PERFUMES
AND THEIR PREPARATION.

CONTAINING

COMPLETE DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING HANDKERCHIEF PERFUMES,
SMELLING-SALTS, SACHETS, FUMIGATING PASTILS; PREPARATIONS
FOR THE CARE OF THE SKIN, THE MOUTH,
THE HAIR; COSMETICS, HAIR DYES, AND
OTHER TOILET ARTICLES.

WITH A

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF AROMATIC SUBSTANCES; THEIR
NATURE, TESTS OF PURITY, AND WHOLESALE
MANUFACTURE.

BY
GEORGE WILLIAM ASKINSON, Dr. Chem.,
MANUFACTURER OF PERFUMERY.

Translated from the Third German Edition by
ISIDOR FURST.
(WITH CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS BY SEVERAL EXPERTS.)

Illustrated with 32 Engravings.

Copyrighted, 1892,
by
NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO.

iii

The great progress which the art of perfumery has made during recent times is due to several causes, the chief one of which is fully realized only by the manufacturer on a large scale, who stands, as it were, behind the scenes and has access to facts and information concerning the materials he uses, which are not so easily accessible to the dilettante in perfumery, or remain altogether unknown to the latter. This important factor is the advance in our knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of the several substances used in perfumery, whereby we can better discriminate between the genuine and the spurious, the choicest and the inferior, thus insuring, at the very start, a satisfactory result, instead of being compelled to resort to wasteful experimentation and empiricism. A better knowledge has also been gained of the sources of the commercial varieties of many of the crude products, and a better insight into the conditions affecting their qualities or properties. A more exhaustive study of the proximate principles of many of the essential oils has thrown an entirely new light upon this heretofore obscure class of bodies, placing into our hands new products of definite chemical composition, unvarying in physical properties, and many of them valuable additions to the perfumer’s stock of ingredients. Synthetic chemistry has also added to the list of materials required by the perfumer, and is surely going to add many more to it hereafter. Though some of these, like the new artificial musk, are not yet in a condition to enter into seriousiv competition with the natural products, yet it is merely a question of time when the latter need no longer be depended upon. The increasing demands for the staple articles used by the perfumer have also caused a large increase in the cultivation of many important plants in various parts of the world, and have led to the establishment of new plantations, in some cases to such an extent that the commercial relations have been entirely revolutionized, new territories producing larger crops and a finer product than the old home of the plant. The exploration of hitherto unknown or imperfectly known countries has also largely added to the perfumer’s art, and is likely to continue to do this for a long time to come, since it is now well known that vast districts, more particularly in tropical Africa, are inhabited by a flora abounding in new odoriferous plants.

In spite of all this expansion of the perfumer’s stock of trade, however, which results in the periodical introduction of new compounds, there is a very large number of popular odorous mixtures which remain in steady demand, having taken such firm root among civilized nations that they are not likely to be displaced. It is more particularly with a view to afford information regarding these latter that a work like the present is desirable and necessary. A treatise on perfumery is expected to place into the hands of the purchaser reasonably reliable processes for preparing the most generally approved simple or compound perfumes, as well as accurate information concerning the origin and properties of the various ingredients, together with practical hints regarding the determination of their genuineness and purity.

It is a frequent complaint of those who make preparations after formulas published in works like the present, that they do not succeed in obtaining fully satisfactory products. Another complaint of purchasers of such works is this: that they fail to find formulas yielding preparations identical inv every respect with certain celebrated perfumes which have made the reputation and fortune of certain firms. Regarding the first complaint, we would say that the failure lies generally with the complainant himself, through carelessness in the selection of the materials or disregard of the given directions. Concerning the second complaint, a moment’s reflection must convince any one that formulas which are the result of the study and experimentation of years, and the products of which are the main stock of trade of certain firms, are carefully guarded, and not likely to be communicated to others. Moreover, in many cases even a publication of the component parts would not be of much avail, for the manufacturer on the large scale has facilities for blending and seasoning his products which the maker on a small scale does not possess, and it is this part of the art particularly upon which the quality of the products depends.

In preparing the present treatise for the American public many changes were found necessary in the original text, in order to make the information given more correct or definite, and so bring the work more abreast of the present time. In addition to various improvements and additions made in the working formulas comprising the second portion of the work, the description of the natural products used as ingredients, upon the quality and selection of which the success of the perfumer mostly depends, has been carefully revised, and so far as the objects of this work required, completed by Dr. Charles Rice, Associate Editor of American Druggist, etc., in consultation with several experts in the art of perfumery.

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1

Perfumes and their Preparation.

The gratification of his senses is peculiar to man, and it is to this trait that we are indebted for all the arts. The activities which aimed at the gratification of the eye and ear developed into the creative arts and music, and in like manner human endeavor directed toward the stimulation of the sense of smell has in our time assumed the proportions both of an art and a science; for it was nothing but the advancement of chemistry that made it possible to fix all the pleasant odors offered by nature and to create new perfumes by the artistic combination of these scents. The preparation of perfumes is a very ancient art that is met with among all peoples possessed of any degree of civilization. It is particularly the ancient nations of the Orient which had in truth become masters in the manufacture of numerous perfumes.

The first perfume was the fragrant flower; it has continued to be so to the present day: the sprig of dried lavender flowers which we lay in the clothes-press was probably used for the same purpose by the contemporaries of Aristotle. In the Orient, which we may look upon as the cradle of the art of perfumery, the idea suggested itself early to substitute for the delicious fragrance of the flowers some substances of lasting odor; various sweet-scented resins supplied the ma2terial for this purpose. The use of these aromatic resins must have been very extensive: the ancient Egyptians alone consumed extraordinary quantities for embalming their dead. How highly the Oriental peoples in general prized perfumes can be learned from the Bible: the Jews (like the Catholics to the present day) employed an aromatic gum-resin (olibanum, frankincense) in their religious ceremonies; in the Song of Solomon mention is made of Indian perfumes, for instance, cinnamon, spikenard, myrrh, and aloes.

Altogether, incense played a prominent part in the religious ceremonies of the ancient Western Asiatic nations—among many peoples under a theocratic government it was even believed to be sinful to use incense for other than religious purposes. The Bible teaches us that Ezekiel and Isaiah protested against it, and that Moses even prescribed the preparation of certain kinds of incense for use in the tabernacle.

Among the most highly civilized people of antiquity, the Greeks, a large number of fragrant substances, as well as oils perfumed with them—that is to say, perfumes in the same sense as we still understand the term—was known; this will be no surprise to those familiar with the culture of this remarkable people. The odor of violets was the favorite among the Greeks; besides this they used the scent of the different mints, thyme, marjoram, and other aromatic plants. This was carried so far as to become a matter of fashion for the Greek fop to use only certain odors in the form of ointments for the hair, others for the neck, etc. In order to prevent this luxury which was carried to such an excess, Solon even promulgated a law that interdicted the sale of fragrant oils to Athenian men (the law did not apply to the women).

The Romans, who were the pupils of the Greeks in all the arts, carried the luxury with perfumes perhaps even farther. In ancient Rome there was a very numerous guild of per3fumers called unguentarii; they are said to have had a street to themselves in Capua. A Patrician Roman anointed himself three times daily with precious, sweet-scented oils which he personally took along into his bath in golden vessels of exquisite workmanship, so-called nartheciæ. At the funeral of his wife Poppæa, Nero is said to have used as incense more odorous substances than could be produced in one year in Arabia, at that time the only reputed source of perfumes. This luxury went so far that during the games in the open amphitheatres the whole air was filled with sweet odors ascending from numerous censers arranged in a circle. The apartments of well-to-do Romans always contained large and very valuable urns filled with dried blossoms, to keep the air permanently perfumed.

Roman extravagance with perfumes was carried to such an excess that under the consulate of Licinius Crassus a law was passed which restricted the use of perfumery, there being good reason to fear that there would not be enough for the ceremonies in the temples.

With the migration of the almost savage Huns and Goths, the refinement of morals ceased, progress in civilization was retarded for centuries, and at the same time the use of perfumes disappeared entirely in Europe; but it was otherwise in the Orient. As an instance we may mention the prophecy of Mohammed, who promised in the Koran to the faithful in paradise the possession of black-eyed houries whose bodies were composed of the purest musk.

The Arabs, the ancient masters of chemistry, were also the first founders of the art of perfumery. Thus the Arabian physician Avicenna, in the tenth century, taught the art of preparing fragrant waters from leaves, and Sultan Saladin, in 1157, on his triumphal entry, had the walls of the mosque of Omar washed with rose water.

It was the intercourse with the Orient brought about by4 the Crusades that made Europeans again more familiar with the art of perfumery, and a number of new odors rapidly became known. Italy and France, in those times the representatives of culture, were the countries in which the preparation of perfumes was carried on on a large scale. Thus, for instance, we find the name of a Roman family preserved to the present day because one of its members had combined a sweet-scented powder, called Frangipanni after its inventor, which is still in favor, and because his grandson Mauritius Frangipanni had made the important discovery that by treating this powder with spirit of wine the fragrant substance could be obtained in a fluid form.

The fact has been frequently related and repeated, that Catherine de Medici, the wife of Henry II., had made use of the fashion of perfuming the body for the purpose of ridding herself of objectionable persons, by giving them scented gloves prepared and at the same time poisoned by a Florentine named René (Renato?). We think this tale to be simply a hair-raising fable—modern chemistry knows no substance the mere touch of which could produce the effect of a fatal poison; and it is scarcely credible that such a material had been known at that time and lost sight of since.

In the sixteenth century, especially at the court of Queen Elizabeth, perfumes were used with great extravagance; in fact, were looked upon as one of the necessaries of life. This luxury was carried still farther at the courts of the sumptuous kings of France; Louis XV. went so far as to demand every day a different odor for his apartments. A lady’s lover always used the same kind of perfume she did.

It is well known that among the Oriental nations perfumes are used so largely that even food is flavored with rose water, musk, etc.; and Indian and Chinese goods always possess a peculiar aroma which is so characteristic for certain products that it was considered to be a sign of genuineness; this was5 the case, for instance, with the patchouly odor which always adheres to Indian shawls.

A shawl-maker of Lyons, who had succeeded in perfectly imitating Indian shawls with reference to design and colors, spent a fabulous sum to obtain possession of the plant used by the Indian weavers for perfuming their wares. Despite the great outlay caused by the search for this plant, the manufacturer is said to have done a flourishing business with his “genuine” Indian shawls.

In more recent times the great extension of trade to the farthest countries of the globe, and still more the progress of chemistry, have made us familiar with a number of new perfumes. More than two hundred different aromatic substances are now known, and still they are far from being exhausted; every year new odoriferous plants become known, from which the chemist extracts perfumes. By this means, as well as by the enormous employment of perfumes in all grades of society, the art of their preparation has risen to a higher plane; out of empiricism, which alone prevailed a few decades ago, into the domain of the chemical sciences.

Since the appearance of the last edition of this book, the art of perfumery has made noteworthy progress both with reference to the knowledge of new aromatic substances and to improvement in the methods of their preparation; by the introduction of glycerin, solid and liquid vaselin, and salicylic acid into perfumery, one of its branches—hygienic cosmetics—has made an important advance.

At present it is particularly France and England whose perfumery industry is most extensive and which to some extent rule the markets of the world; southern France and Algiers especially furnish the best raw materials, the finest essential oils for the manufacture of perfumes at the chief centres, Paris and London.

6

We apply the term perfume—which really means a fumigating material—to those substances which make an agreeable impression upon our sense of smell; the French call them briefly odeurs, i.e., odors. The high degree of development at present attained by this industry in France and England is the cause of the fact that all perfumes are generally sold under French or English names, which must be borne in mind by manufacturers in this country.

Perfumes or scents, however, exert not only an agreeable impression on the olfactory organ, but their effect extends to the entire nervous system, which they stimulate; when used in excess, they are apt to cause headache in sensitive persons; the laborers in the chemical factories where these substances are produced on a large scale, occasionally even suffer by reason of their stimulating action on the nerves. For this reason perfumes should never be employed otherwise than in a very dilute condition; this necessity arises from a peculiarity of the odorous substances which when concentrated and pure have by no means a pleasant smell and become fragrant only when highly diluted. Oil of roses, of orange flowers, or of jasmine, in fact nearly all aromatic substances, have an almost disagreeable odor when concentrated; only in an extremely dilute state they yield those delightful scents which we admire so much in the blossoms from which they are derived.

It will be easier to understand the almost incredible productiveness of perfumes if we cite as an instance that a few7 centigrams of musk placed on a sensitive scale can for years fill a large hall with their characteristic odor without showing an appreciable loss of weight, and still particles must separate from the musk and become evenly diffused through the air of the hall because the odor is perceptible throughout every part of it.

It would be an error, however, were we to assume that all aromatic substances possess the same degree of productiveness; some of them, as for instance the odorous principle of orris root, have a comparatively faint smell—a fact which must be borne in mind in the combination of perfumes. Even odors having a very similar effect on the olfactory nerves differ widely in their intensity; for instance, true oil (attar) of roses possesses an intensity more than twice as great as that of the rose geranium; many authorities agree in giving the proportion as three to eight, the first figure being that of rose oil, the second that of oil of rose geranium. Therefore, in order to produce perfumes of equal intensity (having the same effect on the olfactory nerves), we must dissolve in an equal quantity of the menstruum either three parts by weight of the attar of roses or eight parts of the oil of rose geranium.

In the prescriptions for the preparation of perfumes given in this book, these proportions have been carefully weighed; but it will be the office of the trained olfactory sense of the manufacturer to modify them for the various kinds of perfumery in such a way as to produce a truly harmonious pleasant odor.

Although we know many aromatic substances, we are still in ignorance as to the preparation of certain decidedly agreeable odors. Thus no one at present is able to produce the refreshing odor of the sea borne along on the wind, any more than we are able to reproduce the scent exhaled by the forest, especially after a warm rain; chemistry, though it has done much in the domain of perfumery, has thus far thrown no light8 upon it. Even certain vegetable odors—for instance, the delightful perfume exhaled by some Aroideæ and Primulaceæ—we cannot as yet preserve unchanged in perfumery. This opens an illimitable field for future activity to the progressive manufacturer.

In a book devoted to the production of perfumes it would certainly be in place to say something about the physiological relations of the olfactory sensations; but unfortunately this interesting part of physiology is still enveloped in great obscurity. All we know positively on this subject is that many particles of the odorous bodies evaporate and must come in contact with the olfactory nerves in order to produce the sensation of odor. There is no lack of experiments seeking to draw a parallel between sensations of smell and those of hearing, and, as is well known, we speak of a harmony and dissonance of odors as we do of tones. Piesse, the renowned perfumer, has even made an attempt to arrange the different odors in a “harmonic scale” having the compass of the piano, and to deduce therefrom a law for the mixture of the several aromatic substances. This attempt, although very ingenious, still lacks a scientific foundation. Piesse endeavors to combine the several scents like tones to produce chords in different scales; the chords of odors are to agree with those of tones. Thus far, however, no proof has been furnished that the olfactory nerve and the acoustic nerve have the same organization, and under this supposition alone could Piesse’s system be accepted as correct.

The majority of the substances used in perfumery are derived from the vegetable kingdom, but some come from the animal kingdom, and for others which do not occur complete in nature we are indebted to chemistry. As is well9 known, most blossoms possess a decided odor, which is extremely fragrant in some; yet it is not the blossoms alone, but in different genera various parts are distinguished by agreeable odors. In some plants the fragrant substances are contained in every part, as in different pines and the mints; in others, only in the fruits (nutmeg, vanilla), while the other parts are odorless; in certain plants only the rinds of the fruits contain an aromatic substance (oranges, lemons). In the Florentine Iris the entire plant is odorless—only its root stock possesses an agreeable, violet-like scent; while, for instance, in the camphor-tree an aromatic substance exists in the wood, in the cinnamon laurel in the bark, in the clove-tree mainly in the closed buds.

But taking the aromatic plants all together, we find that it is particularly their flowers which contain the finest odors, and that the majority of perfumes are prepared from their blossoms.

From the animal kingdom we take for the purposes of perfumery only a very small number of substances, among which, moreover, some peculiar relation exists; while, for instance, all men would call the odor of violets, roses, vanilla, etc., agreeable, the odor of some animal substances is decidedly obnoxious to many persons, though others like it—an observation which can be verified often with reference to musk.

With the advancement of science, chemical products find application in ever increasing numbers; among them are substances which owe their origin directly to the vegetable kingdom, while others, such as nitrobenzol and pine-apple ether, are only indirectly derived from it.

From what has been stated, we learn that our attention must be directed particularly to those scents which are derived from the vegetable kingdom. To the manufacturer of perfumery, however, it is a matter of importance whence the plants are obtained which he uses for the preparation of the10 odors; a very slight change in the soil often makes a great difference in the quality of one and the same species; we see this quite clearly in our ordinary strawberry. While the wild fruit is but small in size it has a delightful aromatic flavor, and the same species transplanted into gardens attains much greater size but possesses only a faint aroma not to be compared with that of the wild variety. The Lombardian violet is large and beautiful, but the German has a much more pleasant odor. On the other hand, the blossoms of the orange-tree obtained from the plants cultivated in pots cannot be compared with reference to their odor with these growing in the Riviera, the strip of coast land of the Mediterranean from Marseilles to Genoa. Altogether the last-named region and the south of France may be called the true garden of the perfumer; in the neighborhood of Grasse, Cannes, Nice, Monaco, and some other towns, extensive plots of ground are set with aromatic plants such as orange-trees, Acacia farnesiana, jasmine, violets, etc., whose products are elaborated in large, well-appointed chemical factories solely devoted to the extraction of their odors. The proximity of the sea-coast, with its favorable climate almost free from frost, permits the cultivation of southern plants, while in the more elevated parts of the country the adjoining Maritime Alps cause a more changeable climate which adapts them to certain other sweet-scented plants.

The great value of the annual production of the French flower farms at Cannes, Grasse, and Nice will be evident from the following figures. The harvesting and elaboration of the flowers at the points named give employment to fifteen thousand persons, and the average annual production is:

From these flowers were manufactured: 500,000 kgm. of pomades and essences, 1,000,000 litres of orange-flower water, 100,000 litres of rose water, and 1,200 kgm. of oil of roses.

Besides, in more northern countries we find here and there quite an extensive cultivation of aromatic plants; this is the case, for instance, in England, where lavender, crisp mint, and peppermint are planted on a large scale solely for their perfume. In northern Germany, too, we sometimes find caraway and sweet flag cultivated, for their peculiar odors only, in special fields.

As stated above, the place of growth of a plant exerts a powerful influence on the quality of the odors developed in it; this circumstance may be the reason why certain scents are prized most highly when they are derived from some definite regions, because the buyer is sure that the product from such places is of superior excellence.

Thus we find that English oils of lavender and peppermint are valued more highly and bring better prices than those from other points of production; some places even have, as it were, acquired a monopoly of certain odors. While the factories at Cannes produce the most perfect odors of roses, orange flowers, jasmine, and cassie, those at Nice are famous for the finest odors of violet, reseda (mignonette), and tuberose, and those of Italy for the odors of bergamot and orris root.

Unfortunately there are in the United States no extensive places of cultivation for odoriferous plants, although certain localities are very well adapted to the growth of violets, mignonette, roses, syringa, lavender, etc. Peppermint, however, is grown on a large scale in some parts of New York State12 and in Michigan. Of course such an enterprise, in order to be profitable, requires the intelligent co-operation of planters and duly qualified chemists, besides well-furnished laboratories and a considerable amount of capital; but under these conditions the prospects of gain are good.

At present the manufacturers of perfumery are almost entirely dependent upon English and French factories for their supply of odors. Owing to the absence of competition, the prices for the products, excellent though they are, are high, and become still more so when the crops are short. These conditions would be materially altered under active competition.

As indicated above, the odors used in perfumery may be divided into three distinct groups according to their origin. These groups are:

1. Odors of vegetable origin.

2. Odors of animal origin.

3. Odors of artificial origin—chemical products.

Before describing the preparation of true perfumes, it is necessary to become acquainted with the several raw materials required in their manufacture; that is to say, the simple odorous substances, their origin, their preparation, and their peculiar qualities. Besides these odorous raw materials, the art of perfumery makes use of a number of chemical and mineral products, whose quality largely influences that of the perfume to be made. These, therefore, likewise call for an appropriate description. Among these auxiliary substances are alcohol, glycerin, fixed oils, and solid fats, which play an important part not only in the preparation of the perfumes, but also enter into the composition of many. The liquid handkerchief perfumes always contain a large quantity of alcohol, the scented hair oils consist largely of fixed oils, while solid fats of animal or vegetable origin occur in the so-called pomades. As we shall see, the actual odors, owing13 to their extraordinary productiveness, constitute generally only a small percentage of the perfumes; the greatest bulk is usually either alcohol, fixed oil, or solid fat.

Hence, as the last-named substances, aside from the odoriferous materials, form the foundation of all articles of perfumery, the manufacturer must devote particular attention to their purity, and their qualities must be discussed in detail.

The odors occurring in plants have their seat mostly in peculiar receptacles called oil glands in which the aromatic substances are stored and seem to take no further part in the vital processes of the plant. As has been intimated, the parts of the plant in which the aromatic substances are stored differ greatly; but in general it may be said that in most cases the flowers and fruits contain the odors; more rarely they may be found in the roots, in the bark, or in the wood, and in very few instances equally distributed throughout the whole plant. In some cases, however, we can obtain totally different odors from various parts of the same plant; this applies, for instance, to the orange-tree, whose blossoms furnish a different odor from the ripe fruits, and the latter must be distinguished from that obtainable from the leaves. The odorous substances occurring in the vegetable kingdom are either mobile liquids (essential oils), or they have a thicker consistence ranging from that of cream to that of soft cheese (balsams or gum-resins), or they are solid (resins). Aside from the fact that the term “essential oils” is quite incorrect, since the substances called by that name have nothing in common with oils except perhaps the liquid state, we are forced from a chemi14cal standpoint to include among them even solid substances; the well-known camphor, a firm and waxy-looking body, belongs according to all its chemical properties into the same group as the so-called essential oils. The name “essential (or volatile) oils” is due to the fact that the volatile vegetable aromatic substances cause a stain on paper similar to that produced by oils and fats; but the stain made by the former disappears spontaneously after some time, while that due to true oils and fats persists. The disappearance of the stain depends on the evaporation of the vegetable aromatic substances—a quality not possessed by fats. Hence the volatile vegetable aromatic substances, in contradistinction from non-volatile fixed or fatty oils, have been designated as essential or volatile or ethereal oils. Inasmuch as the latter terms are the ordinary trade names for these substances, we are compelled to retain them despite their incorrectness. The French name for essential oils is essences; “essence de lavande,” for instance, is the French name for essential oil of lavender, and not for an alcoholic solution of the oil, as might be inferred from the usually accepted meaning of the English terms “essence of lavender,” “essence of peppermint,” etc., which mean solutions of these essential oils in alcohol.

As the localities where the raw materials—that is, the aromatic plants—are cultivated on a large scale naturally constitute the places of manufacture of essential oils, we find in southern France and in England the most extensive factories devoted exclusively to the preparation of perfumes. In the countries named, a favorable influence is exerted, too, by their situation near the sea, as well as by their trade with tropical lands from which additional aromatic plants are imported.

We have stated above that the manufacture of essential oils forms almost a monopoly in France and England; but there is no doubt that this country (the United States) like15wise possesses many localities favorable to the cultivation of certain aromatic plants and the preparation of essential oils from them, so that this branch of industry could be carried on at a profit. For this reason we have in our descriptions devoted some attention to the conditions of growth required by such plants as might be raised here. We even find that some advantages are derived from the hot-house cultivation of some tropical plants.

An exact knowledge of the chemical properties of a substance is in all cases the first and fundamental condition for its preparation; it would appear necessary, therefore, that we should endeavor to gain complete information about the nature of vegetable aromatic substances before we enter upon the description of the various methods of their preparation.

The sources of the odors derived from the vegetable kingdom can be divided, as stated above, into so-called essential oils, balsams, gum-resins or soft resins, and hard resins. Since the latter bear a certain relation to the essential oils from which they are formed through chemical combinations, we must consider them first.

The flowers, the fruits and their rinds, or even the wood of some plants form the receptacles of essential oils; if they are liquid they are called essential oils par excellence; if they are firm they are called camphors. Besides, there are intermediate states between them: oil of rose is always viscid and solidifies even at temperatures considerably above the freezing-point of water (see under Oil of Rose).

The bodies which are generally called essential oils are usually mixtures of a hydrocarbon with an oxygenated body, or an unchanged oil with another which has become altered by the influence of the oxygen of the air—a condition to16 which we shall recur later on. With reference to their elementary composition, essential oils may be divided into two groups:

1. Non-oxygenated essential oils.

2. Oxygenated essential oils.

The non-oxgenated essential oils consist only of two elements—carbon and hydrogen; the other group, as the name indicates, contains a third element in chemical combination, and consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Most of the essential oils of the first group have the same chemical composition: C₁₀H₁₆ (10 atoms of carbon combined with 16 atoms of hydrogen). Despite the like chemical composition, all the essential oils display different physical qualities; they vary in density, in refractive power, in boiling-point (often by many degrees), and, a matter of the greatest importance for our purposes, in their odor. We may state at once that but few essential oils can be said to have a pleasant odor; that of most of them is even disagreeable and narcotic to the olfactory nerves; it is only after the oil has been extremely diluted that the odor begins to become pleasant and to resemble that of the plant from which the oil was derived.

According to their physical qualities, essential oils may be described as fluids of a specific narcotic odor, colorless but very refractive, and easily inflammable. Only a few essential oils can be produced in such a state of purity as to appear perfectly colorless; usually they are more or less dark yellow in color, and some even possess a characteristic tint; thus oil of acacia is reddish-brown, oils of rose and absinth are green, oil of chamomile is blue. But a simple experiment will show that the color is not inseparably connected with the oil, for certain tinted oils can be obtained perfectly colorless by being distilled with another, less volatile oil which retains the coloring matter.

The boiling-point of essential oils is in general very high17 —between 160° and 288° of the centigrade thermometer (C.), or 320° to 550° F. The fact that we smell the essential oils in aromatic plants so distinctly despite their high boiling-point is an evidence of their exceedingly strong influence on the olfactory nerves.

A peculiar property of essential oils, which is of great importance in their preparation, is that of distilling over in large quantities with steam—both ordinary and superheated—that is, at temperatures at most only slightly exceeding 100° C. or 212° F. For this reason essential oils are usually obtained in this way, since they are but slightly soluble in water. Still, most of the oils dissolve in water in sufficient amount to impart to it their characteristic odor and thus to render it often very fragrant. Aqua Naphæ triplex (orange-flower water), rose water, etc., are such as have been distilled over with the essential oils, contain a small quantity of the latter in solution, and hence have a very agreeable odor.

All essential oils dissolve readily in strong alcohol, petroleum ether, benzol, bisulphide of carbon, in liquid and solid fats, in glycerin, etc.; we shall again recur to this important subject under the head of the preparation of the essential oils.

If a freshly prepared essential oil is at once excluded from the air by being placed in hermetically sealed vessels which it completely fills, and is kept from the light, the oil will remain unchanged for any length of time. But if an essential oil is exposed to the air, a peculiar, chemical alteration begins, which proceeds more rapidly and obviously if direct light acts upon the oil at the same time. The odor becomes less intense, the oil grows darker in color and more viscous, and also acquires a peculiar quality: it has a strong bleaching effect which is easily seen on the cork closing the bottle, which is beautifully bleached. After a certain time the oil changes to a viscid, less odorous mass, into balsam, and the latter, after18 the prolonged influence of the air, finally changes into a brownish, odorless substance, into resin.

These remarkable physical and chemical alterations depend on the fact that the essential oil absorbs oxygen from the air, which it puts into a peculiar condition in which it exerts increased chemical activity and is termed ozonized oxygen. One of the most marked of these effects is the uncommonly strong bleaching power of ozonized or active oxygen. When an essential oil that has altered so far as to contain ozonized oxygen—which is shown by its bleaching vegetable coloring matters such as the juice of cherries, red beets, tincture of litmus, etc., agitated with it—is cooled, we notice the separation from it of a usually crystalline, colorless, and odorless body called stearopten, while the remaining liquid part is called elæopten. Stearopten always contains oxygen, while elæopten still consists only of carbon and hydrogen.

In the formation of the stearopten we distinctly see the beginning process of resinification, which, therefore, is nothing but an oxidation (combination of the essential oil with oxygen). It should, however, be stated that as to many essential oils this is not proven by actual observation. Many of them are not known to us as naturally existing without any stearopten. Balsams are essential oils which have to a great extent changed into resin, which they contain in solution, and thereby have become more or less viscid. If the process of oxidation goes still farther, eventually the greater portion of the essential oil becomes oxidized, the entire mass grows firm, and then possesses only a very faint odor which is due to the last remnants of the unchanged essential oil.

Since aromatic substances during evaporation become mixed with air, it appears probable that they act upon the olfactory nerves only at the moment when they become oxidized.

The entire process of resinification of oil of turpentine can be followed very clearly on the pitch pine (Pinus austriaca, or19 other species of Pinus), just as oil of turpentine in general can be taken as an example of an essential oil on which the peculiarities of the non-oxygenated essential oils may be easily studied. In many localities the pitch pine is partly deprived of its bark when it has reached a certain age. From the trunk exudes oil of turpentine which in the air becomes more and more viscid by the absorption of oxygen and changes into balsam, called turpentine. The latter is collected and distilled with water, when the unchanged oil of turpentine passes over with the steam, while the odorless resin (rosin or colophony) remains behind in the stills.

The above-mentioned qualities of the essential oils indicate naturally how those used in perfumery, which are often very costly, are to be preserved. For this purpose small strong bottles should be chosen which are closed with well-fitting glass stoppers, over which is applied a glass capsule ground to fit tightly over the neck of the bottle. These bottles should always be completely filled (hence small bottles should be selected), and kept tightly closed, in the dark. As the action of oxygen is retarded by low temperatures, it is advisable to keep bottles containing essential oils in a cool cellar. But care must be had never to pour out an essential oil in the cellar near an open candle light. The vapors are very apt to take fire, as they are quite inflammable.

As there are a great many aromatic vegetable substances, so there are numerous odors, or, to retain the customary though incorrect appellation, numerous essential oils. All of these, however, cannot be used in the art of perfumery, as some of them do not possess a pleasant odor, as is the case, for instance, with oil of turpentine. (We may state here, however, that very pure oil of turpentine, distilled from certain Coniferæ, has an agreeable, refreshing odor which at present has found application in perfumery under the title of forest perfume or pine-needle essence.) Besides, there are20 numerous essential oils which, while possessing a very pleasant odor, still cannot be used in perfumery except for very cheap preparations, though they are employed in much larger quantities in the manufacture of liqueurs. Such oils are: oil of cumin, fennel, juniper, absinth, etc.

As we shall return to this subject in connection with the essential oils which are used in perfumery in general, we will now consider at greater length the aromatic vegetable substances which are employed for the manufacture of fragrant odors.

Every fragrant portion of a plant can be used for the preparation of an aromatic substance, and therefore for the manufacture of a perfume. Hence we are unable, in the following enumeration of the aromatic vegetable substances, to make any claim to absolute completeness; for every new scientific expedition may acquaint us with hitherto unknown plants from which the finest odors may be obtained. We have said above that we have not yet even fixed in our perfumes all the odors of the known aromatic plants, and therefore there is still a large field open to the progressive manufacturer.

In the following pages we must restrict ourselves to the description of those aromatic vegetable substances which are used in the laboratories of the most advanced and scientific perfumers for the manufacture of odors. At the same time we lay particular stress on the fact that the knowledge of these raw materials is a matter of the greatest importance to the manufacturer of perfumes because it enables him to ap21preciate the differences, often very minute, between fine and inferior qualities. Every manufacturer who aims at the production of fine goods must make it the rule to use nothing but the best raw materials.

The price of the latter is apparently disproportionately high; for all that, only the most expensive materials should be bought, for it is the only kind that can be used. Let us give but two instances in illustration. We find in the market, grades of vanilla the prices of which are as one to four; the latter is fresh and contains the aromatic substance in large amount; the former is old, dry, and worthless, with an artificial glossy surface and little odor. The differences in the price are still greater in an aromatic substance of animal origin, musk, the cheapest grades of which are altogether artificial and perfumed with a mere trace of genuine musk.

Of course, the same remark applies to the raw materials of animal origin and to the chemical products, all of which should be of the greatest purity obtainable.

The aromatic substances at present employed in perfumery for the extraction of odors are the following.

This spice consists of the fruit berries, at first green, later black, of the Eugenia Pimenta, indigenous to Central America and the Antilles. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of liqueurs, less in perfumery, though it may be employed as an addition to certain strong odors, particularly that of oil of bay; it serves very nicely for scenting cheap soap.

This well-known plant, which is cultivated in many localities on a large scale, belongs to the Order of Umbelliferæ.22 The seeds contain about three per cent of a very aromatic essential oil which finds application in the manufacture of soap and in cheap perfumery; it is chiefly used as a flavoring for liqueurs. Good anise must have a light green color, an agreeable sweetish odor, and a sharp taste. In order to increase the weight, anise is occasionally moistened with water; such seeds look swollen, are apt to become slimy, and then furnish a less fragrant oil. Anise is not to be confounded with star-anise, which will be mentioned hereafter.

Melissa officinalis, an herbaceous plant with large, beautiful flowers, which grows wild in our woods, contains a very sweet-smelling oil in small quantities. This can be extracted by distillation from the fresh herb, and furnishes very fine perfumes.

Oil of Melissa of the market is, however, usually an East Indian oil, derived from Andropogon citratus. See under Citronella.

The fruits of the bay-tree contain much essential oil which is used less in the manufacture of perfumery than for scenting soap. Venice is the most important point of export. See the next article.

The essential oil obtained from the leaves of this tree, a native of the West Indies, possesses a very aromatic, refresh23ing odor somewhat resembling that of allspice. It is known in the market as bay oil or oil of bay. During the last decade or so its use has largely extended, and, while formerly almost unknown on the continent of Europe, has become an important article for the perfumer. An alcoholic distillate, prepared by distilling the fresh leaves with the crude spirit from which rum is otherwise obtained, is known as bay-rum, and is used as a pleasant and refreshing wash for the skin. Bay-rum may also be made by dissolving the oil, together with certain other ingredients, in alcohol.

This gum-resin, which possesses a pleasant vanilla-like odor, comes from a tree belonging to the Order of Styracaceæ, the Styrax Benzoin, and probably another species of Styrax, indigenous to tropical Asia, especially Siam and Sumatra. The collection of benzoin is very similar to that of pine resin; the bark of the tree is cut open, the exuding juice is allowed to harden on the trunk, and is thus brought into commerce. Benzoin differs according to its origin, the age of the tree, etc., and in commerce a number of sorts (Siam, Penang, Palembang, and Sumatra) are distinguished. As a rule, benzoin comes in lumps ranging in size to that of a child’s head. They are of a light gray color and inclose white, almond-shaped pieces. The finest quality, known as Siam benzoin after its source, usually is in small pieces (Siam benzoin in tears) which are translucent, light yellow to brown externally, but milky white on fracture, and have a strong vanilla odor. Less fine but still very good is Siam benzoin in lumps, consisting of large reddish-brown pieces inclosing white particles. All other kinds mentioned above come from the island of Sumatra, in lumps the size of a fist. What was formerly known as Calcutta benzoin formed large friable pieces of a dirty reddish-gray24 color. Siam as well as Penang benzoin often contains, besides benzoic acid, also cinnamic acid; it is not known why it is not a regular constituent. The worst quality is sold as “benzoin sorts,” consisting of brownish pieces without white spots; they are often mixed with splinters of wood, bast fibres, and fragments of leaves, and can be used only for cheap perfumes.

Good benzoin, besides the qualities named, must have a sweetish and burning sharp taste, it should be very friable, and when heated in a porcelain capsule should emit vapors (benzoic acid) of an acrid taste and a pronounced aromatic odor; it should dissolve completely in strong alcohol. In perfumery, benzoin serves for the preparation of many odors, washes, and the manufacture of benzoic acid. The latter will be further discussed under the head of aromatic substances obtained by means of chemistry.

The bergamot is the fruit of a tree belonging to the Order of Aurantiaceæ, which is cultivated in Calabria. The tree is unknown in a wild state. The golden-yellow or greenish-yellow fruits, resembling a lemon in shape, have a bitter and at the same time acid pulp; the thin rind contains a very fragrant oil which is used largely in the manufacture of fine perfumery and soaps, and is exported chiefly from Messina and Palermo.

The well-known fruits of the bitter almond-tree (Amygdalus communis, var. amara). There are no definite botanical25 differences between the sweet and the bitter almond-tree. The only distinct difference is the character of the respective fruits. The aromatic substance obtained from bitter almonds is not present fully formed in the fruits, but results from the chemical transformation of the amygdalin they contain; the latter body is absent in sweet almonds.

The leaves of Melaleuca Cajuputi, a tree found in the Indian and Malay Archipelago, which have an aromatic odor resembling that of cardamoms. In the Orient the leaves are used as incense and for the extraction of the oil they contain.

The wood of the Camphor-tree, native of China and Japan, is exceedingly rich in essential oil, the firm, white, and strong-scented camphor. The latter is usually prepared from the wood at the home of the tree, especially in Formosa and Japan, so that the wood hardly forms an article of commerce and is here enumerated only for completeness’ sake. In China and in Japan, however, it is largely used for the manufacture of cloth-chests, trunks and wardrobes, as these are never invaded by insects.

This plant, Carum Carvi, which is largely cultivated in Germany, contains in its seeds from four to seven per cent of essential oil which is extracted by distillation. Genuine caraway seed is brownish-yellow, pointed at both ends, quite gla26brous on examination with a lens, and marked with five longitudinal ribs. Caraway is occasionally confounded with cumin seed, from Cuminum Cyminum, which is easily recognized with a lens: the seeds of the latter plant have fourteen longitudinal ribs and are hairy. The use of caraway in perfumery is limited to ordinary goods, but in the manufacture of liqueurs it is largely employed.

This is the bark of a West Indian tree, Croton Eluteria, belonging to the Order of Euphorbiaceæ, native of the Bahamas. It occurs in commerce in the shape of pieces the length and thickness of a finger; externally it is white and fissured, internally of a brown color and resinous. Good qualities should be free from dust and fractured pieces (sifted cascarilla), of a warm aromatic taste, and a very agreeable odor which becomes more marked on being heated. Another variety of cascarilla derived from South Africa, Cascarilla gratissima, has very fragrant leaves which can be used immediately as incense, just as cascarilla in general is employed in perfumery chiefly for fumigating powders and waters.

The flowers of Acacia farnesiana (Willd.), one of the true acacias, native of the East Indies, which flourishes farther north than the other varieties, cultivated largely in southern France for the delightful odor which resembles that of violets but is more intense. The flowers are collected and made to yield their odorous principle by one of the methods to be described hereafter. The plant which is generally but falsely27 called Acacia in this country, viz., Robinia pseudoacacia, likewise bears very fragrant flowers which undoubtedly can be made to yield a perfume by some one of the usual methods; but so far we know of no perfume into which the odor of Robinia flowers enters. Moreover, it is not alone the flowers of Acacia farnesiana which may be utilized for the preparation of the cassie perfume; the black currant, Ribes niger, contains in its flowers an odor closely resembling the former; this is actually used in the preparation of an oil sold under the name of “oil of cassie.” The latter plant flourishes in our northern States and would answer as a substitute for Acacia farnesiana, which cannot stand our northern winters.

The wood met with in commerce is derived from the Virginian juniper tree, Juniperus virginiana, which is used in large quantities for inclosing lead pencils. The chips, the offal from this manufacture, can be employed with advantage for the extraction of the essential oil contained therein. Long uniform shavings of this wood are also used for fumigation, and the sawdust for cheap sachet powders. Cedar wood is reddish-brown, fragrant, very soft, and splits easily. In the perfumery industry it usually passes under the name of the “cedar of Lebanon,” although the wood from the last-mentioned tree (Cedrus libanotica) has quite a different agreeable odor, is very firm, reddish-brown, and of a very bitter taste—qualities by which it is readily distinguished from the other.

Cinnamon consists of the bark of the young twigs of the28 cinnamon-tree, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, indigenous to Ceylon. Good cinnamon consists of thin, tubular, rolled pieces of bark which are smooth, light brown (darker on fracture), of a pronounced characteristic odor, and a burning and at the same time sweet taste. The most valuable in commerce is that from Ceylon; the thicker bark is less fine.

Chinese cinnamon or cassia (French, Cassie; German, Zimmtcassia) consists of the bark of the cassia-tree, an undetermined species of Cinnamomum indigenous to Southern China; this is grayish-brown and has the general properties of true cinnamon, but it as well as the oil extracted from it has a less fine odor than cinnamon or oil of cinnamon. A very fine kind of Cinnamon has for a number of years past appeared on the market under the name of Saigon cinnamon. It is very rich in oil, and is exported from Cochin-China. Besides the true oils of cinnamon and cassia, other essential oils are met with in commerce under the names of oil of cinnamon flowers and oil of cinnamon leaves, but their odor is not so fine as that of the former. The so-called cinnamon flowers are the unripe fruits of various cinnamon laurels, collected after the fall of the blossoms. They form brownish cones the length of the nail of the little finger, and furnish an essential oil whose odor resembles that of cinnamon.

The fruit of a tree, Citrus medica, indigenous to northern India, but largely cultivated in the countries situated around the Mediterranean and in other countries. It is cultivated both for the pleasant acid juice of the fruit and for their fragrant rinds. Only the latter are of value for our purposes. It occurs in European commerce under the name of Citronat or citron peel. Good commercial citron peel should be29 in quarters and as fresh as possible, which is shown by its softness, the yellow color, and the strong odor. Old peel looks shrunken and brownish and has but little pleasant odor.

The flowers of the citron-tree (Citrus medica) are white, fragrant, and contain a very aromatic essential oil; but as the oil is always extracted from the fresh flowers, the latter do not form an article of commerce.

The leaves of this tree (Prunus Laurocerasus), which is largely cultivated for officinal purposes, furnish an odorous substance completely identical with that contained in bitter almonds, or, rather, formed in them under certain conditions. As the extraction of the odorous substance from bitter almonds is much cheaper, cherry-laurel is but rarely used.

This grass, which, like the oil prepared from it, is called citronella, is a native of northern India, and is largely cultivated in Ceylon, where large quantities are worked for the oil; for this reason the grass itself is seldom met with in commerce. Its odor is somewhat similar to that of the Indian lemon grass, that of verbena, and that of several other aromatic plants, in place of which citronella is frequently employed.

Much confusion exists in much of the current literature30 regarding the source and synonymy of the Indian grass oils and allied products. The following list contains the most important ones:

1. Andropogon citratus DC.—Lemon Grass. The oil is known as Lemon Grass Oil, Indian Verbena Oil or Indian Melissa Oil, or simply Oil of Verbena or Oil of Melissa.

2. Andropogon laniger Desf.—This is the Juncus odoratus or Herba Schoenanthi of older pharmacy. No oil is prepared from this.

3. Andropogon muricatus Retz.—Cuscus or Vetiver. Source of Oil of Vetiver.

4. Andropogon nardus L.—Citronella. Source of Oil of Citronella.

5. Andropogon Schoenanthus L.—Ginger Grass. The oil is known as Oil of Ginger Grass, Oil of Geranium Grass, Oil of Indian Geranium or simply Oil of Geranium, also Oil of Rose Geranium [“Rose” is here a corruption of the Hindostanee name of the plant, viz., Rusa], Oil of Rusa Grass, Oil of Rusa, Oil of Palmarosa.—The two terms “Oil of Geranium” and “Oil of Rose Geranium” should be abandoned for this oil, to avoid confusion with the “Oil of (Rose) Geranium” obtained from Pelargonium. See under “Geranium.”

This well-known spice comes from a tree, Caryophyllus aromaticus, native of the Moluccas, and largely cultivated at Zanzibar, Pemba, and elsewhere. It consists of the closed buds. The main essential of good quality is the greatest possible freshness, which may be recognized by the cloves being full, heavy, reddish-brown, and of a fatty aspect, and they must contain so much essential oil (about 18 per cent) that when crushed between the fingers the latter should be stained31 yellowish-brown. Before buying, this test should always be made, and attention paid to the fact whether the whitish dust is present in the wrinkles about the head. We have found in commerce cloves from which the essential oil had been fraudulently extracted with alcohol and hence were worthless; such cloves may be recognized by the faint odor and taste, but especially by the absence of the whitish dust.

The well-known fruits of this kitchen-garden plant, though not strictly sweet-scented, possess a peculiar refreshing odor which has found application in perfumery. Certain products belonging under this head require the odor of cucumber, and therefore this plant is to be included among the aromatic plants in a wider sense.

The bark of Cinnamomum Culilavan Nees, a plant indigenous to the Molucca islands, used to occur in commerce in the shape of long, flat pieces of a yellowish-brown color, with an odor like a mixture of cinnamon, sassafras, and clove oils. It is rarely met with now.

This plant, Anethum graveolens, which is indigenous to the Mediterranean region and southern Russia, contains in all its parts, particularly in the seeds, an oil of a peculiar odor, which is used as a perfume for soap, also in cheap perfumery, and especially as a flavoring for liqueurs.

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This bush, Sambucus niger, which grows wild in Europe, bears umbellar flowers which are officinal, but contain besides a pleasant odor which can be extracted from them. The odor of the flowers deteriorates on drying, hence in perfumery only the fresh flowers should be used. The American elder (Sambucus canadensis) could easily be used in place of it.

This plant, Fœniculum vulgare, Order Umbelliferæ, is largely cultivated in Europe. It contains an essential oil in all its parts, but especially in the seeds. The plant is rarely used in perfumery, but more frequently in the manufacture of liqueurs. The herb, dried and comminuted, enters into the composition of some cheap sachets.

This plant, originally indigenous in South Africa, contains in its leaves an essential oil whose odor closely resembles that of roses. At present it is cultivated on a large scale in many parts of France and in Turkey, solely for the purposes of perfumery. This plant would grow freely in our Southern and Middle States, and could be cultivated with advantage for the extraction of its highly valued perfume.

The terms “Oil of Geranium” and “Oil of Rose Geranium” ought to be restricted in commerce to the oil obtained33 from true geranium (Pelargonium). Unfortunately, they are yet very commonly applied to an East Indian oil obtained from a species of Andropogon (see under Citronella).

On the Antilles there are a number of bushes belonging to the Genus Hedyosmum, Order Chloranthaceæ, whose flowers possess a magnificent, truly intoxicating odor. Thus far these odors seem to have been accessible only to English perfumers. The perfumes sold under this name by Continental manufacturers are merely combinations of different odors.

The flowers of this plant, which flourishes well in all temperate or tropic countries, possess a very pleasant odor, about the preparation of which we shall have more to say hereafter. In Europe only French perfumers have manufactured it; according to the author’s experiments, however, its extraction presents no more difficulty than that of any other plant.

A synthetic, chemical product, known as piperonal, related to vanillin and cumarin, possesses the odor of the heliotrope in a most remarkable degree. It is therefore much used to imitate the latter. In commerce it is known as heliotropin.

This well-known climbing plant, Lonicera Caprifolium, found in many of our garden bowers, contains an exceedingly fragrant oil in its numerous flowers, from which the author has prepared it. [Some of the American species of honeysuckle34 would, no doubt, likewise yield an essential oil.] The oil sold in commerce under this name is not obtained from these flowers, but is an imitation of the odor conventionally accepted for it. The true oil of honeysuckle, first prepared by the author, far surpasses these imitations in fragrance.

Hyssop possesses a strong odor, a very bitter taste, and is used only for cheap perfumery, but more frequently in the manufacture of liqueurs.

True jasmine—not to be confounded with German jasmine (Philadelphus coronarius, known here as the mock orange, or the Syringa of cultivation) which is likewise employed in perfumery—flourishes particularly in the coast lands of the Mediterranean, where it is cultivated as a dwarf tree. The odor obtained from the flowers is one of the finest and most expensive in existence, and for this reason it would be well worth trying the cultivation in our southern States. At present nearly all the true jasmine perfume (pomade, extract, etc.) comes from France.

True lavender, which belongs to the Order of Labiatæ that contains many aromatic plants, is one of the most ancient in our art; it was early used in Greece for purposes of35 perfumery. Although true lavender flourishes throughout central Europe, its cultivation on a large scale is carried on chiefly in England, and the oil of lavender from English factories is most highly prized. Much lavender is also grown in France, but the product, though very fine, has a much lower value.

True lavender is to be distinguished from spike-lavender (French, aspic; German, Spik-Lavendel), whose odor is similar to that of true lavender, but furnishes a much less aromatic perfume. The cultivation of lavender in this country (U. S.) might give good results.

The fruits of the South European lemon-tree, not to be confounded with citrons, resemble the latter in appearance, but they are smaller, have a more acid taste and a thinner rind. The peel contains an essential oil which is very similar in odor to that of the citron. Hence the oils of lemon, limetta (from Citrus Limetta), and citron are used for the same purposes; but when the three oils are immediately compared, an experienced olfactory organ perceives a marked difference between them.

This grass, which bears a close resemblance to citronella, is largely cultivated, especially in India and Ceylon, for the essential oil it contains. The odor of the grass is similar to that of verbena, so that its oil is often used as an adulterant or rather as a substitute for the former. (Compare the article on36 “Citronella.”)

This plant, Syringa vulgaris, a native of Persia but fully acclimated in Europe and in this country, has very fragrant flowers, the odor of which can be obtained only from the fresh blossoms.

A recently discovered liquid principle, now known as terpineol (C₁₀H₁₇OH), which exists in many essential oils, and in these, in the portion boiling between 420° and 424° F., possesses the lilac odor in a most pronounced degree, and to its presence in the lilac flowers the peculiar odor of the latter is, no doubt, due. It is obtainable in the market under the name lilacine.

The Syringa of the florists is not the true lilac, but the same as the Mock Orange, viz., Philadelphus coronarius.

The remarks made under the head of Wallflower apply equally to the blossoms of the white garden lily: strange to say, they are not used in perfumery, and all the so-called odors of lily are mixtures of several aromatic substances. The author has succeeded in separating from the flowers, by means of petroleum ether, the delightful odor present in large amount in the blossoms of this plant, and has employed it in the manufacture of magnificent perfumes.

This substance is the dried arillus covering the fruits of Myristica fragrans, the so-called nutmegs. The tree bearing37 them is indigenous to a group of islands in the Indian Archipelago and is cultivated especially on the Molucca islands. Although mace is in such close relation with nutmeg, yet, strange to say, the aromatic substance differs decidedly from that of the nut. Mace of good quality forms pieces of orange-yellow color; they are fleshy, usually slit open on one side, have a strong odor, tear with difficulty, and are so oily that when crushed they stain the fingers brownish-yellow. Mace is largely used in the preparation of sachets and particularly for scenting soap. In England, soap scented with mace is well liked.

The magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), indigenous to the warmer parts of South, Central, and North America, bears large white flowers having a delightful odor which can be extracted by means of petroleum ether. In the same way, truly intoxicating perfumes may be obtained from other varieties of magnolia. In our climate these plants flourish only in conservatories, and in their home no steps have yet been taken to utilize these natural treasures in a proper way; hence European manufacturers invariably produce the perfume called magnolia by combination of different odors.

This plant, Origanum Majorana (vulgare), frequently cultivated in kitchen gardens, possesses in all its parts a strong odor due to an essential oil. The latter, which is quite expensive, is but little used, and probably only for culinary purposes.

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“Oil of Origanum” in English-speaking countries is intended to mean Oil of Thyme (from Thymus vulgaris), and never means Oil of Marjoram.

This plant is frequent in Europe on damp meadows, and contains an aromatic substance closely allied to oil of wintergreen, which occurs also in the Canadian variety.

The varieties of mint claiming our attention are the following: Mentha piperita, Peppermint (French: Menthe poivrée; German: Pfefferminze).—Mentha viridis, Spearmint (French: Menthe verte; German: Grüne Minze).—Mentha crispa, Crisp Mint (French: Menthe crépue [or frisée]; German: Krause Minze).

All of the mints have a pleasant odor; besides the plants named above, we may mention Mentha aquatica, whose odor faintly but distinctly recalls that of musk. Like lavender, Mentha crispa and M. piperita are cultivated particularly in England, and the English oils are the most superior. Mentha piperita is also largely cultivated in the United States. Mentha viridis and its oil are almost exclusively confined to this country.

The tree, Hibiscus Abelmoschus, indigenous to Africa and India, bears fruit capsules containing reddish-gray seeds with39 grooved surface, so-called musk-seeds. They have an odor resembling musk, but much weaker, though it becomes more pronounced when the seeds are bruised. Besides this species of Hibiscus, other plants belonging to the same order are aromatic and are also used in perfumery.

The gum-resin which we call myrrh has long been known in the East, where it was celebrated as one of the finest perfumes, along with spikenard and frankincense. The tree, Balsamodendron Myrrha (or Commiphora Myrrha Engler) is indigenous to the countries bordering the Red Sea to about 22° N. Lat.; the gum exudes partly spontaneously from the trunk. In European commerce myrrh appears in different sorts; that called myrrha electa or myrrha in lacrimis is the most precious; it forms tears of a golden yellow to brown color, traversed by white veins; they have a pleasant smell. That called myrrha naturalis is inferior, but on being heated develops the characteristic aroma. In commerce a product is sometimes offered by the name of myrrh which is nothing but cherry-tree gum scented with genuine myrrh.

The leaves of this Southern European plant diffuse a pleasant odor; the oil to which it is due can be extracted by distillation; yet the perfumes usually called myrtle are not obtained from the plant, but are made by the combination of several aromatic substances. The aromatic water known, especially in France, as “eau d’anges” is obtained by the distillation of myrtle leaves with water.

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The blossoms of this favorite garden plant, which is cultivated on a large scale near Nice, have a pleasant, almost narcotic odor which may be extracted in various ways; though the greatest part of the so-called narcissus perfumes are made artificially.

Another species of Narcissus (Narcissus Jonquilla) is frequently cultivated in warm countries for its pleasant scent; but the perfumes generally found in the market under the name of Extract, etc., of Jonquil are artificial compounds.

These nuts are almost spherical in shape, the size of a small walnut, of a grayish-brown color externally, and usually coated with a faint whitish-gray covering (which is lime). Internally they are reddish-brown, with white marbled spots. Good fresh nutmegs should be dense, heavy, and so oily that when pierced with a needle a drop of oil should follow the withdrawal of the latter. Nuts which are hollow, wormy, and of a faint odor cannot be used in perfumery. Oil of nutmeg is used extensively in perfumery, but is rarely employed pure, more commonly in combination with other strong odors.

This gum-resin, employed even by the ancient civilized nations of Asia, especially as incense for religious purposes, comes from East African trees, various species of Boswellia. Fine olibanum appears in light yellow tears, very transparent41 and hard, whose pleasant though faint odor becomes particularly marked when it is thrown on hot coals. In perfumery olibanum is used almost exclusively for pastils, fumigating powders, etc. Pulverulent olibanum constitutes an inferior quality and is often adulterated with pine resin.

The root stock of an umbelliferous plant, indigenous in Syria, now recognized at Balsamodendron Kafal, furnishes a yellow milky sap containing an aromatic resin with an odor resembling that of gum ammoniacum. At least the opopanax now obtainable in the market is derived from this source. True opopanax resin, such as used to reach the market formerly, is now unobtainable, and its true source is yet unknown. Opopanax oil is used in perfumery to some extent.

The flowers of the bitter orange tree (Citrus vulgaris), as well as those of the sweet (Citrus Aurantium), contain very fragrant essential oils, which differ in flavor and value according to their source and mode of preparation. See below, under Oil of Orange. The leaves, too, contain a peculiar oil used in perfumery.

The very oily rinds of the orange occur in commerce in a dried form; such peels, however, can be used only in the42 manufacture of liqueurs; in perfumery nothing but the oil from the fresh rinds is employed, and this is generally obtained by pressure.

See Marjoram, and Thyme.

The Florentine sword-lily, Iris florentina, which often grows wild in Italy but is largely cultivated, has a creeping root-stock covered with a brown bark which, however, is peeled from the fresh root. Orris root occurs in commerce in whitish pieces which are sometimes forked; the surface is knotty, and the size may reach the thickness of a thumb and the length of a finger. When fresh, the roots have a disagreeable sharp odor, but on drying they attain an odor which may be said to resemble that of the violet; but on comparing the two odors immediately, a considerable difference is perceptible even to the untrained olfactory sense. Orris root should be as fresh as possible; this may be recognized by its toughness, the great weight, and the white, not yellow color on fracture. It is very frequently used for sachets and for fixing other odors.

Palm oil, a fixed oil derived from Elais guineensis, possesses a peculiar odor faintly recalling that of violets which is easily extracted. Although not used thus far in perfumery, personal experiments have convinced the author that the odor can be employed in the manufacture of cheap perfumes.

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This herb, indigenous to the East Indies and China, in appearance somewhat resembling our garden sage, is used in the countries named as one of the most common perfumes; many East Indian and Chinese goods (such as Cashmere shawls, India ink, etc.) owe their peculiar odor to the patchouly herb which is very productive. In this respect it can be compared only with the nutmeg, but exceeds even this in intensity. This herb is not known very long in Europe, but at present it is imported in large quantities from India; in commerce it occurs in small bundles consisting of stems and leaves (collected before flowering).

This balsam, imported from Central America (San Salvador), is derived from Toluifera Pereiræ; incisions are made in the bark and trunk of the tree, from which the balsam exudes. Peru balsam is of a syrupy consistence, thick and viscid, brownish-red in thin, blackish-brown in thick layers. Its taste is pungent, sharp, and bitter, afterward acrid; its odor is somewhat smoky, but agreeable and balsamic. Peru balsam is often sophisticated with fixed oil; this can be readily detected by agitation with alcohol, by which the oil is separated. But if castor oil is the adulterant, this test is not applicable, as castor oil dissolves with equal facility in alcohol.

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The fruits of this plant, originally derived from the East Indies, have a well-known narcotic odor which can be extracted from them.

In commerce we often meet with a chemical product called pine-apple ether which will be described at greater length under the head of chemical products used in perfumery. Pine-apple ether has an odor usually considered to be like that of the fruit, but when the two substances are immediately compared a great difference will be detected. Pine-apple ether finds quite extensive application in confectionery for the preparation of lemonades, punch, ices, etc. If the true pine-apple odor is to be prepared from the fruits, care must be had to use ripe fruits; the unripe or overripe fruits possess a less delicate aroma.

The odor of this favorite garden plant can be easily extracted from the flowers by means of petroleum ether; but the genuine odor of pink is hardly ever met with in perfumery; the preparations sold under this name being usually artificial mixtures of other odors.

All the Plumerias, indigenous to the Antilles, contain very fragrant odors in their flowers. To the best of our knowledge, these odors have not yet been extracted from the flowers, and all the perfumes sold under this name (sometimes also called Frangipanni) are merely combinations of different odors.

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This herbaceous plant, probably indigenous to northern Africa, but long domesticated in Europe and cultivated in gardens, is well known for its refreshing odor. The latter, however, is very difficult to extract and is yielded only to the method of absorption (enfleurage). The true odor of reseda, owing to the mode of its preparation, is very expensive, and for this reason nearly all perfumes sold under this name are produced from other aromatic substances.

This is derived from two climbing plants, Convolvulus scoparius and Convolvulus floridus, indigenous to the Canary islands, and is the root wood of these plants. Its odor resembles that of the rose, and the wood is frequently used for cheap sachets and for the extraction of the contained essential oil which was formerly (before oil of rose geranium was made on the large scale) employed for the adulteration of genuine oil of rose.

Horticulture has produced innumerable varieties from wild species of roses, which differ in size, form, color, as well as in odor. We instance here only the various odors exhaled by tea roses and moss roses. Accordingly, perfumers likewise distinguish different odors of roses. Cultivated on a large scale exclusively for the extraction of the essential oil, we find different varieties of roses in India, in European Turkey (Rosa46 Damascena), in Persia, and in Southern France. In this country (U. S.), too, oil of roses could be manufactured with advantage.

The wild rose, sweet brier, French églantine, possesses a delicate but very fugitive odor, and therefore the perfume sold as wild rose is usually prepared from other substances with the addition of oil of roses. The same remark applies to the odor called “white rose” and to those sold as “tea rose,” “moss rose,” etc.

This plant, indigenous to Southern and Central Europe, contains pretty large quantities of an aromatic oil in its leaves and flowers; the oil has a refreshing odor and therefore is frequently added in small amounts to fine perfumes.

This plant, cultivated in our gardens and also growing wild here, has long been employed for its strong odor; in perfumery rue, in a dry state as well as its oil, is occasionally used.

All varieties of sage, the one named being found most frequently growing wild in the meadows of Southern Europe, and extensively cultivated in Europe and in this country, possess a very agreeable, refreshing odor which adheres for a long time even to the dried leaves; these are therefore very suitable for sachets, tooth powders, etc.

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The tree from which this wood is derived is indigenous to Eastern Asia, to the Sunda Islands. The wood is soft, very fragrant, and is also erroneously called sandal wood. The latter is of a dark reddish-brown color, not fragrant, and is derived from Pterocarpus santalinus, a tree indigenous to Southern India, and the Philippine Islands; it is of value to the dyer and the cabinet-maker, but to the perfumer only for coloring some tinctures. For the purposes of perfumery use can be made only of santal wood (white or yellow santal wood) which possesses a very pleasant odor resembling that of oil of rose. Formerly essential oil of santal was employed for the adulteration of oil of rose. White and yellow santal wood comes from the same tree—the former from the smaller trunks of Santalum album.

Sassafras wood, derived from the root of the American tree Sassafras officinalis, appears in commerce in large bundles. It has a strong peculiar odor; in the bark of the root the odor is even more marked. In the European drug trade Sassafras saw dust is also met with, but this is not rarely mixed with pine saw dust which has been moistened with fennel water and again dried. In perfumery sassafras wood is less used for the manufacture of volatile odors than for scenting soap. Since the principal constituent of oil of sassafras, viz., safrol, has been found to be contained in the crude oil of Japanese camphor, the latter has to a very large extent taken the place of the natural oil.

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This plant, belonging to the Order of Valerianaceæ, which generally possess a strong and more or less unpleasant odor, forms one of the main objects of Oriental perfumery; in the East Indies, where the plant grows wild on the mountains, the odor is held about in the same estimation as that of roses, violets, etc., in Europe. Spikenard was probably known to the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, for in the Bible, in the Song of Solomon, we find this plant repeatedly mentioned and praised for its pleasant odor. As the odor of spikenard is not appreciated in Europe, the plant is rarely met with in commerce. All parts of the plant are aromatic, but use is chiefly made of the root, consisting of fine fibres which are tied in bundles the thickness of a finger.

Star-anise occurs in commerce in the form of eight-chambered capsules, each compartment containing one glossy seed, and is derived from a Chinese tree, Illicium anisatum. The fruits are brown, woody; the seed has a sweetish taste and an odor resembling that of anise. Outside of perfumery star-anise is used in the manufacture of liqueurs. Recently a drug has appeared in commerce under the name of star-anise which possesses poisonous qualities, and is derived from another variety of Illicium (Illicium religiosum). While this may be of no consequence to the perfumer, it is important to the manufacturer of liqueurs who always uses star-anise for fine goods and never oil of anise.

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This product which belongs among the balsams is derived from a small tree, Liquidambar orientalis, and is obtained from the bark by heating with water, and also by pressure. It forms a viscid mass like turpentine, has a gray color, a burning sharp taste, an agreeable odor, and is easily soluble in strong alcohol; but the odor becomes pleasant only after the solution is highly diluted. Storax has the peculiar property of binding different, very delicate odors, to render them less fugitive, and for this reason finds frequent application in perfumery.

Oriental storax should not be confounded with American storax which occurs in commerce under the name of Sweet Gum, Gum Wax, or Liquidamber, and is derived from Liquidambar styraciflua. It is quite a thick transparent liquid, light yellow, gradually becoming more and more solid and darker colored, but is often used in place of the former, though its odor is less fine.

The Sumbul plant (Ferula Sumbul), indigenous to Turkestan and adjoining countries, has a light brown root covered with thin fibres, which has a penetrating odor of musk. Owing to this quality it is frequently employed in perfumery, especially for sachets. In commerce a distinction is made between East Indian and Bokharian or Russian sumbul, due to the different routes by which the article arrives. The latter, which possesses the strongest odor, probably because it reaches the market in a fresher state, is the most valuable.

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The almond-tree, Amygdalus communis, occurs in two varieties, undistinguishable by botanical characteristics. One bears sweet, the other bitter fruits (comp. Bitter almonds, page 24). Both are odorless and contain much fixed oil. The special odor of bitter almonds forms only in consequence of the decomposition of a peculiar body (amygdalin), present in bitter almonds, when it comes in contact with water. Good almonds are full, juicy, light brown, without wrinkles, and have a sweet mild taste. A rancid taste characterizes staleness. The fixed or expressed oil, both that of the sweet and that of the bitter almonds (which are identical in taste, odor, and other properties), is used in perfumery for fine hair oils, ointments, and some fine soft soaps.

The calamus root met with in commerce is the creeping root-stock of a plant (Acorus Calamus), occurring in all countries of the northern hemisphere, and frequent in European and American swamps. The root-stock is spongy, about as thick as a finger, many-jointed, and of a yellowish color, with many dark streaks and dots. Inside the color is reddish-white. The odor is strong and the taste sharp and burning.

Sweet-pea flowers, which have a very delicate odor, yield it to the usual solvents. The odor bears some resemblance51 to that of orange flowers, but is rarely used alone; it is generally combined with others to make it more lasting.

The white flowers of this garden bush have a very pleasant odor which resembles that of orange flowers, in place of which it can be used, in the cheaper grades of perfumery. This plant which flourishes freely in our climate deserves more attention by perfumers than it has hitherto received, since it appears to furnish an excellent substitute for the expensive oil of orange flowers, as above stated, in cheap perfumes.

This well-known aromatic plant, which grows most luxuriantly on a calcareous soil, has an odor which is not unpleasant but is in greater demand for liqueurs than for perfumes. Here and there, however, it is employed for scenting soap. Common thyme, Thymus vulgaris, is used for the same purposes.

Under the name of Oil of Thyme, in the English and American market, is generally understood the oil of Thymus vulgaris, which is largely distilled in the South of France. This oil is commonly misnamed Oil of Origanum.

This balsam is derived from a tree indigenous to the northern portion of South America, Toluifera Balsamum, belonging52 to the Order of Leguminosæ. The balsam, which is obtained by incisions into the bark of these trees, is at first fluid, but becomes firm in the air owing to rapid resinification; in commerce it appears in a viscid form ranging from that of Venice turpentine to that of colophony. Its color varies from honey-yellow to reddish-brown; the taste is at first sweet, then sharp, it softens under the heat of the hand, and when warmed or sprinkled in powder form on glowing coals it diffuses a very pleasant odor recalling that of Peru balsam or vanilla. It shares with storax and Peru balsam the valuable property of fixing volatile odors and is often employed for this purpose, but is also frequently used alone in fumigating powders, tooth powders, etc. Adulteration of Tolu balsam with Venice turpentine or colophony is not rarely met with.

The South American tonka tree, Dipteryx odorata, bears almond-shaped drupes almost as long as the finger, which contain seeds two to four centimetres in length, the so-called tonka beans. These occur in European commerce in two sorts, the so-called Dutch and English tonka beans; the former are large, full, covered externally with a folded brown to black skin, and white inside. The latter are barely two-thirds the size of the former, almost black, and less glossy. The odor of the tonka bean is due to a volatile crystalline substance, coumarin, which often lies on the surface and in the wrinkles of the bean in the form of delicate, brilliant crystalline needles. Coumarin exists also in many other plants, for instance, in sweet woodruff (Asperula odorata), deer-tongue (Liatris odoratissima), etc.

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This beautiful and very fragrant plant is frequently cultivated in Southern France; its pleasant odor, however, owing to its great volatility, can never be used pure, but must always be fixed with one of the above-mentioned balsams. As has been stated in connection with several aromatic plants, tuberose could be grown in our southern States with advantage for the extraction of its odor.

The vanilla, which may justly be called a king among aromatic plants, is a climbing orchid indigenous to tropical America. It is cultivated on a most extensive scale on the islands of Reunion and Mauritius; largely also in Mexico, and in some other countries. The agreeable odor is present in the fruit. These form three-lobed capsules about the length of a lead pencil and the thickness of a quill. Externally they are glossy brown, have a fatty feel, and show in the depression a white powder which appears crystalline under a lens. Internally good fresh vanilla is so oily that it stains the fingers on being crushed and is filled with numerous shining seeds the size of a small pin’s head. These properties, together with the plump appearance and great weight, mark good qualities. Old vanilla, whose odor is fainter and less fragrant, may be recognized by its wrinkled surface, the absence of the white dust, the slight weight, and the bent ends of the capsules. Fraudulent dealers endeavor to give such old goods a fresher appearance by coating them with almond oil or Peru54 balsam. “Vanilla de Leg” is recognized as the first quality of Mexican vanilla. Like most odors, that of vanilla does not become pleasant until it is sufficiently diluted.

The leaves of this Peruvian plant, especially on being rubbed between the fingers, exhale a very pleasant odor which is due to an essential oil. The odor resembles that of fine citrons, or rather that of lemon grass; hence these two odors are frequently mistaken for each other. Owing to the high price of true oil of verbena, all the perfumes sold under this name are prepared from oil of lemon grass (see under Citronella) and other essential oils.

Vetiver, also called cuscus, and sometimes iwarankusa (though this is more properly the name of Andropogon lanifer; see above, under Citronella), is the fibrous root-stock of a grass indigenous to India, where fragrant mats are woven from it. The odor of the root somewhat resembles that of santal wood, and is used partly alone, partly for fixing volatile perfumes. Shavings of the root are frequently employed for filling sachet bags.

The wonderful fragrance of the March violet is due to an essential oil which it is, however, difficult to extract. For this reason genuine perfume of violets, really prepared from55 the flowers, is among the most expensive odors, and the high-priced so-called violet perfumes are generally mixtures of other fine odors, while the cheaper grades are made from orris root.

This plant, Volkameria inermis, often cultivated in conservatories, has a very agreeable odor. The perfume called by this name, however, is not obtained from the plant, but is produced by the mixture of several aromatic extracts from other plants.

The wallflower, a well-known biennial garden plant belonging to the Order of Cruciferæ, according to recent experiments yields a very fine odor to certain substances and may be employed in the manufacture of quite superior perfumes. The preparations usually sold as wallflower, however, are not made from the flowers of this plant, but are mixtures of different odors.

This herbaceous plant, indigenous to North America, especially Canada and the Northern and Middle United States, where it grows wild in large quantities, has a very pleasant odor due to an essential oil and a compound ether which can also be produced artificially. The odor of wintergreen serves chiefly for scenting fine soaps.

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This plant, Unona odoratissima, indigenous to the Philippine Islands, contains an exceedingly fragrant oil. It is brought into commerce from Manilla.

Owing to climatic relations, it is impossible for the perfumer to procure all the above-enumerated substances in the fresh state; many of them he is forced to purchase through the drug trade, and he should bear in mind to give the preference always to the freshest obtainable goods. At times it is not possible to utilize the materials at once for the extraction of the odors and they must be kept for some time. The vegetable substances should always be stored in an airy, not over dry room; and the material should be often inspected. If a trace of mouldiness shows itself, the material must be worked at once, since, if the mould is allowed to go on, the fragrance will suffer and may be destroyed altogether.

The aromatic substances here enumerated are those which have actually found general employment in perfumery; but the list is not complete, since every aromatic plant can be used for the extraction of its odor. Of course, this is connected with some difficulties, but even in the present state of our knowledge they can all be overcome. When a new odor has been prepared, the art of the perfumer consists in ascertaining by many experiments those substances which harmonize with it; for with few exceptions the finest grades of perfumes are not single odors but combinations of several which are in accord.

Even among our domestic plants there are numerous finds to be made by the perfumer, and in this respect we refer particularly to some very fragrant kinds of orchids in our woods and to the delightful odor of the lily of the valley. As to the latter, a perfume is met with in commerce under this name, but its odor bears no resemblance to that of the flower.

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A few facts appear to us of especial importance. In practical perfumery many of the plants which are easily obtainable in large quantities, such as the flowers of clover and trefoil, the primrose, the rock-rose (Daphne Cneorum), dame’s-violet (Hesperis matronalis), and others above named, have never been employed. As an actual curiosity we may state that there is thus far no perfume containing the delightful odor present in the flowers of the linden-tree, of the Robinia (erroneously called Acacia), of the lilac, etc., at least not made from the plants here named.

While the vegetable kingdom offers us an abundance of aromatic odors the end of which it is impossible to foresee, the animal kingdom contains absolutely no substance which may be called sweet-scented in the strict sense of the term. If we find nevertheless a few animal substances generally used in perfumery, they should be considered rather as excellent means for fixing subtle vegetable odors than as fragrant bodies in the true sense. By themselves, indeed, they have an odor, but to most persons it is not agreeable even if properly diluted. Thus far only five substances of animal origin are employed in perfumery, namely: ambergris, castor, hyraceum, musk, and civet.

This is a substance whose origin is still doubtful; many facts indicate that it is a secretion—whether normal or morbid may be left undecided—of the largest living mammal,58 namely, of the pot-whale (Physeter macrocephalus). Ambergris is found in the intestines of this animal or, more frequently, floating about in the sea; the shores of the continents bordering the Indian Ocean furnish the largest amount of this peculiar substance.

Ambergris is a grayish-white fatty substance which occurs in commerce in pieces of various sizes—those as large as a fist are rare—of a penetrating, decidedly disagreeable odor. It is soluble in alcohol, and when properly diluted the odor becomes pleasant and it is so permanent that a piece of linen moistened with it smells of it even after being washed with soap. By itself, ambergris is not much used; it finds its chief application in combination with other odors or as an addition to some perfumes in order to make them lasting.

This is a secretion of the beaver (Castor fiber); it accumulates in two pear-shaped bags on the abdomen of the animal, both male and female. The hunters remove these bags from the body of the dead animal and in this form they are brought into commerce. These sacs are the length of a finger, at the thickest point the diameter of a thumb, and contain a greasy mass of yellowish-brown, reddish-brown, or blackish color, according to the nourishment of the animal. This mass constitutes castor; it has a strong, disagreeable odor, a bitter, balsamic taste, becomes soft when heated, is combustible, and almost entirely soluble in alcohol. It is probable that this secretion in its composition has some relation to the nourishment of the beavers which feed by preference on resinous vegetable substances. In commerce Canadian and Siberian castor are distinguished; the latter is more valuable and has almost disappeared from the market. It possesses a peculiar59 tarry, Russian-leather odor, probably due to a substance present in birch bark, upon which the Siberian animals feed almost exclusively. Canadian castor has an odor more nearly resembling pine resin. In perfumery castor is rarely used, usually only for fixing other odors.

The substance occurring in commerce under this name, the excrement of an animal found in Capeland, the rock badger or rock rabbit (Hyrax capensis), is very similar in its properties to castor, and according to comparative experiments made by us can be used in place of the latter.

Of animal substances, musk is most frequently used in perfumery, and possesses the most agreeable odor of them all. Moreover, the odor of musk is the most intense that we know, actually imponderable quantities of it being sufficient to impart to a large body of air the strong odor of musk. This substance is derived from a deer which attains the size of a small goat and, like the chamois of the Alps, lives on the highest mountains of the Himalayas. Only the male animal (Moschus moschiferus) produces musk, which is secreted in a sac or rather gland near the sexual organ. Musk being subject to the worst adulterations owing to its high price, we append a description of the substance as well as of the sac or bag in which it appears in commerce.

The musk bag cut by the hunter from the body of the animal has the size and shape of half a walnut. On the side by which it was attached to the body of the animal it is membranous and nearly smooth; on the external surface it is more or less hemispherical and covered with light brown or dark brown hair, according to the season at which the animal60 was killed. The hair assumes a circular arrangement around an opening situated in the centre of the bag. This opening, the efferent duct of the gland, is formed by a ring-shaped muscle which yields to the pressure of a pointed object and permits the introduction of the point of the finger. Internally the musk bag consists of several layers of membrane which surround the musk itself. It is probable that the musk is secreted by these membranes, for when the animal is dissected, no direct communication of the musk gland with the body can be detected.

It has been surmised that the secretion of musk bears some relation to the food; at least it has been asserted that the animals eat, among other things, sumbul root with great avidity; and this root, it will be remembered, has a very intense odor of musk. However, though this appears probable at first sight, it is contradicted by the fact that the females and the young males likewise eat the root without manifesting any odor of musk nor do they secrete the substance, while the older males produce it even when they are fed with hay only. Another fact is of interest, namely, that other ruminants, too, for instance, cattle, diffuse a marked though faint odor of musk which occurs also in their excrements, exactly as in the case of the musk deer. Alligators likewise produce a musk-like substance which has actually been made use of in place of musk for coarser purposes.

The musk present in the glands differs in appearance with the season and the age of the animal. Musk deers killed in spring have in their musk bag an unctuous soft mass of a reddish-brown color with the strongest odor; at other seasons the mass is darker in color, almost black, and granular; the size of the grains ranges from that of a millet-seed to that of a large pea.

That the secretion of musk belongs to the sexual functions appears probable from the fact that it can be found only in61 the bags of males more than two years old; that of younger animals contains only a substance of a milky consistence, whose odor has no resemblance to that of musk. The quantity of musk present in a bag varies with the season and the age of the animal; the smallest quantity may be assumed at about six drachms, though some bags contain as much as one and a half ounces.

The hunters dry the bags either on hot stones or in the air, or they dip them into hot oil. In commerce musk occurs either in bags under the name moschus in vesicis, “musk in pods,” or free, moschus in granis, moschus ex vesicis, “grain musk.” According to its origin four sorts are distinguished: Chinese or Tonquin musk, Siberian or Russian musk, Assam or Bengal musk, and finally Bokharian musk. The latter two varieties, however, rarely reach this market. Chinese musk (Tonquin or Thibet musk) occurs in small boxes containing twenty to thirty bags, each wrapped in Chinese tissue paper; on which Chinese characters are printed. This is considered the best quality. Assam musk occurs in boxes lined with tin which contain as many as two hundred or more bags; its value is about two-thirds that of the former. Russian musk is packed in various ways and is worth about one-fourth that of the Chinese; a special variety of it, of a weaker and rather urinous odor, is known as Cabardine musk; of least value is Bokharian musk which is of a grayish black color, with a faint odor.

Musk is adulterated in an almost incredible manner; at times so-called musk bags are met with which are artificially constructed of animal membranes and filled with dried blood, earth, etc., and slightly scented with genuine musk. But even the genuine musk bags are often tampered with; musk being removed from the opening and the space filled with earth, dried blood, animal excrement, or perhaps pieces of copper and lead.

Pure musk reacts quite characteristically toward caustic62 alkalies such as caustic potash and soda or solution of ammonia, and these substances are used for testing the purity of musk. If a dilute alkaline solution is poured over musk, a marked increase of the odor is observed after a short time; if the alkaline solution is concentrated or hot, the odor of musk disappears completely and the fluid develops the caustic odor of pure ammonia. Hot water dissolves about eighty per cent of the total weight of musk; strong alcohol dissolves about one-tenth of it; when heated in an open porcelain capsule, musk burns with a disgusting empyreumatic odor and leaves a considerable amount of ash, about one-tenth of its weight. Besides the above-named substances which destroy the musk odor by the decomposition of the aromatic constituent, there are other bodies, whose action we do not know at present, which have the peculiar property of completely extinguishing this most penetrating of all odors: to deodorize a vessel completely which has contained musk, it is sufficient to rub in it some bitter almonds moistened with water or some camphor with alcohol.

In an extremely dilute condition musk is used for perfuming the finest soaps and sachets, and even in the manufacture of the most expensive and best perfumes, owing to its property of imparting permanence to very volatile odors. In the last-mentioned class, however, the quantity of musk must always be so small that its presence is not distinctly observed, since many persons find the pure odor of musk very disagreeable, while they praise the fragrance of such perfumes as contain an amount of this substance too small to be perceived by the olfactory nerves.

This substance bears some resemblance to musk with reference to its derivation and the rôle it plays in the life of63 the animal from which it is obtained. The Viverridæ, a class of carnivora related to the cats and weasels, found in Asia and Africa, furnish this substance. It is obtained chiefly from the civet cat (Viverra Civetta) and the musk rat (Viverra Zibetha) which are kept in captivity for the purpose of abstracting from them from time to time the civet which is always formed anew.

Civet is the secretion of a double gland present both in the male and the female near the sexual organs. Fresh civet is a whitish-yellow mass of the consistence of butter or fat, and becomes thicker and darker on exposure to the air. Similar to musk, it has a strong odor which becomes pleasant on being diluted and is used both alone and for fixing other odors.

In the manufacture of perfumery a considerable number of chemical products find application; in this place, however, we shall describe only those which are used very frequently and generally, and discuss the characteristics of those employed more rarely in connection with the articles of perfumery into which they enter. According to their application we may divide these substances into several groups, namely:

A. Chemicals which, without themselves serving as perfumes, are used exclusively for the extraction of odors.

B. Chemicals which, while not fragrant, are frequently employed in the preparation of perfumes. Under this head we have included also those substances which are not strictly chemical products, but originally come from the animal or64 vegetable kingdom, such as fats, spermaceti, and wax, yet cannot be used in perfumery unless they have undergone a process of chemical purification.

C. Chemical products used for coloring perfumes, so-called dye-stuffs.

The greater portion of the substances to be here described it will hardly be the province of the perfumer to prepare himself, as they are furnished by chemical factories at low prices; but some of them—for instance, sublimed, natural benzoic acid suitable for perfumery and a few other substances—the perfumer should make himself, in order to be sure of its genuineness. Therefore, while in the former class it will be sufficient to describe their properties to enable the manufacturer to distinguish good quality from bad, the latter class must be discussed at greater length.

For the extraction of aromatic substances from plants a number of bodies are used which possess great solvent power for essential oils, and are besides very volatile, or have a low boiling-point. These are particularly ether, chloroform, petroleum ether, and bisulphide of carbon.

This liquid, in commerce also called sulphuric ether, is made in large quantities in chemical laboratories by the distillation of alcohol with sulphuric acid, followed by a second distillation or rectification. When pure, ether forms a mobile, thin, strong-smelling, and inflammable liquid which when inhaled produces insensibility, for which reason it is used as an anæsthetic in surgery. Its specific gravity is about 0.720 when anhydrous, and its boiling-point 35° C. (95° F.). It forms an excellent solvent for essential oils, resins, fats, and65 similar bodies. Owing to its great volatility, its vapors are quickly diffused in the air, and, as they are very inflammable, lights must be kept away from a bottle containing this substance. The same remark applies to most of the substances to be presently described.

is prepared by the distillation of chlorinated lime, alcohol, and water, acetone being more recently substituted for the alcohol, followed by rectification of the product. When inhaled it produces insensibility like ether. It has a pleasant odor and sweet taste. Its specific gravity is about 1.49 and its boiling-point 61° C. (142° F.). Owing to its great solvent power and low boiling-point, chloroform is largely used for the extraction of aromatic vegetable substances; it does not take fire directly in the air.

Petroleum, which is brought into commerce in immense quantities, especially from Pennsylvania, for illuminating purposes, cannot be used in its crude state, but requires rectification. Petroleum as it issues from the earth consists of various hydrocarbons mixed together, some of which have very low boiling-points, so that their vapors readily take fire and would make the use of petroleum in lamps dangerous. Petroleum, therefore, is heated in large apparatuses to about 70 or 80° C. (158 to 176° F.), when the more volatile products pass over, and the petroleum for illuminating purposes remains in the stills. A certain fraction of the volatile distillate, the so-called petroleum ether, is largely used in the manufacture of varnishes. Owing to its great solvent power for aromatic vegetable substances and its low price, petroleum ether has become quite an important body for the extraction of perfumes, which will be further discussed hereafter. Good pe66troleum ether is colorless, has a peculiar, not unpleasant odor and a boiling-point between 50 and 55° C. (112° and 131° F.).

is a common name for another fraction of the volatile distillate from petroleum, viz., that which boils between 50° and 60°C. (122° to 140° F.) and has a spec. grav. of 0.670 to 0.675°.

This liquid, which is also used as a volatile solvent for the extraction of odorous substances, must not be confounded with Benzene or Benzol, a distillate from coal tar, boiling at about 80° C. (176° F.) and having a spec. grav. of 0.878. The latter is not used for the extraction of perfumes.

This is made by conducting vapors of sulphur over glowing charcoal or coke. The vapors of bisulphide of carbon thus formed are led into vessels filled with ice or ice-cold water, where they condense. Bisulphide of carbon is a colorless liquid, heavier than water and very refractive. It is inflammable, and possesses a peculiar odor which is not disagreeable if the liquid has been thoroughly purified. Its boiling-point is about 45° C. (113° F.) and it has great solvent power. At the present time, the market affords bisulphide of carbon of a high degree of purity.

Some manufacturers who prepare their odors by extraction, may find it advantageous to make also the bisulphide of carbon necessary for it, and this is best done in Gérard’s apparatus (Fig. 1). It consists of a cast-iron cylinder a, two metres high and one metre in diameter. This cylinder is heated on the outer surface in an oven, and two tubes, c and d, are attached to it. Tube d is connected by e with the hemispherical vessel b which is connected by the tube i with the condenser mlk. The condenser is formed of three cylinders made of sheet67 zinc which are surrounded with cold water. The condensed liquid escapes into the vessel p, while the gaseous products pass through n into the chimney. The cylinder a is filled with about 1,500 pounds of charcoal or coke in small pieces, after which it is closed and all tubes are carefully luted with clay; a is then heated to a strong red heat and at intervals of three minutes 3 pounds of sulphur are thrown in through c. In twenty-four hours, by the use of 478 pounds of sulphur, 568 pounds of crude bisulphide of carbon are obtained; a portion of the sulphur distils over uncombined into the vessel b.

The crude bisulphide of carbon contains about twelve per cent of sulphur and other combinations in solution and is redistilled at exactly 48° C. (118.4° F.) in a steam-heated apparatus with a long exit tube cooled with ice below and water above. In order to obtain the bisulphide of carbon absolutely pure, which is essential to render it suitable for extraction, it is again distilled at the same temperature, with the addition of two per cent of palm oil. As the vapors of bisulphide of carbon are injurious to the organism, the vessels containing it must always be kept well closed.

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Among all the substances belonging under this head, there is one which plays a prominent part in the manufacture of most perfumes. In handkerchief perfumes it is one of the most important substances, as it forms not only the greatest bulk, but the perfection of the perfume depends upon its quality. This substance is—

also called spirit of wine; French, esprit de vin; the well-known combustible liquid formed by the alcoholic fermentation of sugar, which is made on a large scale in extensive distilleries. Alcohol is a thin, mobile liquid with an aromatic odor. The usual “strong” alcohol of the market contains about ninety-four per cent of absolute alcohol by volume. This has a specific gravity of 0·820. Its boiling-point is 78·2° C. (172·40 F.), and it congeals at a very low temperature, below -100° C. Alcohol possesses great solvent power for resins, balsams, and essential oils.

These properties, however, belong only to the commercial stronger or so-called “druggists’ alcohol,” and more particularly to a very pure quality of it, as free as possible from fusel-oil compounds, known as cologne spirit. As absolute alcohol is also necessary for the purposes of perfumery, we shall briefly describe its preparation.

In order to make absolute alcohol, sulphate of copper is heated in a retort until it has changed into a white powder. After the powder has cooled in the covered retort, it is at once introduced into a large glass bottle; over it is poured the strongest obtainable alcohol (96% Tralles) which must be free from fusel oil; then the bottle is closed air-tight and re69peatedly shaken. The sulphate of copper which has lost its water of crystallization by the heat reabsorbs it from the alcohol and again becomes blue and crystalline. Generally four pounds of sulphate of copper are used for ten quarts of alcohol; when white burnt sulphate of copper after long contact with alcohol still remains white, the alcohol is proved to be practically anhydrous (it may still contain about two per cent of water).

Larger quantities of absolute alcohol are made in a copper still containing fused anhydrous chloride of calcium in small pieces. The apparatus is closed and alcohol of 94 to 95% is poured in through a tubulure. The mixture often grows so warm that the alcohol begins to pass over, so that but little heat need be applied to make the absolute alcohol distil over.

Absolute alcohol obtained in this way—for by repeated distillation we get at most an alcohol of 96%—abstracts water from the air with avidity; hence it must be preserved in air-tight vessels which should contain a small amount of anhydrous sulphate of copper.

Strong commercial alcohol contains varying amounts of water—from four to twenty parts by volume (96 to 80% alcohol); at the present time, however, it is always customary for dealers in this country to supply the officinal alcohol of 94%, when “strong alcohol” is called for. Its strength is measured by an areometer which sinks in proportion to the purity of the alcohol; the alcoholometer of Tralles or volumeter shows at once on its scale how many parts by volume of absolute alcohol (volume per cent) are contained in 100 volumes of alcohol. The adjoining figure (Fig. 2) shows Tralles’ alcoholometer, with the vessel in which the test is70 made. The readings of the instrument, however, are correct only at a temperature of 15·6° C. (60° F.), the so-called normal temperature; at a higher or lower point they must be corrected according to the tables appended.

At temperatures below the normal, the amount of alcohol is greater than the areometer indicates, hence a percentage must be added; at higher temperatures a percentage must be deducted.

Tables for Finding the True Percentage by Volume, at the Normal Temperature of 60° F., of Alcohol of Any Strength, when Tested at Temperatures Below or Above 60° F.

Aside from the water present in it, commercial alcohol is never pure, but always contains small quantities, at times mere traces, of substances having a peculiar, sometimes pleasant, sometimes disagreeable, but invariably intense odor, which are known as fusel oils. The variety of fusel oil differs with the raw material from which the alcohol was made; there is a potato fusel oil (chemically amyl alcohol), a corn fusel oil, a beet fusel oil, wine fusel oil (œnanthic ether), etc. Fusel oils, being themselves odorous substances, exert an influence on the fragrance of the perfume; hence it is a general rule in perfumery to use only alcohol free from fusel oil; that is, such from which the fusel oil has been extracted as far as possible by means of fresh charcoal. So-called “Cologne Spirit” of the best quality is, as a rule, practically free from it.

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Strange to say, some essential oils or aromatic substances in general, develop their finest odors only when the perfumes are prepared with an alcohol from a certain source. While the charcoal treatment removes almost all the fusel oil, the remaining traces suffice to act as odorous substances in the true sense of the term and to produce with other aromatic bodies a harmony of the odor which can never be reached by the use of another variety of alcohol. To give but a single instance we may state that all the citron odors known in perfumery develop the finest aroma only when dissolved in alcohol made from wine and the solution is then distilled. The world-renowned eau de Cologne is made in this way; the other aromatic substances contained in it are added to the distillate from the spirit of wine and the citron oils; any cologne made in another manner or with another alcohol has a less fine odor. While the citron odors require true spirit of wine for the development of their full aroma, other scents require beet or corn alcohol to bring out their best odor. Jasmine, tuberose, orange flowers, violet, etc., and all animal odors (ambergris, musk, and civet) belong to the latter class. For this remarkable and to the perfumer most important fact we know no other explanation than that traces of fusel oils present even in rectified alcohol take part in the general impression made on the olfactory nerves, acting as true aromatic substances.

Cologne spirit is expensive, but this should not be a reason for accepting a cheaper grade, with which it would be absolutely impossible to make really fine perfumes.

Alcohol is also generally used for the direct extraction of odorous substances from plants, as will be seen in the description of the processes employed in the preparation of the so-called essences or extracts. For these purposes, too, the best cologne spirit only should be used, that is, alcohol which has been freed from fusel oil and redistilled, for in no other way73 can the aromatic substances be obtained in the greatest possible purity. And this is indispensable for the preparation of really fine perfumes, for we do not hesitate to say that French and English perfumes have acquired their deserved reputation mainly through the great care exercised in the selection of their raw materials, and especially of the alcohol used for extraction.

This preparation, which is used in making a fine skin cosmetic, is manufactured in chemical laboratories from uric acid heated with nitric acid. Alloxan is a crystalline colorless body which has the property of gradually producing a red tint on the skin and finds employment for this reason.

Ammonia is a gas formed by the decomposition of nitrogenous substances, but chiefly obtained, on a large scale, from the so-called “gas liquor” of gas works. By itself it develops a very disagreeable odor and stimulates the lachrymal glands to secretion—a fact which can be verified in any stable. A solution of the gas (water of ammonia; liquor ammoniæ) possesses the same properties. In perfumery ammonia is never used alone, but only in combination with other odors, namely, in the manufacture of smelling salts (French: sels volatils; German: Riechsalze), which are much in favor in England and in this country. For the purposes of the perfumer, the greater part of the commercial ammonia is unsuitable owing to its tarry odor. Pure ammonia is best prepared by heating equal parts of quicklime and powdered sal-ammoniac in a retort, and conducting the generated gas into water which dissolves it with avidity, one quart of water dissolving more than seven hundred quarts of ammonia gas.

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a combination of ammonia with carbonic acid, occurs in commerce in large transparent lumps, often covered with a white dust of bicarbonate of ammonia, which in the air continually develop ammonia and therefore always smell of it. This commercial product is, as a rule, sufficiently pure to be used in perfumery; as to its application the same remarks apply as were made under the head of ammonia.

This is made from bitter almonds, previously deprived of fatty oil by pressure, which are mixed with an equal weight of water and set in a warm place. The amygdalin undergoes decomposition into sugar, hydrogen cyanide, and benzoyl hydride or oil of bitter almonds. After one or two days the mass is distilled; the distillate being a colorless liquid, containing, besides oil of bitter almonds, hydrogen cyanide or prussic acid, one of the most virulent poisons, from which it must be freed. This is done by shaking the liquid repeatedly with dilute solution of potassa, followed by agitation with water. Pure oil of bitter almonds is not poisonous, but has a very strong narcotic odor of bitter almonds, which, however, becomes most marked when largely diluted with water.

This acid, contained in benzoin, is made also synthetically from other materials, in chemical laboratories. When pure it forms needle-shaped crystals having a silky gloss; they have a peculiar acrid taste, but no odor. Synthetic benzoic acid is worthless to the perfumer; in his art he can use only a benzoic acid made from gum benzoin by sublimation, because it contains a very aromatic essential oil for75 which the acid is merely the vehicle and which can also be employed alone.

As this sublimed benzoic acid is often adulterated with the artificial, we advise the manufacturer of perfumery to make his own benzoic acid according to the following directions.

The Manufacture of Sublimed Benzoic Acid.

About four pounds of benzoin B of best quality is broken into small pieces and placed in a small copper boiler K (Fig. 3); over its entire surface is pasted white blotting paper L, and to this is pasted a cone of strong paper which must surround the edge of the boiler. The cone ends above in a paper tube R, about five feet long and an inch wide. The copper boiler is placed in a large clay pot T (a flower pot) and surrounded on all sides with fine sand. The clay pot is heated from without by a charcoal fire. After the pot has remained about half an hour on the fire, the latter is fanned to its utmost and kept at this point for thirty minutes. The heat volatilizes the benzoic acid, the above-mentioned essential oil, and some tarry substances of a brown color. The latter are arrested by the filter paper, while the benzoic acid is deposited on the cone and in the tube, in the form of delicate glossy needles which are very fragrant owing to the essential oil. The largest yield of benzoic acid is obtained when the temperature is raised very gradually, until finally nothing remains in the copper boiler but a brown, almost carbonized mass of a blistered appearance.

is used in some preparations. Borax forms colorless crystals which slightly effloresce in dry air and hence must be pre76served in tightly closed vessels. Reddish tinted crystals are contaminated with oxide of iron and should be rejected.

is a salt formed by fusing a mixture of manganese dioxide, potassa, and potassium chlorate, extracting the product with water, and evaporating the solution to crystallization; the salt is obtained in small dark violet, almost black crystals which dissolve in sixteen parts of water to which they impart a beautiful violet color. By contact with organic substances, or others easily oxidized, the solution changes its color into green and finally is decolorized, precipitating a brown powder. Owing to this change of color the salt has been called chameleon mineral. As its preparation requires considerable dexterity, it is preferable to buy it from reputable houses, rather than to make it. It is used in the manufacture of mouth washes and hair dyes. The solution of the salt causes brown stains on linen and the skin; they can be removed only if the spots are immediately washed with hydrochloric, oxalic, sulphuric, or another acid.

Much confusion exists in the literature regarding the strength of acetic acid when merely called by this name. It is safe to assume that, in each country, the term applies to the acid officinal in its national pharmacopœia as “Acidum Aceticum.” Thus the Austrian and German pharmacopœias understand by it an acid containing 96% of absolute acetic acid, which is practically identical with what is known as glacial acetic acid. The latter is, in some pharmacopœias, distinguished by a special name: acidum aceticum glaciale, U.S. P.; acide acétique crystallisable, French Pharm.—In the present work, the author always intended the strong acid of77 the Austrian pharmacopœia to be understood when no other strength was designated. Like alcohol, strong acetic acid dissolves essential oils and is used in the manufacture of various toilet vinegars and washes. Acetic acid is made in chemical laboratories by distillation of acetate of sodium with sulphuric acid, or more commonly from wood vinegar. The buyer should always satisfy himself that the product is free from an empyreumatic odor which clings tenaciously to an insufficiently purified sample.

Fats find extensive application in perfumery, in the preparation of the so-called huiles antiques, pomades, and many other cosmetics. They should be enumerated among the chemical products used in perfumery because they can never be employed in their commercial form, but must undergo some process of purification, which is effected less by mechanical than by chemical means. Commercial fats usually contain remnants of the animal or vegetable body from which they are derived: particles of blood and membranes occur frequently in animal fats; cell bodies and vegetable albumin in vegetable fats. Besides these mechanical impurities, fats, especially if old, sometimes contain small amounts of free fatty acids which suffice to impart to them the objectionable odor and taste peculiar to every rancid fat. While some fats, such as bear’s grease, butter of cacao, oil of sesame, and some others, remain free from rancidity for a long time, others undergo this change very rapidly; in fact, we may say that every fat which shows the slightest odor should be called rancid, for pure fat is absolutely odorless.

We shall here briefly describe the process employed in the fat industry and by perfumers for the purification of fats. Animal fat, such as lard, suet, bear’s grease, etc., as well as cocoanut and palm oils, are introduced into a large iron boiler78 containing dilute soda lye (not exceeding one per cent of caustic soda), and the lye is heated to boiling. In the boiler is a small pump terminating above in a curved tube having a rose of a watering-pot at the end. The pump is so arranged as to raise lye and melted fat at the same time and to return the fluid into the boiler in a fine spray. After the fat is melted, the solid matters floating on top are skimmed off with a perforated spoon, and then the pump is operated for about fifteen minutes. The contained shreds of membrane and similar substances are completely dissolved by the soda lye, the free fatty acids are perfectly combined, and the fat is at the same time decolorized. After cooling, it floats on the surface of the lye as a colorless and odorless fluid; it is ladled off and poured into tall tapering vessels which are well closed and preserved in cool cellars. Contact with the air, especially at higher temperatures, causes rancidity of the fat. For every twenty pounds of fat twenty quarts of lye are used.

According to another process the fat is purified by being heated with alum and table salt; or every twenty-five pounds of fat, one ounce of alum and two ounces of salt are dissolved in five gallons of water. The scum is carefully skimmed from the surface of the melted fat, and, after it has solidified, the fat is washed with water until the latter escapes perfectly tasteless and odorless.

The washing is a very complicated and tedious piece of work. Operating on a small scale, a slightly inclined marble slab is taken, upon which a thin stream of water is constantly falling from a tube arranged above it. The fat is placed on the slab in small quantities (not over two pounds) and ground with a muller, like oil colors, under a constant flow of water. Owing to the expense of hand labor, it is advisable to use a so-called vertical mill or chaser. This consists of a level, circular, horizontal marble slab, bearing a79 central, easily movable axis with a crosspiece upon which two, likewise vertical, cylindrical marble plates turn like wheels in a circle on the horizontal marble plate. The fat is placed on the latter and continually irrigated with water; behind every chaser is applied a marble plate with a blade which nearly touches the chasers and returns the fat displaced laterally, under the chasers. The axis around which the chasers run is kept moving by any available power, and the laborer has nothing to do but to replace the washed fat with crude.

Liquid fats are purified as follows:

The oil is intimately mixed with one per cent of sulphuric acid. The mixture assumes a black color, the vegetable mucilage present in the oil becoming carbonized. After several days’ rest the oil becomes clear and floats on the surface of the sulphuric acid which has assumed a black color from the presence of finely divided carbon. The oil is decanted and treated, in the manner above stated for solid fats, with caustic soda lye. Heating can be dispensed with if the pumping is continued for a longer time.

Benzoin and benzoic acid have the property of counteracting the tendency of fats to become rancid; it is advisable, therefore, to mix intimately with the completely washed fat a small amount of benzoic acid, at most one-one-thousandth part by weight.

The best way of preserving fats is by salicylic acid. This is added to solid fats while they are in a melted state; if oils, the acid is poured in and the bottle vigorously shaken. If the oil is in casks, a small bag filled with salicylic acid is hung into it from the bung-hole. The acid dissolves in the oil and is disseminated through it and thus effects its preservation. One-one-thousandth part by weight of the fat or oil is said to be more than sufficient to keep it perfectly fresh for years.

Fats differ largely in their physical properties—for in80stance, in their appearance, melting-point, firmness, etc. As we shall return to this subject in connection with the manufacture of some perfumes, it is enough here to state briefly that by the addition of spermaceti, wax, paraffin, etc., fats are made more transparent and firmer—a matter of importance for some cosmetic preparations.

This substance, derived from several algæ, species of Eucheuma, indigenous to the Chinese sea, and identical with Japanese agar-agar, on being boiled with two hundred parts of water has the property of forming a colorless solution which solidifies on cooling. Owing to this property the addition of a small quantity of Chinese gelatin (0·1-0·2%) is an excellent means for imparting to certain pomades and ointments great transparency and firmness.

are liquids which possess an agreeable, refreshing odor resembling that of some fruits. For this reason they are used in confectionery, in the manufacture of liqueurs, and also in many ways in perfumery. Chemically, fruit ethers are combinations of an organic acid—acetic, butyric, valerianic, etc.—with a so-called alcohol radicle such as ethyl and amyl. Their manufacture is connected with many difficulties and is but rarely attempted by perfumers, especially as these products are made a specialty in some chemical laboratories and are furnished at very low prices and of excellent quality. In perfumery the following fruit ethers are particularly employed.

prepared by the distillation of acetate of sodium with alcohol and sulphuric acid, is a colorless liquid having an odor of fermenting apple juice, with a boiling-point at 74° C. (155° F.).

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(ether or huile d’ananas) is made by the saponification of butter with solution of potassa, distillation of the soap with alcohol and sulphuric acid, and rectification of the distillate. It is an inflammable liquid with an intense odor of pine-apple; its boiling-point is 119° C. (246° F.). It is not generally used pure, as its odor needs some correction. This is accomplished by the addition of a little valerianate of amyl, and chloroform. Also in other ways.

prepared by distillation from valerianate of sodium with alcohol and sulphuric acid, and the subsequent addition of certain correctives (see below).

also called pear oil, chiefly valerianate of amyl oxide, can be obtained in large quantities from a by-product in the manufacture of potato spirit, namely, amyl alcohol, which is carefully heated in a still with bichromate of potassium and sulphuric acid. The product thus obtained has a very pleasant odor of fine pears and boils at 196° C. (385° F.). But the commercial “pear-essence” is a more complex body (see following table).

is a very volatile liquid boiling at 16° C. (61° F.), which is obtained by distillation of strong alcohol with concentrated nitric acid and rectification of the distillate; it is less used in perfumery than the other fruit ethers.

Fruit ethers, owing to their low price and great strength, are frequently employed in the manufacture of cheap perfumery, in place of essential oils, but more largely for scenting soap.

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The so-called raspberry and strawberry ethers consist of mixtures of acetic, pine-apple, apple, and other ethers (see following table), which, combined in certain proportions, really manifest an odor nearly akin to those of the fruits after which they are named.

Table Showing the Ingredients Usually Employed for Preparing Artificial Fruit Ethers (Fruit Essences).

This substance, which may be called a true cosmetic in itself, as it possesses marked solvent power for cutaneous coloring matters and at the same time imparts to the skin delicacy and flexibility, is at present to be had commercially in great purity. Pure glycerin is a brilliant, colorless, and odorless substance of the consistence of a thick syrup, which mixes with water and alcohol in all proportions and has a83 slightly warm but very sweet taste. It readily absorbs aromatic substances and is used in many valued toilet articles in combination with fats and perfumes. Recently we have succeeded in using glycerin most successfully for the extraction of aromatic substances.

also called artificial oil of bitter almonds, nitrobenzol, and essence of mirbane. This substance, which is now largely used in perfumery and soap manufacture, is obtained by the action of fuming nitric acid on benzol. The mixture becomes hot and emits masses of brown vapors, and there is formed a yellow oily body which is washed with water and soda solution until the washings escape colorless. Pure nitrobenzol is not soluble in water, but in alcohol or ether, boils at 213° C. (415° F.), and congeals at-5 to 6° C. (21-23° F.). Its spec. grav. is 1·2 or a little over. Any oil of mirbane having a lower specific gravity than 1·2 at 15° C. (59° F.) is spurious, most likely nitrotoluol. Its odor greatly resembles that of oil of bitter almonds, but can be clearly differentiated from it on comparison. Care must be taken in inhaling the vapor when undiluted, as it is poisonous. By distillation nitrobenzol can be obtained quite colorless, and in this form is often used for the adulteration of genuine oil of bitter almonds. This adulteration, however, can be easily demonstrated by heating for a short time with an alcoholic solution of a caustic alkali which separates from nitrobenzol a brown resinous substance, while true oil of bitter almonds loses its odor and changes into benzoic acid which unites with the alkali.

This substance is one of the products of the distillation of petroleum, coal, peat, and other carbonaceous sources. It is a crystalline, brittle body, closely resembling wax in appear84ance and melting between 51 and 60° C. (124 and 140° F.). Paraffin, which is now made on a large scale for the manufacture of candles, is very useful in perfumery as a partial substitute for the much more expensive wax or spermaceti, over which it has the advantage, besides its cheapness, that it imparts to the articles great transparency—a quality which is valued highly in fine perfumeries. The addition of some paraffin to pomades renders them more consistent and counteracts their tendency to become rancid. Distilled paraffin always has a crystalline form, differing from the paraffin-like residues left after the distillation of petroleum (so-called vaselins, etc., see below) which are always amorphous.

appears in commerce as a white crystalline powder, made by heating gallic acid to 200-210° C. (392-410° F.). With iron salts, pyrogallic acid forms bluish-black combinations and precipitates the metal from silver solutions as a velvety-black powder. On account of these properties pyrogallic acid is used in perfumery as a constituent of some hair dyes.

liver of sulphur, hepar sulphuris, potassii sulphuretum, the pentasulphide of potassium, is obtained by fusing together potash and sulphur, in the shape of a leather-brown mass which is soluble in water and on exposure to the air is gradually decomposed with the development of the offensive sulphuretted hydrogen gas; hence it should be preserved in well-closed vessels. An aqueous solution of this substance forms with lead or silver salts a black precipitate of sulphide of lead or silver, and is used for some hair dyes.

(amylum) is prepared from various vegetables such as potatoes, rice, arrowroot, sago, etc., and when pure appears as an85 insoluble white powder which the microscope shows to be grains consisting of many superimposed layers. In commerce the price of the different varieties of starch fluctuates greatly; in perfumery well-cleansed potato starch can very well be used for dusting powders, and the so-called poudre de riz; in this country, corn starch is preferable.

that is, the body to which vanilla owes its fragrance, is now made artificially and can be used in place of vanilla for soaps and pomades.

In the distillation of petroleum there remain in the still as a residue large quantities of a substance which when purified is colorless and, according to the nature of the petroleum, at ordinary temperatures has either the consistence of lard, melting under the heat of the hand, or forms an oily liquid. In perfumery vaselin can be used like fat or oil, over which it has the advantage in that it always remains odorless and free from acid; hence it is very appropriate for the manufacture of pomades. The market affords numerous varieties of this substance, under different names: vaselin (oil and solid), albolene (oil and solid), cosmolin, etc., etc.

is a substance found in the skull cavities of several whales and dolphins. In its properties it stands midway between beeswax, paraffin, and firm fats. In the living animal spermaceti is fluid, but after its death it congeals to a white crystalline mass of a fatty lustre, which melts at 40° C. (104° F.), and is frequently used for fine candles as well as for other articles.

(Cera alba), the well-known product of the bee; in perfumery only bleached (white) wax is employed. In recent86 years Japanese wax has appeared in commerce; this is of vegetable origin, but in its properties resembles beeswax.

bismuth white, pearl white, bismuthi subnitras, blanc de bismuth, blanc de perles, the basic nitrate of bismuth, the chief ingredient of many skin cosmetics, is prepared by dissolving metallic bismuth in moderately strong nitric acid, and pouring the solution into a large quantity of water, whereupon the subnitrate is precipitated.

The precipitated powder is collected on a funnel and washed with pure water until the wash water no longer changes blue tincture of litmus to red. The bismuth white is dried and preserved in well-closed vessels, since in the air it gradually assumes a yellowish color; for any sulphuretted hydrogen present in the air is greedily absorbed by this salt, and the resulting combination with sulphur has a black color.

is obtained by treating metallic tin with fuming nitric acid, adding the solution to a large quantity of water, and washing the product, which forms a white insoluble powder used cosmetically for polishing the finger nails.

Besides the chemical products here enumerated, some others find application in perfumery; we shall describe their properties in connection with the articles into which they enter. In this connection mention may be made of the fact that more and more aromatic substances are now made artificially which were formerly obtained with difficulty from plants. Besides vanillin mentioned above, cumarin, oil of wintergreen, and some other products are prepared artificially. Heliotropin and nerolin are artificially prepared substances, possessing an odor resembling that of heliotrope and oil of neroli, respectively, but not identical chemically with87 the natural odorous substance. Artificial musk (Baur’s), is playing a rôle at present, but is not identical with the natural substance.

Some articles are colored intentionally; this remark applies particularly to some soaps which not rarely are stained to correspond to the color of the flower whose odor they bear; for instance, violet soap. Some articles again are used only on account of their color; for instance, paints, hair and whisker dyes. As we shall discuss this subject at greater length in connection with these toilet articles, we merely state here that nowadays every manufacturer can choose between a large number of dyes of any color, all of which are innoxious; hence no perfumer should under any circumstances use poisonous colors. This is a matter of importance with substances intended for immediate contact with the human body such as paints, lip salves, soaps, etc. All of these colors will be described hereafter.

Excepting the articles made in Turkey and India (especially oil of rose), most aromatic substances are manufactured in southern France and the adjoining regions of Italy, while a few (oils of peppermint and lavender) are produced in England; a few also (oils of peppermint, spearmint, wintergreen, sassafras, etc.) in the United States. However, as we have stated above, it is possible to cultivate some plants from which odors are extracted in the warm sections of this country, and to obtain the most expensive perfumes from them. Among these plants our experience leads us to suggest vio88lets, roses, reseda, lavender, mints, syringa, lilac, and several others to which the climate is adapted.

The methods by which the odors can be extracted from the plants differ according to the physical properties of the raw material and the chemical composition of the aromatic substance. We shall here briefly describe the methods thus far known, and at the same time add our own experience in this most important part of the art of perfumery. The aromatic substances are obtained by pressure, by distillation, by maceration (infusion), by absorption (enfleurage) through air or through carbonic acid, and by extraction.

Certain aromatic substances that occur in large amounts in some parts of plants, are best obtained by pressure. The rinds of certain fruits contain an essential oil in considerable quantities inclosed in receptacles easily distinguished under the microscope. When these vegetable substances are subjected to strong pressure, the oil receptacles burst and the essential oil escapes. The force is usually applied through a screw press with a stout iron spindle; the vegetable substances being inclosed in strong linen or horse-hair cloths, placed between iron plates, and subjected to a gradually increasing pressure. Comparative experiments have shown us that even with the most powerful presses a considerable, amount of oil is lost owing to the fact that a large number of oil receptacles remain intact. For this reason, when oil is to be extracted by pressure, a hydraulic press is preferable, as it develops greater power than any other press. In the hydraulic presses used for this purpose the piston fits exactly into a hollow iron cylinder with sieve-like openings in its circumference. The vegetable substances are filled into this cylinder; when the pressure is applied, the fluids escape89 through the perforations, and the residue forms a compact woody cake which is then free from oil.

Besides the essential oil, watery fluid is expressed, the whole appearing as a milky liquid, owing to the admixture of vegetable fibres, mucilage, etc. It is collected in a tall glass cylinder which is set in a place free from any vibration. After remaining at rest for several hours the liquid separates into two layers, the lower being watery and mixed with mucilage, that floating on top being almost pure oil. The latter is separated, and finally purified by filtration through a double paper cone in a funnel covered with a glass plate.

It is best to separate the water and oil in a regular separatory funnel, or in a simple apparatus illustrated in Fig. 4. It is made by cutting the bottom from a tall flask, and fitting into the neck by means of a cork a glass tube having a diameter of one-fourth to one-half inch. A rubber tube with stop-cock is fastened to the glass tube. By careful opening of the stop-cock, the watery fluid can be drained off to the last drop.

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To the perfumer this method is of little importance, since it is applicable only to a few substances which, moreover, give cheap odors. Still, the possession of a hydraulic press is advisable to every manufacturer who works on a large scale, as it is useful also in the preparation of several fixed oils frequently employed in perfumery, for instance, oils of almonds, nuts, etc.

Fixed oils are best extracted in so-called drop presses, the material having first been comminuted between rollers. These are arranged as shown in section in Fig. 5, and in ground plan in Fig. 6. The apparatus consists of two smooth or slightly grooved iron cylinders A and B, respectively four feet and one foot in diameter, which can be approximated or separated by means of set screws. The material is placed into the trough F containing a feeding roller moved by the belt P. The scrapers FF, pressed against the cylinders by91 means of weighted levers, free the rollers from adhering pieces.

The drop presses Figs. 7 and 8 consist of a hydraulic press with cylinders A and piston B; the troughs E are movable by means of rings between two vertical columns and every trough has a circular gutter d for the reception of the expressed oil. The iron pots G have double walls, the inner of which has a series of openings at its upper part; these pots are filled with the bruised material to be pressed and after this has been covered with a plate of horse-hair tissue are set in the press.

As the piston rises, the troughs E sink into the pots, the escaping oil collects in the gutters d and thence passes into a receptacle. After pressing, the piston is allowed to sink back, the pots G are drawn aside (Fig. 8) to tabular surfaces, and other pots are substituted for the exhausted ones. These drop presses are suitable for the extraction of all fixed oils and also volatile oils present in orange and lemon peel, etc.

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Many odors or essential oils possess the remarkable property that their vapors pass so largely with that of boiling water that they can be extracted in this way (by “distillation”) from vegetable substances, though the essential oils have a boiling-point far above that of water. Distillation can be employed for a large number of substances; for instance, the essential oils present in cumin, anise, lavender, fennel, mace, nutmeg, etc., are extracted exclusively in this manner.

For the extraction of odors in this way, according to the quantities of material to be worked, different apparatuses are used, some of the most important of which will be here described.

For manufacturers who run without steam and are obliged to use a naked flame, the adjoining apparatus (Fig. 9) will be advantageous.

It consists of a copper boiler A, the still, set in a brick furnace. The latter is so constructed that the incandescent gases strike not only the curved bottom of the still, but also its sides through the flues Z left in the brickwork. The still, whose upper part projects from the furnace, has an opening O93 on the left side, closed air-tight with a screw, which serves for refilling with water during distillation when necessary. To the margin of the still is fitted steam-tight the helm H, made of copper or tinned iron, having a prolongation, the tube R. The latter is joined to the conical projection v which terminates in the worm K. In some apparatuses this projection is omitted and the tube immediately joins the worm. The latter is made of tinned iron and, as the cut shows, is arranged in coils and supported by props t in the wooden or metal condenser F. The condenser bears above a short bent tube b, and below, immediately over the bottom, an elbow tube e, long enough to reach above the edge of the condenser, as indicated in the cut.

The vegetable substances to be distilled can be put immediately into the still and covered with water; but in this case it is advisable to use a stirrer which must be kept moving until the water boils, otherwise the material might burn at the bottom. But this accident can also be prevented by applying a perforated false bottom to the still above the flues, or by inclosing the material in a wire-sieve basket C.

In place of the basket C the apparatus can also be provided with an additional vessel containing the material to be distilled. In the still A (Fig. 10) the water is brought to boiling, the steam rises through the second still B in which the material is spread on a perforated bottom. The steam laden with the vapors of the essential oil passes through the tube R into the condenser.

94

It is very advantageous, and in large establishments altogether indispensable, to use steam in the distillation of essential oils. Fig. 11 represents the arrangement of such an apparatus. The still B (which in this case may be made of stout tinned iron) stands free and is provided with a wooden jacket M for the purpose of retaining the heat. Immediately above the curved bottom is a perforated plate on which the material rests. The tube D which enters the bottom of the still is connected with the boiler which furnishes steam at moderate tension. H is the faucet for the admission of steam; H. is the faucet by which the water escapes from the still at the end of the operation. After the still is filled with the material, the faucet H is opened gradually and a continuous stream of steam is allowed to pass through the still until the operation is finished.

When working with an open fire, as soon as vapors appear at the lower end of the worm (Fig. 9), cold water is admitted through the tube ne; as the cold water abstracts heat from the vapors and condenses them, it becomes warm, rises to the surface, and escapes through b, so that the worm is continually surrounded with cold water. If for any reason the saving of cold water is an object, its flow may be so regulated that the vapors are just condensed, the warm distillate being allowed to cool in the air. When working with steam, the cold water must be admitted the moment the steam-cock is opened, and the flow of cold water should be ample during the distillation, which in this case is much shorter.

The large apparatuses here described are generally used,95 especially for the extraction from vegetable substances of odors present in considerable quantity, for instance, mace, nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, etc., or from bulky material as the various flowers. For very expensive odors, smaller apparatuses are often employed, the construction of which resembles that of the ones described. For this purpose small glass apparatuses are very suitable; they are illustrated in Fig. 12.

The still, a retort A, consists of a spherical vessel with a bottle neck t which is either closed with a cork or carries a thermometer or glass tube, and with a lateral tube, the neck of the retort, connected with the adapter r. The latter passes into the condenser C. At the lower end of R is the bent adapter v under which is placed the receptacle for the distillate. The tube C is closed with corks, at its lower end is the ascending tube h, and at its upper end the descending tube g. During the distillation cold water flows in through h which cools the tube r and escapes at g. The tube C, as will be readily understood, acts like the condenser in the larger apparatuses above described. In order to prevent the breaking of the retort, it is not heated over a flame, but is set in a tin vessel B filled with water. The comminuted vegetable material is inserted with water through the up-turned neck of the retort into the latter; the vessel B is filled with water which is raised to the boiling-point.

96

During distillation we obtain at the lower end of the condenser pure water and essential oil. When larger quantities are to be distilled it is advisable to use a Florentine flask as a receptacle for the separation of the oil and water (Fig. 13). It consists of a glass bottle from the bottom of which ascends a tube curved above; the latter rises high enough to bring the curvature slightly below the neck of the flask. During the distillation the flask becomes filled with water W, on which floats a layer of oil O; the excess of water escapes through a at d until the flask finally contains more oil and very little water.

When producing essential oils on a large scale, instead of the frail Florentine flasks it is advisable to use separators, the construction of which is illustrated in Fig. 14. They consist of glass cylinders, conical above and below, supported on a suitable frame. The water accumulating under the oil is allowed to escape by opening the stop-cock; when the first separator is filled with oil, the succeeding distillate passes through the horizontal tube into the next separator, etc.

When the distillation is carried on in an ordinary still, we obtain, besides the essential oil, a considerable quantity of aromatic water, that is, a solution of the oil in water.

An apparatus which obviates the losses caused thereby is that of Schimmel described below, which is well adapted to the manufacture on a large scale. The apparatus is patented.

The nearly spherical still D (Fig. 15) is surrounded by a jacket M; the inlet steam tube R is connected with a branch r which enters the interior of the still as a spiral tube with97 numerous perforations, while R opens into the space M. When r is opened, distillation takes place by direct steam; when R is opened, by indirect steam; when both faucets are opened, the still is heated at the same time with direct and indirect steam.

The vapors rising from the still D pass through the helm C and the tube A into the worm K; the fluid condensed in the latter drops into the tin Florentine flask F, the aromatic water flowing from the latter passes back into the still D through the Welter funnel T and is distilled over again, so that the entire distillation can be effected with very little water, and it is continued until the water escaping from the Florentine flask is freed from oil and odorless.

When working with superheated steam, it is necessary to set under the funnel tube T a vessel twice the size of the Florentine flask, which is provided with a stop-cock above and below. The lower cock is closed, the vessel is allowed to fill with water from F, then the upper cock is closed, the con98tents being allowed to escape into D by opening, when the cocks are again reversed.

The use of superheated steam is important especially with material which gives up the contained oil with difficulty, such as woods.

For freeing the essential oil completely from water we use a so-called separating funnel (Fig. 16). This consists of a glass funnel T resting on a suitable support G, which is closed above with a glass plate ground to fit, drawn out below into a fine point S, and provided with a glass stop-cock H. The contents of the Florentine flask are poured into the funnel which is covered with the glass plate and allowed to stand at rest until the layer of oil O is clearly separated from the water W. By careful opening of the stop-cock the water is allowed to escape and the oil is immediately filled into bottles which are closed air tight and preserved in a cool and dark place.

Some odors, like those of cassie, rose, reseda, syringa, jasmine, violets, and many other fragrant blossoms, cannot be obtained by distillation as completely or as sweet-scented as by the process of maceration which is in general use among the large perfumers in southern France. This process is based on the property of fats to absorb odorous substances with avidity and to yield them almost entirely to strong alcohol. According to the fat employed for the maceration of the flowers—a solid fat like lard or a liquid like olive oil—odorous products are obtained which are known either as99 pomades or as perfumed oils (huiles antiques). By repeatedly treating fresh flowers with the same fat the manufacturer is able to perfume the pomade or oil at will, and in the factories these varying strengths are designated by numbers; the higher numbers indicating the stronger products.

The process of maceration is very simple. The fat is put into porcelain or enamelled iron pots which are heated, in a shallow vessel filled with water, to 40 or at most 50° C. (104-122° F.); the flowers are inclosed in small bags of fine linen and hung into the fat, where they are allowed to remain for from one-half to two days. At the end of that time the bags are removed, drained, expressed, refilled with fresh flowers, and replaced in the fat. This procedure is repeated twelve to sixteen times or oftener, thus producing pomades or oils of varying fragrance.

As the odors are much superior when the flowers are only a short time in contact with the fat, it is better to use an apparatus for continuous operation (Fig. 17). It consists of a box K made of tin plate, which is divided into from five to ten compartments by vertical septa and can be closed water tight by a lid to be screwed on. The septa have alternate upper and lower openings. The compartments contain each a basket of tinned wire filled with the flowers for maceration, then the lid is closed and the box heated in a water bath to 40 or 50° C. (104-122° F.). The stop-cock H in tube R is now opened. This admits melted fat or oil from a vessel above to the first compartment in which it rises through the100 basket filled with flowers whose odor it abstracts. The additional fat coming from above drives it over through the opening O₂ into compartment 2, where it comes in contact with fresh flowers, passes through O₃ into the third compartment, and so on through 4 and 5, until it finally escapes through R₁ well charged with odor. According to requirements a larger number of compartments may be employed.

When all the fat has passed through the apparatus, it is opened, the basket is removed from compartment 1, the basket from No. 2 is placed in 1, that from 3 in 2, etc.; basket 1 is emptied, filled with fresh flowers, and placed in compartment 5, so that every basket gradually passes through all compartments to No. 1. In this way the fat rapidly absorbs all the odor.

The odorous substances are abstracted from the pomades or huiles antiques by treatment with strong alcohol (90-95%) which dissolves the essential oils but not the fats. The huiles antiques with the alcohol are placed in large glass bottles and frequently shaken. In order to abstract the odors from pomades, the latter are allowed to congeal and are divided into small pieces which are inserted into the bottles of alcohol. A better plan is to fill the pomades into a tin cylinder with a narrow opening in front and to express the pomades, by a well-fitting piston, in the shape of a thin thread which thus presents a large surface to the action of the alcohol, thus hastening the absorption of the odor. The alcoholic solution obtained after some weeks is then distilled off at a low temperature. We shall recur to this hereafter.

No matter how long the fats are left in contact with alcohol, they do not yield up to it all the odor, but retain a small portion of it and hence have a very fragrant smell. They are, therefore, brought into commerce as perfumed oils or pomades bearing the name of the odorous substance they contain: orange flower, reseda pomade or oil, etc.; they are101 highly prized and are sometimes used again for the extraction of the same odor.

Some odors cannot bear even the slight rise of temperature necessary for their extraction by the method of maceration or infusion. For these delicate odors one of the following methods may be employed.

In this method the absorbing power of fat is likewise used for retaining the odors, but the flowers are treated with the fat at ordinary temperatures. This procedure which is employed especially in southern France is carried out as follows. The fat (lard) is spread to a thickness of about one-quarter inch on glass plates G one yard long and two feet wide, which are inserted in wooden frames R and sprinkled with flowers F (Fig. 18). The frames are superimposed (the cut shows two of the frames) and left for from one to three days, when fresh flowers are substituted for the wilted ones, and so on until the pomade has attained the desired strength.

This procedure is very cumbrous and tedious and therefore had better be modified thus: In an air-tight box K (Fig. 19) we place a larger number of glass plates g covered with lard drawn into fine threads by means of a syringe. This box is connected with a smaller one K₁ which is filled with fresh flowers and provided with openings below and above, O and O₁. The latter, O₁ communicates by a tube with box K, at whose upper end is a tube e terminating in an exhaust fan so that the air must pass through the apparatus in the direction102 indicated by the arrows. A small fan V driven by clockwork will answer. The air drawn from K₁ is laden with odors and in passing over the fat as shown by the arrows gives them up completely to the fat. The use of this apparatus has very important advantages: the absorption is effected rapidly, requires little power, and the flowers do not come at all into contact with the fat which therefore can take up nothing but the odors present in the air.

Instead of charging the fat with odors by either one of the methods here described, carbonic acid can also be employed with advantage, by means of the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 20. The large glass vessel G contains pieces of white marble M upon which hydrochloric acid is poured at intervals through the funnel tube R. A current of carbonic acid is thus developed, which passes through a wash bottle W filled with water, then through the tin vessel B containing fresh flowers, and finally into a bottle A filled with strong alcohol and set in cold water, after which it escapes through the tube103 e. The carbonic acid absorbs the aromatic vapors from B and leaves them in the alcohol which absorbs them. (G, R, W are made of glass, B of tin.)

This method is based on the fact that some volatile liquids such as ether, chloroform, petroleum ether, or bisulphide of carbon possess the property of rapidly extracting the aromatic substances from flowers; when they are evaporated at a gentle heat they leave the pure odors behind. In our opinion this process is the best of all for the perfumer and it is to be regretted that it is not more generally used.

As a rule we employ either petroleum ether or bisulphide of carbon (see above, pp. 65, 66) because these products are cheaper than ether or chloroform.

The apparatus we use for this purpose is illustrated in Fig. 21. It consists of a cylinder C made of tinned iron, which is provided above with a circular gutter R terminating in a stop-cock h and which can be closed by a lid D bearing a stop-cock o. A tube b with a stop-cock a enters the bottom of the cylinder. The latter is filled with the flowers, the volatile liquid (petroleum ether, bisulphide of carbon, etc.) is poured over them, the lid is put on, and the gutter R filled with water, thereby sealing the contents of the vessel hermetically.

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After the extraction, which requires about thirty to forty minutes, stop-cock o is opened first, then stop-cock a, and the liquid is allowed to escape into the retort of the still (Fig. 12). If the extraction is to be repeated, the water is allowed to escape from the gutter through h, the lid is opened, and the solvent is again poured over the flowers.

For operation on a larger scale the glass retorts are too small and should be replaced by tin vessels (Fig. 22) having the form of a wide-mouthed bottle F; they are closed by a lid D which is rendered air tight by being clamped upon the flange of the vessel (R) with iron screws S, a pasteboard washer being interposed; a curved glass tube connects the apparatus with the condenser of Fig. 12.

The solutions of the aromatic substances are evaporated in these apparatuses at the lowest possible temperature, the solvent being condensed and used over again. The heat required is for ether about 36° C. (97° F.), for chloroform about 65° C. (149° F.), for petroleum ether about 56° C. (133° F.), and for bisulphide of carbon about 45° C. (113° F.). If it is desired to obtain the aromatic substances pure from an alcoholic extract of the pomades made by one of the above-described processes—which is rarely done since these solutions are generally used as such for perfumes—a heat of 75 to 80 C. (167 to 176° F.) is required.

105

Another extraction apparatus illustrated in Fig. 23 is well adapted to operations on a large scale. Its main parts are the extractor E and the still B. The former is set in a vat W continually supplied with cold water. The still B is surrounded with hot water in the boiler K.

To start the apparatus the cone C is removed, the vessel E is filled with the material to be extracted, and C is replaced. The faucets H₂ and H₄ are opened, the solvent is poured into the still through the latter, when these faucets are closed and those marked H and H₁ are opened.

The water in K is heated until the contents of B are in brisk ebullition; the vapor rises through RH, is condensed on entering E and falls in small drops on the material. This fine rain of the solvent dissolves the aromatic substances and flows back into B, where it is again evaporated, and so on.

At the end of the extraction the faucets H and H₁ are closed and H₂, is opened. The vapors of the solvent pass through it into a worm where they are condensed; the essential oil remaining in B is drained off by opening H₃.

For still larger operations more perfect apparatuses are employed, such as those of Seiffert and Vohl. Seiffert’s apparatus (Fig. 24) consists of a battery of jacketed cylinders; steam circulates in the space between the cylinders and the jackets. Each cylinder contains a plate covered with a wire net on which the flowers to be extracted are placed. All the cylinders having been filled and closed, the solvent is admitted106 from a container above, through S and a into C²; when this is filled the liquid flows through a²b³cⁿ into C. The solution saturated with essential oil leaves the apparatus through dⁿ and p and enters a reservoir. The course of the liquid is aided by the suction of an air-pump acting on p.

When the reservoir contains an amount of fluid equal to that in Cⁿ, dⁿ is closed, aⁿ is opened, and C connected with C¹ through bⁿ and c¹. That the contents of C² are completely extracted is shown by the fact that the liquid appears colorless in the glass tube inserted in b²; a¹ and C² are closed; a² and C³ are opened, thereby excluding C² from the current of bisulphide of carbon which then flows through C³CⁿC¹. In order to permit the free flow of the bisulphide of carbon through S despite the exclusion of C², the faucets a¹a²a³aⁿ must be two-way cocks; in one position they connect S with b; in the other they close b and leave the passage through S open.

In order to collect the bisulphide of carbon present in the extracted residue in C², faucet g² is opened and the bisulphide of carbon allowed to escape through h. The faucet e² in tube L on being opened admits compressed air to C², thus hastening the outflow. If nothing escapes below, faucets f² and f^x are opened, steam enters through tube D between jacket and 107cylinder; the bisulphide of carbon vapor passes through g² and h into the worm. After the expulsion of the bisulphide of carbon, C³ is emptied, refilled, connected with C¹, and bisulphide of carbon admitted from C³ in the manner above described.

An extraction apparatus which has been much recommended of late is the so-called “Excelsior Apparatus” made by Wegelin and Huebner, Halle a. S., which can be worked with any desired solvent. The construction of the apparatus (Figs. 25 and 26) is as follows.

The solvent is admitted to the reservoir R in the lower part of the condenser B through the tube indicated in the figure. The material to be extracted having been filled into the cylinder A through the manhole, the apparatus is closed. The cold water is admitted to the condenser by opening a faucet. The three-way cock shown in Fig. 25 is so placed as108 to open a communication of the overflow tube with A. The faucet at the lower end of the reservoir R is now opened sufficiently and the solvent passes into A from above, and as it descends takes up more and more oil, flows through the sieve-plate, and escapes through the tube at the bottom of A through the three-way cock, the overflow tube, and the drain tube into the accumulator C. The opening of a faucet now admits steam to the heating coil, when the solvent evaporates, leaving the oil or fat behind. It is condensed in B, again109 returns to R, whence it passes once more through the faucet into the extractor A. The vessel C and the tubes leading to A and C are surrounded with felt to prevent loss of heat. A sample taken from the small cock at the foot of A (it has a small plate in the interior of the tube) will show when the extraction in A may be looked upon as finished. The solvent is distilled off or recovered from the residue in A in the following manner. First the faucet in R is closed. The three-way cock A is set to establish direct communication between A and C, thus cutting off the overflow tube. Hence all the solvent in A flows into C for distillation, while the oil is left behind. Steam being admitted to the residue, the solvent rises as vapor through the upper tube from A to B and collects in a liquid state in R. To drive off the last traces of the solvent from the fat or oil obtained, steam is blown into C by opening the valve. Besides the solvent, watery vapor enters B and forms a layer of water in R under the solvent. By taking a sample from the test-cock of the reservoir C which has an internal small plate, the termination of the process is ascertained. The gauge tube at the reservoir shows110 the level of the solvent and water. The water is drawn off by opening the faucet at the lower end of the reservoir. A is emptied through the manhole and by draining the oil from C through the discharge cock. The tube R is closed by a light valve so as to prevent evaporation of the solvent. All the apparatuses work without pressure so that there is no danger from overstrain.

The solutions of the essential oils in bisulphide of carbon are distilled off in the steam still illustrated in Fig. 27; the steam enters at h, the water of condensation escapes at d, the liquid to be distilled enters at e from a container at a higher level. The boiling is kept uniform by the stirring arrangement hg. After the bisulphide of carbon is distilled off, air is passed through the oil by the curved tube a which has fine perforations, so as to evaporate the last traces of the solvent.

In Vohl’s apparatus (Fig. 28), arranged for petroleum ether, the extraction is effected with the boiling fluid; hence111 this apparatus is better adapted for the cheaper oils than for the finest oils from flowers. The apparatus consists of two extractors A A, the accumulator B, and the condenser C. Petroleum ether is allowed to flow over the substances to be extracted, by opening the faucets mm, vh, closing ogwE, and opening o, the course being through ux to B. When B is two-thirds full, the flow of petroleum ether is cut off, steam is admitted through y and the contents of B are brought to the boiling-point. The vapors pass through g and are condensed in f until the contents of A reach the boiling-point of the solvent, when the vapors pass through i into C, and after closing m´ the liquid passes through ml into the inner cylinder of the extraction apparatus and returns through uxx.

After the contents of A are extracted, m´ is opened, m closed, and steam is admitted through d into the jacket of A; the vapors of the solvent force the liquid part of the contents through ux into B. Overfilling of B is prevented by allowing the vapors of the solvent to escape at the proper time into the condenser through p by opening q. Then v is closed, q opened, and the steam present in A drawn off by an exhaust applied to p; as soon as p begins to cool, all the petroleum ether is distilled off, the steam is cut off at d, and the extract evacuated through t. The contents of B are brought into a still through D and E.

By employing greater pressure the extraction can also be effected by what is called displacement; the material to be extracted is placed in a stout-walled vessel S (Fig. 29) which is connected by a narrow tube at least ten yards long with the vessel F containing the solvent. Stopcock H is first opened, then stop112-cock H₁ which is closed as soon as fluid begins to flow from it. After the liquid has remained in contact with the material for from thirty to sixty minutes, H₁ is opened very slowly, the liquid is allowed to escape and is displaced with water which is made to pass out of F in the same way as the solvent, until the latter is completely displaced from S.

After the solvent has been distilled off, the less volatile essential oil remains in the still almost pure, containing only traces of wax, vegetable fat or coloring matter which are of no consequence for our purposes. The last remnants of the solvent cannot be expelled by distillation, but by forcing through the essential oil a current of pure air for fifteen or twenty minutes. The essential oils then are of the purest, unexceptionable quality.

In the case of delicate oils it is better to use carbonic acid in place of air for expelling the last traces of the solvent, as the oxygen may impair the delicacy of the fragrance. For this purpose we use the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 30. In the large bottle A carbonic acid is generated by pouring hydrochloric acid over fragments of white marble. The carbonic acid passes into the vessel B filled with water which frees it from any adhering drops of hydrochloric acid; then into C filled with sulphuric acid to which it yields its water so that only pure carbonic acid escapes through the fine rose113 at the end of tube D which is made of pure tin, and as it passes through the oil in E it carries off the last traces of the volatile solvent. In its final passage through the water in F it leaves behind any oil that may have been carried with it.

As all the aromatic substances change in air by the gradual absorption of oxygen, and lose their odor—become resinified—these costly substances must be put into small bottles which they completely fill, and be preserved in a cool dark place, as light and heat favor resinification. The bottles must be closed with well-fitting glass stoppers.

Aromatic waters or eaux aromatisées, such as jasmine water (eau de jasmin), orange-flower water (eau de fleurs d’oranges, eau triple de Néroli, aqua naphæ triplex), etc., are made by distillation of these flowers with water and show a faint but very fine odor. When they contain, besides, dilute alcohol they are called spirituous waters or esprits. Those brought into commerce from southern France are of excellent quality.

The quantities of essential oil obtainable from the vegetable substances vary with the amount present in each. The following table shows the average quantities of oil to be obtained from 100 parts of material.

Fresh flowers as a rule contain more aromatic material than wilted ones; the yield of dried herbs, leaves, etc., is usually greater than that of the fresh, because the latter contain much water which is lost in drying. When such vegetable materials cannot be worked fresh, which is best, they should be completely dried, spread on boards, at a moderate temperature in the shade and preserved in dry airy rooms, special care being had to guard against mould.

In a preceding chapter on the chemical properties of the vegetable substances many of their characteristics have been described. In this place we need only describe the physical properties of the essential oils, and with some of them to lay stress on those peculiarities by which they are specially differentiated. This knowledge is of the greatest importance to119 the manufacturer of perfumery because no single individual is in a position to prepare all aromatic substances himself, but must rely on commerce for some of them; and in no group of chemicals is adulteration as frequent and as difficult of demonstration as among the aromatics. These adulterations are carried so far that many essential oils occurring in commerce under certain names often have nothing in common with the substance for which they are sold but the name.

The oil of Acacia farnesiana is greenish-yellow and viscid; the density and boiling-point, which are of the greatest importance with reference to the genuineness of an essential oil, are not yet accurately known. Moreover, this oil never occurs in commerce as such, but its odor is present in perfumes, fixed oils, and pomades.

should be colorless or faintly yellow; a dark yellow color indicates old and inferior quality. The characteristics of this oil are the odor, its aromatic sweet taste, and especially the property of solidifying at a comparatively high temperature, 10-15° C. (50-59° F.), which is due to the separation of a stearopten, anethol. Oil of anise is frequently adulterated with or replaced by oil of star-anise. The easy solidification of the oil of anise is not always proof of its good quality, for the oil from anise chaff, which congeals at a still higher temperature, is sometimes mixed with it, and this has a less fine odor than that distilled from the seed. One part by weight of oil of anise is soluble in an equal weight of alcohol of 94%.

has a pale yellow color which becomes greenish when the oil is kept in copper vessels, and a strong agreeable odor. This120 oil requires the greatest care in its preservation, as it abstracts oxygen from the air with extreme rapidity, when it changes its superior odor so that it can hardly be distinguished from oil of turpentine.

when pure, is a colorless, refractive liquid which is heavier than water. The vessels in which this product is preserved must be stoppered air-tight, for in the air the oil very quickly changes into a white, odorless mass of crystals consisting of benzoic acid.

Oil of bitter almond is formed by the action of the amygdalin upon the emulsin present in the fruit, bitter-almond meal being deprived of fat and left in contact with water for some hours at from 40-45° C. (104-113° F.). Besides oil of bitter almond, sugar and prussic acid are likewise formed. The crude oil distilled from the meal is freed from the prussic acid by agitation with ferrous chloride and lime-water, and redistillation.

has usually a greenish color, and has a burning, camphoraceous and at the same time cooling taste. It has a peculiar odor resembling that of camphor and rosemary.

This oil, which is very viscid and of a yellow or reddish color, must usually be mixed with other essential oils in order to furnish pleasant perfumes.

Oil of chamomile, from Matricaria Chamomilla (common chamomile), which is specially characterized by its magnificent dark-blue color, has a marked narcotic odor and is very121 high-priced, owing to the small yield of oil by the flowers. The oil from Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile) has also a blue color which gradually becomes greenish-yellow.

This essential oil differs from the others mainly by being firm and crystalline at ordinary temperatures. Chinese or Japanese camphor melts at 175° C. (347° F.) and boils at 205° C. (401° F.). Camphor is seldom used alone, as its odor is hardly fragrant; but it finds frequent application in the preparation of mouth washes, toilet vinegars, etc. In commerce so-called Borneo camphor is also met with (though rarely), which closely resembles the Chinese in appearance and other qualities, but is more friable and melts at 189° C. (388·4° F.).

is not used pure in perfumery, the bark being generally employed instead.

has a yellow color, gradually becoming dark reddish-brown, and an odor resembling that of oil of cinnamon, but the odor is not so fine, nor so strong, as that of the latter. The taste of the oil is of special importance: while that of true oil of cinnamon is burning though sweet, oil of cassia has a sharper taste, and this taste is considered by some a good mark of recognition of the rather common adulteration of true oil of cinnamon which is much more costly.

This oil, obtained from the wood of the Juniperus virginiana (not from the true cedar, Cedrus Libani), is clear like water, has a pleasant odor, and differs from most essential oils122 by congealing at a very low temperature (-22° C. or-8° F.) and by its uncommon resinification in contact with air.

Oil of citron is usually merely a synonym for “oil of lemon.” But in perfumery it has been customary to designate the oil of lemon which was extracted by the écuelle process, as “oil of citron-zeste” or “oil of citron,” while “oil of lemon” meant the distilled oil. Since there is no difficulty at the present time in obtaining all the hand-pressed oil that may be required, and of the finest quality, there is no longer any necessity for making the before-mentioned distinction.

is one of the most important essential oils for the perfumer as well as the manufacturer of liqueurs, confectioner, etc. The oil is pale yellow, and of a very strong refreshing odor which it loses rapidly in contact with the air, when it acquires a disagreeable odor of turpentine and gradually resinifies. This change is particularly marked under the influence of light. Its spec. grav. is 0·850 at 20° C. (68° F.). It is soluble in an equal volume of strong alcohol or glacial acetic acid. The hand-pressed oil has a much finer aroma than that obtained by distillation.

This oil is hardly ever made in Europe, since it is imported in excellent quality and at low prices from India and especially the island of Ceylon. (See above, p. 29.)

This oil, which is imported in considerable quantities from India (chiefly Ceylon), is colorless and possesses a very pleasant odor of lemon which at the same time recalls that of roses123 and still more that of geranium, which is not rarely adulterated with it. (See above, p. 33.)

has a pale yellow color and a burning, sharp, aromatic taste. Like oil of cubebs (oleum cubebæ), oil of dill (oleum anethi), and oil of fennel (oleum fœniculi) which latter also has a rather low congealing point (-8° C. or +17° F.), this oil is used less in perfumery than for scenting soap and in the manufacture of liqueurs. But it should be noted that these oils, as well as those of bergamot, caraway, star-anise, and some others, could well be employed for cheap perfumes and for scenting soap. Oil of dill also finds application alone in the preparation of some face washes, and the dried fennel herb in cheap sachets.

can be made at slight cost from the flowers, as the raw material is obtainable without much trouble; it forms a yellow, strong-scented oil. In perfumery, however, use is generally made only of the pomade made from the fresh flowers or the alcoholic extract prepared from it. Or else the odor is imitated by means of terpineol, which is now on the market under the name of lilacin.

It is necessary to distinguish clearly between oil of true geranium distilled in Southern France and Algiers from species of Pelargonium; and Turkish oil of geranium, also known as Palmarosa oil, oil of geranium grass, oil of Rusa grass, etc., which is distilled in India from ginger grass. (See above, p. 33.)

The first-mentioned oil has a much finer aroma than the second. The two oils are frequently confounded, even in prominent works of reference.

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When oil of geranium or of rose geranium is directed to be used, the French (or Algerian, or Spanish) oil should be employed. These cost more than twice as much as the so-called Turkish or palmarosa oil.

This oil which does not yet occur in commerce (we find merely the pomade and the alcoholic extract of the latter) has been made by the author experimentally; the most suitable method was found to be extraction with petroleum ether. As the plant, Heliotropium peruvianum, the source of this delightful odor, is frequently cultivated in our gardens, the preparation of the oil by this method is to be recommended, being less expensive and more rapid than by the use of fat, while the product obtained with petroleum ether is as fine as that extracted by alcohol from the pomade.

The remark made under the head of oil of lilac applies equally to this oil. For the benefit of those who wish to make this oil in its pure form we may add that it is absolutely necessary to select only the freshest flowers, otherwise the odor will be very much impaired.

not to be confounded with the oil of Syringa or German jasmine (Philadelphus coronarius), is colorless or yellowish and has a very strong, almost narcotic odor. It is one of the most valuable and at the same time most expensive aromatic substances employed in perfumery. Genuine oil of jasmine can be obtained only from Southern France at very high prices. What is usually sold as “oil of jasmine” is a fixed oil impregnated with the aroma of jasmine.

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is not used as such in perfumery; at most cherry-laurel water may be employed. But as this has the odor of oil of bitter almond and as the presence of some prussic acid, on account of which the officinal cherry-laurel water is used, is of no value to the perfumer and is, in fact, undesirable, owing to its poisonous quality, we substitute in all cases a corresponding quantity of oil of bitter almond for cherry-laurel water.

is light brown, somewhat viscid; the odor recalls that of the oils of cinnamon, sassafras, and clove. It has been used for scenting soap.

is light yellow and has an aromatic odor and burning taste. In perfumery it is used only for very cheap odors and for scenting soap; it finds its chief application in the manufacture of liqueurs.

This oil is of great importance to the perfumer and is imported in unsurpassed quality from England (Mitcham); it is light yellow, has a burning sharp taste, and is exceedingly sensitive to light and air, under the action of which it loses its refreshing odor in a very brief time and acquires a common smell recalling that of turpentine.

The buyer of this oil should take care to secure the true oil of lavender (from Lavandula vera); for the oil of spike-lavender is sold under the same name. This, prepared from Lavandula Spica, has a similar odor to the genuine, but cannot be compared with it in delicacy. For this reason, too, the difference in the price between the two is considerable. True126 English oil of lavender costs ten times as much as oil of spike-lavender. The English brand of the true oil is of so excellent a quality that it brings four or five times as much as the best French oil, which is sold under the name of huile de lavande des Alpes. Yet during the last decade or so the French oil of lavender flowers has become so much improved in quality that it has become a serious rival to the Mitcham oil.

made from the flowers of the well-known garden plant, and

likewise from the ornamental plant, are, strange to say, not manufactured in any place, to our knowledge. Experiments made by us in this direction prove that the odors of these plants can be obtained either by absorption or, more readily, by extraction. The perfumes thus far occurring under these names are always combinations of different scents which, though pleasant, have but little in common with the plants whose names they bear.

In this connection we may say that the perfumes sold under the names of various flowers often have no relation to them, but are mixtures of various odors. While it cannot be denied that perfumes may be made in this manner which resemble those of the respective plants, it is unquestionably an imperfection in the art of perfumery that these odors are not really made from the flowers mentioned. To give another characteristic instance, we may add that the delightful odor of the well-known lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis)—a plant which grows wild abundantly in many of our forests—has not yet been produced, and that even imitations of this odor, which in delicacy and fragrance stands next to those of the rose and violet, are seldom met with in commerce.

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obtained from the fruits of the lemon-tree, is one of the most important products, both statistically and economically, of the Citrus family. In German works there is often a confusion between “oil of citron” and “oil of lemon,” it being supposed by the authors that the “Citronen-öl” is derived from the citron (Citrus medica), and the “Limonen-öl” from the lemon (Citrus Limonum). There is, indeed, some oil made, occasionally, from the citron, but it does not figure in price-lists. The oil of the lemon, on the other hand, is very commonly called “Citronen-öl,” and the fruit itself “Citrone.” Hence, when “Citronen-öl” is quoted in a formula, it may be assumed at once that oil of lemon is intended. It is very liable to resinify, when it loses its fragrance.

is green, and usually mixed with the fixed oil of the same plant. It finds more frequent application in the manufacture of liqueurs than in perfumery; but as it has a pleasant odor it might well be used for cheap perfumes. But in that event it must be freed from the fixed oil by distillation.

likewise, has not yet been prepared as such. The remarks made above under the head of oils of lily and wallflower apply also to this odor. The so-called magnolia perfumes are mixtures of different odors.

Oil of marjoram, which is obtained by distillation from the dried herb, has a strong aromatic odor. It is mentioned as having often been used in perfumery for scenting soap instead of oil of thyme, whose odor, moreover, is very similar to that128 of marjoram, but this is a mistake, due to the fact that ordinary oil of thyme has long been sold under the name of oil of origanum. True oil of marjoram costs about twelve dollars a pound, while oil of thyme (so-called oil of origanum) is worth only about eighty cents. It is rarely employed for volatile perfumes.

The oil of Melissa officinalis, owing to the very small yield, is quite expensive. It is used only for the preparation of some perfumes which owe their peculiar qualities to this strong odor. This oil must not be confounded with the spurious oil of melissa, also called oil of citron-melissa, which is identical with oil of lemon grass (see page 30).

Although all the mints possess an agreeable odor, only three varieties find extensive application. There are the oils from Mentha piperita, peppermint; Mentha viridis, spearmint; and Mentha crispa, crispmint. The oils of English manufacture are highly esteemed, but the United States also produces them of excellent quality. At one time the cultivation of mints, particularly peppermint, was greatly extended, with the expectation of deriving satisfactory profit from the enterprise. It has, however, been conclusively shown that the market cannot absorb more than a certain quantity of these products; and that any over-production brings loss and disappointment to the investor. Beside the three kinds of mint above mentioned, there is another species, Mentha arvensis, a native of Japan, which is extensively cultivated there, and is the chief source of the menthol of commerce, so well known as an efficient remedy for neuralgia, migraine, etc., in form of menthol cones. The three varieties of the mint oils previously mentioned are distinguished, aside from their pleasant odor, by the property129 of leaving a very refreshing and cooling taste in the mouth, and for this reason they form the most important constituent of all fine mouth washes.

True oil of peppermint, Oleum Menthæ piperitæ, when pure is colorless, very mobile, of a burning sharp taste which is followed by a peculiar coolness. The commercial product is usually pale green. Oil of crispmint, Oleum Menthæ crispæ, which in Europe is often sold to novices as oil of peppermint, has always a more or less yellow color and resembles the oil of peppermint in its properties, but it is less fine and cheaper. The same is true of the oil of spearmint, but this has a very characteristic odor and taste, distinctly different from peppermint.

As above stated, the oils of mint are extensively used for mouth washes, also for scenting soap, in liqueurs and pastils, but rarely in handkerchief perfumes.

These oils are prepared either from the seed coat (Oleum Macidis) or the nutmeg itself (Oleum Myristicæ). Oil of mace generally has a yellowish-red color in tint varying from dark to light and even colorless. Its taste is agreeable and mild and the odor exceedingly strong. Like oil of nutmeg, it is extensively used in the manufacture of liqueurs and for scenting soap. The oil prepared by distillation from the nutmeg is, when fresh, almost colorless or at most faintly yellow, of a burning sharp taste, and an aromatic odor. Like oil of mace, it is used in the manufacture of liqueurs and soaps and also in many perfumes.

In India a third valuable product is obtained from the nutmeg by expression of the ripe fruits and is called nutmeg butter. This is bright yellow and consists of a true fat and an essential oil. Its odor is very pleasant and a very130 superior soap can be made by saponification of this valuable product with soda lye.

This oil is of a greenish color and very mobile, but it is not a commercial product; the manufacturer must prepare the oil himself from the leaves, though the yield is small. The articles sold as so-called essence of myrtle are always mixtures of different odors. Southern France, however, exports at high prices a myrtle water (eau des anges) which is really made by distillation of the leaves with water.

As to the odor to which this flower owes its fragrance we may repeat what we have said just now with reference to the oil of myrtle: we have never succeeded in obtaining this oil in commerce. The so-called essence of narcissus, though a very pleasant mixture, contains no trace of the true oil. As to

the same remark applies: the compositions sold under the name of essence d’œillet, however, have a very striking odor of pink.

This oil when fresh is colorless, but soon becomes yellowish or brown. It is heavier than water in which it sinks and is characterized by an exceedingly strong burning taste and a spicy odor. It remains at least partly fluid at a very low temperature, namely,-20° C. (-4° F.).

commercially known also under the French names huile de fleurs d’oranges, huile néroli, huile néroli pétale, is obtained131 from the flowers of the orange-tree in Southern France, where the orange is specially planted for this purpose. The odor of the oil varies with the mode of its preparation; that obtained by distillation with water has a different odor from that made by maceration with fat and extraction with alcohol. The latter variety of oil as such, however, is not found in commerce, the alcoholic extract entering at once into the composition of the perfumes.

The French manufacturers of this oil, which is of great importance in perfumery, distinguish several varieties. The most valuable is the oil from the flowers of Citrus vulgaris (or Citrus Bigaradia), the true bitter orange (or Seville orange) tree. This is the so-called néroli bigarade. That called néroli pétale is obtained from the same flowers carefully deprived of their floral envelopes, so that only the petals are subjected to distillation. Much cheaper than these two is the oil of petit grain which is distilled from the leaves and sometimes also unripe fruits of various trees of the Citrus order.

All these oils are among the most delicate; when fresh they are colorless and have a peculiar bitter taste; exposed to light and air they assume a reddish tint and undergo rapid resinification. They should, therefore, be preserved in particularly well-closed vessels in a dark, cool place.

Not to be confounded with these oils is the

of which there are two kinds, one from the bitter orange, known also as Oil of Orange, Bigarade, and the other from the sweet orange, also known as Oil of Portugal. Both are extracted from the peel of the fruit by mechanical means. Both oils of orange peel are golden yellow, and have a pleasant, refreshing odor recalling that of the fruit. They find application for scenting soap, in toilet waters, and in some true perfumes. When oil of orange or oil of orange peel is mentioned in any132 formula, without further specification, the oil of bitter orange peel should be used.

This oil, which might be manufactured with advantage in India, the home of the plant, is, strange to say, not imported from that country, but is distilled in Europe from the dried herb. Fresh oil of patchouly is brown in color, very viscid, almost like balsam, and surpasses all other essential oils in the intensity of its odor. Owing to the strong odor, pure oil of patchouly must really be called ill-smelling; only when highly diluted does the odor become pleasant, and then forms a useful ingredient of many perfumes as the fundamental odor in the harmony.

Oil of false jasmine, from the flowers of Philadelphus coronarius, is not made as such; in Southern France, however, the flowers are frequently used for the preparation of a cheap pomade known commercially as orange-flower pomade. A personal experiment made with the view to obtain the pure odor by extraction of the flowers with petroleum ether has shown that this plant is suitable for making very fine preparations, both handkerchief perfumes and pomades.

of a burning sharp taste and odor, is colorless, but is hardly ever used for the purposes of the perfumer—at most for soaps—but all the more frequently in the manufacture of liqueurs, and particularly also in that of artificial bay-rum.

has not been made thus far, though there is no doubt that this perfume, too, can be prepared pure from the alcoholic133 extract of the pomade. The properties of the oil should resemble those of the finest néroli pétale.

This oil, obtained by distillation of the herb, is colorless or pale yellow, of a very strong, penetrating odor; it is used in some washes, but more particularly as an ingredient in the manufacture of artificial cognac, for which purpose the plant is specially cultivated in France.

The delightful odor of this plant which formerly could only be fixed by maceration in fat may be readily prepared by extraction with petroleum ether. Yet special precautions should be taken that nothing but portions of the flowers, carefully picked off, and no green leaves are extracted. The oil thus obtained has a yellow color and a disagreeable odor which changes into the well-known pleasant smell of the flower when highly diluted with alcohol.

also known as attar or otto of rose. The various species of roses give different odors. The commercial Turkish, Persian, and Indian oils of rose (which latter is never exported)—which, by the way, are very generally adulterated even at their point of production—are derived mainly from Rosa damascena, and when highly diluted yield the pleasant odor of our ordinary garden roses. The rose oils having the odor of the moss rose, tea rose, or dog rose are made almost exclusively in France and in commerce do not appear pure but generally in the form of pomades or alcoholic solutions known as essences de roses.

True rose oil is yellowish or yellow, or else greenish, and varying from liquid almost to the consistence of butter. Be134tween these extremes there are all possible gradations. A comparatively very high congealing-point is a characteristic of oil of rose. It becomes almost solid at 14 to 20° C. (57 to 68° F.). The portion separated during solidification is colorless, markedly crystalline, and, strange to say, almost odorless. Pure oil of rose smells disagreeably narcotic, only the very dilute solution shows the incomparable fragrance.

Much superior to the oils of rose which are prepared from rose leaves (either fresh or salted) are those obtained by maceration or extraction with petroleum ether. Those perfumes sold under the name of various species of rose, such as moss rose, etc., are combinations of rose oil with other aromatics.

This bright yellow light oil is obtained by distillation of the wood of Convolvulus Scoparius. At times this oil is scarce in commerce. It has a faint but decided odor of rose.

This oil is obtained by distillation from the herb of the rosemary plant as a thin, pale green fluid with an aromatic odor and spicy taste. It is used as an ingredient in some old renowned handkerchief perfumes—for instance, Cologne water—also for flavoring soaps and liqueurs.

from the flowers of Salvia officinalis, is yellowish, with an odor somewhat similar to that of oil of peppermint, but far less intense. Like the latter it imparts a pleasant coolness to the mouth and hence is used in some mouth washes.

The oil of santal wood (also called sandal-wood oil) has a thick, honey-like consistence and an agreeable, rose-like odor.135 Formerly it was sometimes used for the adulteration of oil of rose, but can also very well be used alone for several perfumes and fumigating preparations.

is yellow, spicy, with a burning odor and taste; in the cold it crystallizes only in part. The odor of this oil recalls that of fennel. The purest form of it, or rather substitute for it, is safrol, its main constituent, which is, however, now extracted more economically from crude oil of camphor, in which it likewise forms an ingredient.

Several species of Spiræa, and especially Spiræa ulmaria, furnish very pleasant odors. This oil consists mainly of salicylic aldehyde.

Despite its pleasant odor and the facility of its production, this substance has thus far found little application in perfumery. The natural oil of meadowsweet, owing to its extremely high price, can hardly ever be used.

resembles in its properties the oil of anise, even in its odor; but all connoisseurs agree that the odor of the oil of star-anise far surpasses that of the oil of anise, hence the former is used especially for fine perfumes. This preference, however, does not extend to all preparations. For certain liqueurs, such as anisette, the oil obtained from common anise (Saxon anise) is usually preferred. Many also regard the odor of star-anise as inferior to that of fine European anise.

The essential oils of thyme (chiefly Thymus vulgaris) and some related plants are very frequently used for scenting136 cheap soaps. The oils of these plants are light yellow, and so similar in odor that it is not possible to distinguish them except by direct comparison.

or, more correctly, vanilla camphor, the true odorous constituent of vanilla, also called vanillin, is a crystalline substance with a delightful odor, melting at 76° C. (169° F.). This is now extensively made artificially from the cambium sap of pines, the coniferin being converted by chemical processes into vanillin. One ounce of good vanillin is equivalent to about forty ounces of best Mexican vanilla beans.

has thus far been produced in but very small quantities from the alcoholic extract of the true violet pomade; it has a greenish color and when pure a narcotic odor not to be recognized as that of the flower. The pleasant odor of violets manifests itself only in extreme dilution.

is yellow, with a very pleasant odor of lemons. Its price being quite high, it is usually adulterated with oil of lemon-grass, or else the latter is sold under the name of oil of verbena (see p. 30). In fact the odors of the two oils are so similar that they are easily confounded.

from Andropogon muricatus (see p. 30), is viscid, reddish-brown, with a very strong and lasting odor.

This product is obtained by distillation from the leaves and twigs of Gaultheria procumbens or else by distilling the bark137 or leaves of Betula lenta with water, in which case the oil is generated by the action of the water, as it does not pre-exist in the birch, and, moreover, in this case the oil consists of nothing but methyl salicylate. It differs, like oil of meadowsweet, very markedly from the other aromatic substances and mainly consists of a so-called compound ether. It is a salicylate of methyl, boils at 220° C. (428° F.), is much heavier than water (specific gravity 1·173 to 1·184), and dissolves readily in alcohol and other solvents. It is used chiefly for scenting soap; the perfumes sold as wintergreen are usually mixtures of different substances which contain no oil of wintergreen.

is imported from Manilla. It is colorless or yellowish, and has a most delightful characteristic odor, which is rather fugitive if not made resistant by other substances. It forms an important constituent of several of the most favorite and expensive essences.

is colorless, but rapidly becomes yellow in the air. It is used in some very cheap perfumes and in the manufacture of liqueurs.

Commercially we find chiefly three varieties of essential oils which are designated as: oil of Ceylon cinnamon, oil of Chinese cinnamon or oil of cassia, and oil of cinnamon leaves. Oil of Ceylon cinnamon, sometimes called “true oil of cinnamon,” made from the bark of the twigs of the cinnamon laurel and formerly imported mainly from Ceylon but now distilled in large amounts in Germany from imported cinnamon “chips,” is rather viscid, golden yellow to reddish-brown in color, of a burning though sweet taste. In the air it138 gradually absorbs oxygen, when it becomes dark red, thicker, and of weaker flavor. Oil of Ceylon cinnamon, which should always be used in perfumes or liqueurs when simply “oil of cinnamon” is directed, has a specific gravity of 1·030 to 1·035 at 15° C. (59° F.) and boils at about 240° C. (464° F.). Its chief constituent upon which its aroma depends is cinnamyl aldehyde.

Oil of Chinese cinnamon, or oil of cassia, has for a very long time, up to within a few years, always reached the market in a more or less adulterated state, a regular practice of the Chinese exporters being to dissolve ordinary resin in it (claiming afterward that the “resin” was caused by the oxidation of the oil through age) and often also to add petroleum to it. These frauds have been well shown up by Schimmel & Co., of Leipsic; and in consequence thereof, the quality of oil of cassia exported from China has been greatly improved. Oil of cassia when pure has a specific gravity of 1·060 to 1·065, and should contain not less than seventy-five per cent of cinnamyl aldehyde.

Oil of cinnamon leaves is an inferior product, often used for adulterating oil of Ceylon cinnamon. It does not deserve notice by the perfumer.

As an appendix we may add in this connection a description of the

because it must be called an important substance to know for the perfumer, inasmuch as it is very frequently used for the adulteration of different essential oils. Oil of turpentine, which is obtained from incisions into the bark of different fir and pine trees, the exuding resin being distilled with water, comes into commerce from various sources. Different sorts are distinguished, but to the perfumer only the rectified oil of turpentine, oleum terebinthinæ rectificatum, is139 important. Oil of turpentine has a yellowish color and a decidedly disagreeable, resinous, and burnt taste. By repeated distillation, especially over quicklime or chloride of lime (bleaching powder), it is finally obtained as a colorless, very refractive liquid with a density of 0·855 to 0·870 and a boiling-point at 160° C. (320° F.). Its odor is peculiar, but not easily distinguished from that of old essential oils, such as oils of caraway, anise, etc. One peculiarity of oil of turpentine is that its odor is easily masked by that of other essential oils, so that, for instance, a comparatively large quantity of oil of turpentine needs the addition of but little oil of anise to impart to the entire mixture a rather pronounced odor of anise. This peculiarity has led to the frequent employment of rectified oil of turpentine for the adulteration of other essential oils.

We find it necessary to devote a special chapter to the adulterations of the commercial essential oils because an experience of many years has shown us that hardly any other group of products is subject to so many sophistications as essential oils. The high price of most aromatic substances and the difficulty of recognizing the adulteration furnish an inviting field to the unscrupulous manufacturer. In the best interest of the perfumer, therefore, we advise the purchase of essential oils only from renowned reliable houses, even at higher prices, for the cheap commercial products are almost worthless, since they are almost without exception adulterated.

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The adulterations are very manifold. Some expensive oils are mixed with cheaper ones having a similar odor—for instance, oil of rose with oil of geranium or oil of geranium grass; oil of orange flowers with the oil from Philadelphus coronarius; oil of verbena with oil of lemon grass; oils of caraway, anise, and fennel with oil of turpentine; oil of cinnamon with oil of cassia, etc. Besides these, other deceptions are practised—for instance, oil of anise is mixed with oil of turpentine and in order to make the mixture congeal readily (which is the characteristic of true oil of anise, as above stated) paraffin or spermaceti is added. A similar practice prevails with adulterated oil of rose and other viscid oils. Oil of bitter almond we have found adulterated with or entirely replaced by nitrobenzol, etc.

The demonstration of the adulteration of an essential oil by chemical means offers many difficulties. We devote particular attention to the physical characteristics, for experience has shown us that the olfactory organ—provided it is very expert—is often able to determine the genuineness of any aromatic substance when other tests have given only uncertain results, or can give certain results only in the hands of experts. To make this test, however, quite reliable, it is necessary to be familiar with the substances in their pure unadulterated condition.

The manufacturer of perfumery, therefore, should spare neither trouble nor pecuniary sacrifices to obtain possession of absolutely genuine specimens of those essential oils, even in minute quantities, which he intends to employ. Such samples should be carefully preserved (protected from heat, evaporation, daylight, etc.) for the purpose of immediate comparison with the oils to be purchased.

As above stated, the physical properties of the essential oils usually furnish the means of recognizing their purity, and these give more reliable results to the practical perfumer than141 the chemical tests. The most valuable points are furnished by the boiling-point, the congealing-point, and the density of the oils. The following table gives the boiling and congealing points of the most important essential oils in degrees of the centigrade thermometer, together with the density (or specific gravity); where two figures are given, they indicate the extreme limits found in genuine samples.

Special characteristics of some essential oils with reference to their action at low temperatures or their melting-point are given in the column “Remarks.”

Oil of turpentine, paraffin, wax, and spermaceti being frequently used for the adulteration of essential oils, have been included in the table.

If accurate results are aimed at in the examination of an essential oil according to this table, the specific gravity should be determined by means of a scale sensitive to one one-thousandth gram, and the thermometer should be graduated to the tenth of a degree.

Table Showing the Approximate Density, Boiling and Congealing Points of the most Important Essential Oils Used in Perfumery.

In buying essential oils, except it be from a house whose reputation is a guaranty of their genuineness, it is to the interest of the perfumer to make a test. He must look for certain substances which are generally used for the sophistication of essential oils. These are: A. Other essential oils; B. Fixed oils; C. Alcohol; D. Paraffin, spermaceti, wax.

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This mode of adulteration, which is frequent, is naturally the one most difficult of demonstration. In the case of cheap oils such as those of caraway, lemon, orange peel, etc., rectified oil of turpentine is almost without exception the adulterant. The methods usually recommended, such as attempting to dissolve out the oil of turpentine by strong alcohol, hoping thus to separate it from the essential oil, are without practical value.

The adulteration can, however, often be demonstrated by rubbing a drop of the suspected oil on a glass plate and testing the odor, provided the olfactory organ is trained. As the above table shows, the oils have different high boiling-points, while oil of turpentine boils at a rather low temperature, hence it evaporates sooner than the others and can be demonstrated by its odor.

The demonstration of an adulteration with an essential oil is most certain by so-called fractional distillation. Some of the oil to be examined (about four to six fluidrachms) is placed in a small retort with condenser and heated to a temperature a few degrees below the boiling-point of the oil in question. If, for instance, oil of bergamot adulterated with oil of turpentine is to be tested, it is heated carefully to nearly 188° C. (370° F.), the boiling-point of the oil of bergamot; the oil of turpentine which boils at 160° C. (320° F.) passes over completely, while the oil of bergamot remains in the retort.

Fractional distillation is also the most reliable way of demonstrating an adulteration with a fixed oil or with paraffin, wax, or spermaceti. An adulteration of oil of lavender with oil of spike-lavender, which is otherwise barely recognizable, is positively shown by this method; even oil of geranium in144 oil of rose, oil of cassia in oil of cinnamon, etc., may be thus demonstrated.

An addition of fixed oils can be easily demonstrated by agitation of the oil with strong alcohol in which the essential oil dissolves, while the fixed oil remains unchanged. Castor oil, however, is likewise soluble in alcohol and for this reason is frequently used for the adulteration of essential oils. Yet the presence of a fixed oil can also be shown in a very simple manner by placing a drop of the suspected oil upon white paper and leaving it for some hours in a warm spot. If the oil was pure, the translucent stain on the paper will disappear completely (also when the oil was adulterated with turpentine); but if it was mixed with a fixed oil, the stain will remain permanently and cannot be removed from the paper even by strong heat.

This frequent adulteration is demonstrated either by fractional distillation, when the alcohol passes over first between 70° and 80° C. (158° and 176° F.), or by the use of the vessel illustrated in Fig. 31, which is divided into 100 equal parts.

The vessel is filled to the tenth division with the oil to be tested, and water is added to bring the volume to the 50 mark. If alcohol is present, it is taken up by the water so that the volume of oil appears to diminish. If the oil reaches to the mark 7, it contained three volumes of alcohol, or in other words it was mixed with thirty per cent of alcohol. It is true, essential oils likewise dissolve somewhat in water, but in such minute quantities as not to affect the success of the test.

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This mode of adulteration is practised mainly with viscid oils which congeal at rather high temperatures, such as oils of anise, rose, etc., the essential oils being usually mixed at the same time with oil of turpentine or paraffin. The fraud is easily detected by fractional distillation.

Oil of bitter almonds is often adulterated with oil of mirbane; this can be demonstrated by shaking 1 volume of the oil with 17 volumes of alcohol of 45%, and setting the mixture aside to settle. The nitrobenzol (oil of mirbane) will then collect at the bottom. Oil of Rose may be tested as follows: Mix the oil with an equal quantity of concentrated sulphuric acid. Neither the color nor the odor of the oil should be changed, but if oil of geranium was present a disagreeable odor and a darker color is produced.

It has been proposed, too, to test the oils by heating with iodine or nitric acid and determining the purity by the reaction; but the results with the different oils are so similar that the test is almost worthless. We have had the same experience with the test by nitro-prusside of copper which on being heated with essential oils gives colored precipitates differing with various oils, but still so similar that they cannot be relied upon. We have found in all cases that a comparison of an oil with a sample of known purity is the best, or else the tests given in the preceding pages.

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The term essence or extract in perfumery means a solution of an aromatic substance in strong alcohol. These solutions are generally made as concentrated as possible and in this form find application in the manufacture of handkerchief perfumes and of certain odors bearing a special name. The so-called extrait d’œillet, extract of pink, or the favorite perfumes known as new-mown hay have nothing in common with either pink or hay except the name; like many other odors, both are merely mixtures of different essences or extracts.

Besides the manufacture of true perfumes, essences or extracts are also used for scenting fine soaps, sachets, mouth washes, etc. For the latter, too, use is often made of the so-called aromatic waters (eaux aromatisées) which are obtained as a by-product in the distillation of fragrant plants, and have a very fine odor owing to the small amount of the aromatic substance they hold in solution. To this class belong orange-flower water (Aqua Naphæ triplex, eau de fleurs d’oranges), peppermint water (Aqua Menthæ, eau de menthe), and many others.

Essences or extracts can be made in two ways: in the case of aromatic substances which are obtainable in the pure state—that is, essential oils—by dissolving them in strong alcohol in definite proportions; in the case of aromatics combined with a fatty substance by one of the processes described above, by treating the pomade (lard, or other perfectly bland, sweet, and in itself odorless fat combined with the aromatic)147 or huile antique (fixed oil holding the aromatic substance in solution) with the strongest alcohol.

According to the action of the alcohol upon the pomade or huile antique at ordinary or higher temperature, the process is called cold or warm infusion. Cold infusion furnishes the odor in a much more delicate and superior form than the warm. The cold infusion requires for complete solution of the aromatic four to six weeks; the warm, ten to fourteen days. Although the former consumes a much longer time, it is to be preferred, as the heat injures the odor. Pomades or huiles antiques are never completely exhausted by a single treatment with alcohol. Even when heat is employed they always retain a portion of the aromatic with great tenacity; a second and third infusion still abstracts odor from them, and finally nothing remains but pure fat with a pleasant odor which is stained and sold commercially as pomade under the name of the respective odor—violet, orange flower, reseda, etc.—or else is used over again in the factory for the extraction of flowers.

Experience has shown us that it is best to infuse the pomades or huiles antiques twice in the cold and to use the two fluids united for the finest perfumes; the residue by warm infusion furnishes an essence of second quality, and superior pomades or fragrant oils. The infusion is generally effected in strong glass bottles of a capacity of three to five gallons; about five to six quarts of cologne spirit being poured over six to eight pounds or pints of fat or huile antique.

In treating huiles antiques all parts of the oil should be brought into contact with the alcohol as much as possible, hence the bottles must be frequently shaken; a better plan is to bring the tightly closed bottles into an apparatus in which they are constantly agitated by rotation. Such an apparatus is easily made by placing the bottles in an inclined position between two rods fastened to a common axis which is kept148 revolving. The adjoining illustration (Fig. 32) shows such a contrivance which is required also in the manufacture of perfumes. The rotation may be effected by clockwork, water power, or any other motor.

Pomades being solid must be divided into small pieces which may be done with a knife, but the following procedure is more suitable and less laborious. The pomade is placed in a tin cylinder four inches wide and about a foot high, which is open at one end, the other being closed with a tin plate having several fine openings. The cylinder filled with pomade is set upon the bottle containing the alcohol for extraction, and the pomade is pressed through the openings in the shape of thin threads by means of a piston.

In this way, of course, the pomade acquires a very large surface and rapidly yields the aromatic substance to the alcohol. The odor of the pomade differs according to the length of time which it has been subjected to the flowers, and on being treated with alcohol furnishes extracts of corresponding strength. This should be borne in mind in the manufacture of perfumes which are intended to be uniform in quality.

After two cold and one warm infusion of the pomade, it may be made to yield some more aromatic material by heating it carefully to its exact melting-point, when extract again149 appears on the surface and can be poured off by gentle inclination of the vessel.

In the following pages we give the proportions by weight and measure employed by the most important French, English, and German manufacturers for their pomade extracts or solutions of the essential oils in alcohol. As to the latter we again repeat that it must be over 88 to 90% strength according to Tralles or even stronger, and that it must be absolutely free from any trace of amyl alcohol (potato fusel oil), the least amount of which impairs the delicacy of the odor. In this country (the United States) there is no difficulty whatever in obtaining alcohol of proper strength. The market offers scarcely any other but that of 94%. Of course deodorized alcohol, or so-called Cologne spirit should be used. Grain and wine spirits are the kinds which when rectified are to be preferred to all others. All the citron oils (i.e., oils of lemon, bergamot, and those with similar odor), rose oils (oils of rose, geranium, and rhodium), and many other sweet scents are most fragrant when dissolved in pure spirit of wine, while the odors from the animal kingdom and those of violet (violet and orris root) smell sweetest when dissolved in grain spirit.

The essences prepared from pomades or huiles antiques usually contain in solution some fat which is best removed by cooling. To this end the vessels containing the essences are placed in a vat and surrounded with pellets of ice and crystals of chloride of calcium. By this mixture the temperature can be reduced below-20° C. (-4° F.), and after some time the fats are deposited in a solid form at the bottom of the vessel. This is then taken from the vat and the essence carefully poured from the sediment.

The alcoholic extracts of the pomades or solutions of the aromatics are called essences or extracts (French, extraits); the solutions obtained from resins and balsams are usually termed tinctures.

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While some extracts, owing to their strong odor, can be used only when diluted with alcohol, others are employed in perfumes as such. Pure extracts (extraits purs) are those containing only a single odor and are but rarely used as perfumes; the latter are usually mixtures of several, often a great many odors.

Note.—There is considerable confusion, in works on perfumery, regarding the terms essence and extract. In French works, essence always means “essential oil.” Thus “essence de rose” is “essential oil of roses,” or “attar (otto) of roses.” Extrait (French) is used of alcoholic solutions of oils, as well as alcoholic extracts of pomades, or of substances not wholly soluble in alcohol, and also of compound liquids. In English, essence is used, and should be confined to alcoholic solutions of essential oils (“essence of lemon,” “essence of peppermint”). It is, then, equivalent to the term “spirit,” which is also used only of alcoholic solutions of essential oils or other volatile substance (such as: spirit of peppermint, essence of peppermint; spirit of camphor, etc.). Liquid alcoholic extracts of substances not wholly soluble in alcohol are properly called tinctures (for instance, tincture of benzoin, tincture of musk); and liquid alcoholic extracts of pomades, or compound odorous liquids, are best comprised under the general term extracts.

We shall employ the terms essence, extract, and tincture in the sense here explained.

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Extract of cassie has a fine green color—a fact which is not desirable in perfumes intended for the handkerchief because colored preparations leave stains. However, extract of cassie is rarely used pure, but is generally mixed with other odors for handkerchief perfumes, whereby the color is so much diluted that it may be disregarded. This extract—and the same remark applies to all the others—immediately after its preparation must be put into tightly closed vessels and preserved in the coolest attainable dark place; for light, air, and heat must be called the destroyers of perfumes, since the most delightful odors eventually disappear under their influence.

For the benefit of manufacturers who import this extract from Southern France, the main source of supply, we may add that the word cassie or extrait de cassie, derived from the flowers of Acacia farnesiana, might readily give rise to confusion with extrait de cassia, made from the bark of the cinnamon cassia.

The ambergris should be broken into small pieces with a chopping knife repeatedly moistened with alcohol, and allowed to digest in the alcohol for some weeks at a temperature of about 30° C. (86° F.).

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This tincture is not so much used for handkerchief perfumes as for preserving many pomades, as it possesses the valuable property of preventing fats from becoming rancid.

This essence has a pleasant odor, but it is not valued as a true perfume; though if it is mixed with other essences or extracts until its characteristic odor is no longer recognizable it furnishes a very useful basis for many cheap articles.

This essence made from the oil is colorless and can be used immediately for handkerchief perfumes.

This is made by digesting finely rasped cedar wood with strong alcohol, namely:

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The result is a fragrant tincture with a beautiful deep red color which cannot be employed for handkerchief perfumes, but for many cosmetic preparations such as mouth washes and for scenting soap.

The genuine is seldom made; the preparation sold under this name consists of:

Of late, extract of lilac is often prepared by means of lilacin or terpineol, as follows:

Extract of Honeysuckle (Extrait de Chèvre-feuille).

The author has made this extract by treating the pomade prepared from the flowers of Lonicera Caprifolium, in the following proportion:

The commercial extract of this name is always a com154pound which may be prepared according to the following formula:

In the commercial article the essence of lemon grass is often substituted for the essence of geranium, the odor being similar, though less delicate.

The cucumbers are peeled, cut into thin slices, and macerated in the warm alcohol. If the odor is not strong enough in the alcohol after some days, it is poured over some more fresh slices, the macerated residue is expressed, and at the end of the operation all the liquids are united and filtered.

This has thus far been manufactured only by French perfumers at very high prices; the great majority of the so-called extracts of heliotrope are compounded from:

This is used as a perfume as such.

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More recently, piperonal, under the name heliotropin, is used for making this extract—

It is necessary to blend this with various other aromatics in order to cover the pronounced odor. A little cumarin is usually of great help. But is it impossible, as yet, to give reliable proportions which would suit all cases.

A far superior essence may be prepared by the distillation of:

The distillation is continued until one-half of the entire liquid has passed over; the residue in the still furnishes an essence of lavender of the second quality.

The genuine odor can be made only from the pomade; the commercial extract consists of:

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As to this delightful odor the remark made under the preceding head applies likewise; artificial extract of lily consists of:

This favorite perfume is a mixture of:

This tincture is of special importance, not so much because of its odor as on account of its useful property of fixing other very volatile odors.

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Owing to the small yield of essential oil furnished on distillation by the myrtle and the comparatively high price of the oil of myrtle, nearly all the extract of myrtle is prepared artificially, as follows:

In perfumery, two extracts of narcissus are distinguished—true extract of narcissus, from the flowers of the garden plant, Narcissus poeticus, and the so-called extract of jonquille, from Narcissus Jonquilla, which is cultivated in Southern France and whose odor is obtained by maceration. Genuine extract of narcissus is even more rarely obtainable than extract of jonquille; the odors of both are imitated, mainly according to the following prescriptions:

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This pleasant odor occurs in commerce only as an imitation.

The oil of clove which determines the characteristic odor of this extract is dissolved in a little alcohol; of this solution enough is gradually added to the mixture until the odor has become sufficiently strong.

The latter preparation is also called “essence of neroli.”

The extract prepared from the pomade furnishes this highly esteemed odor of a delicacy never to be approached by that made with oil. The alcoholic extract of the pomade perfumed with the flowers of Syringa (Philadelphus coronarius) also occurs in commerce as extract of orange flowers or neroli.

This pure essence of patchouly has not a very pleasant odor; that made according to the following formula is far superior.

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This tincture, though of a very pleasant odor, can be used only for scenting soap or sachets, as it has a very dark brown color; by distilling alcohol over Peru balsam a colorless extract is obtained, though of a fainter odor.

This extract, made almost exclusively in Southern France by maceration of the pomade, is but rarely met with in commerce; what passes under this name is made as follows:

The addition of the tincture of tolu is necessary here, owing to the extraordinary volatility of the delightful odor of mignonette, which is lessened by the addition of tincture of tolu.

In commerce several sorts of essence or extract of rose are distinguished; only the cheaper grades are made by direct solution of the oil of rose in alcohol, the better grades are prepared only from pomades. As the rose is the noblest of flow160ers, so are these odors the most magnificent thus far produced by the art of perfumery, since they are approached in delicacy and fragrance only by the genuine extracts of orange flower and violet. The so-called rose waters (eaux de rose) are best obtained by distillation of fresh or salted rose leaves with water. The preceding formulæ will show that both extract of rose and rose water form important constituents of many compound essences, hence these materials require special attention. In the following pages we enumerate only those formulæ which are acknowledged as the best and furnish the finest product. As rose water likewise belongs among the rose odors we give directions for its preparation, and observe in passing that the precautions required in the manufacture of this one apply also to all aromatic waters (eaux aromatisées). The first essential to the production of a fine aromatic water is the employment of the freshest possible flowers; when kept in stock, chemical changes occur in the leaves which affect also the aromatic constituents and lead to a deterioration of the fragrance. Hence we urgently recommend to distil the freshly gathered flowers as soon as possible, even if the quantity on hand be small. Should this not be feasible, it is advisable to press the flowers immediately after gathering in stone-ware pots and to pour over them a saturated solution of table salt. A concentrated saline solution prevents decomposition by the abstraction of water; and thus larger quantities of flowers may be gathered and distilled with the salt solution. The majority of aromatic waters are prepared in this way, for instance, rose, jasmine, lilac, and others. They enter less into handkerchief perfumes than into various mouth and other washes, and cosmetics in general.

Mix them, and by means of steam, distil 10 pints.

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The rose leaves are, of course, preferably to be used while fresh. If they are to be preserved for future use, they should be packed in stone-ware jars, and covered with a solution of common salt. This is poured off before distillation, but used over again for the same purpose.

Essence of [Oil of] Rose (Esprit de Roses Triple).

This essence is not so good as the extract.

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Though this tincture has a pleasant odor, it is not ordinarily used by itself, but for fixing other odors.

The remark made under tincture of storax applies also to this.

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This extract is very expensive; a good imitation is made as follows:

This tincture is sold as a very cheap violet perfume, but it has also considerable value to perfumery in general, owing to its fixing power.

True oil of verbena is rather expensive. Hence artificial compositions are employed under the name of verbena which resemble the true odor, though not exactly like it.

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This extract is cheap and is used immediately as a perfume. The extract usually sold under the French name Extrait de verveine is more expensive and far superior:

As already explained, if hand-pressed oil of lemon (made by the écuelle process) is available, then the “oil of citron zeste” (which is this particular kind of oil) and the “oil of lemon” may be simply added together; that is, 9½ oz. of oil of lemon are used.

This extract is no more derived from the fragrant blossom whose name it bears than are those of the lily, pink, and others met with in commerce. It is prepared according to the following formula:

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Tincture of Olibanum (Extrait d’Oliban, Extrait d’Encens).

This essence is more commonly sold under the English than the French name. Its composition is the following:

Tincture of civet is exceedingly lasting and is generally employed for fixing other odors. As to the quantity required to fix perfumes in general, we may state that it varies with the nature of the odor. As a rule, about one-sixteenth part of tincture of civet suffices for even the most volatile perfumes.

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Owing to the yellow color left upon handkerchiefs by perfumes prepared with this extract, it can be used only for common goods, but it is more frequently employed for scenting soaps.

According to the purposes for which they are intended, the various articles of perfumery may be divided into several groups. They are:

A. Liquid.—Alcoholic handkerchief perfumes. Among these are the so-called extracts, bouquets, and waters. Ammoniacal and acid perfumes: aromatic vinegars and volatile ammoniacal salts.

B. Dry.—Sachet powders, fumigating pastils and powders.

Emulsions, crêmes, perfumed soaps, toilet waters, nail powders.

Hair oils, pomades, hair washes.

Preparations for the Care of the Mouth.

Tooth powders, mouth washes.

Paints, powders, hair dyes, depilatories, etc.

In connection with the description of these different articles some remarks will be made about the colors employed in perfumery and about the utensils used with the cosmetics, such as combs, brushes, sponges, etc.

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The manufacture of handkerchief perfumes is very simple: the extracts prepared as directed in Chapter XI. are mixed in definite proportions and the perfume is finished. If the extracts are well seasoned, the perfumes blend in perfect harmony within a few days, and this time may be even shortened by the use of the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 32. If the extracts have been but recently prepared, a longer time will be required before the odor of the alcohol and the several constituents is imperceptible and all odors have blended into a harmonious whole.

If the manufacturer can afford to allow the finished extracts and perfumes to season for some length of time—of course, in well-closed and completely filled vessels—in a cool place, they will improve markedly in quality. Perfumes which contain but a single odor or in which a certain odor distinctly predominates are usually called by the name of the respective plant, etc., under a French title, e.g., extrait de violette, extrait de reséda, etc. Combinations of many odors which produce an agreeable impression as a whole, while no one odor predominates, are called bouquets or waters; for instance, Bouquet de Jockey Club, Eau de Mille Fleurs, Cologne Water, Hungarian Water, etc.

The mixture of the extracts is effected in strong glass bottles of a capacity exactly adapted to the perfume, so as to be completely filled. For perfumes which require seasoning to make the odors blend we use small glass balls of which enough168 are introduced into the bottle to make the mixture rise into the neck of the container which is then closed air-tight and preserved in a dark, cool place.

Of course, all perfumes should be perfectly clear and free from turbidity. The extracts made from pomades or essential oils are clear and furnish perfumes that remain so; extracts prepared from balsams or resins should be allowed to stand at rest for several weeks and then be carefully decanted from the sediment. Filtration should be dispensed with unless absolutely unavoidable, on account of the large amount of oxygen with which the extract would thereby come in contact, to the detriment of the odor.

The bottles in which the perfumes are mixed, as well as those in which they are put up for sale, must be perfectly dry, as a very small amount of water often suffices to separate a portion of the aromatics and to render the liquid turbid or opalescent.

Fine perfumes are always sold in glass vessels with ground-glass stoppers; cork has a peculiar odor which it would communicate to the liquid. For the more perfect exclusion of the air the stoppers and bottle necks are moreover covered with animal membrane, sheet rubber, or vegetable parchment, with an outer cap of white glove leather.

In the case of very expensive perfumes, much care is bestowed on the container; certain perfumes are filled into bottles of peculiar form and color, or into small porcelain jars provided with corresponding labels printed in gold and colors. Sometimes the container costs many times the price of the perfume. But as the finest perfumes are articles of luxury in the truest sense of the word, they require extreme care in their putting up; and good taste in the selection of the containers for fluids, pomades, cosmetics, powders, etc., is of as much importance to the perfumer as the possession of a sensitive and trained olfactory organ.

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In the following formulas for the preparation of bouquets, the words extract, essence, and tincture have the same meaning as was explained under Chapter XI. For cheap perfumes the corresponding essential oils dissolved in alcohol, that is, the corresponding “essence,” is employed in place of the true “extract.”