. While this unwelcome guest was smoking his pipe by my fire, suddenly, the other Indian he had threatened to kill, who had just arrived, also entered the house. I was really scared, as I feared the dangerous Indian would take that chance to act on his threat, and that my house would become the site of a terrible murder. I walked to the door to avoid witnessing a crime I couldn’t stop, when to my great surprise I heard the Indian I thought was in danger say to the other, “Uncle, you’ve threatened to kill me—you said you’d do it the first time we met. Now I’m here, and we’re together. Should I assume you’re serious and actually intend to take my life as you declared? Should I see you as my open enemy, and to protect my own life from your murderous plans, be the first to strike and stain my hands with your blood?—I won’t, I can’t do it. Your heart is bad, that’s true, but you seem to be a generous foe, for you warned me of your intentions; you’ve put me on guard and didn’t try to sneak up on me; therefore, I will spare you until you raise your arm to strike, and then, uncle, we’ll see which of us falls!” The would-be murderer was stunned, and without saying a word, he sneaked out and left the house. 173

The anecdote with which I am going to conclude this chapter, will display an act of heroism produced by this elevation of mind which I have called pride, which, perhaps, may have been equalled, but, I dare say, was hardly ever surpassed. In the spring of the year 1782, the war chief of the Wyandots of Lower Sandusky sent a white prisoner (a young man whom he had taken at Fort M’Intosh) as a present to another chief, who was called the Half-king of Upper Sandusky,174 for the purpose of being adopted into his family, in the place of one of his sons, who had been killed the preceding year, while at war with the people on the Ohio. The prisoner arrived, and was presented to the Half-king’s wife, but she refused to receive him, which, according to the Indian rule, was, in fact, a sentence of death. The young man was, therefore, taken away, for the purpose of being tortured and burnt on the pile. While the dreadful preparations were making near the village, the unhappy victim being already tied to the stake, and the Indians arriving from all quarters to join in the cruel act or to witness it, two English traders, Messrs. Arundel and Robbins (I delight in making this honourable mention of their names), shocked at the idea of the cruelties which were about to be perpetrated, and moved by feelings of pity and humanity, resolved to unite their exertions to endeavour to save the prisoner’s life by offering a ransom to the war chief, which he, however refused, because, said he, it was an established rule among them, that when a prisoner who had been given as a present, was refused adoption, he was irrevocably doomed to the stake, and it was not in the power of any one to save his life. Besides, added he, the numerous war captains who were on the 174 spot, had it in charge to see the sentence carried into execution. The two generous Englishmen, however, were not discouraged, and determined to try a last effort. They well knew what effects the high-minded pride of an Indian was capable of producing, and to this strong and noble passion they directed their attacks: “But,” said they, in reply to the answer which the chief had made them, “among all those chiefs whom you have mentioned, there is none who equals you in greatness; you are considered not only as the greatest and bravest, but as the best man in the nation.” “Do you really believe what you say?” said at once the Indian, looking them full in the face. “Indeed, we do.” Then, without saying another word, he blackened himself, and taking his knife and tomahawk in his hand, made his way through the crowd to the unhappy victim, crying out with a loud voice: “What have you to do with my prisoner?” and at once cutting the cords with which he was tied, took him to his house which was near Mr. Arundel’s, whence he was forthwith secured and carried off by safe hands to Detroit, where175 the commandant, being informed of the transaction, sent him by water to Niagara, where he was soon afterwards liberated. The Indians who witnessed this act, said that it was truly heroic; they were so confounded by the unexpected conduct of this chief, and by his manly and resolute appearance, that they had not time to reflect upon what they should do, and before their astonishment was well over, the prisoner was out of their reach.

The story I’m about to finish this chapter with will show an act of heroism driven by the kind of mindset I’ve described as pride, which, while possibly matched, was rarely, if ever, surpassed. In the spring of 1782, the war chief of the Wyandots from Lower Sandusky sent a white captive (a young man he had captured at Fort M’Intosh) as a gift to another chief known as the Half-king of Upper Sandusky, 174 to be adopted into his family, replacing one of his sons who had been killed the previous year in the conflict with the people of Ohio. The young man arrived and was presented to the Half-king’s wife, but she refused to accept him. According to Indian customs, this was essentially a death sentence. The young man was then taken away to be tortured and burned at the stake. While the horrific preparations were underway near the village, and the unfortunate victim was already tied to the stake with Indians gathering from all around to participate or witness the cruel act, two English traders, Messrs. Arundel and Robbins (I take pleasure in naming them), horrified by the impending cruelty and motivated by compassion and humanity, decided to band together to try to save the prisoner’s life by offering a ransom to the war chief. However, he refused, stating that it was a rule among them that when a prisoner given as a gift was denied adoption, he was destined for the stake, and no one had the power to change that. Besides, he added, the many war captains present were tasked with ensuring the sentence was carried out. Nevertheless, the two brave Englishmen were undeterred and resolved to make one last effort. They understood the powerful effects of an Indian's pride and directed their appeal towards that strong and noble feeling: “But,” they replied to the chief’s response, “among all the chiefs you mentioned, there is none who matches your greatness; you’re seen not only as the greatest and bravest but as the best man in the whole nation.” “Do you really believe what you’re saying?” the Indian asked, locking eyes with them. “We genuinely do.” Then, without another word, he blackened his face, grabbed his knife and tomahawk, pushed through the crowd towards the hopeless victim, shouting loudly: “What do you want with my prisoner?” He immediately cut the ropes binding him, took him to his house close to Mr. Arundel’s, where he was quickly secured and then safely transported to Detroit, where 175 the commandant, upon hearing of the event, sent him by boat to Niagara, where he was soon set free. The Indians who witnessed this act said it was truly heroic; they were so stunned by the unexpected behavior of this chief and his strong and determined demeanor that they didn’t have time to think about what to do, and before their shock had worn off, the prisoner was out of their reach.

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CHAPTER XIX.
WARS AND THE REASONS THAT LEAD TO THEM.

I

It is a fixed principle with the Indians, that evil cannot come out of good, that no friend will injure a friend, and, therefore, that whoever wrongs or does harm to another, is his ENEMY. As it is with individuals, so it is with nations, tribes, and other independent associations of men. If they commit murder on another people, encroach on their lands, by making it a practice to come within their bounds and take the game from them, if they rob or steal from their hunting camps, or, in short, are guilty of any act of unjust aggression, they cannot be considered otherwise than as ENEMIES; they are declared to be such, and the aggrieved nation think themselves justifiable in punishing them. If murder has been perpetrated, revenge is taken in the same way. If a lesser injury has been done, a message is sent to the chief of the nation to which the wrong-doers belong, to enquire whether the act complained of was authorised, if not to give them warning not to permit the like thing to be done again. If theft or some other like offence has been committed, restitution is at the same time demanded, or such reparation as the case admits of, and the chiefs are desired to forbid their “young people” to do so any more, or that they will have to abide by the consequence.

It is a basic belief among the Indians that good cannot come from evil, that no true friend would harm another friend, and therefore, anyone who wrongs or harms another is considered an FOE. This principle applies to individuals as well as nations, tribes, and other independent groups. If one group murders another, invades their territory by regularly entering their lands and taking their game, or robs or steals from their hunting camps, or is guilty of any form of unjust aggression, they cannot be viewed in any other light than as RIVALS; they are declared as such, and the wronged nation believes they have every right to seek revenge. If a murder has occurred, retaliation is taken in kind. If a lesser offense has happened, a message is sent to the leader of the nation to which the offenders belong, to ask if the act was authorized; if it wasn’t, a warning is issued not to allow such actions in the future. If theft or a similar offense has been committed, restitution is demanded along with any reparations appropriate to the situation, and the chiefs are asked to instruct their “young people” to refrain from such actions again, or they will face the consequences.

There are tribes among the Indians, who claim the exclusive right of hunting within certain bounds, and will not suffer others to intrude and take their game from them, as they call it; and there have been instances, when such intruders, being found trespassing after a fair warning, have had their ears and noses cut off, and have been sent home to tell their chiefs that the next time they came again, they should be sent home without their scalps. While the Christian Indians of the Lenape nation 176 were settled for a few years on the land of the Chippeways beyond Detroit, where they had taken refuge and were permitted to remain for their safety; though the Chippeways professed reverence for them, and called them Grandfather, yet they were continually complaining of their killing their game. They had no objection to their tilling the ground, but every deer, raccoon, or other animal which they killed or took, was a cause of displeasure to their hosts; and in consequence of that, they pressed them so often to remove from their lands, that they at last went off.

There are tribes among the Native Americans who claim exclusive rights to hunt within certain areas and won't allow others to intrude and take their game. There have been cases where intruders, after receiving a clear warning, had their ears and noses cut off and were sent home to inform their leaders that next time they came back, they would be sent home without their scalps. While the Christian Indians of the Lenape nation were settled for a few years on the land of the Chippeways beyond Detroit, where they sought refuge and were allowed to stay for their safety, the Chippeways, despite showing respect and calling them Grandfather, constantly complained about them hunting their game. They didn't mind the Lenape farming, but every deer, raccoon, or other animal they hunted caused displeasure for their hosts. As a result, they pressured them so often to leave their lands that eventually, they did.

When the Indians have determined to take revenge for a murder committed by another nation, they generally endeavour to make at once a bold stroke, so as to strike their enemies with terror; for which purpose, they penetrate into the hostile country as far as they can without being discovered, and when they have made their stroke, they leave a war club near the body of the person murdered, and make off as quick as possible. This war club is purposely left that the enemy may know to what nation the act is to be ascribed, and that they may not wreak their vengeance on an innocent tribe. It is meant also to let them know that unless they take measures to discover and punish the author of the original aggression, this instrument will be the means of revenging the injury, or, in other words, war will be forthwith declared against them.

When Native Americans decide to seek revenge for a murder committed by another tribe, they usually try to make a bold move right away to instill fear in their enemies. To do this, they sneak into enemy territory as far as they can without being seen, and after they strike, they leave a war club near the body of the murdered person and quickly get away. This war club is intentionally left for the enemy to realize which nation is responsible for the act so they won't retaliate against an innocent tribe. It's also a way to warn them that if they don't find and punish the person who committed the original offense, this weapon will be used to take revenge, meaning war will be declared against them immediately.

If the supposed enemy is peaceably inclined, he will in such case send a deputation to the aggrieved nation, with a suitable apology. In general the chief sends word, that the act complained of was committed without his knowledge, by some of “his foolish young men;” that it was altogether unauthorised and unwarranted; that it was highly reprobated by himself and his council, and that he would be sorry that on that account a breach should be made between the two nations, but, on the contrary, wishes for peace; that he is willing to make reparation for the offence by condoling with the relations of the person slain and otherwise satisfying them. Such an offer is generally accepted, and in this manner all differences are adjusted between the parties, and they are friends again as they were before. But should the offending nation refuse to apologise and sue for peace, war is then immediately declared and is carried on with the greatest vigour. 177

If the supposed enemy is inclined towards peace, they will send a delegation to the offended nation with a proper apology. Usually, the leader will communicate that the action in question was taken without their knowledge by some of “his foolish young men”; that it was completely unauthorized and unjustified; that he and his council strongly disapprove of it, and that he would regret if this led to a rift between the two nations. Instead, he desires peace and is willing to make amends for the offense by expressing condolences to the family of the deceased and providing other compensations. Such an offer is typically accepted, and this is how all disputes are resolved between the parties, allowing them to become friends again as they were before. However, if the offending nation refuses to apologize and seeks peace, war is then immediately declared and pursued with the greatest intensity. 177


CHAPTER XX.
WAYS TO SURPRISE THEIR ENEMIES.

C

Courage, art, and circumspection are the essential and indispensable qualifications of an Indian warrior. When war is once begun, each one strives to excel in displaying them, by stealing upon his enemy unawares, and deceiving and surprising him in various ways. On drawing near to an enemy’s country, they endeavour as much as possible to conceal their tracks; sometimes they scatter themselves, marching at proper distances from each other for a whole day and more, meeting, however, again at night, when they keep a watch; at other times they march in what is called Indian file, one man behind the other, treading carefully in each other’s steps, so that their number may not be ascertained by the prints of their feet. The nearer they suppose themselves to be to the enemy, the more attentive they are to choosing hard, stony, and rocky ground, on which human footsteps leave no impression; soft, marshy and grassy soils are particularly avoided, as in the former the prints of the feet would be easily discovered, and in the latter the appearance of the grass having been trodden upon might lead to detection; for if the grass or weeds are only bent, and have the least mark of having been walked upon, it will be almost certainly perceived, in which the sharpness and quickness of the Indians’ sight is truly astonishing.

Bravery, skill, and caution are the key and essential traits of an Indian warrior. Once war begins, each person aims to outdo the others by surprising their enemy, catching them off guard, and using tricks in various ways. As they approach an enemy’s territory, they try their best to hide their tracks; sometimes they spread out, marching at a safe distance from each other for a whole day or more, but regroup at night to keep watch. Other times, they move in what’s called Indian file, one person right behind the other, carefully stepping in each other's footprints to avoid revealing their numbers. The closer they think they are to the enemy, the more they pay attention to choosing hard, rocky ground where footprints won’t show. They especially steer clear of soft, marshy, or grassy areas because footprints would be easily seen there, and any signs of the grass being trampled could give them away; if the grass or weeds are just bent and show any indication of being walked upon, it will likely be noticed, showcasing the incredible sharpness and quickness of the Indians’ eyesight.

In some instances they deceive their enemies by imitating the cries or calls of some animal, such as the fawn, or turkey. They do this so admirably well, that they even draw the dam of the one and the mate of the other to the spot to which they want to come. In this manner they often succeed in decoying the enemies 178 to the place where they are lying in ambush, or get an opportunity of surrounding them. Such stratagems, however, cannot be resorted to in all seasons; with the turkey, it only answers in the spring, and with the fawn’s dam until about midsummer. In the same manner, when scattered about in the woods, they easily find each other by imitating the song of some birds, such as the quail and the rook, and at evening and morning, and particularly in the night, the cry of the owl. By this means they all join each other, though not at the same time, as they are not, perhaps, all within hearing; but the cry of the owl is repeated from time to time until they are all assembled.

In some cases, they trick their enemies by mimicking the sounds of animals, like a fawn or a turkey. They do this so skillfully that they can lure the mother of one and the mate of the other right to the spot they want. This way, they often manage to bait their enemies to where they are lying in wait or find a chance to surround them. However, these tactics can’t be used in every season; for turkeys, it only works in the spring, and for the fawn's mother, only until about midsummer. Similarly, when spread out in the woods, they can easily locate each other by imitating the songs of certain birds, like the quail and the rook, and in the morning and evening, especially at night, by mimicking the owl’s call. Through this method, they can all gather, though not necessarily at the same time, since they might not all be within earshot; the owl’s cry is repeated intermittently until they’re all together. 178

It is certain that the Indians, by the prints of the feet and by other marks and signs perceivable only to themselves, can readily discover, not only that men have passed through a particular path or line of march, but they can discriminate to what particular nation those men belong, and whether they are their friends or their enemies. They also sometimes make discoveries by examining obscure places, and by that means get informed of an enemy’s design. Nay, there are those among them who pretend to be able to discriminate among various marks of human footsteps the different nations of those to whom they respectively belong. I shall not undertake to assert thus far, but I shall relate an anecdote, the truth of which I firmly believe, in proof of their extraordinary sagacity in this respect.

It's clear that the Native Americans, by looking at footprints and other signs that only they can recognize, can easily tell not just that people have traveled a specific path, but also which nation those people belong to and whether they're friends or foes. Sometimes they also find out information by checking hidden places, which helps them learn about an enemy's plans. In fact, some of them claim they can identify different nations simply by studying various human footprints. I won't claim that to be true, but I will share an anecdote that I truly believe proves their incredible skill in this area.

In the beginning of the summer of the year 1755, a most atrocious and shocking murder was unexpectedly committed by a party of Indians, on fourteen white settlers within five miles of Shamokin.176 The surviving whites, in their rage, determined to take their revenge by murdering a Delaware Indian who happened to be in those parts and was far from thinking himself in any danger. He was a great friend to the whites, was loved and esteemed by them, and in testimony of their regard, had received from them the name of Duke Holland,177 by which he was generally 179 known. This Indian, satisfied that his nation was incapable of committing such a foul murder in a time of profound peace, told the enraged settlers, that he was sure that the Delawares were not in any manner concerned in it, and that it was the act of some wicked Mingoes or Iroquois, whose custom it was to involve other nations in wars with each other, by clandestinely committing murders, so that they might be laid to the charge of others than themselves. But all his representations were vain; he could not convince exasperated men whose minds were fully bent upon revenge. At last, he offered that if they would give him a party to accompany him, he would go with them in quest of the murderers, and was sure he could discover them by the prints of their feet and other marks well known to him, by which he would convince them that the real perpetrators of the crime belonged to the Six Nations. His proposal was accepted, he marched at the head of a party of whites and led them into the tracks. They soon found themselves in the most rocky parts of a mountain, where not one of those who accompanied him was able to discover a single track, nor would they believe that man had ever trodden upon this ground, as they had to jump over a number of crevices between the rocks, and in some instances to crawl over them. Now they began to believe that the Indian had led them across those rugged mountains in order to give the enemy time to escape, and threatened him with instant death the moment they should be fully convinced of the fraud. The Indian, true to his promise, would take pains to make them perceive that an enemy had passed along the places through which he was leading them; here he would shew them that the moss on the rock had been trodden down by the weight of an human foot, there that it had been torn and dragged forward from its place: further he would point out to them that pebbles or small stones on the rocks had been removed from their beds by the foot hitting against them, that dry sticks by being trodden upon were broken, and even that in a particular place, an Indian’s blanket had dragged over the rocks, and removed or loosened the leaves lying there, so that they lay no more flat, as in other places; all which the Indian could perceive as he walked along, without even stopping. At last arriving at the foot of the mountain 180 on soft ground, where the tracks were deep, he found out that the enemy were eight in number, and from the freshness of the footprints, he concluded that they must be encamped at no great distance. This proved to be the exact truth, for, after gaining the eminence on the other side of the valley, the Indians were seen encamped, some having already laid down to sleep, while others were drawing off their leggings178 for the same purpose, and the scalps they had taken were hanging up to dry. “See!” said Duke Holland to his astonished companions, “there is the enemy! not of my nation, but Mingoes, as I truly told you. They are in our power; in less than half an hour they will all be fast asleep. We need not fire a gun, but go up and tomahawk them. We are nearly two to one and need apprehend no danger. Come on, and you will now have your full revenge!” But the whites, overcome with fear, did not choose to follow the Indian’s advice, and urged him to take them back by the nearest and best way, which he did, and when they arrived at home late at night, they reported the number of the Iroquois to have been so great, that they durst not venture to attack them.

At the start of summer in 1755, a horrific and shocking murder was unexpectedly carried out by a group of Indians, targeting fourteen white settlers just five miles from Shamokin. 176 The surviving white settlers, fueled by anger, decided to take their revenge by killing a Delaware Indian who happened to be nearby and who was unaware of any danger. He was a close friend of the whites, well-loved and respected by them, and in recognition of their friendship, he had received the name Duke Holland, 177 by which he was commonly known. This Indian, believing that his people would never commit such a brutal act in a time of peace, assured the furious settlers that he was certain the Delawares were not involved and that the murder was the work of some wicked Mingoes or Iroquois, who often tried to start conflicts between different nations by secretly committing murders, so the blame would fall on others. Despite his explanations, the agitated settlers were not swayed as they were determined to seek revenge. Eventually, he suggested that if they would provide him with a group to accompany him, he would lead them in pursuit of the real murderers, confident he could identify them by their footprints and other signs he recognized, proving that the true culprits belonged to the Six Nations. His proposal was accepted; he led a group of white settlers into the wilderness. They soon found themselves in a rocky mountain area where none of the settlers could find a single trace of anyone having passed through, and they began to think that the Indian had intentionally led them through these difficult mountains to give the real offenders time to escape. They threatened him with death as soon as they were convinced of his deceit. The Indian, staying true to his word, made an effort to show them signs that an enemy had crossed the areas he was leading them through; he pointed out where the moss on a rock had been flattened by the weight of a human foot, where it had been pulled and moved, and indicated how pebbles or small stones had been displaced by footsteps, that dry sticks were broken underfoot, and even that an Indian’s blanket had dragged over the rocks, disrupting the leaves that were otherwise flat in other areas—all of which he noted without stopping. Finally, when they arrived at the base of the mountain on soft ground where the tracks were clear, he determined that there were eight enemies and from the freshness of the footprints, he concluded they must be camped nearby. This turned out to be true, as upon reaching the ridge on the other side of the valley, they spotted the Indians camped out, some already lying down to sleep, while others were taking off their leggings 178 for the same reason, with the scalps they had taken hanging up to dry. “Look!” said Duke Holland to his astonished companions, “there’s the enemy! Not of my nation, but Mingoes, just as I told you. They’re within our reach; in less than half an hour, they’ll all be fast asleep. We don’t need to fire a gun—just go up and tomahawk them. We have almost two to one and shouldn't fear any danger. Let’s go, and you’ll get your full revenge!” But the terrified whites decided not to follow the Indian’s advice and urged him to take them back by the safest and quickest route, which he did. When they finally got home late that night, they reported that the number of Iroquois was so great that they didn't dare to attack them.

This account is faithfully given as I received it from Duke Holland himself, and took it down in writing at the time. I had been acquainted with this Indian for upwards of twenty years, and knew him to be honest, intelligent and a lover of truth. Therefore I gave full credit to what he told me, and as yet have had no reason to disbelieve or even to doubt it. I once employed him to save the life of a respectable gentleman, now residing at Pittsburg, who was in imminent danger of being killed by a war party. Duke Holland conducted him safely through the woods, from the Muskingum to the Ohio settlement. He once found a watch of mine, which had been sent to me from Pittsburg by a man who had got drunk, and lost it in the woods about fifty miles from the place where I lived. Duke Holland went in search of it, and having discovered the tracks of the man to whom it had been entrusted, he pursued them until he found the lost article, which he delivered to me. 181

This account is faithfully given as I received it from Duke Holland himself, and I wrote it down at the time. I had known this Indian for over twenty years and recognized him as honest, intelligent, and a lover of truth. Therefore, I fully trusted what he told me, and I still have no reason to doubt it. I once hired him to save the life of a respected gentleman, now living in Pittsburgh, who was at serious risk of being killed by a war party. Duke Holland safely guided him through the woods, from the Muskingum to the Ohio settlement. He also found a watch of mine that had been sent to me from Pittsburgh by a man who had gotten drunk and lost it in the woods about fifty miles from where I lived. Duke Holland searched for it and, having tracked down the footprints of the man to whom it had been given, pursued them until he found the lost item, which he returned to me. 181


CHAPTER XXI.
Peace Advocates.

W

While the American Indian remained in the free and undisturbed possession of the land which God gave to them, and even for a long time after the Europeans had settled themselves in their territory, there was no people upon earth who paid a more religious respect than they did to the sacred character of the ambassadors, or (as they call them) Messengers of peace. It is too well known that since about the middle of the last century a great change has taken place, the cause of which, I am sorry to say, the Indians lay entirely to our charge.

While the Native Americans maintained their free and undisturbed ownership of the land that God gave them, and even for a long time after the Europeans settled in their territory, there was no group on earth that showed more religious respect than they did to the sacred role of the ambassadors, or (as they call them) Messengers of peace. It's well known that since about the middle of the last century, a significant change has taken place, the responsibility for which, I regret to say, the Native Americans attribute entirely to us.

The inviolability of the person of an ambassador is one of those sacred fundamental principles of the law of nature which the Almighty Creator has imprinted upon the heart of every living man. History teaches us that the most barbarous and savage nations have at all times admitted and carried it into practice. It is a lamentable truth that all the violations of it that stand upon record, are to be ascribed to civilised man or to his contagious example.

The protection of an ambassador's person is one of those sacred fundamental principles of natural law that the Almighty Creator has instilled in every living person. History shows us that even the most brutal and savage nations have always recognized and upheld this principle. Sadly, the harsh truth is that all recorded violations of this principle can be traced back to civilized people or their negative influence.

It is certain that among our Indians the person of an ambassador was formerly held most sacred and inviolable. All the nations and tribes were agreed upon this point, that a messenger, though sent by the most hostile people, was entitled not only to respect but to protection. To have, I will not say murdered, but knowingly ill treated a person of this description, was with them an unpardonable crime. War parties were always instructed, if they should find a messenger on his way from one nation 182 to another, not only to give him protection but hospitality, and see him safely conducted to the people to whom he was sent.

It’s clear that among our Native Americans, the role of an ambassador was once considered extremely sacred and untouchable. All nations and tribes agreed that a messenger, even from the most hostile groups, deserved not just respect but also protection. To have, I won’t say murdered, but intentionally harmed someone in this role was seen as an unforgivable crime. War parties were always instructed that if they came across a messenger traveling between nations, they should not only protect him but also offer hospitality and ensure he safely reached his destination.

In the same manner, when a messenger was sent to them by a nation with whom they were at war or at variance, though they might be ever so much exasperated against them, and even though they had firmly determined not to listen, that is to say, not to consent to their propositions, whatever they might be, still they would grant their protection to the man of peace, and tell him in their expressive language “that they had taken him under their wings, or placed him under their arm pits, where he was perfectly safe.” It was with them a point of religious belief, that pacific messengers were under the special protection of the Great Spirit, that it was unlawful to molest them, and that the nation which should be guilty of so enormous a crime would surely be punished by being unsuccessful in war, and perhaps, by suffering a total defeat. Therefore, frequent instances happened of such messengers being sent back with the most threatening messages, such as, that it was determined to wage a war of blood and destruction, and that no quarter would be given, yet the ambassadors themselves did not meet with the least insult or disrespect; they were protected during all the time that they remained in the hostile country, and were safely conducted to their own nation, or at least, so far on their way as to be out of danger from the enemy’s warriors, leaving them a sufficient time to reach their houses, before a fresh stroke was made, to give notice that the truce was at an end or that the war was begun. I have heard of messengers being sent back with a message to this effect: “I return to your bosom, safe and unmolested, the messengers you sent me. The answer to the speech they brought me from you, you will learn from my young warriors, who are gone to see you.” The nature of the visit thus announced may be easily guessed at. The message was in fact a declaration of war, with a fair notice that an invasion of the enemy’s country was immediately to take place.

In the same way, when a messenger was sent to them by a nation they were fighting or were at odds with, even if they were really angry at them, and despite having made a firm decision *not to listen*, meaning they wouldn’t agree to any of their proposals, no matter what they were, they would still offer protection to the peace messenger and tell him in their meaningful way that they had taken him under their wings or placed him safely with them, where he was completely secure. They believed it was a religious duty that peaceful messengers were under the special protection of the Great Spirit, and it was wrong to harm them. A nation that committed such a terrible act would surely be punished with failure in battle, and possibly by suffering a complete defeat. Therefore, it often happened that such messengers were sent back with very threatening messages, stating that they intended to wage a war of blood and destruction, and no mercy would be shown. Yet, the ambassadors themselves faced no insult or disrespect; they were protected throughout their time in the hostile country and safely escorted back to their own nation, or at least far enough along their way to be out of danger from enemy warriors, giving them enough time to reach their homes before a new attack began, signaling the end of the truce or the start of the war. I’ve heard of messengers being sent back with a message like this: “I return to you, safe and unharmed, the messengers you sent me. You will hear the response to the message they brought from you from my young warriors, who have gone to *see* you.” The nature of the *visit* being hinted at is easy to guess. The message was actually declaring war, with a clear notification that an invasion of the enemy’s territory was about to happen.

Such were the principles, such was the manly conduct of the Indians in former times. How different it is at present I need not say. We yet remember the unhappy fate of Messrs. Trueman, Freeman, and Hardin. These three respectable American 183 gentlemen, were in the year 1792, sent to the Indians with flags of truce and peace proposals, and were all wantonly murdered.179 To whom is this horrid state of things to be attributed? I will not pretend to judge, but let us hear what the Indians say.

Such were the principles and the honorable behavior of the Indians in the past. It's clear how different things are now. We still remember the tragic fate of Messrs. Trueman, Freeman, and Hardin. These three respected American gentlemen were sent to the Indians in 1792 with flags of truce and peace proposals, and they were all senselessly murdered.179 Who is to blame for this terrible situation? I won't attempt to judge, but let's listen to what the Indians have to say.

The principal reasons which they assign as having brought about this great change, are comprised under the following general heads.

The main reasons they give for this significant change fall under the following general categories.

I. That the white people have intermeddled with their national concerns, by dictating to one nation how they should treat another, and even how they should speak and what they should say to them, and by this means have entirely destroyed their national independence. That they have even encouraged and supported one Indian nation in not only affecting but actually exercising dominion and supremacy over all the others.

I. That white people have interfered in their national affairs by telling one nation how to treat another, even dictating how they should communicate and what they should say to one another, thereby completely undermining their national independence. They have even encouraged and supported one Indian nation in not just influencing but actually exercising control and authority over all the others.

II. That the whites have treated the Indians as a contemptible race and paid no regard themselves to the sacred character of messengers, but murdered them as well as their chiefs in numerous instances without distinction. That they even polluted what among them is esteemed most holy and inviolable, their council fires, extinguishing them (as they express themselves) with streams of the best blood of their nation, in violation of their professions and most solemn promises! That their whole conduct in short has appeared as if they would say to them: “We do not care for you; we despise you—all we want is your lands, and those we will have.”

II. The white people have treated the Native Americans as if they were a worthless race and showed no respect for the sacred role of messengers, even murdering them and their leaders in many cases without distinction. They have defiled what is considered most sacred and untouchable to them, their council fires, putting them out (as they put it) with streams of the best blood of their nation, breaking their promises and solemn vows! In short, their behavior has made it seem like they were saying to the Native Americans: “We don’t care about you; we look down on you—what we want is your land, and we’ll take it.”

Nor are they at a loss when called upon to specify the particular injuries of which they complain. Amidst a long list of similar grievances, I shall select a few of the most prominent.

Nor are they unsure when asked to point out the specific injuries they are complaining about. Among a long list of similar grievances, I'll highlight a few of the most significant.

1. The protection given against them to the Iroquois, encouraging that nation to insult them, to treat them as women made such by conquest, and to exercise a tyrannical superiority over them. 184

1. The protection granted to the Iroquois incited that nation to provoke them, to view them as weak due to defeat, and to assert a harsh dominance over them. 184

2. The murder of the Conestogo Indians, at the very place where a council fire was burning at the time; where treaties had been held with them in early times, and where even a treaty had been concluded in 1762, the year preceding the murder; and that too in the country of their brother Miquon, in the Quaker country, in Pennsylvania.

2. The murder of the Conestogo Indians happened right where a council fire was still burning; a place where treaties had been made with them in the past, including one in 1762, just the year before the murder; and this occurred in the land of their brother Miquon, in the Quaker region, in Pennsylvania.

3. The horrid murder committed between the years 1776 and 1779, on the great and much valued Shawano chief Cornstalk, at Kanhawa, where it was known that he was on a friendly and interesting errand.180

3. The terrible murder of the esteemed Shawano chief Cornstalk took place between 1776 and 1779 at Kanhawa, where it was understood that he was on a friendly and important mission.180

4. The firing upon and severely wounding a noted Shawano in the year 1774, while on his return from Pittsburgh, to which place he had, out of friendship and humanity, conducted several white traders and protected them against an enraged body of Indians, on whose relations the white people had committed most horrid murders.

4. The shooting and serious wounding of a well-known Shawano in 1774, while he was returning from Pittsburgh, where he had, out of friendship and kindness, escorted several white traders and protected them from an angry group of Indians, whose relatives the white people had committed terrible murders against.

5. The attacking the peaceable encampment of the Delaware chiefs on the island at Pittsburgh, where one Messenger and several others were murdered.

5. The attack on the peaceful encampment of the Delaware chiefs on the island at Pittsburgh, where one Messenger and several others were killed.

6. The murder of the Christian Indians on Muskingum, by Williamson’s party, together with the chief from Achsinning, (the standing stone,) although the persons thus murdered were known to be friends to the whites.

6. The killing of the Christian Indians on the Muskingum by Williamson’s group, along with the chief from Achsinning (the standing stone), even though those who were killed were known to be allies of the white settlers.

The Indians relate many more outrages committed on messengers, visiters, and other friendly Indians, of which I shall spare the painful recital to my readers. From this series of unjust and cruel acts, the Indian nations, have at last come to the conclusion that the Americans are in their hearts inimical to them, and that when they send them messengers of peace, they only mean to lull them into a fancied security, that they may the easier fall upon and destroy them. It was in consequence of this conviction that the three respectable gentlemen whom I have already mentioned, met with their unhappy fate. 185

The Native Americans recount many more atrocities committed against messengers, visitors, and other friendly Native Americans, but I’ll spare my readers from the painful details. From this ongoing series of unfair and brutal acts, Native nations have come to believe that Americans secretly harbor hostility towards them, and that when they send messengers of peace, they only intend to lead them into a false sense of security so they can more easily attack and destroy them. It was because of this belief that the three esteemed gentlemen I mentioned earlier met their unfortunate end. 185


CHAPTER XXII.
Agreements.

I

In early times, when Indian nations, after long and bloody wars, met together, for the purpose of adjusting their differences, or concluding a peace with each other, it was their laudable custom, as a token of their sincerity, to remove out of the place where the peacemakers were sitting, all warlike weapons and instruments of destruction, of whatever form or shape. “For,” said they, “when we are engaged in a good work, nothing that is bad must be visible. We are met together to forgive and forget, to bury the destructive weapon, and put it quite out of sight; we cast away from us the fatal instrument that has caused so much grief to our wives and children, and has been the source of so many tears. It is our earnest hope and wish that it may never be dug up again.” So particular were they on this point, that if a single weapon had been in sight, while a treaty was negotiating, it would have disturbed their minds by recalling the memory of past events, and instead, (as they say) of gladdening their hearts, by the prospect of a speedy peace, would, on the contrary, have filled them with sorrow.

In ancient times, when Native American nations gathered after long and brutal wars to resolve their disputes or establish peace with one another, it was their admirable tradition, as a sign of their honesty, to remove all weapons and tools of violence from the area where the peacemakers were seated. “Because,” they said, “when we are doing something good, nothing negative should be in sight. We come together to forgive and forget, to bury the instruments of destruction and make them completely invisible; we cast away the deadly tools that have caused so much pain to our families and have led to countless tears. It is our sincere hope and desire that they are never uncovered again.” They were so particular about this that if even a single weapon was visible while a treaty was being negotiated, it would disturb their minds by bringing back memories of past conflicts, and instead of uplifting their spirits with the hope of soon reaching peace, it would, in fact, fill them with sorrow.

Nor would they even permit any warlike weapons to remain within the limits of their council fire, when assembled together about the ordinary business of government. It might, they said, have a bad effect, and defeat the object for which they had met. It might be a check on some of the persons assembled, and perhaps, prevent those who had a just complaint or representation to make, from speaking their minds freely. William Penn, said 186 they, when he treated with them, adopted this ancient mode of their ancestors, and convened them under a grove of shady trees, where the little birds on their boughs were warbling their sweet notes. In commemoration of these conferences (which are always to Indians a subject of pleasing remembrance) they frequently assembled together in the woods, in some shady spot as nearly as possible similar to those where they used to meet their brother Miquon, and there lay all his “words” or speeches, with those of his descendants, on a blanket or clean piece of bark, and with great satisfaction go successively over the whole. This practice (which I have repeatedly witnessed) continued until the year 1780, when the disturbances which then took place put an end to it, probably for ever.

They also wouldn't allow any weapons to stay within the limits of their council fire when they gathered for regular government business. They believed it could have a negative impact and distract from their purpose for meeting. It might make some attendees hesitant and possibly prevent those with valid complaints or perspectives from speaking freely. William Penn, they said, adopted this ancient tradition when he met with them, gathering them under a grove of shady trees, where the little birds were singing their sweet songs. To remember these meetings—which are always cherished by the Indians—they often gathered in the woods, in a shaded spot similar to where they used to meet their brother Miquon. There, they would lay out all his “words” or speeches, along with those of his descendants, on a blanket or clean piece of bark and happily review them together. I have seen this practice many times, and it continued until 1780, when the disturbances that occurred put an end to it, likely for good.

These pleasing remembrances, these sacred usages are no more. “When we treat with the white people,” do the Indians now say, “we have not the choice of the spot where the messengers are to meet. When we are called upon to conclude a peace, (and what a peace?) the meeting no longer takes place in the shady grove, where the innocent little birds with their cheerful songs, seem as if they wished to soothe and enliven our minds, tune them to amity and concord and take a part in the good work for which we are met. Neither is it at the sacred council house, that we are invited to assemble. No!—It is at some of those horrid places, surrounded with mounds and ditches, where the most destructive of all weapons, where great guns are gaping at us with their wide mouths, as if ready to devour us; and thus we are prevented from speaking our minds freely as brothers ought to do!”

These pleasant memories and cherished traditions are gone. “When we negotiate with white people,” the Native Americans now say, “we no longer get to choose where to meet. When we're asked to make peace (and what kind of peace is this?), the gathering doesn’t happen in the cool grove, where the sweet little birds sing happily, as if they want to comfort and uplift us, helping us connect with each other for the good purpose we’ve come together. We’re not invited to the sacred council house anymore. No! Now it’s at those awful places, surrounded by mounds and ditches, where the most deadly weapons, where big guns are aimed at us with their wide mouths, as if ready to swallow us whole; and this keeps us from speaking openly like brothers should!”

How then, say they, can there be any sincerity in such councils? how can a treaty of this kind be binding on men thus forced to agree to what is dictated to them in a strong prison and at the cannon’s mouth; where all the stipulations are on one side, where all is concession on the one part and no friendship appears on the other? From these considerations, which they urge and constantly dwell upon, the treaties which they make with the white men have lost all their force, and they think themselves no longer bound by them than they are compelled by superior power. Are they right in this or are they wrong? The impartial reader must decide. 187

How can there be any honesty in such agreements, they ask? How can a treaty like this be valid when people are forced to agree to what is dictated to them in a stronghold and at gunpoint? Where all the terms favor one side, where one side makes all the concessions and no friendship is shown by the other? Because of these points, which they emphasize and repeat, the treaties they make with white people have lost all meaning, and they feel they are no longer obligated to follow them any more than they are required to by a higher power. Are they right or wrong in this? The unbiased reader must decide. 187


CHAPTER XXIII.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS OF THE INDIANS ON THE WHITE PEOPLE.

T

The Indians believe that the Whites were made by the same Great Spirit who created them, and that he assigned to each different race of men a particular employment in this world, but not the same to all. To the whites the great Mannitto gave it in charge to till the ground and raise by cultivation the fruits of the earth; to the Indians he assigned the nobler employment of hunting, and the supreme dominion over all the rest of the animal creation.

The Indigenous people believe that the White people were created by the same Great Spirit who created them, and that this spirit assigned each race a specific role in the world, but not the same for everyone. To the White people, the great Mannitto entrusted the task of farming and cultivating the earth's resources; to the Indigenous people, he gave the more honorable role of hunting and the ultimate authority over all other animals.

They will not admit that the whites are superior beings. They say that the hair of their heads, their features, the various colours of their eyes, evince that they are not like themselves Lenni Lenape, an Original People, a race of men that has existed unchanged from the beginning of time; but they are a mixed race, and therefore a troublesome one; wherever they may be, the Great Spirit, knowing the wickedness of their disposition, found it necessary to give them a great Book,181 and taught them how to read it, that they might know and observe what he wished them to do and to abstain from. But they, the Indians, have no need of any such book to let them know the will of their Maker; they find it engraved on their own hearts; they have had sufficient discernment given to them to distinguish good from evil, and by following that guide, they are sure not to err.

They won't acknowledge that white people are superior beings. They argue that their hair, facial features, and different eye colors show they are not like the Lenni Lenape, the Original People, a race that has remained unchanged since the beginning of time; instead, they are a mixed race, and therefore troublesome. Wherever they go, the Great Spirit, knowing their wicked nature, deemed it necessary to give them a great Book, 181, and taught them how to read it so they could understand and follow what he wanted them to do and avoid. But the Indians don't need a book like that to understand their Creator's will; they find it written on their own hearts. They have enough judgment to tell right from wrong, and by following that inner guide, they are sure not to go astray.

It is true, they confess, that when they first saw the whites, they took them for beings of a superior kind. They did not know but that they had been sent to them from the abode of 188 the Great Spirit for some great and important purpose. They therefore, welcomed them, hoping to be made happier by their company. It was not long, however, before they discovered their mistake, having found them an ungrateful, insatiable people, who, though the Indians had given them as much land as was necessary to raise provisions for themselves and their families, and pasture for their cattle, wanted still to have more, and at last would not be contented with less than the whole country. “And yet,” say those injured people, “these white men would always be telling us of their great Book which God had given to them, they would persuade us that every man was good who believed in what the Book said, and every man was bad who did not believe in it. They told us a great many things, which they said were written in the good Book, and wanted us to believe it all. We would probably have done so, if we had seen them practise what they pretended to believe, and act according to the good words which they told us. But no! while they held their big Book in one hand, in the other they had murderous weapons, guns and swords, wherewith to kill us, poor Indians! Ah! and they did so too, they killed those who believed in their Book, as well as those who did not. They made no distinction!”

It's true, they admit, that when they first saw the white people, they thought they were superior beings. They had no idea they were sent from the realm of the Great Spirit for some significant purpose. So, they welcomed them, hoping their company would bring them happiness. However, it wasn't long before they realized their mistake. They found the white people to be ungrateful and insatiable, wanting more land even after the Indians had given them enough to grow food for themselves and their families, as well as pasture for their cattle. Eventually, they wouldn't be satisfied unless they had the whole country. “And yet,” say those wronged people, “these white men would always tell us about their great Book that God gave them, trying to convince us that anyone who believed in it was good, and anyone who didn't was bad. They told us many things that they claimed were written in the good Book, and wanted us to believe all of it. We might have, if we had seen them actually live by what they professed to believe and act according to the good words they shared with us. But no! While they held their big Book in one hand, they had deadly weapons—guns and swords—in the other, ready to kill us, poor Indians! And they did! They killed those who believed in their Book as well as those who didn't. They made no distinction!”

They, nevertheless, are sensible that they have many friends among the white people, and only regret that from their being scattered and at a distance, they cannot be useful to them and to each other. Of those whom they know to be their friends, they always speak with warmth and affection. They also speak of the Gentellemaan (gentlemen) as a particular class among the whites which deserves to be distinguished; but they never apply that descriptive title to a person whom they know to be their enemy, or believe to be ill disposed towards them.

They are aware that they have many friends among white people and only wish that, because they are scattered and far apart, they can't be of help to one another. They always talk about their friends with warmth and affection. They also refer to the Gentellemaan (gentlemen) as a specific group among the whites that they think deserves recognition, but they never use that title for anyone they know to be their enemy or who they believe has bad intentions towards them.

The Indians have a keen eye; by looking at a person, they think that they can judge of his friendly or unfriendly disposition to their race; and, indeed, it has been allowed by many whites who have lived among them, that they are, in general, pretty good physiognomists. They are very quick among themselves in giving a name to a stranger or person of note that comes to them, and that name is always significant or descriptive 189 of something remarkable which they have observed about his person, which serves them to remember him as a friend or otherwise, as the case may be; when they believe a person to be their friend, they will do everything in their power to oblige him, it being their principle that “good ought always to be rewarded with good.” They prefer a plain man, simple in his manners and who treats them with frankness and familiarity. Such a man, they say, loves them. From a proud haughty man they do not expect friendship; whatever may be his professions, they think him incapable of loving anybody but himself, or perhaps, at most, his equal, and that, they think, an Indian can, in his opinion, never be.

The Native Americans have a sharp eye; by observing someone, they believe they can assess whether that person is friendly or unfriendly towards their people. Many white individuals who have lived among them agree that, in general, they are quite good at reading faces. They are quick to come up with a name for a stranger or notable person who approaches them, and that name is always meaningful or descriptive of something remarkable they’ve noticed about that person, helping them remember whether he is a friend or not. When they perceive someone as a friend, they go out of their way to help him, as they believe that “good should always be rewarded with good.” They prefer straightforward individuals who are simple in their behavior and treat them with honesty and familiarity. Such a person, they say, truly cares for them. They don’t expect friendship from someone proud and arrogant; no matter how he may present himself, they believe he can only love himself or perhaps someone of equal status, and they think that an Indian can never be considered an equal in his view. 189

They sometimes amuse themselves by passing in review those customs of the white people which appear to them most striking. They observe, amongst other things, that when the whites meet together, many of them, and sometimes all, speak at the same time, and they wonder how they can thus hear and understand each other. “Among us,” they say “only one person speaks at a time, and the others listen to him until he has done, after which, and not before, another begins to speak.” They say also that the whites speak too much, and that much talk disgraces a man and is fit only for women. On this subject they shrewdly observe, that it is well for the whites that they have the art of writing, and can write down their words and speeches; for had they, like themselves, to transmit them to posterity by means of strings and belts of wampum, they would want for their own use all the wampum that could be made, and none would be left for the Indians.

They sometimes entertain themselves by looking at the customs of white people that stand out to them. They notice, among other things, that when white people get together, many of them, and sometimes all, talk at the same time, and they wonder how they can hear and understand each other. “For us,” they say, “only one person speaks at a time, and the others listen until that person is done, and then, and only then, does another start speaking.” They also say that white people talk too much, and that excessive talking brings shame to a man and is something only women should do. Regarding this, they cleverly point out that it’s fortunate for white people that they have the ability to write, allowing them to record their words and speeches; because if they, like the Indians, had to pass them down through strings and belts of wampum, they would end up using all the wampum that could be made, leaving none for the Indians.

They wonder that the white people are striving so much to get rich, and to heap up treasures in this world which they cannot carry with them to the next. They ascribe this to pride and to the desire of being called rich and great. They say that there is enough in this world to live upon, without laying anything by, and as to the next world, it contains plenty of everything, and they will find all their wants satisfied when they arrive there. They, therefore, do not lay up any stores, but merely take with them when they die as much as is necessary for their journey to the world of spirits. 190

They wonder why white people work so hard to get rich and accumulate wealth in this world that they can't take with them to the next. They attribute this to pride and the desire to be seen as wealthy and important. They believe there’s enough in this world to live on without saving anything, and in the next world, there will be plenty of everything, so all their needs will be met when they get there. Therefore, they don’t save up anything but only take with them when they die what is necessary for their journey to the spirit world. 190

They believe, or, at least, pretend to believe, that the white people have weak eyes, or are near-sighted. “For,” say they, “when we Indians come among them, they crowd quite close up to us, stare at us, and almost tread upon our heels to get nearer. We, on the contrary, though, perhaps, not less curious than they are, to see a new people or a new object, keep at a reasonable distance, and yet see what we wish to see.” They also remark, that when the white people meet together, they speak very loud, although near to each other, from whence they conclude that they must be hard of hearing. “As to us,” they say, “we never speak loud when we come together, and yet we understand each other distinctly; we only speak in a high tone of voice before a public audience, in council, at the head of our warriors, or when we are met together for some important purpose.”

They think, or at least act like they think, that white people have weak eyesight or are near-sighted. "Because," they say, "when we Indians are around them, they crowd really close to us, stare at us, and almost step on our heels to get closer. We, on the other hand, even though we might be just as curious as they are about seeing new people or things, keep a reasonable distance while still seeing what we want to see." They also notice that when white people gather, they talk very loudly to each other, even when they're close, which makes them conclude that white people must have trouble hearing. "As for us," they say, "we never speak loudly when we come together, yet we understand each other clearly; we only raise our voices when speaking to a large audience, in council, leading our warriors, or when we're gathered for something important."

The Indians also observe, that the white people must have a great many thieves among them, since they put locks to their doors, which shews great apprehension that their property otherwise would not be safe: “As to us,” say they, “we entertain no such fears; thieves are very rare among us, and we have no instance of any person breaking into a house. Our Indian lock is, when we go out, to set the corn pounder or a billet of wood against the door, so that it may be seen that no body is within, and there is no danger that any Indian would presume to enter a house thus secured.” Let me be permitted to illustrate this by an anecdote.

The Indigenous people also notice that white folks must have a lot of thieves among them since they put locks on their doors, showing they’re really worried their stuff won’t be safe otherwise. “As for us,” they say, “we don’t have such fears; thieves are really rare here, and we’ve never had anyone break into a house. Our version of a lock is when we leave, we put the corn pounder or a piece of wood against the door so it looks like no one is home, and there’s no way any Native person would dare enter a house that’s secured like that.” Let me share an example to illustrate this.

In the year 1771, while I was residing on the Big Beaver, I passed by the door of an Indian, who was a trader, and had consequently a quantity of goods in his house. He was going with his wife to Pittsburg, and they were shutting up the house, as no person remained in it during their absence. This shutting up was nothing else than putting a large hominy pounding-block, with a few sticks of wood outside against the door, so as to keep it closed. As I was looking at this man with attention while he was so employed, he addressed me in these words: “See my friend, this is an Indian lock that I am putting to my door.” I answered, “Well enough; but I see you leave much property in the house, are you not afraid that those articles will 191 be stolen while you are gone?”—“Stolen! by whom?”—“Why, by Indians, to be sure.”—“No, no,” replied he, “no Indian would do such a thing, and unless a white man or white people should happen to come this way, I shall find all safe on my return.”

In 1771, while I was living near the Big Beaver, I walked past the house of an Indian trader who had a lot of goods inside. He was leaving for Pittsburgh with his wife, and they were locking up the house since no one would stay there while they were gone. Locking up just meant putting a big hominy pounding block and a few sticks of wood against the door to keep it shut. As I watched him do this, he turned to me and said, “Look, my friend, this is an Indian lock I'm putting on my door.” I replied, “That's fine, but I see you’re leaving a lot of valuables inside. Aren’t you worried they’ll get stolen while you’re away?” He asked, “Stolen? By whom?” I said, “By Indians, of course.” He shook his head and said, “No, no, no Indian would do such a thing. Unless a white man or white people happen to come through here, I’ll find everything safe when I get back.”

The Indians say, that when the white people encamp in the woods they are sure to lose something; that when they are gone, something or another is always found which they have lost, such as a knife, flints, bullets, and sometimes even money. They also observe that the whites are not so attentive as they are to choosing an open dry spot for their encampment; that they will at once set themselves down in any dirty and wet place, provided they are under large trees; that they never look about to see which way the wind blows, so as to be able to lay the wood for their fires in such a position that the smoke may not blow on them; neither do they look up the trees to see whether there are not dead limbs that may fall on them while they are asleep; that any wood will do for them to lay on their fires, whether it be dry or wet, and half rotten, so that they are involved during the whole night in a cloud of smoke; or they take such wood as young green oak, walnut, cherry, chestnut, &c., which throws sparks out to a great distance, so that their blankets and clothes get holes burned in them, and sometimes their whole camp takes fire. They also remark that the whites hang their kettles and pots over a fire just kindled, and before the great body of smoke has passed away.

The Indigenous people say that whenever white folks set up camp in the woods, they're bound to lose something. When they leave, something is always found that they lost, like a knife, flints, bullets, and sometimes even money. They also notice that whites aren't as careful as they are about picking a dry, open spot for their camp. Instead, they'll settle in a muddy, wet area, just because they're under big trees. They never check which way the wind is blowing, so they can't position their firewood to avoid smoke blowing in their faces. They also don't look up to see if there are any dead branches that could fall on them while they sleep. Any wood will do for their fires, whether it's dry, wet, or half-rotten, which means they spend the whole night surrounded by smoke. Sometimes they use young, green oak, walnut, cherry, chestnut, etc., which sends sparks flying everywhere, burning holes in their blankets and clothes, and can even set their entire camp on fire. They also notice that whites hang their pots and kettles over a fire that's just been started, before all the thick smoke has cleared.

They, however, acknowledge that the whites are ingenious, that they make axes, guns, knives, hoes, shovels, pots and kettles, blankets, shirts, and other very convenient articles, to which they have now become accustomed, and which they can no longer do without. “Yet,” say they, “our forefathers did without all these things, and we have never heard, nor has any tradition informed us that they were at a loss for the want of them; therefore we must conclude that they also were ingenious; and, indeed, we know that they were; for they made axes of stone to cut with, and bows and arrows to kill the game: they made knives and arrows’ points with sharp flint stones and bones, hoes and shovels from the shoulder blade of the elk and buffaloe; 192 they made pots of clay, garments of skins, and ornaments with the feathers of the turkey, goose and other birds. They were not in want of anything, the game was plenty and tame, the dart shot from our arrows did not frighten them as the report of the gun now does; we had therefore everything that we could reasonably require; we lived happy!”

They acknowledge that white people are clever, that they create axes, guns, knives, hoes, shovels, pots, and kettles, blankets, shirts, and other very useful items that they have now become reliant on and can’t live without. “Yet,” they say, “our ancestors did without all these things, and we have never heard, nor is there any tradition that tells us they felt lacking without them; therefore, we must conclude that they were also clever; and indeed, we know they were; for they made stone axes to cut with, and bows and arrows to hunt: they crafted knives and arrowheads from sharp flint stones and bones, hoes and shovels from the shoulder blades of elk and buffalo; 192 they made pots from clay, clothing from animal skins, and jewelry with the feathers of turkeys, geese, and other birds. They had everything they needed; the game was plentiful and approachable, and the darts from our arrows didn’t scare them like the sound of a gun does now; we therefore had everything we could reasonably want; we lived happily!”

Finally, they think, that the white people have learned much of them in the art of war; for when they first began to fight the Indians, they stood all together in a cluster, and suffered themselves to be shot down like turkies. They also make a distinction between a warrior and a murderer, which, as they explain it, is not much to our advantage. “It is not,” say they, “the number of scalps alone which a man brings with him that prove him to be a brave warrior. Cowards have been known to return, and bring scalps home, which they had taken where they knew there was no danger, where no attack was expected and no opposition made. Such was the case with those who killed the Conestogoes at and near Lancaster, the Christian Indians on the Muskingum, the friendly Indians near Pittsburg, and a great number of scattered, peaceable men of our nation, who were all murdered by cowards. It was not thus that the Black Snake,182 the great General Wayne acted; he was a true warrior and a brave man; he was equal to any of the chiefs that we have, equal to any that we ever had.”

Finally, they believe that white people have learned a lot from them about the art of war; when they first started fighting the Indians, they grouped together and let themselves be shot down like turkeys. They also distinguish between a warrior and a murderer, which, as they explain, isn't really in our favor. “It’s not,” they say, “just the number of scalps a man brings back that proves he’s a brave warrior. Cowards have been known to return with scalps they took in situations where they knew there was no danger, where no attack was expected, and no opposition was faced. Such was the case with those who killed the Conestogoes at and near Lancaster, the Christian Indians on the Muskingum, the friendly Indians near Pittsburg, and many scattered, peaceful men of our nation, who were all murdered by cowards. It wasn't like that with the Black Snake,182 the great General Wayne; he was a true warrior and a brave man; he was equal to any of the chiefs we have, equal to any we ever had.”

Thus, the Indians, while they deeply resent the wrongs and injuries which they have suffered, yet pay due homage to worth, bravery, and military skill, even in an enemy. Strong as their feelings are, they do not extinguish their sense of justice, and they are still generously disposed to allow that there are great and good individuals among a race of men, who, they believe, have doomed them to utter destruction. 193

Thus, the Native Americans, while they intensely feel the pain of the wrongs and injuries they have endured, still respect worth, bravery, and military skill, even when it comes from an enemy. As strong as their emotions are, they don't lose their sense of justice, and they remain open-minded enough to acknowledge that there are great and good individuals among a group of people whom they believe have sentenced them to complete destruction. 193


CHAPTER XXIV.
Food and Cooking.

T

The principal food of the Indians consists of the game which they take or kill in the woods, the fish out of the waters, and the maize, potatoes, beans, pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers, melons, and occasionally cabbages and turnips, which they raise in their fields; they make use also of various roots of plants, fruits, nuts, and berries out of the woods, by way of relish or as a seasoning to their victuals, sometimes also from necessity.

The main food of the Indigenous peoples includes the game they hunt in the woods, the fish they catch from the water, and the crops they grow in their fields such as corn, potatoes, beans, pumpkins, squash, cucumbers, melons, and sometimes cabbages and turnips. They also use various roots, fruits, nuts, and berries from the woods, either as side dishes or to add flavor to their meals, and occasionally out of necessity.

They commonly make two meals every day, which, they say, is enough. If any one should feel hungry between meal-times, there is generally something in the house ready for him.

They usually have two meals a day, which they say is sufficient. If someone feels hungry between meals, there’s typically something in the house for them to eat.

The hunter prefers going out with his gun on an empty stomach; he says, that hunger stimulates him to exertion by reminding him continually of his wants, whereas a full stomach makes a hunter easy, careless, and lazy, ever thinking of his home and losing his time to no purpose. With all their industry, nevertheless, and notwithstanding this strong stimulant, many a day passes over their heads that they have not met with any kind of game, nor consequently tasted a morsel of victuals; still they go on with their chase, in hopes of being able to carry some provisions home, and do not give up the pursuit until it is so dark that they can see no longer.

The hunter likes to head out with his gun on an empty stomach; he says that hunger pushes him to work harder by constantly reminding him of what he needs, while a full stomach makes a hunter relaxed, careless, and lazy, always thinking about home and wasting time. However, despite their hard work and this strong motivator, there are many days when they don’t encounter any game and, as a result, don’t get a bite to eat; still, they continue their hunt, hoping to bring some food home, and don’t give up until it’s so dark that they can’t see anymore.

The morning and evening, they say, are the precious hours for the hunter. They lose nothing by sleeping in the middle of the day, that is to say, between ten o’clock in the morning and four in the afternoon, except in dark, cloudy, and rainy weather, when the whole day is nearly equally good for hunting. 194 Therefore the hunter, who happens to have no meat in the house, will be off and in the woods before daylight, and strive to be in again for breakfast with a deer, turkey, goose, bear, or raccoon, or some other game then in season. Meanwhile, his wife has pounded her corn, now boiling on the fire, and baked her bread, which gives them a good breakfast. If, however, the husband is not returned by ten o’clock in the forenoon, the family take their meal by themselves, and his share is put aside for him when he comes home.

They say the morning and evening are the prime times for a hunter. They don’t miss anything by napping in the middle of the day, which is from ten in the morning to four in the afternoon, except in gloomy, overcast, or rainy weather when the entire day is nearly just as good for hunting. 194 So, if the hunter doesn't have any meat at home, he'll head out into the woods before sunrise, aiming to get back in time for breakfast with a deer, turkey, goose, bear, raccoon, or any other game that's in season. Meanwhile, his wife has ground her corn, which is now boiling on the fire, and baked her bread, preparing a nice breakfast for them. However, if the husband hasn't come back by ten in the morning, the family will eat without him, and they'll save his portion for when he gets home.

The Indians have a number of manners of preparing their corn. They make an excellent pottage of it, by boiling it with fresh or dried meat (the latter pounded), dried pumpkins, dry beans, and chestnuts. They sometimes sweeten it with sugar or molasses from the sugar-maple tree. Another very good dish is prepared by boiling with their corn or maize, the washed kernels of the shell-bark or hickory nut. They pound the nuts in a block or mortar, pouring a little warm water on them, and gradually a little more as they become dry, until, at last, there is a sufficient quantity of water, so that by stirring up the pounded nuts the broken shells separate from the liquor, which from the pounded kernels assumes the appearance of milk. This being put into the kettle and mixed with the pottage gives it a rich and agreeable flavour. If the broken shells do not all freely separate by swimming on the top or sinking to the bottom, the liquor is strained through a clean cloth, before it is put into the kettle.

The Indigenous peoples have several ways to prepare their corn. They make a delicious stew by boiling it with fresh or dried meat (the latter is pounded), dried pumpkins, dry beans, and chestnuts. Sometimes they sweeten it with sugar or molasses from the sugar maple tree. Another tasty dish is made by boiling their corn or maize with the washed kernels of hickory nuts. They pound the nuts in a block or mortar, adding a little warm water at first, and then gradually more as it dries out, until there is enough water. By stirring the pounded nuts, the broken shells separate from the liquid, which takes on a milky appearance. This mixture is then added to the pot along with the stew, giving it a rich and pleasant flavor. If the broken shells don't fully separate by floating to the top or sinking to the bottom, the liquid is strained through a clean cloth before being added to the pot.

They also prepare a variety of dishes from the pumpkin, the squash, and the green French or kidney beans; they are very particular in their choice of pumpkins and squashes, and in their manner of cooking them. The women say that the less water is put to them, the better dish they make, and that it would be still better if they were stewed without any water, merely in the steam of the sap which they contain. They cover up the pots in which they cook them with large leaves of the pumpkin vine, cabbages, or other leaves of the larger kind. They make an excellent preserve from the cranberry and crab-apple, to which, after it has been well stewed, they add a proper quantity of sugar or molasses. 195

They also prepare a variety of dishes using pumpkins, squashes, and green French or kidney beans; they are very selective about the types of pumpkins and squashes they use and how they cook them. The women say that the less water you use, the better the dish turns out, and that it would be even better if they could be stewed without any water, just using the steam from the sap inside. They cover the pots they cook in with large leaves from the pumpkin vine, cabbage, or other larger leaves. They make an excellent preserve from cranberries and crab-apples, to which, after cooking it well, they add the right amount of sugar or molasses. 195

Their bread is of two kinds; one made up of green corn while in the milk, and another of the same grain when fully ripe and quite dry. This last is pounded as fine as possible, then sifted and kneaded into dough, and afterwards made up into cakes of six inches in diameter and about an inch in thickness, rounded off on the edge. In baking these cakes, they are extremely particular; the ashes must be clean and hot, and if possible come out of good dry oak barks, which they say gives a brisk and durable heat. In the dough of this kind of bread, they frequently mix boiled pumpkins, green or dried, dry beans, or well pared chestnuts, boiled in the same manner, dried venison well pounded, whortleberries, green or dry, but not boiled, sugar and other palatable ingredients. For the other kind of bread, the green corn is either pounded or mashed, is put in broad green corn blades, generally filled in with a ladle, well wrapped up, and baked in the ashes, like the other. They consider this as a very delicate morsel, but to me it is too sweet.

Their bread comes in two varieties: one made from green corn while it's still milky, and another made from fully ripe, dry corn. The latter is ground as fine as possible, sifted, and then kneaded into dough, shaped into cakes about six inches wide and an inch thick, rounded on the edges. When baking these cakes, they are very particular; the ashes must be clean and hot, preferably from good dry oak bark, which is said to provide a strong and lasting heat. In the dough for this bread, they often mix in boiled pumpkins, whether green or dried, dry beans, or well-peeled chestnuts that have been boiled similarly, along with well-pounded dried venison, whortleberries (either green or dried, but not boiled), sugar, and other tasty ingredients. For the other type of bread, the green corn is either ground or mashed and placed in broad green corn leaves, generally filled with a ladle, wrapped well, and baked in the ashes, just like the other kind. They consider this a very delicate treat, but I find it too sweet.

Their Psindamócan or Tassmanánc, as they call it, is the most nourishing and durable food made out of the Indian corn. The blue sweetish kind is the grain which they prefer for that purpose. They parch it in clean hot ashes, until it bursts, it is then sifted and cleaned, and pounded in a mortar into a kind of flour, and when they wish to make it very good, they mix some sugar with it. When wanted for use, they take about a table spoonful of this flour in their mouths, then stooping to the river or brook, drink water to it. If, however, they have a cup or other small vessel at hand, they put the flour in it and mix it with water, in the proportion of one table spoonful to a pint. At their camps they will put a small quantity in a kettle with water and let it boil down, and they will have a thick pottage. With this food, the traveller and warrior will set out on long journeys and expeditions, and as a little of it will serve them for a day, they have not a heavy load of provisions to carry. Persons who are unacquainted with this diet ought to be careful not to take too much at a time, and not to suffer themselves to be tempted too far by its flavour; more than one or two spoonfuls at most at any one time or at one meal is dangerous; for it is apt to swell in the stomach or bowels, as when heated over a fire. 196

Their Psindamócan or Tassmanánc, as they call it, is the most nourishing and long-lasting food made from corn. They prefer the blue, sweet kind of corn for this purpose. They roast it in hot ashes until it pops, then sift and clean it before grinding it into a kind of flour. If they want it to taste really good, they mix in some sugar. When they want to eat it, they take about a tablespoon of this flour and then lean down to a river or brook to drink water with it. If they have a cup or a small container, they put the flour in it and mix it with water, using one tablespoon for every pint. At their camps, they might add a small amount of it to a kettle with water and let it boil down to make a thick porridge. With this food, travelers and warriors can set out on long journeys and missions, and since a small amount can last them a whole day, they don’t have to carry a heavy load of food. People who are not used to this diet should be careful not to take too much at once and not let the taste tempt them too much; more than one or two tablespoons at a time or at a meal can be harmful because it can swell in the stomach or intestines, similar to when heated over a fire. 196

Their meat they either boil, roast, or broil. Their roasting is done by running a wooden spit through the meat, sharpened at each end, which they place near the fire, and occasionally turn. They broil on clean coals, drawn off from the fire for that purpose. They often laugh at the white hunters, for baking their bread in dirty ashes, and being alike careless of cleanliness when they broil their meat. They are fond of dried venison, pounded in a mortar and dipped in bear’s oil. The Delawares, Mohicans, and Shawanos are very particular in their choice of meats, and nothing short of the most pressing hunger can induce them to eat of certain animals, such as the horse, dog, wild cat, panther, fox, muskrat, wolf, &c., all which I have several times seen the Chippeways feast upon with a seemingly good appetite. The Iroquois are said to have been formerly very dirty in their eating. They dried the entrails of animals without cleaning, or even emptying them of their contents; then cut them into pieces and put them into their pottage, by way of seasoning.183 The late Mr. Zeisberger has often related to me how he once mistook for black pepper or some other kind of spice, a certain unpleasant ingredient which he found floating in small grains on the surface of their broth.

They either boil, roast, or broil their meat. For roasting, they use a wooden spit, sharpened at both ends, which they place near the fire and turn occasionally. They broil over clean coals that they pull away from the fire. They often joke about white hunters for baking their bread in dirty ashes and being careless about cleanliness when broiling their meat. They enjoy dried venison, pounded in a mortar and dipped in bear oil. The Delawares, Mohicans, and Shawanos are very selective about their meat, and only intense hunger can make them eat certain animals like horses, dogs, wildcats, panthers, foxes, muskrats, and wolves—all of which I have seen the Chippewas happily feast on several times. It’s said that the Iroquois used to be very dirty in their eating habits. They dried animal entrails without cleaning or even emptying them, cut them into pieces, and added them to their stew as seasoning. The late Mr. Zeisberger often told me how he once mistook a certain unpleasant ingredient floating in small grains on the surface of their broth for black pepper or some other kind of spice.

Far different in this respect are the Lenape and their kindred tribes, particularly the three which I have named above. They are not only cleanly in their eating, but even delicate, and they will sometimes resist the pressing calls of hunger rather than eat the flesh of those animals which they consider as not being proper food for man. Of this I shall give an instance in the following anecdote.

Far different in this respect are the Lenape and their related tribes, especially the three I mentioned earlier. They are not only neat in their eating habits but also quite particular, and they will sometimes ignore their hunger rather than eat the flesh of animals they believe are not suitable for human consumption. I will provide an example of this in the following anecdote.

I was travelling in the spring of 1773, from Muskingum to the Big Beaver, with more than twenty Indians, five of whom were old men and the rest women and children, all (except our guide) strangers to the country, having come but the year before from Wyalusing on the Susquehannah. Having been at one time confined two days by the overflowing of two large creeks, between which we were, we found our provisions at an end. Every man who had a gun was called upon to turn out into the 197 woods, and try to kill something. Their endeavours, however, were to no purpose; the day passed away, and they all, except the well-known Popunhank184 who had lost himself, returned to camp at night without bringing any thing of the meat kind but a wild cat, which our guide had shot. The Indians never despair, not even in the worst of times and under the severest trials; when placed in difficult situations they never use discouraging language, but always endeavour to raise their spirits and prevent them from sinking, under the hardships or dangers to which they are exposed. True to this national character, one of our old Indians immediately pronounced this wild cat to be “good, very good eating,” and it was immediately ordered to be put on the spit and roasted for our supper. While this was performing, the old Indian endeavoured to divert the company by extolling in a jocular manner the country they had now got into, and where such good things were to be had; to which some one or other of the old men would reply; “all very true.” At length, about nine o’clock at night, the call was given by the old cook (for so I now call him) that the meat was done and we might come in to eat. I, who had heard so much in praise of this repast, being greatly pinched with hunger, had kept myself in readiness for this expected call; but seeing nobody rise, and observing much merriment through the camp, I began to suspect that something was the matter, and therefore kept my seat. The night was spent without any body attempting to eat of the wild cat, and in the morning a different call was given by one of the old men, signifying that a large kettle of tea had been made by some of the good women, who invited all to come and take their share of it. Every one obeyed this call, and I went with the rest, the jovial old cook taking the roasted wild cat with him to the mess. The scene was not only very diverting, but brought on an interesting discussion between the men on the propriety or impropriety of eating the flesh of all animals without restriction, some contending that they were all by the will of the great 198 Creator ordained for some use, and therefore put in the power of man; and how were we to know which were intended for our nourishment and which not? The old cook had himself taken that position, adding that the hog and the bear fed on dirty things, and yet we ate their meat with a good appetite. The cat, however, notwithstanding all the arguments in its favour, remained untouched, and was taken back by the old hunter and cook to its former place at his fire.

I was traveling in the spring of 1773 from Muskingum to the Big Beaver with more than twenty Indians, five of whom were old men and the rest were women and children, all (except for our guide) strangers to the area, having arrived just a year earlier from Wyalusing on the Susquehanna. We had once been stuck for two days due to the flooding of two large creeks between which we were located, and we found ourselves out of provisions. Every man with a gun was asked to head into the woods and try to hunt something. However, their efforts were fruitless; the day passed, and all returned to camp at night without bringing back any meat except for a wild cat that our guide had shot. The Indians never lose hope, even in the toughest times and under the hardest trials; when faced with difficulties, they never use discouraging words, but always try to lift their spirits and keep them from sinking under the hardships or dangers they encounter. True to this national character, one of our older Indians immediately declared this wild cat to be “good, very good eating,” and it was promptly put on the spit to be roasted for our supper. While it was being prepared, the old Indian tried to entertain us by humorously praising the new land we were in and all the good things it had to offer; to which an older man would reply, “all very true.” Finally, around nine o’clock at night, the old cook (as I now call him) announced that the meat was ready and we could come in to eat. I, having heard so much praise for this meal and feeling very hungry, was prepared for this call; but when I saw nobody getting up and noticing a lot of laughter around the camp, I began to suspect something was up, so I stayed seated. The night went by without anyone attempting to eat the wild cat, and in the morning, a different announcement was made by one of the old men, letting everyone know that a large kettle of tea had been brewed by some of the good women, who invited everyone to come and share. Everybody responded to this call, and I joined the others, with the cheerful old cook taking the roasted wild cat with him to the meal. The scene was not only amusing, but it sparked an interesting debate among the men about whether it was right or wrong to eat the flesh of all animals without restrictions. Some argued that all animals were created by the great Creator for some purpose and were thus meant for human use; but how could we know which were meant for our food and which were not? The old cook had taken that stance, adding that pigs and bears eat dirty things, yet we devoured their meat with good appetite. However, despite all the arguments in its favor, the cat remained untouched and was taken back by the old hunter and cook to its original spot by his fire.

But now, Popunhank, whom we believed to be lost, and our guide, who once more had gone out, and exerted himself in vain to kill a deer, came in together. The guide had been desired as he pursued his hunt to look for our lost companion, and had the good luck to find him at the distance of five or six miles, with a fine deer that he had killed. He lost no time in bringing him back to our camp.

But now, Popunhank, who we thought was lost, returned with our guide, who had gone out again and tried unsuccessfully to hunt a deer. We had asked the guide to look for our missing friend while he was hunting, and luckily he found him about five or six miles away, along with a nice deer he had killed. He wasted no time getting him back to our camp.

The sight of these two men dragging a large deer along was truly joyful to us, as well on account of the recovery of our lost friend, as of the meat that he brought. All felt the cravings of hunger, all were delighted with the certain prospect of immediate relief, yet no boisterous or extraordinary rejoicing took place, but all called out with one voice: Anischi! Anischi! we are thankful. The wild cat, which yet remained untouched, was thrown out of the camp, and dismissed by the old cook with these words: “Go, cat, we do not want you this time!”

The sight of these two men dragging a large deer was genuinely uplifting for us, both because we had found our lost friend and because of the meat he brought back. Everyone felt the pangs of hunger and was thrilled by the promise of immediate relief, yet there was no loud or excessive celebration; instead, everyone called out in unison: Anischi! Anischi! we are grateful. The wild cat, which was still untouched, was tossed out of the camp and dismissed by the old cook with these words: “Go on, cat, we don’t need you this time!”

The woods and waters, at certain times and seasons, furnish to the Indians an abundant supply of wholesome nourishing food, which, if carefully gathered, cured and stored up, would serve them for the whole year, so that none need perish or even suffer from hunger; but they are not accustomed to laying in stores of provisions, except some Indian corn, dry beans and a few other articles. Hence they are sometimes reduced to great straits, and not seldom in absolute want of the necessaries of life, especially in the time of war. Yet, notwithstanding the numerous famines they have been visited with, they have among their traditions but one instance on record in which an human life was taken for the support of others, although they relate many cases in which numbers of them were actually starved to death. The case I allude to was so singular a circumstance, that it 199 seems the cruel act to which it gave rise was almost unavoidable. I shall relate it here as I have received it from the most unquestionable authority.

The woods and waters, at certain times of the year, provide the Native Americans with plenty of healthy food, which, if properly collected, preserved, and stored, could last them for the entire year, so that none would need to starve or even suffer from hunger. However, they aren’t used to stockpiling provisions, except for some corn, dried beans, and a few other items. As a result, they sometimes face serious shortages and often find themselves lacking the essentials of life, especially during wartime. Despite the many famines they have experienced, they only have one recorded instance in their traditions of a life being taken to feed others, though they tell of many cases where people starved to death. The instance I refer to was such a rare event that it seems the cruel act it led to was almost inevitable. I'll share it here as I received it from a very reliable source.

In the winter of 1739-40, ever since remembered as the hard winter, when the ground was covered with a very deep snow, a woman with three children, was coming from beyond the Allegheny mountains on a visit to her friends or relations residing at the great island on the west branch of the Susquehannah. After she had reached that river somewhere about Achtschingi Clammui, which the whites have corrupted into Chingleclamoose,185 the snow fell in earlier than had been before known, to such a depth, that she could not proceed any farther. She began with putting herself and her children on short allowance, in hopes that the weather might become more moderate, or the snow so hard that they could walk over it. She strove to make her little store of provisions last as long as she could, by using the grass which grew on the river’s edge, and certain barks as substitutes, which she boiled to make them digestible; but more snow falling, until at last it rose to the height of a fathom or six feet, she was deprived even of that wretched food, and the wolves hovering about day and night, often attempting to rush into her little encampment, her whole time was taken up with procuring wood and making fires to prevent herself and her children from being frozen to death, and keeping those voracious animals at a distance by throwing out fire-brands to them. Her situation, at last, became intolerable. Having no alternative but that of sacrificing one of her children, she resolved on destroying the youngest, in order to preserve the others and herself from the most dreadful death. After much hesitation, she turned away her eyes and with a trembling hand gave the fatal stroke, filling at the same time the air with her loud lamentations.—She now thought she had obtained a temporary relief, and that she might be able to support herself and her surviving children until a change in the weather should take place, so that they could be able to proceed on their journey; 200 but the wolves getting the scent of the slaughtered child, became more furious than before, her danger every moment became more imminent. She now filled the air with her cries and supplications to the Great Spirit that he would look down with compassion on their awful condition, and save them by his almighty power.—But still the danger increased, the horrid food was almost exhausted, and no relief came. Already she contemplated sacrificing another child; she looked at each of them again and again with a mother’s eye, now resolving on killing the one, then changing her mind, and endeavouring to determine on the destruction of the other; she hesitated, wept, despaired, and the children, well understanding what she meant, prayed that they might all die together. While in this situation, her hand already lifted to strike the fatal stroke, the yell of two approaching Indians strikes her ear, and the murderous weapon falls from her hand. The men with rackets to their feet now appear and the dreadful scene is at once closed. They had provisions with them. They made a pair of rackets for the woman to walk on, and brought her and her children along in safety to the Big Island, where my informants resided at the time. I cannot remember whether they told me that they had gone to that spot in consequence of a dream, or of some strong presentiment that they should find human creatures in distress; certain I am, however, that it was owing to one or other of these causes.

In the winter of 1739-40, known as the hard winter, when the ground was blanketed in deep snow, a woman with three children was traveling from beyond the Allegheny Mountains to visit friends or relatives living on the big island in the west branch of the Susquehannah. After reaching the river near Achtschingi Clammui, which the settlers corrupted into Chingleclamoose, the snow fell earlier and deeper than anyone had ever seen, preventing her from going any further. She started rationing food for herself and her children, hoping that the weather would become milder or the snow would harden enough for them to walk on it. She tried to stretch her meager supplies by using the grass that grew by the river and certain tree barks, boiling them to make them edible; but with more snow falling until it reached about six feet high, she couldn’t get even that meager food. With wolves lurking around day and night, often trying to rush into her camp, she spent all her time gathering wood and making fires to keep herself and her children from freezing to death and to scare off the hungry animals by throwing burning sticks at them. Eventually, her situation became unbearable. With no choice but to sacrifice one of her children, she made the heart-wrenching decision to kill the youngest to save the others and herself from a terrible fate. After much hesitation, she turned her eyes away and with a trembling hand delivered the fatal blow, filling the air with her loud cries of sorrow. She thought she had found a temporary solution and believed she could keep herself and her surviving children alive until the weather changed so they could continue their journey; 200 but the wolves caught the scent of the slain child and became even more aggressive, putting her in greater danger by the moment. She filled the air with her pleas to the Great Spirit, asking for compassion in their dire situation and for salvation through His almighty power. Still, the danger grew, her meager food was nearly gone, and help wasn’t coming. She was already considering sacrificing another child, looking at each of them repeatedly with a mother’s gaze, at times deciding to kill one, then changing her mind, struggling to choose the other; she hesitated, cried, and despaired, while the children, fully aware of what was happening, prayed that they could all die together. In this desperate state, with her hand raised to deliver another fatal blow, the cries of two approaching Indians reached her ears, and the weapon fell from her hand. The men appeared, wearing snowshoes, and the horrifying scene suddenly ended. They had food with them. They made a pair of snowshoes for the woman to use and safely took her and her children to the Big Island, where my informants lived at the time. I can’t recall if they said they came to that place because of a dream or a strong feeling that they would find people in distress, but I am certain it was due to one of those reasons.

The place where this awful event took place was since called Enda Mohátink, which means “where human flesh was eaten.” This name has been very familiar to the Indians who resided in that part of the country.

The spot where this terrible event happened has since been called Enda Mohátink, which means “where human flesh was eaten.” This name has been well-known among the Native Americans living in that region.

There is a spot of land at the edge of the great Pine or Beech Swamp, precisely where it is crossed by the road leading to Wyoming, which is called the Hermit’s Field, and of which the following account is given. A short time before the white people came into Pennsylvania, a woman from some cause or other had separated herself from society, and with her young son, had taken her abode in this swamp, where she remained undiscovered until the boy grew up to manhood, procuring a livelihood by the use of the bow and arrow, in killing deer, 201 turkeys and other animals, planting corn and vegetables, and gathering and curing nuts and berries of various kinds. When after her long seclusion she again saw Indians, she was much astonished to find them dressed in European apparel. She had become so attached to her place of abode, that she again186 returned thither and remained there for several years. I was shewn by the Indians in the year 1765, and often afterwards, the corn hills that she had made; the ground, being a stiff clay, was not wasted or worn down, but was covered with bushes, and the traces of the labour of the female hermit were plainly discoverable.

There’s a piece of land at the edge of the great Pine or Beech Swamp, right where the road to Wyoming crosses, called the Hermit’s Field, and here’s the story about it. A little while before the white settlers arrived in Pennsylvania, a woman for some unknown reason separated herself from society and, along with her young son, settled in this swamp, where they lived undiscovered until the boy grew into a man. She made a living using a bow and arrow to hunt deer, turkeys, and other animals, planting corn and vegetables, and gathering and drying various nuts and berries. When she eventually saw Indians again after years of isolation, she was shocked to find them wearing European clothes. She had become so attached to her home that she moved back there and stayed for several more years. The Indians showed me in 1765, and many times after, the cornfields she had made; the ground, being tough clay, wasn’t eroded or worn down but was overgrown with bushes, and you could still clearly see the signs of the work done by the female hermit.

Thus the Indians will support themselves in the midst of the greatest difficulties, never despairing of their fate, but trusting to their exertions, and to the protection of the Almighty Being who created them.

Thus, the Indians will sustain themselves through the greatest challenges, never losing hope in their fate, but relying on their efforts and the protection of the Almighty who created them.

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CHAPTER XXV.
Dressing and decorating themselves.

I

In ancient times, the dress of the Indians was made of the skins of animals and feathers. This clothing, they say, was not only warmer, but lasted much longer than any woollen goods they have since purchased of the white people. They can dress any skin, even that of the buffaloe, so that it becomes quite soft and supple, and a good buffaloe or bear skin blanket will serve them many years without wearing out. Beaver and raccoon skin blankets are also pliant, warm and durable; they sew together as many of those skins as is necessary, carefully setting the hair or fur all the same way, so that the blanket or covering be smooth, and the rain do not penetrate, but run off. In wearing these fur blankets they are regulated by the weather; if it is cold and dry the fur is placed next the body, but in warm and wet weather, they have it outside. Some made themselves long frocks of fine fur, and the women’s petticoats in the winter season were also made of them, otherwise of dressed deer skins, the same as their shirts, leggings and shoes. They say that shoes made of dressed bear skins, with the hair on and turned inside, are very warm, and in dry weather, durable. With the large rib bones of the elk and buffaloe they shaved the hair off the skins they dressed, and even now, they say that they can clean a skin as well with a well prepared rib-bone as with a knife.

In ancient times, Native Americans made their clothes from animal skins and feathers. This clothing, they say, was not only warmer but also lasted much longer than any woolen goods they've since bought from white people. They can prepare any skin, even that of a buffalo, making it soft and flexible, and a good buffalo or bear skin blanket can last them many years without wearing out. Beaver and raccoon skin blankets are also soft, warm, and durable; they sew together as many of those skins as needed, ensuring the hair or fur all lies in the same direction so that the blanket or covering is smooth and water runs off instead of soaking through. When wearing these fur blankets, they adjust according to the weather; if it’s cold and dry, the fur goes next to the body, but in warm and wet weather, it’s worn on the outside. Some made themselves long coats of fine fur, and women's petticoats in winter were also made from fur, or else from tanned deer skins, just like their shirts, leggings, and shoes. They say that shoes made from tanned bear skins, with the hair on the inside, are very warm and durable in dry weather. Using the large rib bones of elk and buffalo, they scrape the hair off the skins they've tanned, and even today, they say they can clean a skin just as well with a well-prepared rib bone as with a knife.

The blankets made from feathers were also warm and durable. They were the work of the women, particularly of the old, who delight in such work, and indeed, in any work which shews that 203 they are able to do their parts and be useful to society. It requires great patience, being the most tedious kind of work I have ever seen them perform, yet they do it in a most ingenious manner. The feathers, generally those of the turkey and goose, are so curiously arranged and interwoven together with thread or twine, which they prepare from the rind or bark of the wild hemp and nettle, that ingenuity and skill cannot be denied them. They show the same talent and much forethought in making their Happis, the bands with which they carry their bags and other burdens; they make these very strong and lasting.

The feather blankets were warm and durable. They were crafted by the women, especially the older ones, who enjoy this kind of work and any task that shows they can contribute and be useful to society. It takes a lot of patience, being the most tedious work I've ever seen them do, yet they approach it in a truly clever way. The feathers, usually from turkeys and geese, are intricately arranged and woven together with thread or twine that they make from the bark of wild hemp and nettles, demonstrating their ingenuity and skill. They show the same talent and plenty of thought in making their Happis, the straps they use to carry their bags and other loads; these are made to be very strong and durable.

The present dress of the Indians is well known to consist in blankets, plain or ruffled shirts and leggings for the men, and petticoats for the women, made of cloth, generally red, blue, or black. The wealthy adorn themselves besides with ribands or gartering of various colours, beads and silver broaches. These ornaments are arranged by the women, who, as well as the men, know how to dress themselves in style. Those of the men principally consist in the painting of themselves, their head and face principally, shaving or good clean garments, silver arm spangles and breast plates, and a belt or two of wampum hanging to their necks. The women, at the expense of their husbands or lovers, line their petticoat and blue or scarlet cloth blanket or covering with choice ribands of various colours, or with gartering, on which they fix a number of silver broaches, or small round buckles. They adorn their leggings in the same manner; their mocksens, (properly Maxen, or according to the English pronunciation Moxen), are embroidered in the neatest manner, with coloured porcupine quills, and are besides, almost entirely covered with various trinkets; they have, moreover, a number of little bells and brass thimbles fixed round their ancles, which, when they walk, make a tinkling noise, which is heard at some distance; this is intended to draw the attention of those who pass by, that they may look at and admire them.

The current clothing of the Indigenous people is widely recognized to consist of blankets, plain or ruffled shirts, and leggings for men, along with petticoats for women, typically made from red, blue, or black fabric. Wealthy individuals further embellish their attire with colorful ribbons or garters, beads, and silver brooches. These decorations are arranged by women, who, like the men, know how to dress stylishly. Men primarily focus on body painting, particularly on their heads and faces, grooming or wearing clean clothes, along with silver arm ornaments and breastplates, and one or two belts of wampum hanging around their necks. Women, at the expense of their husbands or partners, line their petticoats and blue or scarlet cloth blankets with selected ribbons in various colors or with garters, onto which they attach numerous silver brooches or small round buckles. They decorate their leggings similarly; their moccasins (properly Maxen, or as the English pronounce it Moxen) are intricately embroidered with colored porcupine quills and are nearly covered in various trinkets. Additionally, they have several small bells and brass thimbles attached around their ankles, which create a tinkling sound when they walk, capturing the attention of passersby so they can admire their appearance.

The women make use of vermilion in painting themselves for dances, but they are very careful and circumspect in applying the paint, so that it does not offend or create suspicion in their husbands; there is a mode of painting which is left entirely to loose women and prostitutes. 204

The women use bright red pigment to decorate themselves for dances, but they are very cautious and discreet in applying the paint so that it doesn't upset or raise suspicion from their husbands; there's a way of painting that's reserved for promiscuous women and sex workers. 204

As I was once resting in my travels at the house of a trader who lived at some distance from an Indian town, I went in the morning to visit an Indian acquaintance and friend of mine. I found him engaged in plucking out his beard, preparatory to painting himself for a dance which was to take place the ensuing evening. Having finished his head dress, about an hour before sunset, he came up, as he said, to see me, but I and my companions judged that he came to be seen. To my utter astonishment, I saw three different paintings or figures on one and the same face. He had, by his great ingenuity and judgment in laying on and shading the different colours, made his nose appear, when we stood directly in front of him, as if it were very long and narrow, with a round knob at the end, much like the upper part of a pair of tongs. On one cheek there was a red round spot, about the size of an apple, and the other was done in the same manner with black. The eye-lids, both the upper and lower ones, were reversed in the colouring. When we viewed him in profile on one side, his nose represented the beak of an eagle, with the bill rounded and brought to a point, precisely as those birds have it, though the mouth was somewhat open. The eye was astonishingly well done, and the head, upon the whole, appeared tolerably well, shewing a great deal of fierceness. When we turned round to the other side, the same nose now resembled the snout of a pike, with the mouth so open, that the teeth could be seen. He seemed much pleased with his execution, and having his looking-glass with him, he contemplated his work, seemingly with great pride and exultation. He asked me how I liked it? I answered that if he had done the work on a piece of board, bark, or anything else, I should like it very well and often look at it. But, asked he, why not so as it is? Because I cannot see the face that is hidden under these colours, so as to know who it is. Well, he replied, I must go now, and as you cannot know me to-day, I will call to-morrow morning before you leave this place. He did so, and when he came back he was washed clean again.

As I was resting during my travels at the home of a trader a bit away from an Indian town, I decided in the morning to visit an Indian friend of mine. I found him busy pulling out his beard in preparation for painting himself for a dance that was happening the next evening. After finishing his headpiece about an hour before sunset, he came over to see me, as he said, but my companions and I suspected he came to show off. To my surprise, I saw three different paintings or designs on his face. With his skill in applying and shading the different colors, he made his nose look very long and narrow, with a round tip that resembled the upper part of a pair of tongs when we stood right in front of him. One cheek had a round red spot about the size of an apple, and the other was painted black in the same way. His eyelids were colored in a reverse pattern. When we looked at him from one side, his nose looked like an eagle’s beak, rounded and pointed like those birds have, although his mouth was slightly open. The eye was incredibly well-painted, and overall, his head looked quite fierce. When we turned to the other side, the same nose now resembled a pike's snout, with his mouth so open that we could see his teeth. He seemed really pleased with his work, and with a mirror in his hand, he admired it with great pride. He asked me how I liked it. I replied that if he had painted it on a piece of wood, bark, or something else, I would like it a lot and would often look at it. But, he asked, why not this way? Because I can't see the face hidden under these colors, so I don't know who you are. Well, he said, I have to go now, and since you can't recognize me today, I’ll come back tomorrow morning before you leave. He did come back, and when he returned, he was completely washed clean again.

Thus, for a single night’s frolic, a whole day is spent in what they call dressing, in which each strives to outdo the other.

Thus, for one night's fun, a whole day is spent getting ready, where everyone tries to outshine each other.

When the men paint their thighs, legs and breast, they, generally, after laying on a thin shading coat of a darkish colour, 205 and sometimes of a whitish clay, dip their fingers’ ends in black or red paint, and drawing it on with their outspread fingers, bring the streaks to a serpentine form. The garments of some of their principal actors are singular, and decorated with such a number of gewgaws and trinkets, that it is impossible to give a precise description of them. Neither are they all alike in taste, every one dressing himself according to his fancy, or the custom of the tribe to which he belongs. While the women, as I have already said, have thimbles and little bells rattling at their ancles, the men have deers’ claws fixed to their braced garters or knee bands, and also to their shoes, for the same purpose; for they consider jingling and rattling as indispensably necessary to their performances in the way of dancing.

When the men paint their thighs, legs, and chest, they usually start by applying a light layer of a dark color, and sometimes a whitish clay. Then, they dip the tips of their fingers in black or red paint and make swirling designs with their fingers. The outfits of some of the main performers are unique and adorned with so many decorations and trinkets that it’s hard to describe them accurately. They also don't all have the same style; everyone dresses according to their preference or the customs of their tribe. While the women, as I mentioned earlier, wear thimbles and bells that jingle at their ankles, the men attach deer claws to their garters, knee bands, and shoes. They believe that the sound of jingling and rattling is essential for their dance performances.

The notion formerly entertained that the Indians are beardless by nature and have no hair on their bodies, appears now to be exploded and entirely laid aside. I cannot conceive how it is possible for any person to pass three weeks only among those people, without seeing them pluck out their beards, with tweezers made expressly for that purpose. Before the Europeans came into the country, their apparatus for performing this work, consisted of a pair of muscle shells, sharpened on a gritty stone, which answered very well, being somewhat like pincers; but since they can obtain wire, of which that of brass is preferred, they make themselves tweezers, which they always carry with them in their tobacco-pouch, wherever they go, and when at leisure, they pluck out their beards or the hair above their foreheads. This they do in a very quick manner, much like the plucking of a fowl, and the oftener they pluck out their hair, the finer it grows afterwards, so that at last there appears hardly any, the whole having been rooted out. The principal reasons which they give for thus plucking out their beards and the hair next to their foreheads, are that they may have a clean skin to lay the paint on, when they dress for their festivals or dances, and to facilitate the tattooing themselves, a custom formerly much in use among them, especially with those who had distinguished themselves by their valour, and acquired celebrity. They say that either painting or tattooing on a hairy face or body would have a disgusting appearance.

The idea that Native Americans are naturally beardless and have no body hair has been completely debunked. I can't understand how anyone could spend three weeks among these people without noticing that they remove their facial hair with tweezers specifically made for that purpose. Before Europeans arrived, they used muscle shells sharpened on a rough stone for this task, which worked quite well, similar to pliers. However, now they can get wire, preferably brass, so they make their own tweezers, which they always carry in their tobacco pouch. In their free time, they quickly pluck their beards or the hair above their foreheads, much like plucking a chicken. The more they remove their hair, the finer it grows back, until eventually, there’s hardly any left at all. The main reasons they give for plucking out their facial hair are to have a clean surface for applying paint when they prepare for festivals or dances and to make tattooing easier—a custom that was once very common, especially among those who distinguished themselves through bravery and gained fame. They believe that painting or tattooing on a hairy face or body looks unappealing.

As late as the year 1762, when I resided at Tuscorawas on 206 the Muskingum, tattooing was still practised by some Indians; a valiant chief of that village, named Wawundochwalend, desirous of having another name given him, had the figure of a water-lizard engraved or tattooed on his face, above the chin, when he received the name Twakachshawsu, the water-lizard. The process of tattooing, which I once saw performed, is quickly done, and does not seem to give much pain. They have poplar bark in readiness burnt and reduced to a powder, the figures that are to be tattooed are marked or designed on the skin; the operator with a small stick, rather larger than a common match, to the end of which some sharp needles are fastened, quickly pricks over the whole so that blood is drawn, then a coat of this powder is laid and left on to dry. Before the whites came into this country, they scarified themselves for this purpose with sharp flint stones, or pricked themselves with the sharp teeth of a fish.

As late as 1762, when I was living in Tuscorawas on the Muskingum River, some Native Americans were still practicing tattooing. A brave chief from that village, named Wawundochwalend, wanted another name and had a water-lizard tattooed on his face, just above his chin, and was therefore called Twakachshawsu, which means water-lizard. I once witnessed the tattooing process, which is done quickly and doesn’t seem to cause much pain. They prepare poplar bark that’s been burned and ground into powder. The design to be tattooed is marked on the skin, and the tattoo artist uses a small stick, slightly thicker than a match, with sharp needles attached to the end, to prick the skin until it bleeds. Then, they apply a layer of the powder and let it dry. Before white settlers arrived, they would use sharp flint stones or the teeth of fish to create these tattoos.

In the year 1742, a veteran warrior of the Lenape nation and Monsey tribe, renowned among his own people for his bravery and prowess, and equally dreaded by their enemies, joined the Christian Indians who then resided at this place.187 This man, who was then at an advanced age, had a most striking appearance, and could not be viewed without astonishment. Besides that his body was full of scars, where he had been struck and pierced by the arrows of the enemy, there was not a spot to be seen, on that part of it which was exposed to view, but what was tattooed over with some drawing relative to his achievements, so that the whole together struck the beholder with amazement and terror. On his whole face, neck, shoulders, arms, thighs and legs, as well as on his breast and back, were represented scenes of the various actions and engagements he had been in; in short, the whole of his history was there deposited, which was well known to those of his nation, and was such that all who heard it thought it could never be surpassed by man.188 Far 207 from, murdering those who were defenceless or unarmed, his generosity, as well as his courage and skill in the art of war, was acknowledged by all. When, after his conversion, he was questioned about his warlike feats, he frankly and modestly answered, “That being now taken captive by Jesus Christ, it did not become him to relate the deeds he had done while in the service of the evil spirit; but that he was willing to give an account in the manner in which he had been conquered.” At his baptism, on the 23d of December 1742, he received the name of Michael, which he preserved until his death, which happened on the 23rd of July 1756. He led the life of a true Christian, and was always ready and willing to relate the history of his conversion, which I heard myself from his own mouth. His age, when he died, was supposed to be about eighty years.

In 1742, a seasoned warrior from the Lenape nation and Monsey tribe, known for his bravery and skill, and feared by his enemies, joined the Christian Indians living in this area.187 This man, who was quite old at the time, had a remarkable appearance that drew astonishment. His body was covered in scars from arrows shot by enemies, and every visible part of his skin was adorned with tattoos representing his achievements, creating an impression of both amazement and fear. His face, neck, shoulders, arms, thighs, legs, chest, and back displayed scenes from his various battles; in essence, his entire life story was illustrated there, well-known to his people and deemed unmatched by anyone else.188 Far from being a killer of the defenseless or unarmed, his generosity, bravery, and skill in warfare were recognized by all. After his conversion, when asked about his war exploits, he humbly replied, “Now that I am captured by Jesus Christ, it’s not fitting for me to talk about the deeds I did while serving the evil spirit; instead, I’m happy to share how I was conquered.” During his baptism on December 23, 1742, he received the name Michael, which he kept until he died on July 23, 1756. He lived as a true Christian and was always eager to share the story of his conversion, which I heard firsthand. He was believed to be around eighty years old at the time of his death.

The cutting of the ears, which formerly was practised among the Indians, is now no longer so common with them. Their reasons for laying this custom aside, are that the operation is painful, not only when performed, but until the ears are perfectly healed, which takes a long time, and that they often lose that part of their ears which is separated from the solid part, by its being torn off by the bushes, or falling off when frost-bitten. I once heard of a gay Indian setting off on a severe cold morning for a neighbouring village not more than three miles distant, whose ears had been touched by the frost, and dropped off before he arrived at the place to which he was going. He had not even felt that he had lost them, and when told of it, he was so chagrined that he was going to destroy himself. I have seen a great many Indians with torn ears; but now the custom of cutting them is nearly if not entirely disused.

The practice of cutting ears, which used to be common among the Indians, is not as prevalent anymore. The reasons they’ve stopped doing this are that the procedure is painful, not just during the process but also until the ears are fully healed, which takes a long time. Plus, they often lose the part of the ear that is cut off, either from it getting torn off in the bushes or falling off due to frostbite. I once heard about a fashionable Indian who set out on a freezing cold morning to a neighboring village just three miles away. His ears had been affected by the frost and fell off before he even reached his destination. He didn’t even realize he had lost them, and when he found out, he was so upset that he considered harming himself. I’ve seen many Indians with torn ears, but now the practice of cutting them has nearly, if not completely, disappeared.

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CHAPTER XXVI.
Dances, songs, and offerings.

T

The dances of the Indians vary according to the purposes for which they are intended. We have seen, in the second chapter of this work, that when the Dutch first landed on New York island, the inhabitants who believed them to be celestial beings, began a solemn dance, in order to propitiate them. It is not uncommon for men who are deprived of the light of revealed religion, to believe that the divinity will be pleased with the same things from which they themselves receive pleasure.

The dances of the Indigenous people vary based on their intended purposes. We observed, in the second chapter of this work, that when the Dutch first arrived on New York Island, the locals, believing them to be divine beings, began a formal dance to honor them. It's not unusual for people who lack the guidance of revealed religion to think that the divine will be pleased with the same things that bring them joy.

It is a pleasing spectacle to see the Indian dances, when intended merely for social diversion and innocent amusement. I acknowledge I would prefer being present at them for a full hour, than a few minutes only at such dances as I have witnessed in our country taverns among the white people. Their songs are by no means unharmonious. They sing in chorus; first the men and then the women. At times the women join in the general song, or repeat the strain which the men have just finished. It seems like two parties singing in questions and answers, and is upon the whole very agreeable and enlivening. After thus singing for about a quarter of an hour, they conclude each song with a loud yell, which I must confess is not in concord with the rest of the music; it is not unlike the cat-bird which closes its pretty song with mewing like a cat. I do not admire this finale. The singing always begins by one person only, but others soon fall in successively until the general chorus begins, the drum beating all the while to mark the time. The 209 voices of the women are clear and full, and their intonations generally correct.

It’s a great sight to watch Indian dances when they’re just for fun and innocent enjoyment. I have to admit, I’d rather be there for a whole hour than just a few minutes at the dances I’ve seen in our local bars among white people. Their songs are definitely harmonious. They sing in a group, first the men and then the women. Sometimes the women join in the main song or repeat what the men just sang. It feels like a call-and-response between two groups, and overall it’s very enjoyable and uplifting. After about fifteen minutes of singing, they end each song with a loud yell, which I have to say doesn’t quite match the rest of the music; it’s a bit like the cat-bird that finishes its lovely song with a cat-like meow. I’m not a fan of this finale. The singing always starts with one person, but others quickly join in until everyone is singing together, with the drum keeping the beat the whole time. The women’s voices are clear and rich, and they usually stay on pitch.

Their war dances have nothing engaging; their object, on the contrary, is to strike terror in the beholders. They are dressed and painted, or rather bedaubed with paint, in a manner suitable to the occasion. They hold the murderous weapon in their hand, and imitate in their dance all the warlike attitudes, motions and actions which are usual in an engagement with the enemy, and strive to excel each other by their terrific looks and gestures. They generally perform round a painted post set up for that purpose, in a large room or place enclosed or surrounded with posts, and roofed with the bark of trees; sometimes also this dance is executed in the open air. There every man presents himself in warrior’s array, contemptuously looking upon the painted post, as if it was the enemy whom he was about to engage; as he passes by it he strikes, stabs, grasps, pretends to scalp, to cut, to run through; in short, endeavours to shew what he would do to a real enemy, if he had him in his power.

Their war dances aren’t entertaining; instead, their goal is to instill fear in the audience. They are dressed and painted, or rather slathered with paint, in a way that fits the occasion. They hold deadly weapons in their hands and mimic all the battle poses, movements, and actions that are typical in a fight with the enemy, trying to outdo each other with their terrifying looks and gestures. They usually perform around a painted post set up for that purpose in a large enclosed room or area surrounded by posts and covered with tree bark; sometimes this dance is also done outdoors. Each man presents himself in full warrior attire, looking down at the painted post with disdain as if it were the enemy he was about to confront; as he walks past it, he strikes, stabs, grabs, pretends to scalp, cut, or impale; in short, he tries to show what he would do to a real enemy if he had the chance.

It was an ancient custom among the Indians to perform this dance round a prisoner, and as they danced, to make him undergo every kind of torture, previous to putting him to death. The prisoner appeared to partake in the merriment, contemptuously scoffing at his executioner, as being unskilled in the art of inflicting torments: strange as this conduct may appear, it was not without a sufficient motive. The object of the unfortunate sufferer was to rouse his relentless tormentors to such a pitch of fury, that some of them might, at an unguarded moment, give him the finishing stroke and put him out of his pain.

It was an old tradition among the Indians to perform this dance around a prisoner, and as they danced, to make him endure every kind of torture before putting him to death. The prisoner seemed to join in the celebration, scoffing at his executioner for being inexperienced in the art of inflicting pain. As strange as this behavior may seem, it had a clear motive. The goal of the unfortunate victim was to provoke his merciless tormentors to such a level of rage that one of them might, in a moment of carelessness, deliver the final blow and end his suffering.

Previous to going out on a warlike campaign, the war-dance is always performed round the painted post. It is the Indian mode of recruiting. Whoever joins in the dance is considered as having enlisted for the campaign, and is obliged to go out with the party.

Before heading out on a military campaign, the war dance is always performed around the painted post. It’s how the Indians recruit. Anyone who joins in the dance is seen as having signed up for the campaign and must go out with the group.

After returning from a successful expedition, a dance of thanksgiving is always performed, which partakes of the character of a religious ceremony. It is accompanied with singing and choruses, in which the women join. But they take no part in the rest of the performance. At the end of every song, the 210 scalp-yell is shouted as many times as there have been scalps taken from the enemy.

After coming back from a successful expedition, a dance of thanksgiving is always performed, resembling a religious ceremony. It's accompanied by singing and choruses, with women participating. However, they don't take part in the rest of the performance. At the end of each song, the 210 scalp-yell is shouted as many times as there were scalps taken from the enemy.

The Indians also meet occasionally for the purpose of recounting their warlike exploits, which is done in a kind of half-singing or recitative. The oldest warrior recites first, then they go on in rotation and in order of seniority, the drum beating all the time, as it were to give to the relation the greater appearance of reality. After each has made a short recital in his turn, they begin again in the same order, and so continue going the rounds, in a kind of alternate chanting, until every one has concluded. On these occasions, great care must be taken not to give offence by affecting superiority over the others, for every warrior feels his own consequence, and is ready, if insulted, to shew by his actions, what he has performed in war and is still able to do. I well remember an instance of the kind, when an insulted warrior stepped out of the circle in which he was dancing, and struck dead the impudent boaster who had offended him.

The Indians also gather occasionally to share their war stories, which they do in a sort of half-singing or recitative. The oldest warrior goes first, then they take turns in order of seniority, with the drum beating the whole time to make the stories feel more real. After each warrior shares a short story, they start over in the same order and continue going around in a kind of alternating chant until everyone has finished. During these events, it’s crucial not to offend anyone by acting superior, as every warrior values his own importance and is ready to demonstrate through action what he has accomplished in battle and what he can still do. I distinctly remember one instance when an insulted warrior stepped out of the circle where he was dancing and killed the arrogant braggart who had disrespected him.

Their songs are in general of the warlike or of the tender and pathetic kind. They are sung in short sentences, not without some kind of measure, harmonious to an Indian ear. The music is well adapted to the words, and to me is not unpleasing. I would not attempt to give an idea of it by means of our musical notes, as has been done by other writers, lest I should be as unsuccessful as those who have tried in the same manner to describe the melodies of the ancient Greeks. It would be well if I could describe at one and the same time the whole combination of effects which acted upon my ear, but it is vain to endeavour to do it partially. It is, indeed, much the same with their poetry; yet I cannot resist the temptation of translating as well as I can, the words of the Lenape’s song, when they go out to war. They sing it, as I give it here, in short lines or sentences, not always the whole at one time, but most generally in detached parts, as time permits and as the occasion or their feelings prompt them. Their accent is very pathetic, and the whole, in their language, produces considerable effect. 211

Their songs are generally either about war or have a tender, emotional quality. They are sung in short phrases, with a rhythm that’s pleasing to an Indian ear. The music fits well with the lyrics, and I find it enjoyable. I wouldn’t try to describe it using our musical notation, as other writers have done, because I might be just as unsuccessful as those who have tried to capture the melodies of ancient Greece. It would be great if I could convey the entire combination of sounds that I heard, but it’s pointless to try to do it partially. It’s pretty much the same with their poetry; still, I can’t help but try to translate the words of the Lenape’s war song as best as I can. They sing it, as I present it here, in short lines or phrases, often not all at once but mostly in parts, depending on the moment and their emotions. Their accent is deeply moving, and the whole thing has a significant impact in their language. 211

The Song of the Lenape Warriors Fighting the Enemy.

“O poor me!
Who am I going out to fight the enemy,
And I don't know if I'll come back again,
To enjoy the hugs from my children
And my partner.
Oh, poor thing! Whose life isn’t in their own control,
Who has no control over his own body,
But he tries to do his duty. For the benefit of his country.
O! you Great Spirit above!
Have mercy on my kids
And on my wife! Don't let them mourn for me!
I hope to succeed in this effort—
That I can defeat my enemy,
And bring home the war trophies
To my beloved family and friends,
Let's rejoice together.
Oh! Have mercy on me!
Give me strength and courage to face my enemy,
Let me go back to my kids again,
To my wife And to my family!
Have compassion for me and save my life
And I will make a sacrifice to you.”

The song of the Wyandot warriors, as translated to me by an Indian trader, would read thus: “Now I am going on an errand of pleasure—O! God, take pity on me, and throw good fortune in my way—grant that I may be successful.”

The song of the Wyandot warriors, as translated to me by an Indian trader, would read like this: “Now I’m heading out for a fun adventure—O! God, have mercy on me, and send good luck my way—please let me be successful.”

Thus their Almighty Creator is always before their eyes on all important occasions. They feel and acknowledge his supreme power. They also endeavour to propitiate him by outward worship, or sacrifices.

Thus their Almighty Creator is always in their thoughts during important moments. They recognize his ultimate power. They also try to gain his favor through external worship or sacrifices.

These are religious solemnities, intended to make themselves acceptable to the Great Spirit, to find favor in his sight, and obtain his forgiveness for past errors or offences. It is not, as some white persons would lead us to believe, that knowing the Great Spirit to be good, they are under no apprehensions from his wrath, and that they make sacrifices to the evil spirit, believing him alone to be capable of doing them hurt. This cannot be true 212 of a people, who, as I have already said in another part, hold it as a fixed principle “that good and evil cannot and must not be united,” who declare and acknowledge the great and good Spirit to be “all powerful,” and the evil one to be “weak and limited in power;” who rely alone on the goodness of the author of their existence, and who, before every thing, seek by all the means in their power to obtain his favour and protection. For, they are convinced, that the evil spirit has no power over them, as long as they are in favour with the good one, and to him alone, acknowledging his continued goodness to them and their forefathers, they look for protection against the Devil, and his inferior spirits.

These are religious ceremonies meant to gain favor with the Great Spirit, seek his approval, and ask for his forgiveness for past mistakes or wrongdoings. It's not true, as some white people might suggest, that they believe the Great Spirit is good and therefore have no fear of his anger, instead offering sacrifices to the evil spirit, thinking that he is the only one who can harm them. That idea doesn't apply to a people who, as I've mentioned elsewhere, hold a firm belief that "good and evil cannot and must not be united," who recognize the great and good Spirit as "all-powerful" while viewing the evil one as "weak and limited in power." They rely solely on the goodness of the creator of their existence and prioritize, above all else, finding ways to win his favor and protection. They are certain that the evil spirit can't harm them as long as they are in the good graces of the benevolent one, and they exclusively look to him, acknowledging his ongoing kindness towards them and their ancestors, for protection against the Devil and his lesser spirits.

It is a part of their religious belief, that there are inferior Mannittos, to whom the great and good Being has given the rule and command over the elements; that being so great, he, like their chiefs, must have his attendants to execute his supreme behests; these subordinate spirits (something in their nature between God and man) see and report to him what is doing upon earth; they look down particularly upon the Indians, to see whether they are in need of assistance, and are ready at their call to assist and protect them against danger.

It’s part of their religious belief that there are lesser Mannittos, to whom the great and good Being has given authority over the elements. Since he is so great, like their leaders, he must have assistants to carry out his supreme commands. These lesser spirits (somewhere between God and man) observe and inform him about what’s happening on earth. They pay special attention to the Indians to see if they need help and are ready to assist and protect them from danger.

Thus I have frequently witnessed Indians, on the approach of a storm or thunder-gust, address the Mannitto of the air, to avert all danger from them; I have also seen the Chippeways, on the Lakes of Canada, pray to the Mannitto of the waters, that he might prevent the swells from rising too high, while they were passing over them. In both these instances, they expressed their acknowledgment, or shewed their willingness to be grateful, by throwing tobacco in the air, or strewing it on the waters.

Thus, I have often seen Native Americans, when a storm or thunderstorm is approaching, call on the spirit of the air to protect them from danger; I've also witnessed the Chippewa people on the lakes of Canada pray to the spirit of the waters, asking him to keep the waves from getting too high while they cross. In both cases, they showed their gratitude or willingness to be thankful by throwing tobacco into the air or spreading it on the water.

There are even some animals, which though they are not considered as invested with power over them, yet are believed to be placed as guardians over their lives; and of course entitled to some notice and to some tokens of gratitude. Thus, when in the night, an owl is heard sounding its note, or calling to its mate, some person in the camp will rise, and taking some Glicanican, or Indian tobacco, will strew it on the fire, thinking that the ascending smoke will reach the bird, and that he will see that they are not unmindful of his services, and of his kindness to 213 them and their ancestors. This custom originated from the following incident, which tradition has handed down to them.

There are even some animals that, while not seen as having power over people, are thought to act as guardians over their lives; therefore, they deserve some recognition and a few tokens of appreciation. So, when someone hears an owl hooting or calling for its mate at night, a person in the camp will get up and, taking some Glicanican or Indian tobacco, will sprinkle it on the fire, believing that the rising smoke will reach the bird, and it will know that they appreciate its services and kindness towards them and their ancestors. This practice comes from a story that tradition has passed down to them.

It happened at one time, when they were engaged in a war with a distant and powerful nation, that a body of their warriors was in the camp, fast asleep, no kind of danger at that moment being apprehended. Suddenly, the great “Sentinel” over mankind, the owl, sounded the alarm; all the birds of the species were alert at their posts, all at once calling out, as if saying: “Up! up! Danger! Danger!” Obedient to their call, every man jumped up in an instant; when, to their surprise, they found that their enemy was in the very act of surrounding them, and they would all have been killed in their sleep, if the owl had not given them this timely warning.

It was once during a war with a distant and powerful nation that a group of their warriors was in camp, fast asleep, not expecting any danger at that moment. Suddenly, the great “Sentinel” of mankind, the owl, sounded the alarm; all the owls were on alert, calling out together as if to say: “Wake up! Wake up! Danger! Danger!” Responding to their calls, every man jumped up instantly, only to be shocked to discover that their enemy was actually surrounding them, and they would have all been killed in their sleep if the owl hadn’t given them this timely warning.

But, amidst all these superstitious notions, the supreme Mannitto, the creator and preserver of heaven and earth, is the great object of their adoration. On him they rest their hopes, to him they address their prayers and make their solemn sacrifices. These religious ceremonies are not always performed in the same manner. I had intended to have given some details upon this subject, but I find that it has been almost exhausted by other writers,189 although I will not pretend to say that they are correct on every point. But I do not wish to repeat things which have already been told to the world over and over. Therefore, if on some subjects, relating to the manners and customs of the Indians, I should be thought to have passed over too quickly, and not to have sufficiently entered into particulars, let it be understood that I have done so to avoid the repetition of what others have said, although I am afraid I have been inadvertently guilty of it in more than one instance. I would not presume to communicate my little stock of knowledge, if I did not think that it will add something to what is already known.

But, among all these superstitious beliefs, the supreme Mannitto, the creator and preserver of heaven and earth, is the primary focus of their worship. They place their hopes in him, direct their prayers to him, and offer their significant sacrifices. These religious ceremonies aren't always carried out the same way. I had planned to share some details on this topic, but I discover that it has been nearly covered by other writers,189 although I won’t claim that they are right about everything. Still, I don’t want to repeat what has already been told countless times. So, if I seem to have rushed through some topics regarding the customs and practices of the Indians and haven’t gone into enough detail, please understand that I've done so to avoid rehashing what others have said, although I fear I may have unintentionally done so more than once. I wouldn’t want to share my limited knowledge if I didn’t believe it would contribute something new to what is already known.

I do not recollect that it has already been mentioned, that previous to entering upon the solemnity of their sacrifices, the Indians prepare themselves by vomiting, fasting, and drinking decoctions from certain prescribed plants. This they do to expel the evil which is within them, and that they may with 214 a pure conscience attend to the sacred performance, for such they consider it. Nor is the object of those sacrifices always the same; there are sacrifices of prayer and sacrifices of thanksgiving, some for all the favours received by them and their ancestors from the great Being, others for special or particular benefits. After a successful war, they never fail to offer up a sacrifice to the great Being, to return him thanks for having given them courage and strength to destroy or conquer their enemies.

I don't remember if it was already mentioned, but before participating in their important sacrifices, the Indians prepare by vomiting, fasting, and drinking teas made from certain prescribed plants. They do this to clear out any evil within them so they can attend to the 214 sacred performance with a clear conscience, which they see as very important. The purpose of these sacrifices isn't always the same; there are sacrifices of prayer and sacrifices of thanksgiving—some for all the blessings they and their ancestors have received from the great Being, and others for specific or individual benefits. After a successful war, they always make sure to offer a sacrifice to the great Being to thank him for giving them the courage and strength to defeat or overcome their enemies.

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CHAPTER XXVII.
Scalping—whoops or yells—prisoners.

S

Scalping is a practice which the Indians say has obtained with their nations for ages. I need not describe the manner in which the operation is performed, it has been sufficiently done by others.190 Indian warriors think it necessary to bring home the scalps of those they have killed or disabled, as visible proofs of their valour; otherwise they are afraid that their relations of the combat and the account they give of their individual prowess might be doubted or disbelieved. Those scalps are dried up, painted and preserved as trophies, and a warrior is esteemed in proportion to the number of them that he can shew.

Scalping is a practice that Native Americans claim has been around in their cultures for a long time. I don’t need to explain how it’s done; others have covered that well enough.190 Indian warriors believe it’s important to bring back the scalps of those they’ve killed or injured as proof of their bravery; otherwise, they worry that their stories about the battles and their own achievements might be doubted. Those scalps are dried, decorated, and kept as trophies, and a warrior is valued based on how many he can display.

It is a well known fact that the Indians pluck out all their hair except one tuft on the crown of their heads, but the reason of this exception is not, perhaps, so well understood, which is no other than to enable themselves to take off each other’s scalps in war with greater facility. “When we go to fight an enemy,” say they, “we meet on equal ground; and we take off each other’s scalps, if we can. The conqueror, whoever he may be, is entitled to have something to shew to prove his bravery and his triumph, and it would be ungenerous in a warrior to deprive an enemy of the means of acquiring that glory of which he himself is in pursuit. A warrior’s conduct ought to be manly, else he is no man.” As this custom prevails among all the Indian nations, it would seem, as far as I have known, to be the result of a tacit agreement among them, to leave the usual trophies of 216 victory accessible to the contending warriors on all sides; fearing, perhaps, that if a different custom should be adopted by one nation from motives of personal safety, or to destroy the warlike reputation of their rivals or enemies, it might be easily imitated on the other side, and there would be an end to Indian valour and heroism. Indeed, it is certain, that all the weapons which the Indians make use of in war are intended for offence, they have no breast-plates, helmets, nor any arms or accoutrements of the defensive kind, and it is not the least remarkable trait in their warlike character, that they make it even a point of honour to offer a hold of their persons to their enemy, by which if he should be possessed of greater skill or courage than themselves, he may not only the more easily destroy them, but is enabled to carry home their bloody spoils as trophies of his victory.

It’s a well-known fact that Native Americans remove all their hair except for one tuft on the top of their heads, but the reason for this exception isn’t as widely understood. It’s mainly so they can more easily take each other’s scalps in battle. “When we fight an enemy,” they say, “we meet on equal ground, and we take each other’s scalps if we can. The winner, whoever it might be, deserves to have something to show as proof of their bravery and triumph, and it would be unkind for a warrior to deny an enemy the chance to earn the glory they’re pursuing. A warrior’s behavior should be manly, or else he is no man.” Since this practice is common among all Native American nations, it seems to stem from an unspoken agreement to keep the usual trophies of 216 victory available to all competing warriors; perhaps out of fear that if one nation were to adopt a different practice for personal safety or to undermine the warlike reputation of their rivals, it could easily be mirrored by others, leading to a loss of Native courage and heroism. In fact, it’s clear that all the weapons Native Americans use in battle are meant for offence; they have no breastplates, helmets, or any defensive arms or gear. A notable aspect of their warrior character is that they take pride in exposing themselves to their enemy, so if the enemy possesses greater skill or bravery, they can not only defeat them more easily but also take home their bloody trophies of victory.

I once remarked to an Indian that if such was their reason for letting a tuft of hair grow on the top of their heads, they might as well suffer the whole to remain, and I could not perceive why they were so careful in plucking it out. To this observation he answered: “My friend! a human being has but one head, and one scalp from that head is sufficient to shew that it has been in my power. Were we to preserve a whole head of hair as the white people do, several scalps might be made out of it, which would be unfair. Besides, the coward might thus without danger share in the trophies of the brave warrior, and dispute with him the honour of victory.”

I once mentioned to an Indian that if that was their reason for letting a tuft of hair grow on top of their heads, they might as well keep the whole thing, and I couldn’t understand why they were so careful about removing it. He replied, “My friend! a person has only one head, and one scalp from that head is enough to show that it has been in my power. If we kept a whole head of hair like white people do, several scalps could come from it, which would be unfair. Plus, a coward could then share in the trophies of the brave warrior without any risk, and claim the honor of victory.”

When the Indians relate their victories, they do not say that they have taken so many “scalps,” but so many “heads,” in which they include as well those whom they have scalped, but left alive (which is very often191 the case), and their prisoners, as those whom they have killed. Nor does it follow, when they reckon or number the heads of their prisoners, that they have been or are to be put to death.

When the Native Americans talk about their victories, they don’t say they’ve taken so many “scalps,” but rather so many “heads,” which also includes those they scalped but left alive (which is often the case), along with their prisoners and those they’ve killed. Also, just because they count or number the heads of their prisoners doesn’t mean they’ve been or will be executed.

It is an awful spectacle to see the Indian warriors return home from a successful expedition with their prisoners and the scalps taken in battle. It is not unlike the return of a victorious army from the field, with the prisoners and colours, taken from the enemy, but the appearance is far more frightful and terrific. The 217 scalps are carried in front, fixed on the end of a thin pole, about five or six inches192 in length; the prisoners follow, and the warriors advance shouting the dreadful scalp-yell, which has been called by some the death-halloo, but improperly, for the reasons which I have already mentioned. For every head taken, dead or alive, a separate shout is given. In this yell or whoop, there is a mixture of triumph and terror; its elements, if I may so speak, seem to be glory and fear, so as to express at once the feelings of the shouting warriors, and those with which they have inspired their enemies.

It’s a horrifying sight to see the Indian warriors come back home from a successful mission with their captives and the scalps they collected in battle. It’s not unlike the return of a victorious army from the battlefield, with the captives and colors taken from the enemy, but the scene is much more terrifying. The scalps are carried in front, attached to the end of a thin pole about five or six inches in length; the prisoners follow, and the warriors move forward shouting the dreadful scalp-yell, which some have called the death-halloo, although that’s not quite accurate for the reasons I’ve already explained. For every head taken, whether dead or alive, a separate shout is given. In this yell or whoop, there’s a mix of triumph and terror; its components, if I may say so, seem to be glory and fear, conveying both the feelings of the shouting warriors and the terror they've instilled in their enemies.

Different from this yell is the alarm-whoop, which is never sounded but when danger is at hand. It is performed in quick succession, much as with us the repeated cry of Fire! Fire! when the alarm is very great and lives are known or believed to be in danger. Both this and the scalp-yell consist of the sounds aw and oh, successively uttered, the last more accented, and sounded higher than the first; but in the scalp-yell, this last sound is drawn out at great length, as long indeed as the breath will hold, and is raised about an octave higher than the former; while in the alarm-whoop, it is rapidly struck on as it were, and only a few notes above the other. These yells or whoops are dreadful indeed, and well calculated to strike with terror, those whom long habit has not accustomed to them. It is difficult to describe the impression which the scalp-yell, particularly, makes on a person who hears it for the first time.

Different from this yell is the alarm-whoop, which is only used when danger is present. It is performed in quick succession, similar to how we shout Fire! Fire! when there's a serious threat and lives are known or believed to be at risk. Both this and the scalp-yell consist of the sounds aw and oh, spoken one after the other, with the second sound being more emphasized and at a higher pitch than the first; in the scalp-yell, this last sound is elongated for as long as someone can hold their breath, raised about an octave higher than the previous sound. In contrast, the alarm-whoop is struck quickly, and is only a few notes higher than the other. These yells or whoops are indeed terrifying and very effective at instilling fear in those who are not accustomed to them. It’s hard to explain the impact that the scalp-yell, in particular, has on someone hearing it for the first time.

I am now come to a painful part of my subject; the manner in which the Indians treat the prisoners whom they take in war. It must not be expected that I shall describe here the long protracted tortures which are inflicted on those who are doomed to the fatal pile, nor the constancy and firmness which the sufferers display, singing their death songs and scoffing all the while at their tormentors. Enough of other writers have painted these scenes, with all their disgusting horrors; nor shall I, a Christian, endeavour to excuse or palliate them. But I may be permitted to say, that those dreadful executions are by no means so frequent as is commonly imagined. The prisoners are generally adopted by the families of their conquerors in the place of lost or deceased relations or friends, where they soon become domesticated, 218 and are so kindly treated that they never wish themselves away again. I have seen even white men, who, after such adoption, were given up by the Indians in compliance with the stipulations of treaties, take the first opportunity to escape from their own country and return with all possible speed to their Indian homes; I have seen the Indians, while about delivering them up, put them at night in the stocks, to prevent their escaping and running back to them.

I’ve now come to a difficult part of my topic: how the Native Americans treat the prisoners they capture in war. I won’t go into detail about the prolonged tortures faced by those destined for the deadly pyre, nor will I discuss the strength and bravery they show, singing their death songs and mocking their tormentors. Many other writers have described these scenes, with all their gruesome horrors, and I, as a Christian, won’t try to justify or downplay them. However, I can say that these horrific executions are not as common as people typically think. Usually, prisoners are adopted by the families of their conquerors, filling the void left by lost loved ones, and they soon become part of the household, treated so well that they no longer wish to leave. I’ve even seen white men, after being adopted, returned by the Native Americans as part of treaty agreements, who then took every chance they could to escape back to their Indian families. I’ve witnessed the Native Americans, while preparing to hand them over, put them in stocks at night to stop them from running back to their own people. 218

It is but seldom that prisoners are put to death by burning and torturing. It hardly ever takes place except when a nation has suffered great losses in war, and it is thought necessary to revenge the death of their warriors slain in battle, or when wilful and deliberate murders have been committed by an enemy of193 their innocent women and children, in which case the first prisoners taken are almost sure of being sacrificed by way of retaliation. But when a war has been successful, or unattended with remarkable acts of treachery, or cruelty on the part of the enemy, the prisoners receive a milder treatment, and are incorporated with the nation of their conquerors.

It’s rare for prisoners to be executed by burning and torture. This usually only happens when a nation has suffered heavy losses in battle, and there’s a belief that it’s necessary to avenge the deaths of their warriors killed in combat, or when brutal and intentional murders have been committed by an enemy against their innocent women and children. In those cases, the first prisoners taken are almost always at risk of being sacrificed in retaliation. However, when a war goes well, or there aren’t notable acts of betrayal or cruelty from the enemy, the prisoners are treated more leniently and are often integrated into the society of their conquerors.

Much has been said on the subject of the preliminary cruelties inflicted on prisoners when they enter an Indian village with the conquering warriors. It is certain that this treatment is very severe when a particular revenge is to be exercised, but otherwise, I can say with truth, that in many instances, it is rather a scene of amusement, than a punishment. Much depends on the courage and presence of mind of the prisoner. On entering the village, he is shewn a painted post at the distance of from twenty to forty yards, and told to run to it and catch hold of it as quickly as he can. On each side of him stand men, women and children, with axes, sticks, and other offensive weapons, ready to strike him as he runs, in the same manner as is done in the European armies when soldiers, as it is called, run the gauntlet. If he should be so unlucky as to fall in the way, he will probably be immediately despatched by some person, longing to avenge the death of some relation or friend slain in battle; but the moment he reaches the goal, he is safe and protected from further insult until his fate is determined. 219

A lot has been said about the harsh treatment that prisoners face when they enter an Indian village with the conquering warriors. It's clear that this treatment can be quite severe, especially when specific revenge is sought. However, I can honestly say that in many cases, it feels more like a spectacle than punishment. Much relies on the bravery and quick thinking of the prisoner. Upon entering the village, he is shown a painted post about twenty to forty yards away and is told to run and grab it as quickly as possible. On either side of him stand men, women, and children with axes, sticks, and other weapons, ready to strike as he runs, similar to what happens in European armies when soldiers "run the gauntlet." If he is unfortunate enough to fall, he could be quickly killed by someone eager to avenge a relative or friend lost in battle. But once he reaches the goal, he is safe and protected from any further harm until his fate is decided. 219

If a prisoner in such a situation shews a determined courage, and when bid to run for the painted post, starts at once with all his might and exerts all his strength and agility until he reaches it, he will most commonly escape without much harm, and sometimes without any injury whatever, and on reaching the desired point, he will have the satisfaction to hear his courage and bravery applauded. But woe to the coward who hesitates, or shews any symptoms of fear! He is treated without much mercy, and is happy, at last, if he escapes with his life.

If a prisoner in this situation shows strong courage, and when told to run for the painted post, takes off immediately with all his strength and agility until he reaches it, he will usually escape without serious harm, and sometimes without any injury at all. Once he reaches the destination, he will enjoy the recognition for his courage and bravery. But woe to the coward who hesitates or shows any signs of fear! He is treated harshly, and if he manages to survive, he will consider himself lucky.

In the month of April 1782, when I was myself a prisoner at Lower Sandusky, waiting for an opportunity to proceed with a trader to Detroit, I witnessed a scene of this description which fully exemplified what I have above stated. Three American prisoners were one day brought in by fourteen warriors from the garrison of Fort M’Intosh. As soon as they had crossed the Sandusky river, to which the village lay adjacent, they were told by the Captain of the party to run as hard as they could to a painted post which was shewn to them. The youngest of the three, without a moment’s hesitation, immediately started for it, and reached it fortunately without receiving a single blow; the second hesitated for a moment, but recollecting himself, he also ran as fast as he could and likewise reached the post unhurt; but the third, frightened at seeing so many men, women and children with weapons in their hands, ready to strike him, kept begging the Captain to spare his life, saying he was a mason, and he would build him a fine large stone house, or do any work for him that he should please. “Run for your life,” cried the chief to him, “and don’t talk now of building houses!” But the poor fellow still insisted, begging and praying to the Captain, who, at last finding his exhortations vain, and fearing the consequences, turned his back upon him, and would not hear him any longer. Our mason now began to run, but received many a hard blow, one of which nearly brought him to the ground, which, if he had fallen, would at once have decided his fate. He, however, reached the goal, not without being sadly bruised, and he was besides bitterly reproached and scoffed at all round as a vile coward, while the others were hailed as brave men, and received tokens of universal approbation. 220

In April 1782, when I was a prisoner at Lower Sandusky, waiting for a chance to travel with a trader to Detroit, I witnessed a scene that perfectly illustrated what I just mentioned. One day, fourteen warriors from the garrison at Fort M'Intosh brought in three American prisoners. As soon as they crossed the Sandusky River, which was close to the village, the Captain of the group told them to run as fast as they could to a painted post that he pointed out. The youngest of the three didn't hesitate for a second, immediately took off for it, and fortunately reached it without getting hit. The second hesitated briefly but then remembered himself and also ran as fast as he could, making it to the post unscathed; however, the third guy, scared by the sight of so many armed men, women, and children ready to strike, kept begging the Captain to spare his life, claiming he was a mason and could build him a large stone house or do any other work he wanted. “Run for your life,” the chief shouted at him, “and don’t talk about building houses right now!” But the poor guy continued to beg and plead with the Captain, who eventually grew tired of his pleas and, fearing the consequences, turned his back on him and stopped listening. Our mason finally started to run but got hit several times, one blow nearly knocking him down, and if he had fallen, it would have sealed his fate. Nevertheless, he made it to the goal, albeit badly bruised, and was harshly scolded and mocked as a coward, while the others were celebrated as brave men and received praise from everyone. 220


CHAPTER XXVIII.
BODY TYPE AND ILLNESSES.

T

The Indians are in general a strong race of men. It is very common to see a hunter come in with a whole deer on his back, fastened with a Happis, a kind of band with which they carry loads; it rests against the breast, that which the women use rests against the forehead. In this manner they will carry a load which many a white man would not have strength enough to raise from the ground. An Indian, named Samuel, once took the flour which was ground out of a bushel of wheat upon his back at sun-rise within two miles from Nazareth, and arrived with it in the evening of the same day at his camp at Wyoming. When the Indians build houses, they carry large logs on their shoulders from the place where the tree is cut down to where they are building.

The Indians are generally a strong group of people. It’s quite common to see a hunter return with an entire deer on his back, secured with a Happis, a type of strap they use to carry loads; it rests against the chest, while the women’s version rests against the forehead. In this way, they can carry weights that many white men wouldn't have the strength to lift from the ground. An Indian named Samuel once carried the flour from a bushel of wheat on his back at sunrise, two miles from Nazareth, and arrived that evening at his camp in Wyoming. When they build houses, they carry large logs on their shoulders from where the tree is cut down to the construction site.

Nevertheless, when put to agricultural or other manual labour, the Indians do not appear so strong as the whites; at least, they cannot endure it so long. Many reasons may be given for this, besides their not being accustomed to that kind of work. It is probably in part to be ascribed to their want of substantial food, and their intemperate manner of living; eating, when they have it, to excess, and at other times being days and weeks in a state of want. Those who have been brought up to regular labour, like ourselves, become robust and strong and enjoy good health. Such was the case with the Christian Indians in the Moravian settlements.

Nevertheless, when it comes to agricultural or other physical work, Indigenous people don’t seem as strong as white people; at least, they can't handle it for as long. There are many reasons for this, aside from their lack of experience with that type of labor. It's likely partly due to their inadequate diet and unhealthy lifestyle; they tend to overeat when they have food and go for days or weeks without enough to eat. Those who have been raised with regular work habits, like us, become strong and healthy. This was true for the Christian Indigenous people in the Moravian settlements.

So late as about the middle of the last century, the Indians were yet a hardy and healthy people, and many very aged men and women were seen among them, some of whom thought they 221 had lived about one hundred years. They frequently told me and others that when they were young men, their people did not marry so early as they did since, that even at twenty they were called boys and durst not wear a breech-cloth, as the men did at that time, but had only a small bit of a skin hanging before them. Neither, did they say, were they subject to so many disorders as in later times, and many of them calculated on dying of old age. But since that time a great change has taken place in the constitution of those Indians who live nearest to the whites. By the introduction of ardent spirits among them, they have been led into vices which have brought on disorders which they say were unknown before; their blood became corrupted by a shameful complaint, which the Europeans pretend to have received from the original inhabitants of America, while these say they had never known or heard of it until the Europeans came among them. Now the Indians are infected with it to a great degree; children frequently inherit it from their parents, and after lingering for a few years at last die victims to this poison.

So late as about the middle of the last century, the Indigenous people were still a tough and healthy group, and many very elderly men and women could be seen among them, some claiming to have lived for around a hundred years. They often told me and others that when they were young, their communities didn't marry as early as they do now; even at twenty, they were considered boys and wouldn't dare wear a breech-cloth like the men did back then, instead having just a small piece of skin hanging in front of them. They also said they didn't suffer from as many ailments as in later times, and many of them expected to die of old age. However, since then, a significant change has occurred in the health of those Indigenous people living closest to Europeans. The introduction of alcohol has led them into vices that have caused disorders they claim were unknown before; their blood became tainted by a shameful disease, which Europeans claim to have gotten from the original inhabitants of America, while the Indigenous people say they had never known or heard of it until Europeans arrived. Now, many Indigenous people are significantly affected by it; children often inherit it from their parents, and after suffering for a few years, they ultimately fall victim to this poison.

Those Indians who have not adopted the vices of the white people live to a good age, from 70 to 90. Few arrive at the age of one hundred years. The women, in general, live longer than the men.

Those Native Americans who haven't picked up the bad habits of white people tend to live long lives, usually between 70 and 90 years. Very few reach the age of one hundred. Generally, women live longer than men.

The Indians do not appear to be more or less exempt than the whites from the common infirmities of old age. I have known old men among them who had lost their memory, their sight, and their teeth. I have also seen them at eighty in their second childhood and not able to help themselves.

The Indians don’t seem to be any more or less immune to the typical problems of old age than the whites. I’ve known elderly men among them who had lost their memory, their eyesight, and their teeth. I’ve also seen them at eighty, in a second childhood and unable to take care of themselves.

The Indian women are not in general so prolific as those of the white race. I imagine this defect is owing to the vicious and dissolute life they lead since the introduction of spirituous liquors. Among our Christian Indians, we have had a couple who had been converted for thirty years and had always led a regular life, and who had thirteen children. Others had from six to nine. In general, however, the Indians seldom have more than four or five children.

The Indian women generally aren't as prolific as white women. I think this issue is due to the unhealthy and careless lifestyles they've adopted since the introduction of alcohol. Among our Christian Indians, we had a couple who had been converted for thirty years and always lived a regular life, and they had thirteen children. Others had between six to nine. However, in general, Indians rarely have more than four or five children.

The Indian children, generally, continue two years at the breast, and there are instances of their sucking during four years. 222 Mothers are very apt to indulge their last child; children in this respect enjoy the same privilege alike.

The Indian children usually breastfeed for two years, and there are cases where they suckle for up to four years. 222 Mothers often tend to spoil their youngest child; in this way, all children receive the same treatment.

I have never heard of any nation or tribe of Indians who destroyed their children, when distorted or deformed, whether they were so born or came to be so afterwards. I have on the contrary seen very particular care taken of such children. Nor have I ever been acquainted with any Indians that made use of artificial means to compress or alter the natural shape of the heads of their children, as some travellers have, I believe, pretended.

I have never heard of any nation or tribe of Native Americans who harmed their children when they were born with distortions or deformities, whether they were born that way or developed them later. On the contrary, I've seen that they take very special care of such children. Nor have I ever met any Native Americans who used artificial methods to compress or change the natural shape of their children's heads, as some travelers have claimed.

The disorders to which the Indians are most commonly subjected are pulmonary consumptions, fluxes, fevers and severe rheumatisms, all proceeding probably from the kind of life they lead, the hardships they undergo, and the nature of the food that they take. Intermitting and bilious fevers set in among them regularly in the autumn, when their towns are situated near marshy grounds or ponds of stagnant water, and many die in consequence of them. I have observed that these fevers generally make their first appearance in the season of the wild plum, a fruit that the Indians are particularly fond of. Sometimes also after a famine or long suffering for want of food, when they generally make too free an use of green maize, squashes and other watery vegetables. They are also subject to a disease which they call the yellow vomit, which, at times, carries off many of them. They generally die of this disease on the second or third day after the first attack.

The illnesses that affect the Native Americans most often include lung diseases, diarrhea, fevers, and severe arthritis, likely due to their lifestyle, the hardships they face, and the type of food they eat. Intermittent and bile fevers regularly occur in the autumn, especially in towns near marshy areas or stagnant water, leading to many deaths. I've noticed that these fevers usually start appearing during the wild plum season, a fruit the Native Americans particularly enjoy. Sometimes, these illnesses arise after a famine or when they go without food for a long time, often consuming too much green corn, squash, and other watery vegetables. They are also prone to a sickness they call yellow vomit, which can be deadly for many. Usually, they die from this disease two or three days after the initial symptoms appear.

Their old men are very subject to rheumatisms in the back and knees; I have known them at the age of 50 or 60 to be laid up for weeks and months at a time on this account, and I have seen boys 10 and 12 years of age, who through colds or fits of sickness had become so contracted that they never afterwards recovered the use of their limbs.

Their elderly men often suffer from arthritis in their backs and knees; I've seen them at 50 or 60 years old unable to get out of bed for weeks or even months because of it, and I've witnessed boys aged 10 and 12, who, due to colds or bouts of illness, became so physically impaired that they never regained full use of their limbs.

Worms are a very common disorder among Indian children, and great numbers of them die from that cause. They eat a great deal of green corn when in the milk, with beans, squashes, melons, and the like; their bellies become remarkably large, and it is probably in that manner that the worms are generated. I rather think that Indian children suffer less in teething than the whites. 223

Worms are a very common issue among Indian children, and a lot of them die because of it. They eat a lot of milk corn, beans, squashes, melons, and similar foods; their bellies become noticeably large, and that's likely how the worms are produced. I believe Indian children have less trouble teething than white children do. 223

The gout, gravel, and scrofula or king’s evil, are not known among the Indians. Nor have I ever known any one that had the disorder called the Rickets. Consumptions are very frequent among them since they have become fond of spirituous liquors, and their young men in great numbers fall victims to that complaint. A person who resides among them may easily observe the frightful decrease of their numbers from one period of ten years to another. Our vices have destroyed them more than our swords.

The gout, gravel, and scrofula, or king’s evil, are not found among the Native Americans. I’ve never encountered anyone who had the condition known as Rickets. Tuberculosis is quite common among them since they’ve developed a taste for alcoholic drinks, and many young men succumb to that illness. Anyone living among them can easily see the alarming decline in their population from one decade to the next. Our vices have harmed them more than our weapons.

224

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CHAPTER XXIX.
Solutions.

T

The Materia Medica of the Indians consists of various roots and plants known to themselves, the properties of which they are not fond of disclosing to strangers. They make considerable use of the barks of trees, such as the white and black oak, the white walnut, of which they make pills, the cherry, dogwood, maple, birch, and several others. They prepare and compound these medicines in different ways, which they keep a profound secret. Those preparations are frequently mixed with superstitious practices, calculated to guard against the powers of witchcraft, in which, unfortunately, they have a strong fixed belief. Indeed, they are too apt to attribute the most natural deaths to the arts and incantations of sorcerers, and their medicine is, in most cases, as much directed against those as against the disease itself. There are, however, practitioners among them who are free from these prejudices, or at least do not introduce them into their practice of the medical art. Still there is a superstitious notion, in which all their physicians participate, which is, that when an emetic is to be administered, the water in which the potion is mixed must be drawn up a stream, and if for a cathartic downwards. This is, at least, innocent, and not more whimsical perhaps, nor more calculated to excite a smile, than some theories of grave and learned men in civilised countries.

The Materia Medica of the Indians includes various roots and plants they are familiar with, the properties of which they prefer not to share with outsiders. They use the barks of trees extensively, like white and black oak, white walnut (from which they make pills), cherry, dogwood, maple, birch, and several others. They prepare and mix these medicines in different ways, keeping the methods a closely guarded secret. These preparations are often combined with superstitious practices meant to protect against witchcraft, a belief they unfortunately hold strongly. They tend to blame even the most natural deaths on the spells and rituals of sorcerers, and their medicine often targets these beliefs as much as the illness itself. However, there are practitioners among them who are free from these biases, or at least don't let them influence their medical practice. Still, there is a superstitious belief shared by all their physicians that when giving an emetic, the water used for mixing the potion must be drawn upstream, and for a cathartic, downstream. This belief is relatively harmless and perhaps no more bizarre or likely to provoke a smile than some theories proposed by serious and scholarly individuals in civilized countries.

In fevers the Indians usually administer emetics which are made up and compounded in various ways. I saw an emetic once given to a man who had poisoned himself with the root of 225 the May Apple.194 It consisted of a piece of raccoon skin burned with the hair on and finely powdered, pounded dry beans and gunpowder. These three ingredients were mixed with water and poured down the patient’s throat. This brought on a severe vomiting, the poisonous root was entirely discharged and the man cured.

In fevers, the Native Americans typically use emetics made in various ways. I once saw an emetic given to a man who had poisoned himself with the root of the May Apple. It was made from a piece of raccoon skin, burned with the hair still on, finely powdered, along with pounded dry beans and gunpowder. These three ingredients were mixed with water and poured down the patient's throat. This induced severe vomiting, completely expelling the poisonous root, and the man was cured.

In other complaints, particularly in those which proceed from rheumatic affections, bleeding and sweating are always the first remedies applied. The sweat oven is the first thing that an Indian has recourse to when he feels the least indisposed; it is the place to which the wearied traveller, hunter, or warrior looks for relief from the fatigues he has endured, the cold he has caught, or the restoration of his lost appetite.

In other complaints, especially those related to rheumatic conditions, bleeding and sweating are usually the first treatments used. The sweat lodge is the first thing an individual turns to when they feel even slightly unwell; it’s where a tired traveler, hunter, or warrior seeks relief from the exhaustion they’ve experienced, the cold they’ve caught, or to regain their lost appetite.

This oven is made of different sizes, so as to accommodate from two to six persons at a time, or according to the number of men in the village, so that they may be all successively served. It is generally built on a bank or slope, one half of it within and the other above ground. It is well covered on the top with split plank and earth, and has a door in front, where the ground is level to go or rather to creep in. Here, on the outside, stones, generally of about the size of a large turnip, are heated by one or more men appointed each day for that purpose. While the oven is heating, decoctions from roots or plants are prepared either by the person himself who intends to sweat, or by one of the men of the village, who boils a large kettleful for the general use, so that when the public cryer going his rounds, calls out Pimook! “go to sweat!” every one brings his small kettle, which is filled for him with the potion, which at the same time serves him as a medicine, promotes a profuse perspiration, and quenches his thirst. As soon as a sufficient number have come to the oven, a number of the hot stones are rolled into the middle of it, and the sweaters go in, seating themselves or rather squatting round those stones, and there they remain until the sweat ceases to flow; then they come out, throwing a blanket or two about them that they may not catch cold; in the mean while, fresh heated stones are thrown in for 226 those who follow them. While they are in the oven, water is now and then poured on the hot stones to produce a steam, which they say, increases the heat, and gives suppleness to their limbs and joints. In rheumatic complaints, the steam is produced by a decoction of boiled roots, and the patient during the operation is well wrapped up in blankets, to keep the cold air from him, and promote perspiration at the same time.

This oven comes in different sizes, allowing for anywhere from two to six people at a time, or based on how many men live in the village so they can all be served one after another. It’s usually built on a slope, with half of it underground and the other half above ground. The top is well covered with split planks and earth, and there’s a door in front where the ground is leveled for easy access. Outside, stones about the size of a large turnip are heated by one or more men assigned to do this each day. While the oven heats up, decoctions made from roots or plants are prepared either by the person planning to sweat or by one of the village men, who boils a large kettleful for everyone to use. When the public crier goes around calling out Pimook! “go to sweat!” everyone brings their small kettle, which gets filled with the potion that simultaneously acts as medicine, induces heavy sweating, and quenches thirst. Once enough people have gathered at the oven, some of the heated stones are rolled into the middle, and the people going to sweat enter, sitting or squatting around the stones. They stay there until they stop sweating; then they come out, wrapping themselves in one or two blankets to avoid catching cold. Meanwhile, fresh hot stones are added for those coming in next. While they’re in the oven, water is occasionally poured over the hot stones to create steam, which they say increases the heat and makes their limbs and joints more flexible. For rheumatic complaints, steam is created using a decoction of boiled roots, and the patient is wrapped in blankets to keep out the cold air and encourage sweating at the same time.

Those sweat ovens are generally at some distance from an Indian village, where wood and water are always at hand. The best order is preserved at those places. The women have their separate oven in a different direction from that of the men, and subjected to the same rules. The men generally sweat themselves once and sometimes twice a week; the women have no fixed day for this exercise, nor do they use it as often as the men.

Those sweat lodges are usually located a bit away from an Indian village, where wood and water are easily accessible. The best order is maintained at these spots. The women have their own lodge in a different direction from the men's, and they follow the same rules. The men typically sweat once or twice a week; the women don't have a set day for this practice, nor do they do it as frequently as the men.

In the year 1784,195 a gentleman whom I had been acquainted with at Detroit, and who had been for a long time in an infirm state of health, came from thence to the village of the Christian Indians on the Huron river, in order to have the benefit of the sweat oven. It being in the middle of winter, when there was a deep snow on the ground, and the weather was excessively cold, I advised him to postpone his sweating to a warmer season; but he persisting in his resolution, I advised him by no means to remain in the oven longer than fifteen or at most twenty minutes. But when he once was in it, feeling himself comfortable, he remained a full hour, at the end of which he fainted, and was brought by two strong Indians to my house, in very great pain and not able to walk. He remained with me until the next day, when we took him down in his sleigh to his family at Detroit. His situation was truly deplorable; his physicians at that place gave up all hopes of his recovery, and he frequently expressed his regret that he had not followed my advice. Suddenly, however, a change took place for the better, and he not only recovered his perfect health, but became a stout corpulent 227 man, so that he would often say, that his going into the sweat oven was the best thing he had ever done in his life for the benefit of his health. He said so to me fifteen years afterwards when I saw him in the year 1798. He had not had the least indisposition since that time. He died about the year 1814, at an advanced age.

In 1784, a man I knew from Detroit, who had been in poor health for a long time, came to the village of the Christian Indians on the Huron River for the benefits of the sweat lodge. It was the middle of winter, with deep snow and extremely cold weather, so I suggested he wait until it was warmer. However, he insisted on going ahead, so I told him not to stay in the lodge longer than fifteen to twenty minutes at most. But once he was inside and felt comfortable, he stayed for a full hour. By the end of that time, he fainted and had to be carried to my house by two strong Indians, in significant pain and unable to walk. He stayed with me until the next day when we took him back to his family in Detroit by sleigh. His condition was truly dire; the doctors there had given up hope for his recovery, and he often regretted not taking my advice. Suddenly, things took a turn for the better, and he not only regained his full health but also became a robust and heavyset man. He frequently said that going into the sweat lodge was the best decision he ever made for his health. He told me this fifteen years later when I saw him in 1798. He hadn’t experienced any health issues since then. He passed away around 1814 at an old age.

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CHAPTER XXX.
Doctors and Surgeons.

B

By these names I mean to distinguish the good and honest practitioners who are in the habit of curing and healing diseases and wounds, by the simple application of natural remedies, without any mixture of superstition in the manner of preparing or administering them. They are very different from the doctors or jugglers, of whom I shall speak in the next chapter. In one point, only, they seem to participate in their ridiculous notions, that is, in the different manner, which I have already noticed, of drawing water up or down the current of a stream, as it is to be respectively employed as a vehicle for an emetic or a cathartic. This singular idea prevails generally among the Indians of all classes. They think that as the one remedy is to work upwards and the other downwards, care should be taken in the preparation to follow the course of nature, so that no confusion should take place in the stomach or bowels of the patient.

By these names, I’m referring to the skilled and honest practitioners who regularly treat and heal illnesses and injuries using simple natural remedies, without mixing in any superstitious practices in how they prepare or apply them. They are very different from the doctors or charlatans I’ll discuss in the next chapter. In one way, though, they seem to share some of their absurd beliefs, which I've already pointed out; that is, in the different methods of drawing water up or down the current of a stream, as it should be used respectively for an emetic or a laxative. This unusual belief is common among all classes of Indians. They believe that since one remedy is meant to work upwards and the other downwards, it’s essential in the preparation to follow the natural flow, so there’s no confusion in the patient's stomach or intestines.

With this only exception the Indian physicians are perhaps more free from fanciful theories than those of any other nation upon earth. Their science is entirely founded on observation, experience and the well tried efficacy of remedies. There are physicians of both sexes, who take considerable pains to acquire a correct knowledge of the properties and medical virtues of plants, roots and barks, for the benefit of their fellow-men. They are very careful to have at all times a full assortment of their medicines on hand, which they gather and collect at the proper seasons, sometimes fetching them from the distance of several 229 days’ journey from their homes, then they cure or dry them properly, tie them up in small bundles, and preserve them for use. It were to be wished that they were better skilled in the quantity of the medicines which they administer. But they are too apt, in general, to give excessive doses, on the mistaken principle that “much of a good thing must necessarily do much good.”

With this one exception, Indian physicians are probably more free from fanciful theories than those of any other nation on Earth. Their practice is completely based on observation, experience, and the proven effectiveness of remedies. There are doctors of both genders who work hard to gain a thorough understanding of the properties and medical benefits of plants, roots, and barks for the benefit of their communities. They are very careful to always have a complete range of medicines available, which they gather and collect during the appropriate seasons, sometimes traveling several days' journey from their homes. They then properly cure or dry these materials, tie them in small bundles, and store them for use. It would be preferable if they were more skilled in determining the right dosage of the medicines they administer. However, they tend to give excessive doses, based on the mistaken belief that “much of a good thing must necessarily do much good.”

Nevertheless, I must say, that their practice in general succeeds pretty well. I have myself been benefited and cured by taking their emetics and their medicines in fevers, and by being sweated after their manner while labouring under a stubborn rheumatism. I have also known many, both whites and Indians, who have with the same success resorted to Indian physicians while labouring under diseases. The wives of Missionaries, in every instance in which they had to apply to the female physicians, for the cure of complaints peculiar to their sex, experienced good results from their abilities. They are also well skilled in curing wounds and bruises. I once for two days and two nights, suffered the most excruciating pain from a felon or whitlow on one of my fingers, which deprived me entirely of sleep. I had recourse to an Indian woman, who in less than half an hour relieved me entirely by the simple application of a poultice made of the root of the common blue violet.

Nevertheless, I have to say that their practice generally works quite well. I have personally benefited and been cured by taking their emetics and medicines during fevers, and by being sweated in their way while suffering from stubborn rheumatism. I have also known many, both white people and Indians, who have successfully turned to Indian doctors while dealing with various illnesses. The wives of missionaries, whenever they consulted female doctors for issues specific to their gender, found good results from their skills. They are also very skilled at treating wounds and bruises. I once endured two days and nights of excruciating pain from an infection on one of my fingers, which completely deprived me of sleep. I sought help from an Indian woman, who relieved my pain entirely in less than half an hour by simply applying a poultice made from the root of the common blue violet.

Indeed, it is in the cure of external wounds that they particularly excel. Not only their professional men and women, but every warrior is more or less acquainted with the healing properties of roots and plants, which is, in a manner, indispensable to them, as they are so often in danger of being wounded in their engagements with the enemy. Hence this branch of knowledge is carried to a great degree of perfection among them. I firmly believe that there is no wound, unless it should be absolutely mortal, or beyond the skill of our own good practitioners, which an Indian surgeon (I mean the best of them) will not succeed in healing. I once knew a noted Shawano, who having, out of friendship, conducted several white traders in safety to Pittsburgh, while they were sought for by other Indians who wanted to revenge on them the murders committed by white men of some of their people, was on his return fired at by some 230 white villains, who had waylaid him for that purpose, and shot in the breast. This man, when I saw him, had already travelled eighty miles, with a wound from which blood and a kind of watery froth issued every time he breathed. Yet he told me he was sure of being cured, if he could only reach Waketemeki, a place fifty miles distant, where there were several eminent Indian surgeons. To me and others who examined the wound, it appeared incurable; nevertheless, he reached the place and was perfectly cured. I saw him at Detroit ten years afterwards; he was in sound health and grown to be a corpulent man. Nine years after this I dined with him at the same place.

Certainly, they really excel at treating external wounds. Not only their medical professionals, but every warrior knows a bit about the healing properties of roots and plants, which is essential for them since they're often at risk of getting injured in battles with the enemy. As a result, this area of knowledge is highly developed among them. I firmly believe that there’s no wound, unless it’s immediately fatal or beyond the abilities of our own skilled doctors, that a top Indian surgeon won’t be able to heal. I once knew a well-known Shawano who, out of friendship, safely guided several white traders to Pittsburgh while being hunted by other Indians seeking revenge for the murders of some of their people by white men. On his way back, he was shot in the chest by white criminals who had ambushed him. When I saw him, he had already traveled eighty miles, with a wound that bled and oozed a watery foam every time he breathed. Still, he told me he was confident about being cured if he could just reach Waketemeki, a location fifty miles away where several skilled Indian surgeons were available. To me and others who examined the wound, it seemed incurable; however, he made it to that place and was completely healed. I saw him in Detroit ten years later; he was in great health and had become quite a hefty man. Nine years after that, I shared a meal with him at the same location.

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CHAPTER XXXI.
Doctors or entertainers.

I

I call these men Doctors, because it is the name given them by their countrymen who have borrowed it from our language,196 and they are themselves very fond of this pompous title. They are a set of professional impostors, who, availing themselves of the superstitious prejudices of the people, acquire the name and reputation of men of superior knowledge, and possessed of supernatural powers. As the Indians in general believe in witchcraft, and ascribe, as I have already said, to the arts of sorcerers many of the disorders with which they are afflicted in the regular course of nature, this class of men has risen among them, who pretend to be skilled in a certain occult science, by means of which they are able not only to cure natural diseases, but to counteract or destroy the enchantments of wizards or witches, and expel evil spirits.

I’m calling these men Doctors because that’s what their fellow countrymen refer to them as, borrowing the term from our language,196 and they really enjoy this flashy title. They are a group of professional frauds who, taking advantage of the superstitions of the people, earn the name and reputation of having superior knowledge and supernatural powers. Since the Indians generally believe in witchcraft and attribute, as I’ve mentioned before, many of the issues they face to the practices of sorcerers, this group has emerged among them, claiming to be experts in a certain secret science that allows them to not only heal natural ailments but also to counteract or destroy the spells of wizards or witches and drive away evil spirits.

These men are physicians, like the others of whom I have spoken, and like them are acquainted with the properties and virtues of plants, barks, roots, and other remedies. They differ from them only by their pretensions to a superior knowledge, and by the impudence with which they impose upon the credulous. I am sorry that truth obliges me to confess, that in their profession they rank above the honest practitioners. They pretend that there are disorders which cannot be cured by the ordinary remedies, and to the treatment of which the talents of 232 common physicians are inadequate. They say that when a complaint has been brought on by witchcraft, more powerful remedies must be applied, and measures must be taken to defeat the designs of the person who bewitched the unfortunate patient. This can only be done by removing or destroying the deleterious or deadening substance which has been conveyed into them, or, if it is an evil spirit, to confine or expel him, or banish him to a distant region from whence he may never return.

These men are doctors, just like the others I’ve mentioned, and they understanding the properties and benefits of plants, bark, roots, and other remedies. Their only difference is their claim to superior knowledge and the boldness with which they deceive the gullible. I regret to say that the truth compels me to acknowledge that in their field, they consider themselves above the honest practitioners. They argue that there are conditions that can’t be treated with standard remedies and that the skills of regular doctors aren’t enough. They claim that when an ailment is caused by witchcraft, stronger treatments are needed, and steps must be taken to thwart the intentions of the person who cursed the unfortunate patient. This can only be achieved by removing or destroying the harmful or paralyzing substance introduced into them, or, if it involves an evil spirit, by confining or banishing that spirit to a far-off place from which it can never return.

When the juggler has succeeded in persuading his patient that his disorder is such that no common physician has it in his power to relieve, he will next endeavour to convince him of the necessity of making him very strong, which means, giving him a large fee, which he will say, is justly due to a man who, like himself, is able to perform such difficult things. If the patient who applies, is rich, the Doctor will never fail, whatever the complaint may be, to ascribe it to the powers of witchcraft, and recommend himself as the only person capable of giving relief in such a hard and complicated case. The poor patient, therefore, if he will have the benefit of the great man’s advice and assistance, must immediately give him his honorarium, which is commonly either a fine horse, or a good rifle-gun, a considerable quantity of wampum, or goods to a handsome amount. When this fee is well secured, and not before, the Doctor prepares for the hard task that he has undertaken, with as much apparent labour as if he was about to remove a mountain. He casts his eyes all round him to attract notice, puts on grave and important looks, appears wrapt in thought and meditation and enjoys for a while the admiration of the spectators. At last he begins his operation. Attired in a frightful dress, he approaches his patient, with a variety of contortions and gestures, and performs by his side and over him all the antic tricks that his imagination can suggest. He breathes on him, blows in his mouth, and squirts some medicines which he has prepared in his face, mouth and nose; he rattles his gourd filled with dry beans or pebbles, pulls out and handles about a variety of sticks and bundles in which he appears to be seeking for the proper remedy, all which is accompanied with the most horrid gesticulations, by which he endeavours, as he says, to frighten the spirit or the disorder 233 away, and continues in this manner until he is quite exhausted and out of breath, when he retires to wait the issue.

When the juggler has convinced his patient that their condition is so unique that no regular doctor can help, he will then try to convince them of the need to make him very strong, which means paying him a large fee, which he claims is deserved for someone who, like him, can perform such challenging feats. If the patient is wealthy, the Doctor will always attribute their illness to witchcraft and present himself as the only one capable of providing help in such a tough and complicated situation. Therefore, the unfortunate patient, in order to benefit from the great man’s guidance and support, must immediately pay him his honorarium, which usually takes the form of a fine horse, a good rifle, a significant amount of wampum, or valuable goods. Once this fee is secured, and not before, the Doctor prepares for the difficult task ahead with as much apparent effort as if he were preparing to move a mountain. He scans his surroundings to draw attention, puts on a serious and important expression, appears deep in thought and reflection, and enjoys a moment of admiration from the audience. Finally, he begins his procedure. Dressed in a terrifying outfit, he approaches his patient with various contortions and gestures, performing all the ridiculous tricks he can think of beside and over them. He breathes on them, blows into their mouth, and squirts some concoctions he's prepared into their face, mouth, and nose; he shakes a gourd filled with dry beans or pebbles, pulls out and handles various sticks and bundles as if searching for the right remedy, all while engaging in the most horrifying movements, which he claims are meant to scare the spirit or the illness away, continuing in this manner until he is completely worn out and out of breath, after which he steps back to await the results.

The visits of the juggler are, if the patient requires it, repeated from time to time; not, however, without his giving a fresh fee previous to each visit. This continues until the property of the patient is entirely exhausted, or until he resolves upon calling in another doctor, with whom feeing must begin anew in the same manner that it did with his predecessor.

The juggler's visits happen as needed, but the patient has to pay a new fee before each visit. This goes on until the patient's money runs out, or until they decide to hire another doctor, which means they’ll have to start paying fees all over again like they did with the first one.

When at length the art of the juggling tribe has after repeated trials proved ineffectual, the patient is declared incurable. The doctors will say, that he applied to them too late, that he did not exactly follow their prescriptions, or sometimes, that he was bewitched by one of the greatest masters of the science, and that unless a professor can be found possessed of superior knowledge, he is doomed to die or linger in pain beyond the power of relief.

When the juggling experts finally conclude after many attempts that they can’t help, the patient is labeled as incurable. The doctors will claim that the patient came to them too late, didn’t really follow their advice, or sometimes, that they were under a spell cast by one of the top experts in the field. They say that unless a professor with greater knowledge can be found, the patient is doomed to either die or suffer in pain without any relief.

Thus these jugglers carry on their deceit, and enrich themselves at the expense of the credulous and foolish. I have known instances in which they declared a patient perfectly cured and out of all danger, who nevertheless died of his disorder a very few days afterwards, although his doctors affirmed that the evil spirit or the effects of witchcraft were entirely removed from him; on the other hand, I have seen cases in which the patient recovered after being pronounced incurable and condemned to die. In those cases, however, he had had the good sense to apply to some of the honest physicians of one or the other sex, who had relieved him by a successful application of their medicines.

So these tricksters continue their deception and make profits off the gullible and foolish. I've known cases where they claimed a patient was completely cured and out of harm's way, only for that patient to die from their illness just a few days later, even though the doctors insisted that the evil spirit or effects of witchcraft were fully dealt with. On the flip side, I've witnessed patients recover after being labeled as incurable and sentenced to die. In those instances, though, the patient wisely sought help from some honest doctors, regardless of gender, who successfully treated them with their medicines.

The jugglers’ dress, when in the exercise of their functions, exhibits a most frightful sight. I had no idea of the importance of these men, until by accident I met with one, habited in his full costume. As I was once walking through the street of a large Indian village on the Muskingum, with the chief Gelelemend,197 whom we call Kill-buck, one of those monsters 234 suddenly came out of the house next to me, at whose sight I was so frightened, that I flew immediately to the other side of the chief, who observing my agitation and the quick strides I made, asked me what was the matter, and what I thought it was that I saw before me. “By its outward appearance,” answered I, “I would think it a bear, or some such ferocious animal, what is inside I do not know, but rather judge it to be the Evil Spirit.” My friend Kill-buck smiled, and replied, “O! no, no; don’t believe that! it is a man you well know, it is our Doctor.” “A Doctor!” said I, “what! a human being to transform himself so as to be taken for a bear walking on his hind legs, and with horns on his head? You will not, surely, deceive me; if it is not a bear, it must be some other ferocious animal that I have never seen before.” The juggler within the dress hearing what passed between us, began to act over some of his curious pranks, probably intending to divert me, as he saw I was looking at him with great amazement, not unmixed with fear; but the more he went on with his performance, the more I was at a loss to decide, whether he was a human being or a bear; for he imitated that animal in the greatest perfection, walking upright on his hind legs as I had often seen it do. At last I renewed my questions to the chief, and begged him seriously to tell me what that figure was, and he assured me that although outside it had the appearance of a bear, yet inside there was a man, and that it was our doctor going to visit one of his patients who was bewitched. A dialogue then ensued between us, which I shall relate, as well as I can recollect it, in its very words:

The juggler's outfit, when they're performing, is a really terrifying sight. I didn’t realize how important these guys were until I accidentally came across one dressed in full costume. One time, while I was walking through the streets of a big Indian village on the Muskingum River with Chief Gelelemend, known to us as Kill-buck, one of those creatures suddenly came out of the house next to me. I was so scared that I immediately rushed to the other side of the chief. Noticing my panic and quick movements, he asked me what was wrong and what I thought I saw. “From its appearance,” I replied, “I would think it's a bear or some other fierce animal; I don’t know what it is inside, but I suspect it's the Evil Spirit.” My friend Kill-buck smiled and said, “Oh no, no; don’t believe that! It’s a man you know well, it’s our Doctor.” “A Doctor!” I exclaimed. “What, a human who can transform himself to look like a bear walking on its hind legs, with horns on his head? You can’t be serious; if it’s not a bear, it must be some other wild animal I’ve never seen before.” The juggler heard our conversation and started to perform some of his tricks, probably to entertain me as I was staring at him in amazement and fear. But the more he performed, the more confused I became about whether he was a person or a bear since he imitated that animal perfectly, walking upright like I had often seen bears do. Finally, I asked the chief again, begging him to tell me seriously what that figure was. He assured me that even though it looked like a bear on the outside, inside there was a man, and it was our doctor going to visit one of his patients who was bewitched. Then a conversation followed, which I will recount as best as I can remember it, word for word:

Heckew. But why does he go dressed in that manner? 235 Won’t his patient be frightened to death on seeing him enter the house?

Heck. But why does he dress like that? 235 Won’t his patient be terrified when he sees him walk into the house?

Killb. No! indeed, no; it is the disorder, the evil spirit, that will be frightened away; as to the sick man, he well knows that unless the doctor has recourse to the most powerful means, he cannot be relieved, but must fall a sacrifice to the wicked will of some evil person. And, pray, don’t your doctors in obstinate and dubious cases, also recur to powerful means in order to relieve their patients?

Kill. No! Absolutely not; it's the disorder, the bad spirit, that needs to be scared off; as for the sick man, he knows that unless the doctor uses the strongest methods, he won't get better and will instead become a victim of some malicious person's will. And, honestly, don’t your doctors also turn to strong measures in tough and uncertain cases to help their patients?

Heckew. To my knowledge, there are no cases where witchcraft is assigned as the cause of a disorder, of course our doctors have nothing to do with that; and though they may sometimes have occasion to apply powerful remedies in obstinate diseases, yet it is not done by dressing themselves like wild beasts, to frighten, as you say, the disorder away. Were our doctors to adopt this mode, they would soon be left without patients and without bread; they would starve.

Heck. As far as I know, there are no instances where witchcraft is blamed for an illness; of course, our doctors don’t involve themselves in that. And while they may occasionally need to use strong treatments for stubborn diseases, they don’t do it by dressing up like wild animals to scare the illness away, as you put it. If our doctors were to take that approach, they would quickly run out of patients and income; they would be left to starve.

Killb. Our doctors are the richest people among us, they have everything they want; fine horses to ride, fine clothes to wear, plenty of strings and belts of wampum, and silver arm and breast plates in abundance.

Killbe. Our doctors are the wealthiest individuals in our community; they have everything they desire: elegant horses to ride, stylish clothes to wear, plenty of wampum strings and belts, and an abundance of silver arm and breastplates.

Heckew. And our doctors have very fine horses and carriages, fine houses, fine clothes, plenty of good provisions and wines, and plenty of money besides! They are looked upon as gentlemen, and would not suffer your doctor, dressed as he is, to come into their company.

Heck. And our doctors have really nice horses and carriages, nice houses, nice clothes, lots of good food and drinks, and a good amount of money too! They're seen as gentlemen, and they wouldn't let your doctor, as he is dressed, join them.

Killb. You must, my friend! consider that the cases are very different. Had the white people sorcerers among them as the Indians have, they would find it necessary to adopt our practice and apply our remedies in the same manner that our doctors do. They would find it necessary to take strong measures to counteract and destroy the dreadful effects of witchcraft.

Killb. You have to, my friend! keep in mind that the situations are very different. If white people had sorcerers among them like the Indians do, they would need to adopt our practices and apply our remedies just like our doctors do. They would find it necessary to take serious steps to counteract and eliminate the terrible effects of witchcraft.

Heckew. The sorcerers that you speak of exist only in your imagination; rid yourselves of this, and you will hear no more of them.

Heck. The sorcerers you’re talking about are just a figment of your imagination; let that go, and you won’t hear about them anymore.

The dress this juggler had on, consisted of an entire garment or outside covering, made of one or more bear skins, as black as jet, so well fitted and sewed together, that the man was not 236 in any place to be perceived. The whole head of the bear, including the mouth, nose, teeth, ears, &c., appeared the same as when the animal was living; so did the legs with long claws; to this were added a huge pair of horns on the head, and behind a large bushy tail, moving as he walked, as though it were on springs; but for these accompaniments, the man, walking on all fours, might have been taken for a bear of an extraordinary size. Underneath, where his hands were, holes had been cut, though not visible to the eye, being covered with the long hair, through which he held and managed his implements, and he saw through two holes set with glass. The whole was a great curiosity, but not to be looked at by everybody.

The outfit this juggler wore was a full garment made from one or more bear skins, as black as jet, so well fitted and sewn together that the man was completely concealed. The entire head of the bear, including the mouth, nose, teeth, ears, etc., looked just like the animal when it was alive; the legs were also realistic with long claws. To this, he added a huge pair of horns on his head, and behind him, a large, bushy tail moved as he walked, as if it were on springs. Without these extra features, the man crawling on all fours could easily have been mistaken for an extraordinarily large bear. There were holes cut where his hands were, but they were hidden by the long fur, allowing him to hold and manage his props, and he looked through two glass-set openings. It was quite a sight, but not something everyone could look at.

There are jugglers of another kind, in general old men and women, who although not classed among doctors or physicians, yet get their living by pretending to supernatural knowledge. Some pretend that they can bring down rain in dry weather when wanted, others prepare ingredients, which they sell to bad hunters, that they may have good luck, and others make philters or love potions for such married persons as either do not, or think they cannot love each other.

There are other kinds of tricksters, usually older men and women, who, although not considered doctors or physicians, make a living by claiming to have supernatural knowledge. Some say they can make it rain when needed during dry spells, while others mix ingredients that they sell to poor hunters so they can have better luck. There are also those who create potions or love spells for married couples who either don’t love each other or believe they can’t.

When one of these jugglers is applied to to bring down rain in a dry season, he must in the first instance receive a fee. This fee is made up by the women, who, as cultivators of the land are supposed to be most interested, but the men will slily slip something in their hands in aid of their collection, which consists of wampum beads, tobacco, silver broaches, and a dressed deer skin to make shoes of. If the juggler does not succeed in his experiment, he never is in want of an excuse; either the winds are in opposition to one another, the dry wind or air is too powerful for the moist or south wind, or he has not been made strong enough, (that is sufficiently paid,) to compel the north to give way to the south from whence the rain is to come, or lastly, he wants time to invoke the great Spirit to aid him on the important occasion.

When one of these jugglers is called upon to bring rain during a dry season, he must first be paid a fee. This fee is mainly provided by the women, who, as farmers, are seen as the most invested, but the men will discreetly slip him some cash to help with the collection, which includes wampum beads, tobacco, silver brooches, and a dressed deer skin for making shoes. If the juggler fails in his attempt, he always has an excuse ready; either the winds are conflicting, the dry wind is too strong for the moist or south wind, or he hasn't been made strong enough (that is, he hasn't been paid sufficiently) to persuade the north wind to give way to the south from where the rain is supposed to come, or finally, he needs time to call upon the great Spirit for assistance in this crucial matter.

In the summer of the year 1799, a most uncommon drouth happened in the Muskingum country, so that every thing growing, even the grass and the leaves of the trees, appeared perishing; an old man named Chenos, who was born on the river 237 Delaware, was applied to by the women to bring down rain, and was well feed for the purpose. Having failed in his first attempt, he was feed a second time, and it happened that one morning, when my business obliged me to pass by the place where he was at work, as I knew him very well, I asked him at once what he was doing? “I am hired,” said he, “to do a very hard day’s work.”

In the summer of 1799, an unusual drought occurred in the Muskingum area, causing everything to wilt, even the grass and leaves on the trees. An old man named Chenos, who was born by the Delaware River, was asked by the women to bring rain and was well compensated for his efforts. After he failed in his first attempt, he was paid again to try. One morning, while I was passing by where he was working, I asked him what he was doing, knowing him quite well. “I’m hired,” he replied, “to do a very hard day’s work.”

Q. And, pray, what work?

What work, if I may ask?

A. Why, to bring down rain from the sky.

A. Why, to bring down rain from the sky.

Q. Who hired you to do that?

Q. Who hired you to do that?

A. The women of the village; don’t you see how much rain is wanted, and that the corn and every thing else is perishing?

A. The women of the village; don’t you see how much rain we need, and that the corn and everything else is dying?

Q. But can you make it rain?

Q. But can you make it rain?

A. I can, and you shall be convinced of it this very day.

A. I can, and you will see for yourself by the end of today.

He had, by this time, encompassed a square of about five feet each way, with stakes and barks so that it might resemble a pig pen of about three feet in height, and now, with his face uplifted and turned towards the north, he muttered something, then closely shutting up with bark the opening which had been left on the north side, he turned in the same manner, still muttering some words, towards the south, as if invoking some superior being, and having cut through the bark on the southwest corner, so as to make an opening of two feet, he said: “now we shall have rain enough!” Hearing down the river the sound of setting poles striking against a canoe, he enquired of me what it was? I told him it was our Indians going up the river to make a bush net for fishing. “Send them home again!” said he, “tell them that this will not be a fit day for fishing!” I told him to let them come on and speak to them himself, if he pleased. He did so, and as soon as they came near him, he told them that they must by no means think of fishing that day, for there should come a heavy rain which would wet them all through. “No matter, Father!” answered they in a jocular manner, “give us only rain and we will cheerfully bear the soaking.” They then passed on, and I proceeded to Goschachking, the village to which I was going.198 I mentioned the circumstance 238 to the chief of the place, and told him that I thought it impossible that we should have rain while the sky was so clear as it then was and had been for near five weeks together, without its being previously announced by some signs or change in the atmosphere. But the chief answered: “Chenos knows very well what he is about; he can at any time predict what the weather will be; he takes his observations morning and evening from the river or something in it.” On my return from this place after three o’clock in the afternoon, the sky still continued the same until about four o’clock, when all at once the horizon became overcast, and without any thunder or wind it began to rain, and continued so for several hours together, until the ground became thoroughly soaked.

He had, by this time, created a square about five feet on each side using stakes and bark to make it look like a pig pen about three feet high. With his face raised and turned toward the north, he muttered something, then tightly closed the opening he had left on the north side with bark. He then turned in the same way, still murmuring some words, toward the south, as if calling on some higher power. After cutting through the bark on the southwest corner to make a two-foot opening, he said, “Now we’re going to get plenty of rain!” Hearing the sound of poles hitting a canoe down the river, he asked me what it was. I told him it was our Indians heading up the river to make a bush net for fishing. “Send them back!” he said, “tell them today isn't a good day for fishing!” I told him to let them come and talk to them himself if he wanted to. He did, and as soon as they got close, he told them not to think about fishing today because a heavy rain was coming that would soak them. “No worries, Father!” they replied jokingly, “just give us rain and we’ll happily deal with getting wet.” They then moved on, and I continued to Goschachking, the village I was heading to.198 I mentioned this to the village chief and told him I thought it was impossible for it to rain with the sky so clear, especially after nearly five weeks of clear weather without any signs or changes in the atmosphere. The chief responded, “Chenos knows what he’s doing; he can predict the weather anytime. He studies the river or something in it every morning and evening.” On my way back after three o’clock in the afternoon, the sky stayed clear until about four when suddenly the horizon became cloudy, and without any thunder or wind, it started to rain, continuing for several hours until the ground was thoroughly soaked.

I am of the opinion that this man, like others whom I have known, was a strict observer of the weather, and that his prediction that day was made in consequence of his having observed some signs in the sky or in the water, which his experience had taught him to be the forerunners of rain; yet the credulous multitude did not fail to ascribe it to his supernatural power.

I believe that this man, like others I’ve known, was very attentive to the weather, and that his prediction that day was based on signs he observed in the sky or water, which his experience had taught him were indicators of rain; however, the gullible crowd credited it to his supernatural abilities.

The ingredients for a bad hunter, to make him have good luck, are tied up in a bit of cloth, and must be worn near his skin while he is hunting. The preparations intended to create love between man and wife, are to be slily conveyed to the frigid party by means of his victuals or drink.

The ingredients for a bad hunter to boost his luck are wrapped in a piece of cloth and need to be kept close to his skin while he hunts. The things meant to spark love between a husband and wife are secretly given to the uninterested partner through his food or drink.

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239


CHAPTER XXXII.
Superstition.

G

Great and powerful as the Indian concieves himself to be, firm and undaunted as he really is, braving all seasons and weathers, careless of dangers, patient of hunger, thirst and cold, and fond of displaying the native energy of his character even in the midst of tortures, at the very thought of which our own puny nature revolts and shudders; this Lord of the Creation, whose life is spent in a state of constant warfare against the wild beasts of the forest and the savages of the wilderness, who, proud of his independent existence, strikes his breast with exultation and exclaims “I am a man!”—the American Indian has one weak side, which sinks him down to the level of the most fearful and timid being, a childish apprehension of an occult and unknown power, which, unless he can summon sufficient fortitude to conquer it, changes at once the hero into a coward. It is incredible to what a degree the Indians’ superstitious belief in witchcraft operates upon their minds; the moment that their imagination is struck with the idea that they are bewitched, they are no longer themselves; their fancy is constantly at work in creating the most horrid and distressing images. They see themselves falling a sacrifice to the wicked arts of a vile unknown hand, of one who would not have dared to face them in fair combat; dying a miserable, ignominious death; a death, to which they would a thousand times prefer the stake with all its horrors. No tale, no tradition, no memorial of their courage or heroic fortitude will go down with it to posterity; it will be thought that they were not deserving 240 of a better fate. And, (O! dreadful thought to an Indian mind!) that death is to remain forever unrevenged;—their friends, their relations, the men of their own tribe, will seek the murderer in vain; they will seek him while, perhaps, he is in the midst of them, unnoticed and unknown, smiling at their impotent rage, and calmly selecting some new victim to his infernal art.

Awesome and powerful as the Indian believes himself to be, strong and fearless as he truly is, facing all seasons and weather, indifferent to dangers, enduring hunger, thirst, and cold, and eager to showcase his natural strength even in the midst of suffering, at the mere thought of which our own frail nature recoils; this Lord of Creation, whose life is spent in a constant battle against the wild beasts of the forest and the savages of the wilderness, who, proud of his independence, beats his chest with pride and exclaims, “I am a man!”—the American Indian has one vulnerability that brings him down to the level of the most fearful and timid being: a childish fear of an unseen and mysterious force, which, unless he can muster enough courage to overcome it, transforms the hero into a coward. It's astonishing how much the Indians’ superstitious belief in witchcraft influences their minds; the moment their imagination is struck by the idea that they are bewitched, they stop being themselves; their minds continually create the most horrific and distressing images. They envision themselves falling victim to the wicked schemes of a vile, unknown adversary, someone who would never dare confront them in open combat; dying a miserable and disgraceful death, a death they would rather face a thousand times than endure the stake with all its horrors. No story, no tradition, no legacy of their bravery or heroic endurance will survive to future generations; it will be believed that they were not deserving of a better fate. And, (O! dreadful thought to an Indian mind!) that death will remain forever unavenged;—their friends, their families, the members of their tribe will search for the murderer in vain; they will search even as he may be among them, unnoticed and unknown, smirking at their helpless anger, and calmly choosing a new victim for his cruel art.

Of this extraordinary power of their conjurers, of the causes which produce it, and the manner in which it is acquired, the Indians as may well be supposed, have not a very definite idea. All they can say is that the sorcerer makes use of a “deadening substance,” which he discharges and conveys to the person that he means to “strike,” through the air, by means of the wind or of his own breath, or throws at him in a manner which they can neither understand nor describe. The person thus “stricken,” is immediately seized with an unaccountable terror, his spirits sink, his appetite fails, he is disturbed in his sleep, he pines and wastes away, or a fit of sickness seizes him, and he dies at last a miserable victim to the workings of his own imagination.

Of this incredible power of their conjurers, along with the reasons behind it and how it’s learned, the Indians, as you might expect, don’t have a very clear understanding. All they can say is that the sorcerer uses a “deadening substance” that he sends to the person he intends to “strike” through the air, using the wind or his own breath, or throws it at them in a way they can neither comprehend nor describe. The person who is “stricken” instantly feels an inexplicable fear; their spirits drop, they lose their appetite, they have trouble sleeping, they decline and waste away, or they are hit with a wave of sickness, and ultimately, they die as a tragic victim of their own imagination.

Such are their ideas and the melancholy effects of the dread they feel of that supernatural power which they vainly fancy to exist among them. That they can destroy one another by means of poisonous roots and plants, is certainly true, but in this there is no witchcraft. This prejudice that they labour under can be ascribed to no other cause than their excessive ignorance and credulity. I was once acquainted with a white man, a shrewd and correct observer, who had lived long among the Indians, and being himself related to an Indian family, had the best opportunities of obtaining accurate information on this subject. He told me that he had found the means of getting into the confidence of one of their most noted sorcerers, who had frankly confessed to him, that his secret consisted in exciting fear and suspicion, and creating in the multitude a strong belief in his magical powers, “For,” said he, “such is the credulity of many, that if I only pick a little wool from my blanket, and roll it between my fingers into a small round ball, not larger than a bean, I am by that alone believed to be deeply skilled in the magic art, and it is immediately supposed that I am preparing the deadly substance with which I mean to 241 strike some person or other, although I hardly know myself at the time what my fingers are doing; and if, at that moment, I happen to cast my eyes on a particular man, or even throw a side glance at him, it is enough to make him consider himself as the intended victim; he is from that instant effectually struck, and if he is not possessed of great fortitude, so as to be able to repel the thought, and divert his mind from it, or to persuade himself that it is nothing but the work of a disturbed imagination, he will sink under the terror thus created, and at last perish a victim, not indeed, to witchcraft, but to his own credulity and folly.”

Their beliefs and the sad consequences of their fear of that supernatural power, which they mistakenly think exists among them, are quite telling. It’s true that they can harm one another using poisonous roots and plants, but that’s not witchcraft. This misguided belief stems from their extreme ignorance and gullibility. I once knew a white man, an astute observer, who had spent a lot of time with the Indians and, since he was related to an Indian family, had the best chance to gather accurate information on the topic. He told me he managed to gain the trust of one of their most famous sorcerers, who openly admitted that his secret lay in inciting fear and suspicion, and in instilling a strong belief in his magical powers among the people. He said, “Many are so gullible that if I simply take a bit of wool from my blanket and roll it into a small ball, about the size of a bean, they believe I’m deeply skilled in magic. It’s immediately assumed that I’m preparing some deadly substance to harm someone, even though I hardly know what my fingers are doing. And if I happen to glance at a certain man, or even look at him sideways, he will believe he’s the target; from that moment, he’s effectively struck. If he doesn’t have a lot of courage to push the thought away and convince himself it’s just a figment of his imagination, he’ll succumb to the fear I've created, ultimately becoming a victim—not of witchcraft, but of his own gullibility and foolishness.”

But men of such strong minds are not often to be found; so deeply rooted is the belief of the Indians in those fancied supernatural powers. It is vain to endeavour to convince them by argument that they are entirely founded in delusion and have no real existence. The attempt has been frequently made by sensible white men, but always without success. The following anecdote will shew how little hope there is of ever bringing them to a more rational way of thinking.

But people with such strong minds are rare; the Indians' belief in those imagined supernatural powers is deeply ingrained. It's pointless to try to convince them through argument that these beliefs are completely based in illusion and have no real existence. Smart white men have often tried, but always without success. The following anecdote will demonstrate how little hope there is of ever getting them to think more rationally.

Sometime about the year 1776, a Quaker trader of the name of John Anderson, who among the Indians was called the honest Quaker trader, after vainly endeavouring to convince those people by argument that there was no such thing as witchcraft, took the bold, and I might say the rash, solution to put their sorcerers to the test, and defy the utmost exertions of their pretended supernatural powers. He desired that two of those magicians might be brought successively before him on different days, who should be at liberty to try their art on his person, and do him all the harm that they could by magical means, in the presence of the chiefs and principal men of the village. The Indians tried at first to dissuade him from so dangerous an experiment; but he persisted, and at last they acceded to his demand; a conjurer was brought to him, who professed himself fully competent to the task for which he was called, but he could not be persuaded to make the attempt. He declared that Anderson was so good and so honest a man, so much his friend and the friend of all the Indians, that he could not think of doing him an injury. He never practised his art but on bad 242 men and on those who had injured him; the great Mannitto forbid that he should use it for such a wicked purpose as that for which he was now called upon.

Sometime around 1776, a Quaker trader named John Anderson, known among the Indians as the honest Quaker trader, after unsuccessfully trying to convince them through arguments that witchcraft didn’t exist, made the bold—and I might add reckless—decision to put their sorcerers to the test and challenge the full extent of their supposed supernatural powers. He requested that two of these magicians be brought to him on different days, allowing them to try their magic on him and inflict any harm they could through magical means, all in the presence of the chiefs and leaders of the village. The Indians initially tried to talk him out of this dangerous experiment, but he insisted, and eventually, they agreed to his request. A conjurer was brought to him, claiming to be fully capable of the task at hand, but he refused to attempt it. He stated that Anderson was such a good and honest man, a friend to him and to all the Indians, that he could not bring himself to harm him. He only practiced his art on bad people and those who had wronged him; the great Mannitto forbade him from using it for a wicked purpose like the one he was being asked to fulfill.

The Indians found this excuse perfectly good, and retired more convinced than ever of the abilities of their conjurer, whom they now revered for his conscientious scruples.

The Indians found this excuse totally acceptable and left even more convinced of their conjurer's skills, whom they now respected for his strong principles.

The one who was brought on the next day was of a different stamp. He was an arch sorcerer, whose fame was extended far and wide, and was much dreaded by the Indians, not only on account of his great powers, but of the wicked disposition of his mind. Every effort was made to dissuade Mr. Anderson from exposing himself to what was considered as certain destruction; but he stood firm to his purpose, and only stipulated that the magician should sit at the distance of about twelve feet from him; that he should not be armed with any weapon, nor carry any poison or any thing else of a known destructive nature, and that he should not even rise from his seat, nor advance towards him during the operation. All this was agreed to, the conjurer boasting that he could effect his purpose even at the distance of one hundred miles. The promised reward was brought and placed in full view, and both parties now prepared for the experiment.

The one who showed up the next day was different altogether. He was a powerful sorcerer, whose reputation spread far and wide, and he was greatly feared by the locals, not just because of his incredible abilities but also due to his evil nature. Everyone tried to convince Mr. Anderson not to put himself in what was seen as certain danger; however, he remained resolute and only asked that the magician sit about twelve feet away from him, that he not carry any weapons or poison, or anything else obviously harmful, and that he not stand up or move closer during the process. All of this was agreed upon, with the conjurer boasting that he could achieve his goals even from a hundred miles away. The promised reward was brought out and placed in plain sight, and both sides got ready for the experiment.

The spectators being all assembled, the sorcerer took his seat, arrayed in the most frightful manner that he could devise. Anderson stood firm and composed before him at the stipulated distance. All were silent and attentive while the wizard began his terrible operation. He began with working with his fingers on his blanket, plucking now and then a little wool and breathing on it, then rolling it together in small rolls of the size of a bean, and went through all the antic tricks to which the power of bewitching is generally ascribed. But all this had no effect. Anderson remained cool and composed, now and then calling to his antagonist not to be sparing of his exertions. The conjurer now began to make the most horrid gesticulations, and used all the means in his power to frighten the honest Quaker, who, aware of his purpose, still remained unmoved. At last, while the eyes of all the spectators were fixed on this brave man, to observe the effects of the sorcerer’s craft upon him, this 243 terrible conjurer, finding that all his efforts were in vain, found himself obliged to give up the point, and alleged for his excuse “that the Americans199 eat too much salt provisions; that salt had a repulsive effect, which made the powerful invisible substance that he employed recoil upon him; that the Indians, who eat but little salt, had often felt the effects of this substance, but that the great quantity of it which the white men used effectually protected them against it.”

The crowd gathered, and the sorcerer took his seat, dressed in the most terrifying way he could imagine. Anderson stood calmly and confidently before him at the required distance. Everyone was silent and focused as the wizard began his frightening ritual. He worked his fingers on his blanket, occasionally plucking a bit of wool and breathing on it, then rolling it into small balls the size of a bean, performing all the strange tricks associated with the power of magic. But none of this had an effect. Anderson stayed cool and composed, occasionally urging his opponent to put in more effort. The conjurer then began making the most horrific gestures and did everything he could to scare the honest Quaker, who, knowing his intention, remained unshaken. Finally, while all the spectators watched closely to see how the sorcerer’s magic would affect this brave man, the terrible conjurer, realizing all his efforts were futile, had to concede. He claimed it was because “the Americans eat too much salt; that salt has a repulsive effect, which causes the powerful invisible force he used to bounce back on him; that the Indians, who consume little salt, have often felt the impact of this force, but the large amounts of it that the white people use effectively protect them from it.”

The imposition in this instance was perfectly clear and visible, and nothing was so easy as to see through this sorcerer’s miserable pretence, and be convinced that his boasted art was entirely a deception; but it was not so with the Indians, who firmly believed that the salt which the Americans199 used was the only cause of his failure in this instance, and that if it had not been for the salted meat which Mr. Anderson fed upon, he would have fallen a victim as well as others to the incantations of this impostor.

The trickery in this case was completely obvious, and it was easy to see through this sorcerer’s pathetic act and realize that his claimed skills were just a fraud. However, the Indians didn’t see it that way; they were convinced that the salt used by the Americans199 was the only reason for his failure this time. They believed that if it weren’t for the salted meat that Mr. Anderson ate, he would have also fallen victim to the spells of this con artist, just like the others.

I have received this story from the mouth of Mr. Anderson himself, who was a most respectable gentleman, and also from several credible Indians who were present at the time. After this bold and unsuccessful experiment, it is impossible to expect that the superstitious notions of the Indians on the subject of witchcraft can ever by any means be rooted out of their minds.200 244

I got this story directly from Mr. Anderson himself, a very respectable man, as well as from several trustworthy Indigenous people who were there at the time. After this daring but failed attempt, it’s unrealistic to think that the superstitions about witchcraft held by the Indigenous people can ever be completely removed from their minds.200 244

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CHAPTER XXXIII.
Boys' initiation.

I

I do not know how to give a better name to a superstitious practice which is very common among the Indians, and, indeed, is universal among those nations that I have become acquainted with. By certain methods which I shall presently describe, they put the mind of a boy in a state of perturbation, so as to excite dreams and visions; by means of which they pretend that the boy receives instructions from certain spirits or unknown agents as to his conduct in life, that he is informed of his future destination and of the wonders he is to perform in his future career through the world.

I will not know how to give a better name to a superstitious practice that is very common among the Indians and is, in fact, universal among the nations I have come to know. By certain methods, which I will describe shortly, they disturb a boy's mind to provoke dreams and visions; through these, they claim the boy receives guidance from particular spirits or unknown forces regarding his actions in life, learning about his future path and the incredible things he will accomplish in his life journey.

When a boy is to be thus initiated, he is put under an alternate course of physic and fasting, either taking no food whatever, or swallowing the most powerful and nauseous medicines, and occasionally he is made to drink decoctions of an intoxicating nature, until his mind becomes sufficiently bewildered, so that he sees or fancies that he sees visions, and has extraordinary dreams, for which, of course, he has been prepared beforehand. He will fancy himself flying through the air, walking under ground, stepping from one ridge or hill to the other across the valley beneath, fighting and conquering giants and monsters, and defeating whole hosts by his single arm. Then he has interviews with the Mannitto or with spirits, who inform him of what he was before he was born and what he will be after his death. His fate in this life is laid entirely open before him, the spirit tells him what is to be his future employment, whether he 246 will be a valiant warrior, a mighty hunter, a doctor, a conjurer, or a prophet. There are even those who learn or pretend to learn in this way the time and manner of their death.

When a boy is initiated, he goes through a different regimen of medicine and fasting, either eating nothing at all or taking bitter and strong medicines. Sometimes, he’s also given drinks that can be intoxicating until his mind gets so confused that he either sees or thinks he sees visions and has wild dreams, for which he has been mentally prepared. He might imagine himself flying through the air, walking underground, jumping between hills across the valley, battling and defeating giants and monsters, and taking down entire armies on his own. Then he has meetings with the Mannitto or spirits, who reveal to him what he was before he was born and what he will become after he dies. His fate in this life is laid out for him, and the spirit tells him what his future will hold, whether he will be a brave warrior, a great hunter, a healer, a magician, or a prophet. Some even claim to learn or pretend to learn the time and way they will die.

When a boy has been thus initiated, a name is given to him analogous to the visions that he has seen, and to the destiny that is supposed to be prepared for him. The boy, imagining all that happened to him while under perturbation, to have been real, sets out in the world with lofty notions of himself, and animated with courage for the most desperate undertakings.

When a boy goes through this initiation, he's given a name that reflects the visions he's experienced and the future that's believed to be set for him. The boy, thinking everything that happened to him during that intense time was real, heads out into the world with grand ideas about himself and filled with bravery for the most challenging tasks.

The belief in the truth of those visions is universal among the Indians. I have spoken with several of their old men, who had been highly distinguished for their valour, and asked them whether they ascribed their achievements to natural or supernatural causes, and they uniformly answered, that as they knew beforehand what they could do, they did it of course. When I carried my questions farther, and asked them how they knew what they could do? they never failed to refer to the dreams and visions which they had while under perturbation, in the manner I have above mentioned.

The belief in the truth of these visions is shared by all the Indians. I've talked to several of their elders, who were known for their bravery, and I asked them whether they thought their accomplishments were due to natural or supernatural reasons. They all agreed that since they already knew what they were capable of, they just went ahead and did it. When I pressed further and asked how they knew what they could do, they consistently pointed to the dreams and visions they experienced while in a disturbed state, as I mentioned earlier.

I always found it vain to attempt to undeceive them on this subject. They never were at a loss for examples to shew that the dreams they had had were not the work of a heated imagination, but that they came to them through the agency of a mannitto. They could always cite numerous instances of valiant men, who, in former times, in consequence of such dreams, had boldly attacked their enemy with nothing but the Tamahican201 in their hand, had not looked about to survey the number of their opponents, but had gone straight forward, striking all down before them; some, they said, in the French wars, had entered houses of the English filled with people, who, before they had time to look about, were all killed and laid in a heap. Such was the strength, the power and the courage conveyed to them in their supernatural dreams, and which nothing could resist.

I always thought it was pointless to try to convince them otherwise about this. They never ran out of examples to show that the dreams they had weren't just fanciful thinking, but were actually sent to them through the influence of a spirit. They could always point to many brave men who, in the past, based on such dreams, had boldly charged at their enemies with only the Tamahican201 in hand, not stopping to consider how many foes there were, but just moving forward, taking down everyone in their path; some, they said, during the French wars, had entered homes filled with English people, who, before they even realized what was happening, were all killed and piled together. Such was the strength, the power, and the courage they believed was given to them in their supernatural dreams, which nothing could withstand.

If they stopped here in their relations, I might, perhaps, consider this practice of putting boys under perturbation, as a kind of military school or exercise, intended to create in them a more 247 than ordinary courage, and make them undaunted warriors. It certainly has this effect on some, who fancying themselves under the immediate protection of the celestial powers, despise all dangers, and really perform acts of astonishing bravery. But it must be observed, that all that are thus initiated are not designed for a military life, and that several learn by their dreams that they are to be physicians, sorcerers, or that their lives are to be devoted to some other civil employment. And it is astonishing what a number of superstitious notions are infused into the minds of the unsuspecting youth, by means of those dreams, which are useless, at least, for making good warriors or hunters. There are even some who by that means are taught to believe in the transmigration of souls.

If they stopped here in their interactions, I might consider this practice of putting boys under stress as a sort of military training meant to develop greater courage in them and turn them into fearless warriors. It definitely has that effect on some, who, believing they're under the direct protection of divine forces, disregard all dangers and truly perform acts of incredible bravery. However, it’s important to note that not everyone who goes through this is meant for a military life; many discover through their dreams that they are meant to be doctors, sorcerers, or that their lives will be dedicated to other civil roles. It's surprising how many superstitious ideas are planted in the minds of unsuspecting youth through these dreams, which are not useful for making good warriors or hunters. Some are even led to believe in the idea of soul transmigration because of this.

I once took great pains to dissuade from these notions a very sensible Indian, much esteemed by all who knew him, even among the whites. All that I could say or urge was not able to convince him that at the time of his initiation (as I call it) his mind was in a state of temporary derangement. He declared that he had a clear recollection of the dreams and visions that had occurred to him at the time, and was sure that they came from the agency of celestial spirits. He asserted very strange things, of his own supernatural knowledge, which he had obtained not only at the time of his initiation, but at other times, even before he was born. He said he knew he had lived through two generations; that he had died twice and was born a third time, to live out the then present race, after which he was to die and never more to come to this country again. He well remembered what the women had predicted while he was yet in his mother’s womb; some had foretold that he would be a boy, and others a girl; he had distinctly overheard their discourses, and could repeat correctly every thing that they had said. It would be too long to relate all the wild stories of the same kind which this otherwise intelligent Indian said of himself, with a tone and manner which indicated the most intimate conviction, and left no doubt in my mind that he did not mean to deceive others, but was himself deceived.

I once tried really hard to talk a very rational Indian out of these ideas. He was well-respected by everyone who knew him, even among the white people. No matter what I said or how I argued, I couldn’t convince him that during his initiation (as I call it), his mind was just temporarily unstable. He insisted he had a clear memory of the dreams and visions he experienced at that time, and he was convinced they were sent by celestial spirits. He claimed some very bizarre things about his supernatural knowledge, which he said he gained not only during his initiation but also at other times, even before he was born. He stated he was aware that he had lived through two generations, that he had died twice, and that he was born a third time to experience the present era, after which he would die and never return to this country again. He clearly remembered what women had predicted while he was still in his mother’s womb; some said he would be a boy, while others said a girl. He claimed he distinctly overheard their conversations and could accurately repeat everything they said. It would take too long to recount all the wild stories of the same kind that this otherwise intelligent Indian told about himself, delivered with such conviction that it left me convinced he wasn’t trying to fool anyone; he truly believed it himself.

I have known several other Indians who firmly believed that they knew, by means of these visions, what was to become of 248 them when they should die, how their souls were to retire from their bodies and take their abodes into those of infants yet unborn; in short, there is nothing so wild and so extraordinary that they will not imagine and to which, when once it has taken hold of their imagination, they will not give full credit. In this they are not a little aided by certain superstitious notions which form a part of their traditionary belief, and of which I shall take notice in the next chapter.

I have met several other Indians who strongly believed that through these visions, they understood what would happen to them when they died, how their souls would leave their bodies and enter the lives of unborn infants; in short, there’s nothing too strange or unbelievable that they wouldn’t imagine, and once it captures their imagination, they fully believe it. They are greatly influenced by certain superstitions that are part of their traditional beliefs, which I will discuss in the next chapter.

249

249


CHAPTER XXXIV.
Indian mythology.

T

The Indians consider the earth as their universal mother. They believe that they were created within its bosom, where for a long time they had their abode, before they came to live on its surface. They say that the great, good, and all powerful Spirit, when he created them, undoubtedly meant at a proper time to put them in the enjoyment of all the good things which he had prepared for them upon the earth, but he wisely ordained that their first stage of existence should be within it, as the infant is formed and takes its first growth in the womb of its natural mother. This fabulous account of the creation of man needs only to be ascribed to the ancient Egyptians or to the Brahmins of India, to be admired and extolled for the curious analogy which it observes between the general and individual creation; but as it comes from the American savage, I doubt whether it will even receive the humble praise of ingenuity, to which, however, it appears to me to be justly entitled.

The Native Americans view the earth as their universal mother. They believe they were created within its embrace, where they lived for a long time before coming to inhabit its surface. They say that the great, good, and all-powerful Spirit, when creating them, intended to eventually allow them to enjoy all the wonderful things he had prepared for them on earth. However, he wisely decided that their initial stage of existence should be within it, just like an infant forms and grows in the womb of its natural mother. This extraordinary account of human creation could easily be attributed to the ancient Egyptians or the Brahmins of India and be admired for the intriguing analogy it draws between general and individual creation. But since it comes from the American native, I wonder if it will even receive the modest recognition of ingenuity, which it certainly seems to deserve.

The Indian Mythologists are not agreed as to the form under which they existed while in the bowels of the earth. Some assert that they lived there in the human shape, while others, with greater consistency contend that their existence was in the form of certain terrestrial animals, such as the ground-hog, the rabbit, and the tortoise. This was their state of preparation, 250 until they were permitted to come out and take their station on this island202 as the Lords of the rest of the Creation.

The Indian mythologists don't agree on the form they took while they were underground. Some claim they existed in human form, while others, with more consistency, argue that they were certain land animals, like the groundhog, rabbit, and tortoise. This was their state of preparation, 250 until they were allowed to emerge and take their place on this island202 as the Lords of all Creation.

Among the Delawares, those of the Minsi, or Wolf tribe, say that in the beginning, they dwelt in the earth under a lake, and were fortunately extricated from this unpleasant abode by the discovery which one of their men made of a hole, through which he ascended to the surface; on which, as he was walking, he found a deer, which he carried back with him into his subterraneous habitation; that there the deer was killed,203 and he and his companions found the meat so good, that they unanimously determined to leave their dark abode, and remove to a place where they could enjoy the light of heaven and have such excellent game in abundance.

Among the Delawares, those from the Minsi or Wolf tribe, say that at first, they lived in the earth beneath a lake, but they were lucky to escape this unpleasant home when one of their men discovered a hole and climbed to the surface. As he walked around, he came across a deer, which he brought back to his underground dwelling. Once there, they killed the deer, and he and his companions found the meat so delicious that they all agreed to leave their dark home and move to a place where they could enjoy the light of day and have plenty of good game.

The other two tribes, the Unamis or Tortoise, and the Unalachtigos or Turkey, have much similar notions, but reject the story of the lake, which seems peculiar to the Minsi tribe.

The other two tribes, the Unamis or Tortoise, and the Unalachtigos or Turkey, have very similar ideas, but they dismiss the story of the lake, which appears to be unique to the Minsi tribe.

These notions must be very far extended among the Indians of North America generally, since we find that they prevail also among the Iroquois, a nation so opposed to the Delawares, as has been shewn in the former parts of this work, and whose language is so different from theirs, that not two words, perhaps, similar or even analogous of signification may be found alike in both. On this subject I beg leave to present an extract from the manuscript notes of the late Reverend Christopher Pyrlæus, whom I am always fond of quoting with respect, as he was a man of great truth, and besides well acquainted with the Six Nations and their idioms.204 The account that he here gives of the traditions of that people concerning their original existence, was taken down by him in January 1743, from the mouth of a respectable Mohawk chief named Sganarady, who resided on the Mohawk river. 251

These ideas must be widely shared among Native Americans in North America since we see them also among the Iroquois, a group that is quite different from the Delawares, as discussed earlier in this work. Their language is so distinct that it's unlikely to find even two words that are similar or even close in meaning between the two groups. On this topic, I’d like to share a passage from the notes of the late Reverend Christopher Pyrlæus, whom I always quote with respect because he was a man of great integrity and well-acquainted with the Six Nations and their languages. The account he provides about their traditions on their origins was recorded by him in January 1743 from a respected Mohawk chief named Sganarady, who lived along the Mohawk River. 251

The Extraction.

Traditio.—That they had dwelt in the earth where it was dark and where no sun did shine. That though they followed hunting, they ate mice, which they caught with their hands. That Ganawagahha (one of them) having accidentally found a hole to get out of the earth at, he went out, and that in walking about on the earth he found a deer, which he took back with him, and that both on account of the meat tasting so very good, and the favourable description he had given them of the country above and on the earth, their mother, concluded it best for them all to come out; that accordingly they did so, and immediately set about planting corn, &c. That, however, the Nocharauorsul, that is, the ground-hog, would not come out, but had remained in the ground as before.”

Traditio.—They lived in a dark place underground where no sunlight reached. Even though they hunted, their diet consisted of mice, which they caught by hand. One of them, Ganawagahha, accidentally discovered a hole leading to the surface. When he went outside, he found a deer and brought it back with him. Because the meat tasted really good and he spoke favorably about the land above, their mother decided it was best for everyone to come out. So they did and immediately started planting corn, etc. However, the Nocharauorsul, or the ground-hog, chose to stay underground as before.


So far Mr. Pyrlæus. From these traditions of the Iroquois, and those of the Delawares and Mohicans, it seems to follow that they must have considered their numbers very small, when they dwelt in the earth; perhaps, no more than one family of each tribe, and that the custom of giving to their tribes the names of particular animals, must have been very ancient. The ground-hog, say the Mohawks, would not come out. But who was this hog? Might it not formerly have been the name of one of their tribes, who was made the subject of this fable?

So far, Mr. Pyrlæus. From these traditions of the Iroquois, as well as those of the Delawares and Mohicans, it seems they must have thought their numbers were very small when they lived on the land; possibly just one family per tribe. Additionally, the practice of naming their tribes after specific animals must be very old. The groundhog, the Mohawks say, would not come out. But who was this hog? Could it have once been the name of one of their tribes, which became the focus of this fable?

However ridiculous these stories are, the belief of the Indians in them is not to be shaken. When I was a boy between twelve and fifteen years of age, I had often heard of white people conversant with the Indians, who at that time would continually come to this place, (Bethlehem) in great numbers, even by hundreds, that the Indians did not eat rabbits, because they thought them infected with the venereal disease, and that whoever ate of their flesh, was sure to take that disorder. Being then myself fond of catching those animals in traps, I asked questions on this subject of several Mohican Indians, who spoke the German language; but though they said nothing about the disease that rabbits were said to be infected with, yet they advised me by no means to eat of their flesh. They gave me no reason whatever to induce me to abstain from this food; but afterwards, in 252 the year 1762, when I resided at Tuscorawas on the Muskingum, I was told by some of them, that there were some animals which Indians did not eat, and among them were the rabbit and the ground-hog; for, said they, they did not know but that they might be related to them!

However ridiculous these stories may be, the belief of the Native Americans in them is unshakeable. When I was a boy between twelve and fifteen, I often heard from white people who interacted with the Native Americans. At that time, they would frequently come to this place (Bethlehem) in large numbers, sometimes in the hundreds. They said that the Native Americans didn't eat rabbits because they believed they carried venereal disease, and that anyone who ate their meat would definitely get sick. Since I enjoyed trapping those animals, I asked several Mohican Indians, who spoke German, about this. Although they didn’t mention anything about the disease that was supposedly in the rabbits, they strongly advised me not to eat their meat. They didn’t give me any specific reasons to avoid this food, but later, in 1762, when I was living at Tuscorawas on the Muskingum, some of them told me that there were certain animals that Native Americans avoided, including the rabbit and the groundhog, because, as they said, they weren’t sure if those animals might be related to them!

I found also that the Indians, for a similar reason, paid great respect to the rattle-snake, whom they called their grandfather, and would on no account destroy him. One day, as I was walking with an elderly Indian on the banks of the Muskingum, I saw a large rattle-snake lying across the path, which I was going to kill. The Indian immediately forbade my doing so; “for,” said he, “the rattle-snake is grandfather to the Indians, and is placed here on purpose to guard us, and to give us notice of impending danger by his rattle, which is the same as if he were to tell us ‘look about!’ Now,” added he, “if we were to kill one of those, the others would soon know it, and the whole race would rise upon us and bite us.” I observed to him that the white people were not afraid of this; for they killed all the rattle-snakes that they met with. On this he enquired whether any white man had been bitten by these animals, and of course I answered in the affirmative. “No wonder, then!” replied he, “you have to blame yourselves for that! you did as much as declaring war against them, and you will find them in your country, where they will not fail to make frequent incursions. They are a very dangerous enemy; take care you do not irritate them in our country; they and their grandchildren are on good terms, and neither will hurt the other.”

I also discovered that the Native Americans, for a similar reason, held a deep respect for the rattlesnake, which they referred to as their grandfather, and would never harm it. One day, while I was walking with an older Native American along the banks of the Muskingum, I noticed a large rattlesnake lying across the path and was about to kill it. The Indian immediately stopped me; “because,” he said, “the rattlesnake is the grandfather to the Natives and is here to protect us, warning us of danger with its rattle, which is like saying ‘look around!’ Now,” he continued, “if we were to kill one, the others would quickly learn about it, and the entire species would come after us and bite us.” I pointed out that white people weren’t afraid of this, as they killed every rattlesnake they encountered. He then asked if any white man had been bitten by these creatures, and I naturally answered that yes, they had. “No wonder then!” he replied, “you can only blame yourselves for that! You practically declared war against them, and you will find them in your territory, where they will undoubtedly make frequent attacks. They are a very dangerous enemy; be careful not to provoke them in our land; they and their descendants are at peace, and neither will harm the other.”

These ancient notions have, however in a great measure died away with the last generation, and the Indians at present kill their grandfather the rattle-snake without ceremony, whenever they meet with him.

These old beliefs have largely faded away with the last generation, and nowadays, the Indians kill their grandfather, the rattlesnake, without any ceremony whenever they come across him.

That the Indians, from the earliest times, considered themselves in a manner connected with certain animals, is evident from various customs still preserved among them, and from the names of those animals which they have collectively, as well as individually, assumed. It might, indeed, be supposed that those animals’ names which they have given to their several tribes were mere badges of distinction, or “coats of arms” as Pyrlæus 253 calls them; but if we pay attention to the reasons which they give for those denominations, the idea of a supposed family connexion is easily discernible. The Tortoise, or as it is commonly called, the Turtle tribe, among the Lenape, claims a superiority and ascendency over the others, because their relation, the great Tortoise, a fabled monster, the Atlas of their mythology, bears according to their traditions this great island on his back, and also because he is amphibious, and can live both on land and in the water, which neither of the heads of the other tribes can do. The merits of the Turkey, which gives its name to the second tribe, are that he is stationary, and always remains with or about them. As to the Wolf, after whom the third tribe is named, he is a rambler by nature, running from one place to another in quest of his prey; yet they consider him as their benefactor, as it was by his means that the Indians got out of the interior of the earth. It was he, they believe, who by the appointment of the Great Spirit, killed the deer whom the Monsey found who first discovered the way to the surface of the earth, and which allured them to come out of their damp and dark residence. For that reason, the wolf is to be honoured, and his name preserved for ever among them. Such are their traditions, as they were related to me by an old man of this tribe more than fifty years ago.

That the Indians have viewed themselves as connected in some way to specific animals since ancient times is clear from various customs they still uphold, as well as the names of those animals they have collectively and individually taken on. It might be thought that the animal names they’ve given their tribes are merely symbols of distinction, or "coats of arms," as Pyrlæus puts it; however, if we consider the reasons they provide for these names, the idea of a supposed family connection becomes obvious. The Tortoise, or commonly known as the Turtle tribe among the Lenape, claims superiority over the others because their relative, the great Tortoise—a legendary creature, the Atlas of their mythology—according to their traditions, carries this great island on his back and is amphibious, able to live both on land and in water, which neither of the leaders of the other tribes can do. The Turkey, lending its name to the second tribe, is valued for being stationary and always staying close to them. As for the Wolf, after which the third tribe is named, he is a wanderer by nature, moving from place to place in search of prey; yet they see him as their benefactor because he helped the Indians emerge from the depths of the earth. They believe he, by the will of the Great Spirit, killed the deer that the Monsey first found to discover the way to the surface of the earth, which lured them out of their damp and dark dwelling. Therefore, the wolf is to be honored, and his name is to be preserved forever among them. This is the story as told to me by an elder from this tribe more than fifty years ago.

These animals’ names, it is true, they all use as national badges, in order to distinguish their tribes from each other at home and abroad. In this point of view Mr. Pyrlæus was right in considering them as “coats of arms.” The Turtle warrior draws either with a coal or paint here and there on the trees along the war path, the whole animal carrying a gun with the muzzle projecting forward, and if he leaves a mark at the place where he has made a stroke on his enemy, it will be the picture of a tortoise. Those of the Turkey tribe paint only one foot of a turkey, and the Wolf tribe, sometimes a wolf at large with one leg and foot raised up to serve as a hand, in which the animal also carries a gun with the muzzle forward. They, however, do not generally use the word “wolf,” when speaking of their tribe, but call themselves Pauk-sit205 which means round-foot, that animal having a round foot like a dog. 254

These animals' names are indeed used as national symbols to differentiate their tribes both at home and abroad. From this perspective, Mr. Pyrlæus was correct in calling them “coats of arms.” The Turtle warrior either draws with coal or paint on trees along the war path, depicting the whole animal carrying a gun with the muzzle facing forward. If he leaves a mark where he strikes his enemy, it will be the image of a tortoise. The Turkey tribe paints only one foot of a turkey, while the Wolf tribe sometimes depicts a wolf standing with one leg and foot raised as if it’s a hand, in which the animal also carries a gun with the muzzle forward. However, they usually don’t use the word “wolf” when referring to their tribe; instead, they call themselves Pauk-sit205 which means round-foot, since that animal has a round foot like a dog. 254

The Indians, in their hours of leisure, paint their different marks or badges on the doors of their respective houses, that those who pass by may know to which tribe the inhabitants belong. Those marks also serve them for signatures to treaties and other documents. They are as proud of their origin from the tortoise, the turkey, and the wolf, as the nobles of Europe are of their descent from the feudal barons of ancient times, and when children spring from intermarriages between different tribes, their genealogy is carefully preserved by tradition in the family, that they may know to which tribe they belong.

The Native Americans, in their free time, paint their unique symbols or badges on the doors of their homes so that passersby can identify which tribe the residents belong to. These symbols also act as signatures for treaties and other documents. They take as much pride in their heritage from the tortoise, the turkey, and the wolf, as European nobility do in their lineage from the feudal barons of the past. When children are born from intermarriages between different tribes, their family carefully keeps track of their genealogy through tradition, ensuring they know which tribe they belong to.

I have often reflected on the curious connexion which appears to subsist in the mind of an Indian between man and the brute creation, and found much matter in it for curious observation. Although they consider themselves superior to all other animals and are very proud of that superiority; although they believe that the beasts of the forest, the birds of the air, and the fishes of the waters, were created by the Almighty Being for the use of man; yet it seems as if they ascribe the difference between themselves and the brute kind, and the dominion which they have over them, more to their superior bodily strength and dexterity than to their immortal souls. All beings endowed by the Creator with the power of volition and self-motion, they view in a manner as a great society of which they are the head, whom they are appointed, indeed, to govern, but between whom and themselves intimate ties of connexion and relationship may exist, or at least did exist in the beginning of time. They are, in fact, according to their opinions, only the first among equals, the legitimate hereditary sovereigns of the whole animated race, of which they are themselves a constituent part. Hence, in their languages, these inflections of their nouns which we call genders, are not, as with us, descriptive of the masculine and feminine species, but of the animate and inanimate kinds. Indeed, they go so far as to include trees, and plants within the first of these descriptions. All animated nature, in whatever degree, is in their eyes a great whole, from which they have not yet ventured to separate themselves. They do not exclude other animals from their world of spirits, the place to which they expect to go after death. 255

I often think about the interesting connection that seems to exist in the minds of Indians between humans and animals, and I've found a lot to observe in that. Even though they see themselves as superior to all other animals and take pride in that superiority; and although they believe that the creatures of the forest, the birds in the sky, and the fish in the water were created by the Almighty for human use; it seems like they attribute the difference between themselves and animals, along with their control over them, more to their physical strength and skill than to their immortal souls. They view all beings created by the Creator with the ability to make choices and move on their own as a large society with themselves as the leaders, whom they are meant to govern, but which they think might have had close connections and relationships with them at least at the beginning of time. They actually believe they are just the first among equals, the rightful hereditary rulers of all living creatures, of which they are themselves a part. Therefore, in their languages, the variations of their nouns that we call genders do not describe the masculine and feminine categories like they do for us, but rather the animate and inanimate classifications. In fact, they even include trees and plants in the first category. To them, all living nature, no matter the extent, is part of a large whole from which they have not yet dared to separate themselves. They also do not exclude other animals from their spiritual world, the place they expect to go after they die. 255

I find it difficult to express myself clearly on this abstruse subject, which, perhaps, the Indians themselves do not very well understand, as they have no metaphysicians among them to analyse their vague notions, and perhaps confuse them still more. But I can illustrate what I have said by some characteristic anecdotes, with which I shall conclude this chapter.

I find it hard to express myself clearly on this complex topic, which, maybe, the Indians themselves don’t fully understand since they don’t have any philosophers to analyze their vague ideas, which might confuse them even more. But I can clarify what I’ve said with some telling anecdotes, with which I’ll wrap up this chapter.

I have already observed206 that the Indian includes all savage beasts within the number of his enemies. This is by no means a metaphorical or figurative expression, but is used in a literal sense, as will appear from what I am going to relate.

I have already noticed206 that the Indian considers all wild animals part of his enemies. This is not a metaphorical or figurative statement, but is meant in a literal sense, as will be clear from what I am about to share.

A Delaware hunter once shot a huge bear and broke its back-bone. The animal fell and set up a most plaintive cry, something like that of the panther when he is hungry. The hunter instead of giving him another shot, stood up close to him, and addressed him in these words: “Hark ye! bear; you are a coward, and no warrior as you pretend to be. Were you a warrior, you would shew it by your firmness and not cry and whimper like an old woman. You know, bear, that our tribes are at war with each other, and that yours was the aggressor.207 You have found the Indians too powerful for you, and you have gone sneaking about in the woods, stealing their hogs; perhaps at this time you have hog’s flesh in your belly. Had you conquered me, I would have borne it with courage and died like a brave warrior; but you, bear, sit here and cry, and disgrace your tribe by your cowardly conduct.” I was present at the delivery of this curious invective; when the hunter had despatched the bear, I asked him how he thought that poor animal could understand what he said to it? “Oh!” said he in answer, “the bear understood me very well; did you not observe how ashamed he looked while I was upbraiding him?”

A Delaware hunter once shot a huge bear and broke its back. The animal fell and let out a very sad sound, something like a hungry panther. Instead of shooting it again, the hunter walked up close and said, “Listen, bear; you’re a coward, not the warrior you pretend to be. If you were a warrior, you'd show it by being strong instead of crying and whining like an old woman. You know our tribes are at war, and yours started it. You’ve found the Indians too strong for you, and you’ve been sneaking around in the woods, stealing their pigs; maybe right now you have pig meat in your belly. If you had beaten me, I would have faced it bravely and died like a warrior; but you, bear, sit here crying and humiliating your tribe with your cowardice.” I witnessed this odd speech, and when the hunter killed the bear, I asked him how he thought that poor animal could understand what he was saying. “Oh!” he replied, “the bear understood me just fine; didn’t you see how ashamed he looked while I was scolding him?”

Another time I witnessed a similar scene between the falls of the Ohio and the river Wabash. A young white man, named 256 William Wells,208 who had been when a boy taken prisoner by a tribe of the Wabash Indians, by whom he was brought up, and had imbibed all their notions, had so wounded a large bear that he could not move from the spot, and the animal cried piteously like the one I have just mentioned. The young man went up to him, and with seemingly great earnestness, addressed him in the Wabash language, now and then giving him a slight stroke on the nose with his ram-rod. I asked him, when he had done, what he had been saying to this bear? “I have,” said he, “upbraided him for acting the part of a coward; I told him that he knew the fortune of war, that one or the other of us must have fallen; that it was his fate to be conquered, and he ought to die like a man, like a hero, and not like an old woman; that if the case had been reversed, and I had fallen into the power of my enemy, I would not have disgraced my nation as he did, but would have died with firmness and courage, as becomes a true warrior.”

Another time, I saw a similar scene between the falls of the Ohio and the Wabash River. A young white man named 256 William Wells, who had been captured as a boy by a tribe of Wabash Indians and raised by them, had wounded a large bear so badly that it couldn't move. The animal cried out sadly, just like the one I mentioned earlier. The young man approached it and, with what seemed like great seriousness, spoke to it in the Wabash language, occasionally giving it a light tap on the nose with his ramrod. I asked him afterward what he had been telling the bear. “I told him,” he replied, “that I scolded him for being a coward; I reminded him that he understood the nature of battle, that one of us had to fall; it was his fate to be defeated, and he should die like a man, like a hero, not like a scared old woman. If the roles were reversed and I had been caught by my enemy, I wouldn't have shamed my nation like he did, but would have faced death with strength and courage, as a true warrior should.”

I leave the reader to reflect upon these anecdotes, which, I think, convey more real information than any further attempts that I could make to explain the strange notions which gave them rise.

I’ll let the reader think about these stories, which, in my opinion, share more genuine insight than any further efforts I could make to clarify the odd ideas that sparked them.

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CHAPTER XXXV.
Madness—self-harm.

I

Insanity is not common among the Indians; yet I have known several who were afflicted with mental derangement. Men in this situation are always considered as objects of pity. Every one, young and old, feels compassion for their misfortune; to laugh or scoff at them would be considered as a crime, much more so to insult or molest them. The nation or colour of the unfortunate object makes no difference; the charity of the Indians extends to all, and no discrimination is made in such a lamentable case.

Madness isn't common among the Indians, but I've known several people who struggled with mental health issues. Men in this condition are always seen as deserving of pity. Everyone, young and old, feels compassion for their misfortune; laughing or mocking them would be considered a crime, and even more so to insult or harass them. The nationality or race of the unfortunate person doesn't matter; the kindness of the Indians reaches out to everyone, and no discrimination is made in such a heartbreaking situation.

About the commencement of the Indian war in 1763, a trading Jew, named Chapman, who was going up the Detroit river with a batteau-load of goods which he had brought from Albany, was taken by some Indians of the Chippeway nation, and destined to be put to death. A Frenchman, impelled by motives of friendship and humanity, found means to steal the prisoner, and kept him so concealed for some time, that although the most diligent search was made, the place of his confinement could not be discovered. At last, however, the unfortunate man was betrayed by some false friend, and again fell into the power of the Indians, who took him across the river to be burned and tortured. Tied to the stake and the fire burning by his side, his thirst, from the great heat, became intolerable, and he begged that some drink might be given to him. It is a custom with the Indians, previous to a prisoner being put to death, to give him what they call his last meal; a bowl of pottage or broth was therefore brought to him for that purpose. Eager to quench his 258 thirst, he put the bowl immediately to his lips, and the liquor being very hot, he was dreadfully scalded. Being a man of a very quick temper, the moment he felt his mouth burned, he threw the bowl with its contents full in the face of the man who had handed it to him. “He is mad! He is mad!” resounded from all quarters. The bystanders considered his conduct as an act of insanity, and immediately untied the cords with which he was bound, and let him go where he pleased.

About the start of the Indian war in 1763, a Jewish trader named Chapman was making his way up the Detroit River with a boat full of goods he had brought from Albany. He was captured by some Indians from the Chippewa nation and was set to be executed. A Frenchman, motivated by friendship and compassion, found a way to rescue the prisoner and kept him hidden for a while, so that even though a thorough search was conducted, no one could find where he was. Eventually, though, he was betrayed by a false friend and fell back into the hands of the Indians, who took him across the river to be burned and tortured. Tied to the stake with the fire burning beside him, he became unbearably thirsty from the heat and begged for something to drink. It is customary with the Indians to give a prisoner what they call their last meal before execution, so they brought him a bowl of porridge or broth. Eager to quench his thirst, he brought the bowl to his lips, but the liquid was scalding hot, and he burned his mouth badly. Being a man with a quick temper, he immediately threw the bowl's contents into the face of the man who had handed it to him. “He’s crazy! He’s crazy!” echoed from all around. The onlookers thought his actions were a sign of madness and quickly untied him, allowing him to go wherever he wanted.

This fact was well known to all the inhabitants of Detroit, from whom I first heard it, and it was afterwards confirmed to me by Mr. Chapman himself, who was established as a merchant at that place.

This fact was well known to everyone in Detroit, from whom I first heard it, and it was later confirmed to me by Mr. Chapman himself, who was a merchant in that area.

Suicide is not considered by the Indians either as an act of heroism or of cowardice, nor is it with them a subject of praise or blame. They view this desperate act as the consequence of mental derangement, and the person who destroys himself is to them an object of pity. Such cases do not frequently occur. Between the years 1771 and 1780, four Indians of my acquaintance took the root of the may-apple, which is commonly used on such occasions, in order to poison themselves, in which they all succeeded, except one. Two of them were young men, who had been disappointed in love, the girls on whom they had fixed their choice, and to whom they were engaged, having changed their minds and married other lovers. They both put an end to their existence. The two others were married men. Their stories, as pictures of Indian manners, will not, perhaps, be thought uninteresting.

Suicide is not seen by the Indians as an act of bravery or fear, nor is it something they celebrate or condemn. They view this tragic act as a result of mental illness, and someone who ends their own life is seen as someone to be pitied. Such incidents are rare. Between 1771 and 1780, four Indians I knew used the may-apple root, which is commonly used for this purpose, to poison themselves, and all but one succeeded. Two of them were young men who were heartbroken; the women they loved and were engaged to had changed their minds and married someone else. Both chose to end their lives. The other two were married men. Their stories, reflecting Indian customs, may be considered interesting.

One of those unfortunate men was a person of an excellent character, respected and esteemed by all who knew him. He had a wife whom he was very fond of and two children, and they lived very happily together at the distance of about half a mile from the place where I resided. He often came to visit me, and as he was of a most amiable disposition, I was pleased with his visits, and always gave him a hearty welcome. When I thought he was too long about coming, I went myself to the delightful spot which he had judiciously selected for his dwelling. Here I always found the family cheerful, sociable and happy, until some time before the fatal catastrophe happened, when I observed 259 that my friend’s countenance bore the marks of deep melancholy, of which I afterwards learned the cause. His wife had received the visits of another man; he foresaw that he would soon be obliged to separate from her, and he shuddered when he thought that he must also part from his two lovely children; for it is the custom of the Indians, that when a divorce takes place between husband and wife, the children remain with their mother, until they are of a proper age to choose for themselves. One hope, however, still remained. The sugar-making season was at hand, and they were shortly to remove to their sugar-camp, where he flattered himself his wife would not be followed by the disturber of his peace, whose residence was about ten miles from thence. But this hope was of short duration. They had hardly been a fortnight in their new habitation, when, as he returned one day from a morning’s hunt, he found the unwelcome visitor at his home, in close conversation with his faithless wife. This last stroke was more than he could bear; without saying a single word, he took off a large cake of his sugar, and with it came to my house, which was at the distance of eight miles from his temporary residence. It was on a Sunday, at about ten o’clock in the forenoon, that he entered my door, with sorrow strongly depicted on his manly countenance. As he came in he presented me with his cake of sugar, saying, “My friend! you have many a time served me with a good pipe of tobacco, and I have not yet done anything to please you. Take this as a reward for your goodness, and as an acknowledgment from me as your friend.” He said no more, but giving me with both his hands a warm farewell squeeze, he departed and returned to the camp. At about two o’clock in the afternoon, a runner from thence passing through the town to notify his death at the village two miles farther, informed us of the shocking event. He had immediately on his return, remained a short time in his house, indulging in the last caresses to his dear innocent children; then retiring to some distance, had eaten the fatal root, and before relief could be administered by some persons who had observed him staggering from the other side of the river, he was on the point of expiring, and all succours were vain. 260

One of those unfortunate men was a person of excellent character, respected and admired by everyone who knew him. He had a wife he loved dearly and two children, and they lived happily together about half a mile from where I lived. He often came to visit me, and since he had such a friendly personality, I genuinely enjoyed his visits and always welcomed him warmly. When I thought he was taking too long to arrive, I would go to the lovely place he wisely chose for his home. I always found the family cheerful, friendly, and happy there, until some time before the tragic event occurred, when I noticed that my friend's face showed signs of deep sadness, the reason for which I later learned. His wife had entertained another man; he anticipated that he would soon have to separate from her and felt a pang of fear at the thought of also being parted from his two lovely children, because it is the tradition among the Indians that when a couple divorces, the children stay with their mother until they are old enough to choose for themselves. One hope, however, still remained. The sugar-making season was approaching, and they were soon to move to their sugar camp, where he comforted himself with the thought that his wife wouldn’t be followed by the man who was upsetting his life, whose home was about ten miles away. But this hope was short-lived. They had barely spent two weeks in their new home when, one day, as he returned from a morning hunt, he found the unwanted visitor at his house, having a close conversation with his unfaithful wife. This blow was more than he could handle; without saying a word, he took a large block of his sugar and came to my house, which was eight miles from his temporary home. It was a Sunday, around ten o’clock in the morning, when he walked in, sorrow etched on his strong face. As he entered, he handed me the cake of sugar, saying, “My friend! You’ve often given me a good pipe of tobacco, and I haven’t done anything to repay you yet. Take this as a token of my appreciation for your kindness and as a gesture from me as your friend.” He said nothing more, but gave me a warm farewell squeeze with both hands before leaving to return to the camp. Around two o'clock in the afternoon, a runner passed through the town to announce his death at the village two miles further, informing us of the shocking event. After going back, he had stayed a short while in his house, sharing his final moments with his dear innocent children; then, stepping away for a bit, he had consumed the deadly root, and before help could be offered by a few people who saw him staggering from the other side of the river, he was already on the verge of dying, and all attempts to save him were in vain.

The last whom I have to mention was also a married man, but had no children. He had lived happy with his wife, until one day that she fell into a passion and made use to him of such abusive language as he could not endure. Too highminded to quarrel with a woman, he resolved to punish her by putting an end to his existence. Fortunately he was seen in the first stage of his fits, and was brought into a house, where a strong emetic diluted in lukewarm water, the composition of which I have already described,209 was forcibly poured down his throat. He recovered after some time, but never was again the strong healthy man he had been before; his wife however took warning from this desperate act, and behaved better ever after.

The last person I need to mention was also a married man, but he had no children. He had lived happily with his wife until one day she flew into a rage and unleashed such hurtful words at him that he couldn't tolerate it. Too proud to argue with a woman, he decided to hurt her by ending his own life. Thankfully, he was seen in the early stages of his crisis and taken to a place where a strong emetic mixed with lukewarm water, the recipe for which I have already described, was forcefully administered to him. He eventually recovered, but he was never again the strong, healthy man he used to be; however, his wife learned from this desperate act and treated him better from that point on.

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CHAPTER XXXVI.
INTOXICATION.

I

In treating of this subject, I cannot resist the impression of a melancholy feeling, arising from the comparison which forces itself upon my mind of what the Indians were before the Europeans came into this country, and what they have become since, by a participation in our vices. By their intercourse with us, they have lost much of that original character by which they were once distinguished, and which it is the object of this work to delineate, and the change which has taken place is by no means for the better. I am not one of those wild enthusiasts who would endeavour to persuade mankind that savage life is preferable to a state of civilisation; but I leave it to every impartial person to decide, whether the condition of the healthy sober Indian, pursuing his game through forests and plains, is not far superior to that of the gangrened drunken white man, rioting in debauchery and vice?

In discussing this topic, I can't help but feel a sense of sadness when I compare what the Native Americans were like before Europeans arrived in this country and what they have become since, due to our negative influences. Through their interactions with us, they have lost much of their original identity that once set them apart, and this transformation has certainly not been for the better. I am not one of those overly passionate people who would try to convince others that living a primitive life is better than being civilized; however, I invite anyone to consider whether the life of a healthy, sober Native American, hunting in the woods and across the plains, is not far better than that of a drunken white man, wallowing in excess and immorality?

I have already before taken notice210 of the assertion which our aborigines do not hesitate to make, that before the Europeans landed in those parts of the American continent, they were unacquainted with that shameful disorder which attacks generation in its sources. I am well aware that this complaint is generally believed to have been communicated by the new world to the old. I do not know upon what proofs this opinion rests, but I am disposed to give credit to the uniform assertion of our 262 northern Indians, that this contagion was first introduced among them by emigrants from Europe. However it may be, it is a lamentable fact that they are now very generally infected with it, and that their population cannot long resist its destructive operation upon their once strong and healthy constitutions, particularly as it is associated with the abuse of strong liquors, now so prevalent among them.

I’ve previously mentioned the claim made by our natives that before Europeans arrived in those parts of the American continent, they were unaware of that shameful disorder that impacts generations at its source. I know this issue is widely believed to have been brought from the New World to the Old. I’m not sure what evidence supports this view, but I tend to believe the consistent statements from our northern Indians that this contagion was first brought to them by migrants from Europe. Regardless, it’s a sad reality that they are now largely affected by it, and their population can't withstand its harmful effects on their once strong and healthy bodies, especially since it’s linked with the heavy use of alcohol, which is now so common among them.

Of the manner in which they have acquired this latter vice, I presume there can be no doubt. They charge us in the most positive manner with being the first who made them acquainted with ardent spirits, and what is worse, with having exerted all the means in our power to induce them to drink to excess. It is very certain that the processes of distillation and fermentation are entirely unknown to the Indians, and that they have among them no intoxicating liquors but such as they receive from us. The Mexicans have their Pulque, and other indigenous beverages of an inebriating nature, but the North American Indians, before their intercourse with us commenced, had absolutely nothing of the kind. The smoke of the American weed, tobacco, was the only means that they at that time had in use to produce a temporary exhilaration of their spirits.

Of how they picked up this new bad habit, I doubt there's any uncertainty. They strongly accuse us of being the first to introduce them to hard liquor, and even worse, of doing everything we could to encourage them to drink excessively. It's clear that the processes of distillation and fermentation are completely foreign to the Indians, and that the only intoxicating drinks they have come from us. The Mexicans have their Pulque and other local beverages that can get you drunk, but before they started interacting with us, the North American Indians had nothing of the sort. The only thing they used to give them a temporary high was tobacco.

I have related in a former chapter,211 the curious account given by the Delawares and Mohicans of the scene which took place when they were first made to taste spirituous liquors by the Dutch who landed on New York Island. I have no doubt that this tradition is substantially founded on fact. Indeed, it is strongly corroborated by the name which, in consequence of this adventure, those people gave at the time to that island, and which it has retained to this day. They called it Manahachtanienk, which in the Delaware language, means “the island where we all became intoxicated.” We have corrupted this name into Manhattan, but not so as to destroy its meaning, or conceal its origin. The last syllable which we have left out is only a termination, implying locality, and in this word signifies as much as where we. There are few Indian traditions so well supported as this. 263

I shared in an earlier chapter, 211 the interesting story told by the Delawares and Mohicans about the moment they first experienced alcoholic drinks brought by the Dutch who landed on New York Island. I’m certain that this tradition is largely based on real events. In fact, it’s strongly backed up by the name that these people gave to that island because of this event, a name it has kept to this day. They called it Manahachtanienk, which in the Delaware language means “the island where we all became intoxicated.” We’ve changed this name to Manhattan, but it still retains its meaning and origin. The last syllable we dropped is just a local ending, which in this context means as much as where we. There are few Native American traditions that are supported as well as this one. 263

How far from that time the dreadful vice of intoxication has increased among those poor Indians, is well known to many Christian people among us. We may safely calculate on thousands who have perished by the baneful effect of spirituous liquors. The dreadful war which took place in 1774 between the Shawanese, some of the Mingoes, and the people of Virginia, in which so many lives were lost, was brought on by the consequences of drunkenness. It produced murders, which were followed by private revenge, and ended in a most cruel and destructive war.

How much worse the terrible problem of intoxication has become among those poor Indians is well known to many Christians today. We can reasonably estimate that thousands have died due to the harmful effects of alcoholic beverages. The awful war that occurred in 1774 between the Shawnees, some of the Mingoes, and the people of Virginia, in which so many lives were lost, was caused by the aftermath of drunkenness. It led to murders, which sparked personal revenge, and ended in a brutally destructive war.

The general prevalence of this vice among the Indians is in a great degree owing to unprincipled white traders, who persuade them to become intoxicated that they may cheat them the more easily, and obtain their lands or212 peltries for a mere trifle. Within the last fifty years, some instances have even come to my knowledge of white men having enticed Indians to drink, and when drunk, murdered them. The effects which intoxication produces upon the Indians are dreadful. It has been the cause of an infinite number of murders among them, besides biting off noses and otherwise disfiguring each other, which are the least consequences of the quarrels which inebriation produces between them. I cannot say how many have died of colds and other disorders, which they have caught by lying upon the cold ground, and remaining exposed to the elements when drunk; others have lingered out their lives, in excruciating rheumatic pains and in wasting consumptions, until death came to relieve them from their sufferings.

The widespread nature of this vice among Native Americans is largely due to dishonest white traders, who encourage them to drink so they can easily take advantage of them and acquire their land or pelts for almost nothing. In the past fifty years, I've even heard of cases where white men lured Native Americans to drink, and then murdered them while they were intoxicated. The impact of alcohol on Native Americans is horrifying. It has led to countless murders and brutal fights, resulting in injuries like biting off noses and other disfigurements, which are just some of the consequences of the conflicts that drinking causes among them. I can't say how many have died from colds and other illnesses after lying on the cold ground and being exposed to the elements while drunk; others have suffered through their lives with severe rheumatic pain and wasting illnesses until death finally came to free them from their agony.

Reflecting Indians have keenly remarked, “that it was strange that a people who professed themselves believers in a religion revealed to them by the great Spirit himself; who say that they have in their houses the Word of God, and his laws and commandments textually written, could think of making a beson,213 calculated to bewitch people and make them destroy one another.” I once asked an Indian at Pittsburgh, whom I had not before seen, who he was? He answered in broken English: 264 “My name is Black-fish; when at home with my nation, I am a clever fellow, and when here, a hog.” He meant that by means of the liquor which the white people gave him, he was sunk down to the level of that beast.

Reflecting Indians have noted, “it's strange that a people who claim to believe in a religion revealed to them by the great Spirit himself; who say that they have the Word of God and his laws and commandments written out in their homes, could think of creating a beson,213 designed to enchant people and lead them to destroy one another.” I once asked an Indian in Pittsburgh, whom I had never seen before, who he was. He answered in broken English: 264 “My name is Black-fish; when I'm at home with my people, I’m a clever guy, and when I'm here, I’m a hog.” He meant that because of the alcohol the white people gave him, he had sunk down to the level of that beast.

An Indian who had been born and brought up at Minisink, near the Delaware Water Gap, and to whom the German inhabitants of that neighbourhood had given the name of Cornelius Rosenbaum, told me near fifty years ago, that he had once, when under the influence of strong liquor, killed the best Indian friend he had, fancying him to be his worst avowed enemy. He said that the deception was complete, and that while intoxicated, the face of his friend presented to his eyes all the features of the man with whom he was in a state of hostility. It is impossible to express the horror with which he was struck when he awoke from that delusion; he was so shocked, that he from that moment resolved never more to taste of the maddening poison, of which he was convinced that the devil was the inventor; for it could only be the evil spirit who made him see his enemy when his friend was before him, and produced so strong a delusion on his bewildered senses, that he actually killed him. From that time until his death, which happened thirty years afterwards, he never drank a drop of ardent spirits, which he always called “the Devil’s blood,” and was firmly persuaded that the Devil, or some of his inferior spirits had a hand in preparing it.

An Indian who was born and raised in Minisink, near the Delaware Water Gap, and who was given the name Cornelius Rosenbaum by the German locals, told me nearly fifty years ago that he once, while heavily intoxicated, killed his best Indian friend, mistakenly thinking he was his worst enemy. He explained that the deception was total, and while drunk, his friend's face looked just like the features of the man he was in conflict with. It’s impossible to describe the horror he felt when he came to that realization; he was so shaken that he vowed never to touch the maddening poison again, convinced that the devil was behind it all. He believed it could only be an evil spirit that made him see his enemy when his friend was right in front of him, creating such a strong delusion in his confused mind that he actually killed him. From that moment until his death, which occurred thirty years later, he never drank any strong spirits, which he always referred to as “the Devil’s blood,” and he was firmly convinced that the Devil or some lesser spirits were involved in making it.

Once in my travels, I fell in with an Indian and his son; the former, though not addicted to drinking, had this time drank some liquor with one of his acquaintances, of which he now felt the effects. As he was walking before me, along the path, he at once flew back and aside, calling out, “O! what a monstrous snake!” On my asking him where the snake lay, he pointed to something and said, “Why, there, across the path!” “A snake!” said I, “it is nothing but a black-burnt sapling, which has fallen on the ground.” He however would not be persuaded; he insisted that it was a snake, and could be nothing else; therefore, to avoid it, he went round the path, and entered it again at some distance further. After we had travelled together for about two hours, during which time he spoke but little, we encamped for the night. Awaking about midnight, I saw him sitting up 265 smoking his pipe, and appearing to be in deep thought. I asked him why he did not lay down and sleep? To which he replied, “O! my friend! many things have crowded on my mind; I am quite lost in thought!”

Once during my travels, I ran into an Indian and his son. The father, although he usually didn’t drink, had consumed some liquor with a friend this time and was feeling its effects. As he walked ahead of me on the path, he suddenly jumped back and to the side, exclaiming, “Oh! What a huge snake!” When I asked him where the snake was, he pointed and said, “Right there, across the path!” “A snake?” I replied, “It’s just a blackened sapling that has fallen on the ground.” But he wouldn’t be convinced; he insisted it was a snake and nothing else. To avoid it, he stepped off the path and re-entered it some distance ahead. After we traveled together for about two hours, during which he hardly spoke, we set up camp for the night. Waking up around midnight, I saw him sitting up, smoking his pipe and looking deep in thought. I asked him why he didn’t lie down and sleep. He replied, “Oh! My friend! So many things are on my mind; I’m completely lost in thought!”

Heckew. “And what are you thinking about?”

“Heck yeah.” “So, what’s up?”

Indian. “Did you say it was not a snake of which I was afraid, and which lay across the path?”

Indian. “Did you say it wasn't a snake that I was afraid of, which was lying across the path?”

Heckew. “I did say so; and, indeed, it was nothing else but a sapling burnt black by the firing of the woods.”

Heck. “I did say that; and honestly, it was just a young tree burned black from the woods catching fire.”

Indian. “Are you sure it was that?”

Indian. “Are you really sure it was that?”

Heckew. “Yes; and I called to you at the time to look, how I was standing on it; and if you have yet a doubt, ask your son, and the two Indians with me, and they will tell you the same.”

Heck yeah. “Yes, and I called out to you then to see how I was standing on it; if you still have any doubt, just ask your son and the two Indians with me, and they’ll tell you the same.”

Indian. “O strange! and I took it for an uncommonly large snake, moving as if it intended to bite me!—I cannot get over my surprise, that the liquor I drank, and, indeed, that was not much, should have so deceived me! but I think I have now discovered how it happens that Indians so often kill one another when drunk, almost without knowing what they are doing; and when afterwards they are told of what they have done, they ascribe it to the liquor which was in them at the time, and say the liquor did it. I thought that as I saw this time a living snake in a dead piece of wood, so I might, at another time, take a human being, perhaps one of my own family, for a bear or some other ferocious beast and kill him. Can you, my friend, tell me what is in the beson that confuses one so, and transforms things in that manner? Is it an invisible spirit? It must be something alive; or have the white people sorcerers among them, who put something in the liquor to deceive those who drink it? Do the white people drink of the same liquor that they give to the Indians? Do they also, when drunk, kill people, and bite noses off, as the Indians do? Who taught the white people to make so pernicious a beson?”

Indian. “How strange! I mistook it for an unusually large snake, moving as if it wanted to bite me! I’m still surprised that the drink I had, which wasn’t even that much, could fool me like that! But I think I’ve figured out why Indians often end up killing each other when drunk, almost without realizing it; when they’re told afterward what they’ve done, they blame it on the liquor they consumed and say that the liquor made them do it. I thought that just as I saw a living snake in a dead piece of wood this time, I might, at another time, mistake a person, maybe even someone in my own family, for a bear or some other wild animal and end up killing them. Can you, my friend, explain what’s in the beson that confuses people like this and transforms things in such a way? Is it an invisible spirit? It must be something alive; or do the white people have sorcerers among them who add something to the liquor to trick those who drink it? Do white people drink the same liquor they give to the Indians? Do they also kill people and bite off noses when they’re drunk, like Indians do? Who taught white people to make such a harmful beson?”

I answered all these questions, and several others that he put to me, in the best manner that I could, to which he replied, and our conversation continued as follows:

I answered all these questions, along with several others he asked me, as best as I could, to which he replied, and our conversation continued like this:

Indian. “Well, if, as you say, the bad spirit cannot be the inventor of this liquor; if, in some cases it is moderately used among you as a medicine, and if your doctors can prepare from 266 it, or with the help of a little of it, some salutary besons, still, I must believe that when it operates as you have seen, the bad spirit must have some hand in it, either by putting some bad thing into it, unknown to those who prepare it, or you have conjurers who understand how to bewitch it.—Perhaps they only do so to that which is for the Indians; for the devil is not the Indians’ friend, because they will not worship him, as they do the good spirit, and therefore I believe he puts something into the beson, for the purpose of destroying them.”

Indian. “Well, if what you’re saying is true, that the evil spirit isn’t responsible for this liquor; if, in some cases, it’s used moderately among you as medicine, and if your doctors can make some beneficial besons from it or with a little of it, then I must believe that when it causes the results you've witnessed, the evil spirit must be involved somehow—either by adding something harmful to it without the knowledge of those who make it, or by having conjurers who know how to cast spells on it. —Maybe they only do this to what’s meant for the Indians; because the devil isn’t friendly to the Indians, since they won’t worship him, unlike the good spirit, and so I believe he adds something to the beson with the intent to harm them.”

Heckew. “What the devil may do with the liquor, I cannot tell; but I believe that he has a hand in everything that is bad. When the Indians kill one another, bite off each other’s noses, or commit such wicked acts, he is undoubtedly well satisfied; for, as God himself has said, he is a destroyer and a murderer.”

Heck. “I don’t know what the devil does with alcohol, but I’m convinced he’s involved in everything evil. When the Native Americans fight each other, bite off each other's noses, or do other wicked things, he must be pretty pleased; because, as God himself has said, he is a destroyer and a killer.”

Indian. “Well, now, we think alike, and henceforth he shall never again deceive me, or entice me to drink his beson!”

Indian. “Well, now, we think the same way, and from now on he will never deceive me again or persuade me to drink his beson!”

It is a common saying with those white traders who find it their interest to make the Indians drunk, in order to obtain their peltry at a cheaper rate, that they will have strong liquors, and will not enter upon a bargain unless they are sure of getting it. I acknowledge that I have seen some such cases; but I could also state many from my own knowledge, where the Indians not only refused liquor, but resisted during several days all the attempts that were made to induce them even to taste it, being well aware, as well as those who offered it to them, that if they once should put it to their lips, such was their weakness on that score, that intoxication would inevitably follow.

It’s a common saying among those white traders who benefit from getting the Indians drunk to buy their fur at a lower price, that the Indians *will* demand strong liquor and won’t agree to any deal unless they know they’ll get it. I admit I’ve seen some examples of this, but I can also share many instances from my own experience where the Indians not only turned down liquor but resisted for several days all attempts to get them to even try it, fully aware, just like those offering it to them, that if they ever took a sip, their weakness in that area would lead to inevitable intoxication.

I can, perhaps, offer a plausible reason why the Indians are so fond of spirituous drinks. The cause is, I believe, to be found in their living almost entirely upon fresh meats and green vegetables, such as corn, pumpkins, squashes, potatoes, cucumbers, melons, beans, &c., which causes a longing in their stomachs for some seasoning, particularly (as is often the case) when they have been a long time without salt. They are, on those occasions, equally eager for any acid substances; vinegar, if they can get it, they will drink in considerable quantities, and think nothing of going thirty or forty miles in search of cranberries whether in season or not. They also gather crab-apples, wild-grapes, and other acid, and even bitter-tasted fruits, as substitutes for 267 salt, and in the spring they will peel such trees as have a sourish sap, which they lick with great avidity. When for a long time they have been without salt, and are fortunate enough to get some, they will swallow at a time a table-spoonful of that mineral substance, for which they say that they and their horses are equally hungry.

I can maybe give a reasonable explanation for why Native Americans enjoy alcoholic drinks. I think it has to do with their diet, which mainly consists of fresh meats and vegetables like corn, pumpkins, squashes, potatoes, cucumbers, melons, beans, etc. This diet leads to a craving for seasoning, especially when they haven't had salt for a while. During those times, they're also really eager for sour flavors; if they can find vinegar, they'll drink quite a bit of it and think nothing of traveling thirty or forty miles to look for cranberries, regardless of the season. They also collect crab apples, wild grapes, and other sour or even bitter fruits to use as alternatives for salt. In the spring, they'll peel trees that have a sour sap and eagerly lick it. When they've gone without salt for a long time and finally get some, they will take a tablespoon full in one go, claiming that both they and their horses are craving it.

The Indians are very sensible of the state of degradation to which they have been brought by the abuse of strong liquors, and whenever they speak of it, never fail to reproach the whites, for having enticed them into that vicious habit. I could easily prove how guilty the whites are in this respect, if I were to relate a number of anecdotes, which I rather wish to consign to oblivion. The following will be sufficient to confute those disingenuous traders, who would endeavour to shift the blame from themselves, in order to fix it upon the poor deluded Indians.

The Indigenous people are very aware of how degraded they have become because of the misuse of alcohol, and whenever they talk about it, they always blame the white people for luring them into that harmful habit. I could easily show how guilty the white people are in this regard if I shared several stories, which I would prefer to forget. The following example will be enough to refute those dishonest traders who try to shift the blame from themselves onto the misguided Indigenous people.

In the year 1769, an Indian from Susquehannah having come to Bethlehem with his sons to dispose of his peltry, was accosted by a trader from a neighbouring town, who addressed him thus: “Well! Thomas, I really believe you have turned Moravian.” “Moravian!” answered the Indian, “what makes you think so?” “Because,” replied the other, “you used to come to us to sell your skins and peltry, and now you trade them away to the Moravians.” “So!” rejoined the Indian, “now I understand you well, and I know what you mean to say. Now hear me. See! my friend! when I come to this place with my skins and peltry to trade, the people are kind, they give me plenty of good victuals to eat, and pay me in money or whatever I want, and no one says a word to me about drinking rum—neither do I ask for it! When I come to your place with my peltry, all call to me: ‘Come, Thomas! here’s rum, drink heartily, drink! it will not hurt you.’ All this is done for the purpose of cheating me. When you have obtained from me all you want, you call me a drunken dog, and kick me out of the room. See! this is the manner in which you cheat the Indians when they come to trade with you. So now you know when you see me coming to your town again, you may say to one another: ‘Ah! there is Thomas coming again! he is no longer a Moravian, for he is coming to us to be made drunk—to be cheated—to be kicked out of the house, and be called a drunken dog!’” 268

In 1769, an Indian from Susquehanna came to Bethlehem with his sons to sell his furs. He was approached by a trader from a nearby town, who said, “Well! Thomas, I really believe you’ve turned Moravian.” “Moravian?” the Indian replied. “What makes you think that?” “Because,” the trader said, “you used to come to us to sell your skins and furs, and now you trade them with the Moravians.” “Oh!” the Indian responded, “now I understand you, and I know what you mean. Listen to me. Look! My friend! When I come here with my skins and furs to trade, the people are nice. They give me plenty of good food to eat and pay me in money or whatever I want, and no one says anything to me about drinking rum—nor do I ask for it! When I come to your place with my furs, everyone calls out: ‘Come on, Thomas! Here’s some rum, drink up, drink! It won’t hurt you.’ All this is done to trick me. When you’ve gotten everything you want from me, you call me a drunken dog and kick me out. This is how you cheat the Indians when they trade with you. So now you know that when you see me coming to your town again, you can say to each other: ‘Ah! There’s Thomas coming again! He’s no longer a Moravian, because he’s coming to us to get drunk—to be cheated—to be kicked out of the house and to be called a drunken dog!’” 268


CHAPTER XXXVII.
Funerals.

I

I believe that no sufficiently detailed account has yet been given of the manner in which the North American Indians conduct the funerals of their dead. Captain Carver tells us that the Naudowessies, among whom he was, kept those ceremonies a secret, and would not give him an opportunity of witnessing them. Loskiel, although he drew his information from the journals of our Missionaries, has treated this subject rather superficially. I therefore run little risk of repetition in describing what I have myself seen, and I hope that the particulars which I am going to relate will not be thought uninteresting.

I think that no detailed account has been given of how the North American Indians conduct funerals for their dead. Captain Carver tells us that the Naudowessies, whom he encountered, kept those ceremonies secret and wouldn’t let him observe them. Loskiel, although he based his information on the journals of our missionaries, has approached this subject rather lightly. Therefore, I hardly risk repeating what I have personally witnessed, and I hope the details I am about to share will be considered interesting.

It is well known that the Indians pay great respect to the memory of the dead, and commit their remains to the ground with becoming ceremonies. Those ceremonies, however, are not the same in all cases, but vary according to circumstances, and the condition of the deceased; for rank and wealth receive distinctions even after death, as well among savages as among civilised nations. This, perhaps, may be easily accounted for. When a great chief dies, his death is considered as a national loss; of course all must join in a public demonstration of their sorrow. The rich man, on the other hand, had many friends during his life, who cannot decently abandon him the moment the breath is out of his body; besides, his fortune supplies the means of a rich entertainment at the funeral, of which many, as may well be supposed, are anxious to partake. Thus social distinctions are found even in the state of nature, where perfect 269 equality, if it exists any where, might with the greatest probability be supposed to be found. Though the earth and its fruits are common to all the Indians, yet every man is permitted to enjoy the earnings of his industry, and that produces riches; and though there is no hereditary or even elective rank in their social organization, yet as power follows courage and talents, those who are generally acknowledged to be possessed of those qualities, assume their station above the rest, and the distinction of rank is thus established. Politicians and philosophers may reason on these facts as they please; the descriptions that I give are from nature, and I leave it to abler men than myself to draw the proper inferences from them.

It’s well known that Indigenous peoples have a deep respect for the memory of the dead, and they bury their remains with meaningful ceremonies. However, these ceremonies aren’t the same in every situation; they change based on circumstances and the condition of the deceased. Rank and wealth still matter, even after death, just as they do among both so-called savages and civilized societies. This is perhaps easy to understand. When a great chief dies, it’s seen as a national loss, so everyone joins in a public display of grief. A wealthy person, on the other hand, had many friends in life, so they can’t just forget him the moment he passes away. Plus, his wealth allows for a lavish funeral, which many people are eager to attend. Thus, social distinctions exist even in a natural state, where perfect equality, if it exists at all, might be most likely found. Although the land and its resources are shared among all Indigenous people, everyone can benefit from their hard work, which leads to wealth. While there isn’t any hereditary or even elective rank in their social structure, power tends to follow those with courage and talent, so those recognized for these qualities rise above others, establishing a rank distinction. Politicians and philosophers can analyze these facts as they like; my observations are based on nature, and I’ll leave it to more capable individuals to draw the right conclusions from them.

On the death of a principal chief, the village resounds from one end to the other with the loud lamentations of the women, among whom those who sit by the corpse distinguish themselves by the shrillness of their cries and the frantic expression of their sorrow. This scene of mourning over the dead body continues by day and by night until it is interred, the mourners being relieved from time to time by other women.

On the death of a main chief, the village echoes with the loud cries of the women, especially those sitting by the body, who stand out with their piercing wails and intense expressions of grief. This mourning over the deceased continues day and night until the burial, with other women stepping in to take turns with the mourners.

These honours of “mourning over the corpse” are paid to all; the poor and humble, as well as the rich, great, and powerful; the difference consists only in the number of mourners, the undistinguished Indian having few besides his immediate relations and friends, and sometimes only those. Women (notwithstanding all that has been said of their supposed inferior station and of their being reduced to the rank of slaves) are not treated after their death with less respect than the men, and the greatest honours are paid to the remains of the wives of renowned warriors or veteran chiefs, particularly if they were descended themselves of a high family, which, however strange it may appear, is not an indifferent thing among the Indians, who love to honour the merit of their great men in their relatives. I was present in the year 1762, at the funeral of a woman of the highest rank and respectability, the wife of the valiant Delaware chief Shingask;214 as all the honours were paid to her at her interment 270 that are usual on such occasions, I trust a particular description of the ceremony will not be unacceptable.

These honors of “mourning over the corpse” are given to everyone; the poor and humble, as well as the rich, powerful, and influential. The only difference lies in the number of mourners, as the ordinary Indian has only a few, usually just immediate family and friends, and sometimes only those. Women (despite what has been said about their supposed lower status and being treated like slaves) are not honored any less in death than men, and the greatest respect is shown to the remains of the wives of famous warriors or veteran chiefs, especially if they come from a prominent family. Although it may seem strange, this is significant among the Indians, who like to honor the merits of their great leaders through their relatives. I attended the funeral in 1762 of a woman of the highest rank and respect, the wife of the brave Delaware chief Shingask; all the usual honors were given to her during her burial, and I hope a detailed description of the ceremony will be welcomed. 270

At the moment that she died, her death was announced through the village by women specially appointed for that purpose, who went through the streets crying, “She is no more! she is no more!” The place on a sudden exhibited a scene of universal mourning; cries and lamentations were heard from all quarters; it was truly the expression of the general feeling for a general loss.

At the moment she passed away, her death was announced throughout the village by women specifically chosen for this duty, who walked through the streets crying, “She is gone! She is gone!” Suddenly, the place was filled with a scene of widespread mourning; cries and cries of sorrow were heard from all directions; it was genuinely the reflection of the collective feeling for a shared loss.

The day passed in this manner amidst sorrow and desolation. The next morning, between nine and ten o’clock, two counsellors came to announce to Mr. Thomas Calhoon, the Indian trader, and myself, that we were desired to attend and assist at the funeral which was soon to take place. We, in consequence, proceeded to the house of the deceased, where we found her corpse lying in a coffin, (which had been made by Mr. Calhoon’s carpenter) dressed and painted in the most superb Indian style. Her garments, all new, were set off with rows of silver broaches,215 one row joining the other. Over the sleeves of her new ruffled shirt were broad silver arm-spangles from her shoulder down to her wrist, on which were bands, forming a kind of mittens, worked together of wampum, in the same manner as the belts which they use when they deliver speeches. Her long plaited hair was confined by broad bands of silver, one band joining the other, yet not of the same size, but tapering from the head downwards 271 and running at the lower end to a point. On the neck were hanging five broad belts of wampum tied together at the ends, each of a size smaller than the other, the largest of which reached below her breast, the next largest reaching to a few inches of it, and so on, the uppermost one being the smallest. Her scarlet leggings were decorated with different coloured ribands sewed on, the outer edges being finished off with small beads also of various colours. Her mocksens were ornamented with the most striking figures, wrought on the leather with coloured porcupine quills, on the borders of which, round the ankles, were fastened a number of small round silver bells, of about the size of a musket ball. All these things, together with the vermilion paint, judiciously laid on, so as to set her off in the highest style, decorated her person in such a manner, that perhaps nothing of the kind could exceed it.

The day went by in sadness and emptiness. The next morning, between nine and ten o’clock, two advisors came to tell Mr. Thomas Calhoon, the Indian trader, and me that we were wanted to attend and help with the funeral that was about to happen. As a result, we went to the deceased's house, where we found her body lying in a casket (which had been made by Mr. Calhoon’s carpenter), dressed and painted in the most beautiful Indian style. Her all-new clothing was accented with rows of silver brooches, one row connecting to the next. Over the sleeves of her new ruffled shirt were wide silver arm-spangles going from her shoulder to her wrist, on which were bands that formed a kind of mitten, made from wampum in the same way they create belts used during speeches. Her long braided hair was held in place by wide silver bands, each one overlapping the next, tapering down from her head and finishing to a point at the bottom. Around her neck were five wide belts of wampum tied at the ends, each one smaller than the last, the largest falling below her breast, the next largest a few inches shorter, and so on, with the top one being the smallest. Her scarlet leggings were adorned with various colored ribbons sewn on, with the outer edges finished with small beads of different colors. Her moccasins featured eye-catching designs made with colored porcupine quills, and around her ankles were a number of small round silver bells, about the size of a musket ball. All of these details, along with the carefully applied vermilion paint to highlight her beauty, decorated her in such a way that perhaps nothing could surpass it.

The spectators having retired, a number of articles were brought out of the house and placed in the coffin, wherever there was room to put them in, among which were a new shirt, a dressed deer skin for shoes, a pair of scissors, needles, thread, a knife, pewter basin and spoon, pint-cup, and other similar things, with a number of trinkets and other small articles which she was fond of while living. The lid was then fastened on the coffin with three straps, and three handsome round poles, five or six feet long, were laid across it, near each other, and one in the middle, which were also fastened with straps cut up from a tanned elk hide; and a small bag of vermilion paint, with some flannel to lay it on, was then thrust into the coffin through the hole cut out at the head of it. This hole, the Indians say, is for the spirit of the deceased to go in and out at pleasure, until it has found the place of its future residence.

Once the spectators left, several items were taken out of the house and put into the coffin, wherever there was space. Among these were a new shirt, a deer skin to make shoes, a pair of scissors, needles, thread, a knife, a pewter basin and spoon, a pint cup, and other similar things, along with some trinkets and small items she cherished in life. The lid was then secured onto the coffin with three straps, and three nice round poles, five or six feet long, were laid across it, close together, one in the middle. These were also secured with straps made from tanned elk hide. A small bag of vermilion paint, along with some flannel to place it on, was then pushed into the coffin through a hole cut out at the head. This hole, the Indians say, is for the spirit of the deceased to enter and exit as it pleases until it finds its future home.

Everything being in order, the bearers of the corpse were desired to take their places. Mr. Calhoon and myself were placed at the foremost pole, two women at the middle, and two men at the pole in the rear. Several women from a house about thirty yards off, now started off, carrying large kettles, dishes, spoons, and dried elk meat in baskets, for the burial place, and the signal being given for us to move with the body, the women who acted as chief mourners made the air resound with their 272 shrill cries. The order of the procession was as follows; first a leader or guide, from the spot where we were to the place of interment. Next followed the corpse, and close to it Shingask, the husband of the deceased. He was followed by the principal war-chiefs and counsellors of the nation, after whom came men of all ranks and descriptions. Then followed the women and children, and lastly two stout men carrying loads of European manufactured goods upon their backs. The chief mourners on the women’s side, not having joined the ranks, took their own course to the right, at the distance of about fifteen or twenty yards from us, but always opposite to the corpse. As the corpse had to be carried by the strength of our arms to the distance of about two hundred yards, and hung low between the bearers, we had to rest several times by the way, and whenever we stopped, everybody halted until we moved on again.

Everything being in order, the bearers of the body were asked to take their positions. Mr. Calhoon and I were placed at the front pole, two women in the middle, and two men at the rear pole. Several women from a house about thirty yards away then started off, carrying large kettles, dishes, spoons, and baskets of dried elk meat for the burial site. When we got the signal to move with the body, the women acting as chief mourners filled the air with their high-pitched cries. The order of the procession was as follows: first, a leader or guide from our location to the burial site. Next came the body, closely followed by Shingask, the deceased's husband. He was followed by the principal war chiefs and advisors of the nation, then men of all ranks and backgrounds. After them came the women and children, and finally, two strong men carrying loads of European goods on their backs. The chief mourners on the women's side, not joining the ranks, moved to the right about fifteen or twenty yards away, but always opposite the body. As we had to carry the body a distance of about two hundred yards, and it hung low between the bearers, we had to stop several times along the way, and whenever we paused, everyone else stopped too until we resumed moving.

Being arrived at the grave, we were told to halt, then the lid of the coffin was again taken off, and the body exposed to view. Now the whole train formed themselves into a kind of semi-lunar circle on the south side of the grave, and seated themselves on the ground. Within this circle, at the distance of about fifteen yards from the grave, a common seat was made for Mr. Calhoon and myself to sit on, while the disconsolate Shingask retired by himself to a spot at some distance, where he was seen weeping, with his head bowed to the ground. The female mourners seated themselves promiscuously near to each other, among some low bushes that were at the distance of from twelve to fifteen yards east of the grave.

Arriving at the grave, we were instructed to stop, then the coffin lid was removed again, revealing the body. The entire group formed a semi-circle on the south side of the grave and sat down on the ground. Within this circle, about fifteen yards away from the grave, a shared seat was made for Mr. Calhoon and me, while the sorrowful Shingask moved to a spot further away, where he was seen crying, his head bowed to the ground. The female mourners sat together near each other among some low bushes about twelve to fifteen yards east of the grave.

In this situation we remained for the space of more than two hours; not a sound was heard from any quarter, though the numbers that attended were very great; nor did any person move from his seat to view the body, which had been lightly covered over with a clean white sheet. All appeared to be in profound reflection and solemn mourning. Sighs and sobs were now and then heard from the female mourners, so uttered as not to disturb the assembly; it seemed rather as if intended to keep the feeling of sorrow alive in a manner becoming the occasion. Such was the impression made on us by this long silence.

In this situation, we stayed for more than two hours; not a sound was heard from anywhere, even though there were a lot of people present. No one got up from their seat to look at the body, which was gently covered with a clean white sheet. Everyone seemed to be in deep thought and serious mourning. Occasionally, you could hear quiet sighs and sobs from the female mourners, but they were soft enough not to disturb the gathering. It felt as if they were intentionally expressing their grief in a way that was appropriate for the moment. Such was the impression this long silence left on us.

At length, at about one o’clock in the afternoon, six men 273 stepped forward to put the lid upon the coffin, and let down the body into the grave, when suddenly three of the women mourners rushed from their seats, and forcing themselves between these men and the corpse, loudly called out to the deceased to “arise and go with them and not to forsake them.” They even took hold of her arms and legs; at first it seemed as if they were caressing her, afterwards they appeared to pull with more violence, as if they intended to run away with the body, crying out all the while, “Arise, arise! Come with us! Don’t leave us! Don’t abandon us!” At last they retired, plucking at their garments, pulling their hair, and uttering loud cries and lamentations, with all the appearance of frantic despair. After they were seated on the ground, they continued in the same manner crying and sobbing and pulling at the grass and shrubs, as if their minds were totally bewildered and they did not know what they were doing.

At around one o’clock in the afternoon, six men stepped forward to close the coffin and lower the body into the grave when suddenly three women mourners jumped from their seats, forcing their way between the men and the corpse. They shouted at the deceased to “get up and go with them and not to leave them.” They even grabbed her arms and legs; at first, it seemed like they were gently touching her, but then it looked like they were pulling more forcefully, as if they wanted to take the body away with them, shouting all the while, “Get up, get up! Come with us! Don’t leave us! Don’t abandon us!” Eventually, they stepped back, tugging at their clothes, pulling at their hair, and making loud wails and cries, showing all the signs of frantic despair. Once they were seated on the ground, they continued to cry and sob, pulling at the grass and shrubs, as if they were completely bewildered and unsure of what they were doing.

As soon as these women had gone through their part of the ceremony, which took up about fifteen minutes, the six men whom they had interrupted and who had remained at the distance of about five feet from the corpse, again stepped forward and did their duty. They let down the coffin into the earth, and laid two thin poles of about four inches diameter, from which the bark had been taken off, lengthways and close together over the grave, after which they retired. Then the husband of the deceased advanced with a very slow pace, and when he came to the grave, walked over it on these poles, and proceeded forward in the same manner into an extensive adjoining prairie, which commenced at this spot.

As soon as these women finished their part of the ceremony, which took about fifteen minutes, the six men they had interrupted, who had been standing about five feet from the body, stepped forward again to fulfill their duty. They lowered the coffin into the ground and placed two thin poles, about four inches in diameter and stripped of bark, lengthwise and close together over the grave, before stepping back. Then, the deceased's husband moved forward at a slow pace, and when he reached the grave, he walked over it on those poles, continuing in the same way into a large adjoining prairie that started at that spot.

When the widowed chief had advanced so far that he could not hear what was doing at the grave, a painted post, on which were drawn various figures, emblematic of the deceased’s situation in life and of her having been the wife of a valiant warrior, was brought by two men and delivered to a third, a man of note, who placed it in such a manner that it rested on the coffin at the head of the grave, and took great care that a certain part of the drawings should be exposed to the East, or rising of the sun; then, while he held the post erect and properly situated, some women filled up the grave with hoes, and having placed dry 274 leaves and pieces of bark over it, so that none of the fresh ground was visible, they retired, and some men, with timbers fitted beforehand for the purpose, enclosed the grave about breast-high, so as to secure it from the approach of wild beasts.

When the widowed chief had moved far enough away that he couldn't hear what was happening at the grave, two men brought a painted post decorated with various figures that represented the deceased's life and her being the wife of a brave warrior. They handed it to a notable man, who positioned it carefully on the coffin at the head of the grave, ensuring that a specific part of the artwork faced the East, or where the sun rises. While he held the post upright and properly placed, some women filled the grave with hoes and covered it with dry leaves and pieces of bark, hiding all the fresh soil. After they stepped back, some men, using pre-cut timber, built a fence around the grave up to chest height to protect it from wild animals.

The whole work being finished, which took up about an hour’s time, Mr. Calhoon and myself expected that we might be permitted to go home, as we wished to do, particularly as we saw a thundergust from the west fast approaching; but the Indians, suspecting our design, soon came forward with poles and blankets, and in a few minutes erected a shelter for us.

The whole task was done, which took about an hour, and Mr. Calhoon and I thought we could finally go home, since we wanted to, especially with a thunderstorm rolling in from the west. But the Indians, sensing our plan, quickly came over with poles and blankets, and in just a few minutes set up a shelter for us.

The storm, though of short duration, was tremendous; the water produced by the rain, flowing in streams; yet all had found means to secure themselves during its continuance, and being on prairie ground, we were out of all danger of trees being torn up or blown down upon us. Our encampment now appeared like a village, or rather like a military camp, such was the number of places of shelter that had been erected.

The storm was brief but intense; the rain created rushing streams of water. Everyone managed to find a way to stay safe while it lasted, and since we were on flat land, we didn't have to worry about trees being uprooted or falling on us. Our camp now looked like a village, or more like a military camp, because of the many shelters that had been set up.

Fortunately, the husband of the deceased had reached the camp in good time, and now the gust being over, every one was served with victuals that had been cooked at some distance from the spot. After the repast was over, the articles of merchandise which had been brought by the two men in the rear, having been made up in parcels, were distributed among all present. No one, from the oldest to the youngest, was excepted, and every one partook of the liberal donation. This difference only was made, that those who had rendered the greatest services received the most valuable presents, and we were much pleased to see the female mourners well rewarded, as they had, indeed, a very hard task to perform. Articles of little value, such as gartering, tape, needles, beads, and the like, were given to the smaller girls; the older ones received a pair of scissors, needles and thread, and a yard or two of riband. The boys had a knife, jews-harp, awl-blades, or something of similar value. Some of the grown persons received a new suit of clothes, consisting of a blanket, shirt, breech-cloth and leggings, of the value in the whole of about eight dollars; and the women, (I mean those who had rendered essential services) a blanket, ruffled shirts, stroud and leggings, the whole worth from ten to twelve dollars. Mr. Calhoon and 275 myself were each presented with a silk cravat and a pair of leggings. The goods distributed on this occasion, were estimated by Mr. Calhoon at two hundred dollars; the greatest part of them had, the same morning, been taken out of his store.

Fortunately, the husband of the deceased arrived at the camp in time, and now that the storm was over, everyone was served food that had been prepared some distance away. After the meal, the goods brought by the two men at the back were sorted into packages and handed out to everyone present. No one, from the oldest to the youngest, was left out, and everyone shared in the generous donation. The only difference was that those who had helped the most received the most valuable gifts, and we were pleased to see that the female mourners were well rewarded for their hard work. Items of little value, like garters, tape, needles, beads, and similar things, were given to the younger girls; the older girls received scissors, needles and thread, and a couple of yards of ribbon. The boys got a knife, a jews-harp, awl blades, or something of similar worth. Some adults received new outfits made up of a blanket, shirt, breech-cloth, and leggings, totaling about eight dollars, while the women who had provided essential help got a blanket, ruffled shirts, stroud, and leggings, worth between ten to twelve dollars. Mr. Calhoon and I each received a silk cravat and a pair of leggings. The total value of the goods distributed that day was estimated by Mr. Calhoon at two hundred dollars; most of them had been taken from his store that very morning.

After we had thus remained, in a manner, under confinement, for more than six hours, the procession ended, and Mr. Calhoon and myself retired with the rest to our homes. At dusk a kettle of victuals was carried to the grave and placed upon it, and the same was done every evening for the space of three weeks, at the end of which it was supposed that the traveller had found her place of residence. During that time the lamentations of the women mourners were heard on the evenings of each day, though not so loud nor so violent as before.

After we had been, in a way, confined for more than six hours, the procession wrapped up, and Mr. Calhoon and I headed home with the others. At dusk, a pot of food was taken to the grave and set on it, and this was repeated every evening for three weeks, after which it was believed that the traveler had found her resting place. During that time, the cries of the mourning women could be heard each evening, though not as loud or as intense as before.

I have thus described, from minutes which I took at the time, the ceremonies which take place among the Delaware Indians on the death of a person of high rank and consideration among them. The funerals of persons of an inferior station are conducted with less pomp and with less expense. When the heirs of the deceased cannot afford to hire female mourners, the duty is performed by their own immediate relations and friends. But “mourning over the corpse” is a ceremony that cannot be dispensed with.

I have described, based on notes I took at the time, the ceremonies that occur among the Delaware Indians when someone of high rank and importance passes away. The funerals of those of lower status are held with less grandeur and cost. If the family of the deceased can’t afford to hire female mourners, the responsibility falls to their immediate relatives and friends. However, “mourning over the corpse” is a ceremony that cannot be skipped.

It is always customary, when an Indian dies, of whatever rank or condition he may be, to put a number of the articles which belonged to the deceased in the coffin or grave, that he may have them when wanted. I have seen a bottle of rum or whiskey placed at the coffin head, and the reason given for it was, that the deceased was fond of liquor while living, and he would be glad of a dram when he should feel fatigued on his journey to the world of spirits.

It’s a common practice that when an Indian passes away, regardless of their social status, several items that belonged to them are placed in the coffin or grave so they have them when needed. I’ve seen a bottle of rum or whiskey placed at the head of the coffin, with the reason being that the deceased enjoyed drinking while alive, and he would appreciate a drink when he felt tired on his journey to the spirit world.

When an Indian dies at a distance from his home, great care is taken that the grave be well fortified with posts and logs laid upon it, that the wolves may be prevented from getting at the corpse; when time and circumstances do not permit this, as, for instance, when the Indians are travelling, the body is enclosed in the bark of trees and thus laid in the grave. When a death takes place at their hunting camps, they make a kind of coffin as well as they can, or put a cover over the body, so that the 276 earth may not sink on it, and then enclose the grave with a fence of poles.

When an Indian dies away from home, they take great care to ensure the grave is securely covered with posts and logs to keep wolves away from the body. If time and circumstances don’t allow for this, like when the Indians are traveling, the body is wrapped in tree bark and then laid in the grave. When a death occurs at their hunting camps, they make a coffin as best as they can or cover the body to prevent the earth from caving in, and then they surround the grave with a fence of poles.

Warriors that are slain in battle, are, if possible, drawn aside and buried, so that the enemy may not get their scalps, and also that he may not know the number of the slain. In such cases they will turn an old log out of its bed, and dig a grave so deep, that the log, when replaced, may not press too hard upon the body. If any of the fresh earth be seen, they cover it with rotten wood, brush or leaves, that its place may not be found. If they have not sufficient time for this, or the number of their dead is too great, they throw the bodies on the top of each other between large logs, and place any kind of rotten wood or other rubbish upon them. They never, when they can help it, leave their dead to be devoured by wild beasts.

Warriors who are killed in battle are, if possible, taken aside and buried so that the enemy can't collect their scalps or know the number of the fallen. In these cases, they will turn an old log out of its spot and dig a grave deep enough that when the log is put back, it won't press down too hard on the body. If any fresh earth is visible, they cover it with decaying wood, brush, or leaves to hide its location. If they don’t have enough time for this, or if there are too many dead, they stack the bodies on top of each other between large logs and cover them with any kind of decaying wood or debris. They never, whenever possible, leave their dead to be eaten by wild animals.

When the Indians have to speak of a deceased person, they never mention him or her by name, lest they should renew the grief of the family or friends. They say, “He who was our counsellor or chief,” “She who was the wife of our friend;” or they will allude to some particular circumstance, as that of the deceased having been with them at a particular time or place, or having done some particular act or spoken particular words which they all remember, so that every body knows who is meant. I have often observed with emotion this remarkable delicacy, which certainly does honour to their hearts, and shews that they are naturally accessible to the tenderest feelings of humanity.

When Native Americans talk about someone who has died, they never use their name to avoid bringing back the sorrow for the family or friends. Instead, they say things like, “He who was our advisor or leader,” “She who was our friend’s wife;” or they refer to a specific situation, like the deceased being with them at a certain time or place, or having done something particular or said certain words that everyone remembers, so it’s clear who they’re talking about. I have often felt moved by this incredible sensitivity, which certainly reflects well on their hearts and shows that they are naturally open to the deepest feelings of humanity.

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CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Friendship.

T

Those who believe that no faith is to be placed in the friendship of an Indian are egregiously mistaken, and know very little of the true character of those men of nature. They are, it is true, revengeful to their enemies, to those who wilfully do them an injury, who insult, abuse, or treat them with contempt. It may be said, indeed, that the passion of revenge is so strong in them that it knows no bounds. This does not, however, proceed from a bad or malicious disposition, but from the violence of natural feelings unchecked by social institutions, and unsubdued by the force of revealed religion. The tender and generous passions operate no less powerfully on them than those of an opposite character, and they are as warm and sincere in their friendship, as vindictive in their enmities. Nay, I will venture to assert that there are those among them who on an emergency would lay down their lives for a friend: I could fill many pages with examples of Indian friendship and fidelity, not only to each other, but to men of other nations and of a different colour than themselves. How often, when wars were impending between them and the whites, have they not forewarned those among our frontier settlers whom they thought well disposed towards them, that dangerous times were at hand, and advised them to provide for their own safety, regardless of the jealousy which such conduct might excite among their own people? How often did they not even guard and escort them through the most dangerous places until they had reached a secure spot? How often did they not find 278 means to keep an enemy from striking a stroke, as they call it, that is to say from proceeding to the sudden indiscriminate murder of the frontier whites, until their friends or those whom they considered as such were out of all danger?

Those who think that no trust can be placed in the friendship of an Indian are completely mistaken and know very little about the true nature of these people. It’s true that they can be vengeful towards their enemies—those who intentionally harm them, insult them, or treat them with disrespect. One could even say that their drive for revenge is so intense that it knows no limits. However, this doesn’t come from a bad or spiteful nature, but rather from the intensity of their feelings, which are not restrained by social norms or controlled by organized religion. The tender and generous emotions are just as powerful as the negative ones, and they are as warm and genuine in their friendships as they are fierce in their grudges. In fact, I would assert that there are those among them who would willingly give their lives for a friend in times of crisis; I could fill many pages with stories of Indian loyalty and friendship—not only among themselves but also towards people from other nations and different races. How often, when wars were looming between them and the white settlers, did they warn those among our frontier communities whom they regarded positively, that dangerous times were approaching, and advise them to ensure their own safety, despite the jealousy that such actions might provoke within their own groups? How often did they provide protection and guide them through the most treacherous areas until they reached safety? How often did they find ways to prevent an enemy from taking any action—what they call striking a stroke—meaning from carrying out sudden and indiscriminate attacks on the frontier whites, until their friends, or those they deemed friends, were in no danger?

These facts are all familiar to every one who has lived among Indians or in their neighbourhood, and I believe it will be difficult to find a single case in which they betrayed a real friend or abandoned him in the hour of danger, when it was in their power to extricate or relieve him. The word “Friend” to the ear of an Indian does not convey the same vague and almost indefinite meaning that it does with us; it is not a mere complimentary or social expression, but implies a resolute determination to stand by the person so distinguished on all occasions, and a threat to those who might attempt to molest him; the mere looking at two persons who are known or declared friends, is sufficient to deter any one from offering insult to either. When an Indian believes that he has reason to suspect a man of evil designs against his friend, he has only to say emphatically: “This is my friend, and if any one tries to hurt him, I will do to him what is in my mind.” It is as much as to say that he will stand in his defence at the hazard of his own life. This language is well understood by the Indians, who know that they would have to combat with a spirited warrior, were they to attempt any thing against his friend. By this means much bloodshed is prevented; for it is sufficiently known that an Indian never proffers his friendship in vain. Many white men, and myself among others, have experienced the benefit of their powerful as well as generous protection.

These facts are well-known to anyone who has lived among Indians or nearby, and I believe it will be tough to find a single instance where they betrayed a true friend or left him in a perilous situation when they could have helped. The word “Friend” means something different to an Indian than it does to us; it’s not just a polite or social term but signifies a strong commitment to support that person in all situations and a warning to anyone who might try to harm them. Just seeing two people who are recognized as friends is enough to discourage anyone from insulting either of them. When an Indian suspects someone of having bad intentions towards his friend, he simply says strongly: “This is my friend, and if anyone tries to hurt him, I will do to him what is in my mind.” This means he’s willing to defend his friend at the risk of his own life. This message is well understood by the Indians, who know they would have to face a determined warrior if they tried anything against his friend. This helps prevent a lot of violence, as it’s clear that an Indian never offers his friendship for nothing. Many white men, myself included, have felt the benefits of their strong and generous protection.

When in the spring of the year 1774, a war broke out between the Virginians and the Shawanese and Mingoes, on account of murders committed by the former on the latter people, and the exasperated friends of those who had suffered had determined to kill every white man in their country, the Shawano chief Silverheels,216 taking another Indian with him, undertook out of friendship to escort several white traders from thence to Albany,217 a 279 distance of near two hundred miles; well knowing at the time that he was running the risk of his own life, from exasperated Indians and vagabond whites, if he should meet with such on the road, as he did in fact on his return. I have already said how he was rewarded for this noble act of friendship and self-devotion.

When spring arrived in 1774, a war erupted between the Virginians and the Shawnees and Mingoes due to murders committed by the Virginians against the latter. The angry friends of the victims had decided to kill every white man in their territory. The Shawnee chief Silverheels,216 along with another Indian, took it upon himself out of friendship to escort several white traders from there to Albany,217 a distance of nearly two hundred miles. He was well aware that he was risking his own life, given the angry Indians and lawless whites he might encounter on the road, which he actually did on his way back. I have already mentioned how he was rewarded for this brave act of friendship and self-sacrifice.

In the year 1779, the noted Girty with his murdering party of Mingoes, nine in number, fell in with the Missionary Zeisberger, on the path leading from Goschacking to Gnadenhütten; their design was to take that worthy man prisoner; and if they could not seize him alive, to murder him and take his scalp to Detroit. They were on the point of laying hold of him, when two young spirited Delawares providentially entered the path at that critical moment and in an instant presented themselves to defend the good Missionary at the risk of their lives. Their determined conduct had the desired success, and his life was saved. His deliverers afterwards declared that they had no other motive for thus exposing themselves for his sake than that he was a friend to their nation, and was considered by them as a good man.

In 1779, the infamous Girty and his band of nine Mingoes set out to capture the Missionary Zeisberger on the trail from Goschacking to Gnadenhütten. Their plan was to take him prisoner, and if that failed, to kill him and bring his scalp back to Detroit. Just as they were about to grab him, two brave young Delawares happened to come down the path at that critical moment and immediately stepped in to defend the Missionary at the risk of their own lives. Their courageous actions paid off, and they saved his life. The young men later stated that they had no other reason for putting themselves in danger for him except that he was a friend to their people and regarded as a good man.

But why should I speak of others when I have myself so often experienced the benefits of Indian protection and friendship. Let me be permitted to corroborate my assertions on this subject by my own personal testimony.

But why should I talk about others when I have personally experienced the advantages of Indian protection and friendship so many times? Allow me to support my claims on this topic with my own personal testimony.

In the year 1777, while the Revolutionary war was raging, and several Indian tribes had enlisted on the British side, and were spreading murder and devastation along our unprotected frontier, I rather rashly determined to take a journey into the country on a visit to my friends. Captain White Eyes, the Indian hero, whose character I have already described,218 resided at that time at the distance of seventeen miles from the place where I lived. Hearing of my determination, he immediately hurried up to me, with his friend Captain Wingenund (whom I shall presently have occasion further to mention), and some of his young men, for the purpose of escorting me to Pittsburg, saying, “that he would not suffer me to go, while the Sandusky warriors were out on war excursions, without a proper escort and himself at my side.” 280 He insisted on accompanying me and we set out together. One day, as we were proceeding along, our spies discovered a suspicious track. White Eyes, who was riding before me, enquired whether I felt afraid? I answered that while he was with me, I entertained no fear. On this he immediately replied, “You are right; for until I am laid prostrate at your feet, no one shall hurt you.” “And even not then,” added Wingenund, who was riding behind me; “before this happens, I must be also overcome, and lay by the side of our friend Koguethagechton.”219 I believed them, and I believe at this day that these great men were sincere, and that if they had been put to the test, they would have shewn it, as did another Indian friend by whom my life was saved in the spring of the year 1781. From behind a log in the bushes where he was concealed, he espied a hostile Indian at the very moment he was levelling his piece at me. Quick as lightning he jumped between us, and exposed his person to the musket shot just about to be fired, when fortunately the aggressor desisted, from fear of hitting the Indian whose body thus effectually protected me, at the imminent risk of his own life. Captain White Eyes, in the year 1774, saved in the same manner the life of David Duncan, the peace-messenger, whom he was escorting. He rushed, regardless of his own life, up to an inimical Shawanese, who was aiming at our ambassador from behind a bush, and forced him to desist.

In 1777, during the Revolutionary War, when several Native American tribes had joined the British side and were committing acts of violence along our vulnerable frontier, I somewhat foolishly decided to take a trip to visit my friends. Captain White Eyes, the Indian hero I've mentioned before, lived about seventeen miles from where I was. When he heard about my plans, he quickly came to see me with his friend Captain Wingenund (whom I will reference again soon) and a few of his young men to escort me to Pittsburg. He insisted that he wouldn’t let me go while the Sandusky warriors were out on the warpath without a proper escort and himself by my side. 280 He was adamant about accompanying me, and we set off together. One day, as we were traveling, our scouts discovered a suspicious trail. White Eyes, who was riding ahead of me, asked if I was afraid. I told him that as long as he was with me, I felt no fear. He immediately replied, “You’re right; because until I’m lying here at your feet, no one will harm you.” “And even then,” added Wingenund, who was riding behind me, “before that happens, I must also be taken down and lie beside our friend Koguethagechton.” I believed them, and I still believe that these honorable men were genuine, and that if tested, they would have proven it, just like another Indian friend did who saved my life in the spring of 1781. He spotted a hostile Indian hiding behind a log just as he was about to shoot me. Quick as a flash, he jumped between us and put himself in the line of fire, risking his life when luckily the attacker hesitated, fearing he might hit the Indian who was protecting me at great personal risk. Captain White Eyes also saved David Duncan, the peace-messenger, in 1774 in the same way. He rushed toward a hostile Shawanese aiming at our ambassador from behind a bush, forcing him to stop.

I could enumerate many other similar acts, but I think I have shewn enough for my purpose. Mr. Zeisberger fully agreed with me in the opinion, that it is impossible to deny to the Indians the praise of firm attachment and sincere friendship. It is not meant to say, that all will carry that feeling to the same pitch of heroism; but it is certain that there are many among them, whose strong attachments and a manly pride will induce to risk their lives in the defence of their friends. And, indeed, there is no Indian, who would not blush at being reproached that after boasting that a particular person was his friend, he had acted the coward when his friendship was put to the test, and had shrunk from venturing his own life, when there was even a chance of saving that of the man whom he professed to love. 281

I could list many other similar actions, but I think I've shown enough for my point. Mr. Zeisberger completely agreed with me that it's impossible to deny the Indians credit for their strong loyalty and genuine friendship. This doesn't mean that everyone will express that loyalty with the same level of heroism; however, it is clear that many among them, with their deep connections and strong pride, will risk their lives to defend their friends. In fact, there isn't an Indian who wouldn't feel ashamed if accused of boasting about someone being his friend, only to act cowardly when that friendship was tested, avoiding the chance to risk his own life even when it might save the life of the person he claims to care for. 281

It is not true, as some have supposed, that an Indian’s friendship must be purchased by presents, and that it lasts only so long as gifts continue to be lavished upon them. Their attachments, on the contrary, are perfectly disinterested. I admit that they receive with pleasure a present from a friend’s hand. They consider presents as marks of the giver’s good disposition towards them. They cannot, in their opinion, proceed from an enemy, and he who befriends them, they think must love them. Obligations to them are not burdensome, they love to acknowledge them, and whatever may be their faults, ingratitude is not among the number.

It's not true, as some people think, that an Indian's friendship must be bought with gifts, and that it only lasts as long as those gifts keep coming. In fact, their bonds are completely selfless. I agree that they happily accept a gift from a friend. They see gifts as signs of the giver's goodwill toward them. In their view, gifts can't come from an enemy, and someone who helps them must care for them. They don't see their obligations to others as a burden; they enjoy recognizing them, and despite any flaws they may have, ingratitude isn't one of them.

Indeed, the friendship of an Indian is easily acquired, provided it is sought in good faith. But whoever chooses to obtain it must be sure to treat them on a footing of perfect equality. They are very jealous of the whites, who they think affect to consider themselves as beings of a superior nature and too often treat them with rude undeserved contempt. This they seldom forgive, while on the other hand, they feel flattered when a white man does not disdain to treat them as children of the same Creator. Both reason and humanity concur in teaching us this conduct, but I am sorry to say that reason and humanity are in such cases too little attended to. I hope I may be permitted to expatiate a little on this subject; perhaps it may be beneficial to some white persons hereafter.

Indeed, you can easily gain an Indian's friendship if you approach them with genuine intentions. However, anyone looking to earn that friendship must treat them as equals. They are very sensitive to how whites behave, believing that many see themselves as superior and often treat them with unwarranted disrespect. This is something they rarely forgive. On the flip side, they feel appreciated when a white person treats them as equals, recognizing that they belong to the same Creator. Both logic and compassion tell us to act this way, but unfortunately, logic and compassion are often overlooked in these situations. I hope I can elaborate a bit on this topic; it might be helpful for some white people in the future.

The Indians are, as I have already observed before,220 excellent physiognomists. If they are accosted by or engaged in business with a number of whites, though they may not understand the language that is spoken, they will pretty accurately distinguish by the countenance, those who despise their colour from those who are under the influence of a more generous feeling, and in this they are seldom mistaken. They fix their eyes on the whole party round, and read as it were in the souls of the individuals who compose it. They mark those whom they consider as their friends, and those whom they think to be their enemies, and are sure to remember them ever after. But what must those expect, if a war or some other circumstance should put them into the power of the Indians, who, relying on their supposed ignorance 282 of our idiom, do not scruple even in their presence to apply to them the epithets of dogs, black d—ls, and the like? Will not these poor people be in some degree justifiable in considering those persons as decidedly hostile to their race? Such cases have unfortunately too frequently happened, and the savages have been blamed for treating as enemies those who had so cruelly wounded their most delicate feelings! Many white men have been thus put to death, who had brought their fate on themselves by their own imprudence. On the other hand, the Indians have not failed to mark those who at the time reprobated such indecent behaviour and reproached their companions for using such improper language. In the midst of war these benevolent Christians have been treated as friends, when, perhaps, they had forgotten the humane conduct to which they were indebted for this kind usage.

The Native Americans are, as I’ve mentioned before, excellent judges of character. When they interact with a group of white people, they may not understand the language being spoken, but they can usually tell who looks down on them and who holds a more respectful attitude, and they’re hardly ever wrong about that. They observe everyone in the group and seem to read the thoughts and feelings of those individuals. They remember who they consider friends and who they see as enemies, and they will not forget them. But what should those who insult them expect, especially if a war or some other situation puts them at the mercy of the Native Americans? Those who, thinking the Native Americans don’t understand English, call them names like "dogs" or "black devils," are they not giving these people a reason to see them as enemies? Sadly, this has happened far too often, and the Native Americans have faced criticism for responding as if those who insulted them were indeed their foes. Many white men have lost their lives due to their own foolishness. Conversely, the Native Americans have also noticed those who condemned such rude behavior and scolded their peers for using such offensive language. Even in the midst of war, these kind-hearted individuals have been treated as allies, perhaps without realizing that their compassionate behavior earned them this kind of treatment.

Their reasoning in such cases is simple, but to them always conclusive. They merely apply their constant maxim, which I believe I have already noticed, that “good can never proceed from evil or evil from good, and that good and evil, like heterogeneous substances, can never combine or coalesce together.” How far this maxim is founded in a profound knowledge of human nature, it is not my business to determine; what is certain is that they adhere to it in almost every occasion. If a person treats them ill, they ascribe it invariably to his bad heart; it is the bad spirit within him that operates; he is, therefore, a bad man. If on the contrary one shews them kindness, they say he is prompted so to act by “the good spirit within him,” and that he has a good heart; for if he had not, he would not do good. It is impossible to draw them out of this circle of reasoning, and to persuade them that the friendship shewn to them may be dissembled and proceed from motives of interest; so convinced are they of the truth of their general principle, “that good cannot proceed from an evil source.”

Their reasoning in these situations is straightforward but always convincing to them. They simply stick to their constant belief, which I think I’ve mentioned before, that “good can never come from evil, and evil can never come from good, and that good and evil, like different substances, can never mix or combine.” Whether this belief stems from a deep understanding of human nature is not for me to judge; what’s clear is that they follow it almost every time. If someone treats them poorly, they always attribute it to that person’s bad character; it’s the bad spirit inside him that’s to blame, so he must be a bad person. On the other hand, if someone shows them kindness, they say it’s because of “the good spirit within him,” and that he has a good heart; because if he didn’t, he wouldn’t do good things. It’s impossible to pull them out of this reasoning loop and convince them that the kindness shown to them could be fake or come from self-serving motives; they are so convinced of the truth of their general principle, “that good cannot come from an evil source.”

The conduct of the Europeans towards them, particularly within the last fifty or sixty years, has, however, sufficiently convinced them that men may dissemble, and that kind speeches and even acts of apparent friendship do not always proceed from friendly motives, but that the bad spirit will sometimes lurk 283 under the appearance of the good. Hence, when they speak of the whites in general, they do not scruple to designate them as a false, deceitful race; but it is nevertheless true that with individuals, they frequently forget this general impression, and revert to their own honest principle; and if a white man only behaves to them with common humanity, it is still easy to get access to their simple hearts. Such are those brutes, those savages, from whom, according to some men, no faith is to be expected, and with whom no faith is to be kept; such are those barbarous nations, as they are called, whom God, nevertheless, made the lawful owners and masters of this beautiful country; but who, at no very remote time, will probably live, partially live, only in its history.

The behavior of Europeans towards them, especially over the last fifty or sixty years, has clearly shown them that people can be deceitful, and that kind words and seemingly friendly actions don’t always come from good intentions. They understand that a bad spirit can sometimes hide behind a facade of goodness. Therefore, when they talk about white people in general, they don’t hesitate to call them a false and deceitful race. However, it's also true that with individuals, they often overlook this generalization and revert to their own honest nature; if a white person treats them with basic kindness, it's still easy to reach their genuine hearts. Such are those "brutes," those "savages," from whom, according to some people, no trust can be expected, and with whom no promises are to be kept; such are those so-called barbarous nations, whom God has still made the rightful owners and rulers of this beautiful land; yet, before long, they may primarily exist only in its history.

My object in this chapter is to prove that those men are susceptible of the noblest and finest feelings of genuine friendship. It is not enough that by a long residence among them, I have acquired the most complete conviction of this truth; facts and not opinions, I know, are expected from me. Perhaps I might rest satisfied with the proofs that I have already given, but I have only shewn the strength and have yet to display the constancy of their attachments; and although in the story which I am going to relate, a friend was forced to see his friend perish miserably without having it in his power to save him from the most terrible death that vengeance and cruelty could inflict, we shall not be the less astonished to see him persevere in his friendly sentiments, under circumstances of all others the most calculated, (particularly to an Indian) not only to have entirely extinguished, but converted those sentiments into feelings of hatred and revenge.

My goal in this chapter is to show that these men are capable of the deepest and most genuine feelings of friendship. It’s not enough that I’ve developed complete confidence in this truth through my long time spent with them; I know you expect facts and not just opinions from me. I could be content with the evidence I’ve already provided, but I have only demonstrated the strength of their bonds and still need to illustrate the constancy of their attachments. Even though the story I’m about to tell involves a friend who had to watch his companion die a terrible death without being able to save him from the worst of vengeance and cruelty, we will still be amazed to see him maintain his friendship under circumstances that might usually, especially for an Indian, completely extinguish those feelings and turn them into hatred and revenge.

I am sorry to be so often obliged to revert to the circumstance of the cruel murder of the Christian Indians on the Sandusky221 river222 in the year 1782, by a gang of banditti, under the command of one Williamson. Not satisfied with this horrid outrage, the same band not long afterwards marched to Sandusky,223 where 284 it seems they had been informed that the remainder of that unfortunate congregation had fled, in order to perpetrate upon them the same indiscriminate murder. But Providence had so ordered it that they had before left that place, where they had found that they could not remain in safety, their ministers having been taken from them and carried to Detroit by order of the British government, so that they had been left entirely unprotected. The murderers, on their arrival, were much disappointed in finding nothing but empty huts. They then shaped their course towards the hostile Indian villages, where being, contrary to their expectations, furiously attacked, Williamson and his band took the advantage of a dark night and ran off, and the whole party escaped, except one Colonel Crawford and another, who being taken by the Indians were carried in triumph to their village, where the former was condemned to death by torture, and the punishment was inflicted with all the cruelty that rage could invent. The latter was demanded by the Shawanese and sent to them for punishment.

I'm sorry to have to bring up again the terrible murder of the Christian Indians on the Sandusky River in 1782, carried out by a group of bandits led by someone named Williamson. Not content with this horrific act, the same group soon marched to Sandusky, believing that the remaining members of that unfortunate community had fled and that they could carry out the same indiscriminate slaughter. But, by some stroke of fate, the congregation had already left that place, as they realized they couldn't stay safely there. Their ministers had been taken away to Detroit under orders from the British government, leaving them completely unprotected. When the murderers arrived, they were disappointed to find only empty huts. They then made their way toward the enemy Indian villages, where they were unexpectedly attacked. Williamson and his band took advantage of the dark night to flee, and the entire group escaped, except for Colonel Crawford and one other person, who were captured by the Indians and taken to their village. There, Crawford was sentenced to death by torture, experiencing all the cruelty that rage could devise. The other was demanded by the Shawanese and sent to them for punishment.

While preparations were making for the execution of this dreadful sentence, the unfortunate Crawford recollected that the Delaware chief Wingenund,224 of whom I have spoken in the beginning of this chapter, had been his friend in happier times; 285 he had several times entertained him at his house, and shewed him those marks of attention which are so grateful to the poor despised Indians. A ray of hope darted through his soul, and he requested that Wingenund, who lived at some distance from the village, might be sent for. His request was granted, and a messenger was despatched for the chief, who, reluctantly, indeed, but without hesitation, obeyed the summons, and immediately came to the fatal spot.

While preparations were underway for the execution of this terrible sentence, the unfortunate Crawford remembered that the Delaware chief Wingenund, 224 whom I mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, had been his friend during happier times; 285 he had hosted him several times at his home and showed him those gestures of kindness that are so appreciated by the often-maligned Indians. A glimmer of hope sparked in his heart, and he asked that Wingenund, who lived a bit away from the village, be called. His request was granted, and a messenger was sent for the chief, who, though reluctantly, complied without hesitation and quickly arrived at the tragic site.

This great and good man was not only one of the bravest and most celebrated warriors, but one of the most amiable men of the Delaware nation. To a firm undaunted mind, he joined humanity, kindness and universal benevolence; the excellent qualities of his heart had obtained for him the name of Wingenund, which in the Lenape language signifies the well beloved. He had kept away from the tragical scene about to be acted, to mourn in silence and solitude over the fate of his guilty friend, which he well knew it was not in his power to prevent. He was now called upon to act a painful as well as difficult part; the eyes of his enraged countrymen were fixed upon him; he was an Indian and a Delaware; he was a leader of that nation, whose defenceless members had been so cruelly murdered without distinction of age or sex, and whose innocent blood called aloud for the most signal revenge. Could he take the part of a chief of the base murderers? Could he forget altogether the feelings of ancient fellowship and give way exclusively to those of the Indian and the patriot? Fully sensible that in the situation in which he was placed the latter must, in appearance, at least, predominate, he summoned to his aid the firmness and dignity of an Indian warrior, approached Colonel Crawford and waited in silence for the communications he had to make. The following dialogue now took place between them.

This great and good man was not only one of the bravest and most celebrated warriors but also one of the kindest people in the Delaware nation. Along with his strong, fearless mind, he possessed humanity, kindness, and a deep sense of generosity; the wonderful qualities of his heart earned him the name Wingenund, which in Lenape means the well beloved. He had stayed away from the tragic scene about to unfold to grieve in silence and solitude over the fate of his guilty friend, knowing well that he had no power to prevent it. He was now called upon to take on a role that was both painful and difficult; the eyes of his angry countrymen were fixed on him. He was an Indian and a Delaware; he was a leader of a nation whose defenseless members had been brutally murdered without regard for age or sex, and whose innocent blood cried out for the most intense revenge. Could he side with those responsible for the vile murders? Could he completely forget the bonds of old friendship and surrender solely to the feelings of an Indian and a patriot? Fully aware that, in the position he found himself in, the latter must, at least in appearance, take precedence, he summoned the strength and dignity of an Indian warrior, approached Colonel Crawford, and waited in silence for the news he had to share. The following dialogue now took place between them.

Crawf. Do you recollect me, Wingenund?

Crawf. Do you remember me, Wingenund?

Wingen. I believe I do; are you not Colonel Crawford?

Wingen. I think I do; aren't you Colonel Crawford?

Crawf. I am. How do you do? I am glad to see you, Captain.

Crawford. I am. How are you? I’m happy to see you, Captain.

Wingen. (embarrassed) So! yes, indeed.

Wingen. (embarrassed) So! Yes, totally.

Crawf. Do you recollect the friendship that always existed between us, and that we were always glad to see each other? 286

Crawfish. Do you remember the friendship we always had and how happy we were to see each other? 286

Wingen. I recollect all this. I remember that we have drunk many a bowl of punch together. I remember also other acts of kindness that you have done me.

Wingen. I remember all of this. I recall that we’ve shared many bowls of punch together. I also remember other acts of kindness you’ve shown me.

Crawf. Then I hope the same friendship still subsists between us.

Crawfish. Then I hope our friendship is still strong.

Wingen. It would, of course, be the same, were you in your proper place and not here.

Wingen. It would, of course, be the same if you were in your rightful place and not here.

Crawf. And why not here, Captain? I hope you would not desert a friend in time of need. Now is the time for you to exert yourself in my behalf, as I should do for you, were you in my place.

Crawford. And why not here, Captain? I hope you wouldn't abandon a friend in their time of need. Now is the moment for you to step up for me, just like I would for you if our roles were reversed.

Wingen. Colonel Crawford! you have placed yourself in a situation which puts it out of my power and that of others of your friends to do anything for you.

Wingen. Colonel Crawford! You've put yourself in a position that makes it impossible for me and your other friends to help you.

Crawf. How so, Captain Wingenund?

Crawf. How so, Capt. Wingenund?

Wingen. By joining yourself to that execrable man, Williamson and his party; the man who, but the other day, murdered such a number of the Moravian Indians, knowing them to be friends; knowing that he ran no risk in murdering a people who would not fight, and whose only business was praying.

Wingen. By aligning yourself with that despicable guy, Williamson, and his crew—the man who just recently killed so many of the Moravian Indians, fully aware that they were friends; knowing he faced no danger in slaughtering a group who wouldn’t fight and whose only purpose was to pray.

Crawf. Wingenund, I assure you, that had I been with him at the time, this would not have happened; not I alone but all your friends and all good men, wherever they are, reprobate acts of this kind.

Crawfish. Wingenund, I promise you, if I had been with him at that moment, this wouldn't have happened; not just me, but all your friends and all decent people everywhere condemn actions like this.

Wingen. That may be; yet these friends, these good men did not prevent him from going out again, to kill the remainder of those inoffensive, yet foolish Moravian Indians! I say foolish, because they believed the whites in preference to us. We had often told them that they would be one day so treated by those people who called themselves their friends! We told them that there was no faith to be placed in what the white men said; that their fair promises were only intended to allure us, that they might the more easily kill us, as they have done many Indians before they killed these Moravians.

Wings. That may be; however, these friends, these good men did not stop him from going out again to kill the rest of those harmless, yet foolish Moravian Indians! I call them foolish because they trusted the white people more than us. We had often warned them that one day they would be treated this way by those who claimed to be their friends! We told them that they couldn't trust what the white men said; that their sweet promises were just meant to lure us in so they could more easily kill us, just like they had done to many other Indians before these Moravians.

Crawf. I am sorry to hear you speak thus; as to Williamson’s going out again, when it was known that he was determined on it, I went out with him to prevent him from committing fresh murders. 287

Crawfish. I’m sorry to hear you say that. About Williamson going out again, once everyone knew he was set on it, I went out with him to stop him from committing more murders. 287

Wingen. This, Colonel, the Indians would not believe, were even I to tell them so.

Wingen. The Indians wouldn't believe this, Colonel, even if I told them.

Crawf. And why would they not believe it?

Crawford. And why wouldn’t they believe it?

Wingen. Because it would have been out of your power to prevent his doing what he pleased.

Wingen. Because you wouldn't have been able to stop him from doing whatever he wanted.

Crawf. Out of my power! Have any Moravian Indians been killed or hurt since we came out?

Crawl. Out of my control! Have any Moravian Indians been killed or injured since we arrived?

Wingen. None; but you went first to their town, and finding it empty and deserted you turned on the path towards us? If you had been in search of warriors only, you would not have gone thither. Our spies watched you closely. They saw you while you were embodying yourselves on the other side of the Ohio; they saw you cross that river; they saw where you encamped at night; they saw you turn off from the path to the deserted Moravian town; they knew you were going out of your way; your steps were constantly watched, and you were suffered quietly to proceed until you reached the spot where you were attacked.

Wingen. None; but you first went to their town, and finding it empty and deserted, you turned onto the path towards us? If you were only looking for warriors, you wouldn't have gone there. Our spies kept a close eye on you. They saw you when you were gathering on the other side of the Ohio; they saw you cross that river; they saw where you set up camp at night; they saw you detour from the path to the abandoned Moravian town; they knew you were going out of your way; your movements were being constantly monitored, and you were allowed to proceed quietly until you reached the place where you were attacked.

Crawf. What do they intend to do with me? Can you tell me?

Crawf. What do they plan to do with me? Can you tell me?

Wingen. I tell you with grief, Colonel. As Williamson and his whole cowardly host, ran off in the night at the whistling of our warrior’s balls, being satisfied that now he had no Moravians to deal with, but men who could fight, and with such he did not wish to have anything to do; I say, as he escaped, and they have taken you, they will take revenge on you in his stead.

Wingen. I'm sorry to say, Colonel, that Williamson and his entire cowardly group fled into the night at the sound of our warriors' gunfire, believing they no longer had to face the Moravians, but men who could actually fight, and he wanted no part of that. I fear that as he escaped, and now that they’ve captured you, they will seek revenge on you in his place.

Crawf. And is there no possibility of preventing this? Can you devise no way to get me off? You shall, my friend, be well rewarded if you are instrumental in saving my life.

Crawfish. Is there really no way to stop this? Can you think of anything that could help get me out of this? I promise, my friend, you'll be greatly rewarded if you help save my life.

Wingen. Had Williamson been taken with you, I and some friends, by making use of what you have told me, might perhaps, have succeeded to save you, but as the matter now stands, no man would dare to interfere in your behalf. The king of England himself, were he to come to this spot, with all his wealth and treasures could not effect this purpose. The blood of the innocent Moravians, more than half of them women and children, cruelly and wantonly murdered calls aloud for revenge. The relatives of the slain, who are among us, cry out and stand ready for revenge. The nation to which they belonged will have 288 revenge. The Shawanese, our grandchildren, have asked for your fellow-prisoner; on him they will take revenge. All the nations connected with us cry out Revenge! revenge! The Moravians whom you went to destroy having fled, instead of avenging their brethren, the offence is become national, and the nation itself is bound to take REVENGE!

Wingen. If Williamson had been with you, I and some friends might have been able to save you by using what you’ve told me, but as things stand now, no one would dare to step in on your behalf. Even the king of England himself, if he came here with all his wealth and treasures, couldn’t change this. The blood of the innocent Moravians—most of them women and children—cruelly and senselessly murdered is crying out for revenge. The families of those killed, who are with us, shout out and are ready for revenge. The nation they belonged to demands 288 revenge. The Shawanese, our grandchildren, have asked for your fellow prisoner; they will take revenge on him. All the nations allied with us are calling for Revenge! revenge! The Moravians you came to destroy have fled, and instead of avenging their brothers, the offense has become national, and the nation itself is compelled to take Revenge!

Crawf. Then it seems my fate is decided, and I must prepare to meet death in its worst form?

Crawford. So it looks like my fate is set, and I have to get ready to face death in its darkest form?

Wingen. Yes, Colonel!—I am sorry for it; but cannot do anything for you. Had you attended to the Indian principle, that as good and evil cannot dwell together in the same heart, so a good man ought not to go into evil company; you would not be in this lamentable situation. You see now, when it is too late, after Williamson has deserted you, what a bad man he must be! Nothing now remains for you but to meet your fate like a brave man. Farewell, Colonel Crawford! they are coming;225 I will retire to a solitary spot.

Wingen. Yes, Colonel! I’m sorry about this, but I can’t help you. If you had followed the Indian principle that good and evil can’t coexist in the same heart, you wouldn’t have associated with people like Williamson and found yourself in this regrettable situation. Now, it’s too late for you to realize how untrustworthy he is since he has abandoned you. All you have left is to face your fate like a brave man. Goodbye, Colonel Crawford! They’re coming; 225 I will move to a quiet place.

I have been assured by respectable Indians that at the close of this conversation, which was related to me by Wingenund himself as well as by others, both he and Crawford burst into a flood of tears; they then took an affectionate leave of each other, and the chief immediately hid himself in the bushes, as the Indians express it, or in his own language, retired to a solitary spot. He never, afterwards, spoke of the fate of his unfortunate friend without strong emotions of grief, which I have several times witnessed. Once, it was the first time that he came into Detroit after Crawford’s sufferings, I heard him censured in his own presence by some gentlemen who were standing together for not having saved the life of so valuable a man, who was also his particular friend, as he had often told them. He listened calmly to their censure, and first turning to me, said in his own language: “These men talk like fools,” then turning to them, he replied in English: “If king George himself, if your king had been on the spot with all his ships laden with goods and treasures, he could not have ransomed my friend, nor saved his life from the rage of a justly exasperated multitude.” He made no 289 further allusion to the act that had been the cause of Crawford’s death, and it was easy to perceive that on this melancholy subject, grief was the feeling that predominated in his mind. He felt much hurt, however, at this unjust accusation, from men who, perhaps, he might think, would have acted very differently in his place. For, let us consider in what a situation he found himself, at that trying and critical moment. He was a Delaware Indian, and a highly distinguished character among his nation. The offence was national, and of the most atrocious kind, as it was wanton and altogether unprovoked. He might have been expected to partake with all the rest of his countrymen in the strong desire which they felt for revenge. He had been Crawford’s friend, it is true, and various acts of sociability and friendship had been interchanged between them. But, no doubt, at that time, he believed him, at least, not to be an enemy to his nation and colour, and if he was an enemy, he might have expected him to be, like himself, a fair, open, generous foe. But when he finds him enlisted with those who are waging a war of extermination against the Indian race, murdering in cold blood, and without distinction of age or sex, even those who had united their fate to that of the whites, and had said to the Christians: “Your people shall be our people, and your God our God,”226 was there not enough here to make him disbelieve all the former professions of such a man, and to turn his abused friendship into the most violent enmity and the bitterest rage? Instead of this we see him persevering to the last in his attachment to a person who, to say the least, had ceased to be deserving of it; we see him in the face of his enraged countrymen avow that friendship, careless of the jealousy that he might excite; we see him not only abstain from participating in the national revenge, but deserting his post, as it were, seek a solitary spot to bewail the death of him, whom, in spite of all, he still loved, and felt not ashamed to call his friend.

I have been assured by respectable Indians that at the end of this conversation, which Wingenund himself and others recounted to me, both he and Crawford broke down in tears. They then said a heartfelt goodbye to each other, and the chief immediately hid himself in the bushes, as Indians would put it, or in his own words, went to a quiet place. After that, he never spoke about the fate of his unfortunate friend without showing deep sorrow, which I have witnessed several times. Once, when he came to Detroit for the first time after Crawford’s suffering, I heard some gentlemen criticize him in front of me for not saving the life of such a valuable man, who was also his close friend, as he had often told them. He listened calmly to their criticism and first turned to me, saying in his own language: “These men talk like fools.” Then, turning to them, he replied in English: “If King George himself, if your king had been there with all his ships loaded with goods and treasures, he could not have redeemed my friend or saved his life from the anger of a justly furious crowd.” He made no further mention of the act that caused Crawford’s death, and it was clear that grief was his dominant feeling on this sad topic. He felt hurt, however, by this unfair accusation from men who, perhaps, he thought would have acted very differently in his situation. For, let’s consider the position he was in during that difficult moment. He was a Delaware Indian and a highly respected figure among his people. The offense was a national issue and among the most heinous kind, as it was senseless and entirely unwarranted. He might have been expected to share the strong desire for revenge that his countrymen felt. It is true he had been Crawford’s friend, and they had exchanged various acts of friendship. But at that moment, he likely believed that Crawford was not an enemy to his nation or his people, and if he was an enemy, he would have expected him to be, like himself, a fair and honorable adversary. But when he saw Crawford siding with those who were waging a war of extermination against the Indian race, killing without mercy, including those who had joined their fate with the whites and had promised the Christians: “Your people will be our people, and your God our God,”—wasn’t there enough here to cause him to doubt all the previous promises from such a man and to turn his betrayed friendship into fierce enmity and bitter rage? Instead, we see him sticking to his loyalty to a person who, at the very least, no longer deserved it; we see him, in the face of his furious countrymen, openly declare that friendship, ignoring any jealousy he might provoke; we see him not only refuse to take part in the national quest for revenge but also leave his place, as it were, to find a quiet spot to mourn the death of someone whom, despite everything, he still loved and did not hesitate to call his friend.

It is impossible for friendship to be put to a severer test, and the example of Wingenund proves how deep a root this sentiment can take in the mind of an Indian, when even such circumstances as those under which the chief found himself, fail to extinguish it. 290

It is impossible for friendship to face a tougher challenge, and the example of Wingenund shows how deeply this feeling can sink into the mind of an Indian, even when circumstances like those the chief faced don’t wipe it out. 290


CHAPTER XXXIX.
Preachers and prophets.

T

There was a time when the preachers and prophets of the Indians, by properly exerting the unbounded influence which the popular superstitions gave them, might have excited among those nations such a spirit of general resistance against the encroachments of the Europeans, as would have enabled them, at least, to make a noble stand against their invaders, and perhaps to recover the undisturbed possession of their country. Instead of following the obvious course which reason and nature pointed out; instead of uniting as one nation in defence of their natural rights, they gave ear to the artful insinuations of their enemies, who too well understood the art of sowing unnatural divisions among them. It was not until Canada, after repeated struggles, was finally conquered from the French by the united arms of Great Britain and her colonies, that they began to be sensible of their desperate situation—this whole northern continent being now in the possession of one great and powerful nation, against whom it was vain to attempt resistance. Yet it was at this moment that their prophets, impelled by ambitious motives, began to endeavour by their eloquence to bring them back to independent feelings, and create among them a genuine national spirit; but it was too late. The only rational resource that remained for them to prevent their total annihilation was to adopt the religion and manners of their conquerors, and abandon savage life for the comforts of civilised society; but of this but a few of them were sensible; in vain Missionaries were sent among them, who, through the greatest hardships and dangers exerted themselves to soften their 291 misfortunes by the consolations of the Christian faith, and to point out to them the way of salvation in this world and the next; the banner of Christ was comparatively followed but by small numbers, and these were persecuted by their friends, or, at least, those who ought to have been such, as well as by their enemies. Among the obstacles which the Missionaries encountered, the strong opposition which was made to them by the prophets of the Indian nations was by no means the least.

There was a time when Indian preachers and prophets, by effectively using the vast influence granted by popular superstitions, could have inspired a strong spirit of resistance among their nations against European encroachments. This could have allowed them to stand up nobly against their invaders and possibly reclaim their land. Instead of taking the clear path that reason and nature suggested—uniting as one nation to defend their natural rights—they listened to the cunning suggestions of their enemies, who knew how to create divisions among them. It wasn't until Canada was finally taken from the French by the combined forces of Great Britain and her colonies that they began to realize their desperate situation—this entire northern continent was now under one powerful nation, making resistance seem futile. Yet it was at this moment that their prophets, driven by ambition, tried to use their persuasive words to rekindle a sense of independence and foster a genuine national spirit among them, but it was too late. The only practical option left to avoid complete annihilation was to adopt the religion and customs of their conquerors and exchange their savage way of life for the comforts of civilized society; however, only a few recognized this. Missionaries were sent to help, enduring great hardships and dangers to comfort them with the Christian faith and show them the path to salvation in this life and the next; yet, only a small number followed Christ, and those few faced persecution from friends—or those who should have been friends—as well as from enemies. One of the significant challenges the Missionaries faced was the strong opposition from the prophets of the Indian nations, which was certainly one of the greatest obstacles.

I have known several of these preachers and prophets during my residence in the Indian country, and have had sufficient opportunities to observe the means which they took to operate on the minds of their hearers. I shall content myself with taking notice here of a few of the most remarkable among them.

I have known several of these preachers and prophets during my time in Indian country, and I've had enough chances to watch how they influenced the minds of their audiences. I will limit my comments here to a few of the most notable ones.

In the year 1762, there was a famous preacher of the Delaware nation, who resided at Cayahaga, near Lake Erie, and travelled about the country, among the Indians, endeavouring to persuade them that he had been appointed by the great Spirit to instruct them in those things that were agreeable to him and to point out to them the offences by which they had drawn his displeasure on themselves, and the means by which they might recover his favour for the future. He had drawn, as he pretended, by the direction of the great Spirit, a kind of map on a piece of deer skin, somewhat dressed like parchment, which he called “the great Book or Writing.” This, he said, he had been ordered to shew to the Indians, that they might see the situation in which the Mannitto had originally placed them, the misery which they had brought upon themselves by neglecting their duty, and the only way that was now left them to regain what they had lost. This map he held before him while preaching, frequently pointing to particular marks and spots upon it, and giving explanations as he went along.

In 1762, there was a well-known preacher from the Delaware nation who lived at Cayahaga, near Lake Erie. He traveled around the country among the Native Americans, trying to convince them that he was chosen by the great Spirit to teach them what was pleasing to Him and to point out the wrongs that had caused them to fall out of favor with Him, as well as how they could regain His favor in the future. He claimed to have created a kind of map on a piece of deer skin, somewhat like parchment, which he called “the great Book or Writing,” under the guidance of the great Spirit. He said he was instructed to show this to the Native Americans so they could see the place where the Mannitto had originally positioned them, the suffering they had brought upon themselves by neglecting their responsibilities, and the only path left for them to reclaim what they had lost. He held this map in front of him while preaching, often pointing to specific marks and areas on it and explaining as he went along.

The size of this map was about fifteen inches square, or, perhaps, something more. An inside square was formed by lines drawn within it, of about eight inches each way, two of those lines, however, were not closed by about half an inch at the corners. Across these inside lines, others of about an inch in length were drawn with sundry other lines and marks, all which was intended to represent a strong inaccessible barrier, 292 to prevent those without from entering the space within, otherwise than at the place appointed for that purpose. When the map was held as he directed, the corners which were not closed lay at the left hand side, directly opposite to each other, the one being at the south-east by south, and the nearest at the north-east by north. In explaining or describing the particular points on this map, with his fingers always pointing to the place he was describing, he called the space within the inside lines “the heavenly regions,” or the place destined by the great Spirit for the habitation of the Indians in future life; the space left open at the south-east corner, he called the “avenue,” which had been intended for the Indians to enter into this heaven, but which was now in the possession of the white people, wherefore the great Spirit had since caused another “avenue” to be made on the opposite side, at which, however, it was both difficult and dangerous for them to enter, there being many impediments in their way, besides a large ditch leading to a gulf below, over which they had to leap; but the evil spirit kept at this very spot a continual watch for Indians, and whoever he laid hold of, never could get away from him again, but was carried to his regions, where there was nothing but extreme poverty; where the ground was parched up by the heat for want of rain, no fruit came to perfection, the game was almost starved for want of pasture, and where the evil spirit, at his pleasure, transformed men into horses and dogs, to be ridden by him and follow him in his hunts and wherever he went.

The map was about fifteen inches square, maybe a bit more. Inside that, a smaller square was drawn with lines about eight inches each way, although two of those lines were left open by about half an inch at the corners. Across these inner lines, others about an inch long were drawn along with various other lines and marks, meant to represent a strong, impenetrable barrier to keep outsiders from entering the space within, except at the designated entry point. When the map was held as he instructed, the open corners were on the left side, directly across from each other, one in the southeast by south and the other closest in the northeast by north. While explaining or describing specific points on the map, with his fingers always pointing to the place he was describing, he referred to the area within the inner lines as “the heavenly regions,” the place set by the Great Spirit for the Indians' future dwelling; the open space at the southeast corner he called the “avenue,” which was meant for the Indians to enter this heaven but was now occupied by white people. Because of this, the Great Spirit had created another “avenue” on the opposite side, although it was both difficult and dangerous for them to access, with many obstacles in their path, including a large ditch leading to a gulf below that they had to leap over. The evil spirit kept a constant watch at this spot for Indians, and anyone he captured could never escape him again but was taken to his realm, where there was only extreme poverty: the ground was parched from lack of rain, no fruit developed properly, the game was nearly starved due to lack of pasture, and the evil spirit would transform men into horses and dogs at his whim, to ride and take with him on his hunts wherever he went.

The space on the outside of this interior square, was intended to represent the country given to the Indians to hunt, fish, and dwell in while in this world; the east side of it was called the ocean or “great salt water Lake.” Then the preacher drawing the attention of his hearers particularly to the south-east avenue, would say to them: “Look here! See what we have lost by neglect and disobedience; by being remiss in the expression of our gratitude to the great Spirit, for what he has bestowed upon us; by neglecting to make to him sufficient sacrifices; by looking upon a people of a different colour from our own, who had come across a great lake, as if they were a part of ourselves; by suffering them to sit down by our side, and looking at them with 293 indifference, while they were not only taking our country from us, but this (pointing to the spot), this, our own avenue, leading into those beautiful regions which were destined for us. Such is the sad condition to which we are reduced. What is now to be done, and what remedy is to be applied? I will tell you, my friends. Hear what the great Spirit has ordered me to tell you! You are to make sacrifices, in the manner that I shall direct; to put off entirely from yourselves the customs which you have adopted since the white people came among us; you are to return to that former happy state, in which we lived in peace and plenty, before these strangers came to disturb us, and above all, you must abstain from drinking their deadly beson, which they have forced upon us, for the sake of increasing their gains and diminishing our numbers. Then will the great Spirit give success to our arms; then he will give us strength to conquer our enemies, to drive them from hence, and recover the passage to the heavenly regions which they have taken from us.”

The area outside this inner square was meant to symbolize the land given to the Native Americans for hunting, fishing, and living in this world; the east side was called the ocean or “great salt water lake.” Then the preacher would direct his audience's attention to the southeast avenue and say: “Look here! See what we have lost due to neglect and disobedience; by failing to express our gratitude to the great Spirit for what he has given us; by not making enough sacrifices to him; by viewing people of a different color who crossed a great lake as if they were part of us; by allowing them to sit beside us and looking at them with indifference, while they were not only taking our land but also this (pointing to the spot), this, our own avenue, leading into those beautiful regions that were meant for us. Such is the unfortunate condition we are in. What should we do now, and what solutions can we find? I will tell you, my friends. Listen to what the great Spirit has instructed me to share with you! You need to make sacrifices in the way I will advise; completely cast off the customs you have adopted since the white people arrived; return to that former happy state, in which we lived in peace and abundance, before these strangers disrupted us, and above all, you must avoid drinking their deadly beson, which they have imposed on us to increase their profits and decrease our numbers. Then the great Spirit will grant success to our efforts; then he will give us the strength to defeat our enemies, to drive them away from here, and to reclaim the path to the heavenly regions they have taken from us.”

Such was in general the substance of his discourses. After having dilated more or less on the various topics which I have mentioned, he commonly concluded in this manner: “And now, my friends, in order that what I have told you may remain firmly impressed on your minds, and to refresh your memories from time to time, I advise you to preserve, in every family, at least, such a book or writing as this, which I will finish off for you, provided you bring me the price, which is only one buckskin or two doe-skins a piece.”227 The price was of course bought,228 and the book purchased. In some of those maps, the figure of a deer or turkey, or both, was placed in the heavenly regions, and also in the dreary region of the evil spirit; the former, however, appeared fat and plump, while the latter seemed to have nothing but skin and bones.

This was generally the main point of his talks. After discussing the various topics I mentioned, he usually concluded like this: “So now, my friends, to help what I’ve shared stick in your minds and to refresh your memories occasionally, I recommend that every family keeps a book or writing like this, which I will complete for you, as long as you bring me the payment, which is just one buckskin or two doe-skins each.”227 The payment was, of course, made,228 and the book was bought. In some of those maps, there was a figure of a deer or turkey, or both, placed in the heavenly realms, and also in the grim area of the evil spirit; the former appeared healthy and plump, while the latter looked like it was just skin and bones.

I was also well acquainted with another noted preacher, named Wangomend, who was of the Monsey tribe. He began to preach in the year 1766, much in the same manner as the one I have just mentioned. When Mr. Zeisberger first came to Goschgoschink 294 town229 on the Allegheny river, this Indian prophet became one of his hearers, but finding that the Missionary’s doctrine did not agree with his own, he became his enemy. This man also pretended that his call as a preacher was not of his own choice, but that he had been moved to it by the great and good Spirit, in order to teach his countrymen, who were on the way to perdition, how they could become reconciled to their God. He would make his followers believe that he had once been taken so near to heaven, that he could distinctly hear the crowing of the cocks, and that at another time he had been borne by unseen hands to where he had been permitted to take a peep into the heavens, of which there were three, one for the Indians, one for the negroes, and another for the white people. That of the Indians he observed to be the happiest of the three, and that of the whites the unhappiest; for they were under chastisement for their ill treatment of the Indians, and for possessing themselves of the land which God had given to them. They were also punished for making beasts of the negroes, by selling them as the Indians do their horses and dogs, and beating them unmercifully, although God had created them as well as the rest of mankind.

I was also familiar with another famous preacher named Wangomend, who was from the Monsey tribe. He started preaching in 1766, similar to the one I just talked about. When Mr. Zeisberger first arrived in Goschgoschink 294 town229 on the Allegheny River, this Indian prophet listened to him, but after realizing that the Missionary’s teachings didn’t align with his own, he turned against him. This man claimed that his calling as a preacher wasn’t his own choice; instead, he said he was inspired by the great and good Spirit to teach his fellow Indians, who were headed for damnation, how to reconcile with God. He led his followers to believe that he had once been taken so close to heaven that he could clearly hear roosters crowing, and that on another occasion he was carried by unseen hands to a place where he could peek into the heavens, which he described as having three sections: one for Indians, one for black people, and another for white people. He noted that the Indian section was the happiest of the three, while the white section was the unhappiest; they were being punished for their mistreatment of the Indians and for taking the land that God had given them. They were also being punished for dehumanizing black people by selling them like the Indians sell their horses and dogs, and for beating them mercilessly, even though God created them just like everyone else.

The novelty of these visions procured him hearers for a time; he found, however, at last, that the Indians became indifferent to his doctrines, particularly as he frequently warned them not to drink the poison brought to them by the white people, of which his congregation were very fond. Then he bethought himself of a more popular and interesting subject, and began to preach against witchcraft and those who dealt in the black art. Here he had all the passions and prejudices of the poor Indians on his side, and he did not fail to meet with the general approbation, when he declared to them that wizards were getting the upper hand, and would destroy the nation, if they were not 295 checked in their career. He travelled in 1775, to Goschachking, at the forks of the Muskingum, to lay this business before the great council of the Delawares, and take their opinion upon it. The first report which the Missionaries on the Muskingum heard on this subject, was that the chiefs had at first united in having every conjurer and witch in the nation brought to an account and punished with death, that, however, on a more mature consideration, they had thought proper in the first place to ascertain the number and names not only of those who were known, but even of those who were suspected of dealing in sorcery, and Wangomend was appointed to cause the enumeration to be made. He accordingly hastily set off for his home; and on his arrival immediately entered on the duties of his mission; when behold! it was discovered that the number of offenders was much greater than had been at first imagined, and he found himself in danger of having his own name inserted in the black list. His zeal, in consequence, became considerably cooled, and by the time when he returned the chiefs were no longer disposed to meddle with this dangerous subject, justly fearing that it could not but terminate in the ruin of their nation. Wangomend, therefore, returned to his former mode of preaching, recommending to his hearers to purge themselves from sin by taking certain prescribed medicines, and making frequent sacrifices to the great Spirit.

The novelty of these visions attracted an audience for a while; however, he eventually realized that the Indians became apathetic towards his teachings, especially since he often cautioned them against drinking the poison brought by white people, which his followers enjoyed. Then he thought of a more engaging and popular topic and started preaching against witchcraft and those involved in the dark arts. He found that he had all the emotions and biases of the poor Indians on his side, and he didn't hesitate to gain their general approval when he warned them that wizards were gaining power and would destroy their nation if not stopped. In 1775, he traveled to Goschachking, at the forks of the Muskingum, to present this issue to the great council of the Delawares and seek their opinion on it. The first report the missionaries on the Muskingum received on this matter was that the chiefs initially agreed to hold every conjurer and witch in the nation accountable and punish them with death. However, after further reflection, they decided to first identify the number and names of not just the known offenders but also those suspected of practicing sorcery, and Wangomend was chosen to oversee this count. He quickly returned home and immediately began his mission duties; but to his surprise, he discovered that the number of offenders was much higher than he had initially thought, and he feared his own name might end up on the blacklist. Consequently, his enthusiasm cooled considerably, and by the time he returned, the chiefs were no longer willing to engage with this risky topic, rightly fearing it could lead to the destruction of their nation. Wangomend, therefore, went back to his previous way of preaching, advising his listeners to cleanse themselves of sin by taking specific prescribed medicines and making frequent sacrifices to the great Spirit.

The last whom I shall take notice of is the Prophet-warrior Tecumseh, lately so celebrated among us, and who lost his life in the last war at the battle of the Thames, on the 30th of September, 1813, at the age, it is said, of 43 years. The details of his military life have been made sufficiently known through the medium of journals and newspapers, and his famous speech to the British general Proctor delivered at Amhertsburg, a short time before the battle which decided his fate, is in every body’s hands.230 But his character as a prophet and the means that he took to raise himself to power and fame are not so well nor so particularly understood, although it is, in general, admitted that he was admirably skilled in the art of governing Indians through 296 the medium of their passions. The sketch which I am going to draw will sufficiently prove how well this opinion is founded.

The last person I want to mention is the Prophet-warrior Tecumseh, who has recently gained a lot of attention and lost his life in the last war at the Battle of the Thames on September 30, 1813, at the age of 43. The details of his military life are well-known through journals and newspapers, and his famous speech to British General Proctor delivered at Amherstburg shortly before the battle that determined his fate is widely available. But his role as a prophet and the ways he rose to power and fame aren't as well understood, even though most agree that he was exceptionally skilled at leading Native Americans by appealing to their passions. The overview I'm about to provide will clearly demonstrate how valid this view is.

From the best information that I was able to obtain of this man, he was by nation a Shawanese, and began his career as a preacher much in the manner that others had done before him. He endeavoured to impress upon the minds of his Indian hearers, that they were a distinct people from the whites, that they had been created and placed on this soil for peculiar purposes, and that it had been ordered by the supreme being that they should live unconnected with people of a different colour from their own. He painted in vivid colours, the misery that they had brought upon themselves by permitting the whites to reside among them, and urged them to unite and expel those lawless intruders from their country. But he soon discovered that these once popular topics no longer produced any effect on the minds of the dispirited Indians, and that it was impossible to persuade them to resort to strong measures, to oppose the progress of the whites, much less to endeavour to drive them beyond the great lake. He had long observed that whenever he touched on the subject of witchcraft, his discourses were always acceptable to his hearers, whose belief in those supernatural powers, instead of diminishing, seemed constantly to gain ground. He knew that his predecessor, Wangomend, had failed in his endeavour to gain influence and power by availing himself of these popular opinions. But his ill success did not deter him from making the same attempts. He did not, however, like him, seek the assistance of the national councils, but boldly determined to try what his talents and courage could do without any other aid. There is a saying among the Indians, “That God ordained man to live until all his teeth are worn out, his eyesight dim and his hair grey.” Of this he artfully availed himself to persuade those ignorant people, that the early deaths which constantly took place could not be attributed to any natural cause, since it was the will of God that every man should live to an advanced old age. When he found that he had thus obtained a fast hold on the minds of his hearers, by raising their fears of the powers of witchcraft to the highest pitch, he thought it was time to work on their hopes, and after gradually feeling the pulses of those he had 297 to deal with, after successively throwing out a great number of hints and insinuations, the effects of which he had carefully observed, he at last did what no preacher before him had ventured to do, by declaring that the great Mannitto had endowed him with supernatural powers, to foretel future events, and to discover present secrets, and that he could point out with certainty, not only those, whether men or women, who were in the full possession of the art of witchcraft, but those who had even a tincture of it, however small. His bold assertions met with implicit belief, and he obtained by that means such an unlimited command over a credulous multitude, that at last, he had only to speak the word, or even to nod, and the pile was quickly prepared by willing executioners to put to death whomsoever he thought proper to devote. Here was a wide field opened for the gratification of the worst passions. Whoever thought himself injured, denounced his enemy as a wizard; the least real or pretended cause of resentment, nay, even a paltry bribe, would bring the most innocent man to the pile or tomahawk, and no one availed himself more of this frantic delusion of the populace, than the great prophet himself. Having his spies out in every direction, he well knew who were his friends and who his enemies, and we to all who were reported to him or even suspected by him to be of the latter class! The tyrant had only to will their deaths, and his commands no one durst contradict, but all were ready to execute.

From the best information I could gather about this man, he was a Shawanese by nationality and started his career as a preacher, much like others before him. He tried to make his Indian audience understand that they were a distinct people separate from whites, created and placed on this land for specific purposes, and that it was the will of the supreme being for them to live apart from people of different colors. He vividly described the suffering they had brought upon themselves by allowing whites to live among them and urged them to come together and drive those lawless intruders from their land. However, he quickly realized that these once-popular topics no longer resonated with the discouraged Indians, and it was impossible to convince them to take strong actions against the encroachment of whites, let alone to drive them beyond the Great Lakes. He had long noticed that whenever he discussed witchcraft, his talks were always welcomed by his listeners, whose belief in those supernatural powers seemed to grow stronger rather than fade. He recognized that his predecessor, Wangomend, had failed to gain influence and power by tapping into these popular beliefs. However, this failure did not stop him from making the same attempts. Unlike Wangomend, he did not seek support from the national councils but boldly decided to see what he could achieve on his own. There’s a saying among the Indians: “God ordained man to live until all his teeth are worn out, his eyesight dims, and his hair turns grey.” He cleverly used this to convince those naive people that the frequent early deaths couldn’t be explained by any natural cause, as it was God’s will for everyone to reach old age. Once he saw that he had secured a firm grip on the minds of his audience by heightening their fears about witchcraft, he realized it was time to play on their hopes. Gradually testing the waters with those he was dealing with, tossing out a multitude of hints and insinuations while carefully observing their reactions, he ultimately did what no preacher before him had dared to do: he claimed that the great Mannitto had given him supernatural powers to predict the future and uncover present secrets. He declared that he could identify anyone—men or women—who possessed the full art of witchcraft or even the slightest hint of it. His bold claims were accepted without question, which gave him such complete control over a gullible crowd that eventually he only had to speak a word or even nod, and the preparations would quickly be made by eager followers to execute whoever he decided to condemn. This opened the door for the expression of the worst human instincts. Anyone who felt wronged denounced their rival as a wizard; even the smallest real or imaginary grievance, and even a trivial bribe, could lead to the demise of an innocent person. No one exploited this mad frenzy of the people more than the great prophet himself. With spies everywhere, he knew precisely who his allies and enemies were, and he targeted anyone reported or even suspected of being in the latter category. The tyrant simply had to will their deaths, and no one dared to oppose his orders; everyone was ready to carry them out.

Among the number of his victims was the venerable Wyandot Chief Sha-te-ya-ron-yah, called by the whites Leather-lips. He was one of those who in August, 1795, signed the treaty of Greenville on behalf of the Huron tribe. His only crime was honesty, and the honourable character which he had acquired. In a fit of jealousy Tecumseh ordered him to be put to death, and his commands were but too readily obeyed. I cannot conclude this chapter better than by an account of his death, which was transmitted to me at the time (in August, 1810) by a respectable and philanthropic gentleman in the state of Ohio.

Among his many victims was the respected Wyandot Chief Sha-te-ya-ron-yah, known to the white settlers as Leather-lips. He was one of those who signed the treaty of Greenville on behalf of the Huron tribe in August 1795. His only crime was being honest and the honorable reputation he had built. In a fit of jealousy, Tecumseh ordered his execution, and his orders were unfortunately followed without hesitation. I can't wrap up this chapter better than by sharing the account of his death, which I received at the time (in August 1810) from a reputable and compassionate gentleman in Ohio.

The relation which I here transcribe was accompanied with the following letter: 298

The account I'm about to share came with this letter: 298

Dear Sir—I here enclose an imperfect sketch of the execution of an unfortunate Indian. From your benevolent exertions, for many years, to ameliorate their condition, and the confidence reposed in you by them, I trust you may have it in your power successfully to oppose the wasteful influence of this prophet over these too credulous people. It is the office of humanity and worthy of the attention of the Society of the United Brethren. I may be incorrect in the recital of some of the circumstances; it was given to me from respectable sources; sources, in my opinion, entitled to credit.

Dear Sir—I’m sending you an incomplete sketch of the execution of an unfortunate Indian. Considering your many years of kind efforts to improve their situation and the trust they have in you, I hope you can successfully counter the negative influence of this prophet over these overly naive people. This is a humanitarian issue and deserves the attention of the Society of the United Brethren. I may not have all the details correct; this information comes from reliable sources that I believe to be trustworthy.”

“I am, &c.”

“I am, &c.”

Account of Leather-Lips' Death.

“This unfortunate Chief of the Seneca231 tribe, who had attained the sixty-third year of his age, had pitched his camp a few miles west of the town of Worthington in the county of Franklinton. From his constant attachment to the principles of honesty and integrity, he had obtained a certificate from an officer of the government as a testimonial of the propriety of his deportment. This aged Chief was suspected by the Prophet, a man of a restless, turbulent spirit, who by his exceeding address, has obtained an unbounded influence over many of the northern and western tribes of Indians, by impressing upon their minds a belief that he is endowed with supernatural knowledge, and can foretel events yet to come. This is the same prophet who gathered the Indians at Greenville a few years ago, from which meeting so much was apprehended. In order that he should no longer have anything to apprehend from him (this Indian) he issued orders for his immediate death. These orders were given to Crane,232 a chief of the Sandusky tribes, who immediately sat out with four other Indians, in quest of the old chief. About three weeks ago they found out his camp, and immediately sent his brother to him (who was one of their party) with a piece of bark, on which they had painted a tomahawk, as a token of his death! 299 On the same day, Crane and his party spoke publicly in the settlements of the whites of their intention to kill him. When they sat out for his camp they were accompanied by five white men, amongst whom was a justice of the peace, no doubt to gratify their curiosity. Upon their arrival at the camp, they informed him of the object of their mission, and that he must prepare to meet his fate! In vain did he remonstrate against the cruelty of the sentence; he told them that he was an old man, and must soon die; that if they would spare him they might have his camp, and that he would go far beyond the Mississippi, where he would never again be heard of. He also alleged that he was a man of honesty, and had done nothing to incur so hard a fate! One of the white men also made an offer of his horse, to save the old man from the impending storm. Those offers all proved ineffectual. All hopes of a reconciliation now gone, he prepared to meet his fate with becoming dignity. While the Indians were digging his grave, he dressed himself with his best clothes in the war style, and then got his venison and refreshed himself. As soon as the grave was finished, he went to it and knelt down and prayed most fervently! He then took an affectionate leave of the Indians, and of the white men present, and when he came to the one who had offered his horse to redeem him, penetrated with gratitude, he burst into a flood of tears, and told him that his God would reward him. This was the only instance in which the least change could be perceived in his countenance. He was then attended to the grave by Crane—they knelt down, while Crane offered up to the great Spirit his prayers in his behalf. The fatal period had now arrived; they arose from their knees, and proceeded a few paces, and seated themselves on the ground. The old chief inclined forward, resting his face upon his hand, his hand upon his knees; while thus seated, one of the young Indians came up and struck him twice with the tomahawk. For some time he lay senseless on the ground. The only evidence of life that yet remained, was a faint respiration. The Indians all stood around in solemn silence; finding him to respire longer than they expected, they called upon the whites to take notice how hard he died, and pronounced him a witch—no good—they struck him again and terminated his existence. He was then borne to the grave, where the last sad office was soon performed.” 300

“This unfortunate Chief of the Seneca tribe, who had reached the age of sixty-three, had set up his camp a few miles west of Worthington in Franklinton County. Due to his unwavering commitment to honesty and integrity, he received a certificate from a government official as proof of his good behavior. This elderly Chief was suspected by the Prophet, a restless and turbulent man, who had gained immense influence over many northern and western tribes by convincing them he possessed supernatural abilities and could predict future events. This was the same prophet who had gathered the Indians at Greenville a few years ago, causing much concern. To eliminate the threat he posed, the Prophet ordered the old chief's immediate death. He gave these orders to Crane, a chief of the Sandusky tribes, who promptly set out with four other Indians to find the old chief. About three weeks ago, they discovered his camp and immediately sent his brother—one of their group—with a piece of bark that had a tomahawk painted on it as a sign of his death! On the same day, Crane and his party publicly announced their intention to kill him among the white settlements. When they left for his camp, they were accompanied by five white men, including a justice of the peace, likely to satisfy their curiosity. Upon reaching the camp, they informed the old chief of their mission and that he must prepare to face his fate! No matter how much he pleaded against the cruelty of the sentence, telling them he was an old man who would die soon and that if they spared him, they could take his camp and he would move far beyond the Mississippi, where he would never be seen again. He also claimed to be an honest man who had done nothing to deserve such a harsh fate! One of the white men even offered his horse to save the old man from his impending doom. All those offers proved useless. With no hope for reconciliation, he prepared to meet his fate with dignity. While the Indians were digging his grave, he dressed in his finest war clothes and ate some venison to refresh himself. Once the grave was completed, he approached it, knelt down, and prayed earnestly! He then bid a heartfelt farewell to the Indians and the white men present, and when he reached the man who had offered his horse to save him, overwhelmed with gratitude, he burst into tears and told him that his God would reward him. This was the only time his expression showed any change. He was then led to the grave by Crane—they knelt down while Crane prayed to the Great Spirit on his behalf. The fateful moment had come; they stood up, took a few steps away, and sat down on the ground. The old chief leaned forward, resting his face on one hand and that hand on his knees; while in this position, one of the young Indians approached and struck him twice with the tomahawk. For some time, he lay on the ground, unconscious. The only sign of life was a faint breath. The Indians gathered around in solemn silence, noticing that he was still breathing longer than they expected. They called the white witnesses to observe how painfully he was dying and labeled him a witch—no good—then struck him again, ending his life. He was then carried to the grave, where the last sorrowful rites were quickly performed.”


CHAPTER XL.
SHORT NOTICE OF THE INDIAN CHIEFS, TAMANEND AND TADEUSKUND.

T

The name of Tamanend is held in the highest veneration among the Indians. Of all the chiefs and great men which the Lenape nation ever had, he stands foremost on the list. But although many fabulous stories are circulated about him among the whites, but little of his real history is known. The misfortunes which have befallen some of the most beloved and esteemed personages among the Indians since the Europeans came among them, prevent the survivors from indulging in the pleasure of recalling to mind the memory of their virtues. No white man who regards their feelings, will introduce such subjects in conversation with them.

The name of Tamanend is greatly respected among the Indians. Of all the leaders and notable figures the Lenape nation has ever had, he is at the top of the list. However, while many fantastic tales are shared about him among white people, not much of his actual history is known. The hardships that have come to some of the most loved and respected figures among the Indians since the Europeans arrived have made it hard for the survivors to take pleasure in remembering their good qualities. No white person who cares about their feelings would bring up such topics in conversation with them.

All we know, therefore, of Tamanend is, that he was an ancient Delaware chief, who never had his equal.233 He was in the highest degree endowed with wisdom, virtue, prudence, charity, affability, meekness, hospitality, in short with every good and noble qualification that a human being may possess. He was supposed to have had an intercourse with the great and good Spirit; for he was a stranger to everything that is bad.

All we really know about Tamanend is that he was an ancient Delaware chief, unmatched by anyone else. He was incredibly wise, virtuous, prudent, charitable, friendly, humble, and hospitable—basically, he had every good and noble trait a person can have. People believed he had a connection with the great and good Spirit because he was completely unfamiliar with anything bad.

When Colonel George Morgan, of Princeton in New Jersey, was, about the year 1776, sent by Congress as an agent to the 301 western Indians, the Delawares conferred on him the name of Tamanend in honour and remembrance of their ancient chief, and as the greatest mark of respect which they could shew to that gentleman, who, they said, had the same address, affability and meekness as their honoured chief, and therefore, ought to be named after him.

When Colonel George Morgan from Princeton, New Jersey, was sent by Congress as an agent to the western Indians around 1776, the Delawares honored him by giving him the name Tamanend in memory of their ancient chief. This was the highest mark of respect they could show to him, as they said he had the same charm, friendliness, and gentleness as their respected chief, and therefore deserved to be named after him.

The fame of this great man extended even among the whites, who fabricated numerous legends respecting him, which I never heard, however, from the mouth of an Indian, and therefore believe to be fabulous. In the Revolutionary war, his enthusiastic admirers dubbed him a saint, and he was established under the name of St. Tammany, the Patron Saint of America. His name was inserted in some calendars, and his festival celebrated on the first day of May in every year. On that day a numerous society of his votaries walked together in procession through the streets of Philadelphia, their hats decorated with bucks’ tails, and proceeded to a handsome rural place out of town which they called the Wigwam, where, after a long talk or Indian speech had been delivered, and the Calumet of peace and friendship had been duly smoked, they spent the day in festivity and mirth. After dinner, Indian dances were performed on the green in front of the wigwam, the calumet was again smoked, and the company separated. This association lasted until some years after the peace, when the public spirited owner of the wigwam, who generously had lent it every year for the honour of his favourite saint, having fallen under misfortune, his property was sold to satisfy his creditors, and this truly American festival ceased to be observed. Since that time, other societies have been formed in Philadelphia, New York, and I believe in other towns in the Union, under the name of Tammany; but the principal object of these associations being party-politics, they have lost much of the charm which was attached to the original society of St. Tammany, which appeared to be established only for pleasure and innocent diversion. These political societies, however, affect to preserve Indian forms in their organisation and meetings. They are presided over by a Grand Sachem, and their other officers are designated by Indian titles. They meet at their “wigwam,” at the “going down of the sun,” in the months of snows, plants, flowers, &c. Their distinguishing appellation is always “The Tammany Society.” 302

The fame of this great man spread even among the white people, who created many legends about him that I never heard from an Indian, so I think they are made up. During the Revolutionary War, his passionate admirers called him a saint, and he became known as St. Tammany, the Patron Saint of America. His name appeared in some calendars, and his festival was celebrated every year on May 1st. On that day, a large group of his followers marched together in a procession through the streets of Philadelphia, wearing hats adorned with deer tails, and made their way to a lovely rural spot outside the city that they called the Wigwam. There, after a long talk or Indian speech was given and the Calumet of peace and friendship was properly smoked, they spent the day in celebration and joy. After dinner, they performed Indian dances on the green in front of the wigwam, the calumet was smoked again, and then everyone went home. This association lasted until a few years after the peace, when the generous owner of the wigwam, who had kindly lent it every year in honor of his favorite saint, fell on hard times and had to sell his property to pay his creditors, causing this truly American festival to end. Since then, other societies have been formed in Philadelphia, New York, and I think other towns in the country, under the name of Tammany; but since the main aim of these groups is party politics, they have lost much of the charm that came with the original St. Tammany society, which seemed to be formed just for fun and innocent enjoyment. These political societies, however, try to keep Indian traditions in their structure and meetings. They are led by a Grand Sachem, and their other leaders have Indian titles. They meet at their “wigwam,” at “sunset,” during the months of snow, plants, flowers, and so on. Their official name is always “The Tammany Society.” 302

Tadeuskund, or Tedeuskung, was the last Delaware chief in these parts east of the Allegheny mountains. His name makes a conspicuous figure in the history of Pennsylvania previous to the revolution, and particularly towards the commencement of the war of 1756. Before he was raised to the station of a chief, he had signalised himself as an able counsellor in his nation. In the year 1749, he joined the Christian Indian congregation, and the following year, at his earnest desire, was christened by the name of Gideon.234 He had been known before under that of Honest John. It was not until the year 1754, that his nation called upon him to assume a military command. The French were then stirring up the Indians, particularly the Delawares, to aid them in fighting the English, telling them that if they suffered them to go on as they before had done, they would very soon not have a foot of land to live on. The Susquehannah and Fork Indians (Delawares) were then in want of a leading character to advise and govern them, their great, good, beloved and peaceable chief Tademe, (commonly called Tattemi) having some time before been murdered in the Forks settlement by a foolish young white man.235 They, therefore, called upon Tadeuskund 303 to take upon himself the station of a chief, which, having accepted, he repaired to Wyoming, whither many of the Fork Indians followed him.

Tadeuskund, or Tedeuskung, was the last Delaware chief in this region east of the Allegheny Mountains. His name stands out in Pennsylvania's history before the revolution, especially at the start of the war in 1756. Before becoming a chief, he had proven himself as a skilled advisor in his community. In 1749, he joined the Christian Indian congregation, and the next year, at his strong request, he was baptized with the name Gideon.234 He had previously been known as Honest John. It wasn't until 1754 that his tribe called on him to take on a military role. The French were inciting the Indians, especially the Delawares, to support them against the English, warning that if they allowed the English to continue as they had, they would soon have no land left to live on. The Susquehannah and Fork Indians (Delawares) were in need of a leader to guide and manage them since their beloved and peaceful chief Tademe, commonly known as Tattemi, had been murdered some time earlier in the Forks settlement by a reckless young white man.235 Therefore, they called on Tadeuskund to take on the role of chief, which he accepted, and he went to Wyoming, where many of the Fork Indians followed him.

Whatever might have been Tadeuskund’s disposition towards the English at that time, it is certain that it was a difficult task for him, and would have been such for any other chief, to govern an exasperated people, entirely devoted to the opposite interest. This may account for his not having always succeeded in gratifying our government to the extent of its wishes. Yet he did much towards lessening the cruelties of the enemy, by keeping up an intercourse with the governor of Pennsylvania, and occasionally drawing many from the theatre of war and murder, to meet the colonial authorities at Easton or Philadelphia for the negotiation of treaties, by which means fewer cruelties were committed than would otherwise have been.

Whatever Tadeuskund’s feelings towards the English were at the time, it’s clear that he, like any other leader, faced a tough challenge in managing an upset people who were completely committed to the opposing side. This might explain why he didn’t always succeed in meeting our government’s expectations. Still, he did a lot to reduce the enemy's brutality by maintaining communication with the governor of Pennsylvania and occasionally bringing many people away from the violence of war to meet with colonial authorities in Easton or Philadelphia to negotiate treaties, which helped ensure that fewer atrocities occurred than might have otherwise.

His frequent visits to the governor and to the people called Quakers (to whom he was much attached, because they were known to be friendly to the Indians) excited much jealousy among some of his nation, especially the Monseys, who believed that he was carrying on some underhand work at Philadelphia detrimental to the nation at large; on which account, and as they wished the continuation of the war, they became his enemies.

His frequent visits to the governor and to the Quakers (whom he was very close to because they were known to be friendly toward the Indians) sparked a lot of jealousy among some people in his nation, especially the Monseys. They thought he was involved in some shady dealings in Philadelphia that would hurt the nation as a whole; for this reason, and because they wanted the war to continue, they became his enemies.

From the precarious situation Tadeuskund was placed in, it was easy to foresee that he would come to an untimely end. Perhaps no Indian chief before him ever found himself so delicately situated; mistrusted and blamed by our government and the English people generally, because he did not use his whole endeavours to keep his nation at peace, or compel them to lay down the hatchet; and accused by his own people of 304 having taken a bribe from the English, or entered into some secret agreement with them that would be of benefit to himself alone, as he would not suffer them to inflict just punishment on that nation for the wrongs they had done them, but was constantly calling upon them to make peace. The Five Nations, on the other hand, (the enemies of the Delawares and in alliance with England,) blamed him for doing too much for the cause which they themselves supported, for making himself too busy, and assuming an authority, which did not belong to him the leader of a band of women, but to them, the Five Nations alone.

From the tricky situation Tadeuskund was in, it was clear that he wouldn't last long. No Indian chief before him had ever been in such a complicated position; he was distrusted and blamed by our government and the English public because he didn’t fully commit to keeping his people at peace or forcing them to put down their weapons. His own people accused him of taking a bribe from the English or making some secret deal that only benefited him since he wouldn’t allow them to punish that nation for the wrongs done to them, but instead kept urging them to make peace. Meanwhile, the Five Nations (the enemies of the Delawares and allied with the English) criticized him for doing too much for the cause they supported, for getting too involved, and for claiming authority that didn’t belong to him—the leader of a band of women—but rather to them, the Five Nations alone.

To do justice to this injured chief, the true secret of his apparently contradictory conduct must be here disclosed. It is said by those Indians who knew him best, and who at that time had the welfare of their own nation much at heart, that his great and sole object was to recover for the Lenni Lenape that dignity which the Iroquois had treacherously wrested from them; thence flowed the bitterness of the latter against him, though he seemed to be promoting the same interest which they themselves supported. He had long hoped that by shewing friendship and attachment to the English, he would be able to convince them of the justice of his nation’s cause, who were yet powerful enough to make their alliance an object to the British government; but here he was greatly mistaken. No one would examine into the grounds of the controversy between the Delawares and the Five Nations; the latter, on the contrary, were supported in their unjust pretensions as theretofore, and even called upon to aid in compelling the Lenape to make peace. This unjust and at the same time impolitic conduct, of which I have before taken sufficient notice,236 irritated to the utmost the spirited nation of the Delawares, they felt themselves insulted and degraded, and were less disposed than ever from complying with the wishes of a government which sported in this manner with their national feelings, and called in question even their right to exist as an independent people.

To properly understand this injured chief, we need to reveal the real reason behind his seemingly contradictory behavior. Those Indians who knew him best, and who were deeply concerned about their own nation's welfare at that time, said that his main goal was to regain for the Lenni Lenape the dignity that the Iroquois had deceitfully taken from them. This led to the Iroquois' resentment toward him, even though he appeared to be supporting the same cause they backed. He had long hoped that by showing friendship and loyalty to the English, he could persuade them of his nation’s rightful cause, especially since they were still powerful enough to make their alliance valuable to the British government; however, he was greatly mistaken. No one would investigate the reasons behind the conflict between the Delawares and the Five Nations; instead, the latter were supported in their unfair claims as before, and were even urged to help compel the Lenape to make peace. This unfair and unwise action, which I have noted before, irritated the determined nation of the Delawares to no end. They felt insulted and degraded and were less inclined than ever to comply with the demands of a government that treated their national feelings so casually and questioned their right to exist as an independent people.

Surrounded as he was with enemies, Tadeuskund could not escape the fate that had long been intended for him. In the 305 spring of 1763, when the European nations had made peace, but the Indians were still at war, he was burnt up, together with his house, as he was lying in his bed asleep. It was supposed and believed by many who were present, that this dreadful event was not accidental, but had been maturely resolved on by his enemies, whoever they were, and that the liquor which was brought to Wyoming at the time, was intended by them for the purpose of enticing him to drink, that they might the more easily effect their purpose. A number of Indians were witnesses to the fact that the house was set on fire from the outside. Suspicion fell principally upon the Mingoes, who were known to be jealous of him, and fearful of his resentment, if he should succeed in insinuating himself into the favour of the English and making good terms with them for his nation. It is said that those Indians were concerned in bringing the fatal liquor which is believed to have been instrumental to the execution of the design.

Surrounded by enemies, Tadeuskund couldn’t escape the fate that had long been set for him. In the 305 spring of 1763, when European nations had made peace but the Indians were still at war, he was burned alive along with his house while he was asleep in his bed. Many present believed that this horrific event was not an accident, but was carefully planned by his enemies, whoever they were, and that the alcohol brought to Wyoming at the time was meant to tempt him into drinking so they could more easily carry out their plan. Several Native Americans witnessed the house being set on fire from the outside. Suspicion mainly fell on the Mingoes, who were known to be jealous of him and worried about his anger if he managed to win favor with the English and create a good alliance for his people. It’s said that these Indians were involved in bringing the deadly alcohol that is thought to have played a key role in carrying out the plan.

While Tadeuskund was at the head of his nation, he was frequently distinguished by the title of “King of the Delawares.” While passing and repassing to and from the enemy with messages, many people called him the “War Trumpet.” In his person he was a portly well-looking man, endowed with good natural sense, quick of comprehension, and very ready in answering the questions put to him. He was rather ambitious, thought much of his rank and abilities, liked to be considered as the king of his country, and was fond of having a retinue with him when he went to Philadelphia on business with the government. His greatest weakness was a fondness for strong drinks, the temptation of which he could not easily resist, and would sometimes drink to excess. This unfortunate propensity is supposed to have been the cause of his cruel and untimely death.

While Tadeuskund led his nation, he was often recognized as the "King of the Delawares." While delivering messages back and forth to the enemy, many referred to him as the "War Trumpet." He was a large, attractive man, blessed with good common sense, quick to understand, and very responsive to questions. He was somewhat ambitious, took great pride in his status and abilities, liked to be seen as the king of his country, and enjoyed having a retinue with him when he traveled to Philadelphia for government business. His biggest flaw was his love for strong drinks, a temptation he found hard to resist, and he would occasionally drink to excess. This unfortunate habit is believed to have led to his cruel and untimely death.

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CHAPTER XLI.
CALCULATING TIME—ASTRONOMICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE.

T

The Indians do not reckon as we do, by days, but by nights. They say: “It is so many nights’ travelling to such a place;” “I shall return home in so many nights,” &c. Sometimes pointing to the heavens they say: “You will see me again when the sun stands there.”

The Indians don’t measure time like we do, by days, but by nights. They say, “It takes this many nights to travel to that place,” or “I’ll be back in this many nights,” etc. Sometimes, pointing to the sky, they say, “You’ll see me again when the sun is in that position.”

Their year is, like ours, divided into four parts: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. It begins with the spring, which, they say, is the youth of the year, the time when the spirits of man begin to revive, and the plants and flowers again put forth. These seasons are again subdivided into months or moons, each of which has a particular name, yet not the same among all the Indian tribes or nations; these denominations being generally suited to the climate under which they respectively live, and the advantages or benefits which they enjoy at the time. Thus the Lenape, while they inhabited the country bordering on the Atlantic, called the month which we call March, “the shad moon,” because this fish at that time begins to pass from the sea into the fresh water rivers, where they lay their spawn; but as there is no such fish in the country into which they afterwards removed, they changed the name of that month, and called it “the running of the sap” or “the sugar-making month,” because it is at that time that the sap of the maple tree, from which sugar is made, begins to run; April, they call “the spring month,” May, the planting month, June, the fawn month, or the month in which the deer bring forth their young, or, again, the month in 307 which the hair of the deer changes to a reddish colour. They call July the summer month; August, the month of roasting ears, that is to say, in which the ears of corn are fit to be roasted and eaten. September, they call the autumnal month, October, the gathering or harvest month; December, the hunting month, it being the time when the stags have all dropped their antlers or horns. January is called the mouse or squirrel month, for now those animals come out of their holes, and lastly, they call February the frog month, because on a warm day the frogs then begin to croak.

Their year is, like ours, divided into four parts: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. It starts with spring, which they say is the youth of the year, the time when people's spirits start to revive, and plants and flowers begin to grow again. These seasons are further divided into months or moons, each with its own name, though not all Indian tribes or nations use the same names; these names are generally related to the climate they live in and the benefits they experience at the time. For example, the Lenape, when they lived along the Atlantic coast, called the month we call March “the shad moon,” because that's when this fish starts moving from the sea into fresh water rivers to spawn. But since there are no such fish in the area they later moved to, they changed the name of that month to “the running of the sap” or “the sugar-making month,” because it's when the sap from the maple tree, which is used to make sugar, begins to flow. They call April “the spring month,” May “the planting month,” June “the fawn month,” a time when deer give birth to their young, or also the month when the deer’s fur changes to a reddish color. They refer to July as the summer month; August as the month of roasting ears, meaning the ears of corn are ready to be roasted and eaten. They call September the autumnal month, October “the gathering” or harvest month; December is known as the hunting month since that's when the stags have shed their antlers. January is called the mouse or squirrel month because those animals come out of their burrows, and finally, February is known as the frog month, as frogs start to croak on warm days.

Some nations call the month of January by a name which denotes “the sun’s return to them,” probably because in that month the days begin to lengthen again. As I have said before, they do not call all the months by the same name; even the Monseys, a tribe of the Delawares, differ among themselves in the denominations which they give to them.

Some countries refer to January as a name that means “the sun’s return to them,” likely because the days start getting longer again that month. As I mentioned earlier, not all months are called the same name; even the Monseys, a tribe of the Delawares, have different names for them.

The Indians say that when the leaf of the white oak, which puts forth in the spring, is of the size of the ear of a mouse, it is time to plant corn; they observe that now the whippoorwill has arrived, and is continually hovering over them, calling out his Indian name “Wekolis” in order to remind them of the planting time, as if he said to them “Hackiheck! go to planting corn!”

The Native Americans say that when the leaf of the white oak starts to grow in the spring and is about the size of a mouse's ear, it's time to plant corn. They notice that the whippoorwill has arrived and is constantly hovering around, calling out its name “Wekolis” to remind them it's time to plant, almost as if it’s saying to them, “Hackiheck! Go plant corn!”

They calculate their ages by some remarkable event which has taken place within their remembrance, as, for instance, an uncommonly severe winter, a very deep snow, an extraordinary freshet, a general war, the building of a new town or city by the white people, &c. Thus I have heard old Indians say more than fifty years ago, that when their brother Miquon spoke to their forefathers, they were of such an age or size, they could catch butterflies, or hit a bird with the bow and arrow. I have heard others say (alluding to the hard winter of 1739-40) that they were born at that time, or that they were then so tall, could do certain particular things, or had already some gray hair on their heads. When they could not refer precisely to some of those remarkable epochs, they would say “so many winters after.”

They figure out their ages based on significant events they remember, such as an unusually harsh winter, a heavy snowfall, a major flood, a widespread war, or the founding of a new town or city by white settlers, etc. For example, I’ve heard old Native Americans say over fifty years ago that when their brother Miquon talked to their ancestors, they were at an age or size where they could catch butterflies or shoot a bird with a bow and arrow. I’ve heard others mention (referring to the tough winter of 1739-40) that they were born during that time or that they were then tall enough to do specific things or already had some gray hair. When they couldn’t pinpoint any of those significant events, they would say “so many winters after.”

The geographical knowledge of the Indians is really astonishing. I do not mean the knowledge of maps, for they have nothing of the kind to aid them; but their practical acquaintance 308 with the country that they inhabit. They can steer directly through the woods in cloudy weather as well as in sunshine to the place they wish to go to, at the distance of two hundred miles and more. When the white people express their astonishment, or enquire how they can hit a distant point with so much ease and exactness, they smile and answer: “How can we go wrong when we know where we are to go to?” There are many who conjecture that they regulate their course by certain signs or marks on the trees, as for instance, that those that have the thickest bark are exposed to the north, and other similar observations, but those who think so are mistaken. The fact is, that the Indians have an accurate knowledge of all the streams of consequence and the courses which they run; they can tell directly while travelling along a stream, whether large or small, into what larger stream it empties itself. They know how to take the advantage of dividing ridges, where the smaller streams have their heads, or from whence they take their source, and in travelling on the mountains, they have a full view of the country round, and can perceive the point to which their march is directed.

The geographical knowledge of the Indigenous people is truly impressive. I'm not talking about their understanding of maps—since they have none—but their practical familiarity with the land they live in. They can navigate directly through the forests in cloudy weather as easily as in sunshine to their intended destination, even if it's two hundred miles away or more. When white people express their amazement or ask how they can reach a distant point so effortlessly and accurately, they smile and respond, “How can we go wrong when we know where we’re headed?” Many believe they guide their way by specific signs or markings on trees, such as noting that trees with thicker bark face north, along with similar observations, but those guesses are incorrect. The truth is that Indigenous people have a precise understanding of all the significant streams and their paths. They can determine, while traveling along a stream of any size, where it flows into a larger one. They know how to take advantage of ridges where smaller streams originate, and when traveling in the mountains, they have a clear view of the surrounding land and can see the destination they are heading towards.

Their knowledge of astronomy is very limited. They have names for a few of the stars and take notice of their movements. The polar star points out to them by night the course which they are to take in the morning. They distinguish the phases of the moon by particular names; they say the “new moon,” the “round moon” (when it is full), and when in its decline, they say it is “half round.”

Their understanding of astronomy is pretty basic. They have names for a few stars and pay attention to how they move. The North Star shows them which direction to take in the morning when it’s night. They refer to the moon's phases with specific names; they call it the “new moon,” the “full moon” (when it’s completely round), and when it’s getting smaller, they say it’s “half full.”

They ascribe earthquakes to the moving of the great tortoise, which bears the Island (Continent) on its back. They say he shakes himself or changes his position. They are at a loss how to account for a solar or lunar eclipse; some say the sun or moon is in a swoon, others that it is involved in a very thick cloud.

They believe earthquakes happen because of the great tortoise that carries the Island (Continent) on its back. They think it shakes or shifts its position. They can’t figure out how to explain a solar or lunar eclipse; some say the sun or moon is fainting, while others claim it's hidden behind a thick cloud.

A constant application of the mind to observing the scenes and accidents which occur in the woods, together with an ardent desire to acquire an intimate knowledge of the various objects which surround them, gives them, in many respects, an advantage over the white people, which will appear from the following anecdote. 309

A consistent focus on observing the events and situations in the woods, along with a strong desire to deeply understand the different objects around them, gives them, in many ways, an advantage over white people, as is illustrated by the following story. 309

A white man had, at his camp in a dark night, shot an Indian dog, mistaking it for a wolf which had the night before entered the encampment and eaten up all the meat. The dog mortally wounded, having returned to the Indian camp at the distance of a mile, caused much grief and uneasiness to the owner, the more so as he suspected the act had been committed from malice towards the Indians. He was ordered to enquire into the matter, and the white man being brought before him, candidly confessed that he had killed the dog, believing it to be a wolf. The Indian asked him whether he could not discern the difference between the “steps” or trampling of a wolf and that of a dog, let the night be ever so dark? The white man answered in the negative, and said he believed no man alive could do that; on which the whole company burst out into laughter at the ignorance of the whites and their want of skill in so plain and common a matter, and the delinquent was freely forgiven.

A white man, during a dark night at his campsite, shot an Indian dog, mistakenly thinking it was a wolf that had entered the encampment the night before and eaten all the meat. The mortally wounded dog made it back to the Indian camp a mile away, causing much sorrow and anxiety for its owner, especially since he suspected the act was done out of malice towards the Indians. He was instructed to investigate the situation, and when the white man was brought before him, he honestly admitted to killing the dog, believing it to be a wolf. The Indian asked him whether he couldn’t tell the difference between the sounds or footprints of a wolf and those of a dog, no matter how dark the night was. The white man replied that he couldn’t, and he thought no one alive could do that; at which point the whole group burst into laughter at the ignorance of the whites and their lack of skill in such a simple, common issue, and they freely forgave the offender.

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CHAPTER XLII.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND ANECDOTES.

I

I hope I shall be excused for bringing here together into one view a few observations and anecdotes which either could not well find their places under any of the preceding divisions of my subject, or escaped my recollection at the proper time. These additional traits will contribute something to forming a correct idea of the Indian character and manners.

I wish you'll forgive me for gathering a few observations and stories here that either didn't quite fit into the previous sections of my topic or slipped my mind at the right moment. These extra details will help shape a clearer understanding of Indian character and customs.

I have observed a great similarity in the customs, usages, and opinions of the different nations that I have seen, however distant from each other, and even though their languages differ so much that no traces of a common origin can be found in their etymology. The uniformity which exists in the manners of the Christian nations of Europe is attributed to their common religion, and to their having once been connected together as parts of the Roman Empire. But no such bond of union appears to have subsisted between the Iroquois, for instance, and the Delawares, and yet, the language excepted, they resemble each other considerably more than the inhabitants of some European countries. I shall not endeavour to account for this remarkable fact, but I think it my duty to state it.

I’ve noticed a strong similarity in the customs, practices, and beliefs of the different nations I’ve encountered, no matter how far apart they are, even though their languages are so different that it’s impossible to find any signs of a common origin in their word roots. The consistency found in the behaviors of the Christian countries in Europe is often attributed to their shared religion and their historical connections as parts of the Roman Empire. However, there doesn’t seem to be a similar bond between groups like the Iroquois and the Delawares; still, despite the language difference, they are quite similar to each other compared to some European nations. I won’t try to explain this interesting fact, but I feel it’s important to mention it.

I have shown in a former chapter237 that the mythological notions of the Delaware Indians prevailed in the same manner among the Wabash; it is not in that alone that those nations resemble each other, though living at a great distance. It is the custom among the Delawares that if a hunter shoots down a 311 deer when another person is present, or even accidentally comes by before the skin is taken off, he presents it to him, saying, “Friend, skin your deer,” and immediately walks off. William Wells, whom I have before spoken of, once paid me this compliment, and when I asked him the reason, he answered that it was the custom among the Indians on the Wabash.

I previously discussed in an earlier chapter237 how the mythological beliefs of the Delaware Indians were similar to those of the Wabash tribes; however, their similarities go beyond that, despite the significant distance between them. Among the Delawares, it's standard practice that if a hunter kills a deer in the presence of someone else, or even if someone happens to pass by before the skinning begins, he gives the deer to that person, saying, “Friend, skin your deer,” and then simply walks away. William Wells, who I have mentioned before, once showed me this courtesy, and when I asked him why, he explained that it was a tradition among the Indians of the Wabash.

In the year 1792, I travelled with a number of Indian chiefs of various tribes from Post Vincennes to Marietta, and I found in most instances that their usages and customs were the same that I had observed among the Delawares.238

In 1792, I traveled with several Indian chiefs from different tribes from Post Vincennes to Marietta, and I noticed that their practices and traditions were usually the same as those I had seen among the Delawares.238

The Indians in general, although they understand and speak our language, yet prefer speaking to a white man through an interpreter. For this they give various reasons. With some it is a matter of pride; as their chiefs deliver their public speeches through interpreters, they think that they appear with more dignity when they do the same. Others imagine that their words will have greater weight and effect when expressed in proper 312 grammatical language, while some are afraid of committing mistakes when speaking in an idiom not their own. Particularly when they have a joke to pass, a hint to give, or a shrewd remark to make, they wish it to have all the advantages of a good translation, and that their wit may not be spoiled by a foreign accent, improper expression, or awkward delivery.

The Indians, while they understand and speak our language, prefer to talk to white people through an interpreter. They have several reasons for this. For some, it’s a matter of pride; since their chiefs make public speeches through interpreters, they feel it adds dignity to their own speech. Others believe their words will carry more weight and impact when expressed in proper, formal language, while some worry about making mistakes when speaking in a language that isn’t their own. Especially when they want to tell a joke, offer a hint, or make a clever comment, they prefer a good translation, ensuring that their wit isn't dulled by a foreign accent, awkward phrasing, or clumsy delivery.

Though the Indian is naturally serious, he does not dislike a jest on proper occasions, and will, sometimes, even descend to a pun. Once at a dinner given at Marietta by the late Colonel Sproat,239 to a number of gentlemen and Indian chiefs of various tribes, a Delaware chief, named George Washington, asked me what the name of our good friend, the Colonel, meant in the Lenape language? It should be observed that Colonel Sproat was remarkably tall. I told him that Sprout (for so the name is pronounced) meant in English a shoot, or twig of a tree. “No, no,” replied the Indian, “no shoot or twig, but the tree itself.”

Though Native Americans are naturally serious, they appreciate a joke at the right moments and can even indulge in a pun now and then. Once, at a dinner hosted at Marietta by the late Colonel Sproat, 239 for several gentlemen and Indian chiefs from different tribes, a Delaware chief named George Washington asked me what the Colonel's name meant in the Lenape language. It's worth noting that Colonel Sproat was quite tall. I explained that Sprout (which is how the name is pronounced) refers to a shoot or twig of a tree in English. “No, no,” the Indian replied, “not a shoot or twig, but the tree itself.”

I have spoken before240 of the wit of the Indians, and the shrewd and pointed remarks which they occasionally make, but passed rather lightly on the subject. A few characteristic anecdotes will best supply this deficiency.

I have mentioned before240 the cleverness of the Indians, and the sharp and insightful comments they sometimes make, but I didn’t go into much detail. A few typical stories will best fill this gap.

An Indian who spoke good English, came one day to a house where I was on business, and desired me to ask a man who was there and who owed him some money, to give an order in writing for him to get a little salt at the store, which he would take in part payment of his debt. The man, after reproving the Indian for speaking through an interpreter when he could speak such good English, told him that he must call again in an hour’s time, for he was then too much engaged. The Indian went out and returned at the appointed time, when he was put off again for another hour, and when he came the third time, the other told him he was still engaged, and he must come again in half an hour. My Indian friend’s patience was now exhausted, he turned to me and addressed me thus in his own language: “Tell this man,” said he, “that while I have been waiting for his convenience 313 to give me an order for a little salt, I have had time to think a great deal. I thought that when we Indians want any thing of one another, we serve each other on the spot, or if we cannot, we say so at once, but we never say to any one ‘call again! call again! call again! three times call again!’ Therefore when this man put me off in this manner, I thought that, to be sure, the white people were very ingenious, and probably he was able to do what no body else could. I thought that as it was afternoon when I first came, and he knew I had seven miles to walk to reach my camp, he had it in his power to stop the sun in its course, until it suited him to give me the order that I wanted for a little salt. So thought I, I shall still have day light enough, I shall reach my camp before night, and shall not be obliged to walk in the dark, at the risk of falling and hurting myself by the way. But when I saw that the sun did not wait for him, and I had at least to walk seven miles in an obscure night, I thought then, that it would be better if the white people were to learn something of the Indians.”

An Indian who spoke good English came to a house where I was doing business one day. He asked me to tell a man there, who owed him some money, to write an order for a little salt at the store, which he would accept as partial payment of his debt. The man, after telling the Indian to stop using an interpreter since he could speak English well, told him to come back in an hour because he was too busy. The Indian left but returned at the appointed time, only to be turned away again for another hour. When he came back a third time, the man said he was still busy and asked him to return in half an hour. The Indian's patience was now gone, and he turned to me and said in his own language: “Tell this man,” he said, “that while I have been waiting for him to give me an order for a little salt, I've had a lot of time to think. I thought that when we Indians need something from each other, we take care of it right away, or if we can't, we let each other know that immediately. We never tell anyone, ‘come back! come back! come back! three times come back!’ So when this man kept putting me off like this, I thought, sure, white people are very clever, and maybe he can do things that nobody else can. I thought that since it was afternoon when I first arrived and he knew I had a seven-mile walk back to my camp, he could have stopped the sun until it was convenient for him to give me the order I needed for a little salt. I thought I would still have enough daylight, I would reach my camp before night, and I wouldn't have to walk in the dark and risk falling or hurting myself along the way. But when I saw that the sun didn't wait for him, and I still had to walk seven miles in the dark, I thought it would be better if white people learned something from Indians.”

I once asked an old Indian acquaintance of mine, who had come with his wife to pay me a visit, where he had been, that I had not seen him for a great while? “Don’t you know,” he answered, “that the white people some time ago summoned us to a treaty, to buy land of them?”241—“That is true,” replied I, “I had indeed forgotten it; I thought you was just returned from your fall hunt.”—“No, no,” replied the Indian, “my fall hunt has been lost to me this season; I had to go and get my share of the purchase money for the land we sold.”—“Well then,” said I, “I suppose you got enough to satisfy you?”

I once asked an old Indian friend of mine, who had come with his wife to visit me, where he had been since I hadn't seen him in a long time. “Don’t you know,” he replied, “that the white people called us to a treaty to buy land from them?” 241 —“That’s true,” I said, “I had actually forgotten; I thought you had just come back from your fall hunt.” —“No, no,” the Indian said, “I missed my fall hunt this season; I had to go and get my share of the money for the land we sold.” —“Well then,” I said, “I hope you got enough to make you happy?”

Indian. “I can shew you all that I got. I have received such and such articles, (naming them and the quantity of each), do you think that is enough?”

Indian. “I can show you everything I have. I've received these items, (listing them and how many of each), do you think that's enough?”

Heckew. “That I cannot know, unless you tell me how much of the land which was sold came to your share.”

Heck. "I can't know that unless you tell me how much of the land that was sold you got."

Indian. (after considering a little), “Well, you, my friend! know who I am, you know I am a kind of chief. I am, indeed, one, though none of the greatest. Neither am I one of the 314 lowest grade, but I stand about in the middle rank. Now, as such, I think I was entitled to as much land in the tract we sold as would lie within a day’s walk from this spot to a point due north, then a day’s walk from that point to another due west, from thence another day’s walk due south, then a day’s walk to where we now are. Now you can tell me if what I have shewn you is enough for all the land lying between these four marks?”

Indian. (after thinking for a moment), “Well, my friend! You know who I am; you know I’m a kind of chief. I am one, indeed, though not among the highest. I’m also not the lowest, but I sit somewhere in the middle. So, as such, I believe I deserve as much land in the area we sold as could be reached by walking a day from this point to a spot directly north, then a day’s walk from that point to another directly west, then another day’s walk directly south, and finally a day’s walk back to where we are now. Now, can you tell me if what I have shown you is enough for all the land that lies within these four points?”

Heckew. “If you have made your bargain so with the white people, it is all right, and you probably have received your share.”

Heck. “If you've settled your deal with the white people, that's fine, and you probably got your part.”

Indian. “Ah! but the white people made the bargain by themselves, without consulting us. They told us that they would give us so much, and no more.”

Indian cuisine. “Ah! but the white people made the deal on their own, without asking us. They said they would give us this much, and nothing more.”

Heckew. “Well, and you consented thereto?”

Heckew. “Well, did you agree to that?”

Indian. “What could we do, when they told us that they must have the land, and for such a price? Was it not better to take something than nothing? for they would have the land, and so we took what they gave us.”

Indian. “What were we supposed to do when they insisted they had to have the land, and for that price? Wasn’t it better to take something than get nothing? They were going to get the land anyway, so we accepted what they offered us.”

Heckew. “Perhaps the goods they gave you came high in price. The goods which come over the great salt water lake sometimes vary in their prices.”

Heck. “Maybe the items they gave you were really expensive. The stuff that comes across the big saltwater lake can sometimes have different prices.”

Indian. “The traders sell their goods for just the same prices that they did before, so that I rather think it is the land that has fallen in value. We, Indians, do not understand selling lands to the white people; for when we sell, the price of land is always low; land is then cheap, but when the white people sell it out among themselves, it is always dear, and they are sure to get a high price for it. I had done much better if I had stayed at home and minded my fall hunt. You know I am a pretty good hunter and might have killed a great many deer, sixty, eighty, perhaps a hundred, and besides caught many raccoons, beavers, otters, wild cats, and other animals, while I was at this treaty. I have often killed five, six, and seven deer in one day. Now I have lost nine of the best hunting weeks in the season by going to get what you see! We were told the precise time when we must meet. We came at the very day, but the great white men did not do so, and without them nothing could be done. When after some weeks they at last came, we traded, 315 we sold our lands and received goods in payment, and when that was over, I went to my hunting grounds, but the best time, the rutting time, being over, I killed but a few. Now, help me to count up what I have lost by going to the treaty. Put down eighty deer; say twenty of them were bucks, each buckskin one dollar; then sixty does and young bucks at two skins for a dollar; thirty dollars, and twenty for the old bucks, make fifty dollars lost to me in deer skins. Add, then, twenty dollars more to this for raccoon, beaver, wild cat, black fox, and otter skins, and what does the whole amount to?”

Indian. “The traders sell their goods for the same prices as before, so I think it's the land that has dropped in value. We, Indians, don't understand selling land to white people; when we sell, the land is always low-priced; it’s cheap, but when the white people sell it to each other, it’s always expensive, and they definitely get a high price for it. I would have been better off if I had stayed home and focused on my fall hunt. You know I'm a pretty good hunter and could have killed many deer—sixty, eighty, maybe a hundred—and also caught a lot of raccoons, beavers, otters, wild cats, and other animals while I was at this treaty. I've often killed five, six, or seven deer in one day. Now I've lost nine of the best hunting weeks in the season by coming here for what you see! We were given a specific time to meet. We arrived on the exact day, but the important white men didn’t show up, and nothing could be done without them. When they finally came after a few weeks, we traded, 315 we sold our lands and received goods in exchange. After that was done, I went to my hunting grounds, but since the best time, the rutting season, was over, I only killed a few. Now, help me calculate what I've lost by attending the treaty. Write down eighty deer; let’s say twenty of them were bucks, each buckskin worth one dollar; then sixty does and young bucks at two skins for a dollar; that totals thirty dollars, and twenty dollars for the old bucks makes fifty dollars lost to me in deer skins. Add another twenty dollars for raccoon, beaver, wild cat, black fox, and otter skins, and what does the total come to?”

Heckew. “Seventy dollars.”

“Seventy dollars.”

Indian. “Well, let it be only seventy dollars, but how much might I have bought of the traders for this money! How well we might have lived, I and my family in the woods during that time! How much meat would my wife have dried! how much tallow saved and sold or exchanged for salt, flour, tea and chocolate! All this is now lost to us; and had I not such a good wife (stroking her under the chin) who planted so much corn, and so many beans, pumpkins, squashes, and potatoes last summer, my family would now live most wretchedly. I have learned to be wise by going to treaties, I shall never go there again to sell my land and lose my time.”

Indian cuisine. “Well, let’s say it’s only seventy dollars, but think about how much I could have bought from the traders with that money! My family and I could have lived so well in the woods during that time! How much meat would my wife have dried! How much tallow we could have saved and sold or traded for salt, flour, tea, and chocolate! All of that is gone now; and if it weren't for my wonderful wife (stroking her under the chin) who planted so much corn, beans, pumpkins, squash, and potatoes last summer, my family would be living in misery right now. I’ve become wise from attending treaties, and I will never go back to sell my land and waste my time again.”

I shall conclude this desultory chapter with another anecdote which is strongly characteristic of the good sense of the Indians and shews how much their minds are capable of thought and reflection.

I’ll wrap up this scattered chapter with another story that really highlights the good judgment of the Indians and shows how thoughtful and reflective they can be.

Seating myself once upon a log, by the side of an Indian, who was resting himself there, being at that time actively employed in fencing in his corn-field, I observed to him that he must be very fond of working, as I never saw him idling away his time, as is so common with the Indians. The answer which he returned made considerable impression on my mind; I have remembered it ever since, and I shall try to relate it as nearly in his own words as possible.

Sitting on a log next to an Indian who was taking a break while working in his cornfield, I remarked to him that he must really enjoy working since I had never seen him wasting time like many others do. His response left a strong impression on me; I've remembered it ever since, and I'll do my best to recount it in his own words.

“My friend!” said he, “the fishes in the water and the birds in the air and on the earth have taught me to work; by their examples I have been convinced of the necessity of labour and industry. When I was a young man I loitered a great deal 316 about, doing nothing, just like the other Indians, who say that working is only for the whites and the negroes, and that the Indians have been ordained for other purposes, to hunt the deer, and catch the beaver, otter, raccoon and such other animals. But it one day so happened, that while a hunting, I came to the bank of the Susquehannah, where I sat down near the water’s edge to rest a little, and casting my eye on the water, I was forcibly struck when I observed with what industry the Meechgalingus242 heaped small stones together, to make secure places for their spawn, and all this labour they did with their mouths and bodies without hands! Astonished as well as diverted, I lighted my pipe, sat a while smoking and looking on, when presently a little bird not far from me raised a song which enticed me to look that way; while I was trying to distinguish who the songster was, and catch it with my eyes, its mate, with as much grass as with its bill it could hold, passed close by me and flew into a bush, where I perceived them together busy building their nest and singing as they went along. I entirely forgot that I was a hunting, in order to contemplate the objects I had before me. I saw the birds of the air and the fishes in the water working diligently and cheerfully, and all this without hands! I thought it was strange, and became lost in contemplation! I looked at myself, I saw two long arms, provided with hands and fingers besides, with joints that might be opened and shut at pleasure. I could, when I pleased, take up anything with these hands, hold it fast or let it loose, and carry it along with me as I walked. I observed moreover that I had a strong body capable of bearing fatigue, and supported by two stout legs, with which I could climb to the top of the highest mountains and descend at pleasure into the valleys. And is it possible, said I, that a being so formed as I am, was created to live in idleness, while the birds who have no hands, and nothing but their little bills to help them, work with cheerfulness and without being told to do so? Has then the great Creator of man and of all living creatures given me all these limbs for no purpose? It cannot be; I will try to go to work. I did so, and went away from the village to a spot of good land, built a cabin, enclosed ground, planted corn, 317 and raised cattle. Ever since that time I have enjoyed a good appetite and sound sleep; while the others spend their nights in dancing and are suffering with hunger, I live in plenty; I keep horses, cows, hogs and fowls; I am happy. See! my friend; the birds and fishes have brought me to reflection and taught me to work!”

“My friend!” he said, “the fish in the water and the birds in the air and on the ground have taught me the value of hard work; by their examples, I've realized that labor and diligence are essential. When I was younger, I wasted a lot of time, just like the other Indians, who say that work is only for the whites and blacks, and that Indians are meant for other purposes—hunting deer and catching beavers, otters, raccoons, and other animals. But one day, while I was hunting, I came to the bank of the Susquehanna, where I sat by the water's edge to rest for a moment. As I stared at the water, I was struck by how industriously the Meechgalingus piled small stones together to create safe spots for their eggs, and they did all this using their mouths and bodies—without hands! Amazed and entertained, I lit my pipe and sat smoking, watching. Not long after, a little bird nearby started singing, which made me look in its direction; while I was trying to figure out who the singer was, its mate flew by me, carrying as much grass as it could in its beak, headed into a bush, where I saw them working together to build their nest and singing the whole time. I completely forgot I was hunting and was captivated by what I saw. I watched the birds in the air and the fish in the water working diligently and happily—all without hands! I thought it was strange and got lost in thought! I looked at myself and saw my long arms with hands and fingers, capable of moving at will. I could pick up anything with these hands, hold it or drop it, and carry it as I walked. I also noticed I had a strong body, able to endure fatigue, supported by sturdy legs that could take me to the highest mountains and down into the valleys. And is it possible, I thought, that a being shaped like me was made to live idly, while birds, with no hands and just their little beaks, work cheerfully without needing to be told? Has the great Creator of man and all living creatures given me all these limbs for no reason? It can't be; I will try to work. So, I left the village for a nice piece of land, built a cabin, fenced an area, planted corn, and raised cattle. Since then, I've enjoyed a good appetite and restful sleep; while others dance through the night and suffer from hunger, I live in abundance; I keep horses, cows, hogs, and chickens; I am happy. Look! My friend, the birds and fish have inspired me to reflect and taught me to work!”

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318


CHAPTER XLIII.
Travel Tips.

N

Nothing is so common as the indiscriminate charge laid upon traveller of relating strange and wonderful things for the mere purpose of exciting admiration and raising themselves into consequence. I believe for my part that this accusation is in general unjust as well as unfair, and that travellers seldom impose upon others except when they have been imposed upon themselves. The discredit which they have fallen into is more owing to their errors and mistakes than to wilful imposition and falsehood. It is therefore rendering them and the world an essential service to point out the means of avoiding those deceptions, which if not sufficiently guarded against, will at last destroy all belief in the accounts given by travellers of distant nations and of manners and customs different from our own.

Nothing is more common than the unfair expectation placed on travelers to share extraordinary and amazing stories just to impress others and elevate their status. I personally think that this accusation is generally unwarranted and unfair, and that travelers usually don’t deceive others unless they’ve been deceived themselves. The mistrust they face is more a result of their own mistakes than intentional deceit and falsehoods. Therefore, it’s essential to help them and society by highlighting ways to avoid these deceptions, which, if not properly guarded against, could ultimately undermine all trust in travelers’ accounts of far-off places and different cultures.

The first and most important thing for a traveller is a competent knowledge of the language of the people among whom he is. Without this knowledge it is impossible that he can acquire a correct notion of their manners and customs and of the opinions which prevail among them. There is little faith to be placed in those numerous vocabularies of the languages of distant nations which are to be found in almost every book of voyages or travels; they are generally full of the most ridiculous mistakes; at least (for I must speak only of what I know) those which relate to the Indian languages of North America. I was some years ago shewn a vocabulary243 of the idiom of the Indians who inhabited 319 the banks of the Delaware, while Pennsylvania was under the dominion of the Swedes, which idiom was no other than the pure Unami dialect of the Lenape, and I could hardly refrain from laughing at the numerous errors that I observed in it; for instance, the Indian word given for hand in fact means finger. This is enough to shew how carelessly those vocabularies are made, and how little their authors are acquainted with the languages that they pretend to teach.

The first and most important thing for a traveler is a solid understanding of the language spoken by the people around them. Without this understanding, it's impossible to gain an accurate grasp of their customs and the opinions that are common among them. There's not much trust to be placed in the many vocabularies of distant languages found in almost every travel book; they are usually filled with ridiculous mistakes. At least, I can only speak from my experience, particularly regarding the Native American languages of North America. A few years ago, I was shown a vocabulary of the language spoken by the Indigenous people living along the Delaware River when Pennsylvania was under Swedish control. This vocabulary turned out to be nothing more than the pure Unami dialect of the Lenape, and I could hardly keep from laughing at the numerous errors I found in it. For example, the word given for hand actually means finger. This is enough to show how carelessly those vocabularies are created and how little their authors know about the languages they claim to teach.

The cause of these mistakes may be easily accounted for. When pointing to a particular object you ask an Indian how it is called, he never will give you the name of the genus, but always that of the species. Thus, if you point to a tree, and ask for its name, the answer will be oak, beech, chestnut, maple, &c., as the case may be. Thus the Swedish author of the vocabulary that I have mentioned, probably happened to point to a finger, when he asked what was the Indian word for hand, and on receiving the answer, without further enquiry enriched his work with this notable specimen of Indian learning.

The reason for these mistakes is pretty straightforward. When you point to a specific object and ask an Indian what it’s called, they will never give you the name of the genus, but always the name of the species. So, if you point to a tree and ask for its name, the answer will be oak, beech, chestnut, maple, etc., depending on the situation. This means the Swedish author of the vocabulary I mentioned probably pointed to a finger when he asked what the Indian word for hand was, and upon getting the answer, without any further questions, he added this notable example of Indian knowledge to his work.

When I first went to reside among the Indians, I took great care to learn by heart the words Kœcu k’delloundamen yun? which means What do you call this? Whenever I found the Indians disposed to attend to my enquiries, I would point to particular objects and repeat my formulary, and the answers that they gave I immediately wrote down in a book which I kept for the purpose; at last, when I had written about half a dozen sheets, I found that I had more than a dozen names for “tree” as many for “fish,” and so on with other things, and yet I had not a single generic name. What was still worse, when I pointed to something, repeating the name or one of the names by which I had been taught to call it, I was sure to excite a laugh; and when, in order to be set right, I put the question Kœcu, &c., I would receive for answer a new word or name which I had never heard before. This began to make me believe that everything was not as it should be, and that I was not in the right way to learn the Indian language.

When I first moved in with the Indians, I made sure to memorize the phrase Kœcu k’delloundamen yun?, which means What do you call this? Whenever I found the Indians willing to answer my questions, I would point to specific objects and repeat the phrase. I would immediately write down their answers in a book I kept for this purpose. Eventually, after filling about half a dozen pages, I realized I had over a dozen names for “tree” and just as many for “fish,” along with various other things, but not a single general term. What was even more frustrating was that when I pointed to something and used one of the names I’d learned, it would always make them laugh. And when I tried to clarify by asking Kœcu, etc., I would get a new word or name that I had never heard before. This started to make me feel like something was off and that I wasn’t approaching the Indian language learning the right way.

It was not only in substantives or the proper names of things that I found myself almost always mistaken. Those who are not acquainted with the copiousness of the Indian languages, 320 can hardly form an idea of the various shades and combinations of ideas that they can express. For instance, the infinitive Mitzin signifies to eat, and so does Mohoan. Now although the first of these words is sufficiently expressive of the act of eating something, be it what it may, yet the Indians are very attentive to expressing in one word what and how they have eaten, that is to say whether they have been eating something which needed no chewing, as pottage, mush or the like, or something that required the use of the teeth. In the latter case the proper word is mohoan, and in the former guntammen. If an Indian is asked k’dapi mitzi? have you eaten? he will answer n’dapi guntammen, or n’dapi mohoa, according as what he has eaten did or did not require the aid of chewing. If he has eaten of both kinds of provisions at his meal, he will then use the generic word, and say, n’dapi mitzi, which means generally, I have eaten.

I wasn’t just wrong about nouns or the specific names of things. People who aren't familiar with the richness of the Indian languages can hardly grasp the different nuances and combinations of ideas they convey. For example, the infinitive Mitzin means to eat, just like Mohoan. While the first word covers the act of eating something, the Indians are very particular about expressing in one word what and how they have eaten—whether it was something that didn’t need chewing, like porridge or mush, or something that required teeth. In the latter case, the right word is mohoan, and for the former, it’s guntammen. If an Indian is asked k’dapi mitzi?, meaning “Have you eaten?”, he will respond with n’dapi guntammen or n’dapi mohoa, depending on whether what he ate needed chewing or not. If he had both types of food in his meal, he will use the general term and say n’dapi mitzi, which generally means I have eaten.

These niceties of course escaped me, and what was worse, few of the words I had taken down were correctly written. Essential letters or syllables, which in the rapidity of pronunciation had escaped my ear, were almost everywhere omitted. When I tried to make use of the words which I had so carefully collected, I found I was not understood, and I was at a loss to discover the cause to which I might attribute my want of success in the earnest endeavours that I was making to acquire the Indian tongue.

These details clearly went over my head, and what made it worse was that very few of the words I had written down were spelled correctly. Important letters or syllables that I missed in the rush of speaking were left out almost everywhere. When I tried to use the words I had gathered so carefully, I realized I wasn't being understood, and I couldn't figure out why I was failing in my serious efforts to learn the Indian language.

At last there came an Indian, who was conversant with the English and German, and was much my friend. I hastened to lay before him my learned collection of Indian words, and was very much astonished when he advised me immediately to burn the whole, and write no more. “The first thing,” said he, “that you are to do to learn our language is to get an Indian ear; when that is obtained, no sound, no syllable will ever escape your hearing it, and you will at the same time learn the true pronunciation and how to accent your words properly; the rest will come of itself.” I found he was right. By listening to the natives, and repeating the words to myself as they spoke them, it was not many months before I ventured to converse with them, and finally understood every word they said. The Indians are very proud of a white man’s endeavouring to learn their language; 321 they help him in everything that they can, and it is not their fault if he does not succeed.

Finally, an Indian who knew English and German came along, and he became a good friend of mine. I quickly showed him my collection of Indian words, and I was surprised when he told me to just burn it all and not write anymore. “The first thing,” he said, “you need to do to learn our language is to get an Indian ear; once you have that, you won't miss any sounds or syllables, and you'll also learn the right pronunciation and how to stress your words correctly; the rest will follow naturally.” I realized he was right. By listening to the locals and repeating the words back to myself as they spoke, it wasn’t long before I felt confident enough to talk with them, and I eventually understood everything they said. The Indians take pride when a white person tries to learn their language; 321 they do everything they can to help, and it’s not their fault if he doesn’t succeed.

The language, then, is the first thing that a traveller ought to endeavour to acquire, at least, so as to be able to make himself understood and to understand others. Without this indispensable requisite he may write about the soil, earth and stones, describe trees and plants that grow on the surface of the land, the birds that fly in the air and the fishes that swim in the waters, but he should by no means attempt to speak of the disposition and characters of the human beings who inhabit the country, and even of their customs and manners, which it is impossible for him to be sufficiently acquainted with. And indeed, even with the advantage of the language, this knowledge is not to be acquired in a short time, so different is the impression which new objects make upon us at first sight, and that which they produce on a nearer view. I could speak the Delaware language very fluently, but I was yet far from being well acquainted with the character and manners of the Lenape.

The language is the first thing a traveler should try to learn, at least enough to make themselves understood and understand others. Without this essential skill, they might write about the soil, rocks, and plants, describe the trees and flowers that grow on land, the birds that fly in the sky, and the fish that swim in the water, but they shouldn't try to talk about the personalities and characteristics of the people living in the area, or their customs and ways of life, since they won’t be well-informed enough. Even with the advantage of knowing the language, gaining this knowledge takes time; the initial impression of new things is very different from a deeper understanding of them. I could speak the Delaware language quite well, but I still didn’t know much about the character and customs of the Lenape.

The Indians are very ready to answer the enquiries that are made respecting the usages of their country. But they are very much disgusted with the manner which they say some white people have of asking them questions on questions, without allowing them time to give a proper answer to any one of them. They, on the contrary, never ask a second question until they have received a full answer to the first. They say of those who do otherwise, that they seem as if they wished to know a thing, yet cared not whether they knew it correctly or properly. There are some men who before the Indians have well understood the question put to them, begin to write down their answers; of these they have no good opinion, thinking that they are writing something unfavourable of them.

The Indigenous people are quick to respond to questions about their customs. However, they are often frustrated with the way some white people ask multiple questions at once, not giving them enough time to provide a proper answer to any one of them. In contrast, they only ask a second question once they've received a complete answer to the first. They believe that those who do otherwise seem more interested in asking than in actually understanding the correct information. There are some people who start writing down answers before the Indigenous people have fully grasped the question, and they don’t think very highly of these individuals, believing that they might be writing something negative about them.

There are men who will relate incredible stories of the Indians, and think themselves sufficiently warranted because they have Indian authority for it. But these men ought to know that all an Indian says is not to be relied upon as truth. I do not mean to say that they are addicted to telling falsehoods, for nothing is farther from their character; but they are fond of the marvellous, and when they find a white man inclined to listen to their 322 tales of wonder, or credulous enough to believe their superstitious notions, there are always some among them ready to entertain him with tales of that description, as it gives them an opportunity of diverting themselves in their leisure hours, by relating such fabulous stories, while they laugh at the same time at their being able to deceive a people who think themselves so superior to them in wisdom and knowledge. They are fond of trying white men who come among them, in order to see whether they can act upon them in this way with success. Travellers who cannot speak their language, and are not acquainted with their character, manners and usages, should be more particularly careful not to ask them questions that touch in any manner upon their superstitious notions, or, as they are often considered even by themselves “fabulous amusements.” Nor should a stranger ever display an anxiety to witness scenes of this kind, but rather appear indifferent about them. In this manner he cannot be misled by interested persons or those who have formed a malicious design to deceive him. Whenever such a disposition appears (and it is not difficult to be discovered), questions of this kind should be reserved for another time, and asked in a proper manner before other persons, or of those who would be candid and perhaps let the enquirer into the secret.

There are guys who will tell unbelievable stories about the Indians and think they’re justified because they have Indian sources for it. But these guys should realize that not everything an Indian says can be trusted as the truth. I'm not saying they are known for lying, because that's far from the truth; but they love sensational stories. When they find a white person interested in their amazing tales or gullible enough to buy into their superstitions, there will always be some who are ready to entertain them with such stories, as it gives them a chance to have fun during their free time while also laughing at how they can trick people who believe they’re smarter. They enjoy testing white people who come into their territory to see if they can successfully pull this off. Travelers who don't speak their language and aren't familiar with their culture, customs, and behaviors should be extra careful not to ask questions related to their superstitions, which they sometimes refer to themselves as “fabulous amusements.” A stranger should also avoid showing a strong desire to see such things and should instead act indifferent about them. This way, they won't be misled by those with an agenda or by those looking to deceive them. Whenever this kind of eagerness shows up (and it’s not hard to notice), questions like these should be saved for another time and asked properly in front of others or to people who are honest and might let the inquirer in on the truth.

I have been led to consider Carver, who otherwise is deserving of credit for the greatest part of what he has written on the character of the Indians, to have been imposed upon in the story which he relates of having learned by means of a conjurer (the chief priest of the Killistenoes, as he calls him) who pretended to have had a conversation with the great Spirit, the precise time when a canoe should come, and certain traders who had been long expected should arrive.244 Had Carver resided a longer time among the Indians, so as to have acquired a more intimate acquaintance with their customs,245 he would have known that they have one in particular (which I understand is universal among all the tribes), which would have easily explained to him what he thought so mysterious. Whenever they go out on a journey, 323 whether far or near, and even sometimes when they go out on hunting parties, they always fix a day, on which they either will return, or their friends at home shall hear from them. They are so particular and punctual in “making their word true,” as they call it, that when they find that at the rate they are travelling, they would probably be at home a day or so sooner than the time appointed, they will rather lay by for that time than that their word should not be precisely made good. I have known instances when they might have arrived in very good time the day preceding that which they had appointed, but they rather chose to encamp for the night, though but a few miles distant from their home. They urge a variety of reasons for this conduct. In the first place, they are anxious not to occasion disappointment in any case when they can avoid it. They consider punctuality as an essential virtue, because, they say, much often depends upon it, particularly when they are engaged in wars. Besides, when the day of their return is certainly known, everything is prepared for their reception, and the family are ready with the best that they can provide to set before them on their arrival. If, however, unforeseen circumstances should prevent them from coming all on the same day, one, at least, or more of them, will be sure to arrive, from whom those at home will learn all that they wish to know.

I’ve come to think that Carver, who truly deserves credit for most of what he’s written about the character of the Indians, might have been misled by the story he recounts about learning from a conjurer (the chief priest of the Killistenoes, as he calls him) who claimed to have spoken with the Great Spirit about the exact time a canoe would arrive, and the traders who had been long expected. If Carver had spent more time living among the Indians, gaining a better understanding of their customs, he would have known about a particular practice (which I believe is universal among all tribes) that could easily explain what he found so mysterious. Whenever they set off on a journey, whether it’s far or near, and even sometimes when they go hunting, they always determine a day when they will either return or let their friends at home know they're okay. They are very particular and punctual about “making their word true,” as they say, that if they think they might arrive home a day or so earlier than planned, they would rather wait than break their promise. I've seen situations where they could have reached home comfortably the day before their scheduled return, but they chose to camp out for the night, even when just a few miles away. They offer various reasons for this behavior. Firstly, they are eager to avoid disappointing others whenever possible. They view punctuality as a crucial virtue because, as they say, much often hinges on it, especially during wartime. Furthermore, when the return date is well-known, everything is ready for their welcome home, and the family prepares the best they can offer for their arrival. However, if unexpected circumstances prevent them from returning all on the same day, at least one or more of them will be sure to arrive, and those at home will find out everything they want to know from them.

On all important occasions, in which a tribe or body of Indians are concerned or interested, whether they are looking out for the return of an embassy sent to a distant nation, for messengers with an answer on some matter of consequence, for runners despatched by their spies who are watching an enemy’s motions, or for traders who at stated periods every year are sure to meet them at certain places, they always take proper and efficacious measures to prevent being surprised.

On all important occasions involving a tribe or group of Native Americans, whether they're waiting for the return of an embassy sent to a distant nation, for messages concerning important matters, for runners sent by their spies monitoring enemy activities, or for traders who are expected to meet them at specific locations at certain times each year, they always take the necessary and effective precautions to avoid being caught off guard.

The case which appears to have excited so much astonishment in Captain Carver, I believe to have been simply this. The Indians246 had at the season that he speaks of failed to arrive at the trading place at the time appointed. The Indians who had assembled there for the purpose of meeting them could not be 324 ignorant of the cause of their delay, as they had, no doubt, learned it by the return of some of their runners sent out for that purpose, who, as is their custom, probably informed them that another set of runners would be in the next day with further advices. The priest must have known all this, and the precise spot where those fresh runners were to encamp the night preceding their arrival, which is always well known and understood by means of the regular chain of communication that is kept up. These runners say to each other, pointing to the heavens: “When the sun stands there, I will be here or at such a particular spot,” which they clearly designate. The information thus given is sure to reach in time the chiefs of the nation.

The situation that seemed to surprise Captain Carver so much was actually quite simple. The Indians had not arrived at the trading post when they were supposed to. The Indians who were already gathered there to meet them couldn't have been unaware of the reason for the delay, as they likely got the information from some of their messengers sent out for that purpose. These messengers would have told them that another group of runners would arrive the next day with more updates. The priest must have known all of this, including exactly where those new runners would camp the night before their arrival, which is always well-known through their established communication network. These runners communicate with each other, pointing to the sky: “When the sun is there, I will be here or at this specific spot,” which they clearly identify. This information is guaranteed to reach the chiefs of the nation in time.

The manner in which this priest spoke to Captain Carver of his pretended intercourse with the great Spirit, clearly shews the deception that he was practising upon him. “The great Spirit,” said he, “has not indeed told me when the persons we expect will be here, but to-morrow, soon after the sun has reached his highest point in the heavens, a canoe will arrive, and the people in that will inform us when the traders will come.” The question, then, which he had put to the great Spirit, “when the traders would come?” was not answered, and there was no need of asking the Mannitto when the canoes should come, for that must have been known already, and that the people in it would tell them where the traders were, and when they might be expected to arrive.

The way this priest spoke to Captain Carver about his supposed communication with the great Spirit clearly shows the trick he was playing on him. “The great Spirit,” he said, “hasn't actually told me when the people we’re expecting will arrive, but tomorrow, shortly after the sun reaches its highest point in the sky, a canoe will come, and the people in that canoe will let us know when the traders will arrive.” So, the question he asked the great Spirit, “when will the traders come?” wasn't answered, and there was no need to ask the Mannitto when the canoes would arrive because that should have already been known, and that the people in it would inform them about where the traders were and when they could expect them.

As in or about the year 1774, I was travelling with some Christian Indians, two Indians of the same nation, but strangers to us, fell in with us just as we were going to encamp, and joined us for the night. One of them was an aged grave-looking man, whom I was pleased to see in our company, and I flattered myself with obtaining some information from him, as, according to the Indian custom, age always takes the lead in conversation. I soon, however, perceived, to my great mortification, that he dwelt on subjects which I had neither a taste for nor an ear to hear; for his topic was the supernatural performances of Indians through the agency of an unseen Mannitto. I did not pay any attention to what he said, nor did any of our Christian Indians shew marks of admiration or astonishment at the stories he was telling, but 325 sat in silence smoking their pipes. The speaker having, after an hour’s time, finished his relations, the oldest Indian in my company addressed himself to me and said: “Now you have heard what some Indians can perform. Have you ever heard the like before, and do you believe all you have heard?” “There are,” I answered, “many things that I have heard of the Indians, and which I believe to be true, and such things I like to hear; but there are also things which they relate which I do not believe, and therefore do not wish to know them. While our friend here was just now telling us stories of this kind, which I cannot believe, I was wishing all the time that he might soon have finished and tell us something better.” The Indian, taking the hint in good part, asked me then what things I should like to hear? On which I made this reply: “As you are a man already in years, and much older than myself, you must have seen many things that I have not seen, and heard much that I have not heard. Now I should like to hear the history of your life; where you was born, at what age you shot your first deer, what things you heard of your father and your grandfather relative to old times; where they supposed the Indians to have come from, and what traditions they had respecting them. I should like also to know how many children you have had; how far you have travelled in your lifetime, and what you have seen and heard in your travels. See!” added I, “these are the things that I should like to hear of the Indians; anything of the kind from you will give me pleasure.” The Indian then, highly pleased with my candour, readily complied, and having related everything remarkable that had come within his observation and knowledge, I thanked him, saying that I should never forget him nor what he had now related to me, but that I would try to forget what he had related in the beginning. The Indians who were with me, following the thread of the conversation, continued to entertain us with rational stories, and the evening was spent very agreeably. In the morning, when we parted, the strange Indian whom I had thus rebuked, shook me cordially by the hand, saying: “Friend! you shall never be forgotten by me. Indeed I call you my friend.”

As I was traveling around 1774 with some Christian Indians, two Indians from the same tribe but unknown to us joined us just as we were about to set up camp for the night. One of them was an older, serious-looking man, and I was glad to have him in our group; I hoped to learn something from him since, according to Indian tradition, age usually leads the conversation. However, to my disappointment, I soon realized that he was talking about topics I found uninteresting and couldn’t really grasp. His subject was the supernatural feats of Indians through the influence of an unseen spirit. I didn’t pay attention to what he was saying, and none of our Christian Indians showed any signs of admiration or surprise at the stories being told; they just sat silently smoking their pipes. After an hour, when the man finished his tales, the oldest Indian in my group turned to me and asked, “Now that you’ve heard some of the things Indians can do, have you ever heard anything like this before? Do you believe what you’ve heard?” I replied, “There are many things I’ve heard about Indians that I believe to be true, and I enjoy hearing those. But there are also things they talk about that I don’t believe, and so I don’t want to know about them. While our friend here was sharing his stories, which I can’t believe, I was wishing he would finish so he could tell us something better.” The Indian, taking my hint in good spirits, asked me what I would like to hear instead. So I answered, “Since you’re older than I am and have experienced much more, I would love to hear about your life. Where you were born, how old you were when you shot your first deer, what stories you heard from your father and grandfather about the old days, where they thought the Indians came from, and what traditions they had about them. I would also like to know how many children you’ve had, how far you’ve traveled in your life, and what you’ve seen and heard on your journeys. See?” I added, “These are the kinds of stories I would love to hear about Indians; anything like this from you would really please me.” The Indian, pleased by my honesty, agreed and shared everything remarkable he had experienced and learned. I thanked him, telling him I would never forget him or what he had just shared, but I’d try to forget the stories he told at the start. The Indians with me, following the flow of conversation, continued to entertain us with thoughtful stories, making the evening very enjoyable. The next morning, when we parted ways, the strange Indian I had corrected shook my hand warmly and said, “Friend! I will never forget you. Indeed, I call you my friend.”

I would take the liberty to recommend to those who may 326 hereafter travel among the Indians, in any part of America, to be particular in their enquiries respecting the connexion of the different nations or tribes with each other, especially when the analogy of their respective languages leads to infer such relationship, as the Indians call it. I beg leave to suggest a few questions, which, I think, ought always to be asked. They may lead to much useful information respecting the various migrations and the original places of residence of the Indian nations, and perhaps produce more important discoveries.

I’d like to suggest that anyone who travels among the Indigenous peoples in any part of America be thorough in their inquiries about the connections between different nations or tribes, especially when similarities in their languages indicate such a relationship, as the Indigenous people refer to it. I’d like to propose a few questions that I think should always be asked. They could lead to valuable information about the various migrations and original homes of the Indigenous nations, and might even result in more significant discoveries.

1. What is the name of your tribe? Is it its original name; if not, how was it formerly called?

1. What’s the name of your tribe? Is it the same as its original name; if not, what was it called before?

2. Have you a tradition of your lineal descent as a nation or tribe?

2. Do you have a tradition of your ancestry as a nation or tribe?

3. To what tribes are you related by blood, and where do they reside?

3. Which tribes are you related to by blood, and where do they live?

4. What is your character or rank in the national family?

4. What is your role or status in the national family?

5. Which among the tribes connected with you is that which you call grandfather?

5. Which of the tribes related to you is the one you call grandfather?

6. Where is the great council fire of all the nations or tribes connected with yours?

6. Where is the main council fire of all the nations or tribes linked to yours?

7. How do you address the chiefs and council of such a nation or tribe?

7. How do you speak to the leaders and council of such a nation or tribe?

8. What is the badge of your tribe?

8. What’s the symbol of your group?

From these and other similar questions, much valuable information will probably result. The nation whom another tribe calls grandfather, is certainly the head of the family to which they both belong. At his door burns the “great national council fire,” or, in other words, at the place where he resides with his counsellors, as the great or supreme chief of the national family, the heads of the tribes in the connexion occasionally assemble to deliberate on their common interests; any tribe may have a council fire of its own, but cannot dictate to the other tribes, nor compel any of them to take up the hatchet against an enemy; neither can they conclude a peace for the whole; this power entirely rests with the great national chief, who presides at the council fire of their grandfather.

From these and other similar questions, a lot of valuable information will probably come out. The nation that another tribe calls grandfather is certainly the head of the family they both belong to. At his door burns the “great national council fire,” or, in other words, at his residence with his advisers, as the primary chief of the national family, the heads of the connected tribes occasionally gather to discuss their shared interests; any tribe may have its own council fire, but they cannot dictate to the other tribes or force any of them to go to war against an enemy; nor can they negotiate peace for everyone; this power lies entirely with the great national chief, who leads the council fire of their grandfather.

Indian nations or tribes connected with each other are not always connected by blood or descended from the same original 327 stock. Some are admitted into the connexion by adoption. Such are the Tuscaroras among the Six Nations; such the Cherokees among the Lenni Lenape. Thus, in the year 1779, a deputation of fourteen men came from the Cherokee nation to the council fire of the Delawares, to condole with their grandfather on the loss of their head chief.247 There are tribes, on the other hand, who have wandered far from the habitations of those connected with them by blood or relationship. It is certain that they can no longer be benefited by the general council fire. They, therefore, become a people by themselves, and pass with us for a separate nation, if they only have a name; nevertheless, (if I am rightly informed) they well know to what stock or nation they originally belonged, and if questioned on that subject, will give correct answers. It is therefore very important to make these enquiries of any tribe or nation that a traveller may find himself among. The analogy of languages is the best and most unequivocal sign of connexion between Indian tribes; yet the absence of that indication should not always be relied upon.

Indian nations or tribes that are connected to each other aren’t always linked by blood or share the same ancestral roots. Some are included in the connection through adoption. For instance, the Tuscaroras are part of the Six Nations, and the Cherokees are among the Lenni Lenape. In 1779, a group of fourteen men from the Cherokee nation came to the Delaware council fire to express their condolences to their *grandfather* on the passing of their head chief. There are also tribes that have strayed far from those they are related to by blood or ties. It’s clear that they can no longer benefit from the general council fire. As a result, they become a distinct people and are considered a separate nation among us, even if they only have a name. However, they still know which stock or nation they originally belonged to and can provide accurate answers if asked about it. Therefore, it’s crucial to ask about the background of any tribe or nation a traveler may encounter. The similarities in languages are the best and clearest indicators of connection between Indian tribes; however, the lack of such indicators shouldn’t always be taken at face value.

It may not be improper also to mention in this place that the purity or correctness with which a language is spoken, will greatly help to discover who is the head of the national family. For no where is the language so much cultivated as in the vicinity of the great national council fire, where the orators have the best opportunity of displaying their talents. Thus the purest and most elegant dialect of the Lenape language, is that of the Unami or Turtle tribe.

It might not be out of place to point out here that the way a language is spoken—its purity or correctness—can significantly help identify the leader of the national community. Because there is no place where a language is more refined than near the main assembly, where speakers have the greatest chance to showcase their skills. Therefore, the most polished and graceful version of the Lenape language comes from the Unami or Turtle tribe.

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CHAPTER XLIV.
THE INDIANS AND THE WHITES COMPARED.

I

If lions had painters! This proverbial saying applies with equal force to the American Indians. They have no historians among them, no books, no newspapers, no convenient means of making their grievances known to a sympathising world. Why, then, should not a white man, a Christian, who has spent among them the greatest part of his life, and was treated by them at all times with hospitality and kindness, plead their honest cause, and defend them as they would defend themselves, if they had but the means of bringing their facts and their arguments before an impartial public?

If lions had painters! This saying applies just as much to the American Indians. They don’t have any historians, books, newspapers, or easy ways to express their grievances to a compassionate world. So, why shouldn’t a white man, a Christian, who has spent most of his life with them and has always been treated with hospitality and kindness, advocate for them and defend them as they would defend themselves if they had the ability to present their facts and arguments to an unbiased audience?

Those who have never taken the pains to enquire into the real character and disposition of the American Indians, naturally suppose, that a people who have no code of laws for their government, but where every man is at liberty to do what he pleases, where men never forget or forgive injuries, and take revenge in their own way, often in the most cruel manner, and are never satisfied until they have been revenged, must of course be barbarians and savages; by which undefined words is understood whatever is bad, wicked, and disgraceful to human nature. Imagination is immediately at work to paint them as a species of monsters, to whom cruelty is an appetite; a sort of human-shaped tigers and panthers, strangers to the finer feelings, and who commit acts of barbarity without any excitement but that of their depraved inclination, and without even suspecting that 329 there are such things in nature as virtue on the one hand and crime on the other.

Those who have never taken the time to look into the true nature and character of American Indians often assume that a group of people who lack a legal system to govern them, where everyone is free to act as they wish, where people never forget or forgive wrongs, seek revenge in brutal ways, and are never satisfied until they get revenge, must be barbarians and savages; terms that are used to describe anything that is bad, wicked, and shameful in human nature. Imagination quickly goes to work to depict them as a kind of monster, driven by a desire for cruelty; like human-shaped tigers and panthers, lacking the finer emotions, committing acts of brutality without any motivation except their corrupted desires, and without even realizing that there are such things in the world as virtue and crime.

But nothing is so false as this picture of the Indians. The worst that can be said of them is, that the passion of revenge is so strong in their minds, that it carries them beyond all bounds. But set this aside, and their character is noble and great. They have no written laws, but they have usages founded on the most strict principles of equity and justice. Murder with them is punished with death. It is true, that as was the case not many centuries ago among the most civilised nations of Europe, the death of a man may be compounded for with his surviving relations; if, however, they do not choose to accept of the terms offered, any one of them may become the executioner of the murderer.

But nothing is as misleading as this portrayal of the Indigenous people. The worst thing you can say about them is that their desire for revenge is so intense that it pushes them to extremes. However, aside from that, their character is noble and admirable. They don’t have written laws, but their customs are based on strict principles of fairness and justice. Murder is punished by death. It’s true that, like many civilized nations in Europe a few centuries ago, the death of a person can be settled with compensation to the surviving family; however, if they refuse the offered terms, any family member has the right to execute the murderer.

Thieves are compelled to restore what they have stolen, or to make satisfactory amends to the injured party; in their default, their nearest relations are obliged to make up the loss. If the thief, after sufficient warning, continues his bad practices, he is disowned by his nation, and any one may put him to death the next time that he is caught in the act of stealing, or that it can be clearly proved to have been committed by him. I have given two instances of the kind in a former chapter,248 and I recollect another which will put what I have said in the strongest light. I once knew an Indian chief, who had a son of a vicious disposition, addicted to stealing, and who would take no advice. His father, tired and unable to satisfy all the demands which were made upon him for the restitution of articles stolen by his son, at last issued his orders for shooting him the next time he should be guilty of a similar act.

Thieves are required to return what they’ve stolen or to make amends to the victim; if they don’t, their closest relatives have to cover the loss. If the thief continues to steal after being warned, he is rejected by his community, and anyone can kill him the next time he’s caught stealing or if it can be clearly proven that he did it. I've mentioned two cases like this in a previous chapter, 248, and I recall another one that really highlights my point. I once knew an Indian chief whose son had a bad character and was a habitual thief who wouldn’t listen to any advice. The chief, frustrated and unable to meet all the demands for the return of his son’s stolen goods, eventually ordered that his son be shot the next time he committed a similar offense.

As to crimes and offences of an inferior nature to murder and theft, they are left to the injured party to punish in such manner as he thinks proper. Such are personal insults and threats, which among those people are not considered as slight matters. If the will and intention of the aggressor appear to be bad; if the insult offered is considered as the forerunner of something worse; or, as the Indians express themselves, if the “murdering 330 spirit” is “alive” within him who offers or threatens violence to another, they think themselves justified in preventing the act meditated against them; in such a case, they consider the killing the aggressor as an act of necessity and self defence. Yet it is very rarely, indeed, that such punishments are inflicted.249 The Indians, in general, avoid giving offence as much as possible. They firmly believe that bad thoughts and actions proceed from the evil spirit, and carefully avoid every thing that is bad.

As for crimes and offenses that are less serious than murder and theft, the injured party is allowed to take matters into their own hands in whatever way they see fit. This includes personal insults and threats, which are not seen as trivial by these people. If the aggressor's intent appears to be bad; if the insult is viewed as a sign of something worse to come; or, as the Indians put it, if the “murdering 330 spirit” is “alive” in the person who threatens violence against another, they feel justified in preventing the act planned against them. In these situations, they consider killing the aggressor to be an act of necessity and self-defense. However, it's very rare for such punishments to be carried out. 249 The Indians generally try to avoid giving offense as much as they can. They strongly believe that negative thoughts and actions are influenced by an evil spirit and do their best to stay away from anything that is bad.

Every person who is well acquainted with the true character of the Indians will admit that they are peaceable, sociable, obliging, charitable, and hospitable among themselves, and that those virtues are, as it were, a part of their nature. In their ordinary intercourse, they are studious to oblige each other. They neither wrangle nor fight; they live, I believe, as peaceably together as any people on earth, and treat one another with the greatest respect. That they are not devoid of tender feelings has been sufficiently shewn in the course of this work. I do not mean to speak of those whose manners have been corrupted by a long intercourse with the worst class of white men; they are a degenerate race, very different from the true genuine Indians whom I have attempted to describe.

Every person who really understands the true nature of Indigenous people will agree that they are peaceful, friendly, helpful, generous, and welcoming among themselves, and those qualities seem to be part of who they are. In their daily interactions, they try hard to help each other. They do not argue or fight; they live, I believe, as peacefully as any group of people on earth and treat one another with the utmost respect. Their capacity for compassion has been clearly demonstrated throughout this work. I’m not talking about those whose behaviors have been corrupted by negative interactions with the worst kinds of white people; they are a degraded group, very different from the true, genuine Indigenous people I’ve tried to describe.

If any one should be disposed to think that I have exaggerated in the picture which I have drawn of these original people, as they call themselves, I appeal to the numerous impartial writers who have given the same testimony respecting them. What says Christopher Columbus himself of the American Indians in his letters to his sovereign? “There are not,” says he, “a better people in the world than these; more affectionate, affable, or mild. They love their neighbours as themselves.

If anyone thinks I've exaggerated in my description of these original people, as they call themselves, I point to the many unbiased writers who have said the same things about them. What does Christopher Columbus himself say about the American Indians in his letters to his king? “There are no better people in the world than these,” he says, “more loving, friendly, or gentle. They love their neighbors as themselves.

Similar encomiums were passed on them by some of the first Englishmen who came to settle in this country. The Reverend Mr. Cushman, in a sermon preached at Plymouth in 1620, says: “The Indians are said to be the most cruel and treacherous people in all those parts, even like lions; but to us they have been like lambs, so kind, so submissive and trusty, as a man may truly say, many Christians are not so kind and sincere.” 331

Similar praises were given to them by some of the first English settlers in this country. The Reverend Mr. Cushman, in a sermon preached at Plymouth in 1620, says: “The Indians are said to be the most brutal and deceitful people in all those parts, like lions; but to us they have been like lambs, so kind, so submissive, and trustworthy, that one can truly say many Christians are not as kind and sincere.” 331

The learned Dr. Elias Boudinot, of Burlington, in New Jersey (a man well remembered as one of the most eminent leaders of the American Revolution),250 in a work251 which, whatever opinion may be entertained of the hypothesis that he contends for, well deserves to be read, for the spirit which it breathes and the facts that it contains, has brought together in one view, the above and many other authorities of eminent men in favour of the American Indians, and in proof that their character is such as I have described. I shall not repeat after him what Las Casas, William Penn, Bryan Edwards, the Abbé Clavigero, Father Charlevoix and others, have said on the same subject; those numerous and weighty testimonies may be found in the work to which I have referred.252 But I cannot refrain from transcribing the opinion of the venerable author himself, to which his high character, his learning, and independence, affix a more than common degree of authority.

The knowledgeable Dr. Elias Boudinot from Burlington, New Jersey (a man who is well-remembered as one of the most notable leaders of the American Revolution),250 in a work251 that, regardless of what people think about the theory he argues for, certainly deserves to be read. The spirit it conveys and the facts it presents gather various esteemed authorities who support the American Indians and demonstrate that their character is as I have described. I won’t repeat what Las Casas, William Penn, Bryan Edwards, Abbé Clavigero, Father Charlevoix, and others have said on this topic; those many significant testimonies can be found in the work I mentioned.252 However, I can't help but share the opinion of the respected author himself, as his high reputation, knowledge, and independence lend it an unusual level of authority.

“It is a matter of fact,” says Dr. Boudinot, “proved by most historical accounts, that the Indians, at our first acquaintance with them, generally manifested themselves kind, hospitable and generous to the Europeans, so long as they were treated with justice and humanity. But when they were, from a thirst of gain, over-reached on many occasions, their friends and relations treacherously entrapped and carried away to be sold for slaves, themselves injuriously oppressed, deceived and driven from their lawful and native possessions; what ought to have been expected, but inveterate enmity, hereditary animosity, and a spirit of perpetual revenge? To whom should be attributed the evil passions, cruel practices and vicious habits to which they are now changed, but to those who first set them the example, laid the foundation and then furnished the continual means for propagating and supporting the evil?”253 332

“It’s a fact,” says Dr. Boudinot, “supported by most historical accounts, that when we first met the Indians, they were generally kind, welcoming, and generous to Europeans, as long as they were treated fairly and compassionately. But when they were frequently taken advantage of due to greed, their friends and family were deceitfully captured and sold into slavery, and they were unjustly oppressed, misled, and forced from their rightful lands; what should we have expected, other than deep-seated hostility, inherited resentment, and a desire for ongoing revenge? Who should be held responsible for the negative feelings, cruel actions, and harmful behaviors they've adopted now, if not those who first set the example, laid the groundwork, and continuously provided the means to spread and maintain this harm?”253 332

Such was the original character of the Indians, stamped, as it were, upon them by nature; but fifty or sixty years back, whole communities of them bore the stamp of this character, difficult now to be found within the precincts of any part of their territory bordering on the settlements of the white people!

Such was the original nature of the Indians, marked, so to speak, by nature itself; but fifty or sixty years ago, entire communities of them exhibited this nature, which is now hard to find in any part of their territory near the settlements of white people!

What! will it be asked, can this be a true picture of the character of the Indians; of those brutes, barbarians, savages, men without religion or laws, who commit indiscriminate murders, without distinction of age or sex? Have they not in numberless instances desolated our frontiers, and butchered our people? Have they not violated treaties and deceived the confidence that we placed in them? No, no; they are beasts of prey in the human form; they are men with whom no faith is to be kept, and who ought to be cut off from the face of the earth!

What! you might ask, can this really be an accurate representation of the character of the Native Americans; of those brutes, barbarians, savages, people without religion or laws, who commit random murders without regard for age or gender? Haven't they repeatedly devastated our borders and slaughtered our people? Haven't they broken treaties and betrayed the trust we placed in them? No, no; they are predators in human form; they are people with whom no trust can be kept, and who should be removed from the earth!

Stop, my friends! hard names and broad assertions are neither reasons nor positive facts. I am not prepared to enter into a discussion with you on the comparative merits or demerits of the Indians and whites; for I am unskilled in argument, and profess only to be a plain matter of fact man. To facts therefore I will appeal. I admit that the Indians have sometimes revenged, cruelly revenged, the accumulated wrongs which they have suffered from unprincipled white men; the love of revenge is a strong passion which their imperfect religious notions have not taught them to subdue. But how often have they been the aggressors in the unequal contests which they have had to sustain with the invaders of their country? In how many various shapes have they not been excited and their passions roused to the utmost fury by acts of cruelty and injustice on the part of the whites, who have made afterwards the country ring with their complaints against the lawless savages, who had not the means of being heard in their defence? I shall not pursue these questions any farther, but let the facts that I am going to relate speak for themselves.

Stop, my friends! Harsh labels and sweeping statements are neither reasons nor solid facts. I'm not ready to debate the pros and cons of Indians and whites because I’m not skilled in arguments and only claim to be a straightforward matter of fact person. So, I’ll focus on the facts. I acknowledge that the Indians have sometimes retaliated—cruelly so—against the wrongs done to them by unscrupulous white people; the desire for revenge is a strong emotion that their limited religious beliefs haven’t taught them to control. But how often have they instigated conflicts in the unequal battles they faced against those invading their land? In how many different ways have they been provoked and their emotions pushed to the edge by acts of cruelty and injustice from whites, who then made a fuss about the supposed lawless savages, who had no way to defend themselves? I won’t delve into these questions any further, but let the facts I’m about to share speak for themselves.

In the summer of the year 1763, some friendly Indians from a distant place, came to Bethlehem to dispose of their peltry for manufactured goods and necessary implements of husbandry. Returning home well satisfied, they put up the first night at a 333 tavern, eight miles distant from this place.254 The landlord not being at home, his wife took the liberty of encouraging the people who frequented her house for the sake of drinking to abuse those Indians, adding, “That she would freely give a gallon of rum to any one of them that should kill one of these black d——ls.” Other white people from the neighbourhood came in during the night, who also drank freely, made a great deal of noise, and increased the fears of those poor Indians, who, for the greatest part, understanding English, could not but suspect that something bad was intended against their persons. They were not, however, otherwise disturbed: but in the morning, when, after a restless night, they were preparing to set off, they found themselves robbed of some of the most valuable articles they had purchased, and on mentioning this to a man who appeared to be the bar-keeper, they were ordered to leave the house. Not being willing to lose so much property, they retired to some distance into the woods, where, some of them remaining with what was left them, the others returned to Bethlehem and lodged their complaint with a justice of the peace. The magistrate gave them a letter to the landlord, pressing him without delay to restore to the Indians the goods that had been taken from them. But behold! when they delivered that letter to the people at the inn, they were told in answer: “that if they set any value on their lives, they must make off with themselves immediately.” They well understood that they had no other alternative, and prudently departed without having received back any of their goods.255 Arrived at Nescopeck256 on the Susquehannah, they fell in with some other Delawares, who had been treated much in the same manner, one of them having had his rifle stolen from him. Here the two parties agreed to 334 take revenge in their own way, for those insults and robberies for which they could obtain no redress; and that they determined to do as soon as war should be again declared by their nation against the English.

In the summer of 1763, some friendly Native Americans from a distant area came to Bethlehem to trade their furs for manufactured goods and essential farming tools. After a satisfying visit, they spent their first night at a tavern eight miles away from Bethlehem. The landlord was absent, so his wife took it upon herself to encourage the local customers at her bar to mistreat the Native Americans, saying, “I’d gladly give a gallon of rum to anyone who kills one of those black devils.” Other white locals came in throughout the night, drinking heavily, making a lot of noise, and increasing the anxiety of the poor Native Americans, who mostly understood English and sensed that something bad was planned against them. However, they were not disturbed further. In the morning, after a restless night, as they were getting ready to leave, they discovered that some of the most valuable items they had purchased were missing. When they mentioned this to a man who seemed to be the bar-keeper, they were told to leave the establishment. Not wanting to lose their belongings, they retreated to a spot in the woods, where some of them stayed with what little they had left while others went back to Bethlehem to file a complaint with a justice of the peace. The magistrate gave them a letter to deliver to the landlord, urging him to quickly return the stolen goods to the Native Americans. However, when they presented the letter at the inn, they were told, “If you care about your lives, you need to get out of here immediately.” They understood that they had no choice and wisely left without recovering any of their possessions. Once they arrived at Nescopeck on the Susquehannah, they met other Delawares who had faced similar treatment, including one who had his rifle stolen. Together, the two groups decided to take revenge in their own way for the insults and thefts they had suffered since they couldn’t find any justice, and they resolved to act as soon as their nation declared war against the English again.

Scarcely had these Indians retired, when in another place, about fourteen miles distant from the former, one man, two women and a child, all quiet Indians, were murdered in a most wicked and barbarous manner, by drunken militia officers and their men, for the purpose of getting their horse and the goods they had just purchased.257 One of the women, falling on her knees, begged in vain for the life of herself and her child, while the other woman, seeing what was doing, made her escape to the barn, where she endeavoured to hide herself on the top of the grain. She however was discovered, and inhumanly thrown down on the threshing floor with such force that her brains flew out.258

Scarcely had these indigenous people left when, in another location about fourteen miles away, one man, two women, and a child—who were all peaceful—were brutally murdered by drunken militia officers and their men. They did this to steal their horse and the goods they had just bought.257 One of the women fell to her knees, desperately pleading for her life and her child's, but it was in vain. The other woman saw what was happening and managed to escape to the barn, where she tried to hide on top of the grain. However, she was found and callously thrown down onto the threshing floor with such force that her brains splattered out.258

Here, then, were insults, robberies and murders, all committed within the short space of three months, unatoned for and unrevenged. There was no prospect of obtaining redress; the survivors were therefore obliged to seek some other means to obtain revenge. They did so; the Indians, already exasperated against the English in consequence of repeated outrages, and considering the nation as responsible for the injuries which it did neither prevent nor punish, and for which it did not even offer to make any kind of reparation, at last declared war, and then the injured parties were at liberty to redress themselves for the wrongs they had suffered. They immediately started against the objects of their hatred, and finding their way, unseen and undiscovered, to the inn which had been the scene of the first outrage, they attacked it at daybreak, fired into it on the people within, who were lying in their beds. Strange to relate! the murderers of the man, two women, and child, were among them. They were mortally wounded, and died of their wounds shortly afterwards. The Indians, after leaving this house, murdered by accident an innocent 335 family, having mistaken the house that they meant to attack, after which they returned to their homes.259

Here, then, were insults, robberies, and murders, all committed within the brief span of three months, unpunished and without revenge. There was no hope of getting justice; the survivors had no choice but to find another way to seek revenge. They did so; the Native Americans, already angry with the English due to repeated attacks, considered the entire nation responsible for the harm it neither prevented nor punished, and for which it didn’t even attempt to make any kind of reparation. Eventually, they declared war, allowing the wronged parties to take justice into their own hands. They immediately set out against their enemies, stealthily making their way to the inn where the first attack had occurred. They struck at dawn, firing into the inn at the people inside who were still in bed. Strangely enough, the murderers of the man, two women, and child were among them. They were mortally wounded and soon died from their injuries. After leaving this house, the Indians accidentally killed an innocent family, mistaking the house they intended to attack, and then returned to their homes.

Now a violent hue and cry was raised against the Indians—no language was too bad, no crimes too black to brand them with. No faith was to be placed in those savages; treaties with them were of no effect; they ought to be cut off from the face of the earth! Such was the language at that time in everybody’s mouth; the newspapers were filled with accounts of the cruelties of the Indians, a variety of false reports were circulated in order to rouse the people against them, while they, the really injured party, having no printing presses among them, could not make known the story of their grievances.

Now there was a huge outcry against the Native Americans—no language was too harsh, no crimes too severe to label them with. No one trusted those so-called savages; treaties with them meant nothing; they should be wiped off the face of the earth! That was the common sentiment at the time; newspapers were packed with stories about the brutality of the Native Americans, and a mix of false reports spread to incite the public against them, while they, the ones truly wronged, had no press to share their side of the story.

“No faith can be placed in what the Indians promise at treaties; for scarcely is a treaty concluded than they are again murdering us.” Such is our complaint against these unfortunate people; but they will tell you that it is the white men in whom no faith is to placed. They will tell you, that there is not a single instance in which the whites have not violated the engagements that they had made at treaties. They say that when they had ceded lands to the white people, and boundary lines had been established—“firmly established!” beyond which no whites were to settle; scarcely was the treaty signed, when white intruders again were settling and hunting on their lands! It is true that when they preferred their complaints to the government, the government gave them many fair promises, and assured them that men would be sent to remove the intruders by force from the usurped lands. The men, indeed, came, but with chain and compass in their hands, taking surveys of the 336 tracts of good land, which the intruders, from their knowledge of the country, had pointed out to them!

“No trust can be put in what the Native Americans promise at treaties; for hardly is a treaty finalized before they are murdering us again.” This is our complaint against these unfortunate people; but they will tell you that it’s the white men who can’t be trusted. They will say that there isn’t a single instance where the whites haven’t broken the promises they made in treaties. They claim that when they ceded land to the white people and boundary lines were set—“firmly established!” beyond which no whites were supposed to settle—hardly was the treaty signed before white intruders came again, settling and hunting on their land! It’s true that when they brought their complaints to the government, the government made many fair promises and assured them that men would be sent to forcibly remove the intruders from the stolen land. The men did come, but with chains and compasses in their hands, surveying the tracts of good land, which the intruders, because of their knowledge of the country, had pointed out to them!

What was then to be done, when those intruders would not go off from the land, but, on the contrary, increased in numbers? “Oh!” said those people, (and I have myself frequently heard this language in the Western country,) “a new treaty will soon give us all this land; nothing is now wanting but a pretence to pick a quarrel with them!” Well, but in what manner is this quarrel to be brought about? A David Owen, a Walker, and many others might, if they were alive, easily answer this question. A precedent, however, may be found, on perusing Mr. Jefferson’s Appendix to his Notes on Virginia. On all occasions, when the object is to murder Indians, strong liquor is the main article required; for when you have them dead drunk, you may do to them as you please, without running the risk of losing your life. And should you find that the laws of your country may reach you where you are, you have only to escape or conceal yourself for a while, until the storm has blown over! I well recollect the time when thieves and murderers of Indians fled from impending punishment across the Susquehannah, where they considered themselves safe; on which account this river had the name given to it of “the rogue’s river.” I have heard other rivers called by similar names.

What was to be done when those intruders wouldn’t leave the land, but instead increased in numbers? “Oh!” said those people (and I’ve heard this often in the West), “a new treaty will soon give us all this land; all we need now is an excuse to start a fight with them!” But how exactly is this fight supposed to happen? A David Owen, a Walker, and many others could easily answer this if they were alive. However, you can find a precedent by looking at Mr. Jefferson’s Appendix to his Notes on Virginia. Whenever there’s an aim to harm Indians, strong liquor is the key ingredient; because once they’re completely intoxicated, you can do whatever you want to them without risking your own life. If you think the laws of your country might catch up with you, you just need to run away or hide for a while until the situation calms down! I remember when thieves and murderers of Indians would escape from punishment by crossing the Susquehanna, believing they were safe there; that’s why the river got the nickname “the rogue’s river.” I’ve heard of other rivers with similar names.

In the year 1742, the Reverend Mr. Whitefield offered the Nazareth Manor (as it was then called) for sale to the United Brethren.260 He had already begun to build upon it a spacious stone house, intended as a school house for the education of negro children. The Indians, in the meanwhile, loudly exclaimed against the white people for settling in this part of the country, which had not yet been legally purchased of them, but, as they said, had been obtained by fraud.261 The 337 Brethren declined purchasing any lands on which the Indian title had not been properly extinguished, wishing to live in peace with all the Indians around them. Count Zinzendorff happened at that time to arrive in the country; he found that the agents of the proprietors would not pay to the Indians the price which they asked for that tract of land; he paid them out of his private purse the whole of the demand which they made in the height of their ill temper, and moreover gave them permission to abide on the land, at their village, (where, by the by, they had a fine large peach orchard,) as long as they should think proper. But among those white men, who afterwards came and settled in the neighbourhood of their tract, there were some who were enemies to the Indians, and a young Irishman, without cause or provocation, murdered their good and highly respected chief Tademi,262 a man of such an easy and friendly address, that he could not but be loved by all who knew him. This, together with the threats of other persons, ill disposed towards them, was the cause of their leaving their settlement on this manor, and removing to places of greater safety.

In 1742, Reverend Mr. Whitefield put Nazareth Manor (as it was then called) up for sale to the United Brethren.260 He had already started building a large stone house intended to be a school for educating black children. Meanwhile, the Native Americans were vocally opposing the white settlers in this area, claiming it hadn’t been legally purchased from them and had been taken through deception.261 The Brethren decided not to buy any land until the Indian title was properly settled, wanting to coexist peacefully with the local tribes. Count Zinzendorf happened to arrive in the region at that time; he found that the proprietors' agents were unwilling to pay the amount the Indians were demanding for that land. He covered the entire sum out of his own pocket, even allowing them to stay on the land at their village (where they had a large peach orchard) for as long as they saw fit. However, among the white settlers who later came to the area, some were hostile to the Native Americans, and a young Irishman, without any reason, murdered their respected chief Tademi,262 who was so friendly and approachable that everyone who knew him couldn’t help but like him. This incident, combined with threats from others who were ill-disposed toward them, led to their decision to leave their settlement on the manor and move to safer locations.

It is true, that when flagrant cases of this description occurred, the government, before the Revolution, issued proclamations offering rewards for apprehending the offenders, and in later times, since the country has become more thickly settled, those who had been guilty of such offences were brought before the tribunals to take their trials. But these formalities have proved of little avail. In the first case, the criminals were seldom, if ever, apprehended; in the second, no jury could be found to convict them; for it was no uncommon saying among many of the men of whom juries in the frontier countries were commonly composed, that no man should be put to death for killing an Indian; for it was the same thing as killing a wild beast!

It’s true that when serious cases like this happened, the government, before the Revolution, issued proclamations offering rewards for capturing the offenders. In more recent times, as the country became more populated, those guilty of such offenses were taken to court to face trial. But these processes have been largely ineffective. In the first instance, criminals were rarely, if ever, caught; in the second, no jury could be found willing to convict them. It was a common saying among many of the men who made up juries in frontier areas that no one should be executed for killing an Indian, as it was considered the same as killing a wild animal!

But what shall I say of the conduct of the British agents, or deputy agents, or by whatsoever other name they may be called, who, at the commencement of the American Revolution, openly excited the Indians to kill and destroy all the rebels without distinction? “Kill all the rebels,” they would say, “put them 338 all to death, and spare none.” A veteran chief of the Wyandot nation, who resided near Detroit, observed to one of them that surely it was meant that they should kill men only, and not women and children. “No, no,” was the answer, “kill all, destroy all; nits breed lice!” The brave veteran263 was so disgusted with this reply, that he refused to go out at all; wishing however to see and converse with his old brother soldiers of the Delaware nation, with whom he had fought against the English in the French war, he took the command of a body of ninety chosen men, and being arrived at the seat of the government of the Delawares, on the Muskingum, he freely communicated to his old comrades (among whom was Glikhican, whom I shall presently have occasion further to mention) what had taken place, and what he had resolved on; saying that he never would be guilty of killing women and children; that this was the first and would be the last of his going out this war; that in ten days they should see him come back with one prisoner only, no scalp to a pole, and no life lost. He kept his word. The sixteen chiefs under him, from respect and principle, agreed to all his proposals and wishes.

But what should I say about the actions of the British agents, or deputy agents, or whatever name they go by, who, at the start of the American Revolution, openly urged the Indians to kill and destroy all the rebels indiscriminately? “Kill all the rebels,” they would say, “put them all to death, and spare none.” A veteran chief of the Wyandot nation, who lived near Detroit, told one of them that surely it was intended they should only kill men, and not women and children. “No, no,” was the response, “kill all, destroy all; nits breed lice!” The brave veteran was so disgusted by this reply that he refused to take any action; however, wishing to see and talk with his old brother soldiers of the Delaware nation, with whom he had fought against the English in the French war, he took command of a group of ninety chosen men. Upon arriving at the headquarters of the Delawares, on the Muskingum, he openly shared with his old comrades (including Glikhican, whom I will mention in a moment) what had happened and what he planned to do; stating that he would never be responsible for killing women and children; that this would be the first and the last time he would go out in this war; that in ten days they would see him return with one prisoner only, no scalps displayed, and no lives lost. He kept his promise. The sixteen chiefs under him, out of respect and principle, agreed to all his proposals and wishes.

How different the conduct of the Indians from that of their inhuman employers! I have already related the noble speech of Captain Pipe to the British Commandant at Detroit, and I have done justice to the character of that brave officer, who surely ought not to be confounded with those Indian agents that I have spoken of. But what said Pipe to him? “Innocence had no part in your quarrels; and therefore I distinguished—I spared. Father! I hope you will not destroy what I have saved!”264 I have also told the conduct of the two young spirited Delawares265 who saved the life of the venerable Missionary Zeisberger, at the risk of their own. But it is not only against their own people that Indians have afforded their protection to white men, but against the whites themselves.

How different the behavior of the Native Americans is compared to that of their cruel employers! I've already shared the impressive speech from Captain Pipe to the British Commandant at Detroit, and I have given credit to the character of that brave officer, who definitely shouldn’t be mixed up with those Indian agents I mentioned. But what did Pipe say to him? “Innocence had nothing to do with your conflicts; and that’s why I made a distinction—I spared. Father! I hope you won't destroy what I've saved!”264 I have also recounted the actions of the two courageous Delawares265 who saved the life of the respected Missionary Zeisberger, putting their own lives at risk. But it's not just against their own people that Native Americans have offered protection to white men; they've done so against the white men themselves.

In the course of the Revolutionary war, in which (as in all civil commotions) brother was seen fighting against brother, and 339 friend against friend, a party of Indian warriors, with whom one of those white men, who, under colour of attachment to their king, indulged in every sort of crimes, was going out against the settlers on the Ohio, to kill and destroy as they had been ordered. The chief of the expedition had given strict orders not to molest any of the white men who lived with their friends the Christian Indians; yet as they passed near a settlement of these converts, the white man, unmindful of the orders he had received, attempted to shoot two of the Missionaries who were planting potatoes in their field, and though the captain warned him to desist, he still obstinately persisted in his attempt. The chief, in anger, immediately took his gun from him, and kept him under guard until they had reached a considerable distance from the place. I have received this account from the chief himself, who on his return sent word to the Missionaries that they would do well not to go far from home, as they were in too great danger from the white people.

During the Revolutionary War, when brother fought against brother and friend against friend, a group of Indian warriors, led by a white man who, pretending to be loyal to his king, committed various crimes, set out against the settlers in Ohio to kill and destroy as ordered. The leader of the expedition had given clear instructions not to harm any white people living peacefully with their Christian Indian friends. However, as they passed near the settlement of these converts, the white man, disregarding the orders he had received, tried to shoot two missionaries who were planting potatoes in their field. Even when the captain warned him to stop, he stubbornly continued his attempts. Angered, the chief took the man's gun from him and kept him under guard until they were far enough away from the area. I got this story directly from the chief, who later informed the missionaries that they should avoid going far from home, as they were in serious danger from the white people.

Another white man of the same description, whom I well knew, related with a kind of barbarous exultation, on his return to Detroit from a war excursion with the Indians in which he had been engaged, that the party with which he was, having taken a woman prisoner who had a sucking babe at her breast, he tried to persuade the Indians to kill the child, lest its cries should discover the place where they were; the Indians were unwilling to commit the deed, on which the white man at once jumped up, tore the child from its mother’s arms and taking it by the legs dashed its head against a tree, so that the brains flew out all around. The monster in relating this story said, “The little dog all the time was making wee!” He added, that if he were sure that his old father, who some time before had died in Old Virginia, would, if he had lived longer, have turned rebel, he would go all the way into Virginia, raise the body, and take off his scalp!

Another white man of the same description, whom I knew well, shared with a twisted sense of pride, upon his return to Detroit from a military mission with the Indians, that the group he was with had captured a woman who was nursing her baby. He attempted to convince the Indians to kill the child to prevent its cries from revealing their location; the Indians refused to do it. In response, the white man jumped up, yanked the child from its mother’s arms, and, holding it by the legs, smashed its head against a tree, causing brain matter to splatter everywhere. The monster recounted the story, saying, “The little dog kept making wee!” He also mentioned that if he were sure his late father, who died some time ago in Old Virginia, would have turned traitor had he lived longer, he would go all the way to Virginia, dig up the body, and take off his scalp!

Let us now contrast with this the conduct of the Indians. Carver tells us in his travels with what moderation, humanity and delicacy they treat female prisoners, and particularly pregnant women.266 I refer the reader to the following fact, as an instance 340 of their conduct in such cases. If his admiration is excited by the behaviour of the Indians, I doubt not that his indignation will be raised in an equal degree by that of a white man who unfortunately acts a part in the story.

Let’s now contrast this with how the Indians behave. Carver describes in his travels how they treat female prisoners with moderation, kindness, and sensitivity, especially pregnant women.266 I want to point out the following fact as an example of their behavior in these situations. If he is impressed by how the Indians act, I have no doubt he will feel just as outraged by the actions of a white man who unfortunately plays a role in this story.

A party of Delawares, in one of their excursions during the Revolutionary war, took a white female prisoner. The Indian chief, after a march of several days, observed that she was ailing, and was soon convinced (for she was far advanced in her pregnancy) that the time of her delivery was near. He immediately made a halt on the bank of a stream, where at a proper distance from the encampment, he built for her a close hut of peeled barks, gathered dry grass and fern to make her a bed, and placed a blanket at the opening of the dwelling as a substitute for a door. He then kindled a fire, placed a pile of wood near it to feed it occasionally, and placed a kettle of water at hand where she might easily use it. He then took her into her little infirmary, gave her Indian medicines, with directions how to use them, and told her to rest easy and she might be sure that nothing should disturb her. Having done this, he returned to his men, forbade them from making any noise, or disturbing the sick woman in any manner, and told them that he himself should guard her during the night. He did so, and the whole night kept watch before her door, walking backward and forward, to be ready at her call at any moment, in case of extreme necessity. The night passed quietly, but in the morning, as he was walking by on the bank of the stream, seeing him through the crevices, she called to him and presented her babe. The good chief, with tears in his eyes, rejoiced at her safe delivery; he told her not to be uneasy, that he should lay by for a few days and would soon bring her some nourishing food, and some medicines to take. Then going to his encampment, he ordered all his men to go out a hunting, and remained himself to guard the camp.

A group of Delawares, during one of their outings in the Revolutionary War, captured a white woman. The Indian chief, after several days of travel, noticed that she was unwell, and quickly realized (since she was far along in her pregnancy) that she was about to give birth. He immediately stopped by the edge of a stream, where he built her a small hut from peeled bark, gathered dry grass and ferns to make her a bed, and hung a blanket at the entrance as a makeshift door. He then started a fire, stacked wood nearby to keep it going, and placed a kettle of water within her reach. He took her into her small shelter, provided her with herbal remedies, showed her how to use them, and told her to rest easy as nothing would disturb her. Afterward, he returned to his men, instructed them to stay quiet and not to bother the sick woman, and told them he would watch over her during the night. He did just that, keeping guard at her door all night, pacing back and forth to be ready if she needed him urgently. The night went by peacefully, but in the morning, as he walked along the streambank, she called out to him through the gaps and showed him her baby. The kind chief, tears in his eyes, was overjoyed at her safe delivery. He reassured her not to worry, that he would stay for a few days and would soon bring her some nourishing food and more remedies. He then returned to his camp, ordered all his men to go hunting, and stayed behind to protect the camp.

Now for the reverse of the picture. Among the men whom this chief had under his command, was one of those white vagabonds whom I have before described. The captain was much afraid of him, knowing him to be a bad man; and as he had expressed a great desire to go a hunting with the rest, 341 he believed him gone, and entertained no fears for the woman’s safety. But it was not long before he was undeceived. While he was gone to a small distance to dig roots for his poor patient, he heard her cries, and running with speed to her hut, he was informed by her that the white man had threatened to take her life if she did not immediately throw her child into the river. The Captain, enraged at the cruelty of this man, and the liberty he had taken with his prisoner, hailed him as he was running off, and told him, “That the moment he should miss the child, the tomahawk should be in his head.” After a few days this humane chief placed the woman carefully on a horse, and they went together to the place of their destination, the mother and child doing well. I have heard him relate this story, to which he added, that whenever he should go out on an excursion, he never would suffer a white man to be of his party.

Now for the other side of the story. Among the men this chief commanded was one of those white drifters I mentioned before. The captain was afraid of him, knowing he was trouble; and since he had shown a strong desire to go hunting with the others, the captain believed he was away and had no concerns for the woman’s safety. But it wasn’t long before he realized he was wrong. While he had walked a short distance to dig roots for his sick patient, he heard her screams, and rushing back to her hut, she told him that the white man had threatened to kill her if she didn’t immediately throw her child into the river. The captain, furious at the cruelty of this man and the freedom he had taken with his prisoner, shouted at him as he was running away and said, “The moment you lose that child, I’ll put a tomahawk in your head.” A few days later, this caring chief carefully helped the woman onto a horse, and they traveled together to their destination, with both mother and child doing well. I’ve heard him tell this story, and he added that whenever he went on an outing, he would never allow a white man to be part of his group.

Yet I must acknowledge that I have known an Indian chief who had been guilty of the crime of killing the child of a female prisoner. It was Glikhican,267 of whom I have before spoken, as one of the friends of the brave Wyandot who expressed so much horror at the order given to him by the Indian agents to murder women and children.268 In the year 1770, he joined the congregation of the Christian Indians; the details of his conversion are related at large by Loskiel in his History of the Missions.269 Before that time he had been conspicuous as a warrior and a counsellor, and in oratory it is said he never was surpassed. This man, having joined the French, in the year 1754, or 1755, in their war against the English, and being at that time out with a party of Frenchmen, took, among other prisoners, a young woman named Rachel Abbott, from the Conegocheague 342 settlement,270 who had at her breast a sucking babe. The incessant cries of the child, the hurry to get off, but above all, the persuasions of his white companions, induced him, much against his inclination, to kill the innocent creature; while the mother, in an agony of grief, and her face suffused with tears, begged that its life might be spared. The woman, however, was brought safe to the Ohio, where she was kindly treated and adopted, and some years afterwards was married to a Delaware chief of respectability, by whom she had several children, who are now living with the Christian Indians in Upper Canada.

Yet I have to admit that I knew an Indian chief who committed the crime of killing a woman’s child. That was Glikhican, of whom I’ve mentioned before as one of the friends of the courageous Wyandot who was horrified by the order from the Indian agents to kill women and children. In 1770, he joined the group of Christian Indians; Loskiel details his conversion extensively in his History of the Missions. Before that, he was well-known as a warrior and advisor, and he was said to be unmatched in oratory. This man had allied with the French in 1754 or 1755 during their war against the English, and while he was out with a group of Frenchmen, he captured a young woman named Rachel Abbott from the Conegocheague settlement, who had an infant at her breast. The constant cries of the baby, the rush to get away, and especially the persuasion of his white companions compelled him, against his better judgment, to kill the innocent child. The mother, in deep sorrow and with tears streaming down her face, pleaded for the baby’s life to be spared. However, the woman was safely taken to Ohio, where she was treated well and adopted, and years later she married a respected Delaware chief, with whom she had several children who are now living with the Christian Indians in Upper Canada.

Glikhican never forgave himself for having committed this crime, although many times, and long before his becoming a Christian, he had begged the woman’s pardon with tears in his eyes, and received her free and full forgiveness. In vain she pointed out to him all the circumstances that he could have alleged to excuse the deed; in vain she reminded him of his unwillingness at the time, and his having been in a manner compelled to it by his French associates; nothing that she did say could assuage his sorrow or quiet the perturbation of his mind; he called himself a wretch, a monster, a coward (the proud feelings of an Indian must be well understood to judge of the force of this self-accusation), and to the moment of his death the remembrance of this fatal act preyed like a canker worm upon his spirits. I ought to add, that from the time of his conversion, he lived the life of a Christian, and died as such.

Glikhican never forgave himself for committing this crime, even though he had begged the woman's forgiveness many times, long before he became a Christian, with tears in his eyes, and she had fully and freely forgiven him. She pointed out all the circumstances that he could have used to excuse his actions; she reminded him of his reluctance at the time and how he had been somewhat forced into it by his French associates. But nothing she said could ease his sorrow or calm his troubled mind. He called himself a wretch, a monster, a coward (the pride of an Indian must be understood to grasp how deep this self-accusation cut), and right up until his death, the memory of this tragic act gnawed at his soul. I should mention that since his conversion, he lived as a Christian and died as one.

The Indians are cruel to their enemies! In some cases they are, but perhaps not more so than white men have sometimes shewn themselves. There have been instances of white men flaying or taking off the skin of Indians who had fallen into their hands, then tanning those skins, or cutting them in pieces, making them up into razor-straps, and exposing those for sale, as was done at or near Pittsburg sometime during the Revolutionary war. Those things are abominations in the eyes of the 343 Indians, who, indeed, when strongly excited, inflict torments on their prisoners and put them to death by cruel tortures, but never are guilty of acts of barbarity in cold blood. Neither do the Delawares and some other Indian nations, ever on any account disturb the ashes of the dead.

The Native Americans are brutal to their enemies! Sometimes they are, but maybe not more than white people have been at times. There have been cases of white people skinning or removing the skin of Native Americans they captured, then tanning those skins, or cutting them into pieces, turning them into razor straps and selling them, as happened around Pittsburgh during the Revolutionary War. Such actions are horrific in the eyes of the 343 Native Americans, who, when they are really provoked, do inflict suffering on their captives and kill them with horrific tortures, but they are never guilty of acts of brutality without provocation. Similarly, the Delawares and some other tribes never disturb the remains of the dead under any circumstances.

The custom of torturing prisoners is of ancient date, and was first introduced as a trial of courage. I have been told, however, that among some tribes it has never been in use; but it must be added that those tribes gave no quarter. The Delawares accuse the Iroquois of having been the inventors of this piece of cruelty, and charge them further with eating the flesh of their prisoners after the torture was over. Be this as it may, there are now but few instances of prisoners being put to death in this manner.

The practice of torturing prisoners has been around for a long time and was initially introduced as a test of bravery. However, I’ve heard that among certain tribes, it has never been practiced; but it should be noted that those tribes showed no mercy. The Delawares blame the Iroquois for coming up with this cruel method and also accuse them of eating the flesh of their prisoners after the torture was done. Regardless, there are now very few cases of prisoners being killed in this way.

Rare as these barbarous executions now are, I have reason to believe that they would be still less frequent, if proper pains were taken to turn the Indians away from this heathenish custom. Instead of this, it is but too true that they have been excited to cruelty by unprincipled white men, who have joined in their war-feasts, and even added to the barbarity of the scene. Can there be a more brutal act than, after furnishing those savages, as they are called, with implements of war and destruction, to give them an ox to kill and to roast whole, to dance the war dance with them round the slaughtered animal, strike at him, stab him, telling the Indians at the same time: “Strike, stab! Thus you must do to your enemy!” Then taking a piece of the meat, and tearing it with their teeth: “So you must eat his flesh!” and sucking up the juices: “Thus you must drink his blood!” and at last devour the whole as wolves do a carcass. This is what is known to have been done by some of those Indian agents that I have mentioned.

Rare as these brutal executions are now, I believe they would happen even less often if more effort was made to steer the Indigenous people away from this savage practice. Instead, it’s sadly true that they have been provoked to violence by unscrupulous white people, who have taken part in their war celebrations and even intensified the brutality of the situation. Can there be a more savage act than, after supplying these so-called savages with weapons of war and destruction, to offer them an ox to kill and roast whole, to dance the war dance around the slaughtered animal, strike at it, stab it, while telling the Indigenous people: “Strike, stab! This is what you must do to your enemy!” Then, tearing a piece of the meat with their teeth: “This is how you must eat his flesh!” and sucking up the juices: “This is how you must drink his blood!” and finally devouring the entire thing like wolves do with a carcass. This is what some of those Indian agents I mentioned are known to have done.

“Is this possible?” the reader will naturally exclaim. Yes, it is possible, and every Indian warrior will tell you that it is true. It has come to me from so many credible sources, that I am forced to believe it. How can the Indians now be reproached with acts of cruelty to which they have been excited by those who pretended to be Christians and civilised men, but who were worse savages than those whom, no doubt, they were ready to brand with that name? 344

“Is this possible?” the reader will naturally exclaim. Yes, it is possible, and every Indian warrior will tell you it's true. I’ve heard it from so many reliable sources that I have to believe it. How can we blame the Indians for acts of brutality when they were provoked by those who claimed to be Christians and civilized, but who were actually worse savages than the ones they were quick to label with that term? 344

When hostile governments give directions to employ the Indians against their enemies, they surely do not know that such is the manner in which their orders are to be executed; but let me tell them and every government who will descend to employing these auxiliaries, that this is the only way in which their subaltern agents will and can proceed to make their aid effectual. The Indians are not fond of interfering in quarrels not their own, and will not fight with spirit for the mere sake of a livelihood which they can obtain in a more agreeable manner by hunting and their other ordinary occupations. Their passions must be excited, and that is not easily done when they themselves have not received any injury from those against whom they are desired to fight. Behold, then, the abominable course which must unavoidably be resorted to—to induce them to do what?—to lay waste the dwelling of the peaceable cultivator of the land, and to murder his innocent wife and his helpless children! I cannot pursue this subject farther, although I am far from having exhausted it. I have said enough to enable the impartial reader to decide which of the two classes of men, the Indians and the whites, are most justly entitled to the epithets of brutes, barbarians, and savages. It is not for me to anticipate his decision.

When hostile governments direct the use of Native Americans against their enemies, they likely don’t realize how their orders will actually play out. But let me inform them—and any government willing to use these forces—that this is the only way their lower-level agents will make their support effective. Native Americans don’t like getting involved in fights that aren’t theirs, and they won’t fight passionately just for a paycheck when they can earn a living more pleasantly through hunting and their usual activities. Their emotions need to be stirred, which isn’t easy when they haven’t been wronged by those they’re asked to fight. So, consider the terrible actions that must inevitably be taken—to persuade them to do what?—to destroy the homes of peaceful farmers and to kill their innocent wives and defenseless children! I can’t delve deeper into this topic, even though there’s much more to say. I’ve provided enough for an impartial reader to determine which of the two groups, the Native Americans and the whites, truly deserve the labels of brutes, barbarians, and savages. It’s not my place to predict their conclusion.

But if the Indians, after all, are really those horrid monsters which they are alleged to be, two solemn, serious questions have often occurred to my mind, to which I wish the partisans of that doctrine would give equally serious answers.

But if the Indians are really those horrible monsters they are claimed to be, two serious questions have often crossed my mind, and I wish the supporters of that view would provide equally serious answers.

1. Can civilised nations, can nations which profess Christianity, be justified in employing people of that description to aid them in fighting their battles against their enemies, Christians like themselves?

1. Can civilized nations, can nations that claim to be Christian, justify using people like that to help them fight their battles against their enemies, who are Christians just like them?

2. When such nations offer up their prayers to the throne of the most High, supplicating the Divine Majesty to grant success to their arms, can they, ought they to expect that those prayers will be heard?

2. When these nations pray to the highest authority, asking the Divine Majesty to grant them success in battle, can they, should they, expect their prayers to be answered?

I have done. Let me only be permitted, in conclusion, to express my firm belief, the result of much attentive observation and long experience while living among the Indians, that if we would only observe towards them the first and most important 345 precept of our holy religion, “to do to others as we would be done to;” if, instead of employing them to fight our battles, we encouraged them to remain at peace with us and with each other, they might easily be brought to a state of civilisation, and become Christians.

I’m done. Let me just say, in conclusion, that I truly believe, based on a lot of careful observation and years of experience living among the Indigenous people, that if we simply followed the most important principle of our faith, “treat others as we want to be treated,” and instead of using them to fight our wars, encouraged them to live in peace with us and with one another, they could easily become civilized and become Christians. 345

I still indulge the hope that this work will be accomplished by a wise and benevolent government. Thus we shall demonstrate the falsity of the prediction of the Indian prophets, who say: “That when the whites shall have ceased killing the red men, and got all their lands from them, the great tortoise which bears this island upon his back, shall dive down into the deep and drown them all, as he once did before, a great many years ago; and that when he again rises, the Indians shall once more be put in possession of the whole country.”

I still hold onto the hope that this task will be carried out by a wise and kind government. That way, we can prove the Indian prophets wrong, who say: “When the white people have stopped killing the Native Americans and have taken all their land, the great tortoise that carries this island on its back will dive down into the ocean and drown them all, just like he did many years ago; and when he resurfaces, the Native Americans will once again have control of the entire country.”

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CONCLUSION.

I

I have thus finished the work which was required of me by the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society. On reading over the printed sheets which have been kindly sent to me from Philadelphia, as they issued from the press, I have noticed several errors, some of which may be ascribed to me, others to the transcriber of the manuscript, and very few to the printer. I regret that there are among them some mistakes in dates and names of places; they are all rectified in the errata.

I’ve got now completed the work asked of me by the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society. After reviewing the printed sheets that were kindly sent to me from Philadelphia as they came off the press, I noticed several errors—some I can take responsibility for, others were made by the manuscript transcriber, and very few are due to the printer. I'm sorry that some of these errors include mistakes in dates and place names; all of these have been corrected in the errata.

I am very sensible of the many defects of this little work in point of method, arrangement, composition and style. I am not an author by profession; the greatest part of my life was spent among savage nations, and I have now reached the age of seventy-five, at which period of life little improvement can be expected. It is not, therefore, as an author that I wish to be judged, but as a sincere relator of facts that have fallen within my observation and knowledge. I declare that I have said nothing but what I certainly know or verily believe. In matters of mere opinion, I may be contradicted; but in points of fact I have been even scrupulous, and purposely omitted several anecdotes for which I could not sufficiently vouch. In my descriptions of character, I may have been an unskilful painter, and ill chosen expressions may imperfectly have sketched out the images that are imprinted on my mind; but the fault is in the writer, not in the man.

I’m very aware of the many flaws in this little work when it comes to method, organization, composition, and style. I’m not a professional author; most of my life has been spent among wild nations, and now that I’m seventy-five, I don’t expect much improvement. So, I don’t want to be judged as an author, but rather as a genuine storyteller of facts that I’ve observed and learned. I assure you that I’ve only shared what I truly know or honestly believe. People might disagree on opinions, but I’ve been careful about facts and have purposely left out several stories that I couldn't fully verify. In my character descriptions, I may have been an unskilled painter, and my word choices might not have perfectly captured the images stuck in my mind; but the issue lies with me, not with the person I’m describing.

It is with pleasure that I inform the reader that the parts of 347 Mr. Zeisberger’s Iroquois Dictionary which I have mentioned above, (pages 97, 118,) as being irretrievably lost, have most fortunately been found since this work is in the press. The book has been neatly bound in seven quarto volumes, and will remain a monument of the richness and comprehensiveness of the languages of the Indian nations. Several valuable grammatical works on the same language, by the same author and Mr. Pyrlæus, have been recovered at the same time, by means of which, the idiom of the Six Nations may now be scientifically studied.

I’m pleased to let the reader know that the sections of 347 Mr. Zeisberger’s Iroquois Dictionary I mentioned earlier (pages 97, 118) that were considered irretrievably lost have fortunately been found while this work is being published. The book has been neatly bound into seven quarto volumes and will stand as a testament to the richness and complexity of the languages of the Native American nations. Several important grammatical works on the same language, by the same author and Mr. Pyrlæus, have also been recovered at the same time, which allows for a scientific study of the idiom of the Six Nations.

When I spoke (p. 136) of the impression made by Captain Pipe’s speech “on all present,” I meant only on those who understood the language; for there were many who did not, and M. Baby, the Canadian interpreter, did not explain to the bystanders the most striking passages, but went now and then to the Commandant and whispered in his ear. Captain Pipe, while he spoke, was exceedingly animated, and twice advanced so near to the Commandant, that M. Baby ordered him to fall back to his place. All who were present must have at least suspected that his speech was not one of the ordinary kind, and that everything was not as they might suppose it ought to be.

When I mentioned (p. 136) the impact of Captain Pipe’s speech “on all present,” I was referring only to those who understood the language; many did not, and M. Baby, the Canadian interpreter, didn’t clarify the most notable parts to the onlookers but occasionally went to the Commandant and whispered in his ear. Captain Pipe was very animated while he spoke and twice moved so close to the Commandant that M. Baby had to tell him to step back to his spot. Everyone present must have at least guessed that his speech was unusual and that not everything was as they might think it should be.

I promised in my introduction (p. xxvi.) to subjoin an explanatory list of the Indian nations which I have mentioned in the course of this work, but I find that I have been so full on the subject that such a list is unnecessary.

I promised in my introduction (p. xxvi.) to include an explanatory list of the Indian nations I mentioned throughout this work, but I've been so thorough on the topic that a list isn't needed.

I have classed the Florida Indians together in respect of language, on the supposition that they all speak dialects of the same mother tongue; the fact, however, may be otherwise, though it will be extraordinary that there should be several languages entirely different from each other in the narrow strip of land between the Carolinas and the Mississippi, when there are but two principal ones in the rest of the United States. It is to be expected that the researches of the Historical Committee will throw light upon this subject.

I have grouped the Florida Native Americans together based on language, assuming they all speak dialects of the same original language. However, this might not be the case, even though it would be unusual for there to be multiple completely different languages in the small stretch of land between the Carolinas and the Mississippi, especially when there are only two main ones in the rest of the United States. It’s anticipated that the studies by the Historical Committee will clarify this topic.

348

Below is a short piece of text (5 words or fewer). Modernize it into contemporary English if there's enough context, but do not add or omit any information. If context is insufficient, return it unchanged. Do not add commentary, and do not modify any placeholders. If you see placeholders of the form __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_x__, you must keep them exactly as-is so they can be replaced with links. 348

ERRATA IN PART I

Page 26, Line 5— Between the words “if” and “what” insert “we can credit.”
30, 15— For “declaring at the same time” read “and declared afterwards.”
31, 8— For “Mohicans” read “Lenape.”
67, 14— For “1742” read “and November 1756.”
72, 12— Dele “in which.”
77, 11— For “Delawares” read “Mohicans.”
80, 18— For “1787” read “1781.”
81, 5— For “us” read “them.”
84, 12— For “Mouseys” read “Monseys.”
23— Beginning a paragraph, for “1768, about six” read “1772, a few.”
85, 29— Of third note, for “Shawanachau” read “Shawanachan.”
90, 13— For “Shawanos” read “Nanticokes.”
91, 13— For “schschequon” read “shechschequon.”
92, 29 and 30— For “Tawachguáno” read “Tayachguáno.”
110, 12— For “once” read “sometimes.”
111, 8— For “should” read “deserved to.”
10— For “to” read “out at.”
12— Dele “outside of the door and.”
118, 15— For “Thornhallesen” read “Thorhallesen.”
122, 10— Of the first note, for  “p. 3” read  “p. 5.”
130, 8— For “or” read “nor.”
131, 22— For “met” read “saw.”
25— For “days” read “hours.”
133, 5— For “December” read “November.”
140, 10— Of No. 43, for “with” read “of.”
143, 34— For “they” read “the Chippeways and some other nations.”
146, 17— For “your” read “yon.”
150, 4— After the word “nation” insert “which they do not approve of.”
153, 31— For “they sure” read “they are sure.”
160, 32— For “reply” read “answer.”
164, 26— For “decide” read “say.”
28— For “man” read “men.
166, 2— Between “is” and “even” insert “sometimes.”
22— For “an old Indian” read “several old men.”
167, 11 and 13— For “road” read “course.”
174, 18— For “where” read “whence.”
178, 33— For “Duke Holland” read “Luke Holland;” the same where the name again occurs.
201, 5— Dele “again.”
216, 29— For “very often” read “sometimes.”
217, 2— For “inches” read “feet.”
218, 14— For “of” read “on.”
243, 3— For “Americans” read “white men.”
250, 9— For “killed” read “eaten.”
253, 37— For “Pauk-sit” read “P’duk-sit.”
263, 14— Dele “lands or.”
278, 35— For “Albany” read “Pittsburgh.”
283, 31— For “Sandusky” read “Muskingum.”
293, 26— For “bought” read “brought.”
313, 23— For “them” read “us.”

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PART II.


A
CORRESPONDENCE
BETWEEN
Rev. John Heckwelder
BETHLEHEM,
AND
PETER S. DUPONCEAU, ESQ.
CORRESPONDING SECRETARY OF THE HISTORICAL AND LITERARY COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
RESPECTING THE
Indigenous American languages.

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The following Correspondence between Mr. Heckewelder and Peter S. Du Ponceau, Esq., Corresponding Secretary of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, and subsequently, till his death in 1844, President of that Society, is appended as a fitting sequel to the preceding Account.

The following exchange between Mr. Heckewelder and Peter S. Du Ponceau, Esq., the Corresponding Secretary of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, who later served as the society's President until his death in 1844, is provided as a fitting continuation of the earlier narrative.

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INTRODUCTION

T

The Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, desirous of taking the most effectual means to promote the objects of their institution, directed their corresponding secretary to address letters in their name to such persons in the United States as had turned their attention to similar objects, and solicit their assistance.

The Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, eager to find the best ways to further the goals of their organization, instructed their corresponding secretary to send letters on their behalf to individuals in the United States who were focused on similar objectives and ask for their help.

Among other well-informed individuals, the Reverend Mr. Heckewelder of Bethlehem was pointed out by the late Dr. Caspar Wistar, President of the Society, and one of the most active and useful members of the Committee, as a gentleman whose intimate knowledge of the American Indians, their usages, manners and languages, enabled him to afford much important aid to their labours. In consequence of this suggestion, the secretary wrote to Mr. Heckewelder the letter No. 1, and Dr. Wistar seconded his application by the letter No. 2. The languages of the Indians were not at that time particularly in the view of the Committee; the manners and customs of those nations were the principal subjects on which they wished and expected to receive information. But Mr. Heckewelder having with his letter No. 4, sent them the MS. of Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar of the Delaware Language, that communication had the effect of directing their attention to this interesting subject.

Among other knowledgeable people, the Reverend Mr. Heckewelder of Bethlehem was recommended by the late Dr. Caspar Wistar, President of the Society and one of the most active and helpful members of the Committee, as someone with deep insight into American Indians, their customs, behaviors, and languages, which allowed him to provide significant assistance to their efforts. Because of this suggestion, the secretary wrote to Mr. Heckewelder the letter No. 1, and Dr. Wistar supported his request with letter No. 2. At that time, the Committee wasn't primarily focused on the Indian languages; they mainly wanted information on the behaviors and customs of these nations. However, with letter No. 4, Mr. Heckewelder sent them the manuscript of Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar of the Delaware Language, which shifted their attention to this fascinating topic.

This MS. being written in German, was not intelligible to the greatest number of the members. Two of them, the Reverend Dr. Nicholas Collin, and the corresponding secretary, were particularly 352 anxious to be honoured with the task of translating it; but the secretary having claimed this labour as part of his official duty, it was adjudged to him. While he was translating that work, he was struck with the beauty of the grammatical forms of the Lenape idiom, which led him to ask through Dr. Wistar some questions of Mr. Heckewelder,271 which occurred to him as he was pursuing his labours, and produced the correspondence now published, which was carried on by the direction and under the sanction of the Committee.

This manuscript was written in German, so most members couldn't understand it. Two members, the Reverend Dr. Nicholas Collin and the corresponding secretary, really wanted to take on the task of translating it. However, the secretary claimed this work as part of his official responsibilities, so it was assigned to him. While he was translating, he was impressed by the beauty of the grammatical structures in the Lenape language, which prompted him to ask Mr. Heckewelder some questions through Dr. Wistar. This led to the correspondence that is now published, conducted under the direction and approval of the Committee.

The letters which passed at the beginning between Dr. Wistar and Mr. Zeisberger,272 and are here published in their regular order, do not, it is true, form a necessary part of this collection; but it will be perceived, that to the two letters of Dr. Wistar, Nos. 2 and 6, we are indebted for the valuable Historical Account of the Indians, which forms the first number of this volume. It is just that he should have the credit due to his active and zealous exertions.

The letters exchanged at the beginning between Dr. Wistar and Mr. Zeisberger, 272 and published here in their original order, aren't absolutely essential to this collection; however, it’s clear that we owe the valuable Historical Account of the Indians, which is the first piece in this volume, to Dr. Wistar's letters, Nos. 2 and 6. He deserves to receive recognition for his active and dedicated efforts.

It was intended that Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar should have immediately followed this Correspondence, which was considered as introductory to it. But it being now evident that it would increase too much the size of the volume, its publication is for the present postponed.

It was planned that Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar would come right after this Correspondence, which was seen as an introduction to it. However, since it’s now clear that including it would make the volume too large, its publication is currently postponed.

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CORRESPONDENCE
RESPECTING INDIAN LANGUAGES.
LETTER I.
Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder.

Philadelphia, 9th January, 1816.

Philadelphia, January 9, 1816.

Sir.—As corresponding secretary to the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society, it is my duty to solicit the aid of men of learning and information, by the help of whose knowledge light may be thrown on the yet obscure history of the early times of the colonization of this country, and particularly of this State. Our much-respected President and common friend, Dr. Wistar, has often spoken to me of the great knowledge which you possess respecting the Indians who once inhabited these parts, and of your intimate acquaintance with their languages, habits and history. He had promised me, when you was last here, to do me the favour of introducing me to you, but the bad state of his health and other circumstances prevented it, which has been and still is to me the cause of much regret. Permit me, sir, on the strength of his recommendation, and the assurance he has given me that I might rely on your zeal and patriotic feelings, to request, in the name of the Historical Committee, that you will be so good as to aid their labours by occasional communications on the various subjects that are familiar to you and which relate to the early history of this country. Accounts of the various nations of Indians which have at different times inhabited Pennsylvania, their numbers, origin, migrations, 354 connexions with each other, the parts which they took in the English and French wars and in the Revolutionary war, their manners, customs, languages, and religion, will be very acceptable, as well as every thing which you may conceive interesting, on a subject which at no distant period will be involved in obscurity and doubt, for want of the proper information having been given in time by those cotemporaries who now possess the requisite knowledge and are still able to communicate it. I hope, sir, that you will be able to find some moments of leisure to comply, at least in part, with this request, which you may do in any form that you may think proper. If that of occasional letters to Dr. Wistar or myself should be the most agreeable or convenient to you, you may adopt it, or any other mode that you may prefer. I beg you will favour me with an answer as soon as possible, that I may be able to inform the Committee of what they may expect from you. You may be assured that all your communications will be respectfully and thankfully received.

Sir.—As the corresponding secretary for the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society, I'm reaching out to request the help of knowledgeable individuals like you, whose insights can shed light on the still unclear history of the early colonization of this country, especially concerning this State. Our esteemed President and mutual friend, Dr. Wistar, has often mentioned your extensive knowledge about the Indians who once lived here, along with your familiarity with their languages, customs, and history. He had intended to introduce us when you were last here, but due to his health and other circumstances, that didn't happen, which I have regretted and still do. Based on his recommendation and his assurance that I could rely on your enthusiasm and sense of responsibility, I'm asking, on behalf of the Historical Committee, if you would be kind enough to support their efforts by occasionally sharing your insights on topics related to the early history of this country. Information about the various tribes of Indians that lived in Pennsylvania at different times, their populations, origins, migrations, relationships with one another, involvement in the English and French wars, and the Revolutionary War, along with their customs, languages, and religions, would be greatly appreciated. Anything else you think might be relevant would also be welcome, as this subject will soon fall into obscurity and uncertainty if those of you with current knowledge don't provide the necessary information. I hope you can find some time to fulfill this request, at least partially, in whichever format is most convenient for you. Whether that means sending occasional letters to Dr. Wistar or myself or using another method, please feel free to choose. I would appreciate a prompt response so I can update the Committee on what to expect from you. Rest assured that all your contributions will be received with respect and gratitude.

I am, very respectfully, Sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
Peter S. Duponceau,
Corresponding Secretary.

I am, with great respect, Sir,
Your most obedient humble servant,
Peter S. Duponceau,
Corresponding Secretary.

LETTER II.
DR. C. WISTAR TO MR. HECKEWELDER.

Philadelphia, 9th January, 1816.

Philadelphia, January 9, 1816.

My Dear Sir.—Inclosed is a letter from the corresponding secretary of the Historical Committee of our Society, which will inform you of our wishes to preserve from oblivion, and to make public, all the interesting information we can procure respecting the history of our country and its original inhabitants. I believe there is no other person now living who knows so much respecting the Indians who inhabited this part of America, as you do, and there is no one whose relations will be received with more confidence. 355

Dear Sir,—Enclosed is a letter from the corresponding secretary of the Historical Committee of our Society, which will inform you of our desire to preserve and publicly share all the interesting information we can gather about the history of our country and its original inhabitants. I believe there is no one else alive today who knows as much about the Indigenous peoples who lived in this part of America as you do, and there’s no one whose accounts will be trusted more. 355

I hope you will approve of this method of favouring the public with your information, and we will endeavour to give you no trouble in publishing after you have favoured us with the communications. It will be particularly agreeable to the society to receive from you an account of the Lenni Lenape, as they were at the time when the settlement of Pennsylvania commenced, and of their history and misfortunes since that time; as these subjects are so intimately connected with the history of our State. The history of the Shawanese, and of the Six Nations will be very interesting to us for the same reason. But every thing which throws light upon the nature of the Indians, their manners and customs; their opinions upon all interesting subjects, especially religion and government; their agriculture and modes of procuring subsistence; their treatment of their wives and children; their social intercourse with each other; and in short, every thing relating to them which is interesting to you, will be very instructing to the Society. A fair view of the mind and natural disposition of the savage, and its difference from that of the civilised man, would be an acceptable present to the world.

I hope you like this way of sharing your insights with the public, and we’ll make sure to keep the publishing process hassle-free after you share your information with us. The society would especially appreciate an account of the Lenni Lenape as they were when Pennsylvania was first settled, along with their history and struggles since then, since these topics are closely linked to our State's history. The history of the Shawanese and the Six Nations will also be very intriguing to us for the same reasons. Additionally, any information that sheds light on the nature of Native Americans, their customs and traditions; their views on important topics, especially religion and government; their farming practices and ways of sustaining themselves; their treatment of their families; their social interactions; and anything else related to them that you find fascinating will be very enlightening for the Society. A clear perspective on the mindset and natural tendencies of Native people, especially in comparison to those of civilized society, would be a valuable gift to the world.

You have long been a member of the Society; may we ask of you to communicate to us what you know and think ought to be published, respecting the wild animals, or the native plants of our country. The original object of our association was to bring together gentlemen like yourself, who have a great deal of information in which the public take an interest, that they might publish it together; and while an intercourse with you will give us all great pleasure, it will perhaps be a very easy way for you to oblige the world with your knowledge, as we will take the whole care of the publication. The information respecting our country which has been obtained by the very respectable Brethren of Bethlehem, and is contained in their archives, will, I believe, be more perfectly offered to the world by you at present, than probably it ever will afterwards by others; I therefore feel very desirous that you should engage in it.

You have been a member of the Society for a long time; could we ask you to share with us what you know and believe should be published about the wildlife or native plants of our country? The original purpose of our association was to bring together knowledgeable individuals like yourself, who have valuable information that interests the public, so you could publish it collectively. While interacting with you would be a great pleasure for all of us, it could also be an easy way for you to share your knowledge with the world, as we will handle all aspects of the publication. The information about our country gathered by the highly regarded Brethren of Bethlehem, stored in their archives, I believe, will be presented more effectively to the public by you now than it ever will be by others in the future; therefore, I genuinely hope you will participate in this.

The facts which Mr. Pyrlæus recorded there, relative to the confederation of the Six Nations, are so interesting that they ought to be made public. 356

The information recorded by Mr. Pyrlæus about the confederation of the Six Nations is so fascinating that it should be shared with the public. 356

In a few days after my return to Philadelphia, last autumn, I presented in your name to the Society the several books with which you favoured me. They were much gratified, for they considered them as truly valuable, and the secretary was requested to acknowledge the receipt of them, and to thank you in the name of the Society. I have constantly regretted the attack of influenza which deprived me of the pleasure of seeing more of you while you were last in Philadelphia. But I hope we shall meet again before a great while, and I shall be sincerely pleased if I can execute any of your commissions here, or serve you in any way; my brother joins me in assuring you of our best wishes, and of the pleasure we derived from your society.

A few days after I returned to Philadelphia last fall, I gave the Society the books you kindly sent me in your name. They were very pleased, as they considered them truly valuable, and the secretary was asked to formally acknowledge their receipt and thank you on behalf of the Society. I’ve often regretted catching the flu, which kept me from spending more time with you during your last visit to Philadelphia. However, I hope we’ll get to see each other again soon, and I’d be genuinely happy to help with any requests you have while you’re here or assist you in any way I can. My brother also sends his best wishes and shares in the enjoyment we got from your company.

With these I remain, your sincere friend,

C. Wistar.

With these, I remain your true friend,

C. Wistar.

LETTER III.
Mr. Heckewelder to Dr. Wistar.

Bethlehem, 24th March, 1816.

Bethlehem, March 24, 1816.

My Dear Sir.—Last evening I was favoured with a letter from you, covering one from the corresponding secretary of the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society, dated 9th January, and a book, for which I return my best thanks. If an apology for not having written to you since I left Philadelphia can be admitted, it must be that of my having been engaged in all my leisure hours, in completing my narrative of the Mission, a work of which, even if it is never published, I wished for good reasons, to leave a manuscript copy. I have now got through with the principal part, but have to copy the whole text, and in part to write the notes, remarks, and anecdotes which are intended for the appendix. While writing, it has sometimes struck me, that there might probably be some interesting passages in the work, as the speeches of Indians on various occasions; their artful and cunning ways of doing at times business; I had almost said their diplomatic manœuvres as politicians; their addresses on different occasions to the Great Spirit, &c., 357 which are here noticed in their proper places. I think much of the true character of the Indian may be met with in perusing this work, and I will endeavour to forward the narrative to you and your brother for perusal, after a little while.

Dear Sir,—Last night I received your letter, which included one from the corresponding secretary of the Historical Committee of the American Philosophical Society, dated January 9, along with a book for which I’m very grateful. If there’s any way to excuse my lack of correspondence since leaving Philadelphia, it’s that I’ve been spending all my free time completing my account of the Mission. Even if it never gets published, I wanted to leave a manuscript copy for good reasons. I've finished the main part, but I still need to copy the whole text and write the notes, comments, and anecdotes intended for the appendix. While writing, I've thought there might be some interesting sections in the work, such as the speeches of Indigenous people on various occasions; their clever and cunning ways of doing business; I nearly mentioned their diplomatic maneuvers as politicians; their addresses to the Great Spirit, etc., which are noted in their respective sections. I believe that you'll find a lot of insight into the true character of Indigenous people in this work, and I will try to send the narrative to you and your brother for review in a little while.

Were I still in the possession of all the manuscripts which I gave to my friend the late Dr. Barton, it would be an easy matter for me to gratify you and the Philosophical Society in their wishes, but having retained scarcely any, or but very few copies of what I sent him, I am not so able to do what I otherwise would with pleasure; I shall, however, make it my study to do what I can yet, though I am aware that I shall in some points, differ from what others have said and written. I never was one of those hasty believers and writers, who take the shadow for the substance: what I wished to know, I always wished to know correctly.

If I still had all the manuscripts I gave to my friend the late Dr. Barton, it would be easy for me to meet your and the Philosophical Society's requests. However, since I kept very few, if any, copies of what I sent him, I'm not as able to do what I would gladly do otherwise. I will, however, make it my goal to do what I can, even though I know I will differ from what others have said and written in some respects. I've never been one of those quick-to-believe writers who mistake the appearance for the reality; what I wanted to understand, I always wanted to understand accurately.

I approve of the mode proposed by the secretary of the Historical Committee, to make communications in the form of letters, which is for me the easiest and quickest mode. In the same way Dr. Barton received much interesting matter from me within the last 20 or 30 years. He often told me that he would publish a book, and make proper use of my communications. Had he not told me this so repeatedly, I should long since have tried to correct many gross errors, written and published, respecting the character and customs of the Indians. The Lenni Lenape, improperly called the Delawares, I shall, according to their tradition, trace across the Mississippi into this country, set forth what people they were, what parts of the country they inhabited, and how they were brought down to such a low state: perhaps, never did man take the pains that I did for years, to learn the true causes of the decline of that great and powerful nation.

I agree with the approach suggested by the secretary of the Historical Committee to communicate through letters, which I find to be the easiest and fastest method. Similarly, Dr. Barton has received a lot of interesting information from me over the past 20 or 30 years. He often mentioned that he would publish a book and properly use my contributions. If he hadn't told me this so many times, I would have tried to correct the many serious errors that have been written and published about the character and customs of the Indians a long time ago. According to their tradition, I will trace the Lenni Lenape, incorrectly called the Delawares, across the Mississippi into this country, explain who they were, what regions they inhabited, and how they fell into such a low state. Perhaps no one has ever taken the time I have to understand the true causes of the decline of that great and powerful nation.

The Grammar of the language of the Lenni Lenape, written by David Zeisberger, is still in my hands. By his will it is to be deposited in the Brethren’s Archives in Bethlehem, but he has not prohibited taking a copy of it. Will it be of any service to the Society that it should be sent down for a few months for perusal, or if thought necessary, to take a copy? If so, please to let me know, and I shall send it with pleasure. It is, however, 358 German and Indian, and without a translation will be understood but by few. I may perhaps find other documents interesting to the Society, as for example, copies of letters on Indian business and treaties, of which many are in the possession of Joseph Horsfield, Esq., son of the late Timothy Horsfield, through whom they have come into his hands, and who is willing to communicate them.273 I am, dear friend,

The grammar of the Lenni Lenape language, written by David Zeisberger, is still with me. According to his wishes, it’s supposed to be archived in the Brethren’s Archives in Bethlehem, but he hasn't stopped anyone from making a copy. Would it help the Society if I sent it down for a few months for review, or if necessary, to make a copy? If so, please let me know, and I’ll gladly send it. However, it’s in German and Indian, so without a translation, it will only be understood by a few. I might also find other documents that would interest the Society, such as copies of letters related to Indian affairs and treaties, many of which are held by Joseph Horsfield, Esq., son of the late Timothy Horsfield. He is willing to share them. 273 I am, dear friend,

Yours sincerely,

J. Heckewelder.

Sincerely,

J. Heckewelder.

P. S.—Will you be so good as with my respects to mention to the secretary that I have received his letter, and shall shortly answer it—my best wishes also to your brother Richard, whom I highly esteem.

P. S.—Could you please do me a favor and let the secretary know that I've received his letter and will respond soon? Also, please send my best wishes to your brother Richard, whom I really respect.

J. H.

J.H.

LETTER IV.
FROM THE SAME TO THE SAME.

Bethlehem, 3d April, 1816.

Bethlehem, April 3, 1816.

My Dear Friend.—With Captain Mann, of your city, I send David Zeisberger’s Grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape, (otherwise called the Delaware Indians.) As the book is not mine, but left by will, to be placed in the Library at Bethlehem, I can do no more than send it for perusal; or, if wished for, to have a copy taken from it, which, indeed, I myself would cheerfully have done for you, were it not that I must spare my weak eyes as much as possible.

Hi there, friend.—I’m sending you David Zeisberger’s Grammar of the Language of the Lenni Lenape, also known as the Delaware Indians, with Captain Mann from your city. Since the book isn’t mine but was left by will to be added to the Library in Bethlehem, all I can do is send it for you to read. If you’d like, you can get a copy made from it, and I would have gladly done that for you myself if my weak eyes didn’t need so much rest.

I believe I have closed my last letter to you, without answering to the question you put to me, respecting, “wild animals and the native plants of our country.” On this head I do not know that I could be of any service, since the animals that were in this country on the arrival of the Europeans must be pretty generally known; and respecting the native plants, I do not consider myself qualified to give any information, as all I have 359 attended to, has been to collect plants for botanists, leaving it to them to examine and class them. But my friend Dr. Kampman of this place, who is, I believe, one of the most attentive gentlemen to botany, has promised me for you a copy of the botanical names of those plants which he, and a few others of his friends, have collected, within a great number of years, in the Forks of Delaware, with some few from New Jersey, to the number (he thinks) of about five hundred; all of which plants are in nature carefully laid up by him. Probably in two or three weeks, I shall have the pleasure of transmitting to you this promised catalogue.

I think I ended my last letter to you without answering your question about “wild animals and the native plants of our country.” I’m not sure I can be of much help here since the animals that were in this country when the Europeans arrived are pretty well known. As for native plants, I don’t feel qualified to provide information, as I’ve only been gathering plants for botanists, leaving it to them to study and classify them. However, my friend Dr. Kampman, who I believe is one of the most dedicated botanists around, has promised to send you a list of the botanical names of the plants he and a few of his friends have collected over many years in the Forks of Delaware, along with a few from New Jersey, totaling around five hundred, he thinks. He has kept these plants carefully stored. In about two or three weeks, I’ll have the pleasure of sending you this promised catalogue.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER V.
FROM MR. DUPONCEAU TO DR. WISTAR.

Philadelphia, 14th May, 1816.

Philadelphia, May 14, 1816.

Dear Sir. ash;When you write to your friend Mr. Heckewelder, I beg you will request him to answer the following questions:

Dear Sir, ash;When you write to your friend Mr. Heckewelder, I kindly ask you to have him answer the following questions:

1. What name did the French give to the Delaware nation?

1. What name did the French use for the Delaware nation?

2. I find in Zeisberger’s Vocabulary, page 11, that Gischuch means the sun. In the Grammar, I see that the Delawares divide their year by moons, and call them anixi gischuch, &c. So that gischuch signifies moon as well as sun, how is it?

2. I see in Zeisberger’s Vocabulary, page 11, that Gischuch means the sun. In the Grammar, I notice that the Delawares divide their year by moons and call them anixi gischuch, etc. So, gischuch means both moon and sun. How is that?

3. I find in the Grammar that the pronoun nekama or neka means he, but it does not appear to have any feminine. What is the proper word for she in the Delaware, and how is it declined?

3. I see in the Grammar that the pronoun nekama or neka means he, but there doesn't seem to be a feminine form. What is the correct word for she in Delaware, and how is it conjugated?

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER VI.
FROM DR. WISTAR TO MR. HECKEWELDER.

Philadelphia, May 21st, 1816.

Philadelphia, May 21, 1816.

My dear Friend.—I am much obliged by your kind letters, which are very interesting, and will, I hope, obtain from274 us 360 some of the valuable information which has been left unpublished by our ingenious colleague the late Dr. Barton. The Grammar of your venerable friend, Zeisberger, is regarded by Mr. Duponceau as a treasure. He thinks the inflections of the Indian verbs so remarkable that they will attract the general attention of the literati. Inclosed is a letter from him, by which he expects to open a correspondence with you on the subject. I will be much obliged by your writing to him as soon as your convenience will permit.

My dear friend.—Thank you so much for your thoughtful letters; they’re really interesting, and I hope they will help us 360 get some of the valuable information that our brilliant colleague, the late Dr. Barton, never published. Mr. Duponceau considers the Grammar of your esteemed friend, Zeisberger, to be a real treasure. He believes the way Indian verbs are inflected is so remarkable that it will capture the attention of scholars. I’ve included a letter from him in which he hopes to start a conversation with you on this topic. I would greatly appreciate it if you could write to him whenever it's convenient for you.

We expect soon to have materials for publishing a volume of Historical Documents, and I have proposed that we shall prefix to those which relate to Pennsylvania, all the information we can collect respecting the Indians who were here before our ancestors. The Committee agree that this will be the proper method, and my dependence for authentic information is on you; as I have never met with any person who had any knowledge to compare with yours, respecting the poor Indians. I was delighted to find that your enquiries have been directed to the history of the Lenni Lenape before they settled in Pennsylvania. The removal of the Indian tribes from our country to another is a very interesting subject. If you can tell us where they came from and what forced them away; who were here before them, and what induced their predecessors to make war for them, we shall be much obliged to you. There is no book I shall read with more pleasure than yours.

We expect to soon have materials ready to publish a volume of Historical Documents, and I've suggested that we include all the information we can gather about the Native Americans who were here before our ancestors, alongside those documents related to Pennsylvania. The Committee agrees this is the right approach, and I'm counting on you for accurate information since I've never met anyone with knowledge as deep as yours about the Native Americans. I was thrilled to learn that your research has focused on the history of the Lenni Lenape before they settled in Pennsylvania. The relocation of Native American tribes from our land to elsewhere is a really interesting topic. If you could share where they came from and what drove them away; who lived here before them, and what made their ancestors go to war for them, we would greatly appreciate it. There's no book I'll read with more enjoyment than yours.

The causes of their downfall, I believe, are well known to you, and will of course have a place. The manner in which they were treated by the Six Nations, after their conquest, will be an interesting article, as it will shew the Indian policy. An account of the political rights which were still allowed them, and, in short, of everything which is connected with their conquest, will add to the interest of the work. As occupants of Pennsylvania before the whites, ought not the Shawanese and the Six Nations also to be described?

The reasons for their downfall are probably well known to you, and of course, they'll be included. How the Six Nations treated them after their defeat will be an interesting topic, as it will reveal the Indian policy. A description of the political rights they were still granted, and basically everything related to their conquest, will enhance the interest of the work. Shouldn’t the Shawanese and the Six Nations also be described as they were the original occupants of Pennsylvania before the white settlers?

I have been told that the Shawanese were more refined than any other Indians in this part of America, and that the place where Chilicothe now stands, was the seat of Indian civilisation.

I’ve heard that the Shawanese were more sophisticated than any other Native Americans in this part of the country and that the area where Chillicothe is now located was the center of Native American civilization.

I have the pleasure of forwarding to you an instructing work by Dr. Drake, a physician at Cincinnati, which he sends you. 361

I’m happy to send you an informative work by Dr. Drake, a doctor in Cincinnati, which he is sharing with you. 361

He also sends a small package and a letter to Mr. Steinhauer.

He also sends a small package and a letter to Mr. Steinhauer.

I send them by a wagon which goes from Mr. Bolling’s, but I am not without some expectation of paying another visit to Bethlehem very soon, where it will be a great gratification to meet with my friend.

I send them by a wagon that leaves from Mr. Bolling’s, but I’m also looking forward to making another trip to Bethlehem very soon, where it will be a real pleasure to see my friend.

Affectionately yours,

Caspar Wistar.

Love, Caspar Wistar.

LETTER VII.
Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau.

Bethlehem, 27th May, 1816.

Bethlehem, May 27, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I was this morning favoured with a letter from my friend Dr. Wistar, inclosing some questions which you wish me to answer. I lose no time in complying with your desire.

Dear Sir,—I received a letter this morning from my friend Dr. Wistar, which included some questions you want me to answer. I'm quick to fulfill your request.

Your first question is, “what name the French did give to the Delaware nation?”

Your first question is, “What name did the French give to the Delaware nation?”

I believe the Baron de La Hontan meant them when he spoke of the Algonkins, whom he describes as a people whose language was understood by many nations or tribes. So is certainly that of the Delawares.

I think the Baron de La Hontan referred to them when he talked about the Algonkins, describing them as a group whose language was understood by many nations or tribes. The same is definitely true for the Delawares.

While I was residing on the Muskingum, between the years 1773 and 1781, I cannot precisely remember the year, there came a French gentleman who was travelling on some business among the different Indian tribes, and could speak more or less of several Indian languages, among which was that of the Delawares. I had much conversation with him respecting the Indians, and observed that he called the Delawares les Lenopes, (a word evidently derived from their real name Lenni Lenape.) He told me that the language of that nation had a wide range, and that by the help of it, he had travelled more than a thousand miles among different Indian nations, by all of whom he was understood. He added, that the Baron La Hontan, when speaking of the Algonkins, must either have alluded to that nation, or to some one descended from them. In other instances, in the course of the four years that I resided in Upper Canada, I generally heard the French Canadians call them Lénôpé, while the 362 English called them Delawares. Nevertheless, I do not doubt but that they have been called by different names by the French and other travellers, and if my memory serves me, some of the French people called them les Loups, a name probably derived from one of their tribes called the Wolf, if it is not a corruption of Lenape or Lenope.

While I was living near the Muskingum River, between 1773 and 1781, I can’t remember the exact year, a French gentleman came through, traveling for some business among various Indian tribes. He could speak several Indian languages, including that of the Delawares. I had many conversations with him about the Indians, and I noticed he referred to the Delawares as les Lenopes, a term clearly derived from their actual name Lenni Lenape. He told me that this language was widely spoken, and with it, he had traveled over a thousand miles among different tribes, all of whom understood him. He mentioned that Baron La Hontan, when talking about the Algonkins, must have either been referring to this nation or to someone descended from them. During the four years I spent in Upper Canada, I often heard the French Canadians call them Lénôpé, while the English referred to them as Delawares. Still, I’m sure they’ve been known by various names by different French and other travelers, and if I recall correctly, some French people referred to them as les Loups, a name probably stemming from one of their tribes called the Wolf, unless it’s a variation of Lenape or Lenope.

Your next question is, “whether the Delaware word gischuch, signifies the sun or moon, or both together?” The Indian name “gischuch,” is common to “the two great luminaries which send down light from above.” The moon is called “nipawi gischuch,” as it were “the sun which gives light in the night.” It is also called in one word “nipahum.” “Gischuch,” singly, is often used for the moon; the Indian year is divided into thirteen lunar months, and in this sense, the word “gischuch,” is used; as for instance, “schawanáki275 gischuch” or, in the Minsi or Monsey dialect, “chwani276 gischuch” the shad moon, answering to the month which we call March, at which time the fish called “shad” passes from the sea into the fresh water rivers. The inferior “stars” have a different name; they are called in the singular alank; plural, alankewak, and by contraction, alanquak.

Your next question is, “does the Delaware word gischuch mean the sun, the moon, or both?” The Indian name “gischuch” refers to “the two great luminaries that shine down light from above.” The moon is called “nipawi gischuch,” which means “the sun that provides light at night.” It's also referred to simply as “nipahum.” “Gischuch” by itself is often used to mean the moon; the Indian year has thirteen lunar months, and in this context, the word “gischuch” is used. For example, “schawanáki275 gischuch” or, in the Minsi or Monsey dialect, “chwani276 gischuch” refers to the shad moon, which corresponds to the month we call March, when the fish called “shad” moves from the sea into fresh water rivers. The lesser “stars” have a different name; in the singular, they are called alank; in the plural, alankewak, and in contraction, alanquak.

Lastly, you ask whether the Delawares have a word answering to the English personal pronoun “she,” and what it is? I beg leave to answer you somewhat in detail.

Lastly, you ask if the Delawares have a word that corresponds to the English personal pronoun "she,” and what it is. I would like to answer you in some detail.

In the Indian languages, those discriminating words or inflections which we call genders, are not, as with us, in general, intended to distinguish between male and female beings, but between animate and inanimate things or substances. Trees and plants (annual plants and grasses excepted) are included within the generic class of animated beings. Hence the personal pronoun has only two modes, if I can so express myself, one applicable to the animate, and the other to the inanimate gender; “nekama” is the personal pronominal form which answers to “he” and “she” in English. If you wish to distinguish between the sexes, you must add to it the word “man” or “woman.” Thus “nekama lenno,” means “he” or “this man;” “nekama 363 ochqueu,” “she” or “this woman.” This may appear strange to a person exclusively accustomed to our forms of speech, but I assure you that the Indians have no difficulty in understanding each other.

In Indian languages, the specific words or inflections we refer to as genders aren't just meant to differentiate between male and female, as in English. Instead, they distinguish between living and non-living things. Trees and plants (excluding annuals and grasses) fall under the category of living beings. Therefore, there are only two forms of personal pronouns, if I can put it that way: one for living beings and another for non-living things. “nekama” is the personal pronoun that corresponds to “he” and “she” in English. If you want to specify gender, you need to add “man” or “woman” to it. So “nekama lenno” means “he” or “this man,” and “nekama ochqueu” means “she” or “this woman.” This may seem odd to someone who is only used to our language, but I assure you that Indians have no trouble understanding each other.

Nor must you imagine that their languages are poor. See how the Delaware idiom discriminates between the different ages of man and woman!

Nor should you think that their languages are lacking. Look at how the Delaware language distinguishes between the different ages of men and women!

Lenno, a dude. Wuskilenno, a young man. Pilapeu, a kid. Pilawesis, or pilawétzitsch, a boy. Pilawétit, a baby boy. Kigeyilenno, an old man. Mihilusis, an elderly man, exhausted from age. Ochqueu, a woman. Wusdóchqueu, a young woman, a virgin. Ochquetschitsch, a girl. Quetit, a baby girl. Gichtochqueu, an old woman. Chauchschìsis, an elderly woman.

Note “len” or “lenno” in the male, and “que” or “queu” in the female, distinguish the sexes in compound words; sometimes the L alone denotes the male sex, as in “pilapeu,” “mihilusis,” &c.

Note “len” or “lenno” for males, and “que” or “queu” for females, to differentiate the sexes in compound words; sometimes the L alone indicates the male sex, as in “pilapeu,” “mihilusis,” etc.

The males of quadrupeds are called “lenno wéchum,” and by contraction “lennochum;” the females “Ochqueu wéchum,” and by contraction “ochquéchum,” which is the same as saying he or she beasts. With the winged tribe, their generic denomination “wehelle” is added to the word which expresses the sex; thus, “lenno wehelle” for the male, and “ochquechelle” (with a little contraction) for the female. There are some animals the females of which have a particular distinguishing name, as “Nunschetto” a doe, “Nunscheach” a she bear. This, however, is not common.

The male quadrupeds are called “lenno wéchum” and shortened to “lennochum”; the females are “Ochqueu wéchum” and shortened to “ochquéchum,” which is like saying he or she beasts. For winged animals, their generic name “wehelle” is combined with the word for their sex; therefore, “lenno wehelle” for the male, and “ochquechelle” (in a slight contraction) for the female. There are some animals where the females have a specific name, like “Nunschetto” for a doe and “Nunscheach” for a she bear. However, this is not common.

Thus I have endeavoured to answer your questions, and I hope, have done it to your satisfaction. I shall always be willing and ready to give you any further information that you or the Philosophical Society may require; I mean, always to the best of my knowledge and abilities.

Thus, I have tried to answer your questions, and I hope I have done so to your satisfaction. I will always be willing and ready to provide any additional information that you or the Philosophical Society may need; I mean, always to the best of my knowledge and abilities.

I am, &c. 364

I am, etc. 364

LETTER VIII.
Mr. Duponceau to Mr. Heckewelder.

Philadelphia, 10th June, 1816.

Philadelphia, June 10, 1816.

Dear Sir.—Your favour of the 27th ult. has done me the greatest pleasure. I am very thankful for the goodness you have had to answer the questions which I took the liberty of putting to you through our common friend Dr. Wistar. I shall not fail to avail myself of your kind offer to answer such further questions as I may ask, as in so doing I shall fulfil a duty which the Historical Committee of the Philosophical Society has imposed upon me, and at the same time I am satisfied that I shall derive a great deal of pleasure to myself. But I must acknowledge that I am entirely ignorant of the subject on which I have been directed to obtain information from you, so much so that I am even at a loss what questions to ask. As I have, however, undertaken the task, I must endeavour to go through it as well as I can, and rely on the instruction which I shall receive from your letters, to point out to me further enquiries. I am fortunately employed in translating the late Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar of the Lenni Lenape, which will lead me a little into the right path, and I read at the same time such books as I can find in our scanty libraries respecting the languages of the American Indians. This study pleases me much, as I think I perceive many beauties in those idioms, but the true enjoyment of those beauties is, I presume, only accessible to those to whom the languages are familiar.

Dear Sir,—Your letter from the 27th of last month brought me great joy. I’m very grateful for your kindness in answering the questions I sent through our mutual friend Dr. Wistar. I won't hesitate to take you up on your generous offer to answer any further questions I might have, as doing so will fulfill a responsibility assigned to me by the Historical Committee of the Philosophical Society, and I believe it will also bring me a lot of enjoyment. However, I must admit that I know very little about the topic I’ve been asked to gather information on, to the point where I'm unsure of what questions to even ask. Still, since I’ve taken on this task, I’ll do my best to complete it and will rely on the guidance from your letters to help direct my further inquiries. Fortunately, I’m currently translating the late Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar of the Lenni Lenape, which will help me get a bit on the right track, and I’m also reading whatever books I can find in our limited libraries about American Indian languages. I find this study very enjoyable, as I notice many beautiful aspects in those languages, but I believe the true appreciation of their beauty is reserved for those who are familiar with them.

From what I have above stated, you will easily perceive that my questions to you must necessarily be desultory, and without any regular order or method. But you will diffuse light through this chaos, and every thing at last will find its proper place.

From what I’ve said above, you can see that my questions to you are going to be random and without any specific order or method. But you will bring clarity to this confusion, and everything will eventually find its right place.

I cannot express to you how delighted I am with the grammatical forms of the Indian languages, particularly of the Delaware, as explained by Mr. Zeisberger. I am inclined to believe that those forms are peculiar to this part of the world, and that they do not exist in the languages of the old hemisphere. At 365 least, I am confident that their development will contribute much to the improvement of the science of universal grammar. About fifty years ago, two eminent French philosophers published each a short treatise on the origin of language. One of them was the celebrated mathematician Maupertuis, and the other M. Turgot, who afterwards was made a minister of state, and acquired considerable reputation by his endeavours to introduce reform into the administration of the government of his own country. M. Maupertuis, in his Essay, took great pains to shew the necessity of studying the languages even of the most distant and barbarous nations, “because,” said he, “we may chance to find some that are formed on new plans of ideas.” M. Turgot, instead of acknowledging the justness of this profound remark, affected to turn it into ridicule, and said he could not understand what was meant by “plans of ideas.” If he had been acquainted with the Delaware language, he would have been at no loss to comprehend it.

I can’t express how thrilled I am with the grammar of the Indian languages, especially Delaware, as explained by Mr. Zeisberger. I’m inclined to think that these forms are unique to this part of the world and don’t exist in the languages of the old world. At 365 least, I’m confident that their development will greatly enhance the field of universal grammar. About fifty years ago, two prominent French philosophers published short treatises on the origin of language. One was the well-known mathematician Maupertuis, and the other was M. Turgot, who later became a minister of state and gained significant recognition for his efforts to reform his country’s government. M. Maupertuis, in his essay, worked hard to demonstrate the importance of studying the languages of even the most remote and uncivilized nations, “because,” he said, “we might discover some that are based on new plans of ideas.” M. Turgot, instead of acknowledging the validity of this insightful observation, chose to mock it, claiming he couldn’t grasp what was meant by “plans of ideas.” If he had known the Delaware language, he wouldn't have had any trouble understanding it.

I presume that by this expression M. Maupertuis meant the various modes in which ideas are combined and associated together in the form of words and sentences, and in this sense it is to me perfectly intelligible. The associations expressed by words must be first formed in the mind, and the words shew in what order of succession the ideas were conceived, and in what various groups they arranged themselves before utterance was given to them. The variety of those groups which exist in the different languages forms what M. Maupertuis meant by “plans of ideas,” and indeed, this variety exists even in one and the same language. Thus when we say, “lover,” and “he who loves,” the same group of ideas is differently combined, and of course, differently expressed, and it may well be said that those ideas are arranged “on different plans.”

I think that when M. Maupertuis used this phrase, he was referring to the different ways in which ideas are combined and associated in words and sentences. In this sense, it makes perfect sense to me. The associations indicated by words must first be formed in our minds, and the words show the order in which the ideas were thought out and how they were grouped before we expressed them. The variety of these groups across different languages is what M. Maupertuis meant by “plans of ideas,” and this variety can even be found within the same language. For example, when we say “lover” and “he who loves,” we are expressing the same set of ideas in different combinations, and it can be said that those ideas are arranged “on different plans.”

This difference is strongly exemplified in the Delaware language; I shall only speak at present of what we call the “declension of nouns.” What in our European idioms we call the “objective cases” are one or more words expressive of two prominent ideas, that of the object spoken of, and that of the manner in which it is affected by some other object or action operating upon it. This is done in two ways; by inflecting the substantive, 366 or by affixing to it one or more of those auxiliary words which we call “prepositions.” Thus when we say in English “of Peter” and in German “Peters,” the same two principal ideas are expressed in the former language by two words and in the latter by one, and the termination or inflexion s in German conveys the same meaning as the preposition “of” in English. It is clear that these two ideas, before they were uttered in the form of words, were grouped in the minds both of the German and the Englishman; in the one, as it were at once, and in the other successively: for it is natural to suppose that they were conceived as they are expressed. Again, when you say in Latin amo Petrum, (I love Peter,) the termination um is expressive of the action of the verb love, upon the object, Peter. In the English and German this accessory idea is not expressed by sound, but still it exists in the mind. In every language there are more ideas, perhaps, understood, than are actually expressed. This might be easily demonstrated, if it were here the place.

This difference is clearly shown in the Delaware language; I’ll only talk right now about what we refer to as the “declension of nouns.” What we call the “objective cases” in European languages are one or more words that express two main ideas: the object being discussed and how it is affected by another object or action. This is done in two ways: by changing the noun or by adding one or more of those helper words we call “prepositions.” For example, when we say in English “of Peter” and in German “Peters,” the same two main ideas are expressed by two words in the former language and by one in the latter. The ending or inflection s in German conveys the same meaning as the preposition “of” in English. It’s clear that these two ideas, before they were spoken, were already formed in the minds of both the German speaker and the English speaker; for one, it was as if they were expressed at once, while for the other, it was one after the other: it’s natural to think they were imagined as they are articulated. Again, when you say in Latin amo Petrum, (I love Peter), the ending um represents the action of the verb love on the object, Peter. In English and German, this additional idea isn’t expressed through sound, but it still exists in the mind. In every language, there are probably more ideas understood than actually said. This could be easily demonstrated if this were the right time and place.

Let us now consider how the same ideas are combined and expressed in the Delaware language, according to Mr. Zeisberger. When the accessory idea which we call “case” proceeds from the operation of a verb upon a noun or word significant of an object, that idea is not affixed as with us to the noun but to the verb, or in other words, it is not the noun but the verb that is declined by inflexions or cases. Thus when you say “getannitowit n’quitayala, I fear God;” the first word, getannitowit, which is the substantive, is expressed, as we should say, in the nominative case, while the termination of the verb yala, expresses its application to the object. It is precisely the same as if in Latin, instead of saying, Petrum amo, I love Peter, we carried the termination um to the verb, and said Petrus amum. Does not this shew that many various combinations of ideas may take place in the human mind, of which we, Europeans by birth or descent, have not yet formed a conception? Does this not bid defiance to our rules or canons of universal grammar, and may we not say with M. Maupertuis, that in extending our study of the languages of man, we shall probably find some formed upon “plans of ideas” different from our own?

Let’s now look at how these same ideas are put together and conveyed in the Delaware language, according to Mr. Zeisberger. When the additional idea that we call “case” comes from a verb acting on a noun or a word representing an object, that idea isn’t added to the noun like it is in our language but rather to the verb. In other words, it’s the verb that changes with inflections or cases, not the noun. For example, when you say “getannitowit n’quitayala, I fear God;” the first word, getannitowit, which is the subject, is in what we would call the nominative case, while the ending of the verb yala shows its connection to the object. It’s similar to how in Latin, instead of saying Petrum amo, I love Peter, we placed the ending um on the verb and said Petrus amum. Doesn’t this demonstrate that the human mind can form many different combinations of ideas that we, Europeans by birth or descent, have yet to even conceive? Doesn’t this challenge our rules or theories of universal grammar, and can we not agree with M. Maupertuis that as we broaden our study of human languages, we’ll likely discover some based on “plans of ideas” different from our own?

But I perceive that instead of asking you questions, as it is my 367 duty to do, I am losing myself in metaphysical disquisitions; I return, then, to my principal object. A very interesting German book has lately fallen into my hands. It is entitled “Untersuchungen ueber Amerikas Bevœlkerung ans dem alten Kontinente,”277 and it is written by Professor Vater, of Leipzig. The author, after justly observing that the language of the Delawares is exceedingly rich in grammatical forms, and making the same observation on that of the Naticks, from the venerable Eliot’s translation of the Bible into that idiom, says that, on the contrary, that of the Chippeways is very poor in that respect. “Die Chippewæer,” he says, “haben fast keine formen.278 This appears to me very strange, because on examining the various Indian languages from Nova Scotia to Chili, I have been surprised to find that they appear all formed on the same model, and if Professor Vater is correct, the Chippeway dialect will form an exception. I beg, therefore, you will inform me whether there is such a great difference as he states between that and the Delaware. I am much inclined to think that the learned Professor is mistaken. I must take this opportunity, however, to express my astonishment at the great knowledge which the literati of Germany appear to possess of America, and of the customs, manners and languages of its original inhabitants. Strange! that we should have to go to the German universities to become acquainted with our own country.

But I realize that instead of asking you questions, which is what I should be doing, I am getting lost in philosophical discussions; so, I’ll get back to my main point. I recently came across a fascinating German book titled “Untersuchungen ueber Amerikas Bevœlkerung ans dem alten Kontinente,” written by Professor Vater from Leipzig. The author observes that the Delaware language is incredibly rich in grammatical forms, and he makes a similar point about the Natick language, based on the well-known Eliot’s translation of the Bible into that language. He then states, however, that the Chippewa language is quite poor in that regard. “Die Chippewæer,” he says, “haben fast keine formen.” This seems very strange to me, because when I look at various Indigenous languages from Nova Scotia to Chile, I find that they all seem to follow a similar structure, and if Professor Vater is right, the Chippewa dialect would be an exception. So, I’d appreciate it if you could let me know whether there is indeed such a significant difference between it and the Delaware language. I’m inclined to think that the learned professor is mistaken. However, I must take this chance to express my amazement at the extensive knowledge that scholars in Germany seem to have about America and the customs, practices, and languages of its Indigenous peoples. It’s odd that we have to go to German universities to learn about our own country.

Another German Professor, of the name of Rudiger, has compiled an interesting work, in which he gives specimens of all the languages in the world, as far as they are known, and among them does not forget those of the Indian nations of America. He gives the numerals of the Delaware language, from a vocabulary of that idiom, printed at Stockholm, in 1696, and made while the Swedes were in possession of that part of this country which they principally inhabited. I find a considerable difference between those numerals and these given by Zeisberger. That you may see in what it consists, I insert them both. 368

Another German professor named Rudiger has put together an interesting work where he includes examples of all known languages around the world, including those from the Native American nations. He provides the numerals from the Delaware language, taken from a vocabulary of that language published in Stockholm in 1696, during the time the Swedes occupied that part of the country where they primarily lived. I've noticed a significant difference between these numerals and those given by Zeisberger. To show you what the differences are, I'm including both sets. 368

DELAWARE NUMERALS.

According to the Swedish Vocabulary. According to Zeisberger.
1. Ciutte. 1. Ngutti.
2. Nissa. 2. Nischa.
3. Naha. 3. Nacha.
4. Nawo. 4. Newo.
5. Pareenach. 5. Palenach.
6. Ciuttas. 6. Guttasch.
7. Nissas. 7. Nischasch.
8. Haas. 8. Chasch.
9. Pæschun. 9. Peschkonk.
10. Thæræn. 10. Tellen.
20. Nissinacke. 20. Nishinachke.
100. Ciutabpach. 100. Nguttapachki.

Now, there can be no doubt that these two sets of numerals belong to the same language, but I am astonished at seeing the same words written so differently by a Swede and a German, when there is so little difference in the powers of the alphabetical signs of their languages. I am particularly struck with some words that are written with R by the Swede and with L by the German author. In all Zeisberger’s Grammar I have not been able to find the letter R in one single Delaware word, neither is it to be found in any of the words of his Delaware spelling book. No doubt you can inform me of the reason of this difference.

Now, there's no doubt that these two sets of numerals are part of the same language, but I'm surprised to see the same words spelled so differently by a Swede and a German, especially since there’s so little variation in the alphabetical signs of their languages. I'm particularly struck by some words that are spelled with R by the Swede and with L by the German author. In all of Zeisberger’s Grammar, I couldn't find the letter R in a single Delaware word, and it’s also absent from any of the words in his Delaware spelling book. I’m sure you can explain the reason for this difference.

A greater one is still to be found in the Algonkin numerals given by the Baron La Hontan, and those of the Delaware proper. I place them here again in opposition to each other.

A larger one is still found in the Algonquin numbers given by Baron La Hontan and those of the Delaware. I present them here again in comparison to one another.

Algonkin numerals from La Hontan. Delaware numerals from Zeisberger.
1. Pegik. 1. Ngutti.
2. Ninch. 2. Nischa.
3. Nissoue. 3. Nacha.
4. Neou. 4. Newo.
5. Narau. 5. Palenach.
6. Ningoutouassou. 6. Guttasch.
7. Ninchouassou. 7. Nischasch.
8. Nissouassou. 8. Chasch.
9. Changassou. 9. Peschkonk.
10. Mitassou. 10. Tellen.369

There is certainly a family resemblance between some of these words, while in others no kind of similarity can be traced. As you believe that the Delawares and the Algonkins are the same people, I beg you will be so good as to point out to me the cause of the difference which I have observed.

There’s definitely a family resemblance among some of these words, while others show no similarity at all. Since you believe that the Delawares and the Algonkins are the same people, I’d appreciate it if you could explain the reason for the difference I’ve noticed.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER IX.
FROM THE SAME TO THE SAME.

Philadelphia, 13th June, 1816.

Philadelphia, June 13, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I take the liberty of submitting to you a few questions, which have occurred to me in perusing Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar. I beg you will be so good as to answer them at your leisure.

Dear Sir,—I’m taking the liberty to ask you a few questions that came to mind while reading Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar. I would appreciate it if you could answer them whenever you have the time.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

Questions.

1. In Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar, double consonants are frequently used, as in Pommauchsin, Lenno, Lenni Lenape.

1. In Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar, double consonants are often used, like in Pommauchsin, Lenno, Lenni Lenape.

Quære: Are the two consonants fully and distinctly sounded, thus: pom-m-auchsinLen-n-o, as in the Italian language, or is only one of the consonants heard, as if it were thus written: pomauchsin, leno. In this latter case what is the reason for using two consonants, if only one is sounded?

Quære: Are the two consonants pronounced clearly and distinctly, like this: pom-m-auchsinLen-n-o, as in Italian, or is only one of the consonants heard, as if it were written: pomauchsin, leno? In this latter case, what's the point of using two consonants if only one is pronounced?

2. Mr. Zeisberger frequently puts a comma or apostrophe (’) before or after the letter N in the present of the indicative verbs, ’npommauchsi, and sometimes n’pommauchsi. Sometimes he writes the word without: ndappiwi, ndappiwitsch; what is the reason of this variation? Is there any necessity for the comma before or after the N in the first person, or after the K and W, in the second and third? Is it not best to simplify as much as possible the orthography of such a difficult language?

2. Mr. Zeisberger often adds a comma or apostrophe (’) before or after the letter N in the present tense of the indicative verbs, ’npommauchsi, and sometimes n’pommauchsi. Sometimes he writes the word without: ndappiwi, ndappiwitsch; what is the reason for this variation? Is there any need for the comma before or after the N in the first person, or after the K and W, in the second and third? Isn’t it better to simplify the orthography of such a difficult language as much as possible?

3. What is the difference in pronunciation between ke and que; say, pomauchsijenke and pomauchsijeque? Is the latter sounded like cue or kue, or is it sounded as ke?

3. What’s the difference in pronunciation between ke and que? For example, pomauchsijenke and pomauchsijeque? Does the latter sound like cue or kue, or does it sound like ke?

4. The conjunctive mood is expressed in German by “wenn;” 370 does it mean in English “if” or “when”? Does “n’pomauchsijane,” mean “when I live” or “if I live,” or both? I find it sometimes expressed “wenn,” oder “da,” oder “als,” which inclines me to think it signifies both “when” and “if.”

4. The conjunctive mood in German is expressed by “wenn.” 370 Does it mean “if” or “when” in English? Does “n’pomauchsijane” mean “when I live” or “if I live,” or both? I sometimes see it expressed as “wenn,” “da,” or “als,” which makes me think it means both “when” and “if.”

5. I find some terminations in the tenses of the verbs, sometimes written “cup,” sometimes “kup,” and sometimes “gup;” thus epiacup, “where I was,” elsijakup, “when or if I was so situated;” and pommauchsijengup, “if or when we have lived.” Are these different sounds, or does this difference in writing arise from the Germans being accustomed to confound the sounds of K and G hard?

5. I notice some variations in the verb endings, sometimes written as “cup,” sometimes as “kup,” and sometimes as “gup.” For example, epiacup means “where I was,” elsijakup means “when or if I was in that situation,” and pommauchsijengup means “if or when we have lived.” Are these different pronunciations, or does the difference in writing come from Germans being used to mixing up the sounds of K and G?

6. I find some words written sometimes with one I and sometimes with two; thus elsia, and elsija. Are the two i’s separately articulated, or do they sound only as one?

6. I sometimes see certain words spelled with one I and other times with two; for example, elsia and elsija. Are the two i’s pronounced separately, or do they sound like a single one?

7. I find the second person of the singular in verbs sometimes written with a K, sometimes with a G, thus kneichgussi, du wirst gesehen (thou art seen); kdaantschi, du wirst gehen (thou wilt go); gemilgussi, dir wird gegeben (it is given to thee). Why is it not written kemilgussi? see query 5. I find sometimes a double aa—Is it merely to express length of quantity, or are the two a’s sounded distinctly?

7. I notice that the second person singular in verbs is sometimes spelled with a K and sometimes with a G, like kneichgussi, you are seen; kdaantschi, you will go; gemilgussi, it is given to you. Why is it not spelled kemilgussi? See query 5. I also sometimes see a double aa—is it just to indicate a longer sound, or are the two a's pronounced distinctly?

8. What is the difference in sound between ch and hh, do they both represent the same guttural sound like ch in German? If so, why express this sound in two different ways; if otherwise, what is the real difference between the two sounds?

8. What’s the difference in sound between ch and hh? Do they both represent the same guttural sound as ch in German? If they do, why represent this sound in two different ways? If they don’t, what’s the actual difference between the two sounds?

EXAMPLES.

Achpil, bleibe du (remain thou); achpichtique, wenn sie nicht da sind (if they are not ere); ndahhenap, wir waren gegangen (we had gone); kdahhimo, ihr gehet (you go).

Achpil, stay you; achpichtique, if they are not there; ndahhenap, we had gone; kdahhimo, you go.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

371

371

LETTER X.
Mr. Heckewelder to Mr. Duponceau.

Bethlehem, 20th June, 1816.

Bethlehem, June 20, 1816.

Dear Sir.—Your favors of the 10th and 13th inst. have been duly received. I shall now endeavour to answer the first. The second shall in a few days be attended to.

Dear Sir,—I have received your messages from the 10th and 13th of this month. I will now try to respond to the first one. I will take care of the second one in a few days.

I am glad to find that you are so much pleased with the forms of our Indian languages. You will be still more so as you become more familiar with the beautiful idiom of the Lenni Lenape. It is certain that many of those forms are not to be found either in the German or English; how it is with the other languages of Europe, Asia, and Africa, I cannot say, not being acquainted with them, and never having made philology my particular study. I concur with you in the opinion that there must be in the world many different ways of connecting ideas together in the form of words, or what we call parts of speech, and that much philosophical information is to be obtained by the study of those varieties. What you observe with regard to the verbs being inflected in lieu of affixing a case or termination to the noun is very correct, but the ground or principle on which it is done, is not perhaps known to you. The verbs in the Indian languages are susceptible of a variety of forms, which are not to be found in any other language that I know. I do not mean to speak here of the positive, negative, causative, and a variety of other forms, but of those which Mr. Zeisberger calls personal, in which the two pronouns, governing and governed, are by means of affixes, suffixes, terminations, and inflections, included in the same word. Of this I shall give you an instance from the Delaware language. I take the verb ahoalan, to love, belonging to the fifth of the eight conjugations, into which Mr. Zeisberger has very properly divided this part of speech. 372

I’m glad to see that you’re really enjoying the structure of our Native American languages. You’ll be even more impressed as you get more familiar with the beautiful way the Lenni Lenape speak. It’s clear that many of these structures don’t exist in either German or English; I can’t speak for other languages from Europe, Asia, or Africa since I’m not familiar with them and have never specifically studied linguistics. I agree with you that there must be many ways to connect ideas in the form of words, or what we call parts of speech, and that studying these differences can lead to a lot of philosophical insights. What you noticed about verbs being inflected instead of just adding a case or ending to the noun is quite accurate, but the reason behind it might not be clear to you. In Native American languages, verbs can take on many forms that I haven’t seen in other languages. I’m not just talking about the positive, negative, causative, and various other forms, but specifically those that Mr. Zeisberger refers to as personal, where the two pronouns, the subject and object, are combined into one word using affixes, suffixes, endings, and inflections. I’ll give you an example from the Delaware language. I’ll take the verb ahoalan, which means to love, belonging to the fifth of the eight conjugations that Mr. Zeisberger has wisely categorized this part of speech into. 372

INDICATIVE, PRESENT, POSITIVE.

Singular. Plural.
N’dahoala, I love, n’dahoalaneen, we love,
k’dahoala, thou k’dahoalohhimo, you
w’dahoala,}
or ahoaleu }
he ahoalewak, they

Now for the personal forms in the same tense.

Now for the personal forms in the same tense.

FIRST PERSONAL FORM.
I.

Singular. Plural.
K’dahoatell, I love thee, K’dahoalohhumo, I love you,
n’dahoala, I love him or her. n’dahoalawak,—them.

SECOND PERSONAL FORM.
THOU.

Singular. Plural.
K’dahoali, thou lovest me, k’dahoalineen, thou lovest us,
k’dahoala,—him or her. k’dahoalawak,—them.

THIRD PERSONAL FORM.
HE, (or SHE.)

Singular. Plural.
N’dahoaluk, he loves me, w’dahoalguna, he loves us,
k’dahoaluk,—thee, w’dahoalguwa,—you,
w’dahoalawall—him. w’dahoalawak,—them.

FOURTH PERSONAL FORM.
WE.

Singular. Plural.
K’dahoalenneen, we love thee, k’dahoalohummena, we love you,
n’dahoalawuna,—him. n’dahoalowawuna,—them.

FIFTH PERSONAL FORM.
YOU.

Singular. Plural.
K’dahoalihhimo, you love me, k’dahoalihhena, you love us.
k’dahoalanewo,—him. k’dahoalawawak,—them.

SIXTH PERSONAL FORM.
THEY.

Singular. Plural.
N’dahoalgenewo, they love me, n’dahoalgehhena, they love us.
k’dahoalgenewo,—thee, k’dahoalgehhimo,—you.
w’dahoalanewo,—him. w’dahoalawawak,—them.

373

373

In this manner verbs are conjugated through all their moods and tenses, and through all their negative, causative, and various other forms, with fewer irregularities than any other language that I know of.

In this way, verbs are conjugated across all their moods and tenses, and through all their negative, causative, and various other forms, with fewer irregularities than any other language I know of.

These conjugations, no doubt, you have found, or will find in Mr. Zeisberger’s grammar, but the few examples that I have above put together, are necessary to understand the explanation which I am about to give.

These conjugations, for sure, you have found or will find in Mr. Zeisberger’s grammar, but the few examples I put together above are necessary to understand the explanation I'm about to give.

The words you quote are: “getannitowit n’quitayala,” I fear God, or rather, according to the Indian inversion, God I fear. Your observation is that the inflection or case of the noun substantive God, is carried to the verb. This is true; but if you enquire for the reason or the manner in which it takes place, you will find that ala is the inflection of the second or last person of the verb, in the first personal form; thus as you have seen that n’dahoala means I love him, so n’quitayala, in the same form and person means I fear him; it is therefore the same as if you said God I fear him. This is not meant in the least to doubt or dispute the correctness of your position, but to shew in what manner the combination of ideas is formed that has led to this result. You have now, I believe, a wider field for your metaphysical disquisitions.

The words you quote are: “getannitowit n’quitayala,” I fear God, or more accurately, in the Indian way of speaking, God I fear. You pointed out that the form of the noun God impacts the verb. This is true; however, if you explore the reason or how this happens, you'll see that ala is the inflection for the second or last person of the verb, in the first person form. So, as you’ve noted that n’dahoala means I love him, n’quitayala, in the same form and person, means I fear him; thus, it’s the same as saying God I fear him. This isn’t meant to question or argue against your position, but to illustrate how the combination of ideas is formed that leads to this outcome. I believe you now have a broader scope for your metaphysical discussions.

I pass on to the other parts of your letter. I believe with you that Professor Vater is mistaken in his assertion that the language of the Chippeways is deficient in grammatical forms. I am not skilled in the Chippeway idiom, but while in Upper Canada, I have often met with French Canadians and English traders who understood and spoke it very well. I endeavoured to obtain information from them respecting that language, and found that it much resembled that of the Lenape. The differences that I observed were little more than some variations in sound, as b for p, and i for u. Thus, in the Delaware, wapachquiwan means a blanket, in the Chippeway it is wabewian; gischuch is Delaware for a star, the Chippeways say gischis; wape in Delaware white; in the Chippeway, wabe. Both nations have the word Mannitto for God, or the Great Spirit, a word which is common to all the nations and tribes of the Lenape stock. 374

I’ll move on to the other parts of your letter. I agree with you that Professor Vater is wrong in claiming that the Chippewa language lacks grammatical forms. I’m not fluent in Chippewa, but during my time in Upper Canada, I often met French Canadians and English traders who understood and spoke it quite well. I tried to gather information from them about the language and found that it closely resembles that of the Lenape. The differences I noticed were mainly slight variations in sound, like b for p and i for u. For example, in Delaware, wapachquiwan means blanket, while in Chippewa it's wabewian; gischuch means star in Delaware, and the Chippewas say gischis; wape means white in Delaware, and in Chippewa, it's wabe. Both nations use the word Mannitto for God or the Great Spirit, which is a term that is common across all the nations and tribes of the Lenape lineage. 374

There is no doubt that the Chippeways, like the Mahicanni, Naticks, Wampanos, Nanticokes, and many other nations, are a branch of the great family of the Lenni Lenape, therefore I cannot believe that there is so great a difference in the forms of their languages from those of the mother tongue. I shall, however, write on the subject to one of our Missionaries who resides in Canada, and speaks the Chippeway idiom, and doubt not that in a short time I shall receive from him a full and satisfactory answer.

There’s no doubt that the Chippeways, just like the Mahicanni, Naticks, Wampanos, Nanticokes, and many other tribes, are part of the larger family of the Lenni Lenape. So, I find it hard to believe that their languages differ so much from the original language. However, I will write to one of our missionaries living in Canada who speaks Chippeway, and I’m sure I’ll get a complete and satisfactory response from him soon.

On the subject of the numerals, I have had occasion to observe that they sometimes differ very much in languages derived from the same stock. Even the Minsi, a tribe of the Lenape or Delaware nation, have not all their numerals like those of the Unami tribe, which is the principal among them. I shall give you an opportunity of comparing them.

On the topic of numbers, I've noticed that they can vary a lot in languages that come from the same origin. Even the Minsi, a tribe of the Lenape or Delaware nation, don’t have all their numbers matching those of the Unami tribe, which is the main one among them. I’ll give you a chance to compare them.

Numerals of the Minsi. Numerals of the Unami.
1. Gutti. 1. N’gutti.
2. Nischa. 2. Nischa.
3. Nacha. 3. Nacha.
4. Newa. 4. Newo.
5. Nalan, (algonk. narau.) 5. Palenach.
6. Guttasch. 6. Guttasch.
7. Nischoasch, (algonk. nissouassou.) 7. Nischasch.
8. Chaasch. 8. Chasch.
9. Nolewi. 9. Peschkonk.
10. Wimbat. 10. Tellen.

You will easily observe that the numbers five and ten in the Minsi dialect, resemble more the Algonkin, as given by La Hontan, than the pure Delaware. I cannot give you the reason of this difference. To this you will add the numerous errors committed by those who attempt to write down the words of the Indian languages, and who either in their own have not alphabetical signs adequate to the true expression of the sounds, or want an Indian ear to distinguish them. I could write a volume on the subject of their ridiculous mistakes. I am, &c. 375

You can easily see that the numbers five and ten in the Minsi dialect are more similar to those in the Algonkin, as described by La Hontan, than to standard Delaware. I can’t explain why there’s a difference. On top of that, there are the countless mistakes made by people trying to write down words from Indian languages, who either lack the right alphabetical signs in their language to accurately represent the sounds or don’t have the Indian ear to catch the nuances. I could write a whole book about their ridiculous errors. I am, &c. 375

LETTER XI.
FROM MR. HECKEWELDER.

Bethlehem, 24th June, 1816.

Bethlehem, June 24, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I now proceed to answer the several queries contained in your letter of the 13th inst.

Dear Sir,—I'm now going to respond to the various questions in your letter from the 13th.

1. The double consonants are used in writing the words of the Delaware language, for the sole purpose of indicating that the vowel which immediately precedes them is short, as in the German words immer, nimmer, schimmer, and the English fellow, terrible, ill, butter, &c. The consonant is not to be articulated twice.

1. The double consonants are used in writing Delaware words to show that the vowel right before them is short, just like in the German words immer, nimmer, schimmer, and the English words fellow, terrible, ill, butter, etc. You don’t pronounce the consonant twice.

2. The apostrophe which sometimes follows the letters n and k, is intended to denote the contraction of a vowel, as n’pommauchsi, for ni pommauchsi, n’dappiwi, for ni dappiwi, &c. If Mr. Zeisberger has placed the apostrophe in any case before the consonant, he must have done it through mistake.

2. The apostrophe that sometimes comes after the letters n and k is meant to show the contraction of a vowel, like n’pommauchsi for ni pommauchsi, n’dappiwi for ni dappiwi, etc. If Mr. Zeisberger has put the apostrophe before any consonant, it must have been a mistake.

3. There is a difference in pronunciation between ke and que; the latter is pronounced like kue or kwe. In a verb, the termination ke indicates the first person of the plural, and que the second.

3. There is a difference in pronunciation between ke and que; the latter is pronounced like kue or kwe. In a verb, the ending ke indicates the first person plural, and que indicates the second.

4. The word wenn, employed in the German translation of the tenses of the conjunctive mood of the Delaware verbs, means both when, and if, and is taken in either sense according to the content of the phrase in which the word is used. Examples: Ili gachtingetsch pommauchsiane, “If I live until the next year”—Payane Philadelphia, “When I come to Philadelphia.”

4. The word wenn, used in the German translation of the tenses of the conjunctive mood of the Delaware verbs, means both when and if, and is interpreted in either way based on the context of the phrase in which it's used. Examples: Ili gachtingetsch pommauchsiane, “If I live until next year”—Payane Philadelphia, “When I come to Philadelphia.”

5. Sometimes the letters c or g, are used in writing the Delaware language instead of k, to shew that this consonant is not pronounced too hard; but in general c and g have been used as substitutes for k, because our printers had not a sufficient supply of types for that character.

5. Sometimes the letters c or g are used when writing the Delaware language instead of k to show that this consonant isn’t pronounced too harshly. However, in general, c and g have been used as substitutes for k because our printers didn't have enough types for that character.

6. Where words are written with ij, both the letters are to be articulated; the latter like the English y before a vowel. For this reason in writing Delaware words I often employ the y instead of j, which Mr. Zeisberger and the German Missionaries 376 always make use of. Thus Elsija is to be pronounced like Elsiya.

6. Where words are written with ij, both letters should be pronounced; the second one is like the English y before a vowel. Because of this, when writing Delaware words, I often use y instead of j, which Mr. Zeisberger and the German missionaries 376 always do. So, Elsija is pronounced like Elsiya.

7. Answered in part above, No. 5. The double vowels are merely intended to express length of sound, as in the German.

7. Answered in part above, No. 5. The double vowels are just meant to show a longer sound, similar to German.

8. Ch, answers to the X of the Greeks, and ch of the Germans. Hh, like all other duplicated consonants, indicates only the short sound of the preceding vowels.

8. Ch, corresponds to the X in Greek and ch in German. Hh, like all other doubled consonants, indicates only the short sound of the vowels that come before it.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XII.
To Mr. Heckwelder.

Philadelp , 13th July, 1816.

Philadelphia , July 13, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I have received your kind letters of the 20th and 24th ult. It is impossible to be more clear, precise, and accurate, than you are in your answers to my various questions. The information which your letters contain is of the highest interest to me, and I doubt not will prove so to the Committee, by whose orders I have engaged in this Correspondence, on a subject entirely new to me, but with which I hope in time and with your able assistance, to become better acquainted.

Dear Sir,—I have received your kind letters from the 20th and 24th of last month. It’s impossible to be clearer, more precise, and accurate than you are in your responses to my various questions. The information in your letters is extremely interesting to me, and I'm sure it will be just as valuable to the Committee, under whose direction I’ve engaged in this correspondence. This topic is entirely new to me, but I hope that with time and your expert assistance, I will become more familiar with it.

M. de Volney has said somewhere in his excellent Descriptive View of the United States, that it were to be wished that five or six eminent linguists should be constantly employed at the public expense to compile Indian Grammars and Dictionaries. I cannot suppose that the Count meant literally what he said, as he must have been sensible of the difficulties attending on the execution of such a plan, but at any rate, here is a noble display of enthusiasm for our favourite science, and a sufficient encouragement for us to pursue our philological enquiries. Alas! if the beauties of the Lenni Lenape language were found in the ancient Coptic, or in some ante-diluvian Babylonish dialect, how would the learned of Europe be at work to display them in a variety of shapes and raise a thousand fanciful theories on that foundation! What superior wisdom, talents and knowledge would they not ascribe to nations whose idioms were formed with so much skill and method! But who cares for the poor 377 American Indians? They are savages and barbarians and live in the woods; must not their languages be savage and barbarous like them?

M. de Volney mentioned in his great Descriptive View of the United States that it would be ideal for five or six skilled linguists to be funded by the government to create grammars and dictionaries for Native American languages. I doubt the Count meant this literally, as he must have recognized the challenges of such a task. Still, it shows a commendable passion for our favorite field and gives us enough motivation to continue our linguistic studies. Unfortunately, if the beauty of the Lenni Lenape language were found in ancient Coptic or some pre-flood Babylonian dialect, the scholars in Europe would eagerly work to present it in various ways and create all sorts of imaginative theories based on it! What immense wisdom, talent, and knowledge would they attribute to nations whose languages were crafted with such skill and order! But who cares about the poor American Indians? They’re viewed as savages and barbarians living in the wilderness; their languages must be as savage and barbaric as they are.

Thus reason those pretended philosophers who court fame by writing huge volumes on the origin of human language, without knowing, perhaps, any language but their own, and the little Latin and Greek that they have been taught at College. You would think, when you read their works, that they had lived in the first ages of the creation and had been intimately acquainted with the family of our first parents. They know exactly what words were first uttered when men began to communicate their ideas to each other by means of articulated sounds; they can tell you how the various parts of speech, in perfect regular order, were successively formed, and with a little encouragement, they would, I have no doubt, compile a Grammar and Dictionary of the primitive language, as one Psalmanazar did once in England of a supposed Formosan tongue. It is a pity, indeed, that the Delawares, the Wyandots and the Potowatamies, with languages formed on a construction which had not been before thought of, come to destroy their beautiful theories. What then? are we to suppress the languages of our good Indians, or to misrepresent them, that the existing systems on Universal Grammar and the origin of language may be preserved? No, my friend, we shall on the contrary, I hope, labour with all our might to make them known, and provide, at least, additional facts for future theorists.

So those so-called philosophers who seek fame by writing massive books on the origin of human language often only know their own language, along with a bit of Latin and Greek from college. When you read their work, you’d think they lived during the earliest days of creation and were close to our first ancestors. They can tell you exactly what words were first spoken when humans began sharing their ideas through spoken sounds; they can explain how the different parts of speech were formed in perfect order, and, with a little push, I’m sure they would create a Grammar and Dictionary of the original language, just like Psalmanazar did once in England with a made-up Formosan language. It’s unfortunate that the Delawares, Wyandots, and Potowatamies, with languages built on entirely new structures, come in to disrupt their lovely theories. So what are we supposed to do? Suppress the languages of our Indigenous peoples, or misrepresent them, just to protect the existing theories on Universal Grammar and the origin of language? No, my friend, instead, I hope we will work hard to make them known and provide at least some additional facts for future theorists.

I have been led into this chain of ideas by reading the ponderous work of a Scotch Lord named Monboddo, who has dreamt of languages more than any other writer that I know. On the authority of a Father Sagard, (a French Missionary) he represents the language of the Hurons as the most incoherent and unsystematical heap of vocables that can possibly be conceived. Their words have no regular formation or derivation, no roots or radical syllables, there is no analogy whatever in the construction or arrangement of this language. He says, for instance, that there is a word for “two years” entirely different from those which signify one, three, four or ten years; that “hut,” “my hut,” and “in my hut,” are severally expressed by 378 words entirely different from each other. He adduces several other examples of the same kind, with which I shall not trouble you, and concludes with saying, that “the Huron language is the most imperfect of any that has been yet discovered.” (Orig. of Lang., Vol. I., p. 478.)

I was inspired to think about this topic after reading a heavy book by a Scottish Lord named Monboddo, who has contemplated languages more than any other writer I know. Citing Father Sagard, a French missionary, he claims that the Huron language is the most chaotic and disorganized collection of words imaginable. Their words lack any regular formation or derivation, with no roots or base syllables, and there's no consistency in how this language is constructed or arranged. For example, he points out that there is a word for “two years” that is completely different from the words for one, three, four, or ten years; that “hut,” “my hut,” and “in my hut,” are each represented by completely different words. He gives several other similar examples, which I won’t bother you with, and concludes by stating that “the Huron language is the most imperfect of any that has been yet discovered.” (Orig. of Lang., Vol. I., p. 478.)

Before we proceed further, let us suppose that a Huron or a Delaware is writing a treatise on the origin of language, and in the pride of pompous ignorance attempts to make similar observations on the English idiom. Following Lord Monboddo’s course of reasoning, he will say: “The English is the most imperfect language upon earth, for its words have no kind of analogy to each other. They say, for instance, ‘a house,’ and the things that belong to a house they call ‘domestic.’ They say ‘a year,’ and ‘an annual payment,’ for a sum of money payable every year. That is not all; if the payment is to be made in two years, it is then called biennial, in which you find no trace of either the word two or the word ‘year,’ of which in a regular language it should be compounded. What belongs to a King is royal; to a woman, feminine; to ship, naval; to a town, urban; to the country, rural. Such another irregular, unmethodical dialect never existed, I believe, on the back of the great tortoise!!”

Before we go any further, let’s imagine a Huron or a Delaware writing a paper on the origin of language. In a show of arrogant ignorance, they might try to make similar observations about English. Following Lord Monboddo’s reasoning, they would say: “English is the most imperfect language on Earth, because its words don’t relate to each other at all. For example, they say ‘a house,’ but the things that belong to a house are called ‘domestic.’ They say ‘a year,’ and ‘an annual payment,’ which refers to a sum of money payable every year. That’s not all; if the payment is to be made in two years, it’s then called biennial, which has no trace of either the word two or ‘year,’ and in a proper language, it should be formed from those. What belongs to a King is royal; to a woman, feminine; to a ship, naval; to a town, urban; to the country, rural. I believe no other irregular, unorganized dialect has ever existed on the back of the great tortoise!!”

Such would be the language of our Huron philosopher, and he would be about as right as Lord Monboddo. I have read this work of Father Sagard, of which there is a copy in the Congress library. It appears to me that the good Father was an honest, well meaning, but most ignorant friar, of one of the mendicant orders. His residence among the Hurons was very short, not more than a twelve-month; he was, I know not for what reason, called home by his superiors, and left America with great regret. He has collected a number of words and phrases of the Huron language in the form of a vocabulary, which he improperly calls a dictionary. I have had it copied and shall shew it to you when you come to town. You will be satisfied when you see it, that the good man not only never analysed the language of the Hurons, but was incapable of doing it. He was perfectly bewildered in the variety of its forms, and drew the very common conclusion that what he could not comprehend 379 was necessarily barbarous and irregular. From an attentive perusal of his “dictionary,” I am inclined to draw the opposite conclusion from that which he has drawn. There appears to me to be in it sufficient internal evidence to shew that the Huron language is rich in grammatical forms, and that it is constructed much on the same plan with the Delaware. I shall be very glad to have your opinion on it, with such information as you are able and willing to give. I beg particularly that you will let me know whether there are roots and derivations in the Indian languages, analogous to those of our own?

Such would be the language of our Huron philosopher, and he would be about as right as Lord Monboddo. I've read this work by Father Sagard, which has a copy in the Congress library. It seems to me that the good Father was an honest, well-meaning, but very ignorant friar from one of the mendicant orders. His time among the Hurons was quite brief, not more than a year; I don't know why, but he was called back by his superiors and left America with great regret. He collected a number of words and phrases from the Huron language in the form of a vocabulary, which he incorrectly calls a dictionary. I've had it copied and will show it to you when you come to town. You'll see for yourself that the good man not only never analyzed the Huron language but was incapable of doing so. He was completely confused by the variety of its forms and came to the common conclusion that what he couldn't understand was necessarily barbaric and irregular. From careful reading of his “dictionary,” I'm inclined to draw the opposite conclusion from his. It seems to me that there is enough internal evidence to show that the Huron language is rich in grammatical forms and that it is constructed in much the same way as the Delaware. I would be very glad to have your opinion on it, along with any information you can give. I particularly ask that you let me know whether there are roots and derivatives in the Indian languages that are similar to those in our own?

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XIII.
To Mr. Heckwelder.

Philadelphia, 18th July, 1816.

Philadelphia, July 18, 1816.

Dear Sir.—In your letter of the 27th of May you have said that you believed the Delaware nation were those whom the Baron La Hontan meant to designate by the name of Algonkins. In a subsequent letter, (June 20th,) you seem to consider them as distinct nations, but nearly allied to each other; you say you are not well acquainted with their language, which is not the same with that of the Lenape, though there is a considerable affinity between them. Upon the whole I suppose that you have meant to apply the denomination Algonkins, not only to the Delawares proper, but to all the nations and tribes of the same family.

Dear Sir,—In your letter dated May 27th, you mentioned that you thought the Delaware nation was what Baron La Hontan was referring to by the name Algonkins. In your next letter (June 20th), you seem to view them as separate nations that are closely related to one another; you noted that you're not very familiar with their language, which differs from that of the Lenape, although there are significant similarities between them. Overall, I assume that you intended to use the term Algonkins not just for the Delawares but for all the nations and tribes in the same family.

This has led me to consider who those Algonkins might be that La Hontan speaks of, and upon the best investigation that I have been able to make of the subject, I am inclined to believe that La Hontan’s Algonkins are properly those whom we call Chippeways, a family or branch of the Delawares, but not the Delawares themselves. I first turned to Dr. Barton’s “New Views of the Origin of the Nations and Tribes of America,” in which I found that he considered the Delawares and Chippeways as two distinct people; but when I came to the specimens which 380 he gives of their languages in his Vocabularies, I found no difference whatever in the idioms of the two nations. Pursuing the enquiry further, I compared the Vocabulary of the Chippeway language given by Carver in his travels, and that of the Algonkin by La Hontan, and was much astonished to find the words in each language exactly alike, without any difference but what arises from the French and English orthography. The words explained by the two authors, happen also to be precisely the same, and are arranged in the same alphabetical order. So that either Carver is a gross plagiarist, who has pretended to give a list of Chippeway words and has only copied the Algonkin words given by La Hontan, or the Chippeways and Algonkins are one and the same people. I shall be very glad to have your opinion on this subject.

This has led me to think about who the Algonkins that La Hontan refers to might be. After my investigation, I believe that La Hontan’s Algonkins are actually what we call the Chippeways, a branch of the Delawares, but not the Delawares themselves. I first looked into Dr. Barton’s “New Views of the Origin of the Nations and Tribes of America,” where he considers the Delawares and Chippeways as two separate groups. However, when I examined the language samples he provides in his Vocabularies, I found no differences between the two nations' languages. Furthering my research, I compared the Vocabulary of the Chippeway language found in Carver's travels with that of the Algonkin by La Hontan and was surprised to discover that the words in both languages are exactly the same, differing only in French and English spelling. The words explained by both authors are also exactly the same and listed in the same alphabetical order. This raises the possibility that either Carver is a blatant plagiarist, pretending to provide a list of Chippeway words while only copying La Hontan’s Algonkin words, or the Chippeways and Algonkins are the same people. I would love to hear your thoughts on this matter.

I find in Zeisberger’s Grammar something that I cannot well comprehend. It is the verb “n’dellauchsi” which he translates “I live, move about,” or “I so live that I move about.” Pray, is this the only verb in the Delaware language, which signifies “to live,” and have the Indians no idea of “life,” but when connected with “locomotion”?

I find something in Zeisberger’s Grammar that I can’t quite understand. It’s the verb “n’dellauchsi,” which he translates as “I live, move about,” or “I live in a way that I move around.” Is this really the only verb in the Delaware language that means “to live,” and do the Indians only associate the concept of “life” with “locomotion”?

Is the W in the Delaware, as your Missionaries write it, to be pronounced like the same letter in German, or like the English W and the French ou? If this letter has the German sound, then it is exactly the same as that of our V; in that case I am astonished that the Delawares cannot pronounce the F, the two sounds being so nearly alike.

Is the W in Delaware, as your missionaries write it, supposed to be pronounced like the same letter in German, or like the English W and the French ou? If this letter has the German sound, then it is exactly the same as our V; in that case, I’m surprised that the Delawares can’t pronounce the F, since the two sounds are so similar.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XIV.
From Mr. Heckewelder.

Bethlehem, 22d July, 1816.

Bethlehem, July 22, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I received at the same time your two letters of the 13th and 18th inst., the last by our friend Dr. Wistar. I think you are wrong to complain of the little importance attached by the learned of Europe to the study of Indian languages and of 381 the false ideas which some of them have conceived respecting them. The truth is that sufficient pains have not been taken in this country to make them known. Our Missionaries have, indeed, compiled grammars and dictionaries of those idioms, but more with a view to practical use and to aid their fellow-labourers in the great work of the conversion of the Indians to Christianity, than in order to promote the study of the philosophy of language. They have neither sought fame nor profit, and therefore their compositions have remained unknown except in the very limited circle of our religious society. It belongs to the literary associations of America to pursue or encourage those studies in a more extended point of view, and I shall be happy to aid to the utmost of my power the learned researches of the American Philosophical Society.

Dear Sir,—I received your two letters from the 13th and 18th of this month at the same time, the latter from our friend Dr. Wistar. I think you're mistaken to complain about the lack of importance that European scholars place on the study of Indian languages and the misconceptions some of them have about them. The truth is that not enough effort has been made in this country to raise awareness of these languages. Our missionaries have compiled grammars and dictionaries for practical use to help their fellow workers in converting Indians to Christianity, rather than to promote the study of language philosophy. They haven't sought fame or profit, which is why their work is mostly unknown outside the small circle of our religious community. It's up to the literary organizations in America to promote or encourage these studies on a broader scale, and I'd be happy to support the valuable research of the American Philosophical Society to the best of my ability.

Your remarks on Lord Monboddo’s opinion respecting the Indian languages, and on Father Sagard’s work, on which that opinion is founded, I believe to be correct. I am not acquainted with the language of the Hurons, which I have always understood to be a dialect of that of the Iroquois, or at least to be derived from the same stock, and I cannot conceive why it should be so poor and so imperfect as the good Father describes it, while its kindred idiom, the Iroquois, is directly the reverse. At least, it was so considered by Mr. Zeisberger, who was very well acquainted with it. Sir William Johnson thought the same, and I believe you will find his opinion on the subject in one of the Volumes of the Transactions of the Royal Society of London.279 Colden, in his History of the Five Nations, says “that the verbs of that language are varied, but in a manner so different from the Greek and Latin, that his informant could not discover by what rule it was done.”280 I suspect his informant had not yet acquired a very profound knowledge of the Iroquois; but from his imperfect description of their verbs, I am very nearly convinced that they are formed on the same model with those of the Lenni Lenape, which Mr. Zeisberger has well described in his Grammar of that language. Colden praises this idiom in 382 other respects; he says that “the Six Nations compound their words without end, whereby their language becomes sufficiently copious.” This is true also of the Delawares.

Your comments on Lord Monboddo’s views about the Indian languages and on Father Sagard’s work, which supports those views, are spot on. I don’t know the Huron language well, but I’ve always understood it to be a dialect of Iroquois, or at least related to the same family, and I can’t figure out why it’s described by the good Father as being so limited and imperfect, especially since its relative, the Iroquois, is quite the opposite. Mr. Zeisberger, who knew it very well, certainly thought so. Sir William Johnson agreed, and you’ll find his thoughts on the matter in one of the Volumes of the Transactions of the Royal Society of London.279 Colden, in his History of the Five Nations, mentions that “the verbs of that language are varied, but in a way so different from Greek and Latin that his informant couldn’t figure out by what rule it was done.”280 I suspect his informant hadn’t gained a deep understanding of Iroquois yet; but from his incomplete description of their verbs, I am almost convinced they’re formed similarly to those of the Lenni Lenape, which Mr. Zeisberger has described well in his Grammar of that language. Colden also praises this language in other ways; he notes that “the Six Nations compound their words endlessly, which makes their language quite rich.” This is also true of the Delawares.

The Hurons are the same people whom we call Wyandots; the Delawares call them Delamattenos. I am inclined to believe that the tribe whom we call Naudowessies, and the French Sioux, who are said to live to the west or north-west of Lake Superior, are a branch of the Hurons; for the rivers which we call Huron, (of which there are three)281 are called by the Chippeways, Naduwewi, or Naudowessie Sipi. But of this I cannot be sure; though I would rather conclude that Naudowessie is the Chippeway name for all the Wyandots or Hurons. It is a fact which, I think, deserves to be ascertained. It is a very common error to make several Indian nations out of one, by means of the different names by which it is known.

The Hurons are the same people we refer to as Wyandots; the Delawares call them Delamattenos. I believe that the tribe we call Naudowessies, and the French call Sioux, who are said to live to the west or north-west of Lake Superior, are a branch of the Hurons; because the rivers we call Huron, (of which there are three)281 are called by the Chippeways Naduwewi, or Naudowessie Sipi. However, I can't be certain about this; although I would prefer to conclude that Naudowessie is the Chippeway name for all the Wyandots or Hurons. I think it's important to clarify this fact. It's a common mistake to split one Indian nation into several different ones based on the various names by which it is known.

I proceed to answer the questions contained in your letter of the 18th.

I will now respond to the questions in your letter from the 18th.

As it seems to me probable that the Naudowessies and Hurons, though called by different names, are the same people; so it may be the case with the Chippeways and the Algonkins, although I have no greater certainty of this hypothesis than of the former. I have no doubt, however, of their being both derived from the same stock, which is that of the Lenni Lenape: that their languages are strikingly similar is evident from the two vocabularies that you mention, and I had rather believe that they both speak the same language, than that Captain Carver was a plagiarist. The accounts which he gives of the Indians I have found in general correct; which is the more remarkable, that from his own account, it appears that he did not reside very long among them. He must have been, therefore, a very attentive and accurate observer.

As it seems likely to me that the Naudowessies and Hurons, even though they have different names, are the same people, it could also be true for the Chippeways and the Algonkins, although I don't have any more certainty about this idea than the previous one. However, I’m sure that both groups come from the same root, which is the Lenni Lenape: it's clear from the two vocabularies you mentioned that their languages are very similar, and I’d rather believe they both speak the same language than that Captain Carver was copying someone else. The accounts he provides about the Indians have generally been correct in my experience, which is even more impressive considering that, according to his own account, he didn’t spend a lot of time with them. He must have been a very careful and accurate observer.

It is very probable that I did not express myself with sufficient precision in the passages of my letters of the 27th of May and 20th of June to which you refer. The Lenni Lenape, or Delawares, are the head of a great family of Indian nations who are known among themselves by the generic name of Wapanachki, 383 or “Men of the East.” The same language is spread among them all in various dialects, of which I conceive the purest is that of the chief nation, the Lenape, at whose residence the grand national councils meet, and whom the others, by way of respect, style grandfather. The Algonkins are a branch of that family, but are not, in my opinion, entitled to the pre-eminence which the Baron La Hontan ascribes to them. He applied the name “Algonkin,” in a more extensive sense than it deserves, and said that the Algonkin language was the finest and most universally spread of any on the continent; a praise to which I think the Lenni Lenape idiom alone is entitled. In this sense only I meant to say that the Baron included the Delawares in the general descriptive name of “Algonkins.”

I probably didn’t explain myself clearly enough in my letters from May 27 and June 20 that you mentioned. The Lenni Lenape, or Delawares, are the leaders of a large group of Indian nations, which they call Wapanachki, 383 or “Men of the East.” They all speak the same language in different dialects, and I believe the purest form is that of the chief nation, the Lenape, where the main national councils gather, and whom the others respectfully refer to as grandfather. The Algonkins are part of this family, but I don’t think they deserve the prominence that Baron La Hontan gives them. He used the term “Algonkin” too broadly and claimed that the Algonkin language is the best and most widespread in the continent, a compliment I believe should go solely to the Lenni Lenape language. That’s the only point I wanted to make regarding the Baron including the Delawares under the general name “Algonkins.”

I have yet to answer your questions respecting the language, which I shall do in a subsequent letter.

I still need to answer your questions about the language, which I’ll do in a later letter.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XV.
FROM THE SAME.

Bethlehem, 24th July, 1816.

Bethlehem, July 24, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I have now to answer your question on the subject of the Delaware verb, n’dellauchsi, which Zeisberger translates by “I live, or move about,” or “I so live that I move about.” You ask whether this is the only verb in the language which expresses “to live,” and whether the Indians have an idea of life, otherwise than as connected with locomotion?

Dear Sir,—I’m writing to respond to your question about the Delaware verb n’dellauchsi, which Zeisberger translates as “I live, or move around,” or “I live in a way that allows me to move around.” You’re asking if this is the only verb in the language that means “to live,” and if the Indians have a concept of life that isn’t linked to movement?

Surely they have; and I do not see that the contrary follows from Mr. Zeisberger’s having chosen this particular verb as an example of the first conjugation. I perceive you have not yet an adequate idea of the copiousness of the Indian languages, which possess an immense number of comprehensive words, expressive of almost every possible combination of ideas. Thus the proper word for “to live” is in the pure Unami dialect lehaleheen. An Unami meeting an aged acquaintance, whom he has not seen for a length of time, will address him thus: “Ili k’lehelleya?282 which 384 means, “are you yet alive?” The other will answer “Ili n’papomissi,”283 “I am yet able to walk about.” The verb n’dellauchsin, which Mr. Zeisberger quotes, is more generally employed in a spiritual sense, “n’dellauchsin Patamawos wulelendam,” “I live up, act up to the glory of God.” This verb, like pommauchsin, implies action or motion, connected with life, which is still the principal idea. I do not know of any thing analogous in the English language, except, perhaps, when we say “To walk humbly before God;” but here the word walk contains properly no idea in itself but that of locomotion, and is not coupled with the idea of life, as in the Indian verb which I have cited. The idea intended to be conveyed arises in English entirely from the figurative sense of the word, in the Delaware from the proper sense.

Surely they have, and I don't see how that contradicts Mr. Zeisberger's choice of this particular verb as an example of the first conjugation. I can tell you don't yet fully understand the richness of the Indian languages, which have an enormous number of detailed words that express almost every conceivable combination of ideas. For instance, the word for “to live” in the pure Unami dialect is lehaleheen. When an Unami person meets an old friend they haven't seen in a long time, they might say, “Ili k’lehelleya?282 which means, “Are you still alive?” The other person would reply with “Ili n’papomissi,”283 “I am still able to walk around.” The verb n’dellauchsin, quoted by Mr. Zeisberger, is more commonly used in a spiritual context, as in “n’dellauchsin Patamawos wulelendam,” meaning, “I live in a way that honors God.” This verb, like pommauchsin, suggests action or movement associated with life, which remains the main idea. I don't know of anything similar in English, except maybe when we say “To walk humbly before God;” but in this case, the word walk only carries the idea of movement and isn't connected to the concept of life, unlike the Indian verb I've mentioned. The intended meaning comes in English from the figurative sense of the word, while in Delaware, it comes from the literal sense.

I should never have done, were I to endeavour to explain to you in all their details the various modes which the Indians have of expressing ideas, shades of ideas, and combinations of ideas; for which purpose the various parts of speech are successively called to their aid. In the conjugations of the verbs, in Zeisberger’s Grammar, you will find but three tenses, present, past, and future; but you will be much mistaken if you believe that there are no other modes of expressing actions and passions in the verbal form as connected with the idea of time. It would have been an endless work to have given all those explanations in an elementary grammar intended for the use of young Missionaries, who stood in need only of the principal forms, which they were to perfect afterwards by practice. Let me now try to give you a faint idea of what I mean by a few examples in the Delaware language.

I should never have tried to explain to you in detail the different ways the Indians express ideas, nuances of ideas, and combinations of ideas; for which purpose the various parts of speech are used. In the conjugations of the verbs in Zeisberger’s Grammar, you will find only three tenses: present, past, and future; but you would be mistaken if you think there aren't other ways to express actions and feelings in the verb form related to the idea of time. It would have been an endless task to provide all those explanations in a basic grammar meant for young Missionaries, who only needed the main forms and would refine them later through practice. Let me now try to give you a brief idea of what I mean with a few examples from the Delaware language.

N’mitzi, I’m eating.__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ N’mamitzi, I am eating, or am in the process of eating. N’mitzihump, I’ve eaten. Metschi n’gischi mitzi, I just ate. N’dappi mitzi, I’m back from eating. 385

The first two n’mitzi and n’mamitzi, both mean I eat, but the one is used in the indefinite, and the other in the definite sense, and a good speaker will never employ the one instead of the other. The three last expressions are all past tenses of the verb “I eat,” and all mean, “I have eaten,” but a person just risen from table, will not say, “n’dappi mitzi;” this expression can only be used after leaving the place where he has been eating, in answer to a person who asks him “where he comes from.” The word “n’dappi” is connected with the verb apatschin, to return. There is another distinction, proper to be mentioned here. If the place where the person comes from is near, he says “n’dappi,” if distant “n’dappa.” Thus:

The first two n’mitzi and n’mamitzi both mean I eat, but one is used in an indefinite way, while the other is used in a definite sense, and a good speaker will never use one instead of the other. The last three expressions are all past tense versions of the verb "I eat," and they all mean "I have eaten," but someone just getting up from the table won’t say "n’dappi mitzi;" this phrase can only be used after leaving the place where they've been eating, in response to someone asking them "where they came from." The word "n’dappi" is related to the verb apatschin, which means to return. There’s another distinction worth mentioning here. If the place someone is coming from is nearby, they say "n’dappi," but if it’s far away, they say "n’dappa." So:

N’dappi pihm, I've just come from sweating (or from the sweat lodge.)
N’dappihackiheen, I have come from planting.
N’dappi wickheen, I came from building a house.
N’dappimanschasqueen, I’ve come from mowing grass.
I'm back from fishing with a spear. N’dappallauwin, I have come back from hunting.
N’dappachtopalin, I have returned from fighting a war.

In the future tense I could shew similar distinctions, but it would lead me too far.

In the future tense, I could show similar distinctions, but it would take me too far.

I must now take notice of what Father Sagard says, as you have mentioned in your letter of the 13th inst., that the Indian languages have “no roots, and that there is no regularity in the formation of their words.” It is certain that the manner in which the Indians in general form their words is different from that of the Europeans, but I can easily prove to you that they understand the manner of forming them from “roots.” I take, for instance, the word wulit, good, proper, right, from which are derived:

I need to address what Father Sagard mentioned, as you pointed out in your letter from the 13th, that Indian languages have “no roots, and there is no consistency in how their words are formed.” It's true that the way Indians generally create their words differs from Europeans, but I can easily show you that they do understand how to form them from “roots.” For example, take the word wulit, which means good, proper, or right, from which are derived:

Wulik, the good. Wulaha, improved. Wulisso, great, beautiful. Wulamoewagan, truth. Wulatenamuwi, happy. 386 Wulatenamoagan, happiness. Wulapensowagan, blessing. Wulapan, great morning. Wuliechen, it's good, or well done. Wulittol, they're good. Wuliken, it flourishes. Wuliechsin, to speak positively. Wulelendam, to celebrate. Wulamallsin, to be happy.
Wulandeu, Wuligischgua fine day.
Wulapeyu, simply, upright. Wuliwatam, to understand well. Wuliachpin, to be in a good place. Wulilissin, to succeed. Wulilissu, he’s good. Wulilissick, please behave. Wulinaxin, to look good. Wulamoeyu, it's true. Wulantowagan, grace. Wulatopnachgat, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ a good word. Wulatopnamik, good news. Wulatonamin,__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ to feel happy. Wulissowagan, beauty, good looks. Wulihilleu, it's good. Wulineichquot, it's good to be noticed. Wulelemileu, it's wonderful. Wulitehasu, well-cut or hewn. Wuliwiechinen, rest well. Welsit Mannitto, The Good Spirit. From Machtit, not good. Machtitsu, gross. Machtesinsu, unattractive. Machtschi or Matschi Mannitto or Machtando, the evil Spirit, the Devil, etc.

387

387

You will naturally observe that the words derived from the root Wulit, imply in general the idea of what is good, handsome, proper, decent, just, well, and so pursuing the same general object to happiness and its derivatives; happiness being considered as a good and pleasant feeling, or situation of the mind, and a person who is happy, as being well. This does not, as you might suppose, make the language ambiguous; for the Indians speak and understand each other with great precision and clearness.

You will naturally notice that the words derived from the root Wulit generally suggest the idea of what is good, attractive, suitable, decent, just, well, and so they all relate to the same overall concept of happiness and its related terms; happiness being seen as a good and pleasant feeling or state of mind, and a person who is happy is viewed as being well. This does not, as you might think, make the language unclear; the Indians communicate and understand each other with great accuracy and clarity.

I have yet to answer your question about the f and w. There are in the Delaware language no such consonants as the German w, or English v, f, or r. Where w in this language is placed before a vowel, it sounds the same as in English; before a consonant, it represents a whistled sound of which I cannot well give you an idea on paper, but which I shall easily make you understand by uttering it before you when we meet.

I still need to answer your question about the f and w. In the Delaware language, there are no consonants like the German w or the English v, f, or r. When w comes before a vowel, it sounds the same as in English; when it’s before a consonant, it produces a whistled sound that’s hard to describe on paper, but I can easily demonstrate it for you when we meet.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XVI.
To Mr. Heckewelder.

Philadelphia 31st July, 1816.

Philadelphia, July 31, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I have received with the geatest pleasure your two favours of the 24th and 26th inst.; the last, particularly, has opened to me a very wide field for reflection. I am pursuing with ardour the study of the Indian languages (I mean of their grammatical forms) in all the authors that I can find that have treated of the subject, and am astonished at the great similarity which I find between those different idioms from Greenland even to Chili. They all appear to me to be compounded on a model peculiar to themselves, and of which I had not before an idea. Those personal forms of the verbs, for instance, which you mention in your letter of the 20th of June, I find generally existing in the American languages. The Spanish-Mexican Grammarians call them transitions, but they are not all equally happy in their modes of explaining their nature and use. The word “transition,” 388 however, I think extremely well chosen, as it gives at once an idea of the passage of the verb from the pronoun that governs to that which is governed, from “I love” to “I love you.” The forms of the Indian verbs are so numerous, that a proper technical term is very much wanted to distinguish this particular class, and I adopt with pleasure this appropriate Spanish name, at least, until a better one can be found.

Dear Sir,—I was very pleased to receive your two letters dated the 24th and 26th of this month; particularly the latter has opened up a lot of thoughts for me. I am passionately studying the Indian languages (specifically their grammatical structures) through all the authors I can find who have covered this topic, and I'm amazed at the similarities I see between these various languages from Greenland down to Chile. They all seem to be based on a unique model that I hadn't considered before. For instance, those personal verb forms you mentioned in your letter dated June 20th, I find are generally present in American languages. The Spanish-Mexican grammarians refer to them as transitions, but they don't all adequately explain their nature and use. However, I think the term “transition” is very fitting, as it conveys the idea of the verb shifting from the pronoun that acts to the one that receives the action, from “I love” to “I love you.” The forms of Indian verbs are so numerous that we really need a proper technical term to classify this specific group, and I'm happy to adopt this suitable Spanish term for now, at least until we can find a better one.

I am sufficiently satisfied from the examples in your last letter that the Indians have in their languages “roots,” or radical words from which many others are derived; indeed, I never doubted it before, and only meant to shew you by the instances of Father Sagard, and Lord Monboddo, what false ideas the Europeans have conceived on this subject. The various meanings of the word “wulit” and its derivatives, obtained, as you have shewn, by easy or natural transitions from one kindred idea to another, are nothing new in language. The Greek has the word “kalos,” which in its various meanings is very analogous to “wulit.” Instances of similar “transitions” from different European idioms might be cited without end. There is one in the French which strikes me at this moment with peculiar force. In that language, an honest man is “just” in his dealings and a judge in his judgments; but a pair of shoes is so likewise, when made exactly to fit the foot, and by a natural transition, when the shoes are too tight, they are said to be too just (trop justes). A foreigner in France is reported to have said to his shoemaker, complaining of the tightness of a pair of new made shoes: “Monsieur, ces souliers sont trop équitables.” I remember also an English song, beginning with the words “Just like love,” where you see the word “just” is employed without at all implying the idea of equity or justice. But justice is strict, exact, correct, precise, and therefore the word just is employed for the purpose of expressing these and other ideas connected with that to which it was first applied.

I am quite satisfied from the examples in your last letter that the Native Americans have “roots” or base words in their languages from which many others come; in fact, I never doubted it before and only meant to show you through the examples of Father Sagard and Lord Monboddo what misconceptions Europeans have about this topic. The various meanings of the word “wulit” and its derivatives, as you’ve shown, come from easy or natural shifts from one related idea to another, which is nothing new in language. The Greeks have the word “kalos,” which in its different meanings is very similar to “wulit.” There are endless examples of similar “transitions” from different European languages. One in French comes to mind right now with particular strength. In that language, an honest man is “just” in his dealings and a judge in his judgments; but a pair of shoes is also “just” when made to fit the foot exactly, and naturally, when the shoes are too tight, they are said to be too just (trop justes). A foreigner in France reportedly said to his shoemaker, complaining about the tightness of a new pair of shoes: “Monsieur, ces souliers sont trop équitables.” I also remember an English song that begins with “Just like love,” where the word “just” is used without implying the idea of equity or justice. But justice is strict, exact, correct, precise, and that’s why the word just is used to express these and other ideas related to its original application.

I have made these trite observations, because I am well aware that many a priori reasoners would not fail to find in so many words of different meanings derived from the same root, a proof of the poverty of the Indian languages. They would say that they are poor, because they have but few radical words, a conclusion 389 which they would infallibly make without taking the pains of ascertaining the fact. If they were told that the Greek (the copiousness of which is universally acknowledged) has itself but a comparatively small number of roots, they would not be at a loss to find some other reason in support of their pre-conceived opinion. I have read somewhere (I cannot recollect in what book), that there was not a greater proof of the barbarism of the Indian languages, than the comprehensiveness of their locutions. The author reasoned thus: Analysis, he said, is the most difficult operation of the human mind; it is the last which man learns to perform. Savage nations, therefore, express many ideas in a single word, because they have not yet acquired the necessary skill to separate them from each other by the process of analysis, and to express them simply.

I’ve made these obvious observations because I'm aware that many people who think logically would quickly interpret the variety of meanings coming from the same root word as evidence of the limitations of Indian languages. They might argue that these languages are lacking because they have only a few basic words, a conclusion they would arrive at without bothering to check the facts. If they were told that Greek—which is widely recognized as rich in vocabulary—actually has a relatively small number of roots, they would surely find another reason to support their preconceived notions. I once read somewhere (I can't remember where) that the diversity of expressions in Indian languages was seen as proof of their barbarism. The author argued that analysis, the most complex task for the human mind, is the last skill people learn. Therefore, primitive societies combine many ideas into a single word because they haven’t developed the ability to separate those ideas through analysis and express them simply.

If this position were true, it would follow that all the languages of savage nations have been in the origin formed on the same model with those of the American Indians, and that simple forms have been gradually introduced into them by the progress of civilisation. But if we take the trouble of enquiring into facts, they will by no means lead us to this conclusion. It is not many centuries since the Scandinavian languages of the North of Europe were spoken by barbarous and savage nations, but we do not find that in ancient times they were more comprehensive in their grammatical forms than they are at present, when certainly they are the least so, perhaps, of any of the European idioms; on the other hand, the Latin and Greek were sufficiently so by means of the various moods and tenses of their verbs, all expressed in one single word, without the use of auxiliaries; and yet these two nations had attained a very high degree, at least, of civilisation. I do not, therefore, see as yet, that there is a necessary connexion between the greater or lesser degree of civilisation of a people, and the organisation of their language. These general conclusions from insulated facts ought constantly to be guarded against; they are the most fruitful sources of error in the moral as well as in the natural sciences. Facts ought to be collected and observations multiplied long before we venture to indulge in theoretical inferences; for unobserved facts seem to lie in ambush, to start up at once in the face of finespun theories, and put philosophers in the wrong. 390

If this theory were accurate, it would mean that all the languages of primitive societies originated in a similar way to those of the American Indians, and that simpler forms were gradually incorporated into them as civilization progressed. However, if we take the time to investigate the facts, they definitely do not support this conclusion. Just a few centuries ago, the Scandinavian languages of Northern Europe were spoken by barbaric and uncivilized peoples, yet we don’t find that in ancient times they were more complex in their grammatical structures than they are today, when they may actually be the simplest among European languages; on the other hand, Latin and Greek were complex enough with their various moods and tenses expressed in a single word, without relying on auxiliary verbs. Nevertheless, these two cultures had achieved, at the very least, a high level of civilization. Therefore, I do not yet see a necessary connection between a people’s level of civilization and the structure of their language. We must always be cautious about drawing general conclusions from isolated facts; they are a major source of error in both the moral and natural sciences. Facts should be gathered and observations increased long before we dare to engage in theoretical deductions, as unexamined facts tend to lurk in the shadows, ready to challenge overly refined theories and catch philosophers off guard. 390

I wish very much that some able linguist would undertake to make a good classification of the different languages of the world (as far as they are known) in respect to their grammatical forms. It was once attempted in the French Encyclopedia, but without success, because the author had only in view the Latin and Greek, and those of the modern languages which he was acquainted with. His division, if I remember right, was formed between those idioms in which inversions are allowed, and those in which they are not. Of course, it was the Latin and Greek on the one side, and the French, Italian, &c., on the other. This meagre classification has not been generally adopted, nor does it, in my opinion, deserve to be. A greater range of observation ought to be taken.

I really wish that some skilled linguist would take on the task of creating a solid classification of the different languages of the world (as far as we know) based on their grammatical forms. This was tried once in the French Encyclopedia, but it didn't work out because the author only focused on Latin and Greek, along with the modern languages he was familiar with. If I remember correctly, his division was based on whether certain languages allow inversions or not. So, it was Latin and Greek on one side, and French, Italian, etc., on the other. This limited classification hasn't been widely accepted, and I don’t think it deserves to be. A broader perspective is definitely needed.

I do not pretend to possess talents adequate to carrying into execution the plan which I here suggest; but I beg you will permit me to draw a brief sketch of what I have in view.

I don't claim to have the skills necessary to carry out the plan I'm suggesting here; but I kindly ask you to allow me to share a quick outline of what I have in mind.

I observe, in the first place, in the eastern parts of Asia, a class of languages formed on the same model, of which I take that which is spoken in the empire of China, as it stood before its conquest by the Tartars, to be the type. In this language, there is but a very small number of words, all monosyllables. As far as I am able to judge from the excellent grammars of this idiom of which we are in possession, the words convey to the mind only the principal or leading ideas of the discourse, unconnected with many of those accessory ideas that are so necessary to give precision to language, and the hearer is left to apply and arrange the whole together as well as he can. It has but few or no grammatical forms, and is very deficient in what we call the connecting parts of speech. Hence it is said that the words spoken are not immediately understood by those to whom they are addressed, and that auxiliary modes of explanation, others than oral communication, are sometimes resorted to, when ambiguities occur. As I am no Sinologist, I will not undertake to say that the description which I have attempted to give of this language, from the mere reading of grammars and dictionaries, is very accurate, but I venture to assert that it differs so much from all others that we know, that with its kindred idioms, it deserves to form a genus in a general classification of the various modes of 391 speech. From its great deficiency of grammatical forms, I would give to this genus the name asyntactic.

I notice, first of all, in the eastern parts of Asia, a group of languages that follow a similar pattern, and I consider the one spoken in China, as it was before the Tartar conquest, to be the standard. In this language, there are very few words, mostly monosyllables. From what I can tell from the excellent grammars available for this language, the words only express the main ideas of the conversation, lacking many of the additional concepts that are necessary for clarity in language. The listener has to piece together the meaning as best as they can. It has few or no grammatical forms and is quite lacking in what we refer to as connecting parts of speech. Because of this, it's said that listeners may not immediately grasp what is being said to them, and sometimes they rely on other methods of clarification besides spoken communication when there are misunderstandings. Since I'm not a Sinologist, I won’t claim that my description of this language, based solely on grammars and dictionaries, is perfectly accurate, but I do assert that it is so different from all other languages we know that, along with its related forms, it deserves to be categorized as a genus in a broader classification of various speech forms. Due to its significant lack of grammatical structures, I would name this genus asyntactic.

My second class of languages would consist of those which possess, indeed, grammatical forms, sufficient to express and connect together every idea to be communicated by means of speech, but in which those forms are so organized, that almost every distinct idea has a single word to convey or express it. Such are the Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and even the German and English. Those forms of the nouns and verbs which are generally called declensions and conjugations, are in these languages the result of an analytical process of the mind, which has given to every single idea, and sometimes to a shade of an idea, a single word to express it. Thus, when we say “of the man,” here are three ideas, which, in the Latin, are expressed by one single word “hominis.” In the locution “I will not,” or “I am not willing,” and in the verbal form “I will go,” three or four ideas are separately expressed in English, which, in Latin, are conveyed together by single words “nolo,” “ibo.” From this peculiar quality of sufficiently, yet separately, expressing all the necessary ideas, I would denominate this class of languages analytical, or analytic.

My second category of languages includes those that have grammatical structures capable of expressing and connecting all ideas conveyed through speech, but in which those structures are arranged so that almost every distinct idea has a single word to convey it. This includes Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and even German and English. The forms of nouns and verbs, known as declensions and conjugations, in these languages result from a mental analytical process that assigns a single word to each idea and sometimes even to a subtle nuance of an idea. For example, when we say “of the man,” we have three ideas, which in Latin are expressed by the single word “hominis.” In the phrases “I will not,” or “I am not willing,” and in the verb form “I will go,” three or four ideas are expressed separately in English, whereas in Latin, they are conveyed in single words “nolo,” “ibo.” Because of this unique ability to express all necessary ideas clearly and separately, I would refer to this category of languages as analytical or analytic.

The third class would, of course, be that in which the principal parts of speech are formed by a synthetical operation of the mind, and in which several ideas are frequently expressed by one word. Such are what are called the Oriental languages, with the Latin, Greek, Slavonic, and others of the same description. These I would call synthetic.

The third class would be the one where the main parts of speech are created through a combined effort of the mind, and where multiple ideas are often conveyed with a single word. This includes what's known as the Oriental languages, as well as Latin, Greek, Slavonic, and other similar languages. I would refer to these as synthetic.

The French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, with their various dialects, in which conquest has in a great degree intermingled the modes of speech of the second and third class, would together form a fourth, which I would call “mixed.”

The French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, along with their different dialects, which have largely blended the speech patterns of the second and third class due to conquest, would together create a fourth category, which I would call “mixed.”

In these various classes I have not found a place for the Indian languages, which richly deserve to form one by themselves. They are “synthetic” in their forms, but to such a degree as is not equalled by any of the idioms which I have so denominated, and which are only such in comparison with others where analytic forms prevail. That they deserve to make a class by themselves cannot be doubted. They are the very opposite of the 392 Chinese, of all languages the poorest in words, as well as in grammatical forms, while these are the richest in both. In fact, a great variety of forms, necessarily implies a great multiplicity of words; I mean, complex forms, like those of the Indians; compound words in which many ideas are included together, and are made to strike the mind in various ways by the simple addition or subtraction of a letter or syllable. In the Chinese much is understood or guessed at, little is expressed; in the Indian, on the contrary, the mind is awakened to each idea meant to be conveyed, by some one or other of the component parts of the word spoken. These two languages, therefore, as far as relates to their organisation, stand in direct opposition to each other; they are the top and bottom of the idiomatic scale, and as I have given to the Chinese, and its kindred dialects, the name of asyntactic, the opposite name, syntactic, appears to me that which is best suited to the languages of the American Indians. I find that instead of asking you questions, as I ought to do, I am wandering again in the field of metaphysical disquisitions. I shall try to be more careful in my next letter.

In these different categories, I haven't found a spot for the Indian languages, which definitely deserve to be their own category. They are “synthetic” in their structure, but to an extent that isn't matched by any of the languages I've referred to, which are only considered that way in comparison to others where analytic forms dominate. There's no doubt they should form a class on their own. They are the complete opposite of Chinese, which is the language with the fewest words and grammatical structures, while Indian languages are among the richest in both. In fact, a wide variety of forms naturally entails a large number of words; I'm talking about complex forms, like those of the Indians; compound words that combine multiple ideas and can create different impressions by simply adding or removing a letter or syllable. In Chinese, much is inferred and little is explicitly stated; in Indian languages, however, each idea is clearly expressed through the various parts of the word. Therefore, these two languages are fundamentally opposed in terms of their structure; they represent the extremes of the linguistic spectrum, and just as I've labeled Chinese and its related dialects as asyntactic, the corresponding term syntactic seems most fitting for the languages of the American Indians. I realize that instead of asking you questions, which I should be doing, I’m getting lost in abstract discussions again. I’ll try to be more focused in my next letter.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XVII.
TO THE SAME.

Philadelphia, 3d August, 1816.

Philadelphia, August 3, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I now return to my proper station of a scholar asking questions of his master. In your letter of the 24th ult., you have fully satisfied me that the Indians have a great number of words derived from “roots,” much in the same manner as in the languages of Europe, but you have said at the same time “that the manner in which the Indians in general form their words, is different from that of the Europeans.” I am very anxious to have this manner287 explained, and I shall be very much obliged to you for all the information that you can give me on the subject. 393

Dear Sir,—I am now returning to my rightful role as a student asking questions of my teacher. In your letter dated the 24th of last month, you clearly explained that the Indigenous peoples have a large number of words that come from “roots,” similar to the languages of Europe. However, you also mentioned that “the way in which Indigenous peoples generally form their words is different from that of Europeans.” I am eager to understand this method287 better, and I would greatly appreciate any information you can provide on the topic. 393

I have told you already that I thought I had reason to believe that all the American languages were formed on the same general plan. If I am correct in my supposition, I think I have found in the language of Greenland, the identical manner of compounding words which I am now calling upon you to explain. You will tell me whether I have judged right, and you will at once destroy or confirm my favourite hypothesis. According to the venerable Egede, words are formed in the Greenland language by taking and joining together a part of each of the radical words, the ideas of which are to be combined together in one compound locution. One or more syllables of each simple word are generally chosen for that purpose and combined together, often leaving out the harsh consonants for the sake of euphony. Thus from “agglekpok,” he writes, “pekipok,” he mends or does better, and “pinniarpok,” he endeavours, is formed the compound word “agglekiniaret,” which means, “endeavour to write better.” The first syllable “agl,” is taken from “aglekpok,” the second “ek” from the same word, and also from the first syllable of “pekipok,” leaving out the p to avoid harshness, and the third “inniar” from “Pinniarpok,” also leaving out the initial consonant for the same reason. It seems to me that I find something like it in the Delaware language. According to Zeisberger, wetoochwink signifies “father.” Now taking the second syllable ooch, and placing n before it, you have “nooch,” my father. To be sure, it is not the first syllable that is borrowed, as in the above example from the Greenlandish, but the principle appears, nevertheless, to be the same in both languages.

I’ve already mentioned that I believed all American languages were created based on a similar general structure. If I’m right about this, I think I’ve discovered in Greenlandic the exact way of combining words that I’m asking you to explain. You’ll tell me if my judgment is correct, and you’ll either confirm or challenge my favorite theory. According to the respected Egede, words in the Greenlandic language are formed by taking parts of the root words that need to be combined into one compound term. Usually, one or more syllables from each simple word are chosen for this purpose, often leaving out harsh consonants for smoothness. For example, from “agglekpok,” he creates “pekipok,” which means “to improve,” and from “pinniarpok,” meaning “to attempt,” forms the compound word “agglekiniaret,” which translates to “attempt to write better.” The first syllable “agl” is taken from “aglekpok,” the second “ek” is chosen from the same word, along with the first syllable of “pekipok,” omitting the p to soften it, and the third “inniar” comes from “Pinniarpok,” also leaving out the initial consonant for the same reason. I think I see something similar in the Delaware language. According to Zeisberger, wetoochwink means “father.” If you take the second syllable ooch and add n in front of it, you get “nooch,” my father. It’s true that it’s not the first syllable that is borrowed, as in the Greenlandic example, but the underlying principle seems to be the same in both languages.

On the subject of this word “father” I observe a strange contradiction between two eminent writers on Indian languages, evidently derived from the stock of the Lenni Lenape or Delaware. One of them, Roger Williams, in his Key to the Language of the New England Indians, says “osh” (meaning probably och or ooch, as the English cannot pronounce the guttural ch) father; “nosh” my father; “kosh” thy father, &c. On the other hand, the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, in his observations on the language of the Muhhekanew (Mohican) Indians, speaks as follows: “A considerable part of the appellations is never used without a pronoun affixed. The Mohegans say, my father, ‘nogh’ (again 394 noch or nooch) thy father ‘kogh,’ &c., but they cannot say absolutely 'father.’ There is no such word in their language. If you were to say ‘ogh,’ you would make a Mohegan both stare and smile.” (page 13.)

On the topic of the word “father,” I notice a peculiar contradiction between two well-known writers on Indian languages, likely based on the Lenni Lenape or Delaware language. One of them, Roger Williams, in his Key to the Language of the New England Indians, states “osh” (likely meaning och or ooch, since the English struggle with the guttural ch) for father; “nosh” for my father; “kosh” for thy father, etc. On the other hand, the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, in his observations on the language of the Muhhekanew (Mohican) Indians, states: “A significant part of the terms is never used without a pronoun attached. The Mohegans say, my father, ‘nogh’ (also noch or nooch) for thy father ‘kogh,’ etc., but they cannot say simply 'father.' There is no such word in their language. If you were to say ‘ogh,’ you would make a Mohegan both stare and smile.” (page 13.)

Which of these two professors is right? It seems that either Rogers invented the word osh for “father,” from analogy, or that Edwards is not correct when he says that ogh or ooch singly, mean nothing in the Indian language. Is he not mistaken when he says that there is no word whatever answering to “father,” or “the father,” in an abstract sense; and if an Indian would stare and smile when a white man says ooch, would he smile in the same manner if he said wetoochwink? Is it possible to suppose that this respectable author had only a partial knowledge of the language on which he wrote, and that he was not acquainted with the radical word from which nooch and kooch had been formed? Or is there no such radical word, and has Zeisberger himself committed a mistake?

Which of these two professors is correct? It seems that either Rogers created the word osh for “father” based on analogy, or Edwards is wrong when he says that ogh or ooch alone mean nothing in the Indian language. Is he not mistaken when he claims there is no word that corresponds to “father” or “the father” in an abstract sense? And if an Indian would look puzzled and smile when a white man says ooch, would he smile the same way if he said wetoochwink? Is it possible to think that this respected author only had a partial understanding of the language he wrote about, and that he wasn’t familiar with the root word from which nooch and kooch were derived? Or is there no such root word, and has Zeisberger himself made a mistake?

I beg leave to submit to you also another observation that I have made. It appears from the work of the late Dr. Barton, who quotes your authority for it, that the name of the Lenni Lenape, means “the original people,” and that “Lenno” in the Delaware language signifies “man,” in the general sense, (Mensch.) Now, it appears that in the language of the Micmacs (a tribe of Nova Scotia,) they call an Indian “Illenoh,” and in that of the Canadian mountaineers (whom some believe to be the Algonkins proper) they say “Illenou.” (Mass. Histor. Coll. for the year 1799, pp. 18, 19.) I am apt to believe that those names are the same with “Lenno,” and that it is from them that the French have formed the name “Illinois,” which extends even beyond the Mississippi. In the speech of the Indian chief Garangula, to the Governor of Canada, related by La Hontan, the warrior says: “You must know, Onontio, that we have robbed no Frenchmen, but those who supplied the ‘Illinois,’ and the 'Oumamis,’ our enemies, with powder and ball.” I am inclined to believe that Garangula when he spoke of the Illinois meant the Lenni Lenape, and by the name of Oumamis, intended to describe their chief tribe, the Unamis. Of this, however, I leave you to judge. But I strongly suspect that “Lenno,” “Lenni,” “Illenoh,” 395Illenou,” “Illinois,” are the same name, and all apply to that great nation whom the Baron La Hontan takes to be the Algonkins, who, it would seem, are only called so by way of discrimination, but consider themselves as a branch of the great family of the “Illenou.” If I am correct in this, how do you make out that Lenni Lenape means “original people”?

I’d like to share another observation I’ve made. It seems from the work of the late Dr. Barton, who references your authority, that the name Lenni Lenape means “the original people,” and that “Lenno” in the Delaware language means “man” in a general sense, (Mensch.) Now, in the language of the Micmacs (a tribe from Nova Scotia), they refer to an Indian as “Illenoh,” and among the Canadian mountaineers (who some think are the Algonkins) they say “Illenou.” (Mass. Histor. Coll. for the year 1799, pp. 18, 19.) I tend to believe that these names are the same as “Lenno,” and that the French derived the name “Illinois” from them, which extends even beyond the Mississippi. In the speech of Indian chief Garangula to the Governor of Canada, as recounted by La Hontan, the warrior states: “You should know, Onontio, that we haven't robbed any Frenchmen, just those who supplied the ‘Illinois’ and the 'Oumamis,’ our enemies, with powder and ball.” I believe that when Garangula referred to the Illinois, he meant the Lenni Lenape, and by the name Oumamis, he was referring to their main tribe, the Unamis. However, I leave that for you to decide. Still, I strongly suspect that “Lenno,” “Lenni,” “Illenoh,” “Illenou,” and “Illinois” are the same name, all referring to the great nation that Baron La Hontan identifies as the Algonkins, who seem to be called that just for distinction, but see themselves as part of the larger family of the “Illenou.” If I’m right about this, how do you explain that Lenni Lenape means “original people”?

The Greenlanders, according to Egede, call themselves Innuit, which in their language also signifies men. It appears to me to be very much akin to Illenoh, Illeun. Could the Greenlanders be in any way connected with the Lenni Lenape?

The Greenlanders, as Egede states, refer to themselves as Innuit, which in their language also means men. It seems to be quite similar to Illenoh and Illeun. Is there any chance that the Greenlanders are related to the Lenni Lenape?

Pray tell me from what languages are derived the words squaw, sachem, tomahawk, calumet, wampum, papoose, which are so much in use among us? Are they of the Delaware or the Iroquois stock?

Pray tell me from which languages the words squaw, sachem, tomahawk, calumet, wampum, papoose come? Are they from the Delaware or the Iroquois background?

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XVIII.
FROM MR. HECKEWELDER.

Bethlehem 12th August, 1816.

Bethlehem, August 12, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I have duly received your two letters of the 31st of July and 3d of August last. I am much pleased with your metaphysical disquisitions, as you call them, and I beg you will indulge in them with perfect freedom, whenever you shall feel so disposed. I agree with you that a proper classification of human languages would be a very desirable object; but I fear the task is too hard ever to be accomplished with the limited knowledge of man. There are, no doubt, many varieties in language yet to be discovered.

Dear Sir,—I have received your two letters from July 31 and August 3. I really appreciate your philosophical discussions, as you call them, and I encourage you to share them freely whenever you feel like it. I agree that creating a proper classification of human languages would be a great goal, but I worry that the task may be too difficult to achieve with the limited knowledge we have. There are certainly many more language variations yet to be discovered.

As you wish to be acquainted with the manner in which our North American Indians compound their words, I shall endeavour to satisfy you as well as I am able. The process is much the same as that which Egede has described with respect to the Greenland language, and this strongly corroborates your opinion respecting the similarity of forms of at least of those of North America. In the Delaware and other languages that I am acquainted with, parts or parcels of different words, sometimes a 396 single sound or letter, are compounded together, in an artificial manner, so as to avoid the meeting of harsh or disagreeable sounds, and make the whole word fall in a pleasant manner upon the ear. You will easily conceive that words may thus be compounded and multiplied without end, and hence the peculiar richness of the American languages. Of this I can give you numerous examples. In the first place, the word “nadholincen.” It is a simple short word, but means a great deal. The ideas that are conveyed by it are these: “Come with the canoe and take us across the river or stream.” Its component parts are as follows: The first syllable “nad” is derived from the verb “naten,” to fetch; the second, “hol,” from “amochol,” a canoe or boat; “ineen” is the verbal termination for “us,” as in milineen, “give us;”—the simple ideas, therefore, contained in this word, are “fetch canoe us,” but in its usual and common acceptation it means, “come and fetch us across the river with a canoe.” I need not say that this verb is conjugated through all its moods and tenses. Nadholawall is the form of the third person of the singular of the indicative present, and means “He is fetched over the river with a canoe,” or simply, “He is fetched over the river.”

As you want to learn about how our North American Native Americans combine their words, I will do my best to explain it to you. The method is quite similar to what Egede described regarding the Greenland language, which strongly supports your view about the similarities in the forms of at least those in North America. In the Delaware and other languages I know, parts of different words, sometimes just a single sound or letter, are combined in an artificial way to avoid harsh or unpleasant sounds, making the whole word sound pleasing to the ear. You can easily imagine that words can be combined and multiplied endlessly, which is why American languages are particularly rich. I can provide you with many examples. For starters, the word “nadholincen.” It's a short, simple word, but it carries a lot of meaning. It conveys the idea: “Come with the canoe and take us across the river or stream.” Its components are as follows: The first syllable “nad” comes from the verb “naten,” meaning to fetch; the second, “hol,” comes from “amochol,” meaning canoe or boat; “ineen” is the verb ending for “us,” as in milineen, “give us;”—so the simple ideas in this word are “fetch canoe us,” but commonly it means, “come and fetch us across the river with a canoe.” I don’t need to mention that this verb is conjugated across all its moods and tenses. Nadholawall is the third person singular form of the indicative present, meaning “He is fetched over the river with a canoe,” or simply, “He is fetched over the river.”

From wunipach, a leaf, nach, a hand, and quim, a nut growing on a tree (for there is a peculiar word to express nuts of this description and distinguish them from other nuts) is formed wunachquim, an acorn, and the ideas which by this name are intended to be conveyed are these: “The nut of the tree the leaves of which resemble a hand, or have upon them the form of a hand.” If you will take the trouble to examine the leaves of an oak tree, you will find on them the form of a hand with outspread fingers. On the same principle are formed

From wunipach, meaning a leaf, nach, meaning a hand, and quim, meaning a nut that grows on a tree (since there’s a specific word for these kinds of nuts to set them apart from others), we get wunachquim, which is an acorn. The ideas conveyed by this name are: “The nut of the tree whose leaves look like a hand or have the shape of a hand.” If you take the time to look at the leaves of an oak tree, you’ll see they have the shape of a hand with fingers spread out. Similarly, they are formed

M’sim, hickory nut. Ptucquim, walnut. Wapim, chestnut. Schauwemin, beech nut, and more.

The tree which we call “Spanish oak,” remarkable for the largeness of its leaves, they call “Amanganaschquiminschi,” “the tree which has the largest leaves shaped like a hand.” If I were to imitate the composition of this word in English and apply it 397 to our language, I would say Largehandleafnuttree, and softening the sounds after the Indian manner, it would perhaps make Larjandliffentree, or Larjandlennuttree, or something like it. Of course, in framing the word, an English ear should be consulted. The last syllable of that which I have last cited, is not taken from the proper name for tree, which is hittuck; but from “achpansi,”288 which means the “stock, trunk or body of a tree” (in German “der stamm”). The last syllable of this word, “si,” is in its compound converted into schi, probably for the sake of euphony, of which an Indian ear in this case is the best judge.

The tree we refer to as “Spanish oak,” known for its large leaves, is called “Amanganaschquiminschi,” meaning “the tree with the largest leaves shaped like a hand.” If I were to create a similar word in English, I might say Largehandleafnuttree, and softening the sounds in the Indian style, it could become Larjandliffentree, or Larjandlennuttree, or something along those lines. Of course, when forming the word, it should be tailored to an English ear. The last part of the last word I mentioned is not derived from the proper term for tree, which is hittuck, but from “achpansi,” which means the “stock, trunk or body of a tree” (in German “der stamm”). The last syllable of this term, “si,” is changed in the compound to schi, likely for the sake of sound, which is best judged by an Indian ear in this context.

Again, “nanayunges,” in Delaware means “a horse.” It is formed from awesis, a beast, from which the last syllable es is taken, and nayundam, to carry a burden on the back or shoulders; for when something is carried in the hands or arms, the proper verb is “gelenummen.” The word which signifies “horse,” therefore, literally means, “the beast which carries on its back,” or in other words, “a beast of burden.” Were asses or camels known to the Indians, distinctive appellations for them would soon and easily be formed.

Again, “nanayunges” in Delaware means “a horse.” It comes from awesis, meaning a beast, from which the last syllable es is taken, and nayundam, meaning to carry a load on the back or shoulders; because when something is carried in the hands or arms, the correct verb is “gelenummen.” The word that means “horse,” therefore, literally translates to “the beast that carries on its back,” or in other words, “a beast of burden.” If the Indians had known about donkeys or camels, they would have quickly and easily created distinctive names for them.

Thus much for the names of natural substances, and words which relate to visible objects. Let us now turn to the expression of ideas which affect the moral sense.

Thus much for the names of natural substances and words that relate to visible objects. Now let’s shift our focus to the expression of ideas that impact the moral sense.

You will remember that I have told you before that “wulik” or “wulit” signifies “good,” and in the various derivations which flow from it means almost every thing that is good, just, proper, decent, pleasing or agreeable. When an Indian wishes to express that he is pleased with something that you have told him, he will say in his metaphorical language: “You have spoken good words.” Now let us see how this compound idea is expressed. “Kolamoe” is one of the forms of the past tense of a verb which means “to speak the truth,” and properly translated signifies “thou hast spoken the truth,” or “thou hast spoken good words.” K, from ki, expresses the second person, “ola” is derived from wulit and conveys the idea of good; the rest of the word implies the action of speaking.

You’ll remember that I’ve mentioned before that “wulik” or “wulit” means “good,” and in the various forms that come from it, it refers to almost everything that is good, just, proper, decent, pleasing, or agreeable. When an Indian wants to express that he is pleased with something you’ve said, he will say in his metaphorical language: “You have spoken good words.” Now let’s look at how this combined idea is expressed. “Kolamoe” is one of the forms of the past tense of a verb that means “to speak the truth,” and properly translated means “you have spoken the truth” or “you have spoken good words.” K, from ki, indicates the second person, “ola” comes from wulit and conveys the idea of good; the rest of the word refers to the action of speaking.

In the third person, “wulamoe” means “he has spoken the 398 truth;” from which is formed the noun substantive wulamoewagan, “the truth:” wagan or woagan (as our German Missionaries sometimes write it to express the sound of the English w) being a termination which answers to that of “ness” in English, and “heit” or “keit” in German. Pursuing further the same chain of ideas, wulistamoewagan or wulamhittamoewagan, means “faith” or “belief,” the belief of what a man has seen or heard; for glistam is a verb which signifies “to hear, hearken, listen;” hence “wulista,” believe it, wulistam, he believes; wulisto, believe ye, &c. The Indians say klistawi! hear me! nolsittammen, I believe it; ammen or tammen abridged from hittammen, where they are employed as terminations, mean “to do, perform, adopt.” See what a number of ideas are connected together in single words, and with what regularity they are compounded, with proper terminations indicating the part of speech, form, mood, tense, number and person, that they respectively belong to! The various shades of thought that those different modes of speech discriminate are almost innumerable; for instance, wulistammen means simply to believe; wulamsittammen to believe with full conviction. I would never have done, if I were to point out to you all the derivatives from this source, or connected with the idea of belief, which word I bring forward merely by way of example, there being many others equally fruitful. There is wulamoinaquot, credible, worthy of belief (sometimes used as an impersonal verb, “it is credible, it deserves to be believed”); welsittawot, a believer; welsittank, a believer in the religious sense, &c.

In the third person, “wulamoe” means “he has spoken the 398 truth;” from which the noun wulamoewagan is formed, meaning “the truth:” wagan or woagan (as our German missionaries sometimes write it to represent the sound of the English w) serves as a suffix that corresponds to “ness” in English and “heit” or “keit” in German. Further exploring this concept, wulistamoewagan or wulamhittamoewagan means “faith” or “belief,” referring to what a person has seen or heard; glistam is a verb that means “to hear, hearken, listen;” hence “wulista,” believe it, wulistam, he believes; wulisto, believe you, etc. The Indians say klistawi! hear me! nolsittammen, I believe it; ammen or tammen, shortened from hittammen, when used as suffixes, mean “to do, perform, adopt.” See how many ideas are connected in single words, and how regularly they are combined, with appropriate endings that indicate the part of speech, form, mood, tense, number, and person they belong to! The various nuances of thought that these different expressions differentiate are almost countless; for instance, wulistammen simply means to believe; wulamsittammen means to believe with complete conviction. I could go on indefinitely if I were to point out all the derivatives from this source or those associated with the concept of belief, which I mention only as an example, as there are many others just as rich. There is wulamoinaquot, credible, worthy of belief (sometimes used as an impersonal verb, “it is credible, it deserves to be believed”); welsittawot, a believer; welsittank, a believer in the religious sense, etc.

The syllable pal or pel prefixed to some words, implies denial, and also frequently denotes wrong and is taken in a bad sense. Hence palsittamoewagan, unbelief; palsittammen, to disbelieve; pelsittank, an unbeliever; pelsittangik, unbelievers. Again, palliwi, otherwise; palliton, to spoil, to do something wrong; palhiken, to make a bad shot, to miss the mark in shooting; palhitechen, to aim a stroke and miss it; pallahammen, to miss in shooting at game; pallilissin, to do something amiss or wrong.

The prefix pal or pel added to certain words suggests denial and often indicates wrongdoing, typically carrying a negative connotation. So, palsittamoewagan means unbelief; palsittammen means to disbelieve; pelsittank refers to an unbeliever; and pelsittangik means unbelievers. Similarly, palliwi means otherwise; palliton means to spoil or do something wrong; palhiken refers to taking a bad shot or missing the target in shooting; palhitechen means to aim a strike and miss; pallahammen means to miss when shooting at game; and pallilissin means to do something incorrectly or wrong.

M. de Volney has very justly observed on the Miami language, which is a dialect of the Lenape, that m at the beginning of a word implies in general something bad or ugly. It is certainly 399 so in the Delaware, though not without exceptions, for mannitto, a spirit, by which name God himself, the great and good Spirit is called, begins with that ill-omened letter. Nevertheless the words “machit,” bad, and “medhick,” evil, have produced many derivatives, or words beginning with the syllables med, mach, mat, mui, me, mas, &c., all of which imply something bad, and are taken in a bad sense. For instance, mekih and melih, corruption; machtando, the devil; machtageen, to fight, kill; machtapan, a bad, unpleasant morning; machtapeek, bad time, time of war; machtonquam, to have a bad dream, &c. I mention this merely to do justice to the sagacity of M. Volney, whose few observations upon the Indians induce us to regret that he was not in a situation to make more.

M. de Volney has rightly pointed out about the Miami language, which is a dialect of Lenape, that m at the start of a word generally indicates something bad or ugly. This is definitely the case in Delaware, though there are exceptions; for example, mannitto, meaning spirit, which is also a name for God, the great and good Spirit, starts with that unlucky letter. Still, the words “machit,” meaning bad, and “medhick,” meaning evil, have led to many variations, or words beginning with the syllables med, mach, mat, mui, me, mas, etc., all of which suggest something negative and are understood in a negative sense. For example, mekih and melih mean corruption; machtando means the devil; machtageen means to fight or kill; machtapan refers to a bad, unpleasant morning; machtapeek signifies a bad time or a time of war; machtonquam means to have a bad dream, etc. I mention this simply to acknowledge the insight of M. Volney, whose few observations on the Indians make us wish he had been in a position to share more.

I begin to feel fatigued, and therefore shall take leave of you for the present and reserve the remainder of my answer for my next letter.

I’m starting to feel tired, so I’ll take a break for now and save the rest of my answer for my next letter.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XIX.
FROM THE SAME.

Bethlehem, 15th August, 1816.

Bethlehem, August 15, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I sit down to conclude my answer to your letter of the 3d inst.

Dear Sir,—I’m writing to finish my response to your letter from the 3rd.

Before I begin this task, let me give you some examples that now occur to me to shew the regularity of the formation of Indian words.

Before I start this task, let me share some examples that come to mind to demonstrate the consistent way Indian words are formed.

1. The names of reptiles generally end in gook or gookses.

1. The names of reptiles usually end in gook or gookses.

Achgook, a serpent. Suckachgook, a black snake Mamalachgook, spotted snake. Asgaskachgook, green snake.

2. The names of fishes in meek (Namæs, a fish.)

2. The names of fish in meek (Namæs, a fish.)

Maschilameek, a trout (spotted fish). Wisameek, catfish (the fat fish.) Suckameek, *black fish*. Lennameek, chub. 400

3. The names of other animals, have in the same manner regular terminations, ap, or ape, for walking in an erect posture; hence lenape, man; chum, for four-legged animals, and wehelleu, for the winged tribes. I need not swell this letter with examples, which would add nothing to your knowledge of the principle which I have sufficiently explained.

3. Other animal names also have regular endings, ap or ape, indicating they walk upright; thus lenape means man; chum refers to four-legged animals, and wehelleu pertains to flying creatures. I won’t clutter this letter with examples that wouldn’t enhance your understanding of the principle I’ve already explained.

I now proceed to answer your letter.

I am now responding to your letter.

Notwithstanding Mr. Edwards’s observation (for whom I feel the highest respect), I cannot help being of opinion, that the monosyllable ooch, is the proper word for father, abstractedly considered, and that it is as proper to say ooch, father, and nooch, my father, as dallemons, beast, and n’dallemons, my beast; or nitschan, child, or a child, and n’nitschan, my child. It is certain, however, that there are few occasions for using these words in their abstract sense, as there are so many ways of associating them with other ideas. Wetoochwink and wetochemuxit both mean “the father,” in a more definite sense, and wetochemelenk is used in the vocative sense, and means “thou our father.” I once heard Captain Pipe, a celebrated Indian chief, address the British commandant at Detroit, and he said nooch! my father!

Despite Mr. Edwards's observation (whom I deeply respect), I can't help but believe that the monosyllable ooch is the right word for father, when considered in the abstract. It's just as fitting to say ooch, father, and nooch, my father, as it is to say dallemons, beast, and n’dallemons, my beast; or nitschan, child, and n’nitschan, my child. However, it's true that there are few situations where these words are used in their abstract sense, since there are so many ways to connect them with other ideas. Wetoochwink and wetochemuxit both mean “the father” in a more specific sense, while wetochemelenk is used in a vocative way, meaning “thou our father.” I once heard Captain Pipe, a famous Indian chief, address the British commandant in Detroit, and he said nooch! my father!

The shades of difference between these several expressions are so nice and delicate, that I feel great difficulty in endeavouring to explain them. Wetochemuxit, I conceive to be more properly applicable to the heavenly Father, than to an earthly one. It implies an idea of power and authority over his children, superior to that of mere procreation, therefore I think it fittest to be used in prayer and worship. Wetoochwink, on the contrary, by the syllable we or wet, prefixed to it, implies progeny and ownership over it;289 and wink or ink conveys the idea of the actual existence of that progeny. Yet Mr. Zeisberger, who well understood the language, has used wetoochwink in the spiritual sense. Thus, in his Delaware Hymn Book,290 you find, page 15, Pennamook Wetoochwink milquenk! which is in English “Behold what the 401 Father has given us!” Again, in the same book, page 32, we read, “Hallewiwi wetochemuxit;” which means “The Father of Eternity.” Upon the whole I believe that ooch is a proper word for “father” or “a father,” but wetoochwink may also be used in the same sense, notwithstanding its more definite general acceptation. There is little occasion, however, to use either with this abstract indefinite meaning.

The differences between these various expressions are so subtle and intricate that I find it challenging to explain them. Wetochemuxit seems to be more appropriately used for the heavenly Father rather than an earthly one. It suggests a sense of power and authority over His children that goes beyond mere procreation, so I believe it’s best suited for prayer and worship. Wetoochwink, on the other hand, with the prefix we or wet, implies offspring and ownership; and wink or ink indicates the actual existence of that offspring. Yet Mr. Zeisberger, who had a good grasp of the language, has employed wetoochwink in a spiritual context. Thus, in his Delaware Hymn Book, you can find, on page 15, Pennamook Wetoochwink milquenk! which translates to “Behold what the 401 Father has given us!” Again, in the same book, on page 32, we read, “Hallewiwi wetochemuxit;” which means “The Father of Eternity.” Overall, I believe that ooch is a fitting word for “father” or “a father,” but wetoochwink can also be used in the same sense, even though it has a more specific general meaning. However, there is little need to use either with this abstract indefinite meaning.

I agree with you that lenni, lenno, illenoh, illenou, illinois, appear to have all the same derivation, and to be connected with the idea of man, nation, or people. Lenno, in the Delaware language, signifies man, and so does Lenape, in a more extended sense. In the name of the Lenni Lenape, it signifies people; but the word lenni, which precedes it, has a different signification and means original, and sometimes common, plain, pure, unmixed. Under this general description the Indians comprehend all that they believe to have been first created in the origin of things. To all such things they prefix the word lenni; as, for instance, when they speak of high lands, they say lenni hacki (original lands), but they do not apply the same epithet to low lands, which being generally formed by the overflowing or washing of rivers, cannot, therefore, be called original. Trees which grow on high lands are also called lenni hittuck, original trees. In the same manner they designate Indian corn, pumpkins, squashes, beans, tobacco, &c., all which they think were given by the Great Spirit for their use, from the beginning. Thus, they call Indian corn291 lenchasqueem, from lenni and chasqueem; beans, lenalachksital, from lenni and malachksital; tobacco, lenkschatey, from lenni and kschatey; which is the same as if they said original corn, original beans, original tobacco. They call the linden tree lennikby, from lenni and wikby; the last word by itself meaning “the tree whose bark peels freely,” as the bark of that tree peels off easily all the year round. This bark is made use of as a rope for tying and also for building their huts, the roof and sides of which are made of it. A house thus built is called lennikgawon, “original house or hut,” from lennikby, original, or linden tree, wikheen, to build, and jagawon or yagawon, a house with a flat roof. It is as if they said “a house built of original materials.” 402

I agree with you that lenni, lenno, illenoh, illenou, and illinois all seem to come from the same origin and relate to the concepts of man, nation, or people. In the Delaware language, Lenno means man, and Lenape carries a broader meaning. In the term Lenni Lenape, it translates to people; however, the word lenni, which comes first, has a different meaning and implies original, and sometimes common, plain, pure, unmixed. Under this general description, the Indians include everything they believe was first created at the beginning of things. They add the prefix lenni to these things; for instance, when they refer to high lands, they say lenni hacki (original lands), but they don't use the same term for low lands, as these are typically formed by the flooding or erosion of rivers and, therefore, can’t be called original. Trees that grow on high lands are also referred to as lenni hittuck, original trees. Similarly, they name Indian corn, pumpkins, squashes, beans, tobacco, etc., all of which they believe were provided by the Great Spirit for their use from the beginning. For example, they call Indian corn lenchasqueem, combining lenni and chasqueem; beans, lenalachksital, from lenni and malachksital; and tobacco, lenkschatey, from lenni and kschatey; which is like saying original corn, original beans, original tobacco. They refer to the linden tree as lennikby, derived from lenni and wikby; the latter word alone means “the tree whose bark peels easily,” since its bark comes off easily throughout the year. This bark is used as rope for tying and for constructing their huts, the roof and sides of which are made from it. A house built in this way is called lennikgawon, meaning “original house or hut,” from lennikby, original or linden tree, wikheen, to build, and jagawon or yagawon, a house with a flat roof. It’s as if they’re saying “a house built of original materials.” 402

Lennasqual, in the Minsi dialect, means a kind of grass which is supposed to have grown on the land from the beginning. English grasses, as timothy, &c., they call schwannockasquall, or white men’s grass. The chub fish they call lennameek, because, say they, this fish is in all fresh water or streams, whereas other fish are confined to certain particular waters or climates.

Lennasqual, in the Minsi dialect, refers to a type of grass that is believed to have been present on the land since the beginning. The local people call English grasses, like timothy, schwannockasquall, meaning white men’s grass. They refer to chub fish as lennameek because, as they say, this fish can be found in all freshwater or streams, while other fish are limited to specific waters or climates.

They also say lenni m’bi, “pure water;” leneyachkhican, a fowling piece, as distinguished from a rifle, because it was the first fire-arm they ever saw; a rifle they call tetupalachgat. They say, lenachsinnall, “common stones,” because stones are found every where, lenachpoan, “common bread,” (achpoan means “bread”); lenachgook, a common snake, such as is seen every where (from achgook, a snake); lenchum, the original, common dog, not one of the species brought into the country by the white people. I think I have sufficiently explained the name “Lenni Lenape.”

They also say lenni m’bi, “pure water;” leneyachkhican, a fowling piece, which is different from a rifle, because it was the first firearm they ever saw; a rifle they call tetupalachgat. They say, lenachsinnall, “common stones,” because stones are found everywhere, lenachpoan, “common bread,” (achpoan means “bread”); lenachgook, a common snake, one that’s seen everywhere (from achgook, a snake); lenchum, the original, common dog, not one of the breeds brought into the country by white people. I think I have sufficiently explained the name “Lenni Lenape.”

As I do not know the Greenland language, I cannot say how far the word “innuit” is connected with lenni or lenno, or any of the words or names derived from them.

As I don't know the Greenland language, I can't say how connected the word “innuit” is to lenni or lenno, or any of the words or names that come from them.

The words squaw, sachem, tomahawk, and wigwam, are words of Delaware stock, somewhat corrupted by the English. Ochqueu, woman; sakima, chief; tamahican, hatchet;292 wickwam (both syllables long, as in English weekwawm), a house. Hence, nik, my house; kik, thy house; wikit, his house; wikichtit, their houses; wikia, at my house; wiquahemink, in the house; again, wickheen, to build a house; wikhitschik, the builders of a house; wikheu, he is building a house; wikhetamok, let us build a house; wikheek (imperative), build a house; wikhattoak, they are building (a house or houses).

The words squaw, sachem, tomahawk, and wigwam come from the Delaware language, slightly altered by English. Ochqueu means woman; sakima means chief; tamahican means hatchet; 292 wickwam (both syllables long, like the English weekwawm) means a house. So, nik means my house; kik means your house; wikit means his house; wikichtit means their houses; wikia means at my house; wiquahemink means in the house; also, wickheen means to build a house; wikhitschik means the builders of a house; wikheu means he is building a house; wikhetamok means let us build a house; wikheek (imperative) means build a house; wikhattoak means they are building (a house or houses).

Calumet is not an Indian word; M. Volney thinks it is an English word for a tobacco pipe; it is certainly not proper English, but I have always thought that it was first used by the English or the French. The Delaware for a tobacco pipe is Poakan (two syllables).

Calumet is not a Native American word; M. Volney believes it's an English term for a tobacco pipe; it's definitely not standard English, but I've always thought it was first used by the English or the French. The Delaware word for a tobacco pipe is Poakan (two syllables).

Wampum is an Iroquois word, and means a marine shell. 403

Wampum is an Iroquois word that means a shell from the sea. 403

Papoose, I do not know; it is not a word of the Delaware language, yet it is possible that it may be used by some Indian nations, from whom we may have borrowed it. I have been told that the Mahicanni of New England made use of this word for a child. I am, &c.

Papoose, I’m not sure; it’s not a term from the Delaware language, but it might be used by some Native American nations, from whom we could have picked it up. I’ve heard that the Mahicanni of New England used this word for a child. I am, &c.

LETTER XX.
To Mr. Heckwelder.

Philadelphia, 21st August, 1816.

Philadelphia, August 21, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I have read with the greatest pleasure your two interesting letters of the 12th and 15th. I need not tell you how pleased the Historical Committee are with your correspondence, which is laid before them from time to time. I am instructed to do all in my power to induce you to persevere in giving to your country the so much wanted information concerning the Indians and their languages. The Committee are convinced that the first duty of an American Scientific Association is to occupy themselves with the objects that relate to our own country. It is on these subjects that the world has a right to expect instruction from us.

Dear [Name].—I was truly delighted to read your two fascinating letters from the 12th and 15th. I don’t need to tell you how pleased the Historical Committee is with your correspondence, which they receive from time to time. I've been asked to do everything I can to encourage you to continue providing the much-needed information about the Indians and their languages. The Committee believes that the primary responsibility of an American Scientific Association is to focus on topics relating to our own country. It's on these matters that the world expects us to provide insight.

I am busily employed in studying and translating the excellent Delaware Grammar of Mr. Zeisberger; I hope the Historical Committee will publish it in due time. The more I become acquainted with this extraordinary language, the more I am delighted with its copiousness and with the beauty of its forms. Those which the Hispano-Mexican Grammarians call transitions are really admirable. If this language was cultivated and polished as those of Europe have been, and if the Delawares had a Homer or Virgil among them, it is impossible to say with such an instrument how far the art could be carried. The Greek is admired for its compounds; but what are they to those of the Indians? How many ideas they can combine and express together in one single locution, and that too by a regular series of grammatical forms, by innumerably varied inflexions of the same radical word, with the help of pronominal affixes! All this, my dear sir, is combined with the most exquisite skill, in a perfectly regular order and method, and with fewer exceptions 404 or anomalies than I have found in any other language. This is what really astonishes me, and it is with the greatest difficulty that I can guard myself against enthusiastic feelings. The verb, among the Indians, is truly the word by way of excellence. It combines itself with the pronoun, with the adjective, with the adverb; in short, with almost every part of speech. There are forms both positive and negative which include the two pronouns, the governing and the governed; ktahoatell,293 “I love thee;” ktahoalowi, “I do not love thee.” The adverb “not,” is comprised both actively and passively in the negative forms, n’dahoalawi, “I do not love;” n’dahoalgussiwi, “I am not loved;” and other adverbs are combined in a similar manner. From schingi, “unwillingly,” is formed schingattam, “to be unwilling,” schingoochwen, “to go somewhere unwillingly,” schingimikemossin, “to work unwillingly;” from wingi, “willingly,” we have wingsittam, “to hear willingly,” wingachpin, “to be willingly somewhere,” wingilauchsin, “to live willingly in a particular manner;” from the adverb gunich,294 “long,” comes gunelendam, “to think one takes long to do something;” gunagen, “to stay out long;” and so are formed all the rest of the numerous class of adverbial verbs. The adjective verbs are produced in the same way, by a combination of adjective nouns with the verbal form. Does guneu mean “long” in the adjective sense, you have guneep, it was long, guneuchtschi, it will be long, &c.; from kschiechek, “clean,” is formed kschiecheep, “it was clean;” from machkeu, “red,” machkeep, “it was red;” and so on through the whole class of words. Prepositions are combined in the same manner, but that is common also to other languages. What extent and variety displays itself in those Indian verbs, and what language, in this respect, can be compared to our savage idioms?

I am busy studying and translating the excellent Delaware Grammar by Mr. Zeisberger; I hope the Historical Committee will publish it soon. The more I learn about this amazing language, the more I appreciate its richness and the beauty of its structure. What the Hispano-Mexican grammarians call transitions are truly impressive. If this language were nurtured and refined like European languages have been, and if the Delawares had their own Homer or Virgil, it's impossible to say how far the art could go with such a tool. Greek is admired for its compounds; but what do they compare to those of the Native Americans? They can combine and express so many ideas in a single phrase, using a regular series of grammatical structures with countless variations of the same root word, all enhanced by pronominal affixes! All of this, my dear sir, is combined with exquisite skill in a perfectly organized and systematic way, with fewer exceptions or irregularities than I've found in any other language. This genuinely amazes me, and I find it very hard to keep my enthusiasm in check. Among Native Americans, the verb is truly the word par excellence. It combines with the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb; basically, with almost every part of speech. There are forms, both positive and negative, that include the two pronouns, the subject and the object; ktahoatell, “I love you;” ktahoalowi, “I do not love you.” The adverb “not” is included both actively and passively in the negative forms, n’dahoalawi, “I do not love;” n’dahoalgussiwi, “I am not loved;” and other adverbs are combined in a similar way. From schingi, “unwillingly,” we derive schingattam, “to be unwilling,” schingoochwen, “to go somewhere unwillingly,” schingimikemossin, “to work unwillingly;” from wingi, “willingly,” we get wingsittam, “to hear willingly,” wingachpin, “to be willingly somewhere,” wingilauchsin, “to live willingly in a certain way;” from the adverb gunich, “long,” comes gunelendam, “to think one takes a long time to do something;” gunagen, “to stay out long;” and this pattern continues with all the numerous adverbial verbs. The adjective verbs are formed in the same way, by combining adjective nouns with the verbal form. If guneu means “long” in the adjective sense, you have guneep, “it was long,” guneuchtschi, “it will be long,” and so on; from kschiechek, “clean,” we get kschiecheep, “it was clean;” from machkeu, “red,” machkeep, “it was red;” and this goes on throughout the entire class of words. Prepositions are combined in the same way, but that's also common in other languages. Just think about the extent and variety found in those Indian verbs; what language can be compared to our indigenous dialects in this regard?

Nor are the participles less rich or less copious. Every verb has a long series of participles, which when necessary can be declined and used as adjectives. Let me be permitted to instance a few from the causative verb wulamalessohen, “to make happy.” I take them from Zeisberger. 405

Nor are the participles any less rich or abundant. Every verb has a long list of participles that can be modified and used as adjectives when needed. Allow me to give a few examples from the causative verb wulamalessohen, “to make happy.” I take them from Zeisberger. 405

Wulamalessohaluwed, the one who brings joy. Wulamalessohalid, the one who makes me happy. Wulamalessohalquon, he who makes you happy, Wulamalessohalat, he who makes him happy. Wulamalessohalquenk, the one who makes us happy. Wulamalessohalqueek, the one who makes you happy. Wulamalessohalquichtit, the one who makes them happy.

Now comes another participial-pronominal-vocative form; which may in the same manner be conjugated through all the objective persons. Wulamalessohalian! THOU WHO MAKEST ME HAPPY!

Now comes another participial-pronominal-vocative form; which can similarly be conjugated through all the objective persons. Wulamalessohalian! You who bring me joy!

I will not proceed further; but permit me to ask you, my dear sir, what would Tibullus or Sappho have given to have had at their command a word at once so tender and so expressive? How delighted would be Moore, the poet of the loves and graces, if his language, instead of five or six tedious words slowly following in the rear of each other, had furnished him with an expression like this, in which the lover, the object beloved, and the delicious sentiment which their mutual passion inspires, are blended, are fused together in one comprehensive appellative term? And it is in the languages of savages that these beautiful forms are found! What a subject for reflection, and how little do we know, as yet, of the astonishing things that the world contains!

I won’t go on any longer; but let me ask you, my dear sir, what would Tibullus or Sappho have given to have a word that is both so tender and so expressive? How thrilled would Moore, the poet of love and grace, be if his language, instead of having five or six tedious words strung along one after the other, could provide him with an expression like this, where the lover, the beloved, and the wonderful feeling their shared passion creates are all combined into one comprehensive term? And it’s in the languages of primitive people that these beautiful forms exist! What a thought to ponder, and how little we know yet about the incredible things that the world holds!

In the course of my reading, I have often seen the question discussed which of the two classes of languages, the analytical or the synthetical (as I call them), is the most perfect or is preferable to the other. Formerly there seemed to be but one sentiment on the subject, for who cannot perceive the superiority of the Latin and Greek, over the modern mixed dialects which at present prevail in Europe? But we live in the age of paradoxes, and there is no opinion, however extraordinary, that does not find supporters. To me it would appear that the perfection of language consists in being able to express much in a few words; to raise at once in the mind by a few magic sounds, whole masses of thoughts which strike by a kind of instantaneous intuition. Such in its effects must be the medium by which immortal 406 spirits communicate with each other; such, I should think, were I disposed to indulge in fanciful theories, must have been the language first taught to mankind by the great author of all perfection.

In my reading, I’ve often come across the debate about which of the two types of languages, the analytical or the synthetical (as I refer to them), is more perfect or preferable. It used to seem like everyone agreed that Latin and Greek are superior to the modern mixed dialects that dominate Europe today. But we live in an age of contradictions, and there’s always a contrary opinion that finds its supporters. To me, true perfection in language means being able to convey a lot with just a few words; to evoke in the mind, through a few powerful sounds, entire concepts that resonate with instant clarity. Such must be the way that immortal spirits communicate with each other; and I suspect, if I were to indulge in whimsical theories, this must have been the language first taught to humanity by the ultimate source of all perfection.

All this would probably be admitted if the Latin and Greek were only in question: for their supremacy seems to stand on an ancient legitimate title not easy to be shaken, and there is still a strong prepossession in the minds of the learned in favour of the languages in which Homer and Virgil sang. But since it has been discovered that the barbarous dialects of savage nations are formed on the same principle with the classical idioms, and that the application of this principle is even carried in them to a still greater extent, it has been found easier to ascribe the beautiful organisation of these languages to stupidity and barbarism, than to acknowledge our ignorance of the manner in which it has been produced. Philosophers have therefore set themselves to work in order to prove that those admirable combinations of ideas in the form of words, which in the ancient languages of Europe used to be considered as some of the greatest efforts of the human mind, proceed in the savage idioms from the absence or weakness of mental powers in those who originally framed them.

All this would likely be acknowledged if we were only talking about Latin and Greek: their dominance seems to be based on an old legitimate claim that's hard to challenge, and there's still a strong bias among scholars favoring the languages in which Homer and Virgil wrote. But now that we've discovered that the harsh dialects of primitive societies are based on the same principles as classical languages, and that these principles are even applied more extensively in those dialects, it's become easier to attribute the elegant structure of these languages to ignorance and savagery rather than admit that we don't understand how they developed. Philosophers have thus set out to prove that those amazing arrangements of ideas in word form, which were once considered some of the greatest achievements of the human mind in ancient European languages, actually arise in these primitive dialects from a lack or weakness of mental abilities in those who created them.

Among those philosophers the celebrated Dr. Adam Smith stands pre-eminent. In an elegant treatise on the origin and formation of language, he has endeavoured to shew that synthetical forms of speech were the first rude attempts which men made to communicate their ideas, and that they employed comprehensive and generic terms, because their minds had not yet acquired the powers of analysis and were not capable of discriminating between different objects. Hence, he says every river among primitive men was the river, every mountain the mountain, and it was very long before they learned to distinguish them by particular names. On the same principle, he continues, men said in one word pluit (it rains,) before they could so separate their confused ideas as to say the rain or the water is falling. Such is the sense and spirit of his positions, which I quote from memory.

Among those philosophers, the renowned Dr. Adam Smith stands out. In a well-crafted essay on the origin and development of language, he attempts to show that basic forms of speech were the initial rough efforts humans made to express their ideas, and that they used broad and general terms because their minds had not yet developed the ability to analyze and distinguish between different objects. Thus, he claims that every river among early humans was referred to as the river, every mountain as the mountain, and it took a long time before they learned to identify them with specific names. On the same note, he adds that people would say pluit (it rains) in one word before they could separate their mixed ideas enough to say the rain or the water is falling. Such is the essence and intent of his arguments, which I recall from memory.

This theory is certainly very ingenious; it is only unfortunate 407 that it does not accord with facts, as far as our observations can trace them. You have shown that the comprehensive compounds of the Delaware idiom are formed out of other words expressive of single ideas; these simple words, therefore, must have been invented before they were compounded into others, and thus analysis presided over the first formation of the language. So far, at least, Dr. Smith’s theory falls to the ground; nor does he appear to be better supported in his supposition of the pre-existence of generic terms. For Dr. Wistar has told me, and quotes your authority for it, that such are seldom in use among the Indians, and that when a stranger pointing to an object asks how it is called, he will not be told a tree, a river, a mountain, but an ash, an oak, a beech; the Delaware, the Mississippi, the Allegheny. If this fact is correctly stated, it is clear that among those original people every tree is not the tree, and every mountain the mountain, but that, on the contrary, everything is in preference distinguished by its specific name.

This theory is definitely clever; it’s just unfortunate that it doesn’t align with the facts as far as our observations can trace them. You’ve shown that the comprehensive compounds of the Delaware language are made up of other words that express single ideas. Therefore, these simple words must have been created before they were combined into others, meaning that analysis played a key role in the initial formation of the language. At least in this respect, Dr. Smith’s theory doesn’t hold up, and he doesn’t seem to have a stronger basis for his idea that generic terms existed before. Dr. Wistar has mentioned to me, and cites your authority for it, that such terms are rarely used among the Indians. When a stranger points to an object and asks what it’s called, he won’t be told a tree, a river, a mountain, but rather an ash, an oak, a beech; the Delaware, the Mississippi, the Allegheny. If this fact is accurate, it’s clear that among those original people, every tree isn’t the tree, and every mountain isn’t the mountain, but rather everything is usually identified by its specific name.

It is no argument, therefore, against the synthetical forms of language, that they are in use among savage nations. However barbarous may be the people by whom they are employed, I acknowledge that I can see nothing barbarous in them, but think, on the contrary, that they add much to the beauty of speech. This is neither the time nor the place to enter into an elaborate discussion of this subject, but I beg leave to be allowed to illustrate and support my opinion by a lively example taken from the Latin tongue.

It’s not a valid argument against synthetic forms of language that they are used by primitive cultures. No matter how uncivilized the people using them may be, I see nothing uncivilized about these forms; in fact, I believe they enhance the beauty of speech. This isn’t the right time or place for an in-depth discussion on this topic, but I’d like to illustrate and support my point with a vivid example from the Latin language.

Suetonius relates that the Roman Emperor Claudius (one of the most barbarous tyrants that ever existed,) once gave to his courtiers the spectacle of a naval combat on the Fucine lake, to be seriously performed by gladiators. When the poor fellows saw the Emperor approaching, they hailed him with “Ave, Imperator, MORITURI te salutant!” In English this means, “Hail, Cæsar! THOSE WHO ARE GOING TO DIE salute thee!” The tyrant was so moved, or rather struck with this unexpected address, that before he had time to reflect he returned the salutation Avete vos! “Fare ye well!” This gracious reply, from the mouth of an Emperor, amounted to a pardon, and the gladiators, in consequence, refused to fight. But the monster soon returned 408 to his natural ferocity, and after hesitating for a while whether he would destroy them all by fire and sword, he rose from his seat, and ran staggering along the banks of the lake, in the most disgusting agitation, and at last, partly by exhortations and partly by threats, compelled them to fight.295 Thus far Suetonius.

Suetonius tells us that the Roman Emperor Claudius (one of the most brutal tyrants to ever exist) once put on a show for his courtiers featuring a naval battle on Lake Fucine, performed by gladiators. When the poor men saw the Emperor approaching, they greeted him with “Ave, Imperator, Morituri te salutant!” In English, this means, “Hail, Cæsar! PEOPLE WHO ARE ABOUT TO DIE salute you!” The tyrant was so taken aback, or rather shaken by this unexpected greeting, that before he could think it over, he responded with “Avete vos!” which means “Fare ye well!” This kind reply from an Emperor was effectively a pardon, and as a result, the gladiators refused to fight. But the monster quickly reverted to his savage nature, and after some back-and-forth on whether to eliminate them all by fire and sword, he got up from his seat and staggered along the lake's banks in a disgusting frenzy, eventually using a mix of encouragement and threats to force them into battle. 295 Thus far Suetonius.

Now, my dear sir, I put the question to you; if the gladiators, instead of morituri, had said in English those who are about or going to die; would the Emperor even have hesitated for a moment, and would he not at once have ordered those men to fight on? In the word morituri, he was struck at the first moment with the terrible idea of death placed in full front by means of the syllable MOR; while the future termination ITURI with the accessory ideas that it involves was calculated to produce a feeling of tender compassion on his already powerfully agitated mind, and in fact did produce it, though it lasted only a short time. But if, instead of this rapid succession of strong images, he had been assailed at first with five insignificant words Those—who—are—going—to, foreseeing what was about to follow, he would have had time to make up his mind before the sentence had been quite pronounced, and I doubt much whether the gladiators would have been allowed time to finish it. In German, Diejenigen welche am sterben sind, would have produced much the same effect, from the length of the words diejenigen and welche, which have no definite meaning, and could in no manner have affected the feelings of the tyrant Claudius. Ceux qui vont mourir, in French, is somewhat shorter, but in none of the modern languages do I find anything that operates on my mind like the terrible and pathetic morituri. May we not exclaim here with the great Gœthe: O, eine Nation ist zu beneiden, die so feine Schattirungen in einem Worte auszudruecken weiss! “O, how a nation is to be envied, that can express such delicate shades of thought in one single word!”296 409

Now, my dear sir, I ask you this: if the gladiators had said in English, “those who are about to die,” instead of the word *morituri*, would the Emperor have even hesitated for a second, or would he not have immediately ordered those men to fight? In the word *morituri*, he was struck at once by the horrifying notion of death brought forth by the syllable MOR; meanwhile, the future part ITURI, with the emotions it conjured, was likely to evoke a feeling of deep compassion in his already highly agitated mind, and indeed it did, although it only lasted a brief moment. But if, instead of this quick series of intense images, he had been hit first with five insignificant words “Those—who—are—going—to,” while anticipating what would follow, he would have had time to think it over before the sentence was completely spoken, and I seriously doubt the gladiators would have been allowed to finish it. In German, *Diejenigen welche am sterben sind* would have had a similar effect due to the length of the words *diejenigen* and *welche*, which carry no clear meaning and could not have had any emotional impact on the tyrant Claudius. *Ceux qui vont mourir* in French is somewhat shorter, but in none of the modern languages do I find anything that resonates in my mind like the stark and emotional *morituri*. Can we not echo the great Goethe's words: *O, eine Nation ist zu beneiden, die so feine Schattirungen in einem Worte auszudrücken weiss!* “O, how a nation is to be envied, that can express such delicate shades of thought in one single word!”296 409

I hope, indeed I do not doubt, that there is a similar word in the Delaware language; if so, please to give it to me with a full explanation of its construction and meaning.

I truly hope, and I have no doubt, that there's a similar word in the Delaware language; if there is, please share it with me along with a complete explanation of its structure and meaning.

I thank you very much for the valuable information you have given on the subject of the word “father;” the distinction between wetochemuxit, and wetoochwink, appears to me beautiful, and Zeisberger seems to have perfectly understood it. When he makes use of the first of these words, he displays the “Father of Eternity” in all his glory; but when he says, “Behold what the Father has given us!” he employs the word wetoochwink, which conveys the idea of a natural father, the better to express the paternal tenderness of God for his children. These elegant shades of expression shew in a very forcible manner the beauty and copiousness of the Indian languages, and the extent and the force of that natural logic, of those powers of feeling and discrimination, and of that innate sense of order, regularity and method which is possessed even by savage nations, and has produced such an admirable variety of modes of conveying human thoughts by means of the different organs and senses with which the Almighty has provided us.

Thank you so much for the valuable information you’ve shared about the word “father.” The distinction between wetochemuxit and wetoochwink seems beautiful to me, and Zeisberger appears to have understood it perfectly. When he uses the first of these words, he reveals the “Father of Eternity” in all his glory; but when he says, “Behold what the Father has given us!” he uses the word wetoochwink, which conveys the idea of a natural father to better express God's paternal tenderness for his children. These elegant nuances demonstrate the beauty and richness of the Indian languages, as well as the depth and strength of that natural logic, those powers of feeling and discernment, and that inherent sense of order, regularity, and method found even among indigenous peoples, which has led to such an admirable variety of ways to express human thoughts through the different organs and senses bestowed upon us by the Almighty.

Will you be so good as to inform me whether the Delaware language admits of inversions similar or analogous to those of the Latin tongue; and in what order words are in general placed before or after each other? Do you say “bread give me,” or “give me bread”?

Will you please let me know if the Delaware language has inversions like those in Latin, and what the typical order of words is? Do you say “bread give me,” or “give me bread”?

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XXI.
FROM MR. HECKEWELDER.

Bethlehem, 26th August, 1816.

Bethlehem, August 26, 1816.

Dear Sir.—Your letter of the 21st inst. has done me the greatest pleasure. I see that you enter the spirit of our Indian languages, and that your mind is struck with the beauty of their grammatical forms. I am not surprised to find that you admire so much wulamalessohalian, it is really a fine expressive word; but you must not think that it stands alone; there are many 410 others equally beautiful and equally expressive, and which are at the same time so formed as to please the ear. Such is eluwiwulik, a name which the Indians apply to Almighty God, and signifies “the most blessed, the most holy, the most excellent, the most precious.” It is compounded of allowiwi, which signifies “more” and wulik, the meaning of which has been fully explained in former letters. It is, as it were allowiwi wulik; the vowel a, in the first word being changed into e. By thus compounding this word allowiwi with others the Delawares have formed a great number of denominations, by which they address or designate the Supreme Being, such are:

Dear Sir,—Your letter from the 21st has brought me great joy. I can see that you truly appreciate our Indian languages and are captivated by the beauty of their grammatical structures. I'm not surprised you find wulamalessohalian so admirable; it's indeed a wonderfully expressive word. However, don't think it's unique; there are many other words that are just as beautiful and expressive, while also pleasing to the ear. One example is eluwiwulik, a name the Indians use for Almighty God, which means “the most blessed, the most holy, the most excellent, the most precious.” It's made up of allowiwi, which means “more,” and wulik, a term I’ve explained in previous letters. It’s essentially allowiwi wulik; the vowel a in the first word is changed to e. By combining allowiwi with other words, the Delawares have created numerous titles through which they refer to or designate the Supreme Being, such as:

Eliwulek,__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ } Allowilen,__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__}He who is above every thing.299
Eluwantowit, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ God above all; (“getannitowit” means God.) Elewassit, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__, the most powerful, the most majestic. Eluwitschanessik, the strongest of all. Eluwikschiechsit, the amazing.__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Eluwilissit, the supreme being in goodness.

I have no doubt you will admire these expressions; our Missionaries found them of great use, and considered them as adding much to the solemnity of divine service, and calculated to promote and keep alive a deep sense of devotion to the Supreme Being. I entirely agree with you in your opinion of the superior beauty of compound terms; the Indians understand very well how to make use of them, and a great part of the force and energy of their speeches is derived from that source: it is very difficult, I may even say impossible, to convey either in German or English, the whole impressiveness of their discourses; I have often attempted it without success.

I have no doubt you'll appreciate these expressions; our missionaries found them very helpful and believed they added a lot to the seriousness of religious services, while also fostering and maintaining a strong sense of devotion to the Supreme Being. I completely agree with you about the greater beauty of compound terms; the Native Americans know how to use them well, and much of the power and intensity of their speeches comes from that. It's very challenging, I might even say impossible, to fully convey the emotional weight of their talks in either German or English; I've often tried without success.

The word “morituri” which you cite from the Latin, affords a 411 very good argument in support of the position which you have taken. It is really very affecting, and I am not astonished at the effect which it produced upon the mind of the cruel emperor. We have a similar word in the Delaware language, “Elumiangellatschik,” “those who are on the point of dying, or who are about to die.” The first part of it, elumi, is derived from the verb n’dallemi, which means “I am going about” (something). N’dallemi mikemosi, “I am going to work,” or “about to work.” N’dallemi wickheen, “I am going to build.” N’dallemi angeln, “I am about dying,” or “going to die.” The second member of the word, that is to say angel, comes from angeln, “to die;” angloagan, “death,” angellopannik, “they are all dead.” The remainder is a grammatical form; atsch, indicates the future tense; the last syllable ik, conveys the idea of the personal pronoun “they.” Thus elumiangellatschik, like the Latin morituri, expresses in one word “they or those who are going or about to die,” and in German “Diejenigen welche am sterben sind.”

The word “morituri” that you reference from Latin provides a strong argument in favor of your position. It's quite moving, and I’m not surprised at the impact it had on the heart of the ruthless emperor. We have a similar term in the Delaware language, “Elumiangellatschik,” meaning “those who are on the brink of dying, or who are about to die.” The first part, elumi, comes from the verb n’dallemi, which means “I am going about” (something). N’dallemi mikemosi, means “I am going to work,” or “about to work.” N’dallemi wickheen, means “I am going to build.” N’dallemi angeln, means “I am about to die,” or “going to die.” The second part of the word, angel, comes from angeln, “to die;” angloagan, “death,” angellopannik, “they are all dead.” The rest is just a grammatical form; atsch indicates the future tense; the last syllable ik conveys the meaning of the personal pronoun “they.” Therefore, elumiangellatschik, like the Latin morituri, encapsulates in one word “they or those who are going or about to die,” and in German “Diejenigen welche am sterben sind.”

I am pleased to hear that you discover every day new beauties as you proceed with the study of the Indian languages, and the translation of Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar. You have, no doubt, taken notice of the reciprocal verb exemplified in the fifth conjugation, in the positive and negative forms by “ahoaltin,” “to love each other.” Permit me to point out to you the regularity of its structure, by merely conjugating one tense of it in the two forms.

I’m glad to hear that you find new beauties every day as you study the Indian languages and work on translating Mr. Zeisberger’s Grammar. You’ve probably noticed the reciprocal verb shown in the fifth conjugation, in both its positive and negative forms with “ahoaltin,” meaning “to love each other.” Let me highlight the regularity of its structure by simply conjugating one tense in both forms.

INDICATIVE PRESENT.

Positive Form. Negative Form.
N’dahoaltineen, we love one another. Mat n’dahoaltiwuneen, we do not love one another.
K’dahoaltihhimo, you love one another. Matta kdahoaltiwihhimo, you do not love one another.
Ahoaltowak, they love one another. Matta ahoaltiwiwak, they do not love one another.

You will find the whole verb conjugated in Zeisberger, therefore I shall not exemplify further. You see there is no singular voice in this verb, nor is it susceptible of it, as it never implies the act of a single person. In the negative form, “matta” or 412 “atta” is an adverb which signifies “no” or “not,” and is always prefixed; but it is not that alone which indicates the negative sense of the verb. It is also pointed out by wu or wi, which you find interwoven throughout the whole conjugation, the vowel immediately preceding being sometimes changed for the sake of sound, as from “aholtawak,” “they love each other,” is formed “ahoaltiwiwak,” “they do not love each other.”

You can find the entire verb conjugated in Zeisberger, so I won't provide further examples. As you can see, this verb doesn’t have a singular form; it doesn’t indicate the action of just one person. In the negative form, “matta” or 412 “atta” acts as an adverb meaning “no” or “not,” and it’s always placed at the beginning. However, it’s not the only thing that shows the negative meaning of the verb. It’s also indicated by wu or wi, which appear throughout the entire conjugation. The vowel right before it sometimes changes for sound reasons, as in “aholtawak,” which means “they love each other,” changing to “ahoaltiwiwak,” meaning “they do not love each other.”

I will point out further, if you have not already observed it, what I am sure you will think a grammatical curiosity; it is a concordance in tense of the adverb with the verb. Turn to the future of the same negative conjugation in Zeisberger, and you will find:

I’ll add more if you haven’t noticed it already, what I’m sure you’ll find to be a grammatical curiosity; it involves the agreement in tense between the adverb and the verb. Look at the future tense of the same negative conjugation in Zeisberger, and you’ll see:

Mattatsch n’dahoaltiwuneen, we will love each other or we won’t. Mattatsch k’dahoaltiwihhimo, you Mattatsch ahoaltiwiwak, they

I have said already that atsch or tsch is a termination which in the conjugation of verbs indicates the future tense. Sometimes it is attached to the verb, as in matta ktahoaliwitsch, “thou shalt or wilt not love me,” but it may also be affixed to the adverb as you have seen above, by which means a variety is produced which adds much to the beauty and expressiveness of the language.

I have already mentioned that atsch or tsch is an ending that indicates the future tense in verb conjugation. Sometimes, it’s added to the verb, as in matta ktahoaliwitsch, meaning “you shall or will not love me,” but it can also be attached to the adverb, as you’ve seen above, creating a variety that enhances the beauty and expressiveness of the language.

You have asked me whether the Delaware language has inversions corresponding with those of the Latin? To this question, not being a Latin scholar, I am not competent to give an answer; I can only say that when the Indian is well or elegantly spoken, the words are so arranged that the prominent ideas stand in front of the discourse; but in familiar conversation a different order may sometimes be adopted. We say, in Delaware, Philadelphia epit, “Philadelphia at,” and not, as in English, “at Philadelphia.” We say “bread give me,” and not “give me bread,” because bread is the principal object with which the speaker means to strike the mind of his hearer.

You asked me if the Delaware language has inversions like those in Latin. Since I’m not a Latin expert, I can’t provide a definitive answer. However, I can tell you that when Delaware is spoken well or elegantly, the words are arranged so that the main ideas come first in the conversation. In more casual talk, though, the order can change. For example, we say in Delaware, Philadelphia epit, meaning “Philadelphia at,” rather than “at Philadelphia” like in English. We say “bread give me” instead of “give me bread” because bread is the main focus that the speaker wants to emphasize to the listener.

In the personal forms, or as you call them, transitions of the active verbs, the form expressive of the pronoun governed is sometimes placed in the beginning, as in k’dahoatell, “I love thee,” which is the same as thee I love; for k (from ki), is the 413 sign of the second person; sometimes, however, the governing pronoun is placed in front, as in n’dahoala, “I love him,” n’ being the sign of the first person, I. In these personal forms or transitions, one of the pronouns, governing or governed, is generally expressed by its proper sign, n’ for “I” or “me,” k’ for “thou” or “thee,” and w’ for “he or him;” the other pronoun is expressed by an inflexion, as in k’dahoalohhumo, I love you, k’dahoalineen, thou lovest us, k’dahoalowak, thou lovest them. You may easily perceive that the governing pronoun is not always in the same relative place with the governed.

In personal forms, or what you refer to as transitions of active verbs, the pronoun that's being governed is sometimes placed at the beginning, as in k’dahoatell, “I love you,” which is the same as saying you I love; for k (from ki) indicates the second person. However, sometimes the governing pronoun is placed in front, like in n’dahoala, “I love him,” where n’ signifies the first person, I. In these personal forms or transitions, one of the pronouns, whether governing or governed, is typically expressed with its proper sign, n’ for “I” or “me,” k’ for “you” or “thee,” and w’ for “he” or “him;” the other pronoun is shown through an inflection, as in k’dahoalohhumo, I love you, k’dahoalineen, you love us, k’dahoalowak, you love them. You can easily see that the governing pronoun isn't always in the same place relative to the governed.

That these and other forms of the verbs may be better understood, it will not be amiss to say something here of the personal pronouns. They are of two kinds: separable and inseparable. The separable pronouns are these:

That these and other forms of the verbs may be better understood, it will be helpful to say a bit about the personal pronouns. They come in two types: separable and inseparable. The separable pronouns are these:

Ni, I. Ki, you. Neka, or nekama, they. Kiluna, we. Kiluwa, you. Nekamawa, they.

There are other personal pronouns, which I believe to be peculiar to the Indian languages; such are:

There are other personal pronouns that I think are unique to Indian languages; examples include:

Nope, me too. Kepe, you too. Nepena, or kepena, we too. Kepewo, you too. Kepoak, they do too.

The inseparable pronouns are n for the first person, k for the second, and w or o for the third, both in the singular and the plural. They are combined with substantives in the possessive forms, as in nooch, my father, kooch, thy father; the third person is sometimes expressed by the termination wall, as ochwall, his or her father, and at other times by w, as in wtamochol, his or her canoe. In the plural, nochena, our father, kochuwa, your father, ochuwawall, their father.

The inseparable pronouns are n for the first person, k for the second, and w or o for the third, both in singular and plural forms. They combine with nouns in possessive forms, like nooch, my father, kooch, your father; the third person is sometimes shown with the ending wall, as in ochwall, his or her father, and other times with w, as in wtamochol, his or her canoe. In plural, it's nochena, our father, kochuwa, your father, ochuwawall, their father.

The verbal transitions are compounded of the verb itself, combined 414 with the inseparable pronouns and other forms or inflexions, expressive of time, person, and number. To understand these properly requires attention and study.

The verbal transitions consist of the verb itself, combined 414 with the inseparable pronouns and other forms or inflections, indicating time, person, and number. To fully grasp these, you'll need to pay attention and study them.

These things are not new to you, but they may be of use to those members of the Committee who have not, like yourself, had the opportunity of studying a grammar of this language.

These things aren't new to you, but they might be helpful for those members of the Committee who, unlike you, haven't had the chance to study a grammar of this language.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XXII.
FROM THE SAME.

Bethlehem, 27th August, 1816.

Bethlehem, August 27, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I promised you in one of my former letters that I would write to a gentleman well acquainted with the Chippeway language, to ascertain whether it is true, as Professor Vater asserts, that it is almost without any grammatical forms. I wrote in consequence to the Rev. Mr. Dencke, a respectable Missionary of the Society of the United Brethren, who resides at Fairfield in Upper Canada, and I have the pleasure of communicating to you an extract from his answers to the different questions which my letter contained.

Dear Sir,—I promised you in one of my previous letters that I would reach out to a gentleman who is well-versed in the Chippeway language to find out if it’s true, as Professor Vater claims, that it has almost no grammatical forms. As a result, I wrote to Rev. Mr. Dencke, a reputable missionary with the Society of the United Brethren, who lives in Fairfield, Upper Canada. I’m pleased to share with you an excerpt from his responses to the various questions in my letter.

EXTRACT.

1. “According to my humble opinion, and limited knowledge of the Indian languages, being chiefly acquainted with the Delaware and Chippeway, of ich alone I can speak with propriety, those two idioms are of one and the same grammatical structure, and rich in forms. I am inclined to believe that Mr. Duponceau is correct in his opinion that the American languages in general resemble each other in point of grammatical construction; for I find in that of Greenland nearly the same inflections, prefixes, and suffixes, as in the Delaware and the Chippeway. The inflexions of nouns and conjugations of verbs are the same. The pronominal accusative is in the same manner incorporated with the verb, which, in this form, may be properly called transitive. See Crantz’s History of Greenland, in German, page 283. These 415 forms, though they are very regular, are most difficult for foreigners to acquire. I might give examples of conjugations in the various forms, but as they have not been expressly called for, I do not think necessary to do it.

1. "In my humble opinion, and based on my limited knowledge of Indian languages, primarily the Delaware and Chippeway, which I can speak properly, I believe those two languages share the same grammatical structure and are rich in forms. I lean towards Mr. Duponceau's view that American languages in general have similar grammatical constructions; I notice that Greenlandic has almost the same inflections, prefixes, and suffixes as the Delaware and Chippeway. The inflections of nouns and verb conjugations are alike. The pronominal accusative is similarly incorporated into the verb, which can appropriately be called transitive in this context. See Crantz’s History of Greenland, in German, page 283. These 415 forms, although very regular, are quite challenging for foreigners to learn. I could provide examples of conjugations in various forms, but since they haven't been specifically requested, I don't think it's necessary to do so."

“The Greenlanders, it seems, have three numbers in the conjugation of their verbs, the singular, dual, and plural; the Delawares and Chippeways have also three, the singular, the particular, and the plural. For instance, in the Delaware language we say in the plural, ‘k’pendameneen,’ which means ‘we all have heard;’ and in the particular number we say, ‘n’pendameneen,’ 'we, who are now specially spoken of, (for instance, this company, the white people, the Indians,) have heard.’ Upon the whole, Crantz’s History of Greenland has given me a great insight into the construction of the Indian languages; through his aid, I have been able to find out the so necessary infinitive of each particular verb. By means of the transitions, Indian verbs have nine or ten different infinitives, whence we must conclude that it is very difficult to learn the Indian languages. There is also a peculiarity in them, by means of the duplication of the first syllable, as ‘gattopuin,’ ‘to be hungry;’ ‘gagattopuin,’ to be very hungry.

“The Greenlanders seem to have three forms for their verbs: singular, dual, and plural. The Delawares and Chippeways also use three forms: singular, particular, and plural. For example, in Delaware, we say in the plural, ‘k’pendameneen,’ which means ‘we all have heard;’ and in the particular form, we say, ‘n’pendameneen,’ which means ‘we, who are especially mentioned now, (like this group, the white people, the Indians,) have heard.’ Overall, Crantz’s History of Greenland has provided me with valuable insights into how Indian languages are constructed; with his help, I’ve managed to identify the essential infinitive of each specific verb. Due to the variations, Indian verbs can have nine or ten different infinitives, leading us to conclude that learning the Indian languages is quite challenging. Additionally, there’s a unique feature in these languages where the first syllable can be duplicated, as in ‘gattopuin,’ meaning ‘to be hungry;’ and ‘gagattopuin,’ meaning ‘to be very hungry.’”

2. “Carver’s Vocabulary of the Chippeway, I believe is not correct, though I have it not at present before me.

2. “Carver’s vocabulary of the Chippewa isn’t accurate, though I don’t have it in front of me right now.

3. “The numerals in the Chippeway up to ten, are as follows. I write them according to the German orthography. 1. Beschik. 2. Nisch. 3. Nisswi. 4. Newin. 5. Nanán. 6. N’guttiwaswi. 7. Nischschwaswi. 8. Schwaschwi. 9. Schenk. 20. Quetsch.”

3. “The Chippewa numbers up to ten are as follows. I’ve written them using German spelling. 1. Beschik. 2. Nisch. 3. Nisswi. 4. Newin. 5. Nanán. 6. N’guttiwaswi. 7. Nischschwaswi. 8. Schwaschwi. 9. Schenk. 20. Quetsch.”


Thus far Mr. Dencke. I do not recollect whether I have already explained to you what he says about the “particular” number in the conjugation of the Delaware verbs. There is a distinction in the plural forms. “K’pendameneen, (k’ from kiluna, 'we,’) means generally ‘we have heard,’ or ‘we all have heard,’ not intending to allude to a particular number of persons; in 'n’pendameneen,’ the ‘n’ comes from ‘niluna,’ which means ‘we,’ in particular, our family, nation, select body, &c. ‘Niluna yu epienk,’ ‘we who are here assembled,’ n’penameneen, (for niluna penameneen) we see (we who are together see); n’pendameneen, 416 we hear (we who are in this room hear). But when no discrimination is intended to be made, the form kiluna, or its abridgement k’ is used. Kiluna elenapewit, ‘we, the Indians’ (meaning all the Indians); kiluna yu enda lauchsienk, ‘we all that live upon earth;’ ‘k’nemeneen sokelange,’ we see it rain, (we all see it rain); k’nemeneen waselehelete, we all see the light, (we and all who live upon earth see the light.)”

So far, Mr. Dencke. I can’t remember if I've already told you what he says about the “particular” number in the conjugation of Delaware verbs. There’s a difference in the plural forms. “K’pendameneen,” (k’ from kiluna, 'we') generally means ‘we have heard,’ or ‘we all have heard,’ without referring to a specific number of people; in 'n’pendameneen,’ the ‘n’ comes from ‘niluna,’ which means ‘we,’ specifically, our family, nation, or select group, etc. ‘Niluna yu epienk,’ means ‘we who are here assembled,’ n’penameneen (for niluna penameneen) means we see (we who are together see); n’pendameneen, we hear (we who are in this room hear). But when no distinction is being made, the form kiluna, or its short form k’ is used. Kiluna elenapewit, means ‘we, the Indians’ (referring to all the Indians); kiluna yu enda lauchsienk, means ‘we all who live on earth;’ ‘k’nemeneen sokelange,’ means we see it rain (we all see it rain); k’nemeneen waselehelete, we all see the light (we and everyone who lives on earth sees the light.)”

I believe Mr. Zeisberger does not mention this distinction in his Grammar; but he could not say every thing.

I think Mr. Zeisberger doesn't mention this distinction in his Grammar, but he can't cover everything.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XXIII.
To Mr. Heckewelder.

Philadelphia, 30th August, 1816.

Philadelphia, August 30, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I thank you for your two favours of the 26th and 27th inst. I am very much pleased to find from the valuable extract of Mr. Dencke’s letter, which you have had the goodness to communicate, that the Chippeways have grammatical forms similar to those of the Delawares. Indeed, as far as my researches have extended, I have found those forms in all the Indian languages from Greenland to Cape Horn. The venerable Eliot’s Grammar shews that they exist in the idiom of the New England Indians, as he calls it, which is believed to be that of the Natick tribe. Crantz and Egede prove in the most incontrovertible manner that the language of Greenland is formed on the same syntactic or polysynthetic model. So are the various dialects of Mexico, as far as I can judge from the Grammars of those languages that are in our Society’s library. Indeed, the authors of those Grammars are the first who have noticed the personal forms of the Indian verbs, and given them the name of transitions. I find from Father Breton’s Grammar and Dictionary of the Caribbee language, that those forms exist also in that idiom, and the Abbé Molina, in his excellent History of Chili, has shewn that the Araucanian belongs to the same class of languages. All the genuine specimens that we have seen of the 417 grammatical forms of the Indians from north to south, on the continent, and in the islands, exhibit the same general features, and no exception whatever that I know of has yet been discovered. Father Sagard’s assertions about the Huron are not founded in fact, and are even disproved by the examples which he adduces, and Mr. Dencke’s testimony is sufficient to counterbalance the naked supposition of Professor Vater that the language of the Chippeways has no forms. Too much praise cannot be given to this learned author for the profound researches that he has made on the subject of American languages with a view to discover the origin of the ancient inhabitants of this continent, but not being on the spot, he had not the same means of ascertaining facts that we possess in this country. Had he lived among us, he would not so easily have been persuaded that there was such a difference between the different languages of the American Indians; that some of them were exceedingly rich in grammatical forms, and appeared to have been framed with the greatest skill, while others were so very poor in that respect that they might be compared to the idioms of the most savage nations in north-eastern Asia and Africa.303 In Philology, as well as in every other science, authorities ought to be weighed, compared, and examined, and no assertion should be lightly believed that is not supported by evident proof faithfully drawn from the original sources.

Dear Sir,—Thank you for your two letters dated the 26th and 27th of this month. I'm pleased to see from the important excerpt of Mr. Dencke’s letter that you kindly shared, that the Chippeways have grammatical structures similar to those of the Delawares. In fact, my research has shown that these structures appear in all the Native American languages from Greenland to Cape Horn. The respected Eliot’s Grammar indicates they exist in the language of the New England Indians, which is thought to be that of the Natick tribe. Crantz and Egede convincingly demonstrate that the language of Greenland is built on the same syntactic or polysynthetic framework. Various dialects of Mexico reflect this as well, based on the Grammars available in our Society’s library. Indeed, the authors of those Grammars are the first to highlight the personal forms of Indigenous verbs, calling them transitions. According to Father Breton’s Grammar and Dictionary of the Caribbee language, those forms are also present in that language, and Abbé Molina, in his excellent History of Chili, shows that Araucanian belongs to the same category of languages. The genuine examples we’ve observed of the grammatical forms of Indigenous peoples from north to south across the continent and the islands showcase the same general characteristics, and to my knowledge, no exceptions have been found. Father Sagard’s claims about the Huron are unfounded and even refuted by the examples he provides, and Mr. Dencke’s testimony sufficiently counters Professor Vater's unsupported claim that the language of the Chippeways lacks forms. We cannot praise this knowledgeable author enough for his extensive research into American languages to uncover the origins of the continent’s early inhabitants; however, not being present here, he did not have access to the same factual resources that we have in this country. Had he lived among us, he would have been less easily convinced that there is such a vast difference between the languages of Native Americans—that some are extremely rich in grammatical forms and seem to have been crafted with great expertise, while others are so lacking in that respect that they could be compared to the languages of the most primitive nations in northeastern Asia and Africa.303 In Philology, as in every other science, authorities should be weighed, compared, and examined, and no assertion should be readily accepted without evident proof drawn from original sources.

I do not positively assert that all the languages of the American Indians are formed on the same grammatical construction, but I think I may safely advance that as far as our means of knowledge extend, they appear to be so, and that no proof has yet been adduced to the contrary. When we find so many different idioms, spoken by nations which reside at immense distances from each other, so entirely different in their etymology that there is not the least appearance of a common derivation, 418 yet so strikingly similar in their forms, that one would imagine the same mind presided over their original formation, we may well suppose that the similarity extends through the whole of the languages of this race of men, at least until we have clear and direct proof to the contrary. It is at any rate, a fact well worthy of investigation, and this point, if it should ever be settled, may throw considerable light on the origin of the primæval inhabitants of this country.

I don't claim that all the languages of Native Americans are based on the same grammatical structure, but I believe I can safely suggest that, as far as our knowledge allows, they seem to be so, and no evidence has been presented to prove otherwise. When we see so many different languages spoken by nations that are incredibly far apart, each with their own unique etymology and no signs of a common origin, yet remarkably similar in their structures, it makes one think that the same mind contributed to their original development. We might reasonably assume that this similarity is found throughout all the languages of these people, at least until we have clear and undeniable evidence to the contrary. At any rate, this is a fact well worth investigating, and resolving this question could shed significant light on the origins of the earliest inhabitants of this country. 418

The most generally established opinion seems to be, that the Americans are descended from the Tartars who inhabit the north-easternmost parts of Asia. Would it not be then well worth the while to ascertain this fact by enquiring into the grammatical forms and construction of the languages of those people? The great Empress Catharine employed a learned professor to compile a comparative vocabulary of those languages which are spoken within the vast extent of the Russian Empire. This was but the first step towards a knowledge of the character and affinities of those idioms. If something may be discovered by the mere similarity of words, how much farther may not we proceed by studying and comparing the “plans of men’s ideas,” and the variety of modes by which they have contrived to give them body and shape through articulate sounds. This I consider to be the most truly philosophical view of human language generally considered, and before we decide upon the Tartar origin of the American Indians, we ought, I think, to study the grammars of the Tartar languages, and ascertain whether their thoughts flow in the same course, and whether their languages are formed by similar associations of ideas, with those of their supposed descendants. If essential differences should be found between them in this respect, I do not see how the hypothesis of Tartar origin could afterwards be maintained.

The most widely held belief seems to be that Americans are descended from the Tartars who live in the far northeastern parts of Asia. Wouldn't it be worthwhile to verify this by looking into the grammar and structure of their languages? The great Empress Catherine had a learned professor compile a comparative vocabulary of the languages spoken across the vast Russian Empire. This was just the first step toward understanding the character and relationships of those languages. If we can learn something from the mere similarity of words, think how much further we can go by studying and comparing how people express their ideas and the different ways they’ve managed to articulate them. I believe this is the most genuinely philosophical approach to human language as a whole, and before we conclude that the American Indians descended from the Tartars, we should, in my opinion, study the grammars of the Tartar languages to see if their thought processes and language structures align with those of their supposed descendants. If we find significant differences in this regard, I don’t see how we could continue to uphold the idea of Tartar origin.

Professor Vater is of opinion that the language of the Cantabrians, whom we call Biscayans or Basques, a people who inhabit the sea coast at the foot of the Pyrenean mountains, is formed on the same model with that of the American Indians. We have in our Society’s library, a translation into that idiom of Royaumont’s History of the Bible. I acknowledge, that by comparing it with the original, I have found sufficient reason to incline in 419 favour of the Professor’s assertion. This is a very curious fact, which well deserves to be inquired into. This Basque language, it is to be presumed, was once spoken in a considerable part of the ancient world, and probably branched out into various dialects. How comes it that those polysynthetic forms which distinguish it, have disappeared from all the rest of the continent of Europe, and are only preserved in a single language no longer spoken but by a handful of mountaineers? How comes it that the Celtic which appears no less ancient is so widely different in its grammatical construction? Are we to revive the story of the Atlantis, and believe that the two continents of America and Europe were once connected together? At least, we will not forget that the Biscayans were once great navigators, and that they were among the first who frequented the coasts of Newfoundland.

Professor Vater believes that the language of the Cantabrians, known as Biscayans or Basques, who live along the coast at the foot of the Pyrenean mountains, is structured similarly to that of the American Indians. We have a translation of Royaumont’s History of the Bible in that language in our Society’s library. I admit that by comparing it to the original, I have found enough evidence to support the Professor’s claim. This is a very intriguing fact that deserves further investigation. It is likely that this Basque language was once spoken in a large part of the ancient world and probably evolved into various dialects. Why have those polysynthetic forms that characterize it disappeared from the rest of Europe and are only found in a single language that is no longer spoken except by a small group of mountain dwellers? How is it that the Celtic language, which appears just as ancient, is so fundamentally different in its grammatical structure? Should we revisit the tale of Atlantis and consider that the two continents of America and Europe were once connected? At the very least, we should remember that the Biscayans were once skilled navigators and among the first to explore the coasts of Newfoundland.

But let us leave these wild theories, and not lose sight of our object, which is to ascertain facts, and let others afterwards draw inferences from them at their pleasure. In Father Breton’s Grammar and Dictionary of the Caribbee language, I have been struck with a fact of a very singular nature. It seems (and indeed there appears no reason to entertain the least doubt on the subject) that in that idiom the language of the men and that of the women differ in a great degree from each other. This difference does not merely consist in the inflexions or terminations of words, but the words themselves, used by the different sexes, have no kind of resemblance. Thus the men call an enemy etoucou, and the women akani; a friend in the masculine dialect is ibaouanale, in the female nitignon. I might adduce a much greater number of examples to shew the difference between these two modes of speaking. It does not, however, pervade the whole language; sometimes the termination of the words only differs, while in many cases the same words are used exactly alike by both sexes. But those which differ entirely in the two idioms are very numerous, and are in general terms of common use, such as names of parts of the body, or of relationship as father, mother, brother, sister, and many others. It is said a tradition prevails in the Caribbee islands that their nation was once conquered by another people, who 420 put all the males to death and preserved only the females, who retained their national language, and would not adopt that of the conquerors. I am not much disposed to believe this story; the more so as I find similar instances in other idioms of different words being employed by the men and women to express the same thing. Thus among the Othomis, (a Mexican tribe) the men call a brother-in-law naco, and the women namo; a sister-in-law is called by the men nabehpo, and by the women namuddu. (Molina’s Grammar of the Othomi language, p. 38.) In the Mexican proper, the men add an e to the vocative of every proper name, and say Pedroe for Pedro; while the women leave out the e and distinguish the vocative only by an affected pronunciation. (Rincon’s Mexican Grammar, p. 6.) It is said also that among the Javanese, there is a language for the nobles and another for the common people.304 These are curious facts, and a discovery of their causes would lay open an interesting page of the great hidden book of the history of man.

But let’s set aside these wild theories and focus on our goal, which is to determine facts, allowing others to draw their own conclusions later. In Father Breton’s Grammar and Dictionary of the Caribbee language, I was struck by a very unusual fact. It seems (and there’s really no reason to doubt this) that in this language, the way men and women speak is quite different. This difference isn’t just about the endings of words; the actual words used by each sex have no resemblance to one another. For example, men say an enemy is etoucou, while women say akani; a friend in the masculine form is ibaouanale, and in the feminine, it’s nitignon. I could provide many more examples to illustrate the contrast between these two ways of speaking. However, this distinction doesn’t apply to the entire language; sometimes, only the endings of words differ, and in many cases, the same words are used identically by both sexes. But there are many terms that are completely different in the two forms, especially common terms like names of body parts or family relationships such as father, mother, brother, sister, and others. There’s a tradition in the Caribbee islands that their people were once conquered by another group who killed all the males and spared only the females, who kept their native language and refused to adopt that of their conquerors. I’m not inclined to believe this story, especially since I find similar instances in other languages where men and women use different words for the same thing. For instance, among the Othomis (a Mexican tribe), men call a brother-in-law naco, and women call him namo; a sister-in-law is nabehpo for men and namuddu for women. (Molina’s Grammar of the Othomi language, p. 38.) In Mexican Spanish, men add an e to the vocative form of every proper name, saying Pedroe for Pedro; meanwhile, women omit the e and only distinguish the vocative through a distinct pronunciation. (Rincon’s Mexican Grammar, p. 6.) It’s also said that among the Javanese, there are different languages for nobles and common people. 304 These are intriguing facts, and uncovering their causes would reveal an interesting chapter in the hidden history of humanity.

As I have determined to abstain from every hypothesis, I shall leave it to others to discover and point out the causes of these extraordinary facts; but I shall be obliged to you for informing me whether in any of the Indian languages that you know, there is any such difference of dialect between the two sexes, and in what it particularly consists. I cannot believe this story of the conquest of the Caribbee islands and of its producing that variety of language. I find it related by one Davis, an English writer, in whom I place no reliance; for he has pretended to give a Vocabulary of the Caribbee language, which he has evidently taken from Father Breton, without even taking the trouble of substituting the English for the French orthography. Carver acted with more skill in this respect.

As I have decided to avoid any assumptions, I’ll leave it to others to figure out and explain the reasons behind these extraordinary facts. However, I would appreciate it if you could let me know whether in any of the Indian languages you are familiar with, there is a significant difference in dialect between the two genders, and what that difference consists of. I can't believe the story about the conquest of the Caribbean islands causing that variety of language. I read it from some writer named Davis, an English author I don’t trust; he claimed to provide a vocabulary of the Caribbean language, which he clearly copied from Father Breton, without even bothering to change the French spelling to English. Carver was more skillful in this regard.

I thank you for the explanation which you have given of what Mr. Dencke calls the “particular plural,” of the Chippeway and Delaware languages, of which I had no idea, as Zeisberger does not make any mention of it. It appears to me that this numerical form of language (if I can so express myself,) is 421 founded in nature, and ought to have its place in a system of Universal Grammar. It is more natural than the Greek dual, which is too limited in its comprehension, while the particular plural expresses more, and may be limited in its application to two, when the context or the subject of the conversation requires it. I find this plural in several of the modern European languages; it is the nosotros of the Spanish, the noi altri of the Italian, and the French nous autres. There is nothing like it in English or German, nor even in the Latin. I am disposed to believe that this form exists also in the Greenland language, and has been improperly called dual by those who have written on it. The Abbé Molina speaks also of a Dual in the Araucanian idiom, which he translates by we two. But he may have used a term generally known, to avoid the explanations which a new one would have required. However this may be, the particular plural is well worthy of notice.

I appreciate your explanation of what Mr. Dencke refers to as the “particular plural” in the Chippewa and Delaware languages, which I was unaware of since Zeisberger doesn't mention it. It seems to me that this numerical language form (if I can put it that way) is rooted in nature and deserves a place in a system of Universal Grammar. It's more natural than the Greek dual, which is too limited in scope, whereas the particular plural conveys more meaning and can be restricted to two when the context or topic of discussion calls for it. I see this plural in several modern European languages; it's the nosotros in Spanish, the noi altri in Italian, and the French nous autres. There's nothing quite like it in English or German, or even in Latin. I suspect this form also exists in the Greenland language and has been wrongly referred to as dual by those who have written about it. Abbé Molina also mentions a Dual in the Araucanian language, which he translates as we two. But he might have chosen a common term to avoid the explanations a new term would require. Regardless, the particular plural is certainly worth noting.

I shall be obliged to you for a translation of the Lord’s prayer in the Delaware language, with proper explanations in English. I suspect that in Loskiel is not correct.

I would appreciate it if you could provide a translation of the Lord’s Prayer in Delaware, along with clear explanations in English. I have a feeling that what’s in Loskiel isn’t correct.

In reading some time ago one of the Gospels, (I think St. Mark’s,) in one of the Iroquois dialects, said to be translated by the celebrated chief Captain Brandt, I observed that the word town was translated into Indian by the word Kanada, and it struck me that the name of the province of Canada might probably have been derived from it. I have not been able to procure the book since, but I have now before me a translation of the English common prayer-book into the Mohawk, ascribed to the same chief, in which I find these words: “Ne Kanada-gongh konwayatsk Nazareth,” which are the translation of “in a City called Nazareth,” (Matth. ii. 23.) The termination gongh in this word appears evidently to be a grammatical form or inflexion, and Kanada is the word which answers for “city.” I should be glad to know your opinion of this etymology.

While reading one of the Gospels some time ago, (I think it was St. Mark’s), in one of the Iroquois dialects translated by the well-known chief Captain Brandt, I noticed that the word town was translated into Indian as Kanada, and it occurred to me that the name of the province of Canada might have come from this. I haven’t been able to find the book since, but I currently have a translation of the English common prayer book into Mohawk, attributed to the same chief, where I see the words: “Ne Canada-gongh konwayatsk Nazareth,” which translates to “in a City called Nazareth,” (Matth. ii. 23). The ending gongh in this word seems to be a grammatical form or inflection, and Kanada is the equivalent term for “city.” I would appreciate your thoughts on this etymology.

I find in Zeisberger’s grammar, in the conjugation of one of the forms of the verb n’peton “I bring,” n’petagep in one place, and in another n’petagunewoakup, both translated into German by “sie haben mir gebracht,” “they have brought to me.” Are these words synonyma, or is there some difference between them, and which?

I see in Zeisberger’s grammar that one form of the verb n’peton “I bring” appears as n’petagep in one instance, and as n’petagunewoakup in another, both translated into German as “sie haben mir gebracht,” “they have brought to me.” Are these words synonyms, or is there a difference between them, and if so, what is it?

I am, &c. 422

I am, etc. 422

LETTER XXIV.
FROM MR. HECKEWELDER.

Bethlehem, 5th September, 1816.

Bethlehem, September 5, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I have received your favour of the 30th ult. I answer it first at the end, and begin with your etymology of the word Canada. In looking over some of Mr. Zeisberger’s papers, who was well acquainted with the language of the Onondagoes, the principal dialect of the Iroquois, to which nation the Mohawks belong, I find he translates the German word stadt (town) into the Onondago by “ganatage.” Now, as you well know that the Germans sometimes employ the G instead of the K, and the T instead of the D, it is very possible that the word Kanada may mean the same thing in some grammatical form of the Mohawk dialect. As you have seen it so employed in Captain Brandt’s translation, there cannot be the least doubt about it. This being taken for granted, it is not improbable that you have hit upon the true etymology of the name Canada. For nothing is more certain than what Dr. Wistar once told you on my authority, that the Indians make more use of particular than of generic words. I found myself under very great embarrassment in consequence of it when I first began to learn the Delaware language. I would point to a tree and ask the Indians how they called it; they would answer an oak, an ash, a maple, as the case might be, so that at last I found in my vocabulary more than a dozen words for the word tree. It was a good while before I found out, that when you asked of an Indian the name of a thing, he would always give you the specific and never the generic denomination. So that it is highly probable that the Frenchman who first asked of the Indians in Canada the name of their country, pointing to the spot and to the objects which surrounded him, received for answer Kanada, (town or village), and committing the same mistake that I did, believed it to be the name of the whole region, and reported it so to his countrymen, who consequently gave to their newly acquired dominions the name of Canada. 423

Dear Sir,—I received your letter from the 30th of last month. I’ll address that at the end, but first, let’s talk about your take on the word Canada. While looking through some of Mr. Zeisberger’s papers, who was familiar with the Onondago language, the main dialect of the Iroquois, to which the Mohawks belong, I found that he translates the German word stadt (town) into Onondago as “ganatage.” As you know, Germans sometimes use G instead of K, and T instead of D, so it’s quite possible that the word Kanada could mean the same in some form of the Mohawk dialect. Since you've seen it used that way in Captain Brandt’s translation, there’s no doubt about it. Assuming this is true, it’s likely that you’ve identified the correct etymology of the name Canada. As Dr. Wistar once told you on my behalf, Indians tend to use specific rather than generic terms. I faced a lot of confusion when I first started learning the Delaware language. I would point to a tree and ask the Indians what they called it; they would respond with oak, ash, maple, depending on the case, and eventually, I ended up with over a dozen words for tree in my vocabulary. It took me quite some time to realize that when you asked an Indian for the name of something, they always gave you the specific name, never the general one. So, it’s very likely that the Frenchman who first asked the Indians in Canada what they called their country, while pointing to the location and the things around him, received the answer Kanada (town or village), and, making the same mistake I did, thought it was the name for the entire region and reported it that way to his fellow countrymen, who then named their newly acquired territories Canada. 423

I had never heard before I received your letter that there existed a country where the men and the women spoke a different language from each other. It is not the case with the Delawares or any Indian nation that I am acquainted with. The two sexes with them speak exactly the same idiom. The women, indeed, have a kind of lisping or drawling accent, which comes from their being so constantly with children; but the language which they speak does not differ in the least from that which is spoken by their husbands and brothers.

I had never heard before I got your letter that there was a country where men and women spoke different languages. That’s not the case with the Delawares or any Native American nation I know. Both sexes there speak the exact same language. The women do have a bit of a lisping or drawling accent from spending so much time with children, but the language they use is not different at all from what their husbands and brothers speak.

The question you ask about n’petageep and n’petagunewoakup, both of which Zeisberger translates by sie haben mir gebracht, is easily answered. The translation is correct in both cases, according to the idiom of the German language, from which alone the ambiguity proceeds. N’petageep means “they have brought to me,” but in a general sense, and without specifying by whom the thing has been brought. Es ist mir gebracht worden, or “it has been brought to me,” would have explained this word better, while n’petagunewoakup is literally rendered by “they,” (alluding to particular persons,) “have brought to me,” or sie haben mir gebracht. You have here another example of the nicely discriminating character of the Indian languages.

The question you ask about n’petageep and n’petagunewoakup, both of which Zeisberger translates as sie haben mir gebracht, has an easy answer. The translation is accurate in both cases, based on the idiom of the German language, which is where the ambiguity comes from. N’petageep means “they have brought to me” in a general sense, without specifying who brought the item. Es ist mir gebracht worden, or “it has been brought to me,” would explain this term better, while n’petagunewoakup is literally translated as “they,” referring to specific people, “have brought to me,” or sie haben mir gebracht. This provides another example of the finely nuanced nature of the Indian languages.

I believe I have never told you that the Indians distinguish the genders, animate and inanimate, even in their verbs. Nolhatton and nolhalla, both mean “I possess,” but the former can only be used in speaking of the possession of things inanimate, and the latter of living creatures. Nolhatton achquiwanissall, “I have or possess blankets;” cheeli kœcu n’nolhattowi, “many things I am possessed of,” or “I possess many things;” woak nechenaunges nolhallau, “and I possess a horse,” (and a horse I possess.) The u which you see at the end of the verb nolhalla, conveys the idea of the pronoun him, so that it is the same as if you said, “and a horse I possess him.” It is the accusative form on which you observed in one of your former letters and is annexed to the verb instead of the noun.

I think I’ve never mentioned that the Indians make a distinction between genders, both animate and inanimate, even in their verbs. Nolhatton and nolhalla both mean “I possess,” but the former is only used for inanimate things, while the latter is for living creatures. Nolhatton achquiwanissall, “I have blankets;” cheeli kœcu n’nolhattowi, “I possess many things;” woak nechenaunges nolhallau, “and I possess a horse,” (which means “and a horse I have”). The u at the end of the verb nolhalla represents the pronoun him, making it equivalent to saying, “and a horse I possess him.” This is the accusative form you noticed in one of your earlier letters, and it's attached to the verb instead of the noun.

In the verb “to see,” the same distinction is made between things animate and inanimate. Newau, “I see,” applies only to the former, and nemen to the latter. Thus the Delawares say: lenno newau, “I see a man;” tscholens newau, “I see a bird;” 424 achgook newau, “I see a snake.” On the contrary they say, wiquam nemen, “I see a house;” amochol nemen, “I see a canoe,” &c.

In the verb "to see," the same distinction is made between living and non-living things. Newau, meaning "I see," is only used for the former, while nemen is used for the latter. So the Delawares say: lenno newau, "I see a man;" tscholens newau, "I see a bird;" achgook newau, "I see a snake." On the other hand, they say, wiquam nemen, "I see a house;" amochol nemen, "I see a canoe," etc. 424

It is the same with other verbs; even when they speak of things lying upon the ground, they distinguish between what has life and what is inanimate; thus they say, icka schingieschin305 n’dallemans “there lies my beast,” (the verb schingieschin305 being only used when speaking of animate things;) otherwise they will say: icka schingieschen n’tamahican, “yonder lies my ax.” The i or the e in the last syllable of the verb, as here used in the third person, constitutes the difference, which indicates that the thing spoken of has or has not life.

It’s the same with other verbs; even when they talk about things lying on the ground, they make a distinction between what is alive and what is not. For example, they say, icka schingieschin305 n’dallemans “there lies my beast,” (the verb schingieschin305 is only used when referring to living things); otherwise, they would say: icka schingieschen n’tamahican, “over there lies my ax.” The i or the e in the last syllable of the verb, as used here in the third person, marks the difference, indicating whether the thing they are talking about is alive or not.

It would be too tedious to go through these differences in the various forms which the verb can assume; what I have said will be sufficient to shew the principle and the manner in which this distinction is made.

It would be too boring to go through all the different forms that the verb can take; what I've said will be enough to show the principle and how this distinction is made.

I inclose a translation of the Lord’s Prayer into Delaware, with the English interlined according to your wishes. I am, &c.

I’m including a translation of the Lord’s Prayer into Delaware, with the English text lined up as you requested. Best, &c.

THE LORD’S PRAYER IN THE DELAWARE LANGUAGE.

Ki Thou
Wetóchemelenk our Father
talli there
épian dwelling
Awosságame, beyond the clouds,
Machelendásutsch magnified or praised be
Ktellewunsowágan thy name
Ksakimowagan thy kingdom
peyewiketsch come on
Ktelitehewágan thy thoughts, will, intention, mind,
léketsch come to pass
yun here
Achquidhackamike upon or all over the earth,
elgiqui the same
leek as it is
talli there 425
Awosságame in heaven or beyond the clouds,
Milineen give to us
eligischquik on or through this day
gunagischuk the usual, daily
Achpoan bread,
woak and
miwelendammauwineen forgive to us
n’tschannauchsowagannéna our transgressions (faults),
elgiqui the same as
niluna we (particular plural) we who are here
miwelendammáuwenk we mutually forgive them,
nik who or those
tschetschanilawequéngik who have transgressed or injured us (past participle)
woak and
kátschi let not
n’páwuneen us come to that
li that
achquetschiechtowáganink we fall into temptation; (ink, into),
shuckund but (rather)
ktennineen keep us free
untschi from
medhicking all evil
Alod for
Knihillátamen thou claimest
ksakimowágan306 thy kingdom
woak and
ktallewussoágan the superior power
woak and
ktallowilissowágan all magnificence
ne from 426
wuntschi heretofore
hallemiwi, ever (always)
Nanne leketsch. Amen. (so be it; so may it come to pass.)

LETTER XXV.
To Mr. Heckewelder.

Philadelphia, 1st October, 1816

Philadelphia, October 1, 1816

Dear Sir.—Various professional avocations have prevented me from answering sooner your kind letter of the 5th ult. I thank you for the Delaware translation of the Lord’s prayer; it does not differ much from that in Loskiel, but the English explanations which you have given add greatly to its value.

Dear Sir,—I've been busy with various work commitments, which is why I couldn't reply sooner to your thoughtful letter from the 5th of last month. Thank you for the Delaware translation of the Lord’s Prayer; it’s not very different from the one in Loskiel, but the English explanations you've included really enhance its value.

The information which your letter contains on the subject of the annexation to the verb of the form or inflexion indicative of the gender, is quite new to me. Though I was already acquainted with the principle on which this takes place, I was not fully aware of the extent of its application. We have already noticed and remarked upon the combination of the pronominal form with the active verb307 in “getannitowit n’quitayala, I fear God;” in which the pronoun him is expressed by the last syllable ala or yala, so that it is the same as if you said “God I fear him,” in Latin Deus timeo eum, and by contraction, Deus timeum. With this it is not difficult to pursue the same course or “plan of ideas,” by connecting not only the subject pronoun, but its gender, animate, or inanimate, with the verbal form. The idea of the sexes, if the language admitted of it, might be expressed in the same manner. Thus also Latin words might be compounded on the Delaware plan. If I wished to express in that manner “I see a lion,” I would say leo video eum, and by contraction videum; and if the object was of the feminine gender, I would say videam, for video eam. The difference between the Latin and the Delaware is that in the former the ideas of the 427 pronoun and its gender are expressed by a nominal and in the latter by a verbal form. I consider leonem video, as a contraction of leo eum video; the n being interposed between leo and eum, and the u in eum left out for euphony’s sake. In the same manner fœminam appears to me to be contracted from fœmina eam;308 whence we may, perhaps, conclude that in the formation of different languages, the same ideas have occurred to the minds of those who framed them; but have been differently combined, and consequently differently expressed. Who would have thought that the barbarous idioms of the American savages could have thrown light on the original formation of the noble and elegant language of ancient Rome? Does not this very clearly shew that nothing is indifferent in science, and above all, that we ought by no means to despise what we do not know?

The information in your letter about how the verb forms or inflections indicate gender is completely new to me. While I’m familiar with the principle behind this, I didn’t fully grasp how widely it applies. We’ve already pointed out the combination of the pronoun with the active verb307 in “getannitowit n’quitayala, I fear God;” where the pronoun him is represented by the last syllable ala or yala, making it similar to saying “God I fear him,” which in Latin is Deus timeo eum, and when contracted, Deus timeum. With this understanding, it’s not hard to follow the same method of “thinking” by connecting not only the subject pronoun but also its gender, whether animate or inanimate, with the verb form. If the language allowed, the concept of gender could be expressed similarly. Latin words could also be compounded in the Delaware style. If I wanted to say “I see a lion” this way, I’d say leo video eum, and in its contracted form, videum; if the object were feminine, I’d use videam for video eam. The key difference between Latin and Delaware is that in Latin, pronoun and gender are expressed using a nominal form, while in Delaware, they use a verbal form. I consider leonem video as a contraction of leo eum video; the n is placed between leo and eum, and the u in eum is omitted for smoother pronunciation. Similarly, fœminam seems to be contracted from fœmina eam;308 which might lead us to conclude that in forming different languages, similar ideas have occurred to the creators but were combined and expressed in various ways. Who would have thought that the seemingly crude languages of American natives could shed light on how the refined and elegant language of ancient Rome was originally formed? Doesn’t this clearly show that nothing is trivial in science, and especially, we should never underestimate what we don’t understand?

I thought we had exhausted all the verbal forms of the Delaware language, when I accidentally fell upon one which Zeisberger has not mentioned in his grammar, but of which he gives an example in his vocabulary or spelling-book. It is a curious combination of the relative pronoun “what” or “that which” with an active verb, regularly conjugated through the several transitions or personal forms. The author thus conjugates the present of the indicative.

I thought we had gone through all the verbal forms of the Delaware language when I stumbled across one that Zeisberger didn’t mention in his grammar, though he does provide an example in his vocabulary or spelling book. It’s an interesting mix of the relative pronoun “what” or “that which” with an active verb, properly conjugated through the different transitions or personal forms. The author conjugates the present indicative this way.

FIRST TRANSITION.

Singular. Plural.
Elan, what I tell thee, ellek, what I tell you
elak, what I tell him. elachgup, what I tell them.

SECOND TRANSITION.

Singular. Plural.
Eliyan, what thou tellest me, eliyenk, what thou tellest us,
elan, what thou tellest him. elachtup, what thou tellest them.

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THIRD TRANSITION.

Singular. Plural.
Elit, what he tells me, elquenk, what he tells us,
elquon, what he tells thee, elquek, what he tells you,
elat, elguk, what he tells him. elatup, elatschi, what he tells them.

FOURTH TRANSITION.

Singular. Plural.
Elenk, what we tell you, ellek, what we tell you,
elank, what we tell him. elanquik, what we tell them.

FIFTH TRANSITION.

Singular. Plural.
Eliyek, what you tell me, eliyenkup, what you tell us,
elatup, what you tell him. elaachtitup, what you tell them.

SIXTH TRANSITION.

Singular. Plural.
Elink, what they tell me,, elgeyenk, what they tell us,
elquonnik, what they tell thee, elgeyek, what they tell you,
elaachtit, what they tell him. elatschik, what they tell us.

Thus I have given myself the pleasure of transcribing this single tense of one of the moods of this beautiful verb, which I find is used also in the sense of “as I tell thee,” &c., and is a striking example of the astonishing powers of this part of speech in the Delaware language. Can you tell me where those powers end? Is there anything which a Delaware verb will not express in some form or other? I am no longer astonished to find that Mr. Zeisberger has not displayed in his grammar all the richness of this idiom. A single verb, with its various forms and transitions, would almost fill a volume, and there are no less than eight conjugations, all of which were to be explained and illustrated by examples!

So, I've taken the time to write down this one tense from one of the moods of this beautiful verb, which I notice is also used to mean “as I tell you,” and it’s a compelling example of the incredible abilities of this part of speech in the Delaware language. Can you tell me where those abilities stop? Is there anything a Delaware verb can’t convey in some way? I'm no longer surprised that Mr. Zeisberger hasn't captured all the richness of this language in his grammar. Just one verb, with its different forms and variations, could nearly fill a book, and there are at least eight conjugations, all of which needed to be explained and illustrated with examples!

But it is not in the verbs alone that consist the beauties of this language. The other parts of speech also claim our attention. There I find, as well as in the verbs, forms and combinations of which I had not before conceived an idea. For instance, Zeisberger tells us that there are nouns substantive in the Delaware which have a passive mood! Strange as this may appear to those who are unacquainted with Indian forms, it is nevertheless 429 a fact which cannot be denied; for our author gives us several examples of this passive noun, all ending with the substantive termination wagan, which, as you have informed me, corresponds with the English ness, in “happiness,” and the German heit or keit, in the numerous words ending with these syllables. Permit me to select some of the examples given by Zeisberger.

But it’s not just the verbs that showcase the beauty of this language. The other parts of speech deserve our attention as well. I’ve discovered forms and combinations here that I hadn’t imagined before. For instance, Zeisberger tells us that in Delaware, there are substantive nouns that have a passive mood! As strange as this may seem to those unfamiliar with Indian structures, it is a fact that can’t be denied; our author provides several examples of this passive noun, all ending with the substantive suffix wagan, which, as you’ve informed me, is similar to the English ness in “happiness,” and the German heit or keit in many words that end with those syllables. Let me share some of the examples given by Zeisberger.

Machelemuxowagan, honor, the one honored. Gettemagelemuxowagan, the receiving favor, mercy, tenderness. Mamschalgussiwagan, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ the being remembered. Witahemgussowagan, the one receiving help. Mamintochimgussowagan, __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ the highly regarded. Wulakenimgussowagan, the honored one. Machelemoachgenimgussowagan, the honor and praise received. Amangachgenimgussowagan, the being uplifted by praise. Schingalgussowagan, the despised. Mamachtschimgussowagan, the insulted being.

You will, I am afraid, be disposed to think that we have changed places, and that I am presuming to give you instruction in the Delaware language; but I am only repeating to you the lessons that I have learned from Zeisberger, to save you the trouble of explaining what I can obtain from another source; to be corrected, if I have committed mistakes, and to receive from you the information which my author does not give. Besides, as our correspondence is intended for the use of the Historical Committee, my occasional extracts from Zeisberger, and the observations to which they give rise, are addressed to them as well as to you, and under your correction, may contribute to give them a clearer idea of the forms of the Indian languages. Our letters thus form a kind of epistolary conference between the scholar and his master, held before a learned body, who profit even by the ignorance of the student, as it draws fuller and more luminous explanations from the teacher. 430 Had I proceeded otherwise, your task would have been much more laborious and troublesome, and it would have been ungenerous to have exacted it from you.

I’m afraid you might feel like we’ve switched roles, and that I’m trying to teach you the Delaware language. But I’m just sharing the lessons I learned from Zeisberger, so you don’t have to explain what I can get elsewhere. I also want to be corrected if I make mistakes and get the information that my source doesn’t provide. Additionally, since our correspondence is meant for the Historical Committee, my occasional quotes from Zeisberger and the thoughts they inspire are directed to them as well as you. With your input, this could help them better understand the structure of the Indian languages. Our letters create a sort of written dialogue between the scholar and the teacher, taking place in front of an academic audience, who benefit even from the student’s lack of knowledge, as it prompts clearer and more detailed explanations from the instructor. 430 If I had done it differently, your job would have been much more demanding and burdensome, and it wouldn’t have been fair to place that on you.

In this manner I have relieved you from the trouble of explaining the passive substantives of Zeisberger, unless I should have mistaken his meaning, in which case, you will, of course, set me right. But this author does not tell us whether there are on the other hand active substantives, such as “the honouring,” “the favouring,” “the remembering,” “the praising,” “the insulting,” “the hating.” Here I beg you will be so good as to supply his deficiency, and explain what he has left unexplained.

In this way, I've spared you the hassle of explaining the passive substantives of Zeisberger, unless I've misunderstood his meaning, in which case, please correct me. However, this author doesn't mention whether there are active substantives like “the honouring,” “the favouring,” “the remembering,” “the praising,” “the insulting,” “the hating.” I kindly ask you to fill in this gap and clarify what he left out.

I find also that there are diminutive words in the Delaware, as in the Italian, such as lennotit, a little man, (from lenno); amementit, a little child, (from amemens); wiquames, a little house, (from wiquam), &c. Pray, are there also augmentatives? Is there any difference between the diminutive terminations tit and es, and what is it?

I also notice that there are small words in Delaware, similar to Italian, like lennotit, meaning a little man (from lenno); amementit, meaning a little child (from amemens); wiquames, meaning a little house (from wiquam), etc. By the way, are there also larger forms? Is there a difference between the diminutive endings tit and es, and what is it?

I have been told that you intend soon to visit Philadelphia; I shall rejoice to find it true, and to form a personal acquaintance with you, which, I hope, will produce a lasting friendship.

I’ve heard that you plan to visit Philadelphia soon; I’ll be really happy if that’s true and to get to know you personally, which I hope will lead to a lasting friendship.

I am, &c.

I am, etc.

LETTER XXVI.
FROM MR. HECKEWELDER.

Bethlehem, 10th October, 1816.

Bethlehem, October 10, 1816.

Dear Sir.—I have hesitated whether I should answer your favour of the 1st inst., being very soon to set out for Philadelphia, where I shall be able to explain to you verbally everything that you wish to know in a much better manner than I can do in writing. As there are, however, but few questions in your letter, and those easily answered, I sit down to satisfy your enquiry, which will for the present close our correspondence. If you think proper to resume it after my return to this place, you will find me as ready as ever to continue our Indian disquisitions. 431

Dear Sir,—I’ve been unsure whether to respond to your letter from the 1st since I’m about to head to Philadelphia, where I can explain everything you want to know in person much better than I can in writing. However, since there are only a few questions in your letter, and they’re easy to answer, I’ll go ahead and address your inquiries, which will wrap up our correspondence for now. If you’d like to pick it up again after I return here, you’ll find me just as willing as ever to continue our discussions about India. 431

In the first place, it cannot, I think, properly be said that substantives in general in the Delaware language have a passive mood; but there are substantives which express a passive situation, like those which you have cited, after Mr. Zeisberger. I do not know of any words which express the same thing actively, except the infinitives of active verbs, which are in that case substantively used. Such are,

In the first place, I don't think it's accurate to say that nouns in the Delaware language generally have a passive form; however, there are nouns that indicate a passive situation, like the ones you mentioned after Mr. Zeisberger. I’m not aware of any words that convey the same meaning actively, except for the infinitives of active verbs, which in this case are used as nouns. These are,

Shingalgundin, to hate; or hatred. Machelemuxundin, to honor; or the honoring. Mamachkimgundin, to insult; or the insult.

The diminutive forms in the Indian are tit and es; the former is generally applied to animate, and the latter to inanimate things. Thus we say lennotit, a little man; amementit, a little child; wiquames, a small house; and amocholes, a small canoe. This rule does not hold, however, in all cases; for the little fawn of a deer, although animate, is called mamalis, and a little dog among the Minsi is called allumes, (from allum, a dog.) Chis or ches, is also a diminutive termination, which is sometimes applied to beasts; achtochis and achtoches, “a small deer.”

The small forms in the Indian language are tit and es; the former is usually used for living things, and the latter for non-living things. So we say lennotit, a little man; amementit, a little child; wiquames, a small house; and amocholes, a small canoe. However, this rule doesn't apply in every case; for example, the little fawn of a deer, even though it’s a living creature, is called mamalis, and a little dog among the Minsi is called allumes, (from allum, a dog.) Chis or ches is also a small form that can be used for animals; achtochis and achtoches, mean “a small deer.”

Augmentatives are compounded from the word chingue, which signifies large; and sometimes the two words are separately used.

Augmentatives are formed from the word chingue, which means big; and sometimes the two words are used individually.

Chingue, or m’chingue puschis, a big cat. Chingewileno (for chingue lenno), a tall, sturdy man. Chingotæney (for chingue otæney), a big town. Chingi wiquam, a big house. Chingamochol, a big canoe. Chingachgook, a big snake, &c.

There are a few augmentatives formed in a different manner; for instance, from pachkshican or kshican, “a knife,” are formed pachkschicanes, “a small knife,” and m’chonschicanes,311 “a large knife;” still it is easy to see that m’chon, in the latter word, is derived from chingue, large or great, which, with a little variation, brings it within the same rule with the others. 432

There are a few augmentatives created in a different way; for example, from pachkshican or kshican, which means “a knife,” we get pachkschicanes, meaning “a small knife,” and m’chonschicanes, meaning “a large knife.” It’s also easy to see that m’chon in the latter word comes from chingue, meaning large or great, which, with a slight variation, fits into the same pattern as the others. 432

You have, no doubt, observed in Zeisberger the terminations ink and unk, which express the idea of locality, coupled with a substantive, as for instance:

You’ve probably noticed in Zeisberger the endings ink and unk, which convey the idea of location, combined with a noun, like for example:

Utenink, or otænink, from otæney, a town; in the town. Utenink n’da, I am going to town, or into the town. Utenink noom, I'm coming from inside the town. Sipunk, (from sipo) to or into the river. M’bink, (from m’bi) in water. Hakink, (from hacki) in or on the ground. Awossagamewunk, (from awossageme), in the sky. Wachtschunk n’da, I'm going up the hill. Wachtschunk now, I come from the hill. Hitgunk, on or to the tree. Ochunk, at his dad’s.

As you must have observed that many of our Indian names of places end with one or other of these terminations, such as Minisink, Moyamensing, Passyunk, &c., you will understand that all these names are in what we might call the local case, which accounts for the great number of those which end in this manner.

As you may have noticed, many of our Indian place names end with one of these endings, like Minisink, Moyamensing, Passyunk, etc. This means that all these names are in what we could refer to as the local case, which explains why so many of them end this way.

I beg you will not write to me any more for the present, as I do not know how soon I may have the pleasure of seeing you. I anticipate great satisfaction from your acquaintance, and hope it will be improved into a true Indian friendship.

I kindly ask that you don't write to me for now, as I'm not sure when I might have the pleasure of seeing you again. I'm really looking forward to getting to know you better and hope it will develop into a genuine Indian friendship.

I am, &c.
J. HECKEWELDER.

I am, etc.
J. HECKEWELDER.

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ERRATA IN PART II.

Page352, Line 11— For “Zeisberger” read “Heckewelder.”
359, 24— (of letter vi.) For “from” read “for.”
362, 15— For “schawanáki” read “schwanameki.”
16— For “chwani” read “chwami.”
383, 1— (from the bottom) For “k’lehelleya” read “k’lehellecheya.”
386, 21— For “wulatopnachgat” read “wulaptonachgat.”
23— For “wulatonamin” read “wulatenamin.”
392, 27— (of letter xvii.) For “manner” read “matter.”
397, 6 and 7— For “achpansi” read “achpanschi.”
401, 26— For “Indian corn” read “a particular species of Indian corn.”
404, 8— For “ktahoatell” read “ktahoalell.”
18— For “gunich” read “gunih.”
410, 12— For “eliwulek” read “eluwilek.”
13— For “allowilen” read “allowilek.” For the English translation,
of these two words, substitute “the most extraordinary, the most wonderful.”
14— For “eluwantowit” read “eluwannitowit.”
16— For “elewassit” read “elewussit.”
18— For “the supremely good” read “the most holy one.”
424, 6 and 7— For “schingieschin” read “schingiechin.”
429, 9— For “mamschalgussiwagan” read “mamschalgussowagan.”
11— For “mamintochimgussowagan” read “mamintschimgussowagan.”
431, 4— (from the bottom) For “m’chonschicanes” read “m’chonschican.”

ADDITIONAL ERRATUM IN PART I.

Page 323, Line 34— For “Indians” read “traders.”

434

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435

435


Part 3.



WORDS, PHRASES, AND SHORT DIALOGUES,

IN THE LANGUAGE OF THE

LENNI LENAPE, OR DELAWARE INDIANS.

BY REV. JOHN HECKEWELDER,


BETHLEHEM.

436

436

437

437


WORDS, PHRASES, ETC.,
OF THE
Lenni Lenape, or Delaware Tribe.

I eat. I'm drinking. I'm awake. I drink. N’papommíssi, I’m walking. I laugh. N’mamentschi, I’m thrilled. N’dáschwil, I’m swimming. N’manúnxi, I'm angry. I’m working. N’delláchgusi, I ascend. N’nanipauwi, I'm standing. N’lemáttáchpi, I’m sitting. Nópo, nóchpo, n’hóppo, I’m smoking. N’schiweléndam, I’m sorry. N’gattópui, I'm hungry. N’gattósomi, I'm thirsty. N’pálsi, I’m not feeling well. Nolamálsi, I'm good. N’nipitíne, I have a toothache. N’wiliné, I have a headache. N’wischási, I'm afraid. N’wiquíhhalla, I'm tired. N’tschittanési, I'm strong. N’schawússi, I am weak, fragile. N’túppocu, I’m wise. N’nanólhand, I’m lazy. N’pomóchksi, I sneak. N’dellemúske, I’m leaving. N’gattúngwan, I'm sleepy. Oténink n’da, I’m going to town. They're arguing. K’dahólel, I love you. Kschingálel, I can’t stand you. Ponihi, leave me alone. Palli áal, leave me alone. Gótschemunk, step outside. Get lost, away with you. Kschaméhella, run. Ne nipauwi, hold up. Come here. Kpáhi, close the door. Tauwúnni, open the door, lid, etc. Pisellissu, soft. Pisalatúlpe, soft-shelled turtle. Kulupátschi, otherwise, on the other hand, else, however. Nahalíwi, } Eiyelíwi, } both. Leu, true. Attáne léwi, that's not true. Alla gaski lewi, it can't be true. Bíschi, bíschihk, yes, indeed. N’wingalláuwi, I love hunting. 438 I like to work. N’schíngi mikemósi, I don’t like working. M’wingínammen, I love it. N’wingándammen, I love the taste (of it). N’wíngachpihn, I love being here. I don't like being here. N’mechquihn, I have a cold and cough. Undach lénni, reach it here. Undach lénnemáuwil, hand it to me. N'gattópui, I'm hungry. N’gattosomi, I'm thirsty. N’wiquíhilla, I'm tired, exhausted. N’tschitannéssi, I'm strong. N’schauwihilla, I feel weak. N’wischási, I'm afraid. N’daptéssi, I'm sweating. N’dágotschi, I'm cold, freezing. N’dellennówi, I’m a man. N’dochquéwi, I'm a woman. I feel. N’leheléche, I live, I breathe. Lécheen, to exist, breathe, take a breath, be alive. Lechéwon, breath. Note. Just as we might ask someone we haven’t seen in a long time, "Are you alive yet?"—or, is this person still alive? the Indian would say: Are you still breathing? Is my favorite friend N. N. still alive? Gooch ili lehelecheu? is your father still alive? Is your mother still alive? does your mother draw breath yet? N’tschu! my friend. Hey, dear, beloved friend. Nitis, trusted friend. Geptschat, a fool. Geptschátschik, idiots. Leppóat, smart. Leppoeu, he's wise. Leppoátschik, smart people. Sókelaan, it's raining. K’schilaan, it pours. Pélelaan, it starts to rain. It rains really hard. All of a sudden, it has stopped raining. Peelhácquon, it’s thundering. Sasapeléhelleu, it brightens. Petaquíechen, the streams are rising. M’chaquiéchen, the streams are high. Choppécat, the water's deep. Meetschi higíhelleu, the water's falling. Síchilleu meétschi, the waters have run off. Tatehúppecat, shallow water. Gahan, extremely low water, almost completely dried up. K’schuppéhelleu, a strong current, riffle. Pulpécat, deep dead water, like in a cove or bay. Clampéching, an unflowing stream, the current barely noticeable. Kscháchan, the wind. Ta úndchen? where does the wind blow from? The wind is coming from the north. Schawannéunk úndchen, the wind is coming from the south. Schawanáchen, south wind. Lowannáchen, north wind. Wundchennéunk, in the west. Gachpatteyéunk, in the east. Moschháquot, a clear sky. Kschiechpécat, clear, pure water. Achgumhócquat, overcast. Páckenum, dark, (very.) Pekenink, in the dark. Pisgeu, it's dark. Pisgéke, when it gets dark, (is dark.) Mah! Here, take it! Yuni, this. Nanni, nan, that. Look over there. Wáchelemi, distant. Wáchelemat? Is it far away, a long distance away? Péchuat, near, close. Pechuwíwi, near, (close by.) Pechútschi, close by. Pechu responded, directly, presently. 439 Pechu, soon, directly. Alíge, if so, still. Alíge n’dallemúsca, I will go for all, but I will go. You’re awesome! this way, to this side! Icka úndachqui, to that side. Ickalli úndachqui! keep going further that way! Wullih! over there! Wullíh táh! beyond that! Look over there! Nachgiéchen, it has hit against something, (cannot move or be pushed forward,) like a joist, a pin in a building. Clagáchen, it rests on something in the water, is grounded. Clagáchen amóchol, the canoe is stuck, resting on something. Clagáchen aschwitchan, the raft is stuck. Tauwihilla, it has sunk. My canoe sank. Gachpattol amóchol, take the canoe out of the water. Gachpallátam, let's get out and go ashore. Pusik! go! (ye.) Pusil! Start! (you.) Wischíksil! stay alert, act fast, be serious, and put in your best effort! Wischíksik! be alert, serious, and prompt! (about it.) Note. The word wischíksi or wischíxi is interpreted by white people as meaning “be strong,” but this does not capture the true meaning of the word. It encompasses more; it calls for efforts to be made to achieve the goal. N'petalogálgun! I'm here as a messenger! N’sagimáum petalogálgun yu pétschi, my chief has sent me to deliver a message to you. Matta nutschquem’páwi, I didn’t come for nothing, (meaning, I’m here on an errand.) Pechu k’pendammenéwo wentsche payan, you'll soon find out why I'm here. Tschingetsch kmátschi? When are you coming back home? Sédpook! at dawn! N’dellgun lachpi gatta páame, I was told to hurry and come back quickly. Lachpí, quick, (instantly.) N’mauwi pihm, I'm heading to the sweat lodge (at the sweat house). N'dapi pihm, I have come from sweating (from the sweat lodge). N’dapelláuwi, I just got back from hunting. N’dápi notamæsi, I come from fishing with a spear. I come from fishing with a hook and line. N’dapi achquáneman, I come from bushnet fishing. Notameshícan, a fishing spear, gig. Aman, a fishing hook. Achquáneman, a bush net. Apatschiáne, when I'm back. Góphammen, } K’páhammen,}to block off anything nearby, a door, &c. Kpáhi, close the door. Kpáskhamen, to seal tightly. Tauwún, open the door. Tauwúnni, open the door for me. M’biák, whale, (fish.) Yuh’ allauwítan! Come on, let’s go hunting! Nelema n’metenaxíwi, I’m not ready yet. Are you ready now? Not yet! Pechu lenítti, soon. Laháppa pehil! hold on a moment for me! Nelema n’gischambíla níwash! I still haven't finished packing my bag! Yúh’ yehúcke allemuskétam! Alright, let's move on! Schuck sokeláan gachtáuwi! but it's going to rain! Quanna ta! even if it does, no matter if it does! Alla kschilánge, when the shower is done. Where should we set up camp? Wdiungoakhánnink, at the white oak run. 440 Enda gochgochgáchen, at the crossing, fording-place. Enda tachtschaúnge, at the narrows, (where the hill meets the river closely.) Meechek achsinik, at the big rock. Gauwáhenink, at the place of the fallen trees. Sikhéunk, at the salt spring. Pachséyink, in the valley. Wachtschúnk, on the hill. Yapéwi, by the river. Gámink, on the other side of the river. Eli shíngeek, on the flat, (even ground.) Mahónink, at the lick, (deer lick.) Oténink, in the city. Tékenink, in the woods. Hachkihácanink, on-site. Pockhapóckink, at the stream between the two hills. Menatheink, on the island. Enda lechauhánne, at the forks of the river. Enda lechauwíechen, at the forks of the road. Sakunk, at the river's mouth, (where the river meets the sea). The cold spring. K’mésha? Did you bag a deer? Atta, n’palléha! No, I missed him! Y’all! what a pity! Did you see one? So you did see it? Nachen n’newa achúch, three times I saw deer. Quonna eats kpúngum machtit, maybe your powder is bad. Well, that's true, that's how it ended up. Achtschíngi pockteu, it barely caught fire. Are there a lot of deer where you were? Here you go: "Here comes the hound, not very many." Nángutti schuck n’peenhálle, I saw only a few tracks. Machk kpenhálle? Did you find any bears? Biesch n’penhálle mauchsu, I tracked but one. Schuck and dállemons mekane, but my dog. Palli uchschíha, drove him away. N’gatta amochólhe, I want to make a canoe. Wítschemil! help me! N’pachkamen gachtáuwi, I want to get bled. Yeah, let's do that, well do so, let it be so. N’matamálsi, I’m not feeling well. Woke up with a toothache. Witschemil! *Help me!* Poníhil, leave me alone. Hush! Be quiet! Kscháhel! hit hard, strike well! (on wood, etc.) Míleen, to give, giving. Mil, send. Mili, give it to me. Milineen, give us. Miltin, given (was already). Miltoágan, a gift. N’milgun, I was given this. Milo, hand it to him. Milátamo, let’s give him. Look! hush, be quiet! Elke! Oh no, awesome! Ekesa! awful, shame on you! Suppínquall, tears. Lepácku, he shouts. You got it, yes, indeed. Kéhella, yes. Kehellá? So, is it possible? Hey there! Oh yes, that's right! Yuh kehella! Alright, then! No way! for sure, it is! Kehella kella! Yeah, yeah! E-E, yes, (a lazy yes.) Mátta, no. Okay, no, (a lazy no.) Tagú, no, not. No way, no, no. Eekhockewítschik mamachtagéwak, the nations are fighting each other. You all see it clearly, indeed it is a pity they do so. Napenaltowaktsché, they will be scalping each other. Auween won gintsch pat? Who just walked in? 441 Taktáani, I don’t know. Mauwi pennó, check it out. Auween kháckev? Who are you? (What nation are you from?) Lennápe n’hackey, I am an Indian, (of the Lenni Lenape.) Ta kóom? Where are you from? Oténink nóom, I come from the town. Auween kpetschi, witscheuchgun? Who came here with you? At the lookout, he who stands there. Lennápe? Is he an Indian? (a Lenni Lenape.) Tah, Mengwe, no, he is a Mingo, an Iroquois. Did he come with you from the town? Matta! n’mattelúkgun, no! he joined me (by the way). Where's the party? Wulli tah achtschaúnge! over there at the narrows! What's happening today? Atta! Here, no! last night. What is he coming here for? What does he want? Taktani, schuck n’tschupínawe! I’m not sure, but I don't trust him! Tcshpináxu gáhenna, he seems suspicious, has a questionable look. Gichgemotket quónna, he's probably a thief. Wewitschi is eating, most likely, (he is.) N’gemotemúke n’dállemons nechnaúnges, my horse has been stolen from me. Wichwínggi gemotgéwak Menge, the Mingoes really like to steal. They are homeless. Gachtíngetsch, next year. Lehelechejane, If I live, (or am alive.) Gamhackinktsch n’da, I will go across the sea, (or more accurately) to the land beyond the sea. Clámachphil! stay still! Schíki a na Lenno, that is a handsome, attractive man. Quatsch luppackhan? Why are you crying? N’nilchgun na nipauwit, the one standing there hit me. Uchschímo meetschi, he's already run off, disappeared. T’chúnno! Get him! Gachbílau! hold him! Lachénau! Release him! Weemi, or wemi auween lue, everybody says. Wigwingi geloltóak schwánnakwak, that the white people enjoy fighting. N’matúnguam, I had a nightmare. N’mátschi, I'm heading home. Siquonne lappitsch knewi lehellecheyan! This spring, you’ll see me again if I’m still alive! Yeah, schuck mámschali! well, just don’t forget me! Natsch leu, it will be so, that will be done. I have been called. Who called you? N’dochquéum, my wife. N’nitsch undach aal! Come here, my child! Lachpi! hurry! There stand. Pelláh, for sure. Petalamo auween, somebody is sounding (calling out) the alarm, (signifying danger is present.) Yeah, let's go! come, let us run off! Not yet! Quanna eet auween gatta napenálgun! Maybe someone is about to attack and scalp us! Wewitschi eat, probably, maybe. Check it out! Wulli, they're coming! Look over there! Who do you see? Machelook, or chelook schwánnakwak, many white people. Papomiscuak? Are they walking? Alénde, some of them. Schuk matta weémi, but not everyone. Gachtonalukguntsch matta uchschimuiénge, we'll be attacked if we don't get out of here. 442 Yeah, we should go ahead, well then, let us make off at any rate. Mattapewíwak nik schwannakwak, the white people are a deceitful group of individuals. Kilunéwak wingi, they are inclined to lie. Kschinggálguna gehenna, they really hate us. Gemotemukguna wíngi, they like, are inclined to rob us; they are thieves among us. Yeah, let's go for it! Alright, let's take them on, attack them. Longundowináquot, it seems promising for peace, there is a chance for peace. Pennau won! check that out! Achgíeuchsu, he's drunk. Achgepíngwe, he's blind. Achgépcheu, he can't hear. Kpítscheu, he's foolish. Sópsu, he's naked. Mamanúnxu, he’s mad. Scháaksu, he's greedy. Pihmtónheu, he has a lisp. Ilau, he’s a great war leader. Sakímau, he's a chief. Kschamehellátam, let’s run together. Típaas, a hen. Tipátit, a chicken. Tschólens, a bird. Tscholéntit, a small bird.

443

443


INDEX.

  • Abbott, Rachel, 341.
  • Abenakis, a name of the Lenape, xliii., 121, 123, 126.
  • Acadia, inhabited by the Souriquois, etc., 121.
  • Achsinning, 184.
  • Achtschingi clammui, 199.
  • Adair, James I., 126.
  • Adelung’s Mithridates, 124.
  • Ahouandâte or Wyandots, xliv.
  • Albany, xxx., xxxi., 61.
  • Albany River, the, 120.
  • Algonquins, the, 95;
  • language, 121, 122, 123, 124.
  • Allegheny River, the, 84, 294.
  • Alligewi or Allegheny, the, 48, 53, 126.
  • Alligewi Sipu, the Allegheny River, 48.
  • Anderson, John, a Quaker trader, 241 et seq.
  • Apalaches or Wapanachkis, the, 126.
  • Apalachian nation, the, 126.
  • Aquanoshioni, national name of the Six Nation Indians, 96, 97, 98.
  • Arundel and Robbins, Messrs., 173.
  • Assiniboils or Sioux, the, 119, 123.
  • Assinipoetuk, the, 119.
  • Aubrey, Lætitia, 336.
  • Bartholinus, Kasper, 118.
  • Barton’s New Views, 121, 122, 126.
  • Bear, the naked, 255.
  • Belts of Wampum, 109.
  • Benezet, John Stephen, xxx.
  • Bethlehem, xxx.;
  • Indians at, 85, 90, 91, 92, 251, 332.
  • Beverwyck, xxxi.
  • Big Beaver River, 190, 196.
  • Blackfoot Indians, 121.
  • Boudinot, Elias, 331.
  • Brodhead, General Daniel, 70, 237.
  • Butterfield’s Crawford’s Campaign against Sandusky referred to, 284.
  • Calhoon, Thomas, an Indian trader, 270.
  • Canada, xxxvi., 56, 85, 93, 120, 121, 126, 342.
  • Canai or Kanhawas, the, xliv., 90, 122.
  • Canajoharie, xxxi.
  • Canaways, the, xliv.
  • Canawese, the, xliv.
  • Canibas, the, 121.
  • Carolina, xxxii., xxxvii.
  • Carolina, North, 122.
  • Carver, Captain Jonathan, 119;
  • his “Three Years’ Travel through the interior parts of North America,” ibid.; 268, 322;
  • quoted, 324, 339.
  • Catawbas, the, 126.
  • Cayahaga, Delaware preacher at, 291.
  • Cayahaga River, 85.
  • Cayugas, the, 96, 99.
  • Chaktawas, the, 126.
  • Chapman, Abraham, and John, 67.
  • Chapman, a Jew trader, 257.
  • Chaquaquock, Indian name for the English, 142.
  • Charlevoix, Father, 123, 124, 331.
  • Chemenk, 91, 92.
  • Chenos, an old Indian, brings down rain, 236.
  • Cherokees, the, 64, 65, 88, 89, 95;
  • language of, 119, 171, 327.
  • Chesapeake Bay, 50.
  • Chickesaws, the, 125.
  • Chingleclamoose, 199.
  • Chippeways or Algonquins, language of, 119; xl., 90, 124, 130, 144, 176, 212. 444
  • Choctaws, the, 125.
  • Christian Indians, xl.
  • Christinaux, the, 123.
  • Clavigero, the Abbé, 331.
  • Cochnewagoes, the, a mixed race of Indians, 93.
  • Coghnewago, 52.
  • Coghnewago Hills, 52.
  • Colden, Cadwallader, his History of the Five Indian Nations quoted, xxxii., xxxiv., xliii., 55, 120.
  • Collections of Maps, Historical Society, referred to, 93, 94.
  • Colonial Records of Penna., xxxv., 178.
  • Conecocheague, 341.
  • Conestoga Indians, the murder of, 68, 80, 184, 192.
  • Connecticut, 94.
  • Conois, the, xliv.
  • Cornplanter, the, 112.
  • Cornstalk, the, 89, 184.
  • Coshocton, 237.
  • Crantz, David, a Moravian historian, his History of Greenland referred to, 118.
  • Crawford. Col. William, 133;
  • tortured by Indians, 284;
  • dialogue with Capt. Wingenund, 285.
  • Creeks, the, 95, 121, 125.
  • Cushman, the Rev. Mr., of the Plymouth Colony, 330.
  • David, a Moravian Indian, 166.
  • David’s Path, 168.
  • De Laet, 126.
  • Delamattenos, the, 80.
  • De la Ware, Lord, xliii.
  • Delaware hunter and the bear (anecdote), 255.
  • Delaware Water Gap, 264.
  • Denmark, 119.
  • Detroit, xl., 49, 55, 108, 110, 119, 121, 133, 144, 171, 174, 226, 230, 258, 284.
  • Detroit Gazette quoted, 243.
  • Doctol, Indian for Doctor, 231.
  • Duncan, David, 280.
  • Dunmore’s War, 89, 263, 278.
  • Du Ponceau to Heckewelder, letters of, 353, 364, 369, 376, 379, 387, 392, 403, 416, 426.
  • Du Ponceau to Wistar, letter of, 359.
  • Du Pratz, 126.
  • Dutch, Indian account of their arrival in New York, 71 et seq.; xxx., xxxii., xxxiii., xxxiv., xxxviii., 61, 74, 75.
  • Dutchemaan, the Dutch so called by the Indians, 60, 77.
  • Du Vallon, 126.
  • Easton, xxxv., 79, 168, 303.
  • Edwards, Bryan, 331.
  • Edwards, the Rev. Jonathan, 94, 125, 127.
  • Egede, P., 118.
  • Eliot, the Rev. John, 94, 125, 127.
  • Elliot, Matthew, 152.
  • Enda Mohatink, “where human flesh was eaten,” 200.
  • Esquimaux Indians, 118.
  • Etchemins, the country of the, 121.
  • Evans, Mr., murder of, at Pittsburg, 111.
  • Florida Indians, 95, 347.
  • Floridian languages, 125.
  • Forks of Delaware, the, 86.
  • Fort Allen, 166, 333.
  • Fort Duquesne, 86.
  • Fort Harmar, 112.
  • Fort McIntosh, 173, 219.
  • Fort Washington, 183.
  • Franklin at Fort Allen, 166.
  • Freeman, Mr., an Indian Peace Commissioner, 182.
  • French and Indian War, the, 67, 88.
  • French Missionaries, 119.
  • Gaaschtinick or Albany, 60.
  • Gachgawatschiqua, a Shawano chief, 86.
  • Gambold, the Rev. John, 126.
  • Gelelemend or Killbuck, a Delaware chief, 233;
  • biographical sketch of, ibid.
  • Gentellemaan (gentleman), 188.
  • Georgia, 86, 121. 445
  • Gibson, Col. John, biographical sketch of, 48;
  • letter to the Rev. N. Seidel, 82, 85, 132.
  • Girty, Simon, 152, 279.
  • Gladwyn, Major, at Detroit, 108.
  • Glicanican or Indian tobacco, 212.
  • Glikhican, Isaac, a Moravian Indian, 341.
  • Gnadenhütten on the Mahoning, 91.
  • Goshachking, 237, 295, 327.
  • (See Coshocton.)
  • Greenland, inhabitants of, 118;
  • Moravian mission in, ibid.
  • Greentown, incident occurring at, 144.
  • Greenville, treaty of, xli., 298.
  • Guyandots, the, xliv.
  • Hardin, Mr., an Indian Peace Commissioner, 182.
  • Harris, John, on the site of Harrisburg, 90.
  • Heckewelder, the Rev. John G. E., biographical sketch of, vii.-xiv.;
  • at Detroit, 144;
  • in Upper Canada, 168;
  • on the Muskingum, 102, 171;
  • associated with Gen. R. Putnam, 183;
  • on the Big Beaver, 190;
  • at Tuscarawas, 205;
  • at Lower Sandusky, 219;
  • at New Gnadenhütten on the Huron, 226;
  • dialogue with Killbuck, 234;
  • dialogue with Chenos, 237;
  • his “Collection of the names of chieftains and eminent men of the Delaware Nation” alluded to, 270;
  • general observations and anecdotes, 310 et seq.;
  • at Post Vincennes, 311;
  • at Marietta, 312;
  • advice to travellers, 318.
  • Heckewelder to Du Ponceau, letters of, 361, 371, 375, 380, 383, 395, 399, 409, 414, 422, 430.
  • Heckewelder to Wistar, letters of, 356, 358.
  • Henry, Judge William, of Lancaster, 82.
  • Hermit’s Field, the, 200.
  • Hervas, 126.
  • Holland, Luke, a Delaware, 178 et seq.
  • Hoosink, 255.
  • Hudson’s Bay Company, the, 118, 120.
  • Huron River, now the Clinton, 93.
  • Hurons, the, xliv.;
  • disunited from the Iroquois, 119;
  • language of, 122.
  • Iceland, 119.
  • Indiana Territory, 85.
  • Indian Grammars by the Spaniards, 127.
  • Indians, their historical traditions, 47.
  • mounds and fortifications, 48, 49.
  • treatment of, by the Europeans, 76 et seq.
  • general character, 100 et seq.
  • belief in an all-wise and good Creator, or Mannito, 101.
  • hospitality, 101.
  • civility, 103.
  • humor and wit, 104.
  • respect for the aged, 104, 163 et seq.
  • sense of justice, 105.
  • form of government, 107.
  • education of their children, 113 et seq.
  • signs and hieroglyphics, 127 et seq.
  • drawings, 130.
  • hunters’ marks, 131.
  • oratory, 132.
  • metaphorical expressions, 137 et seq.
  • names given their own people and the whites, 141 et seq.
  • intercourse with each other, 145 et seq.
  • political manœuvres, 150 et seq.
  • manner of marriage and treatment of their wives, 154 et seq.
  • pride and greatness of mind, 170 et seq.
  • wars and the causes which lead to them, 175.
  • manner of surprising an enemy, 177 et seq.
  • peace-messengers, 181 et seq.
  • treaties of peace, 185 et seq.
  • ill treatment by the whites, 187 et seq.
  • food, and the manner of preparing it, 193 et seq.
  • dress, and love of ornaments, 202 et seq.
  • dances, songs, and sacrifices, 208 et seq.
  • scalp-whoops or yells, 215 et seq.
  • alarm-whoop, 217.
  • death-halloo, ib.
  • physical constitution and diseases, 220 et seq. 446
  • materia medica, 224 et seq.
  • sweat-ovens, 225.
  • physicians and surgeons, 228 et seq.
  • doctors or jugglers, 231 et seq.
  • superstitions, 239 et seq.
  • manner of initiating boys, 245.
  • system of mythology, 249.
  • coats-of-arms, 252.
  • behaviour towards the insane, and their ideas regarding suicide, 257 et seq.
  • drunkenness, 261 et seq.
  • funerals, 268 et seq.
  • friendships, 277 et seq.
  • preachers and prophets, 290 et seq.
  • computation of time, 306 et seq.
  • astronomical and geographical knowledge, 308 et seq.
  • general character compared with that of the whites, 328 et seq.
  • Iroquois, the, 95 et seq.;
  • supplied by the English with fire-arms, xxxii.;
  • the name given to the Six Nations by the French, xliv.;
  • the language, 119;
  • in the State of New York, 121.
  • Irvine, General William, letter to Wm. More, 81;
  • letter from Washington, 284.
  • Jefferson, Thomas, 122.
  • Johnson, Sir William, 68, 120.
  • Juniata River, Shawanose on the, 86, 87.
  • Kanawha, the Great, 89, 184.
  • Karalit, language of the, 118.
  • Kickapoos, the, 121.
  • Killbuck or Gelelemend, 233;
  • dialogue with Heckewelder, 234.
  • Killistenoes, the, 95, 322.
  • Knisteneaux, the, 95.
  • Knox, H., Secretary of War, letter to Heckewelder, 311.
  • Koguethagechton, Indian name of Capt. White Eyes, 280.
  • Kuequenaku, the Indian name of Philadelphia, 142.
  • Labrador, 118.
  • La Chine, a murderous affair between two Indians at, 105.
  • Laehauwake, Easton, 79.
  • La Hontan, Father, xliii., 119;
  • list of Indian nations, 121, 122, 124.
  • Lake Erie, 49, 85.
  • Lake St. Clair, 49.
  • Languages, Indian, 118 et seq.
  • Las Casas, 331.
  • Leather Lips, a Wyandot chief, 297;
  • death of, 298.
  • Lehigh Hills, 52.
  • Lehigh River, the, 52.
  • Lehigh Water Gap, the, 91, 234, 334.
  • Lehighton, site of Gnadenhütten on the Mahoning, xxxi.
  • Lenapewihittuck, the Delaware River, 51, 78.
  • Lenni Lenape, national name of the Delawares, xxvi.;
  • were they or were they not conquered by the Mengwe? xxvii. et seq.; xiii.;
  • wars with the Iroquois, xxvii.;
  • settle on the Atlantic coast, xxviii.;
  • made women by the Iroquois, xxix.;
  • on New York Island, xxxvii.;
  • in the far West, 47;
  • on the Mississippi, 49;
  • confederated with the Mengwe to fight the Allegewi, 50;
  • on Chesapeake Bay, ib.;
  • on the Delaware, 51;
  • consent to become women, 58;
  • seek to gain their independence, 62;
  • take up arms against the English, 68;
  • assert their national independence, 70;
  • their fate subsequent to 1763, and that of their kindred tribes, 83 et seq.;
  • their number, 85;
  • language, 121, 124;
  • song of the warriors, 211;
  • words, phrases, etc., 431 et seq.;
  • Tortoise, Turkey, and Wolf tribes of, 51, 52, 253.
  • Lincoln, Gen. Benjamin, 105.
  • Logan, the well-known Indian chief, 89;
  • his celebrated speech, 132.
  • Lord’s Prayer, the, in the Delaware, 424.
  • Loskiel, the Rev. George H., biographical sketch of, xxix.;
  • his History of the Mission of the United Brethren 447
  • among the Indians of North America” referred to, xxix., xxx., xxxvii., xl., 48;
  • quoted in full touching the making women of the Delawares by the Iroquois, 59;
  • referred to, 70, 85, 86, 88, 90, 92, 97, 126, 134;
  • quoted, 206;
  • referred to, 213, 341.
  • Lower Sandusky, 159, 173.
  • Mæchachtinni, the name given by the Lenape to the Senecas, 99.
  • Machtitschwanne, or Massachusetts, 77.
  • Mackenzie, Alexander, 121.
  • Mahicanni or Mohicans, xliii., 53;
  • their account of the Iroquois making women of the Delawares, 60;
  • Moravian mission among them, 93;
  • called Mahingans, xliii., 121.
  • Mahikanders or Mohicans, xliii.
  • Maine, Province of, xxviii., 121.
  • Manahachtanienk, New York Island, 77, 262.
  • Maqua, the Mohican name of the Six Nations, xliv., 98.
  • Marietta, 311, 312.
  • Maryland, 53, 91, 92, 122.
  • Matassins, the, 123.
  • McKee, Alexander, 152.
  • Mechanschican, i.e. Long Knives, 142, 143.
  • Meigs, Return Jonathan, U. S. Agent to the Cherokees, 126.
  • Memorials of the Moravian Church referred to, 302.
  • Mengwe, Delaware name of the Six Nations, xxvi.;
  • in the Great Lake region, 50;
  • on the St. Lawrence, 54;
  • their treachery toward the Lenni Lenape, 54, 64, 68, 98.
  • Messissaugees, the, 121.
  • Miamis or Twightwees, xii.;
  • of Lenape origin, 121;
  • their country, 93.
  • Michael, a Monsey buried at Bethlehem, 206 et seq.
  • Micmacs, the, 121.
  • Minisink, the country of the Minsis, 52.
  • Mingoes, name given to the Six Nations by the whites, xliv., 98, 130.
  • Minsis or Monseys, 52, 53, 84, 85, 123, 124.
  • Miquon, Delaware name of William Penn, 66, 78, 142.
  • Mississippi River, the, xxvii., xxxii., xxxvii., 47, 49, 51, 85, 95, 118.
  • Mitchell, Mr., U. S. Agent to the Creeks, 126.
  • Mobilians, the, 126.
  • Mohawks, the, xxxiv., xxxv., 61, 96, 99.
  • Mohicanichtuck, Hudson’s River, xxxviii., 52, 53, 75.
  • Mohicans, xxviii., xxx., xxxiii., 71, 86.
  • Monongahela River, the, 87.
  • Monsonies, the, 123.
  • Montreal, 105.
  • Moravian Indians, the, xl., 81;
  • settle at Wyalusing, 83, 197;
  • settle on the Muskingum, 84, 85;
  • at Philadelphia, 166;
  • grant of lands by Congress to, 168;
  • on the Retrenche, ibid.;
  • near Detroit, 176;
  • murder of, on the Muskingum, 184, 283.
  • Morgan, Col. George, 300.
  • Mourigans or Mohicans, xliii.
  • Muhheekanes or Mohicans, xliii.
  • Munsell’s Collections of the History of Albany quoted, xxxi.
  • Muskanecun Hills, the, 52.
  • Muskingum or Tuscarawas River, xl., 84, 85, 102, 112, 171, 180, 252.
  • Muskohgees or Creeks, 125.
  • Namaesisipu, the Mississippi River, 47, 49, 51.
  • Nanticokes, the, xxviii., xliii., 53, 83, 90 et seq., 122.
  • Natchez, the, 126.
  • Natick dialect, the, 125;
  • Eliot’s Bible in the Natick, 94.
  • Naudowessies, the, 95, 119, 268.
  • Nazareth, Capt. John at, 52, 220;
  • the Barony, 336.
  • Nentico or Nanticoke, xliv.
  • Nescopeck, 91, 166, 333.
  • New England, xxxii., 71. 448
  • New London, 94.
  • New York Island, xxxvi., xxxvii., 72, 208.
  • Niagara, xl., 174.
  • Nocharauorsul, the ground hog, myth of, 251.
  • Nordmann’s Kill, xxx., xxxi., xxxv., 60, 61.
  • North River, the, xxxvii., 51.
  • Nova Scotia, 121, 123.
  • Ohio, an Iroquois word, 48;
  • the river, 84, 86, 87, 339
  • Onas, Iroquois for William Penn, 142.
  • Oneida, 93.
  • Oneidas, the, 96, 99.
  • Ongwe-honwe, the name given themselves by the Iroquois, xxxiv.
  • Onondagoes, the, 96, 99.
  • Openagi, the, xliii.
  • Openangoes, the, 121.
  • Otayáchgo, Mohican name of the Nanticokes, 92.
  • Ottawas, the, xl., xii.
  • Owl Creek, 168.
  • Pachgantschihilas, a Delaware chief, 80.
  • Papunhank, a Monsey, 197.
  • Pascagoulas, the, 125.
  • Paxnos, a Shawano chief, 88.
  • Penn, William, 66, 107, 331.
  • Pequods, the, 94.
  • Perth Amboy, 148.
  • Philadelphia, Shawanose on the site of, 86;
  • Indians on the site of, 148.
  • Pilgerruh, a Moravian Mission, 85.
  • Pine Plains, Dutchess Co., N. Y., 93.
  • Pine Swamp, the, 166, 200.
  • Pipe, a Delaware chief, biographical sketch of, 133;
  • speech at Detroit, ibid., 151, 152, 153, 338, 347.
  • Pipe of Peace, 109.
  • Pittsburg, 69, 70, 86;
  • Mr. Evans murdered at, 111, 184, 190, 192, 279.
  • Point Pleasant, 89, 184.
  • Pontiac, 108.
  • Potomac River, the, 51, 90.
  • Pottowatomies, the, xli., 121.
  • Proctor, General Thomas, 295.
  • Proud’s History of Pennsylvania quoted, 67.
  • Psindamocan, a preparation of Indian corn, 195.
  • Putnam, General Rufus, 183, 311.
  • Pyrlæus, the Rev. J. Christopher, biographical sketch of, xxx.;
  • his collection of Indian traditions in MS., 54;
  • account of the conspiracy of the Five Nations quoted, 56;
  • quoted, 61, 91, 96;
  • Indian tradition quoted, 251, 347.
  • Quaekels, Quakers so called by the Indians, 143.
  • Quebec, 78.
  • Rauch, Christian Henry, a Moravian Missionary, 93.
  • River Indians, Mohicans so called, xxxiv., xliii.
  • Robbins and Arundel, Messrs., 173.
  • Rochefort, 126.
  • Rocky Mountains, 118.
  • Rogers’s Key into the Language of the Indians of New England referred to, 142.
  • Rosenbaum, Cornelius, a Delaware, 264;
  • dialogue with Heckewelder, 265.
  • Sagard, Father Samuel, xliv.;
  • his Dictionary, 120, 127.
  • Samuel, a Moravian Indian, 220.
  • Sandusky, 153, 172;
  • Crawford’s campaign against, 284.
  • Sankhicanni, name given by the Lenape to the Mohawks, 99.
  • Savannah, 86, 121.
  • Schatikooks or Mohicans, xliii.
  • Scheyichbi, Indian name of New Jersey, 51.
  • Schussele’s painting, “The Power of the Gospel,” 294.
  • Schuylkill River, the, 86.
  • Schwannack, i. e., “salt beings,” 142.
  • Schweinitz’s Life of Zeisberger referred to, 63, 81. 449
  • Senecas, 55, 69, 96, 99.
  • Sganarady, a Mohawk chief’s account of the origin of the Indians, 61, 250.
  • Sganiateratich-rohne, the Iroquois name of the Nanticokes, 92.
  • Shamokin, 91, 178.
  • Shawanose, the, xxxix., xli., 85 et seq.; 121, 130.
  • Shechschequon, 91.
  • Shenango, 91.
  • Shikilimus at Shamokin, 88.
  • Shingask, 269;
  • funeral of his wife, 270 et seq.
  • Shummunk, 91.
  • Silver Heels, a Shawano, 278.
  • Sioux or Assiniboils, the, 119.
  • Six Nations or Mengwe, their manner of attaining to power, xxxii. et seq.;
  • how they lost their power, xxxix. et seq.; xliv.;
  • eat human flesh, 55;
  • unable to conquer the Delawares, 56;
  • their scheme to make women of the Delawares, ib.;
  • insult the Delawares, 67, 119.
  • Snake Indians, the, 121.
  • Soccokis, the, 121.
  • Souriquois, the, 121.
  • Sproat, Col. Ebenezer, 312.
  • Star in the West, A” referred to, 331.
  • Steiner, the Rev. Abraham, 49.
  • Stenton, John, 333;
  • his place attacked by Indians, 334, 335.
  • St. Lawrence, the, xxviii., xxxvii., 54, 56, 93, 95.
  • St. Pierre, the, 119.
  • Stockbridge, 93.
  • Susquehanna River, the, 50, 52, 90.
  • Sussee Indians, the, 121.
  • Sweat-ovens, 226.
  • Sweden, 119.
  • Tadeuskund or Honest John, 302.
  • Tallegewi, the, 48, 49.
  • Tamanend, 300.
  • Tamaqua, or King Beaver, 269.
  • Tammany Society, the, 301.
  • Tar-he, a Wyandot chief, 298.
  • Tassmanane, a preparation of Indian corn, 195.
  • Tatemy, Moses, Brainerd’s interpreter, 302, 307, 337.
  • Tawachguano, Delaware name of the Nanticokes, 92.
  • Tawalsantha, Indian name of Norman’s Kill, xxxi.
  • Tecumseh, 295.
  • Thomas, a Susquehanna Indian at Bethlehem, 267.
  • Thomson, Charles, xxxvi.
  • Thorhallesen, 118.
  • Transactions of the Massachusetts Historical Society referred to, 94.
  • Trappers, the, Nanticokes so called, 92.
  • Treaties held with the Indians between 1740 and 1760, xxxv.
  • Trueman, Mr., an Indian Peace Commissioner, 182.
  • Trumbull’s History of Connecticut referred to, 94.
  • Tschachgoos, the, 142.
  • Tuscarawas, the river, 85;
  • the town, 205.
  • Tuscaroras, the, 96, 99, 327.
  • Twightwees or Miamis, the, 121.
  • Umfreville, Mr., 121.
  • Unalachtgo, Turkey Delawares, 51, 53, 253.
  • Unamis or Turtles, 51, 53, 124, 250.
  • Unechtgo, Delaware name of Nanticokes, 92.
  • Upper Sandusky, 173.
  • Vater, Johann Severin, 124, 125, 126.
  • Vincennes, Post, 183, 311.
  • Virginia, xxviii., 53, 71, 90, 122.
  • Virginians or “Long Knives,” 76.
  • Volney’s View of the Soil and Climate of the United States referred to, 256.
  • Wabash River, the, 85, 183.
  • Waketemeki, 230.
  • Wampum, 109.
  • Wangomend, a Monsey preacher, 293 et seq.
  • Wapanachki, xliii., 121, 123, 124, 126. 450
  • Wapsid Lenape, i. e. the white people, 142.
  • Wawundochwalend, a chief of the Tuscaroras, 206.
  • Wayne, Gen’l Anthony, xli., 89, 133, 192.
  • Weiser, Conrad, xxx., xxxi., 54.
  • Weissport, 166.
  • Wells, William, and the bear, 256.
  • Wetterholt, Captain Jacob, 334.
  • White, a Nanticoke chief, 90, 92.
  • White Eyes, Capt., a chief of the Western Delawares, xxxix.;
  • biographical sketch of, 69, 151, 152, 153, 279.
  • Whitefield, the Rev. George, 52, 336.
  • Williamson, Capt. David, in command of militia at Gnadenhütten on Muskingum, 81;
  • his expedition by whom authorized, 283, 286.
  • Wingenund, Capt., a Delaware, 279, 284;
  • dialogue with Col. Crawford, 285 et seq.
  • Wistar to Heckewelder, letters of, 354, 359.
  • Wolf tribe of Delawares, 52, 253.
  • Womelsdorf, xxx.
  • W’Tássone, name given by the Lenape to the Oneidas, 99.
  • Wyalusing, 83, 196.
  • Wyandots, xl., xli., xliv., 95, 119, 130.
  • Wyoming, 79, 91, 92, 166.
  • Yengees (Yankees), 77, 142, 143.
  • Zeisberger, the Rev. David, reference to his Essay of a Delaware and English Spelling-Book, xliii., 125;
  • biographical sketch of, 63;
  • quoted, 97;
  • his German Iroquois Dictionary, 97, 120, 347;
  • his opinion of the Iroquois language, 120;
  • his Grammar of the Lenni Lenape language, 125, 127, 166, 279;
  • dialogue with Indian David, 167;
  • at Goschgoschink, 293, 338, 347.
  • Zinzendorf, Count Nicholas Lewis, in Penna., xxx.;
  • among the Shawanose of Wyoming, 88, 337.

FINIS

FINIS


FOOTNOTES:

1 The annotations in brac s are by the Editor.

1 The notes in brackets are by the Editor.

2 Between the words “if” and “what” insert “we can credit.”

2 Between the words “if” and “what” insert “we can credit.”

3 A figurative expression, denoting the territory claimed by them, and occupied at the time.

3 A figurative expression, indicating the territory they claimed and occupied at that time.

4 Alluding to the white people settling those countries.

4 Referring to the white people who settled in those countries.

5 [The book referred to here and elsewhere frequently in the course of his narrative by the author, was written by the Rev. George Henry Loskiel, a clergyman of the Continental Province of the Moravian Church, and was published at Barby, Saxony, in 1789. It is entitled “Geschichte der Mission der Evangelischen Brüder unter den Indianern in Nordamerika,” and is a faithful record of the Christian work in which the Moravians engaged chiefly among the Lenape and Iroquois stocks of the aborigines, in the interval between 1735 and 1787. The material on which the author wrought in the preparation of his history was furnished mainly from the archives of his church at Herrnhut, to which duplicates of the missionaries’ journals were statedly forwarded. In this way he was enabled to produce a narrative which is marvellously accurate, even touching minor points of topography, despite the fact that the shifting scenes of his drama were laid in another hemisphere. The preface was written at Strickenhof, in Livonia, in May of 1788. In it Mr. Loskiel acknowledges his indebtedness for valuable assistance to the venerable Bishop Augustus G. Spangenberg, who had superintended the Moravian Mission in the New World in the interval between 1744 and 1762; and to the veteran missionary David Zeisberger, at that time still in its service. It was the latter who supplied the larger portion of the material relating to the history, traditions, manners, and customs of the North American Indians, found in the ten chapters introductory to the history of the Mission. This valuable work was translated into English by the Rev. Christian Ignatius Latrobe, of London, in 1793, and published there, in 1794, by “The Brethren’s Society for the Furtherance of the Gospel.” It is now a rare book. Having been consecrated a Bishop for the American Province of his Church in 1802, Mr. Loskiel came to this country, settled at Bethlehem, Pa., where he died in 1814.]

5 [The book mentioned here and often throughout the author's narrative was written by Rev. George Henry Loskiel, a clergyman from the Continental Province of the Moravian Church, and published in Barby, Saxony, in 1789. It's titled “Geschichte der Mission der Evangelischen Brüder unter den Indianern in Nordamerika,” and it faithfully documents the Christian work that the Moravians primarily conducted among the Lenape and Iroquois Native Americans between 1735 and 1787. The author based his history mainly on documents from the archives of his church in Herrnhut, which regularly received duplicates of the missionaries’ journals. This allowed him to create a remarkably accurate narrative, even in regard to small details of geography, despite the fact that his story took place in a different hemisphere. The preface was written in Strickenhof, Livonia, in May of 1788. In it, Mr. Loskiel expresses his gratitude for valuable support to the respected Bishop Augustus G. Spangenberg, who oversaw the Moravian Mission in the New World between 1744 and 1762, and to the veteran missionary David Zeisberger, who was still serving at that time. Zeisberger provided much of the information about the history, traditions, and customs of North American Indians found in the ten chapters that introduce the history of the Mission. This important work was translated into English by Rev. Christian Ignatius Latrobe from London in 1793 and published there in 1794 by “The Brethren’s Society for the Furtherance of the Gospel.” It is now a rare book. After being consecrated as a Bishop for the American Province of his Church in 1802, Mr. Loskiel moved to this country, settled in Bethlehem, PA, where he passed away in 1814.]

6 Figurative expression. See Loskiel’s History, Part I. c. 10.9]

6 Figurative expression. See Loskiel's History, Part I, chapter 10. 9

7 For “declaring at the same time” read “and declared afterwards.”

7 For “declaring at the same time” read “and declared afterwards.”

8 [John Christopher Pyrlæus was sent by the heads of the Moravian Church at Herrnhut, Saxony, to Bethlehem, Pa., in the autumn of 1741, to do service in the Indian Mission. Having assisted Count Zinzendorf, during his sojourn in the Province in 1742, in the work of the ministry among a portion of the German population of Philadelphia, we find him, in January of 1743, prosecuting the study of the Mohawk under the direction of Conrad Weiser, the provincial interpreter, at Tulpehocken, (near Womelsdorf, Berks County, Pa.) This was in view of fitting himself for the office of corresponding secretary of the Mission Board at Bethlehem, and for the duties of an evangelist among the Iroquois stock of Indians, to whom it was purposed by the Moravians to bring the Gospel. At the expiration of three months he returned to Bethlehem, and in the following June, accompanied by his wife, who was a daughter of John Stephen Benezet, a well-known merchant of Philadelphia, set out for the Mohawk country, his destination being the Mohawk castle of Canajoharie. Here he remained upwards of two months, in which interval of time he visited the remaining Mohawk castles, and by constant intercourse with the Indians strove assiduously to perfect himself in their language. Such was his progress then and subsequently, that in 1744 he felt himself competent to impart instruction in that important dialect of the Iroquois to several of his brethren at Bethlehem, who were training for missionaries. In 1748, while settled at Gnadenhütten, on the Mahoning, (Lehighton, Carbon County, Pa.,) he rendered similar service. Meanwhile he had acquired a knowledge of the Mohican, and in 1745 there appeared his first translations of German hymns into that tongue—the beginnings of a collection for use in Divine worship in the Mission churches. Eight of the eleven years of his stay in this country were mainly spent in labors of the kind just enumerated. Having been liberally educated, Mr. Pyrlæus was well qualified for the work in which he engaged. Several of his contributions to this novel department of philology, in manuscript, are deposited in the library of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. Among these are essays on the grammatical structure of the Iroquois dialects, and a collection of notes on Indian traditions. The former Mr. Heckewelder names on a subsequent page, and from the latter he makes frequent extracts. In 1751 Mr. Pyrlæus sailed for England, where he was active in the ministry of his Church until his recall to Germany in 1770. He died at Herrnhut in 1785.]

8 [John Christopher Pyrlæus was sent by the leaders of the Moravian Church in Herrnhut, Saxony, to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in the fall of 1741, to work in the Indian Mission. After assisting Count Zinzendorf during his time in the province in 1742 with the ministry among some of the German population in Philadelphia, he began studying the Mohawk language in January 1743 under the guidance of Conrad Weiser, the provincial interpreter, in Tulpehocken (near Womelsdorf, Berks County, PA). This was to prepare himself for the role of corresponding secretary of the Mission Board in Bethlehem and to serve as an evangelist among the Iroquois Indians, to whom the Moravians aimed to share the Gospel. After three months, he returned to Bethlehem, and in the following June, he set out for the Mohawk territory with his wife, who was the daughter of John Stephen Benezet, a well-known merchant in Philadelphia, with their destination being the Mohawk castle of Canajoharie. He stayed there for over two months, during which he visited the other Mohawk castles and worked hard to improve his language skills through regular interactions with the Indians. His progress was so notable that by 1744, he felt ready to teach the Iroquois dialect to several of his fellow missionaries in Bethlehem. In 1748, while living in Gnadenhütten on the Mahoning (Lehighton, Carbon County, PA), he provided similar educational services. Meanwhile, he also learned the Mohican language, and in 1745, he published his first translations of German hymns into that language, marking the beginning of a collection for use in worship at Mission churches. He spent eight of the eleven years he was in this country engaged mainly in these efforts. Mr. Pyrlæus was well-educated and skilled for the work he undertook. Several of his contributions to this new field of study, in manuscript form, are stored in the library of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. These include essays on the grammatical structure of the Iroquois dialects and a compilation of notes on Indian traditions. Mr. Heckewelder refers to the former on a later page and frequently quotes from the latter. In 1751, Mr. Pyrlæus sailed for England, where he was active in the ministry of his Church until he was recalled to Germany in 1770. He passed away in Herrnhut in 1785.]

9 [The passage referred to by Mr. Heckewelder is quoted in full by way of annotation on a subsequent page.]

9 [The passage mentioned by Mr. Heckewelder is quoted in full as a note on a later page.]

10 [Norman’s Kill, named after Albert Andriese Bratt De Norman, an early settler of Beverwyck, rises in Schenectady County, has a south-east course of about twenty-eight miles, and empties into the Hudson, two miles south of Albany, in the town of Bethlehem. In records of 1677 it is called Bethlehem’s Kil. The Indian name of the stream was Tawalsantha. In the spring of 1617 the United New Netherlands Company erected a fort near the banks of Norman’s Kill, and in 1621 the Dutch made a solemn alliance and treaty of peace with the Five Nations, near its mouth.—Munsell’s Collections of the History of Albany. Albany, 1870.]

10 [Norman’s Kill, named after Albert Andriese Bratt De Norman, an early settler of Beverwyck, flows in Schenectady County, has a southeast course of about twenty-eight miles, and empties into the Hudson River, two miles south of Albany, in the town of Bethlehem. In records from 1677, it is referred to as Bethlehem’s Kil. The stream was originally called Tawalsantha by the Native Americans. In the spring of 1617, the United New Netherlands Company built a fort near the banks of Norman’s Kill, and in 1621, the Dutch formed a formal alliance and peace treaty with the Five Nations near its mouth.—Munsell’s Collections of the History of Albany. Albany, 1870.]

11 For “Mohicans” read “Lenape.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Mohicans,” read “Lenape.”

12 [”The History of the Five Indian Nations depending on the Province of New York in America, by Cadwallader Colden.” The first edition of this rare book was dedicated by the author to his Excellency, William Burnet, Esq., and was printed and sold by William Bradford in New York, 1727. Colden emigrated from Scotland in 1708, and first settled in Pennsylvania, engaging in the practice of medicine. Removing to New York in 1718, he was some time surveyor-general, subsequently a member of the King’s Council, and in 1761 commissioned Lieutenant-Governor of the Province. This commission he held at the time of his death at his seat on Long Island, in September of 1776.]

12 [”The History of the Five Indian Nations dependent on the Province of New York in America, by Cadwallader Colden.” The first edition of this rare book was dedicated by the author to his Excellency, William Burnet, Esq., and was printed and sold by William Bradford in New York, 1727. Colden immigrated from Scotland in 1708 and initially settled in Pennsylvania, where he practiced medicine. He moved to New York in 1718, served as surveyor-general for a time, later became a member of the King’s Council, and was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Province in 1761. He held this position at the time of his death at his home on Long Island, in September of 1776.]

13 [The proceedings of these conferences and treaties with the Indians are spread upon the minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, which were authorized to be printed by the Act of Legislature of April 4th, 1837, and published subsequently in seven volumes. They are known as “The Colonial Records.”]

13 [The records of these conferences and treaties with the Indigenous peoples are documented in the minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania, which were approved for printing by the Act of Legislature on April 4th, 1837, and later published in seven volumes. They are referred to as “The Colonial Records.”]

14 At a Treaty, at Easton, in July and November, 1756.

14 At a treaty in Easton, in July and November 1756.

15 [Should be Thomson.]

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ [Should be Thomson.]

16 Loskiel’s History, Part I., ch. 10.

16 Loskiel’s History, Part I., ch. 10.

17 The Iroquois were at that time a confederacy of only Five Nations; they became Six afterwards when they were joined by the Tuscaroras.

17 At that time, the Iroquois were a confederacy of just Five Nations; they became Six later when the Tuscaroras joined them.

18 Meaning, that the Five Nations would assist the white people in getting the country of their enemies, the Delawares, &c., to themselves.

18 Meaning that the Five Nations would help the white people take the land owned by their enemies, the Delawares, etc., for themselves.

19 Loskiel, Part I., ch. 10.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, Vol. 1, ch. 10.

20 [The Indian converts attached to the Moravian Mission, whom Mr. Heckewelder invariably designates “Christian Indians” throughout his history. The Moravian Indians at this date were settled with their missionaries in three towns on the Tuscarawas branch of the Muskingum (now the Tuscarawas River), all within the limits of the present Tuscarawas County, Ohio.]

20 [The Indian converts associated with the Moravian Mission, whom Mr. Heckewelder consistently refers to as “Christian Indians” in his history. At this time, the Moravian Indians were living with their missionaries in three towns along the Tuscarawas branch of the Muskingum (now the Tuscarawas River), all within what is now Tuscarawas County, Ohio.]

21 Loskiel, Part III., ch. 9.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, Part 3, ch. 9.

22 The proper name is Wtáwas, the W is whistled.

22 The right name is Wtáwas; the W is pronounced with a whistle.

23 [In the summer of 1794, Gen. Wayne moved an army into the Ohio country, and on the 20th of August defeated the confederated Indians near the rapids of the Maumee, or Miami of the Lake. The result of this campaign was a treaty of peace, which was ratified at Greenville, the present county seat of Darke County, Ohio, in August of 1795, between the United States Government, represented by Wayne, and the Shawanese, Delawares, Wyandots, Ottawas, Potawattomies, Miamis and smaller tribes, at which treaty about two-thirds of the present state of Ohio was ceded to the United States.]

23 [In the summer of 1794, General Wayne led an army into the Ohio region, and on August 20th, he defeated the allied Native American tribes near the rapids of the Maumee, also known as the Miami of the Lake. The outcome of this campaign was a peace treaty, which was finalized in Greenville, the current county seat of Darke County, Ohio, in August 1795. This treaty was signed between the United States Government, represented by Wayne, and the Shawnee, Delaware, Wyandot, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Miami, and smaller tribes. As a result of the treaty, about two-thirds of what is now Ohio was ceded to the United States.]

24 [The missionary David Zeisberger, in a collection of Delaware vocables incorporated in “An Essay of a Delaware and English Spelling Book for the use of the Schools of the Christian Indians on the Muskingum River,” printed at Philadelphia, by Henry Miller, in 1776, defines Lennilenape, “Indians of the same nation.”]

24 [The missionary David Zeisberger, in a collection of Delaware words included in "An Essay of a Delaware and English Spelling Book for the use of the Schools of the Christian Indians on the Muskingum River," published in Philadelphia by Henry Miller in 1776, defines Lennilenape as "Indians of the same nation."]

25 Colden.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Colden.

26 La Hontan.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ La Hontan.

27 The Dutch called them Mahikanders; the French Mourigans, and Mahingans; the English, Mohiccons, Mohuccans, Mohegans, Muhheekanew, Schatikooks, River Indians.

27 The Dutch referred to them as Mahikanders; the French called them Mourigans and Mahingans; the English used names like Mohiccons, Mohuccans, Mohegans, Muhheekanew, Schatikooks, and River Indians.

28 “Night’s encampment” is a halt of one year at a place.

28 “Night’s encampment” refers to a one-year stopover in one location.

29 The Mississippi, or River of Fish; Namæs, a Fish; Sipu, a River.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ The Mississippi, or River of Fish; Namæs, a Fish; Sipu, a River.

30 The Iroquois, or Five Nations.

30 The Iroquois, also known as the Five Nations.

31 [Col. John Gibson, to whom Mr. Heckewelder frequently alludes, was born at Lancaster, Pa., in 1740. At the age of eighteen, he made his first campaign under Gen. Forbes, in the expedition which resulted in the acquisition of Fort Du Quesne from the French. At the peace of 1763 he settled at that post (Fort Pitt) as a trader. Some time after this, on the resumption of hostilities with the savages, he was captured by some Indians, among whom he lived several years, and thus became familiar with their language, manners, customs, and traditions. In the expedition against the Shawanese under Lord Dunmore, the last royal governor of Virginia, in 1774, Gibson played a conspicuous part. On the breaking out of the Revolutionary war, he was appointed to the command of one of the Continental regiments raised in Virginia, and served with the army at New York and in the retreat through New Jersey. He was next employed in the Western department, serving under Gen. McIntosh in 1778, and under Gen. Irvine in 1782. At one time he was in command at Pittsburgh. In 1800 Col. Gibson was appointed Secretary and acting Governor of the territory of Indiana, a position which he filled for a second time between 1811 and 1813. Subsequently he was Associate Judge of Allegheny County, Pa. He died near Pittsburgh in 1822. He was an uncle of the late John B. Gibson, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania between 1827 and 1851.]

31 [Col. John Gibson, whom Mr. Heckewelder often mentions, was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1740. At eighteen, he joined his first campaign under Gen. Forbes in the expedition that led to the capture of Fort Du Quesne from the French. After the peace of 1763, he settled at that post (Fort Pitt) as a trader. Later, when hostilities resumed with the Native Americans, he was captured by some Indians, among whom he lived for several years, which allowed him to learn their language, customs, and traditions. Gibson played a significant role in the expedition against the Shawnees under Lord Dunmore, the last royal governor of Virginia, in 1774. When the Revolutionary War broke out, he was appointed to command one of the Continental regiments raised in Virginia and served with the army in New York and during the retreat through New Jersey. He was then assigned to the Western department, serving under Gen. McIntosh in 1778 and Gen. Irvine in 1782. He also commanded in Pittsburgh for some time. In 1800, Col. Gibson was appointed Secretary and acting Governor of the Indiana territory, a role he filled again from 1811 to 1813. Later, he served as an Associate Judge of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. He died near Pittsburgh in 1822, and he was the uncle of the late John B. Gibson, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania from 1827 to 1851.]

32 Loskiel’s History of the Mission of the United Brethren, Part I., ch. I.

32 Loskiel’s History of the Mission of the United Brethren, Part I., ch. I.

33 [In 1789 Mr. Heckewelder, accompanied by Abraham Steiner, (subsequently a missionary to the Cherokees of Georgia,) visited the mission at New Salem, on the Petquotting, (now the Huron,) in Erie County, Ohio, on business relating to the survey of a tract of land on the Tuscarawas, which Congress had conveyed to the Moravians in trust for their Indians. This was to indemnify them for losses incurred at their settlements during the border-war of the Revolution.]

33 [In 1789, Mr. Heckewelder, along with Abraham Steiner, who would later become a missionary to the Cherokees in Georgia, visited the mission at New Salem, located on the Petquotting (now known as the Huron) in Erie County, Ohio. They were there to discuss the survey of a piece of land on the Tuscarawas that Congress had granted to the Moravians, held in trust for their Indigenous people. This was intended to compensate them for the losses they suffered at their settlements during the Revolutionary War.]

34 The Glades, that is to say that they crossed the mountains.

34 The Glades, meaning they went over the mountains.

35 Meaning the river Susquehannah, which they call “the great Bay River,” from where the west branch falls into the main stream.

35 This refers to the Susquehanna River, which they call “the great Bay River,” where the west branch flows into the main stream.

36 The word “Hittuck,” in the language of the Delawares, means a rapid stream; “Sipo,” or “Sipu,” is the proper name for a river.

36 The word “Hittuck,” in the Delaware language, means a fast-moving stream; “Sipo” or “Sipu” is the correct term for a river.

37 [The Indians of this town proved troublesome neighbors to a small company of Moravians, who, in the spring of 1740, were employed by Whitefield to erect a large dwelling near its site, which he designed for a school for negroes. The town lay near the centre of a tract of 5,000 acres (now Upper Nazareth township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania), which Whitefield bought of William Allen, which he named Nazareth, and which, in 1741, he conveyed to the Moravians. Captain John and his clan of Delawares vacated their plantation in the autumn of 1742, and in the following year, the Moravians commenced their first settlement, and named it Nazareth. Whitefield’s house is still standing.]

37 [The Indigenous people of this town were difficult neighbors for a small group of Moravians who, in the spring of 1740, were hired by Whitefield to build a large house near the site he planned to use as a school for Black people. The town was located in the middle of a 5,000-acre area (now known as Upper Nazareth Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania), which Whitefield bought from William Allen, naming it Nazareth. In 1741, he transferred ownership to the Moravians. Captain John and his Delaware tribe left their land in the fall of 1742, and the following year, the Moravians started their first settlement and named it Nazareth. Whitefield’s house is still standing.]

38 Loskiel, part I., ch. 10.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, part 1, ch. 10.

39 The Reverend C. Pyrlæus, a pupil of Conrad Weiser, of whom he learned the Mohawk language, and who was afterwards stationed on the Mohawk River, as a Missionary, has, in a manuscript book, written between the years 1742 and 1748, page 235, the following note which he received from a principal chief of that nation, viz.: “The Five Nations formerly did eat human flesh; they at one time ate up a whole body of the French King’s soldiers; they say, Eto niocht ochquari; which is: Human flesh tastes like bear’s meat. They also say, that the hands are not good eating, they are yozgarat, bitter.”

39 The Reverend C. Pyrlæus, a student of Conrad Weiser, from whom he learned the Mohawk language, and who later served as a missionary on the Mohawk River, wrote in a manuscript book between 1742 and 1748, on page 235, the following note he received from a chief of that nation: “The Five Nations used to eat human flesh; at one time, they consumed an entire body of the French King’s soldiers; they say, Eto niocht ochquari; which means: Human flesh tastes like bear meat. They also claim that the hands are not good to eat; they are yozgarat, bitter.”

Aged French Canadians have told me, many years since, while I was at Detroit, that they had frequently seen the Iroquois eat the flesh of those who had been slain in battle, and that this was the case in the war between the French and English, commonly called the war of 1756.

Aged French Canadians told me many years ago while I was in Detroit that they had often seen the Iroquois eat the flesh of those who were killed in battle, especially during the war between the French and English, commonly known as the war of 1756.

At a treaty held at the Proprietors house in Philadelphia, July 5th, 1742, with the Six Nations, none of the Senecas attended; the reason of their absence being asked, it was given for answer, “that there was a famine in their country, and that a father had been obliged to kill two of his children, to preserve the lives of the remainder of the family.” See Colden’s History of the Five Nations, part II., page 52. See also the minutes of that treaty, printed at Philadelphia, by B. Franklin, in 1743, p. 7, in the Collection of Indian Treaties in the library of the American Philosophical Society.

At a treaty held at the Proprietors' house in Philadelphia on July 5th, 1742, with the Six Nations, none of the Senecas were present. When asked why they were absent, the response was, “there was a famine in their land, and a father had to kill two of his children to keep the rest of his family alive.” See Colden’s History of the Five Nations, part II, page 52. See also the minutes of that treaty, printed in Philadelphia by B. Franklin in 1743, p. 7, in the Collection of Indian Treaties in the library of the American Philosophical Society.

40 Loskiel, part I., ch. 1.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 1, ch. 1.

41 The Rev. C. Pyrlæus, in his manuscript book, page 234, says: “The alliance or confederacy of the Five Nations was established, as near as can be conjectured, one age (or the length of a man’s life) before the white people (the Dutch) came into the country. Thannawage was the name of the aged Indian, a Mohawk, who first proposed such an alliance.” He then gives the names of the chiefs of the Five Nations, which at that time met and formed the alliance, viz.: “Toganawita, of the Mohawks; Otatschéchta, of the Oneidas; Tatotarho, of the Onondagos; Togaháyon, of the Cayugas; Ganiatariò and Satagarùyes, from two towns of the Senecas, &c.,” and concludes with saying: “All these names are forever to be kept in remembrance, by naming a person in each nation after them,” &c., &c.

41 The Rev. C. Pyrlæus, in his manuscript book, page 234, says: “The alliance or confederacy of the Five Nations was formed, as nearly as we can guess, about one lifetime before the white people (the Dutch) arrived in the country. Thannawage was the name of the older Indian, a Mohawk, who first suggested such an alliance.” He then lists the names of the chiefs of the Five Nations who came together to create the alliance at that time, namely: “Toganawita, of the Mohawks; Otatschéchta, of the Oneidas; Tatotarho, of the Onondagos; Togaháyon, of the Cayugas; Ganiatariò and Satagarùyes, from two towns of the Senecas, etc.,” and concludes by stating: “All these names should always be remembered by naming a person in each nation after them,” etc., etc.

42 Loskiel, part I., ch. 10.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 1, ch. 10.

43 Loskiel, part I., ch. 10.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 1, ch. 10.

44 Ibid.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Same source.

45 [The following is the passage from Loskiel, which that historian copied from David Zeisberger’s “Collection of Notes on the Indians,” compiled by the missionary during his residence in the valley of the Tuscarawas, about 1778. “According to the account of the Delawares, they were always too powerful for the Iroquois, so that the latter were at length convinced that if they continued the war, their total extirpation would be inevitable. They therefore sent the following message to the Delawares: ‘It is not profitable that all the nations should be at war with each other, for this will at length be the ruin of the whole Indian race. We have therefore considered a remedy by which this evil may be prevented. One nation shall be the woman. We will place her in the midst, and the other nations who make war shall be the man, and live around the woman. No one shall touch or hurt the woman, and if any one does it, we will immediately say to him, “Why do you beat the woman?” Then all the men shall fall upon him who has beaten her. The woman shall not go to war, but endeavor to keep peace with all. Therefore, if the men that surround her beat each other, and the war be carried on with violence, the woman shall have the right of addressing them, “Ye men, what are ye about? why do you beat each other? We are almost afraid. Consider that your wives and children must perish, unless you desist. Do you mean to destroy yourselves from the face of the earth?” The men shall then hear and obey the woman.’ The Delawares add, that, not immediately perceiving the intention of the Iroquois, they submitted to be the woman. The Iroquois then appointed a great feast, and invited the Delaware nation to it; when, in consequence of the authority given them, they made a solemn speech containing three capital points. The first was, that they declared the Delaware nation to be the woman in the following words: 'We dress you in a woman’s long habit, reafilled ching down to your feet, and adorn you with ear-rings;’ meaning that they should no more take up arms. The second point was thus expressed: ‘We hang a calabash with oil and medicine upon your arm. With the oil you shall cleanse the ears of the other nations, that they may attend to good and not to bad words, and with the medicine you shall heal those who are walking in foolish ways, that they may return to their senses and incline their hearts to peace.’ The third point, by which the Delawares were exhorted to make agriculture their future employ and means of subsistence, was thus worded: 'We deliver into your hands a plant of Indian corn and a hoe.’ Each of these points was confirmed by delivering a belt of wampum, and these belts have been carefully laid up, and their meaning frequently repeated.

45 [The following is the passage from Loskiel, which that historian copied from David Zeisberger’s “Collection of Notes on the Indians,” compiled by the missionary during his time in the valley of the Tuscarawas, around 1778. “According to the Delawares, they were always strong enough to dominate the Iroquois, who eventually realized that if they continued the conflict, their complete destruction would be unavoidable. Therefore, they sent the following message to the Delawares: ‘It’s not beneficial for all the nations to be at war with each other, as this will ultimately lead to the downfall of the entire Indian race. We have therefore considered a solution to prevent this problem. One nation shall be the woman. We will place her in the center, and the other nations waging war will be the man and surround the woman. No one shall harm or touch the woman, and if anyone does, we will immediately ask him, “Why are you hitting the woman?” Then all the men shall attack the one who has harmed her. The woman shall not go to war but will work to keep peace with everyone. Therefore, if the men around her fight among themselves, the woman shall have the right to say to them, “Men, what are you doing? Why are you hurting each other? We are almost scared. Remember that your wives and children could perish if you don’t stop. Do you intend to wipe yourselves off the face of the earth?” The men shall then hear and obey the woman.’ The Delawares added that, not immediately understanding the Iroquois’ intent, they agreed to be the woman. The Iroquois then planned a grand feast and invited the Delaware nation to attend; during which, due to the authority granted to them, they made a formal address highlighting three key points. The first was declaring the Delaware nation to be the woman in the following words: 'We dress you in a long woman’s gown, reaching down to your feet, and adorn you with earrings;’ indicating that they should no longer take up arms. The second point was expressed as follows: ‘We hang a gourd filled with oil and medicine on your arm. With the oil, you shall cleanse the ears of the other nations so they may listen to good and ignore bad words, and with the medicine, you shall heal those who are acting foolishly, helping them to regain their senses and turn their hearts toward peace.’ The third point, encouraging the Delawares to focus on farming as their future work and means of living, was worded this way: 'We present to you a plant of corn and a hoe.’ Each of these points was confirmed by presenting a belt of wampum, and these belts have been carefully preserved, with their significance often reiterated.]

“The Iroquois, on the contrary, assert that they conquered the Delawares, and that the latter were forced to adopt the defenceless state and appellation of a woman to avoid total ruin.

“The Iroquois, on the other hand, claim that they defeated the Delawares, and that the latter were compelled to take on the defenseless status and title of a woman to escape complete destruction.”

“Whether these different accounts be true or false, certain it is that the Delaware nation has ever since been looked to for preservation of peace, and entrusted with the charge of the great belt of peace and chain of friendship, which they must take care to preserve inviolate. According to the figurative explanation of the Indians, the middle of the chain of friendship is placed upon the shoulder of the Delaware, the rest of the Indian nations holding one end and the Europeans the other.”]

“Whether these different accounts are true or false, it’s clear that the Delaware nation has since been seen as a guardian of peace and given the responsibility to uphold the great belt of peace and chain of friendship, which they must ensure remains unbroken. In the symbolic explanation of the Indians, the center of the chain of friendship rests on the shoulder of the Delaware, with the other end held by the other Indian nations and the Europeans.”

46 [The Life and Times of David Zeisberger, the Western Pioneer and Apostle to the Indians, by Edmund de Schweinitz, Phila., 1870, reviews the Moravian mission among the North American Indians from its beginnings to recent times, besides very fully portraying the career of the veteran missionary, who spent upwards of sixty years of his life as an evangelist to the Indians, thirty-six of which were passed within the limits of the present State of Ohio. He died on the 17th of November, 1808, at Goshen, on the Tuscarawas, in the 88th year of his age. Zeisberger, in the course of his long life in the Indian country, mastered the Delaware and the Onondaga of the Iroquois, into the former of which he made translations of a number of devotional books, while he studied both critically, as his literary efforts in that direction, partly published and partly in MS., amply testify.]

46 [The Life and Times of David Zeisberger, the Western Pioneer and Apostle to the Indians, by Edmund de Schweinitz, Phila., 1870, covers the Moravian mission with North American Indians from its start to more recent events, while also thoroughly outlining the life of the dedicated missionary who spent over sixty years as an evangelist to the Indians, thirty-six of which were in what is now the State of Ohio. He passed away on November 17, 1808, in Goshen, on the Tuscarawas, at the age of 88. Throughout his lengthy life in Indian territory, Zeisberger became fluent in Delaware and Onondaga of the Iroquois, translating several devotional books into the former language, and he critically studied both, as his literary work in that field, some published and some in manuscript, clearly shows.]

47 Mr. Proud, in his History of Pennsylvania, relates that, some time after the establishment of William Penn’s government, the Indians used to supply the family of one John Chapman, whose descendants still reside in Bucks County, with all kinds of provisions, and mentions an affecting instance of their kindness to that family. Abraham and John Chapman, twin children about nine or ten years old, going out one evening to seek their cattle, met an Indian in the woods, who told them to go back, else they would be lost. They took his advice and went back, but it was night before they got home, where they found the Indian, who had repaired thither out of anxiety for them. And their parents, about that time, going to the yearly meeting at Philadelphia, and leaving a young family at home, the Indians came every day to see whether anything was amiss among them. Such (says Proud) in many instances was the kind treatment of the Aborigines of this country to the English in their first and early settlement. Proud’s Hist., Vol. I., pp. 223, 224.

47 Mr. Proud, in his History of Pennsylvania, tells us that some time after William Penn established his government, the local Indians would provide all kinds of food to a man named John Chapman, whose descendants still live in Bucks County. He shares a touching story about their generosity toward that family. One evening, twin boys named Abraham and John Chapman, around nine or ten years old, went out to find their cattle and encountered an Indian in the woods. The Indian warned them to turn back or they would get lost. They followed his advice and returned, but it was nighttime by the time they got home, where they found the Indian waiting for them out of concern. Around that time, their parents went to the yearly meeting in Philadelphia and left their young children at home, and the Indians came by every day to check if everything was alright. Such, Proud says, was the compassionate treatment that the Native Americans showed to the English during their early settlement. Proud’s Hist., Vol. I., pp. 223, 224.

48 [For “Easton in Pennsylvania,” read Philadelphia. Easton, the county-seat of Northampton County, was laid out in the spring of 1752.]

48 [For “Easton in Pennsylvania,” read Philadelphia. Easton, the county seat of Northampton County, was established in the spring of 1752.]

49 For “1742,” read “and November, 1756.” [The latter was held at Easton.]

49 For “1742,” read “and November, 1756.” [The latter was held at Easton.]

50 [The so-called French and Indian war, the fourth and last of the inter-colonial wars, which originated in disputes between the French and English concerning territorial claims, and which, after a seven years’ contest, resulted in establishing the supremacy of the latter over the civilized portions of North America.]

50 [The French and Indian War, the fourth and final of the inter-colonial wars, started from conflicts between the French and English over land claims, and after seven years of fighting, it led to the English establishing their dominance over the settled areas of North America.]

51 [The Conestogas remained on their ancestral seats, near the mouth of the Conestoga, in Manor township, Lancaster County, Penna., long after the other Indians on the Susquehanna had been crowded by the advance of civilization beyond Shamokin. Here the remnant of this tribe was fallen upon by Scotch-Irish partizans of Paxton township (now within the limits of Dauphin County) in December of 1763, all that were at the settlement killed, and their cabins burnt to the ground. Ten days later, the remainder of this inoffensive people, who had been lodged in the jail at Lancaster, were inhumanly butchered by the same band of lawless frontiersmen. In Heckewelder’s “Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians,” there is a statement by an eye-witness, touching the last scene in this bloody tragedy.]

51 [The Conestogas stayed in their ancestral land, near the mouth of the Conestoga, in Manor Township, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, long after the other Native Americans along the Susquehanna were pushed away by the progress of civilization beyond Shamokin. In December of 1763, this remaining group was attacked by Scotch-Irish partisans from Paxton Township (now part of Dauphin County); all those at the settlement were killed, and their homes were burned to the ground. Ten days later, the rest of this peaceful community, who were held in the jail in Lancaster, were brutally murdered by the same group of lawless frontiersmen. In Heckewelder’s “Narrative of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Delaware and Mohegan Indians,” there is an account from a witness regarding the final moments of this tragic event.]

52 [White Eyes, alias Koquethagachton, a celebrated captain and counsellor of the Delawares of the Ohio country, was first met by Heckewelder at his home, near the mouth of the Beaver (above Pittsburg), when the latter was on his way to the Tuscarawas, in the spring of 1762. When Zeisberger entered the valley of that river, in 1772, and built Schönbrunn, the chieftain was residing six miles below Gekelemukpechunk, the then capital of his nation, in the present Oxford township, Coshocton County. In Dunmore’s war, as well as in the war of the Revolution, White Eyes strove strenuously to keep the Delawares neutral. Failing in this in the latter contest, and seeing himself necessitated to take sides, he declared for the Americans, joined Gen. McIntosh’s command, but died at Fort Laurens, on the Tuscarawas, in November of 1778, before the projected expedition, which was aimed at the Sandusky towns, moved. White Eyes was a warm friend of the Moravian mission, and was deeply interested in the progress of his people in the arts of civilized life.]

52 [White Eyes, also known as Koquethagachton, a well-known captain and advisor to the Delawares of the Ohio region, was first encountered by Heckewelder at his home near the mouth of the Beaver River (upstream from Pittsburgh) in the spring of 1762 while Heckewelder was on his way to the Tuscarawas River. When Zeisberger arrived in that river valley in 1772 and established Schönbrunn, the chief was living six miles south of Gekelemukpechunk, which was then the capital of his nation, in what is now Oxford Township, Coshocton County. During Dunmore’s War and the Revolutionary War, White Eyes worked hard to keep the Delawares neutral. When he could no longer maintain this stance during the latter conflict, he chose to side with the Americans, joined General McIntosh’s forces, but unfortunately died at Fort Laurens on the Tuscarawas River in November 1778, before the planned expedition targeting the Sandusky towns could take place. White Eyes was a strong supporter of the Moravian mission and was very concerned about his people's advancement in the ways of civilized life.]

53 Indian chiefs, in their public speeches, always speak on behalf of their nation in the singular number and in the first person, considering themselves, in a manner, as its representatives.

53 Indian chiefs, in their public speeches, always speak for their nation in the singular form and in the first person, seeing themselves, in a way, as its representatives.

54 [In August of 1779, Col. Daniel Brodhead, then commandant of Fort Pitt, moved with some troops up the Allegheny, and in the forks of that river destroyed several settlements, inhabited by Monsey and Seneca Indians. “The Delawares,” he writes in his report to the War Department, “are ready to follow me wherever I go.”]

54 [In August 1779, Colonel Daniel Brodhead, who was in charge of Fort Pitt at the time, led some troops up the Allegheny River and destroyed several settlements in the area where the river forks, which were inhabited by the Monsey and Seneca Indians. “The Delawares,” he wrote in his report to the War Department, “are eager to follow me wherever I go.”]

55 Loskiel, part II., ch. 8.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 2, ch. 8.

56 Henry Hudson, a British navigator and discoverer in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, sailed from Amsterdam in command of the Half Moon, in April of 1609, in search of a north-eastern passage. Foiled by the ice in the higher latitudes, he turned southwards, and in September anchored in New York bay.

56 Henry Hudson, a British navigator and explorer working for the Dutch East India Company, left Amsterdam in April 1609, commanding the Half Moon, looking for a northeast passage. Blocked by ice in the colder regions, he headed south and anchored in New York Bay in September.

57 Dele “in which.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Dele “where.”

58 Hackhack is properly a gourd; but since they have seen glass bottles and decanters, they call them by the same name.

58 Hackhack is actually a gourd; but now that they've seen glass bottles and decanters, they refer to them by the same name.

59 These Dutchmen were probably acquainted with what is related of Queen Dido in ancient history, and thus turned their classical knowledge to a good account.

59 These Dutchmen were likely familiar with the stories of Queen Dido from ancient history, and so they made good use of their classical knowledge.

60 The Hollanders.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ The Dutch.

61 Manhattan, or New York Island.

NYC

62 For “Delawares” read “Mohicans.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Delawares” read “Mohicans.”

63 An Indian corruption of the word English, whence probably the nickname Yankees.

63 An Indian mispronunciation of the word English, which likely led to the nickname Yankees.

64 This word means “a cluster of islands with channels every way, so that it is in no place shut up or impassable for craft.” The Indians think that the white people have corrupted this word into Massachusetts. It deserves to be remarked as an example of the comprehensiveness of the Indian languages.

64 This word means “a group of islands with waterways all around, making it accessible from every direction for boats.” The Indigenous people believe that the white settlers have changed this word into Massachusetts. It’s worth noting as an example of how rich and inclusive the Indigenous languages are.

65 The Delaware river. I have said above, p. 51, that Hittuck means a rapid stream. I should have added that it means so only when placed at the end of another word, and used as a compound. Singly, it signifies a tree.

65 The Delaware River. I've mentioned earlier, p. 51, that Hittuck means a rapid stream. I should have added that it only means that when it's at the end of another word and used as a compound. Alone, it means a tree.

66 The Swedes and Dutch.

The Swedes and Dutch.

67 William Penn.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ William Penn.

68 Land traders and speculators.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Real estate investors and traders.

69 Easton, Northampton County, Pa.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Easton, Northampton County, PA

70 This actually took place at a treaty held at Easton in July and November, 1756.

70 This happened during a treaty that took place in Easton in July and November of 1756.

71 Council house here means “Connexion District.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Council house here means “Connection District.”

72 Pulling the council house down. Destroying, dispersing the community, preventing their further intercourse with each other, by settling between them on their land.

72 Tearing down the council house. Destroying, scattering the community, cutting off their interactions with one another, by placing settlements in between them on their land.

73 Putting the fire out. Murdering them or their people, where they assemble for pacific purposes, where treaties are held, &c.

73 Putting the fire out. Killing them or their people, where they gather for peaceful purposes, where treaties are held, etc.

74 Our own blood. The blood flowing from the veins of some of our community.

74 Our own blood. The blood running through the veins of some people in our community.

75 Alluding to the murder of the Conestogo Indians, who, though of another tribe, yet had joined them in welcoming the white people to their shores.

75 Referring to the murder of the Conestogo Indians, who, although they belonged to a different tribe, had welcomed the white settlers to their shores.

In a narrative of this lamentable event, supposed to have been written by the late Dr. Franklin, it is said: “On the first arrival of the English in Pennsylvania, messengers from this tribe came to welcome them with presents of venison, corn, and skins, and the whole tribe entered into a treaty of friendship with the first proprietor, William Penn, which was to last as long as the sun should shine, or the waters run in the rivers.”

In a story about this unfortunate event, supposedly written by the late Dr. Franklin, it says: “When the English first arrived in Pennsylvania, messengers from this tribe came to greet them with gifts of venison, corn, and skins, and the entire tribe made a friendship treaty with the first proprietor, William Penn, that would last as long as the sun shines or the rivers flow.”

76 The fire was entirely extinguished by the blood of the murdered running into it; not a spark was left to kindle a new fire. This alludes to the last fire that was kindled by the Pennsylvania government and themselves at Lancaster, where the last treaty was held with them in 1762, the year preceding this murder, which put an end to all business of the kind in the province of Pennsylvania.

76 The fire was completely put out by the blood of the murdered flowing into it; not a spark remained to ignite a new fire. This refers to the last fire started by the Pennsylvania government and those present at Lancaster, where the final treaty was made with them in 1762, the year before this murder, which marked the end of all such dealings in the province of Pennsylvania.

77 The great Swamp. The Glades on the Allegheny mountains.

77 The great Swamp. The Glades in the Allegheny Mountains.

78 Delamattenos. The Hurons or Wyandots, whom they call their uncle. These, though speaking a dialect of the Iroquois language, are in connexion with the Lenape.

78 Delamattenos. The Hurons or Wyandots, whom they refer to as their uncle. These groups, while speaking a dialect of the Iroquois language, are connected to the Lenape.

79 For “1787” read “1781.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For "1787," say "1781."

80 [These were the words of a war-chief of the Delawares, Pachgantschihilas by name, in the course of an address to the Moravian Indians at Gnadenhütten, in which he sought to persuade them to remove from their exposed position on the Tuscarawas to a place of safety among the Wyandots of the Maumee.]

80 [These were the words of a war chief of the Delawares, Pachgantschihilas, during a speech to the Moravian Indians at Gnadenhütten, where he tried to convince them to relocate from their vulnerable spot on the Tuscarawas to a safer area with the Wyandots of the Maumee.]

81 For “us” read “them.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “us” read “them.”

82 [The massacre of Moravian Indians at Gnadenhütten was perpetrated on the 8th of March, 1782, by militia led by Col. David Williamson, of Washington County, Pa. The details of this atrocious affair are very minutely given by De Schweinitz in The Life and Times of David Zeisberger. While such of the borderers as had suffered from Indian forays sought to extenuate the deplorable transaction, it was at the same time made the subject of an investigation at the head-quarters of the department. With what result, however, is inferable from the following extract from a letter written by Gen. Irvine to His Excellency William Moore, President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, and dated Fort Pitt, May 9, 1782:—“Since my letter of the 3d inst. to your excellency, Mr. Pentecost and Mr. Cannon have been with me. They, and every intelligent person whom I have consulted with on the subject, are of opinion that it will be almost impossible ever to obtain a just account of the conduct of the militia at Muskingum. No man can give any account, except some of the party themselves; if, therefore, an inquiry should appear serious, they are not obliged, nor will they give evidence. For this and other reasons, I am of opinion farther inquiry into the matter will not only be fruitless, but in the end may be attended with dangerous consequences. A volunteer expedition is talked of against Sandusky, which, if well conducted, may be of great service to this country, if they behave well on this occasion. It may also in some measure atone for the barbarity they are charged with at Muskingum. They have consulted me, and shall have every countenance in my power, if their numbers, arrangements, &c., promise a prospect of success.” MS. in the Irvine Collection.]

82 [The massacre of Moravian Indians at Gnadenhütten occurred on March 8, 1782, by militia led by Col. David Williamson from Washington County, Pa. De Schweinitz provides a detailed account of this horrific event in The Life and Times of David Zeisberger. While some local settlers who had been attacked by Indians tried to downplay this terrible incident, it was also investigated at the headquarters of the department. However, the outcome is suggested by the following excerpt from a letter written by Gen. Irvine to His Excellency William Moore, President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, dated Fort Pitt, May 9, 1782:—“Since my letter of the 3rd to your excellency, Mr. Pentecost and Mr. Cannon have visited me. They, along with every knowledgeable person I've consulted on the matter, believe it will be nearly impossible to get an accurate account of the militia’s actions at Muskingum. No one can provide an account, except for some of the men involved; therefore, if an inquiry seems serious, they are not obligated to testify, nor will they. For this and other reasons, I believe further investigation will not only be unproductive but may also lead to dangerous outcomes. A volunteer expedition is being discussed against Sandusky, which, if carried out well, could significantly benefit this region, provided they conduct themselves appropriately this time. They have sought my advice, and I will support them as much as I can if their numbers and organization look promising for success.” MS. in the Irvine Collection.]

[The following is a letter from Col. John Gibson, to the Right Rev. Nathaniel Seidel, senior Bishop of the Moravian Church at Bethlehem, dated Fort Pitt, May 9, 1782.

[The following is a letter from Col. John Gibson to the Right Rev. Nathaniel Seidel, senior Bishop of the Moravian Church at Bethlehem, dated Fort Pitt, May 9, 1782.

Sir:—Your letter by Mr. Shebosh of the 11th ult., came safe to hand. I am happy to find that the few small services I rendered to the gentlemen of your society in this quarter, meet with the approbation of you and every other worthy character.

Sir:—I received your letter from Mr. Shebosh dated the 11th of last month. I’m glad to see that the small favors I did for the members of your organization here have been appreciated by you and everyone else of good character.”

“Mr. Shebosh will be able to give you a particular account of the late horrid massacre perpetrated at the towns on Muskingum, by a set of men the most savage miscreants that ever degraded human nature. Had I have known of their intention before it was too late, I should have prevented it by informing the poor sufferers of it.

“Mr. Shebosh can provide you with a detailed account of the recent horrifying massacre that took place in the towns on the Muskingum, carried out by a group of the most brutal criminals who have ever disgraced humanity. If I had known their intentions before it was too late, I would have prevented it by warning the victims.”

“I am in hopes in a few days to be able to send you a more particular account than any that has yet transpired, as I hope to obtain the deposition of a person who was an eye-witness of the whole transaction, and disapproved of it. Should any accounts come to hand from Mr. Zeisberger, or the other gentlemen of your society, you may depend on my transmitting them to you. Please present my compliments to Mr. William Henry, Jr., &c.

“I hope that in a few days I'll be able to send you a more detailed account than anything that has come out so far, as I plan to get a statement from someone who saw the whole thing happen and disagreed with it. If I receive any reports from Mr. Zeisberger or the other members of your society, you can count on me to forward them to you. Please send my regards to Mr. William Henry, Jr., etc.”

“Believe me, with esteem, your most obedient servant,
Jno. Gibson,
“Col. 7th Virginia Reg’t.”]

“Believe me, sincerely, your most obedient servant,
John Gibson,
“Col. 7th Virginia Reg’t.”]

83 [For a full account of this exodus, the reader is referred to a paper entitled “Wyalusing and the Moravian Mission at Friedenshütten,” by W. C. Reichel, in Part 5 (1871) of the Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society.]

83 [For a complete description of this exodus, please refer to a paper titled “Wyalusing and the Moravian Mission at Friedenshütten,” by W. C. Reichel, in Part 5 (1871) of the Transactions of the Moravian Historical Society.]

84 For “Mouseys” read “Monseys.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Mouseys” read “Monseys.”

85 For “1768, about six,” read “1772, a few.”

85 For “1768, about six,” read “1772, a few.”

86 Loskiel, part III., ch. 12.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 3, ch. 12.

87 [Pilgerruh on the Cuyahoga, within the limits of what is now Independence township, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, was the seat of the mission during the time of the dispersion in the interval between May of 1786, and April of 1787.]

87 [Pilgerruh on the Cuyahoga, now part of Independence Township in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, was the center of the mission during the period of dispersion between May 1786 and April 1787.]

88 General John Gibson thinks that Sawano is their proper name; they are so called by the other Indian nations, from their being a southern people. Shawaneu, in the Lenape language, means the south; Shawanachau,89 the south wind, &c. We commonly call them the Shawanese.

88 General John Gibson believes that Sawano is their correct name; they are referred to this way by other Indian nations because they come from the south. Shawaneu means the south in the Lenape language; Shawanachau, 89 means the south wind, etc. We usually call them the Shawanese.

89 For “Shawanachau” read “Shawanachan.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Shawanachau” read “Shawanachan.”

90 The Shawanos call the Mohicans their elder brother.

90 The Shawanos refer to the Mohicans as their older brother.

91 Loskiel, part II., ch. 10.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 2, ch. 10.

92 While these people lived at Wyoming and in its vicinity, they were frequently visited by missionaries of the Society of the United Brethren, who, knowing them to be the most depraved and ferocious tribe of all the Indian nations they had heard of, sought to establish a friendship with them, so as not to be interrupted in their journies from one Indian Mission to another. Count Zinzendorf being at that time in the country, went in 1742 with some other missionaries to visit them at Wyoming, stayed with them 20 days, and endeavoured to impress the gospel truths upon their minds; but these hardened people, suspecting his views, and believing that he wanted to purchase their land, on which it was reported there were mines of silver, conspired to murder him, and would have effected their purpose, but that Conrad Weiser, the Indian interpreter, arrived fortunately in time to prevent it. (Loskiel, part II., ch. 1.) Notwithstanding this, the Brethren frequently visited them, and Shehellemus, a chief of great influence, having become their friend (Loskiel, ibid., ch. 8), they could now travel with greater safety. He died at Shamokin in 1749; the Brethren were, however, fortunate enough to obtain the friendship of Paxnos or Paxsinos, another chief of the Shawanos, who gave them full proof of it by sending his sons to escort one of them to Bethlehem from Shamokin, where he was in the most perilous situation, the war having just broke out. (Loskiel, ibid., ch. 12.)

92 While these people lived in Wyoming and the surrounding area, they were often visited by missionaries from the Society of the United Brethren. Knowing them to be the most depraved and fierce tribe of all the Indian nations they had heard of, the missionaries sought to befriend them to avoid being interrupted during their travels between Indian Missions. Count Zinzendorf visited the area in 1742 with some other missionaries to meet them. He stayed for 20 days and tried to convey the gospel truths to them, but these tough individuals suspected his intentions and thought he wanted to buy their land, rumored to have silver mines. They plotted to kill him, but fortunately, Conrad Weiser, the Indian interpreter, arrived just in time to stop them. (Loskiel, part II., ch. 1.) Despite this, the Brethren continued to visit, and Shehellemus, a powerful chief, became their ally (Loskiel, ibid., ch. 8), allowing them to travel with greater safety. He died in Shamokin in 1749; however, the Brethren were fortunate to gain the friendship of Paxnos or Paxsinos, another Shawano chief, who demonstrated his support by sending his sons to escort one of the Brethren to Bethlehem from Shamokin, where he was in a very dangerous situation due to the recent outbreak of war. (Loskiel, ibid., ch. 12.)

93 Loskiel, part I., ch. 10.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 1, ch. 10.

94 [After the peace of 1763 there was comparative quiet on the Western frontiers, until the inauguration of the “Dunmore War,” in the spring of 1774—a contest which the last royal governor of Virginia is said to have excited, in order to divert the attention of the colonists from the oppressive acts of England towards them. The initial military movement in this war was Col. Angus McDonald’s expedition against the Shawanese town of Waketameki, just below the mouth of the Waketameki Creek, within the limits of the present county of Muskingum, Ohio. The battle fought on the 10th of October, 1774, at the junction of the Great Kanawha and the Ohio, between the garrison of Point Pleasant, under General Andrew Lewis, and the flower of the Shawanese, Delawares, Mingoes, and Wyandots, led by the Cornstalk, the Shawano king, in which the confederate Indians were routed, was speedily followed by a peace.]

94 [After the peace treaty of 1763, there was relative calm on the Western frontiers until the start of the “Dunmore War” in the spring of 1774. This conflict was reportedly stirred up by the last royal governor of Virginia to distract the colonists from England’s oppressive actions against them. The first military operation in this war was Colonel Angus McDonald’s expedition against the Shawnee town of Waketameki, located just below the mouth of Waketameki Creek, in what is now Muskingum County, Ohio. The battle on October 10, 1774, at the confluence of the Great Kanawha and the Ohio Rivers, saw the garrison of Point Pleasant, led by General Andrew Lewis, face off against the elite fighters from the Shawnee, Delaware, Mingo, and Wyandot tribes, commanded by the Shawnee chief Cornstalk. The confederated Indians were defeated, leading quickly to a peace settlement.]

95 See, in Loskiel’s History, part II., ch. 10, his account of the visit of this chief to the Christian Indian Congregation at Bethlehem.

95 See, in Loskiel’s History, part II., ch. 10, his account of the visit of this chief to the Christian Indian Congregation at Bethlehem.

96 For “Shawanos” read “Nanticokes.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Shawanos” read “Nanticokes.”

97 [In 1726, John Harris, a Yorkshireman, settled at the mouth of the Paxton Creek, traded largely with the neighboring Indians, cleared a farm, and kept a ferry. John Harris, Jr., his son, born on the Paxton in the above-mentioned year, inherited from his father 700 acres of land, on a part of which Harrisburg was laid out in 1785.]

97 [In 1726, John Harris, a man from Yorkshire, settled at the mouth of Paxton Creek, traded extensively with the local Native Americans, cleared a farm, and operated a ferry. His son, John Harris, Jr., who was born at Paxton in that same year, inherited 700 acres of land from his father, on which Harrisburg was established in 1785.]

98 Zeningi, according to Loskiel.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Zeningi, per Loskiel.

99 For “Schschequon” read “Shechschequon.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Schschequon” read “Shechschequon.”

100 [For “Christian” read “Christopher.”]

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ [For “Christian” read “Christopher.”]

101 Loskiel, part I., ch. 9.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 1, ch. 9.

102 For “Tawachguáno” read “Tayachguáno.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For "Tawachguáno" read "Tayachguáno."

103 [Now the Clinton, on whose banks New Gnadenhütten was built by David Zeisberger in the summer of 1782.]

103 [Now the Clinton, where New Gnadenhütten was established by David Zeisberger in the summer of 1782.]

104 [The first mission established by the Moravians among the northern tribes of Indians, was among a clan of Mohegans, in the town of Pine Plains, Dutchess County, New York, where Christian Henry Rauch, of Bethlehem, began his labors as an evangelist in July of 1740.]

104 [The first mission set up by the Moravians among the northern tribes of Indians was with a group of Mohegans in Pine Plains, Dutchess County, New York, where Christian Henry Rauch from Bethlehem started his work as an evangelist in July 1740.]

105 Collections Massach. Histor. Soc., vol. I., p. 195; vol. IV., p. 67; vol. IX., p. 92.

105 Collections Massach. Histor. Soc., vol. I., p. 195; vol. IV., p. 67; vol. IX., p. 92.

106 Collections Massach. Histor. Soc., vol. IX., p. 76.

106 Collections Massach. Histor. Soc., vol. IX., p. 76.

107 Coll. Mass. Hist. Soc., vol. IX., p. 77. Trumbull’s History of Connecticut, vol. I., p. 28.

107 Coll. Mass. Hist. Soc., vol. IX., p. 77. Trumbull’s History of Connecticut, vol. I., p. 28.

108 The Atlantic Ocean.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ The Atlantic.

109 P. 235.—This MS. is in the library of the Society of the United Brethren at Bethlehem.

109 P. 235.—This manuscript is in the library of the Society of the United Brethren in Bethlehem.

110 Loskiel, part II., ch. 9.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, vol. 2, ch. 9.

111 Mr. Zeisberger wrote a complete dictionary of the Iroquois language, in three quarto volumes, the first of which, from A to the middle of H, is unfortunately lost. The remainder, which is preserved, contains upwards of 800 pages, which shews that, at least, the Indian languages are not so poor as is generally imagined. It is German and Indian, beginning with the German.112]

111 Mr. Zeisberger created a full dictionary of the Iroquois language, spanning three quarto volumes. Unfortunately, the first volume, which covers from A to the middle of H, is missing. The rest, which has been preserved, consists of over 800 pages, showing that, at the very least, the Indian languages are not as poor as is commonly believed. It starts with German and then goes into Indian. 112

112 [This work, entitled “Deutch und Onondagaishes Wörterbuch,” i. e., Lexicon of the German and Onondaga Languages, complete in 7 vols., MS., is deposited in the Library of the American Philosophical Society, at Philadelphia. Also a complete grammar of the Onondaga by the same author.]

112 [This work, titled “Deutch und Onondagaishes Wörterbuch,” i. e., Dictionary of the German and Onondaga Languages, complete in 7 vols., MS., is held in the Library of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. Also included is a complete grammar of the Onondaga by the same author.]

113 This word should be pronounced according to the powers of the German Alphabet.

113 This word should be pronounced based on the rules of the German alphabet.

114 Being, or Spirit.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Existence, or Spirit.

115 An old Indian told me about fifty years ago, that when he was young, he still followed the custom of his father and ancestors, in climbing upon a high mountain or pinnacle, to thank the Great Spirit for all the benefits before bestowed, and to pray for a continuance of his favour; that they were sure their prayers were heard, and acceptable to the Great Spirit, although he did not himself appear to them.

115 An elderly Indian shared with me about fifty years ago that when he was young, he followed the tradition of his father and ancestors by climbing a high mountain or peak to thank the Great Spirit for all the blessings they had received, and to pray for continued favor; they were confident that their prayers were heard and welcomed by the Great Spirit, even though he did not appear to them.

116 When, between the years 1760 and 1768, the noted war-chief Pontiac had concerted a plan of surprising and cutting off the garrison and town of Detroit, while in the act of delivering an impressive peace oration, to the then commandant Major Gladwyn, the turning of the belt was to have been the signal of the attack by his forces, who all had their guns, which previously had been cut off to large pistol length, hidden under their blankets. So I have been informed by some of the most respectable inhabitants of Detroit, and by the Indians themselves.

116 When, between 1760 and 1768, the famous war chief Pontiac planned to surprise and take down the garrison and town of Detroit while delivering a powerful peace speech to the commandant, Major Gladwyn, the turning of the belt was meant to be the signal for his forces to attack. All of them had their guns, which had been shortened to pistol length, hidden under their blankets. This is what I've been told by some of the most respected residents of Detroit and by the Indians themselves.

117 For “once” read “sometimes.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “once” read “sometimes.”

118 For “should” read “deserved to.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “should” read “deserved to.”

119 For “to” read “out at.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “to” read “out at.”

120 Dele “outside of the door and.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Dele “outside the door and.”

121 Grammatica Grœnlandico-Danico-Latina, edita à P. Egede, Hafniæ, 1760, 8vo.

121 Grammar of Greenlandic-Danish-Latin, published by P. Egede, Copenhagen, 1760, 8vo.

Dictionarium Grœnlandico-Danico-Latinum, adornatum à P. Egede, Hafniæ, 1750, 8vo.

Dictionarium Grœnlandico-Danico-Latinum, edited by P. Egede, Copenhagen, 1750, 8vo.

122 For “Thornhallesen” read “Thorhallesen.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Thornhallesen” read “Thorhallesen.”

123 [The Moravians have been conducting a successful mission in Greenland since 1733. In 1761, David Crantz, one of their clergymen, sailed for that distant country to collect material for a history, touching its physical aspect and resources, the manners and customs of the native tribes. Crantz’s work was published at Barby, Saxony, in 1765, under the title of “Historie von Grönland, enthaltend die Beschreibung des Landes und der Einwohner insbeomdere, die Geschichte der dortigen Mission der evangelischen Brüder zu Neu-Herrnhut und Lichtenfels.” An English Translation appeared in London, in 1766.]

123 [The Moravians have been successfully working in Greenland since 1733. In 1761, David Crantz, one of their ministers, traveled to that remote place to gather information for a history that covered its geography, resources, and the customs of the local tribes. Crantz's work was published in Barby, Saxony, in 1765, titled “Historie von Grönland, enthaltend die Beschreibung des Landes und der Einwohner insbeomdere, die Geschichte der dortigen Mission der evangelischen Brüder zu Neu-Herrnhut und Lichtenfels.” An English translation was released in London in 1766.]

124 The Hurons, a great while, perhaps centuries ago, became disunited from the Iroquois; many wars took place between them, and the former withdrew at last to remote places, where they settled, and were discovered by French Missionaries and traders: of this last I was repeatedly assured during my residence at Detroit, between 1781 and 1786.

124 The Hurons, a long time ago, maybe even centuries back, became separated from the Iroquois; numerous wars occurred between them, and eventually, the Hurons retreated to distant areas, where they settled and were found by French missionaries and traders. I was often told this during my time living in Detroit, from 1781 to 1786.

125 Carver says that there are in North America, four different languages, the Iroquois to the east, the Chippeway or Algonkin to the northwest, the Naudowessie to the west, and the Cherokee, &c. to the south. Travels, ch. 17, Capt. Carver, though he appears to have been in general an accurate observer, resided too short a time among the Indians to have a correct knowledge of their languages. [Mr. Heckewelder quotes here and elsewhere from “Three Years’ Travels through the Interior Parts of North America for more than Five Thousand Miles, &c.,” by Capt. Jonathan Carver of the Provincial Troops in America, Phila., 1796. Those tribes of the Naudowessies among whom Carver resided for five months, dwelt about the River St. Pierre, 200 miles above its junction with the Mississippi. This was the extreme westerly point reached by the adventurous traveller. The entire nation of the Naudowessies, according to Carver, mustered upwards of 2000 fighting men.]

125 Carver notes that in North America, there are four main languages: the Iroquois in the east, the Chippewa or Algonquin in the northwest, the Naudowessie in the west, and the Cherokee and others in the south. Travels, ch. 17, Capt. Carver, though he generally seems to have been an accurate observer, stayed among the Native Americans for too short a time to have a thorough understanding of their languages. [Mr. Heckewelder references here and elsewhere from “Three Years’ Travels through the Interior Parts of North America for more than Five Thousand Miles, &c.,” by Capt. Jonathan Carver of the Provincial Troops in America, Phila., 1796. The tribes of the Naudowessies where Carver spent five months were located near the River St. Pierre, 200 miles upstream from its confluence with the Mississippi. This was the furthest western point reached by the adventurous traveler. According to Carver, the entire Naudowessie nation had more than 2000 fighting men.]

126 Le grand Voyage du pays des Hurons, par Samuel Sagard, Paris, 1632. To which is added, a Dictionary of the Huron language, with a preface.

126 The Great Journey to the Land of the Hurons, by Samuel Sagard, Paris, 1632. It includes a Dictionary of the Huron language, along with a preface.

127 Philos. Trans. Abr., vol. lxiii., p. 142.

127 Philos. Trans. Abr., vol. 63, p. 142.

128 Hist. of the Five Nations, p. 14.

128 Hist. of the Five Nations, p. 14.

129 Barton’s New Views, Ed. 1798. Prelim. Disc., p. 32.

129 Barton’s New Views, Ed. 1798. Prelim. Disc., p. 32.

130 The late Dr. Barton, in the work above quoted, append., p. 3,132 seems to doubt this fact, and relies on a series of numerals which I once communicated to him, and was found among the papers of the late Rev. Mr. Pyrlæus. But it is by no means certain that those numerals were taken from the language of the Nanticokes, and the vocabularies above mentioned leave no doubt as to the origin of that dialect.

130 The late Dr. Barton, in the work mentioned above, appendix, p. 3,132 seems to question this fact and relies on a series of numbers that I once shared with him, which were found among the papers of the late Rev. Mr. Pyrlæus. However, it's not certain that those numbers were derived from the Nanticoke language, and the vocabularies mentioned above clearly indicate the origin of that dialect.

131 Letter v.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Letter vs.

132 For “page 3” read “page 5.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “page 3” read “page 5.”

133 Letter xxv.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Letter 25.

134 He says that it is not copious, and is only adapted to the necessities and conveniences of life. These are the ideas which strangers and philosophers, reasoning à priori, entertain of Indian languages; but those who are well acquainted with them think very differently. And yet the Baron says that the Algonquin is “the finest and the most universal language on the Continent.”

134 He says that it's not abundant and is only suited for the needs and comforts of life. These are the views that outsiders and philosophers, reasoning à priori, have about Indian languages; but those who are familiar with them think quite differently. Yet the Baron claims that Algonquin is “the finest and most universal language on the continent.”

135 Letter xi., p. 276.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Letter 11, p. 276.

136 It should be properly Tortoise; but this word seems in a fair way to be entirely superseded by Turtle, as well in England as in this country.

136 It should be properly Tortoise; but this word seems to be on track to be completely replaced by Turtle, both in England and here.

137 Chippewäisch-Delawarischer, oder Algonkisch-Moheganischer, Stamm. Mithrid., part III., vol. iii., p. 337.

137 Chippewa-Delaware, or Algonquin-Mohegan, tribe. Mithrid., part III., vol. iii., p. 337.

138 Vater in Mithrid., part III., vol. 3, p. 283, quotes De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 98, 103, Du Pratz, vol. 2, pp. 208, 9, Rochefort, Histoire Natur. des Antilles, pp. 351, 394, and Hervas, Catologo delle Lingue, p. 90; none of which works I have it in my power to consult.

138 Vater in Mithrid., part III., vol. 3, p. 283, cites De Laet, Novus Orbis, pp. 98, 103, Du Pratz, vol. 2, pp. 208, 9, Rochefort, Histoire Natur. des Antilles, pp. 351, 394, and Hervas, Catologo delle Lingue, p. 90; none of which works I can access.

139 Mithrid., ibid.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Mithrid., same source.

140 Loskiel, part I., ch. 1.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, Vol. 1, Ch. 1.

141 Duvallon, Vue de la Colonie Espagnole du Mississippi, quoted by Vater, in Mithrid., ibid., p. 297.

141 Duvallon, View of the Spanish Colony of the Mississippi, quoted by Vater, in Mithrid., ibid., p. 297.

142 The Bibliotheca Americana records 45 grammars and 25 dictionaries of the languages spoken in Mexico only, and 85 works of different authors on religious and moral subjects written or translated into some of those languages.

142 The Bibliotheca Americana lists 45 grammars and 25 dictionaries of the languages spoken in Mexico, along with 85 works by various authors on religious and moral topics that have been written or translated into some of those languages.

143 For “or” read “nor.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “or” read “nor.”

144 For “met” read “saw.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “met” read “saw.”

145 For “days” read “hours.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “days” read “hours.”

146 Loskiel, part III., ch. 9.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, part 3, ch. 9.

147 For “December” read “November.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “December” read “November.”

148 [Pipe, a leader of the Wolf tribe of the Monseys, was residing in the Ohio country at the time of Bouquet’s expedition against the Delawares and Shawanon of the Muskingum and Scioto, in 1764. When the Moravians entered the valley of the former river, he was at home on the Walhonding, about 15 miles above the present Coshocton. In the border wars of the Revolution, he at first declared against the Americans, withdrawing with the disaffected Delawares to the Tymochtee creek, a branch of the Sandusky, within the limits of the present Crawford County. While here, he was a serviceable tool in the hands of the British at Detroit. To the Moravian mission among his countrymen he was for many years unjustifiedly hostile. Eventually, however, he regarded the work apparently with favor. It was the Pipe who doomed Col. William Crawford to torture, after the failure of the latter’s expedition against Sandusky in the summer of 1782. After the treaty of Fort Harmar in January of 1789, Pipe threw all his influence on the side of those of his people who now resolved at all hazards to uphold peace with the United States. He died a few days before the defeat of the confederated Indians by Wayne, near the rapids of the Maumee.]

148 [Pipe, the leader of the Wolf tribe of the Monseys, was living in Ohio during Bouquet’s expedition against the Delawares and Shawnees of the Muskingum and Scioto rivers in 1764. When the Moravians arrived in the valley of the Muskingum, he was at home along the Walhonding River, about 15 miles above what is now Coshocton. In the border conflicts of the Revolutionary War, he initially sided against the Americans, retreating with the dissatisfied Delawares to Tymochtee Creek, a branch of the Sandusky River, within present-day Crawford County. While there, he served as a useful ally for the British in Detroit. For many years, he was unjustly hostile toward the Moravian mission among his people. However, eventually, he began to view their work more positively. It was Pipe who condemned Colonel William Crawford to torture after Crawford's failed expedition against Sandusky in the summer of 1782. After the Treaty of Fort Harmar in January 1789, Pipe lent his full support to those in his community who were determined to maintain peace with the United States at all costs. He died just days before the confederated Indians were defeated by Wayne near the rapids of the Maumee.]

149 See Loskiel, part III., ch. 9, p. 704, German text, and p. 165, Eng. Trans.

149 See Loskiel, part III., ch. 9, p. 704, German text, and p. 165, Eng. Trans.

150 It will be understood that he speaks here throughout for himself and his nation or tribe, though always in the first person of the singular, according to the Indian mode.

150 It's important to note that he is speaking for himself and his nation or tribe, even though he always uses the first person singular, following the Indian style.

151 Meaning his nation, and speaking, as usual, in the first person.

151 Meaning his country, and speaking, as usual, in the first person.

152 Meaning women and children.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Meaning women and kids.

153 Prisoners.

Inmates.

154 To make his language agree with the expression live flesh.

154 To make his language match the expression live flesh.

155 For “with” read “of.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “with” read “of.”

156 According to the powers of the English alphabet, it should be written Koo-ek-wen-aw-koo.

156 Based on the rules of the English alphabet, it should be written Koo-ek-wen-aw-koo.

157 Rogers’s Key into the Language of the Indians of New England, ch. vi.

157 Rogers’s Key to the Language of the Indians of New England, ch. vi.

158 For “they” read “the Chippeways and some other nations.”

158 For “they” read “the Chippewas and a few other tribes.”

159 [In Green township, in what is now Ashland County.]

159 [In Green Township, in what is now Ashland County.]

160 For “your” read “yon.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “your” say “yon.”

161 After the word “nation” insert “which they do not approve of.”

161 After the word “nation” insert “that they don't approve of.”

162 [Alexander McKee, Matthew Elliott, and Simon Girty,—the first some time a British agent among the Indians, the second with a captain’s commission from the commandant at Detroit, the third as brutal, depraved, and wicked a wretch as ever lived,—deserted with a squad of soldiers from Fort Pitt, in March of 1778. This trio of renegade desperadoes, henceforth, in the capacity of emissaries of the British at Detroit (with their savage allies), wrought untold misery on the frontiers, even till the peace of 1795.]

162 [Alexander McKee, Matthew Elliott, and Simon Girty—the first having been a British agent among the Native Americans, the second with a captain’s commission from the commandant at Detroit, and the third being as brutal, corrupt, and wicked as anyone could be—deserted with a group of soldiers from Fort Pitt in March 1778. This trio of renegade outlaws, from then on acting as representatives of the British in Detroit (alongside their savage allies), caused immense suffering on the frontiers, continuing until the peace of 1795.]

163 For “they sure” read “they are sure.”

163 For “they sure” read “they are sure.”

164 For “reply” read “answer.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “reply” read “answer.”

165 The pronouns in the Indian language have no feminine gender.

165 The pronouns in the Indian language don't have a feminine gender.

166 For “decide” read “say.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “decide” read “say.”

167 For “man” read “men.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “man” read “men.”

168 Between “is” and “even” insert “sometimes.”

168 Between “is” and “even” insert “sometimes.”

169 For “an old Indian” read “several old men.”

169 For “an old Indian” read “several old men.”

170 [The fort, built by Franklin in the early winter of 1756, stood on the site of Weissport, on the left bank of the Lehigh, in Carbon County, Penna. The well of the fort alone remains to mark its site.]

170 [The fort, constructed by Franklin in the early winter of 1756, was located at Weissport, on the left bank of the Lehigh River, in Carbon County, Pennsylvania. Only the well of the fort remains to mark its location.]

171 For “road” read “course.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “road” read “course.”

172 [The road from Easton, via Ross Common and the Pocono, to Wilkes-Barré, formerly called the Wilkes-Barré turnpike.]

172 [The road from Easton, through Ross Common and the Pocono, to Wilkes-Barre, which was previously known as the Wilkes-Barre turnpike.]

173 [Mr. Heckewelder had been despatched by the Mission Board at Bethlehem to Fairfield, on the Retrenche, (Thames,) in Upper Canada, where the Moravian Indians settled in 1792, to advise with them and their teachers, concerning a return to the valley of the Tuscarawas, in which the survey of a grant of 12,000 acres of land, made by Congress, had recently been completed. Pursuant to his instructions, he proceeded from Fairfield to the Tuscarawas, to make the necessary preparations for a colony that was to follow in the ensuing autumn, and re-founded Gnadenhütten. The village of Goshen, seven miles higher up the river, was built in October, on the arrival of David Zeisberger and the expected colony from the Retrenche.]

173 [Mr. Heckewelder was sent by the Mission Board in Bethlehem to Fairfield, on the Retrenche (Thames), in Upper Canada, where the Moravian Indians had settled in 1792. His task was to discuss with them and their teachers the possibility of returning to the Tuscarawas valley, where a survey of a 12,000-acre land grant from Congress had recently been completed. Following his instructions, he traveled from Fairfield to the Tuscarawas to prepare for a colony that was set to arrive in the fall, and he re-established Gnadenhütten. The village of Goshen was built in October, seven miles upstream, upon the arrival of David Zeisberger and the anticipated colony from the Retrenche.]

174 [The Wyandot village of Upper Sandusky was three miles in a south-easterly direction from the site of the present town of Upper Sandusky, the county-seat of Wyandot County, Ohio. Lower Sandusky, a trading-post and Wyandot town, was situated at the head of navigation on the Sandusky. Fremont, the county-seat of Sandusky County, marks its site. Here the Moravian missionaries and their families were most hospitably entertained by Arundel and Robbins for upwards of three weeks, while awaiting the arrival of boats from Detroit, on which they were to be taken as prisoners of war to that post. It was through British influence that the Mission on the Muskingum had been overthrown in the early autumn of 1781, and that its seat was transferred to the Sandusky. Fort McIntosh stood on the present town of Beaver, Beaver County, Pennsylvania. It was erected in October of 1778 by General McIntosh, then in command of the Western Department.]

174 [The Wyandot village of Upper Sandusky was located three miles southeast from where the current town of Upper Sandusky stands, which is the county seat of Wyandot County, Ohio. Lower Sandusky, a trading post and Wyandot settlement, was positioned at the head of navigation on the Sandusky River. Fremont, the county seat of Sandusky County, marks its location. During their wait for boats from Detroit, which would transport them as prisoners of war to that post, the Moravian missionaries and their families were graciously hosted by Arundel and Robbins for more than three weeks. The British played a role in the dismantling of the Mission on the Muskingum in early autumn 1781, which led to its relocation to Sandusky. Fort McIntosh was located in what is now the town of Beaver, Beaver County, Pennsylvania. It was built in October 1778 by General McIntosh, who was then in charge of the Western Department.]

175 For “where” read “whence.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “where” read “from where.”

176 [On the 18th October, 1755, a party of Indians fell upon the settlers on the Big Mahanoy, (now Penn’s Creek, in Union County, Penna.,) killed and carried off twenty-five persons, and burned and destroyed all the buildings and improvements.—Colonial Records, vol. 6, p. 766.]

176 [On October 18, 1755, a group of Native Americans attacked the settlers at Big Mahanoy (now known as Penn’s Creek in Union County, Pennsylvania), killing and abducting twenty-five people, and burning down all the buildings and improvements.—Colonial Records, vol. 6, p. 766.]

177 For “Duke Holland” read “Luke Holland;” the same where the name again occurs.

177 For “Duke Holland” read “Luke Holland;" the same where the name again occurs.

178 Indian stockings.

Indian leggings.

179 [The three Commissioners set out from Fort Washington (Cincinnati) for the Indian country in June of 1792, but never returned. Despite the failure of this mission, General Rufus Putnam was without delay despatched on a similar errand, and at Post Vincennes, on the Wabash, in September of the above mentioned year, concluded a treaty of peace with a number of the Western tribes. Mr. Heckewelder was associated by the War Department with Putnam in this perilous undertaking.]

179 [The three Commissioners left Fort Washington (Cincinnati) for the Indian territory in June of 1792, but they never came back. Even though this mission failed, General Rufus Putnam was quickly sent on a similar mission, and in September of that year, at Post Vincennes on the Wabash, he reached a peace treaty with several of the Western tribes. Mr. Heckewelder was appointed by the War Department to assist Putnam in this dangerous task.]

180 [Cornstalk, the well-known Shawano king, while held by the Americans in the fort at Point Pleasant, at the mouth of the Kanhawa, was murdered by some soldiers of the garrison, in revenge for the loss of one of their companions, who had met his death while hunting, at the hands of a British Indian.]

180 [Cornstalk, the famous Shawano king, while being held by the Americans in the fort at Point Pleasant, at the mouth of the Kanawha, was killed by some soldiers of the garrison, out of revenge for the loss of one of their comrades, who had died while hunting, killed by a British Indian.]

181 The Bible.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ The Bible.

182 The Indians gave this name to General Wayne, because they say that he had all the cunning of this animal, who is superior to all other snakes in the manner of procuring his food. He hides himself in the grass with his head only above it, watching all around to see where the birds are building their nests, that he may know where to find the young ones when they are hatched.

182 The Native Americans gave this name to General Wayne because they believe he had all the cleverness of this animal, which is better than all other snakes at getting its food. It hides in the grass with just its head above the surface, watching everything around to see where the birds are making their nests, so it knows where to find the young ones when they hatch.

183 This is not applicable to the Iroquois of the present time.

183 This doesn't apply to the Iroquois today.

184 [A Monsey of Wyalusing, at whose persuasion the Moravian Indians settled on that stream in 1765, who became one of their number, following them to the Big Beaver and the Tuscarawas, where he died in May of 1775. Papunhank’s name occurs frequently in the annals of Provincial history between 1762 and 1765.]

184 [A Monsey of Wyalusing, who convinced the Moravian Indians to settle by that stream in 1765, became part of their group, following them to the Big Beaver and the Tuscarawas, where he passed away in May of 1775. Papunhank’s name appears often in the records of Provincial history between 1762 and 1765.]

185 [The Chinglacamoose, now the Moose, empties into the Susquehannah in Clearfield County, Penna.]

185 [The Chinglacamoose, now known as the Moose, flows into the Susquehannah in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania.]

186 Dele again.

Dele again.

187 Bethlehem.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Bethlehem.

188 [“The serenity of Michael’s countenance,” writes Loskiel, “when he was laid in his coffin, contrasted strangely with the figures scarified upon his face when a warrior. These were as follows: upon the right cheek and temple, a large snake; from the under lip a pole passed over the nose, and between the eyes and the top of the forehead, ornamented at every quarter of an inch with round marks, representing scalps; upon the upper cheek, two lances crossing each other; and upon the lower jaw, the head of a wild boar.”]

188 [“The calmness of Michael’s face,” Loskiel writes, “when he was lying in his coffin, was a stark contrast to the markings etched on his face when he was a warrior. These included: on the right cheek and temple, a large snake; a pole extending from the lower lip over the nose, decorated with round marks every quarter inch between the eyes and the top of the forehead, symbolizing scalps; two lances crossing each other on the upper cheek; and the head of a wild boar on the lower jaw.”]

189 See Loskiel, part I., ch. 3.

189 See Loskiel, part I., ch. 3.

190 See Loskiel, part I., ch. 11.

190 See Loskiel, part I., ch. 11.

191 For “very often” read “sometimes.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “very often” read “sometimes.”

192 For “inches” read “feet.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “inches” read “feet.”

193 For “of” read “on.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “of” read “on.”

194 Podophyllum peltatum.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Mayapple.

195 [Mr. Heckewelder was in this year residing at New Gnadenhütten on the Huron (now the Clinton), Michigan, where the Moravian Missionaries ministered to their converts for upwards of three years, subsequent to their compulsory evacuation of the Tuscarawas valley.]

195 [Mr. Heckewelder was living this year at New Gnadenhütten on the Huron (now the Clinton), Michigan, where the Moravian Missionaries served their converts for over three years after being forced to leave the Tuscarawas valley.]

196 They call them Doctols; because the Indians cannot pronounce the letter R. The Minsi or Monseys call them “Mĕdéu,” which signifies “conjuror.”

196 They call them Doctols because the Native Americans can't say the letter R. The Minsi or Monseys call them “Mĕdéu,” which means “conjuror.”

197 [Gelelemend, i. e., a leader, (whose soubriquet among the whites was Kill-buck,) a grandson of the well-known Netawatwes, was sometime chief counsellor of the Turkey tribe of the Delaware nation, and after the death of Captain White Eyes, installed temporarily as principal chief. He was a strenuous advocate of peace among his people in the times of the Revolutionary war; and being a man of influence, drew upon himself, in consequence, the implacable animosity of those of his countrymen who took up arms against the Americans. Even after the general peace concluded between the United States and the Indians of the West in 1795, his life was on several occasions imperilled by his former opponents. Gelelemend united with the Moravian Indians, at Salem, on the Petquotting in the summer of 1788, where, in baptism, he was named William Henry, after Judge William Henry, of Lancaster. He died at Goshen, in the early winter of 1811, in the eightieth year of his age. He is said to have been born in 1737, in the neighborhood of the Lehigh Water Gap, Carbon County, Pa. William Henry Gelelemend was one of the last converts of distinction attached to the Moravian Mission among the Indians.]

197 [Gelelemend, i. e., a leader, (whose nickname among the whites was Kill-buck,) a grandson of the notable Netawatwes, was once the chief advisor of the Turkey tribe of the Delaware nation, and after Captain White Eyes passed away, he was briefly appointed as the principal chief. He strongly advocated for peace among his people during the Revolutionary War, and because of his influence, he attracted the relentless hostility of those countrymen who took up arms against the Americans. Even after the general peace was established between the United States and the Western Indians in 1795, his life was threatened multiple times by his former adversaries. Gelelemend joined the Moravian Indians in Salem, on the Petquotting, in the summer of 1788, where he was baptized and given the name William Henry, after Judge William Henry from Lancaster. He passed away in Goshen in early winter 1811, at the age of eighty. It is believed he was born in 1737, near the Lehigh Water Gap, Carbon County, Pa. William Henry Gelelemend was one of the last notable converts associated with the Moravian Mission among the Indians.]

198 [Goschachking, sometime the capital of the Delaware nation, stood on the Muskingum, immediately below the junction of the Tuscarawas and the Walhonding. On its site stands Coshocton. The town was destroyed by Gen. Brodhead in 1781.]

198 [Goschachking, once the capital of the Delaware nation, was located on the Muskingum River, just below where the Tuscarawas and the Walhonding meet. Today, Coshocton is built on that site. The town was destroyed by Gen. Brodhead in 1781.]

199 For “Americans” read “white men.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Americans” read “white men.”

200 The following extract from the Detroit Gazette, shews that this superstitious belief of the Indians in the powers of witchcraft, still continues in full force, even among those who live in the vicinity of the whites, and are in the habit of constant intercourse with them.

200 The following excerpt from the Detroit Gazette shows that this superstitious belief of the Indians in the powers of witchcraft is still very much alive, even among those who live near white people and regularly interact with them.

From the Detroit Gazette of the 17th of August, 1818.

From the Detroit Gazette of August 17, 1818.

On the evening of the 22d ult. an Indian of the Wyandot tribe was murdered by some of his relatives, near the mouth of the river Huron, on lake Erie. The circumstances, in brief, are as follows:

On the evening of the 22nd of last month, a member of the Wyandot tribe was killed by some of his relatives near the mouth of the Huron River, on Lake Erie. The circumstances, in brief, are as follows:

“It appears that two Wyandots, residing at Malden, and relatives to the deceased, had been informed by Captain Johnny, an Indian living on the Huron river, and also a relative, that a Shawanee Indian had come to his death by the witchcraft of an old Indian woman and her son Mike, and that in order to avert the vengeance of the Shawanee tribe, it would be necessary to kill them—and furthermore, that the death of Walk-in-the-water, who died last June, was caused by the same old woman’s witchcraft. It was determined to kill the old woman and her son—and for that purpose they crossed over on the 22d ult. and succeeded in the course of the evening in killing the latter in his cabin. The old woman was not at home. The next day, while endeavouring to persuade her to accompany them into the woods, as they said, to drink whiskey, they were discovered by Dr. William Brown and Mr. Oliver Williams, who had received that morning intimations of their intentions, and owing to the exertions of these gentlemen, the old woman’s life was preserved and one of the Indians taken, who is now confined in the jail of this city—the others escaped by swiftness of foot.

“It seems that two Wyandots living in Malden, who were related to the deceased, were told by Captain Johnny, an Indian from the Huron River and also a relative, that a Shawnee Indian had died due to the witchcraft of an old Indian woman and her son Mike. To prevent the Shawnee tribe from seeking revenge, they believed it was necessary to kill them. Additionally, they claimed that the death of Walk-in-the-Water, who passed away last June, was caused by the same old woman's witchcraft. They decided to kill the old woman and her son, so on the 22nd of last month, they crossed over and managed to kill the son in his cabin that evening. The old woman wasn't home. The next day, while trying to convince her to join them in the woods for some whiskey, they were spotted by Dr. William Brown and Mr. Oliver Williams. They had been alerted that morning about the Wyandots' plans, and thanks to their efforts, the old woman's life was saved and one of the Indians was captured, while the others ran away quickly.”

“On the examination of the Indian taken, it appeared that the old woman, shortly after the death of the Shawanee, had entered his cabin, and in a voice of exultation, called upon him, saying—’Shawanee man! where are you?—You that mocked me; you thought you would live forever—you are gone and I am here—come—Why do you not come?’ &c.—She is said to have made use of nearly the same words in the cabin of Walk-in-the-water, shortly after his death.”

“On examining the Indian, it became clear that the old woman, shortly after the Shawanee's death, had entered his cabin and called out with a sense of triumph, saying—’Shawanee man! Where are you? You who mocked me; you thought you'd live forever—you’re gone and I’m here—come—Why aren’t you coming?’ etc.—It’s said she used nearly the same words in the cabin of Walk-in-the-water shortly after his death.”

201 War-hatchet: from which we have made tomahawk.

201 War-hatchet: from which we have made tomahawk.

202 The Indians call the American continent an island; believing it to be (as in fact, probably, it is) entirely surrounded with water.

202 The Indigenous people refer to the American continent as an island, believing it to be, as it probably is, completely surrounded by water.

203 For “killed” read “eaten.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “killed” use “eaten.”

204 Mr. Pyrlæus lived long among the Iroquois, and was well acquainted with their language. He was instructed in the Mohawk dialect by the celebrated interpreter Conrad Weiser. He has left behind him some manuscript grammatical works on that idiom, one of them is entitled: Affixa nominum et verborum Linguæ Macquaicæ, and another, Adjectiva, nomina et pronomina Linguæ Macquaicæ. These MSS. are in the library of the Society of the United Brethren at Bethlehem.

204 Mr. Pyrlæus lived for a long time among the Iroquois and was very familiar with their language. He learned the Mohawk dialect from the famous interpreter Conrad Weiser. He left behind some handwritten grammatical works on that language, one of which is titled: Affixa nominum et verborum Linguæ Macquaicæ, and another, Adjectiva, nomina et pronomina Linguæ Macquaicæ. These manuscripts are in the library of the Society of the United Brethren in Bethlehem.

205 For “Pauksit” read “P’duk-sit.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Pauksit” read “P’duk-sit.”

206 See page 101.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See p. 101.

207 Probably alluding to a tradition which the Indians have of a very ferocious kind of bear, called the naked bear, which they say once existed, but was totally destroyed by their ancestors. The last was killed in the New York state, at a place they called Hoosink, which means the Basin, or more properly the Kettle.

207 Probably referring to a tradition that the Indigenous people have about a very fierce type of bear, known as the naked bear, which they claim once existed but was completely wiped out by their ancestors. The last one was killed in New York state, in a place they called Hoosink, which means the Basin, or more accurately the Kettle.

208 The same whom Mr. de Volney speaks of in his excellent “View of the Soil and Climate of the United States.” Supplement, No. VI., page 356, Philadelphia Edition, 1804.

208 The same person that Mr. de Volney mentions in his great “View of the Soil and Climate of the United States.” Supplement, No. VI., page 356, Philadelphia Edition, 1804.

209 See ch. 29, p. 225.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See ch. 29, p. 225.

210 See ch. 28, p. 221.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See ch. 28, p. 221.

211 See ch. 2.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See chapter 2.

212 Dele “lands or.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Dele “lands or.”

213 This word means liquor, and is also used in the sense of a medicinal draught, or other compound potion.

213 This word means liquor, and is also used to refer to a medicinal drink or other mixed potion.

214 [Shingask, which signifies boggy or marshy ground overgrown with grass, a brother of Tamaqua, or King Beaver, ranked first among Indian warriors in the times of the so-called French and Indian war. The frontiers of Pennsylvania suffering severely from the forays of this Delaware and his braves, Governor Denny, in 1756, set a price of £200 upon his head or scalp. Mr. Heckewelder, in a “Collection of the Names of Chieftains and Eminent Men of the Delaware Nation” states that Shingask, although an implacable foe in battle, was never known to treat a prisoner with cruelty. “One day,” he goes on to say, “in the summer of 1762, while passing with him near by where two prisoners of his—boys of about twelve years of age—were amusing themselves with his own boys, as the chief observed that my attention was arrested by them, he asked me at what I was looking. Telling him in reply that I was looking at his prisoners, he said, ‘When I first took them, they were such; but now they and my children eat their food from the same bowl or dish;’ which was equivalent to saying that they were in all respects on an equal footing with his own children, or alike dear to him.”]

214 [Shingask, which means swampy or marshy land overgrown with grass, a brother of Tamaqua, or King Beaver, was one of the top Indian warriors during the so-called French and Indian War. The Pennsylvania frontiers were heavily impacted by the raids of this Delaware chief and his warriors. In 1756, Governor Denny placed a £200 bounty on his head or scalp. Mr. Heckewelder, in a “Collection of the Names of Chieftains and Eminent Men of the Delaware Nation,” notes that Shingask, although a fierce enemy in battle, was never known to be cruel to a prisoner. “One day,” he recounts, “in the summer of 1762, while walking with him near where two of his prisoners—boys around twelve years old—were playing with his own boys, he noticed that I was watching them and asked what I was looking at. When I replied that I was observing his prisoners, he said, ‘When I first captured them, they were like that; but now they and my children eat from the same bowl or dish;’ which meant that they were considered equal to his own children and just as dear to him.”]

215 A kind of round buckle with a tongue, which the Indians fasten to their shirts. The traders call them broaches. They are placed in rows, at the distance of about the breadth of a finger one from the other.

215 A round buckle with a tongue that the Indians attach to their shirts. The traders refer to them as broaches. They are arranged in rows, spaced about a finger's width apart.

216 The same whom I have spoken of above, page 184, No. 4.

216 The same person I mentioned earlier, page 184, No. 4.

217 For “Albany” read “Pittsburg.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For "Albany" read "Pittsburg."

218 See ch. 15, p. 151.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See ch. 15, p. 151.

219 The Indian name of Capt. White Eyes.

219 The Indian name of Captain White Eyes.

220 Page 188.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Page 188.

221 For “Sandusky” read “Muskingum.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “*Sandusky*” read “*Muskingum*.”

222 See above, pages 81, 184.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See above, pp. 81, 184.

223 [Williamson did not lead the expedition against Sandusky, nor was it organized for the destruction of the Moravian Indians, then in the Sandusky country. It was led by Colonel William Crawford. Sanctioned by General Irvine, then in command of the Western Department, the undertaking was intended to be effectual in ending the troubles upon the western frontiers of Pennsylvania and Virginia, by punishing the Wyandots, Shawanese, Delawares, and Mingoes, whose war-parties were wont to come from their settlements in Sandusky, to kill and devastate along the borders. See Butterfield’s Crawford’s Campaign against Sandusky, for full details touching the fitting out of this expedition, its disastrous termination, and the awful death by torture of its commanding officer.

223 [Williamson didn’t lead the expedition against Sandusky, nor was it set up to destroy the Moravian Indians who were in the Sandusky area. It was led by Colonel William Crawford. Approved by General Irvine, who was in charge of the Western Department at the time, the mission was meant to effectively end the conflicts on the western borders of Pennsylvania and Virginia by punishing the Wyandots, Shawanese, Delawares, and Mingoes, whose war parties often came from their settlements in Sandusky to kill and ravage the borders. See Butterfield’s Crawford’s Campaign against Sandusky for complete details about the preparation of this expedition, its disastrous outcome, and the horrific death by torture of its commanding officer.

In a letter written by Washington to General Irvine, and dated Headquarters, 6th August, 1782, he expresses himself in the following words: “I lament the failure of the expedition, and am particularly affected with the disastrous fate of Colonel Crawford. No other than the extremest torture which could be inflicted by the savages, could, I think, have been expected by those who were unhappy enough to fall into their hands, especially under the present exasperation of their minds from the treatment given their Moravian friends. For this reason, no person should at this time suffer himself to fall alive into the hands of the Indians.”—MS. in the Irvine Collection.]

In a letter written by Washington to General Irvine, dated Headquarters, August 6, 1782, he says: “I regret the failure of the mission and am especially saddened by the tragic fate of Colonel Crawford. I believe that only the most extreme torture inflicted by the savages could have been expected by those who were unfortunate enough to fall into their hands, particularly given their current anger over how their Moravian friends have been treated. For this reason, no one should allow themselves to be captured alive by the Indians at this time.”—MS. in the Irvine Collection.

224 This name, according to the English orthography, should be written Winganoond or Wingaynoond, the second syllable accented and long, and the last syllable short.

224 This name, following English spelling conventions, should be written Winganoond or Wingaynoond, with the second syllable stressed and elongated, and the last syllable short.

225 The people were at that moment advancing, with shouts and yells, to torture and put him to death.

225 The crowd was at that moment charging forward, shouting and yelling, ready to torture him and kill him.

226 Ruth, i. 16.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Ruth 1:16.

227 Of the value of one dollar.

227 Of the value of one dollar.

228 For “bought” read “brought.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “bought” read “brought.”

229 [A Monsey settlement near the mouth of the Tionesta, within the limits of the present Venango County. It was visited by Mr. Zeisberger for the first time in the autumn of 1767; in the following year it became the seat of a mission. In 1770, the Allegheny was exchanged by the missionary and his converts for the Beaver. Zeisberger’s labors at Goschgoschink furnished the subject for Schüssele’s historical painting, “The Power of the Gospel.”]

229 [A settlement in Monsey near the mouth of the Tionesta, located in what is now Venango County. Mr. Zeisberger visited it for the first time in the autumn of 1767; the following year, it became the site of a mission. In 1770, the missionary and his converts traded the Allegheny for the Beaver. Zeisberger’s work at Goschgoschink inspired Schüssele’s historical painting, “The Power of the Gospel.”]

230 See Nile’s Weekly Register, vol. i., p. 141, vol. v., p. 174, and vol. vi., p. 111.

230 See Nile’s Weekly Register, vol. 1, p. 141, vol. 5, p. 174, and vol. 6, p. 111.

231 This appears to be a mistake; Leather-lips, as has been stated above, was a chief of the Wyandots or Hurons, and is so styled in the treaty of Greenville, otherwise called Wayne’s Treaty, where he was one of the representatives of that nation.

231 This seems to be an error; Leather-lips, as mentioned earlier, was a chief of the Wyandots or Hurons, and is referred to as such in the treaty of Greenville, also known as Wayne’s Treaty, where he represented that nation.

232 The Indian name of this chief was Tar-he; he was also a Wyandot or Huron, and one of the signers of the Greenville treaty. How great must have been the power of Tecumseh, who trusted the execution of Leather-lips to a chief of the same nation!

232 The Indian name of this chief was Tar-he; he was also a Wyandot or Huron, and one of the signers of the Greenville treaty. How significant must have been the power of Tecumseh, who entrusted the execution of Leather-lips to a chief of the same nation!

233 [The earliest record of Tamanen is the affix of his mark to a deed, dated 23d day of the 4th month, 1683, by which he and Metamequan conveyed to old Proprietor Penn a tract of land, lying between the Pennypack and Neshaminy creeks, in Bucks County.—Pennsylvania Archives, vol. i., p. 64. Heckewelder gives the signification of the Delaware word “tamanen” as affable.]

233 [The first record of Tamanen is his signature on a deed, dated the 23rd of the 4th month, 1683, through which he and Metamequan sold a piece of land to the original Proprietor Penn, located between the Pennypack and Neshaminy creeks in Bucks County.—Pennsylvania Archives, vol. i., p. 64. Heckewelder translates the Delaware word “tamanen” as friendly.]

234 [Tadeuskund was baptized at the Gnadenhütten Mission, (Lehighton, Carbon County, Pa.,) by the Moravian Bishop Cammerhoff, of Bethlehem, in March of 1750. For additional notices of this prominent actor in the French and Indian war, extracted from manuscripts in the Archives of the Moravian Church at Bethlehem, the reader is referred to Memorials of the Moravian Church, vol. i., edited by W. C. Reichel, Philadelphia, 1870.]

234 [Tadeuskund was baptized at the Gnadenhütten Mission, (Lehighton, Carbon County, Pa.,) by the Moravian Bishop Cammerhoff from Bethlehem in March of 1750. For more information about this notable figure in the French and Indian War, taken from manuscripts in the Archives of the Moravian Church at Bethlehem, the reader is referred to Memorials of the Moravian Church, vol. i., edited by W. C. Reichel, Philadelphia, 1870.]

235 [Moses Tatemy was a convert of, and sometime an interpreter for, David Brainerd, during that evangelist’s career among the Delawares of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, who were settled on both sides of their great river, between its forks and the Minisinks. A grant of upwards of 200 acres of land, lying on the east branch of Lehietan or Bushkill, within the limits of the present Northampton County, Pa., was confirmed to the chief about the year 1737, by the Proprietaries’ agents, for valuable services rendered. On this reservation, Tatemy was residing as late as 1753, and probably later. He was there a near neighbour of the Moravians at Nazareth. In the interval between 1756 and 1760, he participated in most of the numerous treaties and conferences between the Governors of the Province and his countrymen, frequently in the capacity of an interpreter. Subsequent to the last-mentioned year, his name ceases to appear on the Minutes of the Provincial Council. He probably died in 1761. Such being the facts in the case, Mr. Heckewelder is in error when he states that Tatemy lost his life at the hands of a white man prior to 1754. That a son of the old chieftain, Bill Tatemy by name, was mortally wounded in July of 1757, by a young man in the Ulster-Scot settlement, (within the limits of Allen township, Northampton County,) while straying from a body of Indians, who were on their way from Fort Allen to Easton, to a treaty, is on record in the official papers of that day. This unprovoked assault upon one of their countrymen, as was to be expected, incensed the disaffected Indians to such a degree, that Governor Denny was fain to assure them, at the opening of the treaty, that the offender should be speedily brought to justice; at the same time, he condoled with the afflicted father. Bill Tatemy died near Bethlehem, from the effects of the gun-shot wound, within five weeks. He had been sometime under John Brainerd’s teaching, at Cranberry, N. J., and was a professing Christian.]

235 [Moses Tatemy was a convert and sometimes an interpreter for David Brainerd during the evangelist's time with the Delawares of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, who lived on both sides of their great river, between its forks and the Minisinks. Around 1737, a grant of over 200 acres of land, located on the east branch of Lehietan or Bushkill, within what is now Northampton County, Pa., was confirmed to the chief by the Proprietaries’ agents for valuable services rendered. By 1753, and likely later, Tatemy was living on this reservation, close to the Moravians at Nazareth. Between 1756 and 1760, he took part in many treaties and conferences between the Governors of the Province and his people, often serving as an interpreter. After 1760, his name no longer appeared in the Minutes of the Provincial Council, and he likely died in 1761. Given these facts, Mr. Heckewelder is mistaken when he claims that Tatemy lost his life at the hands of a white man before 1754. It is recorded in official documents that a son of the old chief, named Bill Tatemy, was seriously injured in July 1757 by a young man in the Ulster-Scot settlement (within Allen township, Northampton County) while he was separated from a group of Indians on their way from Fort Allen to Easton for a treaty. This unprovoked attack on one of their own understandably enraged the aggrieved Indians, prompting Governor Denny to assure them at the start of the treaty that the offender would be quickly brought to justice, while also expressing his sympathy to the grieving father. Bill Tatemy died near Bethlehem from his gunshot wound within five weeks. He had previously been a student under John Brainerd in Cranberry, N.J., and was a professing Christian.]

236 See above page 67, and see the Errata with reference to that page.

236 See above page 67, and check the Errata regarding that page.

237 Ch. 34, pp. 255, 256.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Ch. 34, pp. 255, 256.

238 [These chiefs were representatives of the seven nations with whom Gen. Putnam concluded a treaty in September of the above-mentioned year, and were on their way to Philadelphia.

238 [These chiefs were representatives of the seven nations with whom Gen. Putnam signed a treaty in September of the previously mentioned year, and were on their way to Philadelphia.

Note.—The following is a copy of the letter written by the Secretary of War to Mr. Heckewelder, advising him of Putnam’s request that he might be associated with him in his mission to the western Indians:

Note.—The following is a copy of the letter from the Secretary of War to Mr. Heckewelder, letting him know about Putnam’s request to have him join in his mission to the western Indians:

War Department, 18 May, 1792.

Department of War, May 18, 1792.

Sir.—I have the honour to inform you that the United States have for some time past been making pacific overtures to the hostile Indians north-west of the Ohio. It is to be expected that these overtures will soon be brought to an issue under the direction of Brigadier-General Putnam, of Marietta, who is specially charged with this business.

Sir.—I have the honor to inform you that the United States has been making peaceful overtures to the hostile Native Americans northwest of the Ohio for a while now. We can expect these discussions to reach a conclusion soon, under the direction of Brigadier General Putnam from Marietta, who is specifically assigned to handle this matter.”

“He is now in this city, and will be in readiness to set out on Monday next, and being acquainted with you, he is extremely desirous that you should accompany him in the prosecution of this good work.

“He is now in this city and will be ready to leave next Monday. Since he knows you, he is very eager for you to join him in pursuing this good cause.”

“Being myself most cordially impressed with a respect for your character and love of the Indians, on the purest principles of justice and humanity, I have cheerfully acquiesced in the desire of Gen. Putnam.

“Having a deep respect for your character and a love for the Native Americans based on the highest ideals of justice and humanity, I have gladly agreed to General Putnam's request."

“I hope sincerely it may be convenient for you to accompany or follow him soon, in order to execute a business which is not unpromising, and which, if accomplished, will redound to the credit of the individuals who perform it.

“I genuinely hope it will be convenient for you to go with or follow him soon, to carry out a task that has potential, and which, if completed, will reflect well on those who undertake it.”

“As to pecuniary considerations, I shall arrange them satisfactorily with you.

“As for financial matters, I’ll sort them out with you in a satisfactory way."

“With great respect, I am, sir, your most obedient servant,
H. Knox,
Secretary of War.”]

“With great respect, I am, sir, your most obedient servant,
H. Knox,
Secretary of War.”]

239 [Col. Ebenezer Sproat was one of the colony which, under the auspices of the recently formed Ohio Company, and led by Gen. Putnam, emigrated to the Ohio country in the spring of 1788, and founded Marietta.]

239 [Col. Ebenezer Sproat was part of the group that, supported by the newly established Ohio Company and led by Gen. Putnam, moved to the Ohio region in the spring of 1788, and established Marietta.]

240 Ch. 6, p. 104.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Ch. 6, p. 104.

241 For “them” read “us.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “them” read “us.”

242 Sun-fish.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Sunfish.

243 Vocabularium Barbaro-Virgineorum, bound with an Indian translation from the Swedish of Luther’s Catechism. Stockholm, 1696, duod.

243 Vocabularium Barbaro-Virgineorum, combined with an Indian translation of the Swedish version of Luther’s Catechism. Stockholm, 1696, duod.

244 Carver’s Travels, Introduction, p. 72. Boston Edit., 1797.

244 Carver’s Travels, Introduction, p. 72. Boston Edit., 1797.

245 Carver was only 14 months in the Indian country, during which time he says he travelled near 4000 miles and visited twelve different nations of Indians.

245 Carver spent just 14 months in Indian territory, during which he claims he traveled almost 4,000 miles and visited twelve different Native American nations.

246 For “Indians” read “traders.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Indians” read “traders.”

247 [They were sent to Goschschoking (Coshocton), the then capital of the Delaware nation, to condole with that people on the death of White Eyes.]

247 [They were sent to Goschschoking (Coshocton), the capital of the Delaware nation at the time, to offer their condolences to the people on the death of White Eyes.]

248 Ch. 7, p. 111.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Ch. 7, p. 111.

249 See above, ch. 18, p. 172.

249 See above, ch. 18, p. 172.

250 Dr. Boudinot was long a member, and once President, of the Continental Congress, and his talents were very useful to the cause which he had embraced. At a very advanced age, he now enjoys literary ease in a dignified retirement.

250 Dr. Boudinot was a long-time member and even served as President of the Continental Congress, and his skills were extremely beneficial to the cause he supported. Now, in his old age, he enjoys a peaceful and dignified retirement devoted to literature.

251 A Star in the West, or a humble attempt to discover the long lost ten tribes of Israel, preparatory to their return to their beloved city, Jerusalem. Trenton (New Jersey), 1816.

251 A Star in the West, or a humble attempt to discover the long-lost ten tribes of Israel, in preparation for their return to their beloved city, Jerusalem. Trenton (New Jersey), 1816.

252 See page 140, and following.

252 See page 140 and the ones after.

253 Star in the West, p. 138.

253 Star in the West, p. 138.

254 This relation is authentic. I have received it from the mouth of the chief of the injured party, and his statement was confirmed by communications made at the time by two respectable magistrates of the county.

254 This account is genuine. I heard it directly from the leader of the affected party, and his statement was backed up by messages from two respected county magistrates at the time.

255 [This outrage was committed at the public house of John Stenton, which stood on the road leading from Bethlehem to Fort Allen, a short mile north of the present Howertown, Allen township, Northampton County. Stenton belonged to the Scotch-Irish, who settled in that region as early as 1728.]

255 [This terrible act took place at John Stenton's tavern, located on the road from Bethlehem to Fort Allen, just a mile north of what is now Howertown, Allen Township, Northampton County. Stenton was of Scotch-Irish descent, having settled in that area as early as 1728.]

256 [Nescopeck was an Indian settlement on the highway of Indian travel between Fort Allen and the Wyoming Valley.]

256 [Nescopeck was a Native American settlement on the route used by Indigenous peoples traveling between Fort Allen and the Wyoming Valley.]

257 Justice Geiger’s letter to Justice Horsefield proves this fact

257 Justice Geiger’s letter to Justice Horsefield confirms this.

258 [These unprovoked barbarities were perpetrated by a squad of soldiers who, in command of Captain Jacob Wetterholt, of the Provincial service, were in quarters at the Lehigh Water Gap, Carbon County, Pa.]

258 [These unprovoked acts of violence were carried out by a group of soldiers under the command of Captain Jacob Wetterholt, who were stationed at the Lehigh Water Gap, Carbon County, Pa.]

259 [In this paragraph, Mr. Heckewelder briefly alludes to the last foray made by Indians into old Northampton County, south of the Blue Mountain. It occurred on the 8th of October, 1763. An account of the affair at Stenton’s, on the morning of that day, in which Stenton was shot dead, and Captain Jacob Wetterholt and several of his men seriously or mortally wounded, was published in Franklin’s Pennsylvania Gazette, of October 18th, 1763. Leaving Stenton’s, after the loss of one of their number, the Indians crossed the Lehigh, and on their way to a store and tavern on the Copley creek, (where they also had been wronged by the whites,) they murdered several families residing within the limits of the present Whitehall township, Lehigh County. Laden with plunder, they then struck for the wilderness north of the Blue Mountain. Upwards of twenty settlers were killed or captured on that memorable day, and the buildings on several farms were laid in ashes.]

259 [In this paragraph, Mr. Heckewelder briefly refers to the last raid made by Indians into old Northampton County, south of the Blue Mountain. It took place on October 8, 1763. An account of the incident at Stenton’s that morning, where Stenton was shot dead and Captain Jacob Wetterholt along with several of his men was seriously or fatally injured, was published in Franklin’s Pennsylvania Gazette on October 18, 1763. After losing one of their own at Stenton’s, the Indians crossed the Lehigh and, on their way to a store and tavern by Copley Creek (where they had also been wronged by the settlers), they killed several families living in what is now Whitehall Township, Lehigh County. Loaded with stolen goods, they then headed into the wilderness north of the Blue Mountain. Over twenty settlers were killed or captured that day, and several farm buildings were burned to the ground.]

260 [The 5,000 acres at Nazareth, which Whitefield sold to the Moravians in 1741, were first held by Lætitia Aubrey, to whom it had been granted by her father, William Penn, in 1682. The right of erecting this tract, or any portion thereof, into a manor, of holding court-baron thereon, and of holding views of frankpledge for the conservation of the peace, were special privileges accorded to the grantee by the grantor. It was one of few of the original grants similarly invested. The royalty, however, in all cases remained a dead letter.]

260 [The 5,000 acres at Nazareth, which Whitefield sold to the Moravians in 1741, were initially owned by Lætitia Aubrey, who received it from her father, William Penn, in 1682. The right to establish this land, or any part of it, as a manor, to hold court there, and to conduct views of frankpledge for maintaining peace, were special rights given to the grantee by the grantor. It was one of the few original grants that had similar privileges. However, the royalty in all cases remained essentially meaningless.]

261 Alluding to what was at that time known by the name of the long day’s walk.

261 Referring to what was then called the long day’s walk.

262 See above, p. 302.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See above, p. 302.

263 The same of whom I have spoken above, p. 171.

263 The same person I mentioned earlier, p. 171.

264 See above, pp. 135, 136.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See above, pages 135, 136.

265 Above, p. 279.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Above, p. 279.

266 Carver’s Travels, ch. 9, p. 196. Edit. above cited.

266 Carver’s Travels, ch. 9, p. 196. Edit. above cited.

267 [Glikhican, one of the converts of distinction attached to the Moravian mission, was a man of note among his people, both in the council chamber and on the war-path. When the Moravians first met him he resided at Kaskaskunk, on the Beaver, and at Friedenstadt, on that river, he was baptized by David Zeisberger in December of 1770. Subsequently he became a “national assistant” in the work of the Gospel, lived consistently with his profession, and met his death at the hands of Williamson’s men at Gnadenhütten in March of 1782.]

267 [Glikhican, a prominent convert associated with the Moravian mission, was well-respected among his people, both in the council chamber and on the battlefield. When the Moravians first encountered him, he was living in Kaskaskunk, on the Beaver River, and he was baptized by David Zeisberger at Friedenstadt in December 1770. Later, he became a "national assistant" in spreading the Gospel, lived in accordance with his beliefs, and was killed by Williamson's men at Gnadenhütten in March 1782.]

268 See above, p. 338.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See above, p. 338.

269 Loskiel, p. 3, ch. 3.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Loskiel, p. 3, ch. 3.

270 [The valley of the Conecocheague, which stream drains Franklin County, Pennsylvania, was explored and settled about 1730 by Scotch-Irish pioneers, among whom were three brothers of the name of Chambers. The site of Chambersburg was built on by Joseph Chambers. The Conecocheague settlement suffered much from the Indians after Braddock’s defeat in 1755.]

270 [The Conecocheague valley, whose stream flows through Franklin County, Pennsylvania, was explored and settled around 1730 by Scotch-Irish pioneers, including three brothers named Chambers. Joseph Chambers developed the site of Chambersburg. After Braddock’s defeat in 1755, the Conecocheague settlement faced significant challenges from the Indians.]

271 Letter V.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Letter V.

272 For “Zeisberger” read “Heckewelder.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Zeisberger” read “Heckewelder.”

273 These papers have been communicated.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ These documents have been shared.

274 For “from” read “for.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “from” read “for.”

275 For “schawanáki” read “schwanameki.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “schawanáki” read “schwanameki.”

276 For “chwani” read “chwami.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “chwani” read “chwami.”

277 An Enquiry into the Question, whether America was peopled from the Old Continent?

277 An Inquiry into the Question of Whether America Was Settled from the Old World?

278 The Chippeways have hardly any grammatical forms.

278 The Chippeway language has very few grammatical forms.

279 See Philos. Trans. abridged; vol. lxiii., 142.

279 See Philos. Trans. abridged; vol. 63, 142.

280 Colden’s Hist. of the Five Nations. Octavo ed., 1747, p. 14.

280 Colden’s History of the Five Nations. Octavo edition, 1747, p. 14.

281 One of them empties itself into the north side of Lake St. Clair, another at the west end of Lake Erie, and a third on the south side of the said lake, about twenty-five miles east of Sandusky river or bay.

281 One of them flows into the north side of Lake St. Clair, another into the west end of Lake Erie, and a third on the south side of that lake, about twenty-five miles east of Sandusky River or Bay.

282 For “K’lehelleya” read “K’lehellecheya.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “K’lehelleya” read “K’lehellecheya.”

283 From the verb Pommauchsin.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ From the verb Pommauchsin.

284 In the original it is N’mizi; the German z being pronounced like tz, which mode of spelling has been adopted in this publication.

284 In the original it is N’mizi; the German z is pronounced like tz, and this spelling has been used in this publication.

285 For “Wulatopnachgat” read “Wulaptonachgat.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Wulatopnachgat” read “Wulaptonachgat.”

286 For “Wulatonamin” read “Wulatenamin.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Wulatonamin” read “Wulatenamin.”

287 For “manner” read “matter.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “manner” read “matter.”

288 For “achpansi” read “achpanschi.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “achpansi” read “achpanschi.”

289 Wenitschanit, the parent or owner of a child naturally begotten; wetallemansit, the owner of the beast.

289 Wenitschanit, the parent or owner of a child conceived through natural means; wetallemansit, the owner of the animal.

290 [A Collection of Hymns, for the use of the Christian Indians of the Missions of the United Brethren, in North America. Philadelphia: Printed by Henry Sweitzer, at the corner of Race and Fourth Streets, 1803. A second edition of this work abridged, and edited by the Rev. Abraham Luckenbach, was published at Bethlehem in 1847.]

290 [A Collection of Hymns for Christian Indigenous Peoples of the United Brethren Missions in North America. Philadelphia: Printed by Henry Sweitzer, at the corner of Race and Fourth Streets, 1803. A second edition of this work, shortened and edited by Rev. Abraham Luckenbach, was published in Bethlehem in 1847.]

291 For “Indian corn” read “a particular species of Indian corn.”

291 For “Indian corn” read “a specific type of Indian corn.”

292 All words ending in ican, hican, kschican, denote a sharp instrument for cutting. Pachkschican, a knife; pkuschican, a gimlet, an instrument which cuts into holes; tangamican, or tangandican, a spear, a sharp-pointed instrument; poyachkican, a gun, or an instrument that cuts with force.

292 All words ending in ican, hican, kschican, refer to a sharp tool for cutting. Pachkschican, a knife; pkuschican, a gimlet, a tool that makes holes; tangamican, or tangandican, a spear, a pointed tool; poyachkican, a gun, or a tool that cuts with force.

293 For “Ktahoatell” read “Ktahoalell.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Ktahoatell” use “Ktahoalell.”

294 For “gunich” read “gunih.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “gunich” read “gunih.”

295 Quin et emissurus Fucinum lacum, naumachiam ante commisit. Sed cum proclamantibus naumachiariis “Ave, Imperator! morituri te salutant,” respondisset “Avete vos!” neque post hanc vocem, quasi veniâ datâ, quisquam dimicare vellet, diù cunctatus an omnes igni ferroque absumeret, tandem è sede sua prosiluit, ac per ambitum lacûs, non sine fœdâ vacillatione discurrens, partim minando, partim adhortando, ad pugnam compulit. Sueton. in Claud. 21.

295 When Quin was about to send out the fleet on Lake Fucinus, he started a naval battle first. But when the naval fighters shouted, “Hail, Emperor! Those who are about to die salute you,” he replied, “Hail to you!” and after that acknowledgment, as if granting permission, no one wanted to fight. After hesitating for a long time about whether to eliminate them all with fire and sword, he finally jumped from his seat and, running around the edge of the lake with a rather disgraceful hesitance, partly threatening and partly encouraging, he forced them into battle. Sueton. in Claud. 21.

296 Gœthe, in Wilhelm Meister.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ Goethe, in Wilhelm Meister.

297 For “Eliwulek” read “Eluwilek.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Eliwulek” read “Eluwilek.”

298 For “Allowilen” read “Allowilek.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Allowilen” read “Allowilek.”

299 For the English translation of these two words substitute “the most extraordinary, the most wonderful.”

299 For the English translation of these two words, use "the most extraordinary, the most wonderful."

300 For “Eluwantowit” read “Eluwannitlowit.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Eluwantowit” read “Eluwannitlowit.”

301 For “Elewassit” read “Elewussit.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Elewassit” read “Elewussit.”

302 For “the supremely good” read “the most holy one.”

302 For “the supremely good” read “the most holy one.”

303 Bey vielen Amerikanischen Sprachen finden wir theils einen so künstlichen und zusammengesetzten bau, und einem so grossen reichthum an grammatischen formen, wie ihn selbst bey dem verbum wenige sprachen der Welt haben: theils scheinen sie so arm an aller grammatischen ausbildung, wie die sprachen der rohesten Völker in Nord-Ost-Asia und in Afrika seyn mögen. Untersuchungen über Amerikas bevölkerung, S. 152.

303 In many American languages, we find both a highly artificial and complex structure, along with a wealth of grammatical forms that even a few languages in the world possess for verbs; on the other hand, they seem to be as lacking in any grammatical development as the languages of the most primitive peoples in Northeast Asia and Africa might be. Investigations on the Population of America, p. 152.

304 Among the Mbayas, a nation of Paraguay, it is said that young men and girls, before their marriage, speak a language differing in many respects from that of married men and women. Azara, c. 10.

304 Among the Mbayas, a community in Paraguay, it is said that young men and women, before getting married, speak a language that is different in many ways from the language used by married men and women. Azara, c. 10.

305 For “schingieschin” read “schingiechin.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “schingieschin” read “schingiechin.”

306 The k which is prefixed to this and the following substantives, conveys the idea of the pronoun thy; it is a repetition (as it were) of the beginning of the phrase “for thine” &c., and enforces its meaning. Ksakimowagan, may be thus dissected: k, thy, sakima, king or chief, wagan, substantive termination, added to king, makes kingdom.

306 The k at the start of this and the following nouns represents the pronoun thy; it essentially repeats the beginning of the phrase “for thine” and emphasizes its meaning. Ksakimowagan can be broken down like this: k, thy, sakima, king or chief, wagan, noun ending, added to king, creates kingdom.

307 See Letters 8 and 10.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ See Letters 8 & 10.

308 M. Raynouard, in his excellent Researches on the Origin and Formation of the corrupted Roman Language, spoken before the year 1000, has sufficiently proved that the French articles le, the Spanish el, and the Italian il, are derived from the Latin demonstrative pronoun ille, which began about the sixth century to be prefixed to the substantive. Thus they said: Illi Saxones, “the Saxons;” Illi negociatores de Longobardia, “THE Lombard merchants,” &c. So natural is the use of the pronominal form to give clearness and precision to language. Recherches, &c., p. 39.

308 M. Raynouard, in his outstanding Researches on the Origin and Formation of the corrupted Roman Language, spoken before the year 1000, has clearly demonstrated that the French articles le, the Spanish el, and the Italian il come from the Latin demonstrative pronoun ille, which started being placed before nouns around the sixth century. They would say: Illi Saxones, “the Saxons;” Illi negociatores de Longobardia, “THE Lombard merchants,” etc. Using the pronominal form to bring clarity and precision to language is quite natural. Recherches, & c., p. 39.

309 For “Mamschalgussiwagan” read “Mamschalgussowagan.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Mamschalgussiwagan” read “Mamschalgussowagan.”

310 For “Mamintochimgussowagan” read “Mamintschimgussowagan.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “Mamintochimgussowagan” read “Mamintschimgussowagan.”

311 For “M’chonschicanes” read “M’chonschican.”

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__ For “M’chonschicanes” read “M’chonschican.”

Transcriber’s Note:

Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.

Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are the same as in the original.


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