This is a modern-English version of Among Cannibals: An Account of Four Years' Travels in Australia and of Camp Life With the Aborigines of Queensland, originally written by Lumholtz, Carl. It has been thoroughly updated, including changes to sentence structure, words, spelling, and grammar—to ensure clarity for contemporary readers, while preserving the original spirit and nuance. If you click on a paragraph, you will see the original text that we modified, and you can toggle between the two versions.

Scroll to the bottom of this page and you will find a free ePUB download link for this book.

Transcriber’s Note:

Note from the Transcriber:

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

The cover image was made by the transcriber and is available in the public domain.

AMONG CANNIBALS

AMONG CANNIBALS
 
A STORY OF
Four Years Traveling in Australia and Living in Camps with the Aboriginal People of Queensland

BY
CARL LUMHOLTZ, M.A.
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF NORWAY
TRANSLATED BY
Rasmus B. Anderson
Former U.S. Minister to Denmark
WITH PORTRAIT, MAPS, 4 CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHS, AND WOODCUTS
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
1889
Copyright, 1889, by
SCRIBNER'S BOOKS
TROW'S
Printing and Bookbinding Co.,
NYC.
TO
Paul B. Du Chaillu,
THE CELEBRATED EXPLORER OF AFRICA
AND
THE GREAT FRIEND OF SCANDINAVIA’S PAST AND PRESENT
AS EVINCED BY
‘THE LAND OF THE MIDNIGHT SUN’ AND ‘THE VIKING AGE’
THIS ENGLISH EDITION IS MOST RESPECTFULLY
DEDICATED
BY
THE AUTHOR
vii

AUTHOR’S PREFACE

In the year 1880 I undertook an expedition to Australia, partly at the expense of the University of Christiania, with the object of making collections for the zoological and zootomical museums of the University, and of instituting researches into the customs and anthropology of the little-known native tribes which inhabit that continent.

In 1880, I went on a trip to Australia, partly funded by the University of Christiania, to collect specimens for the university's zoological and zootomical museums and to study the customs and anthropology of the little-known native tribes living on that continent.

At the commencement of my travels, which occupied four years, I spent some time in the south-eastern colonies, South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales; and succeeded in establishing connections with the museums in the cities of Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, and I may add that everywhere I met with the most cordial reception. I am particularly indebted to the distinguished botanist Baron Ferd. von Mueller, of Melbourne; to Fred. M‘Coy, Professor of Zoology and Mineralogy in Melbourne University; and to Dr. E. P. Ramsay, Director of the Museum in Sydney.

At the beginning of my travels, which lasted four years, I spent some time in the southeastern colonies—South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales. I managed to establish connections with the museums in the cities of Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, and I can say that I received a warm welcome everywhere I went. I'm especially grateful to the renowned botanist Baron Ferd. von Mueller in Melbourne, to Fred. M‘Coy, Professor of Zoology and Mineralogy at Melbourne University, and to Dr. E. P. Ramsay, Director of the Museum in Sydney.

More than ten months from November 1880 to August 1881 were spent by me at the fine station of Gracemere in Central Queensland, belonging to Messrs. Archer and Co. Both here and elsewhere I was indebted to various members of the Archer family for kindnesses, which in many ways aided me in my work. I was placed under similar obligations viiito Walter J. Scott, Esq., the proprietor of the Valley of Lagoons station in Northern Queensland. To all these gentlemen I desire to express my sincere gratitude.

More than ten months, from November 1880 to August 1881, were spent by me at the nice station of Gracemere in Central Queensland, owned by Archer and Co. I was grateful to various members of the Archer family for their kindness, which helped me with my work in many ways. I also owe similar thanks to Walter J. Scott, the owner of the Valley of Lagoons station in Northern Queensland. I want to express my sincere gratitude to all these gentlemen. viii

In August 1881 I entered upon my first journey of discovery, in the course of which I penetrated about 800 miles into Western Queensland, but the results in nowise corresponded to the hardships I had to endure.

In August 1881, I embarked on my first journey of discovery, during which I traveled about 800 miles into Western Queensland, but the results did not match the hardships I had to endure.

I thereupon selected Northern Queensland as the field of my chief exploration, and here I spent fourteen months in constant travel and study. From August 1882 to July 1883 I made my headquarters in the valley of the short but comparatively broad and deep Herbert river, which empties itself into the Pacific Ocean at about 18° S. lat., and there I lived alone among a race of people whose culture—if indeed they can be said to have any culture whatever—must be characterised as the lowest to be found among the whole genus homo sapiens. Not only are many of the Australian aborigines cannibals, but most of the tribes have not yet emerged from the Stone Age in the history of their development. Others have studied the ethnographic peculiarities of this race; but my predecessors have mainly directed their attention to the tribes of the southern part of Australia, which in many respects have attained a higher intellectual development than their northern kinsmen.

I then chose Northern Queensland as my main area of exploration, where I spent fourteen months in continuous travel and study. From August 1882 to July 1883, I based myself in the valley of the short but relatively broad and deep Herbert River, which flows into the Pacific Ocean at about 18° S. latitude. There, I lived alone among a group of people whose culture—if it can even be called that—is among the most primitive found within the entire genus homo sapiens. Not only are many Australian Aboriginal people cannibals, but most tribes haven't progressed beyond the Stone Age in their development. Others have examined the unique characteristics of this group; however, my predecessors primarily focused on the tribes in the southern part of Australia, which, in many ways, have reached a higher level of intellectual development than their northern relatives.

From my base on the Herbert river I made expeditions in various directions, extending in some instances to nearly 100 miles. The greater part of the volume now offered to the public is devoted to descriptions of my life in the camps of the northern savages in different districts. It has been my purpose to present a faithful picture, based on my own observations, of the life, manners, and customs of the Australian aborigines from their birth and infancy to their ixold age and death; and thus to rescue, for the science of ethnography, facts concerning tribes that have never before come into contact with white men, and that within a generation or two will have disappeared from the face of the earth.

From my base on the Herbert River, I went on trips in various directions, at times covering nearly 100 miles. Most of the content I'm sharing with you now focuses on my experiences living in the camps of the northern indigenous people across different areas. My goal has been to provide an accurate portrayal, based on my own observations, of the life, customs, and traditions of the Australian aborigines from birth and childhood to old age and death; and to gather important information for the field of ethnography about tribes that have never interacted with white people and will likely vanish within a generation or two.

While making these anthropological studies I also succeeded in securing a collection of zoological specimens, some of which are new to science, and all of which may be seen in the museums of the Christiania University. The collection consists mainly of vertebrates, including a considerable number of mammals, which have been described by Professor R. Collett in Zoologischer Jahrbücher, Jena, 1887. I brought home about 700 specimens of birds, a large number of reptiles and batrachians, numerous fishes, also some insects and lower animals. Among other things I discovered four new mammals, which have been described and named by Professor R. Collett in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1884. The four new mammals are: Dendrolagus lumholtzii (the tree-kangaroo); and three opossums, Pseudochirus archeri, Pseudochirus herbertensis, and Pseudochirus lemuroides.

While conducting these anthropological studies, I also managed to gather a collection of zoological specimens, some of which are new to science, and all of which can be viewed at the museums of Christiania University. The collection mainly includes vertebrates, featuring a significant number of mammals that have been documented by Professor R. Collett in Zoological Yearbook, Jena, 1887. I brought back around 700 bird specimens, a large number of reptiles and amphibians, numerous fish, as well as some insects and lower animals. Among other discoveries, I found four new mammals, which have been described and named by Professor R. Collett in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1884. The four new mammals are: Dendrolagus lumholtzii (the tree-kangaroo); and three opossums, Pseudochirus archeri, Pseudochirus herbertensis, and Pseudochirus lemuroides.

In conclusion, I desire to express my obligations to the friends who have helped me in carrying on my work, and in writing this record of it—to Professor Robert Collett and Professor Ossian Sars, of Christiania University, who first encouraged me to undertake the journey, and who never have failed to render me valuable aid and advice; to Dr. H. Reusch and Mr. A. M. Hansen, for their co-operation in drawing up a portion of the appendix to this volume; to Professor R. B. Anderson (late United States Minister to Denmark), for his aid in the preparation of the English edition; to Mr. M. R. Oldfield Thomas, for having revised the scientific names in the proofs for me during my absence xin America; and to Mr. John Murray jun., for his assistance in the correction and supervision of the whole work while passing through the press.

In conclusion, I want to thank the friends who helped me with my work and in writing this record—Professor Robert Collett and Professor Ossian Sars from Christiania University, who first encouraged me to take the journey and have always provided valuable support and advice; Dr. H. Reusch and Mr. A. M. Hansen for their collaboration in preparing part of the appendix for this volume; Professor R. B. Anderson (the former United States Minister to Denmark) for his help with the English edition; Mr. M. R. Oldfield Thomas for reviewing the scientific names in the proofs while I was in America; and Mr. John Murray jun. for his help in correcting and overseeing the entire work during its publication.

Most of the illustrations are by Norwegian and French artists from original photographs, sketches, and specimens brought back by me from Australia.

Most of the illustrations are by Norwegian and French artists based on original photographs, sketches, and specimens I brought back from Australia.

It should be observed that the area marked red on the map as indicating the district explored by me should be extended so as to include Cashmere, Glendhu, the Valley of Lagoons, and all the intervening country.

It should be noted that the area highlighted in red on the map, representing the district I explored, needs to be expanded to include Cashmere, Glendhu, the Valley of Lagoons, and all the surrounding regions.

As a foreigner, I would ask for the kind indulgence of my readers and critics towards any literary shortcomings in this English edition of my work.

As a foreigner, I kindly ask for the understanding of my readers and critics regarding any literary shortcomings in this English edition of my work.

CARL LUMHOLTZ.
London, August 1889.
xi

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
 
Introductory—Voyage to Australia—Arrival at Adelaide—Description of the city—Melbourne, the Queen of the South—Working men—The highest trees in the world—Two of the most common mammals in Australia Pages 1–12
 
CHAPTER II
 
Sydney harbour—Jealousy between Sydney and Melbourne—The Blue Mountains—Brisbane and Rockhampton—First evening in tropical Australia—Gracemere station—Animal and plant life—Vine-scrubs—Excursion into the neighbouring districts—A Norseman who feels cold in Australia 13–30
 
CHAPTER III
 
Journey to Western Queensland—Camping out—Damper (Australian bread)—The song of the magpie—Australian scrubs—Hunting the kangaroo—Devotion of parrots—Station life—Lonely shepherds—Migration of rats—Native justice—Australian fleas—Native mounted police—A remarkable flint instrument—The boomerang 31–52
 
CHAPTER IV
 
Struggle between blacks and whites—116° Fahrenheit—Cool nights—Troubles—Bush-life—How the bushman spends his money—Inundations—Back again to Gracemere—A greedy snake—Courtship in the bush 53–62
 
CHAPTER V
 
xiiJourney to Northern Queensland—Mackay-sugar—Employment of South Sea Islanders—Townsville—A rough northern man—Sugar district on Lower Herbert—Visit to a successful Scandinavian—Blacks near Gardiner’s farm—Nolla-nolla—Spring—Arrival at Herbert Vale 63–75
CHAPTER VI
 
Headquarters at Herbert Vale—Civilised blacks—Domestic life—Nelly the cook—Cats—Swimming in fat—My bill of fare—Killing the bullock—Strong stomachs and bad fare 76–88
 
CHAPTER VII
 
Kāmin (implement for climbing)—On the top of the gum-trees—Hunting the wallaby—The spear of the natives—Bird life in the open country—Jungle-hens—Cassowary 89–99
 
CHAPTER VIII
 
Pleasant companions—Two new mammals—Large scrubs in the Coast Mountains—The lawyer-palm—“Never have a black-fellow behind you”—I decide to live with the blacks—Great expectations—My outfit—Tobacco is money—The baby of the gun 100–111
 
CHAPTER IX
 
My first expedition with the blacks—A night in the forest—Fear of evil spirits—Morning toilet—Maja yarriBorboby—The “lists” of blacks—Warriors in full dress—Swords and shields—Fights—The rights of black women—Abduction of women 112–127
 
CHAPTER X
 
The appearance of the aborigines in the different parts of the continent—My pack-horse in danger—Tracks of the boongary (tree-kangaroo)—Bower-birds—The blacks in rainy weather—Making fire in the scrubs—A messenger from the civilised world—The relations of the various tribes—Tattooing 128–146
 
CHAPTER XI
 
Respect for right of property—New country—My camp—Mountain ascent—Tree-ferns—A dangerous nettle—A night in a cavern—Art among the blacks—Edible larvæ—Omelette aux coléoptères—Music of the blacks—Impudent begging 147–159
 
CHAPTER XII
 
xiiiThe position of women among the blacks—The husband the hunter, and the woman the provider of the family—Black female slaves—“Marking” the wives—A twelve-year-old wife—Considerate husbands—Wives an inheritance—Deserted by my followers—Reasoning power of the blacks—Darkness and rain 160–171
CHAPTER XIII
 
Mongan, a new mammal—For my collection or to feed the blacks?—Natives do not eat raw meat—A young yarri—A meteorite—Fear of attacks—Cannibals on the war-path—The relations between the tribes 172–177
 
CHAPTER XIV
 
Dingo a member of the family—A black who does not smoke—Hunting the flying-squirrel—Diseases among the natives—Their remedies—A splendid offer—Unpleasant companions—Trouble in getting dogs 178–187
 
CHAPTER XV
 
Blacks on the track—A foreign tribe—Native baskets—Two black boys—Bringing up of the children—Pseudochirus lemuroides with its young—The effect of a shot—A native swell—Relationship among the blacks—Their old women 188–200
 
CHAPTER XVI
 
Wild landscape on the Upper Herbert—Kvingan, the devil of the blacks—A fatal eel—Mourning dress—Flight of the blacks—A compromise—Christmas Eve—Lonely—Christmas fare—A “faithful” relative—A welcome wallaby 201–211
 
CHAPTER XVII
 
A wedding—Love among the Australian natives—My first meeting with Yokkai—Big eaters—An accident—Left alone with Yokkai—A difficult descent—Return to Herbert Vale—A new beetle—Friends of the animals 212–222
 
CHAPTER XVIII
 
Native politeness—How a native uses a newspaper—“Fat” living—Painful joy—Boongary, boongary—Veracity of the natives—A short joy—A perfect cure—An offer of marriage—Refusal 223–235
 
CHAPTER XIX
 
xivA festival dance of the blacks—Their orchestra—A plain table—Yokkai wants to become “a white man”—Yokkai’s confession—A dangerous situation—A family drama 236–246
CHAPTER XX
 
Arrival of the native police—The murderer caught—Examination—Jimmy is taken to Cardwell—Flight of the prisoner—The officer of the law—Expedition to the Valley of Lagoons—A mother eats her own child—My authority receives a shock 247–255
 
CHAPTER XXI
 
The rainy season—How the evenings are spent—Hardy children—Mangola-Maggi’s revenge—The crania of the Australians—The expedition to Cardwell—Dalrymple Gap—A scandalous murder—Entry into Cardwell—Yokkai as cook—“Balnglan’s” death—Tobacco cures sorrow 256–268
 
CHAPTER XXII
 
Unpleasantnesses at Herbert Vale—New expeditions—Hunting human flesh—Cannibalism—Human flesh is the greatest delicacy of the Australian blacks—Superstitions in connection with the eating of human flesh—The taste of the cannibals—Cannibalism in Burma 269–274
 
CHAPTER XXIII
 
The burial of the blacks—Black mummies—Sorcerers or wizards—Myths and legends—The doctrine of the Trinity in New South Wales—The belief in a future life among the blacks 275–285
 
CHAPTER XXIV
 
My life in danger—Morbora’s ingratitude—Another danger—My position grows more precarious—The black man’s fondness for imitating 286–292
 
CHAPTER XXV
 
Winter in Northern Queensland—Snakes as food—Hunting snakes—An unexpected guest at night—Yokkai’s first dress—Norway’s “mountains of food”—Departure from Herbert Vale—Farewell to the world of the blacks 293–302
 
CHAPTER XXVI
 
xvMessage sticks—The common origin of the dialects—Remarkably complicated grammar—The language on Herbert river—Comparison of a few dialects 303–313
CHAPTER XXVII
 
Frozen meat—Again in Gracemere—Australian scenery—In a carriole—Hunting the dugong—Cosmopolitan quarters for the night—Cure for nervous diseases—Poisonous rabbits—Marry only a person with good teeth—Bush girls—Mount Morgan 314–324
 
CHAPTER XXVIII
 
A family of zoologists—Flesh-eating kangaroos—How the ant-eater propagates—Civilised natives—Weapons and implements—Civilisation and demoralisation 325–338
 
CHAPTER XXIX
 
Religion—Blacks in the service of the white men—Fickle minds—Settlers and natives on the borders of civilisation—Morality—A life and death struggle—The cruelty of the whites—Future prospects of the Australian natives 339–349

APPENDIX

I. A Brief History of Australia  
  PAGE
  The Condition before the European Discovery 353
 
  History of the Discovery 355
 
  History of the Colonies 359
 
II. Earth Science 366
 
III. Plants 369
 
IV. Wildlife 376
 
INDEX 389
xviThe man-eaters are the wildest of all people and have neither
Thinking they are entitled to justice, they don’t rely on any law; they are indeed nomads.
Herodotus, Book IV, Section 106.
xvii

ILLUSTRATIONS

Portrait of Author in Australian Clothing Frontispiece
PAGE
Black Swan 1
Flinders St, Adelaide 3
View near Adelaide 4
The Library, Melbourne 6
The Governor's House, Melbourne 7
Mother Bear with her Cubs 10
Hunting Opossums To face page 11
Tree ferns in Victoria 11
Sydney Harbour 13
The Blue Mountains 15
Parliament House, Brisbane 17
Frogs (Hyla cærulea) entering a water jar 18
Gracemere Station 20
The Main Building, Gracemere Station 21
In the Rockhampton Area To face page 24
Laughing Kookaburra (Dacelo gigas) 26
Vine scrub near Gracemere To face page 27
Genuine Australian Landscape To face page 29
A Wool Truck 31
Head of “More Pork” (Podargus cuvierii) 32
Kangaroo Hunting To face page 34
Spider paralyzed by a hornet 38
Queensland Native Police 46
Flint knife from the Georgina River with its sheath. 48
Pouch for carrying Pituri 49
Queensland boomerangs 51
Stockman's Whip 53
Rest under a Bottle Tree (Sterculia) 55
xviiiSan people 58
A Squatter's Home 59
Elephant Sugarcane, Mackay 63
My Gordon Setter pointing at a Black Snake. To face page 64
A Native man from Central Queensland, close to Rockhampton. 68
A Native woman from Central Queensland, close to Rockhampton. 69
Nolla-Nollas 73
Strange Position of Natives while resting 77
Nelly in the Kitchen To face page 81
Jacky, a "civilized" Black man 83
Climbing with the help of Kāmin To face page 89
Wallaby Search To face page 92
Wallaby Net from Herbert River 94
The Screw Palm (Pandanus) 95
Young Cassowary 98
Palm Forest in North Queensland 103
A woman from Northern Queensland, close to Townsville 107
My campsite To face page 110
Wooden Shields from North Queensland 120
Fillet or Brow-Band from North Queensland 121
A Warrior in high Spirits just before Borboby starts To face page 122
A Borboby To face page 124
Elderly women safeguarding a fallen warrior 125
A Woman from Maryborough, Central Queensland To face page 129
A young girl from Maryborough, Central Queensland To face page 130
An elderly man from Herbert River 132
A Group of Natives from Herbert River 133
A young boy from Herbert River with decorative scars. 135
Small basket worn around the neck, Herbert River 136
Starting a Fire 141
Jungle Chicken (Megapodius tumulus) 149
Toollah (Pseudochirus archeri)—Coloured plate To face page 152
Edible Bug (Eurynassa australis) 154
Same Larva 154
Natives from Herbert River To face page 163
Rifle Bird (Ptiloris victoriæ) 171
Mongan (Pseudochirus herbertensis)—Coloured plate To face page 173
Yarri (Dasyurus maculatus) 174
Dingo 179
Launch an Expedition To face page 188
xixBasket from North QLD 190
A basket made from soft materials (grass) from Herbert River. 194
Basket from Herbert River, decorated with stripes and dots made from human blood. 195
Yabby (freshwater crayfish) (Pseudochirus lemuroides)—Coloured plate To face page 197
Yellow necklace worn by Black people as a symbol of mourning. 203
Cicada aurora 222
Boongary (Dendrolagus lumholtzii)—Coloured plate To face page 226
All the Dogs were made To face page 229
Kélanmi 233
A bunch of Talegalla feathers 237
A Shell Used as a Decoration 237
Native Dance To face page 238
Striped-faced pouch mouse (Sminthopsis virginiæ) 252
Jimmy 255
A Male Skull from Rockhampton, Central Queensland, viewed from Five Angles 259
Dalrymple Creek To face page 261
An elderly man from Townsville, Northern Queensland 263
Indigenous people on Herbert River 269
Burial in North Queensland 275
A big basket from Northern Queensland for carrying kids. 276
Hunting the Python 293
Snake Feast at My Camp To face page 298
A Message Stick from Central Queensland 304
Other Side of the Same 304
Message Stick, with Explanation of the Inscription 304
The Freezing Establishment, Lakes Creek, close to Rockhampton 314
A wire harpoon tip 317
A wooden plug 317
A wooden harpoon tip 317
The Dugong, or Aussie Sea-Cow (Halicore dugong) 319
Near the coast of Central Queensland. Jabiru in the foreground. To face page 323
Mount Morgan Gold Mine To face page 324
Nephrurus asper 325
Natives from the Rockhampton Area 330
Browband from Central Queensland 331
Opossum Discussion 332
xxApron made from possum yarn 332
Shields from Central QLD 333
Wooden Sword from Central QLD 334
Bendi from Coomooboolaroo 334
Crystalline Axe from Peak Downs in Central Queensland 335
A Spear from the Coast of Central Queensland 335
"King Billy of Gracemere" with his "Gin" (wife) 337
Civilized Girls from the Townsville Area 341
"The lonely elderly," locals from the Townsville area. 344
Indigenous police dispersing the Black community To face page 348
Cook's Monument in Sydney 356
A large fossilized sea shell from Western Queensland (Inoceramus maximus) 367
Leaves, Flowers, and Fruit of Eucalyptus amygdalina 370
An Aussie Spruce (Araucaria bidwillii) 372
The Tea Tree (Melaleuca Leucadendron) 373
Chlamydosaurus kingii 376
Wild Geese from North QLD (Anseranas melanoleuca) To face page 383
Egg of Daphnia lumholtzii 386
Daphnia lumholtzii 386
Cyclestheria hislopi 387
Shell of a Cyclestheria hislopi 388
 
Australia Map At end
Map showing the Author’s Travels in Queensland
1

BLACK SWAN.

Black Swan.

CHAPTER I

Introductory—Voyage to Australia—Arrival at Adelaide—Description of the city—Melbourne, the Queen of the South—Working men—The highest trees in the world—Two of the most common mammals in Australia.

Introductory—Trip to Australia—Arrival in Adelaide—Overview of the city—Melbourne, the Queen of the South—Laborers—The tallest trees in the world—Two of the most common mammals found in Australia.

On May 24, 1880, I went on board the barque Einar Tambarskjelver bound from Snar Island near Christiania to Port Adelaide with a cargo of planed lumber. I carried with me a hunter’s outfit, guns, ammunition, and other articles necessary for the chase, furnished me by the University of Norway, as well as some northern bird skins in order to inaugurate exchange with Australian museums. Sailing in the north-east trade-winds, a sunset in the tropics, or a mild starlit night on the ocean with a blazing phosphorescent sea, do not fail to make a strong impression. Then passing the pacific belt of the ocean, where a dead calm is suddenly interrupted by the most violent storm, you soon reach, by the aid of the south-east trades, the region of the westerly winds. The Southern Cross and the cloud of 2Magellan, the gigantic sperm-whale, whose huge head now and then appeared above the surface of the water, and the albatross, whose glorious flight we never ceased to admire, heralded our arrival within the limits of the Southern Ocean. Cape-doves, albatrosses, and gulls accompanied us for weeks together. The passage had, however, at times its dark sides. On August 17, at six o’clock in the morning, we were overtaken by a most violent gale. All the sails, except the close-reefed topsails and foresail, were taken in. We shipped many seas. The stairs to the quarter-deck were crushed; one wave broke through two doors in the companion-way to the steerage, another set all the water-casks afloat in the maddest confusion, a third filled the galley, so that the cook found himself waist-deep in water. The fire was extinguished, and the food was mixed with the salt water. Several times the seas broke through our main cabin door, filling my cabin with water, making boots, socks, books, and other articles swim about in all directions.

On May 24, 1880, I boarded the barque Einar Tambarskjelver, which was headed from Snar Island near Christiania to Port Adelaide with a cargo of planed lumber. I took with me a hunting outfit, guns, ammunition, and other gear necessary for the hunt, provided by the University of Norway, as well as some northern bird skins to kick off exchanges with Australian museums. Sailing with the northeast trade winds, witnessing a sunset in the tropics or enjoying a calm starlit night over the ocean with a glowing phosphorescent sea leaves a lasting impression. Then, as we passed through the calm zone of the ocean, where a stillness is suddenly shattered by a fierce storm, we quickly reached the area of the westerly winds, aided by the southeast trades. The Southern Cross and the Magellanic Cloud, the massive sperm whale whose huge head occasionally broke the surface, and the albatross, whose magnificent flight we continually admired, signaled our arrival in the Southern Ocean. Cape doves, albatrosses, and gulls kept us company for weeks. However, the journey had its darker moments. On August 17, at six in the morning, we were caught in a fierce gale. All the sails, except the close-reefed topsails and foresail, were taken down. We took on a lot of water. The stairs to the quarter-deck were smashed; one wave crashed through two doors in the companionway to the steerage, another sent all the water barrels floating in chaotic disarray, and a third filled the kitchen, leaving the cook stranded in waist-deep water. The fire went out, and the food became mixed with saltwater. Several times, waves broke through the main cabin door, flooding my cabin with water and sending boots, socks, books, and other items floating everywhere.

On a long journey one gets tired of the sea, this “desert of water,” as the Arab calls it—and we long to set foot again on terra firma. According to the calculations of the captain we were fifty geographical miles from the coast of Australia, when one morning we perceived for the first time the smell of land, in this instance a peculiarly bitter but mildly aromatic odour, as of fragrant resin. This fragrance, doubtless, came from the acacias, which at this time were in full bloom. For by the aid of the wind these trees, particularly Acacia fragrans, diffuse the fragrance of their flowers to a great distance, and this morning there was blowing a fresh, damp breeze directly from the land.

On a long journey, you get tired of the sea, this “desert of water,” as the Arab calls it—and we yearn to set foot on solid ground again. According to the captain's calculations, we were fifty nautical miles from the coast of Australia when one morning we caught our first whiff of land, which had a uniquely bitter but mildly aromatic scent, like fragrant resin. This smell likely came from the acacias, which were in full bloom at the time. Thanks to the wind, these trees, especially Acacia fragrans, spread the fragrance of their flowers over long distances, and that morning there was a fresh, damp breeze blowing directly from the land.

On the afternoon of August 29 we got sight of land. In the evening we saw the lighthouse on Kangaroo Island; followed by dolphins we navigated through Investigator Straits, and on the afternoon of the next day we anchored outside Port Adelaide. As it was raining, we contented ourselves with viewing the town from the distance. Our eyes involuntarily rested on a number of chimneys, an evidence of extensive manufactories.

On the afternoon of August 29, we spotted land. In the evening, we saw the lighthouse on Kangaroo Island; following dolphins, we made our way through Investigator Straits. The next afternoon, we anchored outside Port Adelaide. Since it was raining, we were satisfied to look at the town from a distance. Our eyes naturally fell on several chimneys, a sign of large factories.

3

FLINDERS STREET, ADELAIDE.

Flinders Street, Adelaide.

What most interested me here was the Botanical Garden, which I visited the same day. The weather was splendid, the rays of the sun were reflected in large ponds, where the water-fowl were swimming among papyrus and Babylonian weeping-willows. The parrots chattered in their cages, and displayed their brilliant plumage; the birds sang in the cultivated bushes of the garden, and the frogs croaked with that harsh, strong note, which seems especially developed in tropical lands. There was a life, a throng, an assemblage of dazzling colours, which could not but make a deep impression on a person whose eyes for a hundred days had seen nothing but sky and water.

What caught my attention the most was the Botanical Garden, which I visited the same day. The weather was amazing, and the sunlight was shining on the large ponds where the waterfowl were swimming among the papyrus and Babylonian weeping willows. The parrots were chatting in their cages, showing off their bright feathers; the birds were singing in the cultivated bushes of the garden, and the frogs were croaking with that strong, harsh sound that seems to be especially prominent in tropical regions. There was a vibrant life, a crowd, a mix of dazzling colors that left a deep impression on someone whose eyes had only seen sky and water for a hundred days.

This fine garden contains forty-five acres, and is excellently managed by Dr. R. Schomburgk, celebrated for his travels in British Guiana. In the “palm-house,” built of glass and iron, are found tropical plants. The most beautiful and most imposing part of the park is the so-called garden of roses, a large square enclosure surrounded by garlands of tastefully-arranged climbing roses. Here is an abundance of varieties, beginning with the tallest rose-bushes and ending with the smallest dwarf-roses, and the colours vary from the most dazzling white to the darkest red or almost black.

This beautiful garden spans forty-five acres and is expertly managed by Dr. R. Schomburgk, known for his explorations in British Guiana. In the "palm-house," made of glass and iron, you can find tropical plants. The most stunning and impressive section of the park is the so-called garden of roses, a large square area surrounded by carefully arranged climbing roses. It features a wide variety of roses, from the tallest bushes to the smallest dwarf varieties, showcasing colors that range from brilliant white to deep red, almost black.

4

VIEW NEAR ADELAIDE.

VIEW NEAR ADELAIDE.

Among the trees familiar to me in this park were an alder and a birch. They stood very modestly, just putting forth their leaves in company with grand magnolias in blossom, elegant araucarias, and magnificent weeping-willows. The hot-houses near the superintendent’s dwelling were admirable, and presented a wealth of the greatest variety of flowers from all parts of the world, but mainly from Australia. 5Some groups of fine bamboo particularly attracted my attention. The park is visited by several thousand people every Sunday afternoon.

Among the trees I recognized in this park were an alder and a birch. They stood quite humbly, just starting to sprout their leaves alongside the impressive magnolias in bloom, graceful araucarias, and stunning weeping willows. The greenhouses near the superintendent’s house were amazing and showcased a rich variety of flowers from all over the globe, primarily from Australia. 5Some clusters of beautiful bamboo especially caught my eye. The park sees several thousand visitors every Sunday afternoon.

Adelaide, containing about 60,000 inhabitants, is a very regularly laid out city. All the streets cross one another at right angles, and are very broad. Along the gutters railings are placed, to which people may hitch their horses. Even servants go to market on horseback with baskets on their arms.

Adelaide, home to about 60,000 residents, is a well-planned city. All the streets intersect at right angles and are quite wide. There are railings along the gutters where people can tie up their horses. Even employees go to the market on horseback with baskets on their arms.

The residences are constructed in a very practical manner, suited to the demands of the climate, with verandahs and beautiful gardens. In many parts of the city there are public reading-rooms, where the latest newspapers may be found. In the forenoon these reading-rooms are always full of people, particularly of the working classes.

The homes are built in a very practical way, adapted to the climate, featuring porches and lovely gardens. In various areas of the city, there are community reading rooms where you can find the latest newspapers. These reading rooms are always packed with people, especially from the working class, in the mornings.

The city cannot fail to make a favourable impression upon the traveller. It is cleanly and elegant, corresponding to its feminine name Adelaide. The inhabitants are unusually amiable, and they are renowned for their hospitality, and this is saying a great deal in so hospitable a land as Australia.

The city is sure to impress any traveler. It’s clean and elegant, reflecting its feminine name, Adelaide. The people are exceptionally friendly and known for their hospitality, which says a lot in such a welcoming country like Australia.

From Adelaide to Melbourne is a three days’ journey, and early one morning I went on board a steamer bound for this port. Once there we immediately perceive that we have come to a metropolis, for the flags of all nations are unfurled to the breeze in its harbour.

From Adelaide to Melbourne is a three-day journey, and early one morning I boarded a steamer headed for this port. Once we arrived, it was clear that we had reached a city, as the flags of all nations were waving in its harbor.

The International Exhibition was to be opened in a few weeks, and in the distance we could already see the great cupola of the building looming up above the rest of the city. Great clouds of dust appeared in the streets, giving us an idea of Melbourne’s dry climate. After a slow voyage up the shallow Yarra river, during which we actually stuck in the mud once or twice, we finally landed at the wharf.

The International Exhibition was set to open in a few weeks, and in the distance, we could already see the large dome of the building rising above the rest of the city. Big clouds of dust were swirling in the streets, giving us a sense of Melbourne’s dry climate. After a slow trip up the shallow Yarra River, during which we got stuck in the mud once or twice, we finally reached the wharf.

Melbourne with its suburbs has only 300,000 inhabitants, but has the appearance of being much larger on account of its broad and straight streets and its numerous parks and magnificent public buildings.

Melbourne and its suburbs have only 300,000 residents, but it looks a lot bigger because of its wide, straight streets, many parks, and impressive public buildings.

The first building attracting our attention is the Library, a noble structure in classical style, but the first thing the inhabitants want the stranger to notice is the Post Office and 6Town Hall. The question is being perpetually asked: “Have you seen the Town Hall and the Post Office?” The Assembly Room in the Town Hall contains one of the largest organs in the world; it has 4373 pipes.

The first building that grabs our attention is the Library, a grand structure in classic style, but the first thing the locals want newcomers to notice is the Post Office and 6 Town Hall. People keep asking the same question: “Have you seen the Town Hall and the Post Office?” The Assembly Room in the Town Hall features one of the largest organs in the world, with 4,373 pipes.

The residence of the Governor occupies a commanding height, and is surrounded by a large park, which is directly connected with the Botanical Garden.

The Governor's residence is situated on a prominent hill and is surrounded by a large park that is directly linked to the Botanical Garden.

THE LIBRARY, MELBOURNE.

Melbourne Library.

The University, which is attended by about 400 students, has, since 1880, been open to women, who are now admitted to all the courses except medicine! It possesses a large museum, where the animals are in part set up in groups representing scenes from their daily life, a most instructive arrangement. Here can also be seen a fossilised egg of the extinct gigantic bird from Madagascar, the Æpyornis maximus.

The university, with around 400 students, has been open to women since 1880, and they can now enroll in all courses except medicine! It has a large museum where animals are displayed in groups that represent scenes from their daily lives, which is a very educational setup. You can also see a fossilized egg from the extinct giant bird of Madagascar, the Æpyornis maximus.

The city contains a number of magnificent churches, hospitals, and benevolent institutions. The streets are large, wide, and have immense gutters. It has been well said by an author that Melbourne is London seen through the small end of the telescope.

The city has several stunning churches, hospitals, and charitable organizations. The streets are spacious and have large gutters. An author once noted that Melbourne is like London viewed through the small end of a telescope.

7People seem to be very busy, and move through the streets with great rapidity. Melbourne is a city of enjoyments and luxuries, equipped with great elegance and comfort; everything suggests money and the power of wealth. There is no article of luxury which is not to be found here, from Norwegian herring to champagne in every degree of dryness.

7People appear to be incredibly busy, rushing through the streets. Melbourne is a city filled with pleasures and luxuries, offering great elegance and comfort; everything indicates wealth and the influence of money. There's not a luxury item you can't find here, from Norwegian herring to champagne in every kind of dryness.

THE GOVERNOR’S HOUSE, MELBOURNE.

Government House, Melbourne.

Among sports, horse-racing ranks first, and not a week passes without one or more races on the celebrated Flemmington racecourse, near the city, taking place. Every year, in the beginning of November, about 120,000 people come together to witness the great Melbourne Cup race, where fortunes are lost and won.

Among sports, horse racing is the most popular, and not a week goes by without one or more races happening at the famous Flemington racecourse near the city. Every year, at the beginning of November, about 120,000 people gather to watch the prestigious Melbourne Cup race, where fortunes are made and lost.

The whites born in Australia are gradually becoming a distinct race, differing from other Englishmen. They have a more lively temperament, and are slighter in frame, but tall, 8erect, and muscular. I also observed in Queensland that some of the children had a tendency to the American twang. The Australians pay great attention to travellers visiting their country, and they are very proud of showing its attractions. Thus a stranger may, as a rule, count on getting a free pass on all the railroads. The ladies are free and easy in their manners. They are frank and confiding, and their acquaintance is quickly made. Their friendship, once gained, may be relied on, and they are untiring in their acts of kindness.

The white Australians are gradually becoming a distinct group, different from other English people. They tend to be more energetic, slimmer, yet tall, upright, and muscular. I also noticed in Queensland that some kids had a hint of an American accent. Australians are very welcoming to travelers visiting their country and take pride in showcasing its attractions. Generally, a stranger can expect to get free passes on all the railroads. The women are laid-back and straightforward in their demeanor. They are open and trusting, making friendships quickly. Once you have their friendship, you can count on it, and they are always willing to help.

In no other place in the world do the labouring classes have as much influence as in Victoria; for the working men in fact govern the colony. As a rule, they are well educated, and keep abreast of the times, but still their administration of affairs has not always been successful. The economical condition of the labouring classes in Melbourne is excellent, but they are rather fond of intoxicating drinks. I am able to give an example, showing how the people of Australia keep themselves informed on public questions. I once spoke to a labourer whom I met on the street in Melbourne, and as he noticed that I was a stranger, he asked me where my home was. When he learned that I came from Norway, he exclaimed: “Oh, we know Norway very well, and the Norwegian scheme!” He then explained this to me as best he could. I afterwards learned that Victoria, in 1874, was on the point of adopting a parliament like the Norwegian, with one chamber which divides itself into two bodies (the odelsthing and lagthing), a proposition which was on the point of being carried.

In no other place in the world do working-class people have as much influence as they do in Victoria; in fact, the working men govern the colony. Generally, they are well-educated and stay up-to-date with current events, but their management of affairs hasn’t always been successful. The economic situation for the working class in Melbourne is excellent, but they do tend to enjoy alcoholic drinks. I can provide an example of how people in Australia stay informed about public issues. I once spoke to a laborer I met on the street in Melbourne, and when he noticed I was a stranger, he asked where I was from. When he found out I was from Norway, he excitedly said, “Oh, we know Norway very well, and the Norwegian scheme!” He then explained it to me as best he could. I later learned that in 1874, Victoria was on the verge of adopting a parliament similar to Norway's, with one chamber that splits into two bodies (the odelsthing and lagthing), a proposal that was close to being approved.

The climate of Melbourne is not particularly warm, though during the summer excessively hot winds from the interior of the continent may blow for a few days, and not infrequently children die from the heat at this time. The sudden changes of temperature, peculiar to the southern part of Australia, also annually demand their victims, though upon the whole the climate must be regarded as very healthy.

The climate in Melbourne isn't especially warm, but during the summer, extremely hot winds from the interior of the continent can blow for a few days, and unfortunately, it’s not uncommon for children to die from the heat during this time. The sudden temperature changes typical of southern Australia also take their toll each year, but overall, the climate is considered very healthy.

Before leaving Melbourne I made several excursions far into the colony. On one of these I visited the celebrated mining town Ballarat, the place which marks the first epoch 9in the history of Victoria, and of all Australia for that matter, for it was the gold which especially drew the attention of the world to the new continent.

Before leaving Melbourne, I took several trips deep into the colony. During one of these, I visited the famous mining town of Ballarat, which marks the first significant period in the history of Victoria—and all of Australia, really—because it was the gold that especially attracted the world's attention to the new continent. 9

Since 1851 the annual production of gold in Australia has averaged ten million pounds sterling.

Since 1851, Australia has averaged an annual gold production of ten million pounds sterling.

No traveller should neglect to view “the highest trees in the world,” for it is easy to see them near Melbourne. Eucalyptus amygdalina grows, according to the famous botanist Baron F. v. Mueller, to a greater height than the Wellingtonia sequoia of California. Trees have been measured more than 450 feet high. Though these gum-trees are without comparison the highest in the world, they must yield the place of honour in regard to beauty and wealth of foliage. They send forth but a couple of solitary branches from their lofty tops. Thus the Wellingtonia retains the crown as the king of the vegetable kingdom. F. v. Mueller says of Eucalyptus amygdalina: “It is a grand picture to see a mass of enormously tall trees of this kind, with stems of mast-like straightness and clear whiteness, so close together in the forest as to allow them space only toward their summit to send their scanty branches and sparse foliage to the free light.”

No traveler should miss seeing “the tallest trees in the world,” which are easily accessible near Melbourne. Eucalyptus amygdalina grows, according to the well-known botanist Baron F. v. Mueller, taller than the Wellingtonia sequoia from California. Some trees have been measured at over 450 feet tall. While these gum trees are undeniably the tallest in the world, they must concede the top spot when it comes to beauty and abundance of leaves. They send out only a few solitary branches from their towering tops. Thus, the Wellingtonia keeps the title as the king of the plant kingdom. F. v. Mueller describes Eucalyptus amygdalina this way: “It is a stunning sight to see a collection of these incredibly tall trees, with trunks that are straight and white, growing so closely together in the forest that they only have space at the top to extend their sparse branches and light foliage.”

At a sheep station about 100 miles from Melbourne I made the acquaintance of two of the most common mammals of Australia. One day I went out hunting with a son of the friend that I was visiting. We learned that a koala or native bear (Phascolarctus cinereus) was sitting on a tree near the hut of a shepherd. Our way led us through a large but not dense wood of leafless gum-trees. My companion told me that the forest was dead, as a result of “ring-barking.” To get the grass to grow better, the settler removes a band of bark near the root of the tree. In a country where cattle-raising is carried on to so great an extent this may be very practical, but it certainly does not beautify the landscape. The trees die at once after this treatment, and it is a sad and repulsive sight to see these withered giants as if in despair stretching their white barkless branches towards the sky. When we came to the spot, we found the bear asleep and perfectly calm on a branch of a tree opposite the shepherd’s hut. One 10must not suppose that the Australian bear is a dangerous animal. It is called “native bear,” but is in nowise related to the bear family. It is an innocent and peaceful marsupial, which is active only at night, and sluggishly climbs the trees, eating leaves and sleeping during the whole day. As soon as the young has left the pouch, the mother carries it with her on her back.

At a sheep station about 100 miles from Melbourne, I met two of the most common mammals in Australia. One day, I went out hunting with the son of the friend I was visiting. We found out that a koala, or native bear (Phascolarctus cinereus), was resting in a tree near a shepherd's hut. Our path took us through a large but sparse forest of leafless gum trees. My companion told me that the forest was dead due to “ring-barking.” To improve grass growth, the settler strips a band of bark off around the base of the tree. In a country where cattle farming is so prevalent, this may be practical, but it certainly doesn't enhance the landscape. The trees die immediately after this treatment, and it's a sad and ugly sight to see these withered giants, as if in despair, stretching their white, barkless branches towards the sky. When we arrived at the spot, we found the koala asleep and completely calm on a branch of a tree across from the shepherd's hut. One must not think of the Australian bear as a dangerous animal. It's called a “native bear,” but it's not actually related to the bear family. It's an innocent and peaceful marsupial that is active only at night and lazily climbs trees, eating leaves and sleeping all day. Once the young leave the pouch, the mother carries it on her back.

NATIVE BEAR WITH ITS YOUNG.

Native bear with its cubs.

We did not think it worth while to shoot the sleeping animal, but sent a little boy up in the tree to bring it down. He hit the bear on the head with a club and pushed it so that it fell, taking care not to be scratched by its claws, which are long and powerful.

We didn't think it was worth it to shoot the sleeping animal, so we sent a little boy up the tree to bring it down. He hit the bear on the head with a stick and nudged it until it fell, being careful not to get scratched by its long, strong claws.

The Australian bear is found in considerable numbers throughout the eastern part of the continent, even within the tropical circle. I discovered a new kind of tape-worm which, strange to say, is found in this leaf-feeding animal.

The Australian bear is found in large numbers throughout the eastern part of the continent, even within the tropical region. I discovered a new type of tapeworm that, oddly enough, is found in this leaf-eating animal.

HUNTING THE OPOSSUM.

Hunting the opossum.

11

TREE-FERNS IN VICTORIA.

Tree Ferns in Victoria.

One day our dog put up a kangaroo-rat, which fled to a hollow tree lying on the ground. When we examined the tree it was found to contain another animal also, namely an opossum (Irichosurus vulpecula). It is one of the most common mammals in Australia, and is of great service to the natives, its flesh being eaten and its skin used for clothes. The civilised world, too, has begun to appreciate the value of this kind of fur, which is now exported in large quantities to London. The natives kill the animal in the daytime by dragging it out from the hollow trees where it usually resides. Among the colonists the younger generation are very zealous opossum hunters. They hunt them for sport, going out by moonlight and watching the animal as it goes among the trees to seek its food.

One day, our dog cornered a kangaroo-rat, which quickly ran to a hollow tree lying on the ground. When we checked out the tree, we found another animal inside: an opossum (Irichosurus vulpecula). This animal is one of the most common mammals in Australia and is really useful to the locals, as they eat its meat and use its skin for clothing. The civilized world has also started to recognize the value of its fur, which is now exported in large amounts to London. The locals hunt the opossum during the day by pulling it out from the hollow trees where it usually lives. Among the colonists, younger people are very enthusiastic opossum hunters. They hunt for fun, going out under the moonlight and watching the animal as it moves through the trees to find food.

12I was now about to leave the capital of Victoria, a city which cannot fail to be admired by the stranger. It is indeed a remarkable fact that in the same place where fifty years ago the shriek of the parrot blended with the noise of the camp of the native Australian, an international exhibition should be held in a metropolis. The first house was built in Melbourne in 1835—the “World’s Fair” took place in 1880. It is not merely in jest that Melbourne is called “the Queen of the South.”

12I was about to leave the capital of Victoria, a city that definitely impresses visitors. It’s truly remarkable that in the same place where fifty years ago the sound of parrots mixed with the noise of Indigenous Australian camps, an international exhibition is now held in a major city. The first house in Melbourne was built in 1835—the “World’s Fair” occurred in 1880. It’s not just a joke that Melbourne is called “the Queen of the South.”

13

CHAPTER II

Sydney harbour—Jealousy between Sydney and Melbourne—The Blue Mountains—Brisbane and Rockhampton—First evening in tropical Australia—Gracemere station—Animal and plant life—Vine-scrubs—Excursion into the neighbouring districts—A Norseman who feels cold in Australia.

Sydney Harbour—Rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne—The Blue Mountains—Brisbane and Rockhampton—First evening in tropical Australia—Gracemere station—Animal and plant life—Vine scrubs—Trip into the surrounding areas—A Norseman who feels chilly in Australia.

SYDNEY HARBOUR.

SYDNEY HARBOUR.

My next visit was to Melbourne’s mother city, Sydney, the oldest city of Australia.

My next visit was to Melbourne’s mother city, Sydney, the oldest city in Australia.

As is known, it was originally a colony of criminals, but when the wealth of Australia, its gold and its rich pastures, were discovered, the colony got a large accession of all classes of society, and before long transportation ceased. The city is now very aristocratic and has a more antique appearance than Melbourne; the streets are crooked and uneven; but there are several fine buildings, which do not, however, attract the attention they deserve on account of the unevenness of the ground. The Museum is admirably situated, and its magnificent treasures are well worth visiting. To our surprise we found it open on 14Sundays, while in the other towns in Australia, even the smallest, the Sabbath is observed as strictly as in England. Scientific investigation flourishes in Sydney, and several natural history collections are owned by private individuals. The museum of Mr. W. M‘Leay deserves special mention. It is really wonderful. The city has reason to be proud of its Botanical Garden, which extends down to the harbour, and is for a great part washed by the sea. The climate is subtropical, so that plants from the various zones grow side by side. Thus I noticed Digitalis purpurea and the elm-tree growing by the side of Ficus elastica and other tropical plants. On the yellow water-lilies (Nuphar luteum) the sparrows were singing as merrily as if this were their native land.

As we know, it was originally a colony for criminals, but when Australia’s wealth, including gold and fertile land, was discovered, the colony attracted people from all walks of life, and before long, transportation stopped. The city is quite upscale and has a more historic vibe than Melbourne; the streets are winding and uneven, but there are several impressive buildings that don’t get the attention they deserve due to the rough terrain. The Museum is perfectly located, and its magnificent collections are definitely worth a visit. We were surprised to find it open on 14Sundays, while in other Australian towns, even the smallest ones, the Sabbath is observed as strictly as in England. Scientific research is thriving in Sydney, and several private collectors own natural history collections. Mr. W. M‘Leay's museum deserves special mention—it’s truly remarkable. The city can take pride in its Botanical Garden, which stretches down to the harbor, with parts of it washed by the sea. The climate is subtropical, allowing plants from different regions to grow together. I noticed Digitalis purpurea and the elm tree growing alongside Ficus elastica and other tropical plants. The sparrows were singing joyfully on the yellow water lilies (Nuphar luteum), as if this were their homeland.

In Adelaide I was advised to say, when I came to Melbourne, that Adelaide was a hole, and that no city in the southern hemisphere could be compared with Melbourne, the Queen of the South; but if I desired to keep on good terms with the people of Sydney, I must take care not to praise Melbourne. On the other hand, I was advised to praise Sydney harbour as the finest in the world.

In Adelaide, I was told to say that when I got to Melbourne, I should call Adelaide a dump and claim that no city in the southern hemisphere could match Melbourne, the Queen of the South. However, if I wanted to stay on good terms with the people in Sydney, I needed to avoid praising Melbourne. Conversely, I was advised to talk up Sydney Harbour as the best in the world.

And it is truly a wonderful harbour. It is large enough to hold all the fleets of the world, and its beauty reminds one of the celebrated entrances to Rio and to Naples.

And it really is an amazing harbor. It's big enough to accommodate all the fleets in the world, and its beauty is reminiscent of the famous harbors of Rio and Naples.

As the hotels of the city are not clean, and are supplied with most impertinent servants, the visitor should try to secure an introduction to one of the clubs, for there he is always sure of being perfectly comfortable.

As the hotels in the city are not clean and have really rude staff, visitors should try to get an introduction to one of the clubs, where they can always expect to be completely comfortable.

If a person comes from the busy and lively Melbourne, he may find Sydney sleepy and lazy, but it must not be considered a city of loafers. It is celebrated for its colossal wealth.

If someone comes from the bustling and vibrant Melbourne, they might find Sydney slow and laid-back, but it shouldn't be seen as a city of slackers. It's known for its enormous wealth.

The lower class of the inhabitants seemed to me to be inquisitive and greedy; the cultivated classes, on the other hand, are engaging and hospitable, and make a most favourable impression.

The lower class of the inhabitants appeared to be curious and greedy; however, the educated classes are friendly and welcoming, leaving a very positive impression.

Between Melbourne and Sydney there is great rivalry. “It is no exaggeration to say that New South Wales and Victoria are no less rivals than Germany and France,” said an Australian literary gentleman. How far he was right I cannot say. Meanwhile the following circumstance shows that the jealousy is very great. Immediately after Sydney, in 15the seventies, had had an international exhibition, Melbourne arranged a similar one, and though the two colonies were to be united by a railroad, the two cities could not agree on the width of the gauge, so that we have to change trains on the boundary.

Between Melbourne and Sydney, there's a lot of rivalry. “It's no exaggeration to say that New South Wales and Victoria are just as much rivals as Germany and France,” said an Australian writer. How true this is, I can't say. However, the following situation shows that the jealousy is really intense. Right after Sydney held an international exhibition in the seventies, Melbourne set up a similar one, and even though the two colonies were supposed to be linked by a railway, the two cities couldn't agree on the width of the tracks, so we have to change trains at the border.

THE BLUE MOUNTAINS.

The Blue Mountains.

By railroad we can make a very interesting excursion to the Blue Mountains, where the aristocracy have their villas. The railway runs zigzag up the mountains, and is regarded as a masterpiece of engineering, sometimes mounting a gradient of 1 in 30. On the way we get a splendid view of the landscape. The Parramatta river winds picturesquely through the plain, and is bordered on both sides by thriving dark orange-groves. The mountains, which are covered with trees but are not cultivated, consist of a series of parallel ridges of the same height, which are rent by deep ravines. One ridge rises beyond the other until the last is lost in the blue distance.

By train, we can take a really interesting trip to the Blue Mountains, where the wealthy have their vacation homes. The railway winds its way up the mountains and is considered an engineering marvel, at times tackling a steep incline of 1 in 30. Along the way, we get a fantastic view of the landscape. The Parramatta River flows beautifully through the plains and is flanked on both sides by flourishing dark orange groves. The mountains, covered in trees but not farmed, are made up of a series of parallel ridges of equal height, which are split by deep gorges. One ridge rises after another until the last one fades into the blue distance.

16It is a journey of but little more than two days to Brisbane, the capital of Queensland. Not long after passing the boundaries of New South Wales, the southern entrance of Moreton Bay is reached, a large and shallow body of water not far from the city. When we neared the shore, the sea broke over the long sand bars, which it was very difficult to cross, but we soon afterwards found ourselves in the calm water of the bay. The sun set as a blood-red disc in tropical splendour. Immediately afterwards the full moon rose and shone on the beautiful banks of the Brisbane river, while we steamed slowly up between the forests of mangroves.

16It takes just a little over two days to get to Brisbane, the capital of Queensland. Not long after we crossed into New South Wales, we reached the southern entrance of Moreton Bay, a large, shallow body of water not far from the city. As we got closer to the shore, the sea crashed over the long sandbars, which were really hard to cross, but soon after that, we found ourselves in the calm waters of the bay. The sun set like a blood-red disc in tropical beauty. Right after that, the full moon rose and illuminated the stunning banks of the Brisbane River while we slowly made our way up through the mangrove forests.

We now approached the land in whose solitary regions I was about to spend several years. I stood alone on deck in the sultry night, and my thoughts naturally turned to this strange country. What was I to find in Queensland? Was I perhaps to leave my bones in this land, slain by the blacks, bitten by a snake, or poisoned by malaria?

We were now getting closer to the land where I would spend several years alone. I stood on the deck in the hot night, and my thoughts drifted to this unfamiliar place. What would I discover in Queensland? Was I destined to die here, killed by the locals, bitten by a snake, or infected with malaria?

In Brisbane I met Mr. Archer, the Secretary of the Treasury of Queensland. I had a letter of introduction to him from the zoological professors of the University of Christiania, and was invited by him to make my headquarters on his estate near Rockhampton.

In Brisbane, I met Mr. Archer, the Secretary of the Treasury of Queensland. I had a letter of introduction from the zoological professors at the University of Christiania, and he invited me to set up my base at his estate near Rockhampton.

After a journey of two days we arrived at the mouth of Fitzroy river. Like all the rivers of Queensland, it is very shallow and not navigable for large vessels. This is at present a great drawback to the maritime commerce of the colony; but there are some good harbours, and efforts are continually being made to remove obstacles by dredging.

After a two-day journey, we reached the mouth of the Fitzroy River. Like all the rivers in Queensland, it's quite shallow and not passable for large ships. This is currently a major drawback for maritime trade in the colony, but there are some decent harbors, and ongoing efforts are being made to clear obstacles through dredging.

Passengers and baggage were now transferred to a smaller steamboat, which carried us up the stream. The left bank is flat and uninteresting; while a range of mountains about 1400 feet high rises on the right bank. After a few hours’ journey we pass a large establishment for canning meat, in which solder alone for the tin cans amounts to about £300 annually,—and then almost immediately arrive at Rockhampton, the second city in the young colony, containing about 9000 inhabitants. The first thing which attracts attention on arrival is a remarkably fine suspension bridge across the river.

Passengers and luggage were now moved to a smaller steamboat, which took us upstream. The left bank is flat and dull, while a mountain range about 1400 feet high rises on the right bank. After a few hours of traveling, we pass a large meat canning facility, where the cost for solder alone for the tin cans is about £300 a year—and then almost immediately reach Rockhampton, the second-largest city in the young colony, with around 9000 residents. The first thing that catches your eye upon arrival is a beautifully constructed suspension bridge spanning the river.

17The town itself contains nothing remarkable; still a fine hospital and a large school-building, both built on a hill just behind the city, may be worthy of mention. Rockhampton consists mainly of one-storied houses with verandahs. The streets, as is the case in almost all Australian towns, have awnings over the side-walks, a very wise provision against the burning heat of the sun. Business is lively in the city, which is of importance as the metropolis of a large extent of territory whose products are marketed and exported here. This is also the distributing point from which stations in the western part of Queensland are supplied with all sorts of articles of necessity and luxury. A railway extends nearly 300 miles to the west.

17The town itself doesn’t have anything particularly special; however, a nice hospital and a large school building, both located on a hill just behind the city, are worth noting. Rockhampton is mainly made up of single-story houses with verandas. The streets, like in almost all Australian towns, have awnings over the sidewalks, which is a smart way to protect against the intense sun. Business is bustling in the city, which is significant as the center of a large area whose products are sold and exported from here. This is also the hub from which western Queensland’s stations are supplied with all kinds of necessary and luxury items. A railway stretches nearly 300 miles to the west.

THE PARLIAMENT HOUSE, BRISBANE.

Parliament House, Brisbane.

Like other Australian cities, Rockhampton of course has its botanical gardens, which in time will be very fine.

Like other Australian cities, Rockhampton obviously has its botanical gardens, which will eventually be very beautiful.

We at once drove to Gracemere, Messrs. Archer’s cattle station, situated seven miles from the city. The country was flat, monotonous, and swampy, but on approaching the station the ground began to rise. On reaching the highest point a wide view suddenly burst upon us. Before us lay a large lake sparkling in the last rays 18of the setting sun, hundreds of birds swam on its glassy surface, and on the green shores was feeding a large flock of geese, which hissed and took flight as we passed. On a promontory extending far out into the lake was the station, which was to be my home for some time to come; with its many houses it had the appearance from the distance of a small village.

We immediately drove to Gracemere, the cattle station owned by Messrs. Archer, located seven miles from the city. The landscape was flat, dull, and marshy, but as we got closer to the station, the ground started to rise. Upon reaching the highest point, a wide view suddenly opened up to us. Ahead was a large lake shimmering in the last rays of the setting sun, with hundreds of birds swimming on its smooth surface. On the green shores, a large group of geese was feeding, hissing and taking off as we went by. The station was situated on a promontory extending far out into the lake; from a distance, it looked like a small village with its many buildings.

FROGS (Hyla cærulea) ENTERING A WATER-JAR.

FROGS (Hyla cærulea) ENTERING A WATER-JAR.

We drove along a mighty hedge of cactus to the main building, which lay on the extreme point of the land. The bare timber walls did not impress me very favourably, coming as I did from the luxury of Melbourne and Sydney, but the spacious apartments and cool verandahs gave me a hospitable greeting and looked cheerful and inviting.

We drove along a huge cactus hedge to the main building, which was at the farthest point of the land. The bare wooden walls didn’t impress me much, especially since I was used to the luxury of Melbourne and Sydney, but the large rooms and cool verandas welcomed me warmly and looked cheerful and inviting.

When we had taken tea, Mr. Archer brought out his microscope in order to let me examine some insects, thousands 19of which were swarming about the lamp. But white ants had taken possession of the case, so that the microscope was unfit for use. These insects are a great nuisance throughout Queensland, and precautions must always be taken against them when a house is built. It was a strange life which I now experienced for the first time in the Australian “bush.” The summer heat was oppressive in the pitchy darkness of a November evening, though now and then lighted up by flashes of lightning. The insects gathered in great numbers on the ceiling, and blinded by the lamplight they fell in such thick layers on the table that it was not possible to read. Bats fluttered in and out through the open windows and doors. Not only on the floor, but, incredible as it may seem, even in the water-jar, the frogs croaked merrily and often so loudly as to interfere with conversation.

After we finished our tea, Mr. Archer took out his microscope so I could look at some insects, which were swarming around the lamp by the thousands. However, white ants had infested the case, making the microscope unusable. These insects are a huge nuisance all over Queensland, and precautions always need to be taken against them when building a house. I was experiencing a strange life for the first time in the Australian “bush.” The summer heat was oppressive in the pitch-black darkness of a November evening, though it was occasionally illuminated by flashes of lightning. The insects gathered in huge numbers on the ceiling, and blinded by the lamp, they fell in such thick layers onto the table that reading was impossible. Bats fluttered in and out through the open windows and doors. Not only on the floor, but astonishingly even in the water jar, frogs croaked joyfully, often loudly enough to disrupt our conversation.

I, however, soon felt perfectly comfortable at the station, where I spent seven pleasant months of summer and winter, busily engaged in my new and rich field of activity. A small house was given me as my working-room, and it was so arranged as to serve as a safe repository for my collections.

I, however, quickly felt completely at home at the station, where I spent seven enjoyable months across summer and winter, actively immersed in my new and fulfilling work. I was given a small house as my workspace, and it was set up to securely hold my collections.

My European summer clothes soon became too warm for me, and the first thing I did was to secure the usual Australian dress, which everybody wears who lives in the bush. A light merino-wool shirt, having over this a coloured cotton shirt open in the neck, with sleeves rolled up to the elbows, trousers of heavy white cotton cloth called moleskin, white cotton socks, shoes, a broad-brimmed felt hat with the brim turned down, constitute the dress of the bushmen. This suit of clothes, which can be bought ready-made at a low price anywhere in Australia, is neat and cleanly and very convenient.

My European summer clothes quickly became too warm for me, so the first thing I did was get the typical Australian outfit that everyone in the bush wears. It consists of a light merino-wool shirt, with a colorful cotton shirt worn open at the neck and sleeves rolled up to the elbows, heavy white cotton pants known as moleskin, white cotton socks, shoes, and a broad-brimmed felt hat with the brim turned down. This outfit is what bushmen typically wear. You can buy this set of clothes ready-made at a low price anywhere in Australia; it’s neat, clean, and very convenient.

The region about Rockhampton is well known for its warm and dry climate, 100° F. being quite frequent during the summer months. Gracemere lies just far enough within the tropical circle to permit us to speak of tropical Australia; the heat is even greater here than farther north in the more damp sea-climate, where the tradewind blows. In the winter, hoar-frost is occasionally seen on the ground, and now and then ice may form on a pool of water. Thus it will be seen that the thermometer does 20not really go very low, but at such times the cold is felt so intensely that it is a comfort to get near a fire.

The area around Rockhampton is well known for its warm and dry climate, with temperatures reaching 100°F quite often during the summer. Gracemere is situated just far enough within the tropical zone that we can refer to it as tropical Australia; the heat here is actually more intense than further north in the more humid coastal climate, where the trade winds blow. In winter, hoar frost occasionally appears on the ground, and sometimes ice can form on a pool of water. So, while the thermometer doesn’t drop very low, the cold is felt so acutely that it’s nice to gather around a fire. 20

The sky is almost always clear and cloudless; the air is pure and transparent, especially in winter, when the mountains have a very beautiful deep blue colour. In the clear winter evenings after sunset the heavens often assume a remarkable greenish hue.

The sky is nearly always clear and cloudless; the air is clean and clear, especially in winter, when the mountains display a stunning deep blue color. In the crisp winter evenings after sunset, the sky often takes on a striking greenish tint.

GRACEMERE STATION.

GRACEMERE STATION.

It cannot be denied that there is something wearisome and monotonous in a continuous summer—for there is nothing but summer in the greater part of the land—yet every one who rejoices in sunshine and warmth will be contented in the climate of Queensland; it is doubtless more salubrious than any other in the tropical world.

It’s true that a never-ending summer can be exhausting and kind of dull—especially since most of the land is just summer—but anyone who loves sunshine and warmth will be happy in Queensland’s climate; it’s definitely healthier than any other in the tropics.

The principal building at the station, like all the other houses, is almost entirely surrounded by a verandah, which is enclosed in a remarkable manner by creeping fig-trees clinging firmly to the posts. The roof is covered after the Australian fashion with sheets of zinc, and large iron tanks are placed at the corners of the house to catch the rain-water, for this is almost universally used for drinking throughout Australia; it is usually suspended on the verandah in canvas bags, which exposes it to a rapid evaporation and makes it as cold as ice. 21Down towards the lake there is a very fine garden, where orange-trees, vines, and the European fig-tree grow side by side with the pine-apple and the mango of the tropical zone. In the winter, stocks, recedas, and asters flourish very well, but the summer is too warm for them. Pelargonium and calladium glow in brilliant colours.

The main building at the station, like all the other houses, is almost completely surrounded by a porch, which is uniquely enclosed by creeping fig trees that cling tightly to the posts. The roof is covered in the Australian style with sheets of zinc, and large iron tanks are placed at the corners of the house to collect rainwater, as it is almost universally used for drinking throughout Australia. It's usually stored on the porch in canvas bags, which makes it prone to rapid evaporation and keeps it as cold as ice. 21 Down by the lake, there’s a beautiful garden where orange trees, vines, and European fig trees grow alongside pineapples and mangoes from the tropical region. In winter, stock flowers, recedas, and asters do very well, but summer is too hot for them. Pelargoniums and caladiums shine in vibrant colors.

THE MAIN BUILDING, GRACEMERE STATION.

Gracemere Station Main Building.

The other most conspicuous trees in the garden are the magnificent Madagascar Poinciana regia, tamarind, the Brazilian jacaranda, and several sorts of Australian spruce, especially a beautiful specimen of bunya-bunya (Araucaria bidwillii). This grand tree grows only in a limited territory from Darling Downs north to Burnett river, and is protected by the Government for the sake of the aborigines, who collect the huge cones and use the seeds for food.

The other most noticeable trees in the garden are the stunning Madagascar Poinciana regia, tamarind, the Brazilian jacaranda, and various types of Australian spruce, especially a beautiful specimen of bunya-bunya (Araucaria bidwillii). This magnificent tree only grows in a restricted area from Darling Downs north to Burnett River and is protected by the government for the sake of the indigenous people, who gather the large cones and use the seeds for food.

Cocoa-nut and date-palms delight the eye, but do not bear good fruit, although the reason is not apparent.

Coconut and date palms are visually appealing, but they don't produce good fruit, though the reason isn't clear.

Near the lake the celebrated Egyptian papyrus has been planted in large quantities, and forms a perfect grove. A little singer, the Acrocephalus australis, has made his home in this papyrus grove, where several pairs are nesting. It sings in the evening and in the night, and is considered to 22be Australia’s best song-bird. The lake, or lagoon as it is called here, is a little more than a mile long and half a mile wide, and is the resort of a great number of water-fowls. In the winter more than 400 pelicans are seen here, but in the middle of the summer most of them depart.

Near the lake, the famous Egyptian papyrus has been planted in large quantities, creating a beautiful grove. A little bird, the Acrocephalus australis, has made its home in this papyrus grove, where several pairs are nesting. It sings in the evening and at night and is considered Australia’s best songbird. The lake, or lagoon as it’s called here, is just over a mile long and half a mile wide, and it attracts a large number of waterfowl. In the winter, more than 400 pelicans can be seen here, but by the middle of summer, most of them leave.

The pelicans do the most of their fishing in the night, and together. The noise they make with the splashing of their wings while thus occupied sounds something like that of a paddle-wheel steamer in motion. Occasionally I could see them rise, apparently without moving their wings, in a spiral direction, higher and higher, until they disappeared from sight. It seemed as if they did it only for amusement or for the purpose of enjoying the sunshine. When they return, they come down so swiftly that a sough is heard in the air.

The pelicans do most of their fishing at night, and they do it together. The noise they make from the splashing of their wings sounds a bit like a paddle-wheel steamer moving. Sometimes I could see them rise, seemingly without flapping their wings, in a spiral motion, getting higher and higher until they disappeared from view. It looked like they were doing it just for fun or to soak up the sunshine. When they come back, they dive down so fast that you can hear a whoosh in the air.

A few black swans (Cygnus atratus) are seen now and then. In November I frequently heard them sing on the water in the evening. Ducks and geese abound, and so do gray and blue cranes, cormorants, and snake-birds (Plotus). Not many years ago Mr. A. Archer counted thirty-seven kinds of birds on the lagoon. And still the birds are few now, both as to numbers and species, as compared with what they were twenty years ago. The cattle have eaten the tall grass and the weeds growing in the shallow water near the shores of the lake, where thousands of birds found their homes. Even black swans made their nests here. Mr. Archer believes that a few years ago there were more than 10,000 birds on this lake. If a gun was fired, the birds rose with a noise like distant thunder.

A few black swans (Cygnus atratus) can be spotted every now and then. In November, I often heard them singing on the water in the evenings. There are plenty of ducks and geese, along with gray and blue cranes, cormorants, and snake-birds (Plotus). Not too many years ago, Mr. A. Archer counted thirty-seven different types of birds on the lagoon. However, the bird population is still low now, both in numbers and species, compared to what it was twenty years ago. The cattle have grazed on the tall grass and the weeds growing in the shallow water near the shores of the lake, which used to be home to thousands of birds. Even black swans built their nests here. Mr. Archer believes that a few years back, there were more than 10,000 birds on this lake. When a gun was fired, the birds took off with a sound like distant thunder.

The most striking bird on the lagoon is doubtless the beautiful Parra gallinacea, which in Australia is called the lotus-bird. It sits on leaves that float on the water, particularly those of the water-lily. Blue water-lilies are found in great numbers along the edge of the lagoon, and hence the lotus-bird is very common here. It is somewhat larger than a thrush, and has very long legs, and particularly highly developed toes, which enable it to walk about on the floating leaves. Its food consists chiefly of snails and insects, which it usually finds by turning the lily leaf. Its simple nest is also built on the leaves.

The most striking bird on the lagoon is definitely the beautiful Parra gallinacea, known as the lotus-bird in Australia. It perches on the leaves that float on the water, especially those of the water-lily. Blue water-lilies are abundant along the edge of the lagoon, making the lotus-bird quite common here. It’s a bit larger than a thrush and has very long legs, along with especially developed toes that allow it to walk on the floating leaves. Its diet mainly consists of snails and insects, which it typically finds by flipping over the lily leaves. Its simple nest is also built on the leaves.

23The eggs, which are a beautiful brown with lines and spots, are considered very rare, and are remarkable both on account of their form and colour. They look, says Gould, as though they were drawn by a man who had amused himself by covering the surface with fantastic lines. The young look very funny on account of their long legs and big toes as compared with their small bodies.

23The eggs, which are a stunning brown with lines and spots, are seen as very rare and are remarkable for their shape and color. They appear, according to Gould, as if they were designed by someone who enjoyed covering them with whimsical lines. The young ones look quite amusing because of their long legs and big toes in contrast to their small bodies.

The grown bird is not shy, but the young are extremely timid. I had once or twice seen the old birds with young, but as soon as I approached them, the young always disappeared, while the old birds walked about fearlessly, as if there was no danger. It long remained a mystery to me, how they could conceal themselves so well and so long, but one day the problem was solved. An old bird came walking with two young ones near shore. I hid behind a tree and let them come close to me. As I suddenly made my appearance, the small ones dived under the water and held themselves fast to the bottom, while I watched them for a quarter of an hour, before taking them up.

The adult bird isn't shy, but the young ones are really timid. I had seen the adult birds with their young ones a couple of times, but as soon as I got close, the young ones always disappeared, while the adults moved around confidently, as if there was no danger. I was puzzled for a long time about how they managed to hide so well and for so long, but one day the mystery was solved. An adult bird was walking with two young ones near the shore. I hid behind a tree and let them come closer. When I suddenly appeared, the little ones dove underwater and held onto the bottom, while I watched them for about fifteen minutes before picking them up.

There are large quantities of fish in the lagoon, several varieties of perch, eel, and a kind of pike with a very long snout (the gar-fish). But the fresh-water mullet (Mugil) is particularly abundant: it has a remarkable power of leaping out of the water, and in so doing it frequently comes unawares up into the boat and is caught. When the lagoon, on account of long-continued drought, is very low, you can always be sure while bathing of coming in contact with some kind of fish, which sometimes flies over your head.

There are a lot of fish in the lagoon, including several types of perch, eel, and a pike with a very long snout (the gar-fish). However, the fresh-water mullet (Mugil) is especially plentiful: it has an impressive ability to leap out of the water, and in doing so, it often surprises anyone in a boat and ends up getting caught. When the lagoon is very low due to a prolonged drought, you can always expect to come across some fish while swimming, which sometimes even leaps over your head.

Gracemere was originally a sheep station, but latterly the sheep have entirely given place to cattle on the whole coast. This change is partly due to the climate, which is too moist, and partly to a nocuous kind of grass, namely the dreaded spear-grass (Andropogon contortus), which grows on the coast, and which rendered sheep-raising impossible. It stuck fast in the wool of the sheep, or worked itself into their very bodies and killed them. For this reason Gracemere is now exclusively a cattle station. The sheep were about 350 miles farther west.

Gracemere used to be a sheep station, but now it’s completely converted to cattle farming along the coast. This shift is partly because of the climate, which is too wet, and partly due to a harmful type of grass, known as spear-grass (Andropogon contortus), that grows along the coast and makes sheep farming impossible. It would get stuck in the sheep’s wool or work its way into their bodies and kill them. That’s why Gracemere is now solely a cattle station. The sheep were located around 350 miles further west.

As a curiosity it may be mentioned that in the vicinity of Gracemere I saw the Phragmites communis, so well known 24in Norway, probably the only plant which the Norwegian and Queensland floras have in common.

As a curiosity, it's worth noting that near Gracemere, I saw the Phragmites communis, which is well-known in Norway and is probably the only plant shared between the Norwegian and Queensland floras. 24

As Messrs. Archer are naturalised Norwegians from Scotland, it may perhaps be interesting to learn that they were the first white men who occupied the spot where Rockhampton now is situated. They have also given Norse names to several localities in the vicinity, as for instance Mount Berserker and Mount Sleipner. The run of their station was at first fifty miles long and twenty miles wide. But gradually, as the country became settled, the “squatters” were not permitted to retain these larger pastures, which they do not themselves own, but occupy by paying rent to the Government. Hence the area of the station very soon became reduced, when the land, owing to the increase of population, was offered for sale. This is usually the case with all new land in Australia. First comes the large sheep and cattle-owner—the squatter—who often lays claim to immense territory. Later he must give place to the smaller selectors, who as a rule cultivate the soil. The squatter is, however, allowed to purchase a certain part of the land for his own possession and use. This the Archers had done. On the run there were at this time only 4000 head of cattle, but they were all of pure pedigree. They had recently brought from Melbourne a bull nine months old for which they had paid £315. It is for the sake of the beef and not for milk that so much stress is laid upon the blood of cattle in Australia.

As Mr. Archer and his associates are naturalized Norwegians from Scotland, it might be interesting to note that they were the first white men to settle where Rockhampton now stands. They've also given Norse names to several nearby locations, such as Mount Berserker and Mount Sleipner. Their station originally spanned fifty miles long and twenty miles wide. However, as the area became more populated, the "squatters" were not allowed to keep these larger pastures, which they didn't own but occupied by paying rent to the Government. Consequently, the size of the station quickly shrank when the land was offered for sale due to the growing population. This is generally how new land in Australia is handled. First, there comes the large sheep and cattle owner—the squatter—who often claims vast territories. Later, he has to make way for smaller land selectors who typically farm the land. However, the squatter is allowed to buy a portion of the land to keep for his own use. The Archers did this. At that time, there were only 4,000 head of cattle on the run, but they were all of pure pedigree. They had recently brought a nine-month-old bull from Melbourne for which they paid £315. In Australia, much emphasis is placed on the pedigree of cattle not for milk, but for beef.

IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ROCKHAMPTON.

IN THE ROCKHAMPTON AREA.

25The vicinity around Rockhampton and Gracemere furnishes considerable variety both of flora and of fauna. The country is hilly, and well watered with small lakes and streams. Along the streams vine-scrubs often abound. The gum-tree (Eucalyptus), so characteristic of Australia, also marks the woodlands here, and appears in greater variety than is generally seen in so limited a territory. The gum-trees fit for lumber, Eucalyptus tereticornis and Eucalyptus brachypoda, are very abundant in swampy places, along with isolated groups of the well-known Melaleuca leucadendron, called by the colonists tea-tree, from which is extracted what is known in medicine as cajeput oil. The heights nearest the station are particularly well covered with the tree familiar to the colonists as blood-wood (Eucalyptus terminalis), besides a great many other trees of the same family. A few varieties of acacia, e.g., A. bidwillii and A. salicina, are found where the hills are drier. On the plains box-tree (Eucalyptus polyanthemos) predominates. In a circle of fifteen miles about Rockhampton there are found so many useful trees that the number of species is about one-third of all the useful trees in the colony. Although many of these have great value as strong and solid timber, still they fall far short of being utilised as they deserve. The colonists use the most valuable wood for ordinary purposes, as for building houses and fences. In a tree like Tristiana suaveolens may be found a remarkably fine material for work under water, while the Eucalyptus robusta furnishes the best mahogany that can be desired.

25The area around Rockhampton and Gracemere offers a wide variety of plant and animal life. The landscape is hilly and well-watered with small lakes and streams. Vine scrubs often thrive along the streams. The eucalyptus tree, a hallmark of Australia, is prevalent in the woodlands here and appears in a greater range than typically found in such a small area. The eucalyptus trees suitable for lumber, Eucalyptus tereticornis and Eucalyptus brachypoda, are plentiful in swampy areas, alongside isolated groups of the well-known Melaleuca leucadendron, commonly referred to by settlers as tea-tree, from which cajeput oil is extracted for medicinal use. The higher elevations near the station are especially dense with the tree known to settlers as blood-wood (Eucalyptus terminalis), in addition to many other species from the same family. A few types of acacia, such as A. bidwillii and A. salicina, are found in drier areas of the hills. On the plains, box-tree (Eucalyptus polyanthemos) is the most common. Within a fifteen-mile radius of Rockhampton, there are so many useful trees that they represent about one-third of all useful species in the colony. Despite many of these having significant value as strong, solid timber, they are still not used to their full potential. Colonists primarily utilize the most valuable woods for everyday purposes, like building houses and fences. A tree like Tristiana suaveolens can provide an excellent material for underwater work, while Eucalyptus robusta produces top-quality mahogany.

Various parasites and epiphytes are found in great numbers in the woodlands, as for instance the Ficus platypoda and Ficus cunninghamii, which grow on the large gum-trees. They send their roots down from giddy heights, enclose the tree, and at last destroy it.

Various parasites and epiphytes are abundant in the woodlands, such as Ficus platypoda and Ficus cunninghamii, which grow on the large gum trees. They extend their roots down from great heights, wrap around the tree, and eventually kill it.

Though the gum-trees usually give the Australian landscape a monotonous appearance, the region about Rockhampton is very beautiful and picturesque. The many little lakes and the changing forms of the hills contribute much to this result. On the lagoons float the beautiful blue water-lilies; the rare and splendid Nelumbium speciosum is also occasionally found.

Though gum trees usually make the Australian landscape look pretty dull, the area around Rockhampton is actually very beautiful and scenic. The numerous small lakes and the shifting shapes of the hills add a lot to this beauty. Lovely blue water lilies float on the lagoons, and the rare and stunning Nelumbium speciosum can also be found there from time to time.

But the greatest interest centres in the scrubs along the little streams. In contrast with the woodland, where a single kind of tree may prevail, we here find a multitude of families, genera, and species, of which none predominates. All are mixed together, but form more or less a harmonious whole. The average colour of this scrub is usually dark green, but in the edges we find a pleasing change into a lighter green. Here we find the Bauhinia hookerii, with its fine light-coloured leaves, and Capparis nobilis shines with its large white flowers.

But the main focus is on the shrubs along the small streams. Unlike the forest, where one type of tree might dominate, here we see a variety of families, genera, and species, none of which take over. They're all mixed together, creating a more or less harmonious whole. The typical color of this scrub is usually dark green, but at the edges, there's a nice transition to a lighter green. Here we find the Bauhinia hookerii, with its beautiful light-colored leaves, and Capparis nobilis stands out with its large white flowers.

There are only a few ground-flowers, but a number of creeping plants. The trees are festooned with climbing plants such as Vitis climatidea and others. Vitis in great 26abundance and of many varieties are found especially in the scrubs, hence the colonists call this kind of brush vine-scrub. The charming Callistemon lanceolatum, which is common in the scrubs along the Queensland streams, attracts our attention on account of its rich scarlet flowers, the more so since the total effect of a scrub is green and very monotonous.

There are only a few ground flowers, but quite a few creeping plants. The trees are covered with climbing plants like Vitis climatidea and others. Vitis, in large quantities and many varieties, are particularly found in the scrubs, which is why the colonists refer to this type of brush as vine-scrub. The lovely Callistemon lanceolatum, which is common in the scrubs along the Queensland streams, catches our eye because of its vibrant scarlet flowers, especially since the overall look of a scrub is green and very monotonous.

LAUGHING JACKASS (Dacelo gigas).

LAUGHING JACKASS (Dacelo gigas).

This does not however hinder us from finding beautiful woody scenes along the streams, often indeed so charming that we fancy ourselves transported to an ideal landscape. It is not necessary to be a special lover of nature in order to be captivated by the picturesque arches of the trees over the winding stream, where the silence is broken only by the shrill cry of the cockatoo or the tittering ha! ha! ha! ha! of the laughing jackass. Suddenly, as we walk through the vine-scrub, a lizard will throw itself down into the water with a great splash to disturb a poor water-hen that has become absorbed in its own meditations on the strand.

This doesn't stop us from discovering beautiful wooded scenes by the streams, often so charming that we feel like we've been transported to an ideal landscape. You don't have to be a huge nature lover to be captivated by the picturesque arches of trees over the winding stream, where the silence is only broken by the sharp call of the cockatoo or the laughter of the laughing jackass. Suddenly, as we walk through the vine-covered area, a lizard will jump into the water with a big splash, startling a poor water-hen that has been lost in its own thoughts on the shore.

VINE-SCRUB NEAR GRACEMERE.

Vine scrub near Gracemere.

27Few of the birds of Australia have pleased me as much as this curious laughing jackass, though it is both clumsy and unattractive in colour. Far from deserving its name jackass, it is on the contrary very wise and also very courageous. It boldly attacks venomous snakes and large lizards, and is consequently the friend of the colonist.

27Few of the birds in Australia have delighted me as much as this interesting laughing kookaburra, even though it is both awkward and not very colorful. Contrary to its name, jackass, it is actually quite smart and very brave. It fearlessly goes after venomous snakes and large lizards, making it a true ally for settlers.

The animal life in these woods was of the greatest interest to me, and every day I added to my collection during the excursions I made in the vicinity of Gracemere. In the scrub I shot a Pitta strepitans, which is very rare in these parts, but common in Northern Queensland.

The wildlife in these woods captivated me, and every day I expanded my collection during the outings I took around Gracemere. In the underbrush, I shot a Pitta strepitans, which is quite rare in this area but common in Northern Queensland.

As the region around Rockhampton is comparatively civilised, I could not look for any large number of mammals, for they are the first to yield to civilisation. Those that live in trees were still frequently to be found. The common opossum abounded, and the hollow trunks of the gum-trees generally served as abodes of the bandicoot, of the native cat (Dasyurus), and of the kangaroo-rat.

As the area around Rockhampton is relatively developed, I didn't expect to find many mammals since they are usually the first to disappear with civilization. However, tree-dwelling species were still quite common. The common opossum was plentiful, and the hollow trunks of gum trees typically housed bandicoots, native cats (Dasyurus), and kangaroo-rats.

It is very interesting to observe how a kind of “white ant” make their nests. They build them high up in trees, constructing tunnels along the stem of the tree to the ground. If the tree leans, they always build the tunnels on the under side, to avoid the opossum, which climbs on the upper side.

It’s really fascinating to see how a type of “white ant” creates their nests. They build them high in trees, making tunnels along the trunk down to the ground. If the tree is leaning, they always construct the tunnels on the underside to stay safe from the opossum, which climbs on the upper side.

My collections consisted chiefly of birds, fishes, and lower animals, especially Coleoptera. I was fortunate enough to discover a new fresh-water cod, the fish called black-fish by the colonists. It is so little shy that it would even bite my leg when I bathed. I at one time had an opportunity of observing that it can live for nine hours out of water.

My collections mainly included birds, fish, and small animals, especially Coleoptera. I was lucky enough to find a new type of freshwater cod, which the colonists referred to as black-fish. It’s so unafraid that it would even bite my leg while I was swimming. At one point, I was able to observe that it can survive for nine hours outside of water.

One of the largest land-snails of Australia, the Helix cunninghamii, is found on the hills near the station.

One of the largest land snails in Australia, Helix cunninghamii, is found on the hills near the station.

My excursions extended not only to the immediate vicinity of Gracemere, but I made journeys of investigation to regions 200 miles away. Near Westwood, a little town 28about thirty miles from Rockhampton, I found for the first time the so-called bower-birds (Chlamydodera maculata), a family that has become celebrated on account of the bowers which they build for their amusement.

My trips weren't just limited to the area around Gracemere; I also traveled 200 miles away for exploration. Near Westwood, a small town about thirty miles from Rockhampton, I encountered the bower-birds (Chlamydodera maculata) for the first time, a family that's become well-known for the bowers they construct for their enjoyment. 28

These bowers, which must not be confounded with nests, are used, as is well known, exclusively for amusement. They are always found in small brushwood, never in the open field, and in their immediate vicinity the bird collects a mass of different kinds of objects, especially snail-shells, which are laid in two heaps, one at each entrance, the one being much larger than the other. There are frequently hundreds of shells, about three hundred in one heap and fifty in the other. There is also usually a handful of green berries partly inside and partly outside of the bower; but like the empty shells and the other things collected, they are simply for amusement. Besides, these birds doubtless have the sense of beauty, as is indicated by the variegated and glittering objects gathered. This bower-bird has another remarkable quality, in its wonderful power of imitating sounds. When it visits the farms, where it commits great depredations in the gardens, it soon learns to mew like a cat or to crow like a cock.

These structures, which shouldn’t be confused with nests, are used, as everyone knows, solely for entertainment. They are always found in small thickets, never in open fields, and nearby, the bird gathers a variety of different objects, especially snail shells, which are arranged in two piles, one at each entrance, with one being much larger than the other. There are often hundreds of shells, about three hundred in one pile and fifty in the other. There’s usually also a handful of green berries placed partly inside and partly outside the structure; but like the empty shells and other collected items, they are just for show. Moreover, these birds certainly have an appreciation for beauty, as shown by the colorful and shiny objects they collect. This bower bird also has another remarkable trait: its incredible ability to imitate sounds. When it visits farms, where it causes significant damage in gardens, it quickly learns to meow like a cat or to crow like a rooster.

In the woods here I shot a young cuckoo (Eudynamis flindersii), which was fed by four wood-swallows (Artamus sordidus). One of the swallows fell to the same shot. The three survivors swooped down toward the young cuckoo several times, but they took no notice whatever of their dead companion. I tried to approach the place, but the bold birds kept flying against me, as if to prevent me from proceeding, or to exhibit their wrath at what had happened. I shot one more, and waited to see what would happen. Both disappeared, but in the course of half an hour they returned accompanied by two others.

In the woods here, I shot a young cuckoo (Eudynamis flindersii), which was being fed by four wood swallows (Artamus sordidus). One of the swallows was hit by the same shot. The other three swooped down toward the young cuckoo several times but completely ignored their dead companion. I tried to get closer, but the bold birds kept flying at me as if to block my way or show their anger at what had happened. I shot one more, then waited to see what would happen. Both disappeared, but after about half an hour, they returned with two others.

On a farm outside the village I saw a large nocuous insect, a moth which sucked the juice out of the oranges in the garden. Every evening a war of extermination had to be made against these animals, which are all the same very beautiful. Farmers have many other foes in tropical Australia. The large fruit-eating bat (Pteropus) does great damage to the orchards, and it is no pleasant sight for the industrious farmer to see the devouring swarms of these so-called flying-foxes advancing on his crops of an evening. Were it not for these enemies, fruit-growing in Queensland would be still more profitable than it is. An orange is no cheaper in Australia than in Norway, and all kinds of fruit are paid for in proportion.

On a farm outside the village, I saw a large harmful insect, a moth that was sucking the juice out of the oranges in the garden. Every evening, a battle against these pests had to take place, even though they are all quite beautiful. Farmers in tropical Australia face many other threats. The large fruit-eating bat (Pteropus) causes a lot of damage to the orchards, and it’s not a pleasant sight for the hard-working farmer to watch swarms of these so-called flying foxes heading toward his crops in the evening. If it weren't for these enemies, fruit cultivation in Queensland would be even more profitable than it already is. An orange is no cheaper in Australia than it is in Norway, and all types of fruit are priced accordingly.

TRUE AUSTRALIAN SCENERY.

Authentic Australian scenery.

29Nor is the European bee, introduced by the colonists, permitted to live in peace in its new home. A kind of moth attacks the larvæ and destroys them.

29Nor is the European bee, brought over by the colonists, allowed to thrive in its new environment. A type of moth preys on the larvae and wipes them out.

From Westwood I proceeded to Peak Downs. Outside the village the landscape was enlivened by the rare sight of flowers on the ground, the red blossoms of the Pimelea hæmatostachya affording an agreeable change to the eye.

From Westwood, I went to Peak Downs. Just outside the village, the scenery was brightened by the unusual sight of flowers on the ground, the red blooms of the Pimelea hæmatostachya providing a pleasant contrast for the eye.

At Peak Downs, situated about 200 miles west of Rockhampton, I received the first impression of genuine native Australian scenery. Large plains, with here and there an isolated gum-tree; extensive scrubs, and now and then low mountain-ridges in the background; sometimes an emu would appear, or a little flock of kangaroos that are suddenly startled—all of which is so characteristic of the country.

At Peak Downs, located around 200 miles west of Rockhampton, I got my first real sense of authentic Australian landscapes. Vast plains with the occasional lone gum tree, wide scrublands, and sometimes low mountain ridges in the distance; every now and then, an emu would show up, or a small group of kangaroos would get startled—all of which is so typical of the area.

I was surprised at the great number of marsupials that had their abode there. They had proved to be so troublesome that several of the squatters had found it necessary to surround their large pastures with fences so high that the animals could not jump over them and consume the grass. One of the sheep-owners told me that in the course of eighteen months he had killed 64,000 of these animals, especially wallabies (Macropus dorsalis) and kangaroo-rats (Lagorchestes conspicillatus), and also many thousands of the larger kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). The bodies of these animals are left to lie and rot, for none but the natives will eat the flesh; and although the skin of the large kangaroo can be tanned into an excellent leather, still it does not pay to skin the animal so far away from the coast. The only part that is used occasionally is the tail, from which a fine soup is produced.

I was shocked by the huge number of marsupials living there. They became so problematic that several of the farmers had to put up super tall fences around their large pastures to keep the animals from jumping over and eating the grass. One sheep owner told me that in the past eighteen months, he had killed 64,000 of these animals, particularly wallabies (Macropus dorsalis) and kangaroo-rats (Lagorchestes conspicillatus), along with many thousands of the larger kangaroo (Macropus giganteus). The bodies of these animals are left to decay because only the locals will eat the meat; even though the skin of the large kangaroo can be turned into excellent leather, it’s not worth the effort to skin the animal that far from the coast. The only part that is sometimes used is the tail, which can be made into a delicious soup.

The squatters at Peak Downs took great interest in my work, and my first experience of Australian “bush-life” was particularly agreeable. They placed their men at my disposal, so that I had a splendid opportunity of adding to my 30collections. At the station where I was a guest, even one of the ladies of the house offered me her assistance, and once or twice she accompanied me when I went after emus and kangaroos, which are easily approached when you are driving in a buggy. My fair companion held the reins while I did the shooting.

The squatters at Peak Downs were really interested in my work, and my first experience of Australian bush life was quite enjoyable. They offered me their men to help, giving me a great chance to add to my collections. At the station where I was staying, even one of the ladies of the house offered to help me, and a couple of times she came along when I went after emus and kangaroos, which you can get close to when you're driving in a buggy. My lovely companion held the reins while I did the shooting. 30

Emus are very inquisitive, and can therefore easily be enticed within shooting range. Thus a man at Peak Downs told me that he frequently had attracted their attention by lying on his back and kicking his feet in the air. When the animals came near enough he shot them.

Emus are really curious, so they can easily be lured into shooting range. A guy at Peak Downs told me that he often got their attention by lying on his back and kicking his feet in the air. When the birds got close enough, he shot them.

In the winter I made an excursion to Calliungal, where the inhabitants were surprised that I suffered so much from the cold. As a joke they invited their nearest neighbours to come and look at “a Norseman who felt cold in Australia.” It was so cold in the nights that the pools were frozen over, while the day was comparatively hot. On account of the cold nights I, who was unaccustomed to this climate, found it difficult to get woollen blankets enough for my bed.

In the winter, I took a trip to Calliungal, where the locals were amazed that I felt so cold. As a joke, they invited their neighbors to come and see “a Norseman who felt cold in Australia.” It was so cold at night that the ponds froze over, while the days were relatively hot. Because of the chilly nights, I, who was not used to this climate, found it hard to get enough wool blankets for my bed.

In the Dee river, which flows by Calliungal, I observed several times the remarkable Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) swimming rapidly about after the small water insects and vegetable particles which constitute its food. It shows only a part of its back above water, and is so quick in its movements that it frequently dives under water before the shot can reach it.

In the Dee River, which runs by Calliungal, I saw several times the amazing Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) swimming quickly after the small water insects and plant particles that make up its food. It only shows a bit of its back above the water and is so fast in its movements that it often dives underwater before a shot can reach it.

31

CHAPTER III

Journey to Western Queensland—Camping out—Damper (Australian bread)—The song of the magpie—Australian scrubs—Hunting the kangaroo—Devotion of parrots—Station life—Lonely shepherds—Migration of rats—Native justice—Australian fleas—Native mounted police—A remarkable flint instrument—The boomerang.

Journey to Western Queensland—Camping out—Damper (Australian bread)—The song of the magpie—Australian scrublands—Hunting kangaroos—Devotion of parrots—Station life—Lonely shepherds—Migration of rats—Indigenous justice—Australian fleas—Indigenous mounted police—A remarkable flint tool—The boomerang.

A WOOL-WAGGON.

A wool truck.

In the beginning of July I prepared myself for a long journey to the west. I first despatched several cases of things collected to Christiania, and then proceeded on my journey in company with a man who was to bring provisions to Minnie Downs, Messrs. Archer’s sheep station, about 350 miles west from Rockhampton.

In early July, I got ready for a long trip to the west. I first sent several cases of my collected items to Christiania, and then I set off on my journey with a guy who was delivering supplies to Minnie Downs, Messrs. Archer’s sheep station, which is about 350 miles west of Rockhampton.

I had long contemplated this journey, as Western Queensland was in my imagination a veritable Eldorado for the naturalist. So far as I knew, no zoologist had yet studied the fauna of the far west. With my limited acquaintance with Australian bush-life I was happy to get a companion; he had a waggon drawn by three horses, so that our day’s journey was comparatively short, which was a great advantage to me. I thus had the opportunity of making many digressions on the way, and of procuring many animals, while my companion preceded me. The greater part of the day I was occupied on my own account in hunting and in preparing my game. In the course of the afternoon I overtook the waggon, the track of which I was always able to follow.

I had been thinking about this journey for a long time, as Western Queensland was, in my mind, a true paradise for naturalists. As far as I knew, no zoologist had studied the wildlife of the far west yet. With my limited experience with Australian bush life, I was glad to have a companion; he had a wagon pulled by three horses, so our daily travel was relatively short, which worked out well for me. This allowed me to take many detours along the way and collect various animals while my companion moved ahead of me. Most of the day, I was busy hunting and preparing my catch for myself. In the afternoon, I caught up with the wagon, which I could always track easily.

32At sunset we encamped for the night, and the horses were let loose with their forefeet hobbled. We made a large fire and prepared our supper, which, as is common in the bush, consisted of salt beef and damper. The latter is the name of a kind of bread made of wheat flour and water. The dough is shaped into a flat, round cake, which is baked in red-hot ashes. This bread looks very inviting, and tastes very good, as long as it is fresh, but it soon becomes hard and dry.

32At sunset, we set up camp for the night, and the horses were let loose with their front legs hobbled. We built a big fire and got dinner ready, which, like usual in the bush, was salt beef and damper. Damper is a type of bread made from wheat flour and water. The dough is formed into a flat, round cake and baked in hot ashes. This bread looks really tempting and tastes great when it’s fresh, but it quickly becomes hard and dry.

HEAD OF “MORE PORK” (Podargus cuvierii).

HEAD OF “MORE PORK” (Podargus cuvierii).

After supper we immediately made up our beds, which consisted simply of a waterproof laid on the ground and some woollen blankets. For the sake of convenience we usually slept under the waggon with the fire before us. Generally there is no other roof for the Australian traveller than the sky, and this is, as a rule, quite sufficient in Western 33Queensland, where no dew falls except immediately after the rainy season. On the coast it is, however, necessary to be more prudent; if you do not sleep in a tent, you should at least take care to have something over your head, so as not to inhale the dew. A couple of boughs will often answer—a precaution never taken by the careless bushmen.

After dinner, we quickly set up our beds, which were just a waterproof sheet on the ground and some wool blankets. For convenience, we usually slept under the wagon with the fire in front of us. Generally, the only cover for the Australian traveler is the sky, which is usually fine in Western 33 Queensland, where dew only falls right after the rainy season. However, on the coast, you need to be more cautious; if you aren’t sleeping in a tent, you should at least have something over your head to avoid inhaling the dew. A couple of branches often do the trick—a precaution that careless bushmen usually ignore.

How well one feels in this out-of-door life! When we lie down to rest we are lulled to sleep by the melancholy, sleep-inspiring, and not disagreeable voices of the night bird Podargus—“more pork! more pork!”—and we are awakened in the bracing morning air, before the sun is up, by the wondrous melodious organ-tones of the Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen).

How great it feels to be out in nature! When we lie down to rest, we're gently lulled to sleep by the sad but soothing calls of the night bird Podargus—“more pork! more pork!”—and we're awakened in the refreshing morning air, before the sun rises, by the amazing musical sounds of the Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen).

At Expedition Range we came to dense scrubs, the so-called Brigalow-scrubs. The motley blending of plants which characterises the scrubs of the sea-board is not found here. The Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) frequently occupies the whole ground for miles around; the air is heavy and oppressive; occasionally the gray monotony is broken by an isolated bottle-tree (p. 55) (Sterculia rupestris), which derives its name from the wonderful resemblance of the stem to a bottle. The inner part of this tree is porous and spongy, and therefore absorbs a great deal of moisture, a fact of which the cattle-owner sometimes avails himself during a prolonged drought. In a few places this damp wood, which contains a great deal of starch, is used for fodder.

At Expedition Range, we encountered dense scrubland known as Brigalow scrubs. The diverse mix of plants that characterizes the coastal scrubs isn't present here. The Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) often covers the entire ground for miles around; the air feels heavy and stifling. Occasionally, the gray monotony is interrupted by a solitary bottle tree (Sterculia rupestris), which gets its name from how much its trunk resembles a bottle. The inside of this tree is porous and spongy, so it absorbs a lot of moisture, which ranchers sometimes take advantage of during long droughts. In a few areas, this damp wood, rich in starch, is used as animal feed.

After journeying two or three days through this gray wilderness, we crossed Comet river. Along its banks my attention was drawn to a number of Casuarinas—those leafless, dark trees which always make a sad impression on the traveller; even a casual observer will notice the dull, depressing sigh which comes from a grove of these trees when there is the least breeze. Near Springsure I stopped a day at a station, where I was invited to take part in a kangaroo hunt. There were several of us in the company, all on horseback. Toward sunset we set out, for the animals at that time go out to feed, and it was not long before we caught sight of one of them. Our dogs, which were all fine kangaroo hounds, were now let loose, and we galloped after them as fast as our horses could carry us.

After traveling for two or three days through this gray wilderness, we crossed the Comet River. Along its banks, I noticed several Casuarinas—those leafless, dark trees that always leave a somber impression on travelers; even a casual observer will pick up on the dull, depressing sigh that comes from a grove of these trees with the slightest breeze. Near Springsure, I stopped for a day at a station, where I was invited to join a kangaroo hunt. There were a few of us in the group, all on horseback. As the sun was setting, we set out, since the animals come out to feed at that time, and it didn't take long before we spotted one. Our dogs, all excellent kangaroo hounds, were let loose, and we raced after them as fast as our horses could take us.

34The kangaroo jumps as quickly as a galloping horse, but usually it gets tired soon, especially if it is an “old man,” as the colonists say. He then places himself with his back against the trunk of a tree and seeks to protect himself from the dogs to the last. Woe be to the dog who comes within reach of his paws! He seizes it with his arms, and rips its belly open with his strong big toe. The dog therefore takes good care not to come too near. Sometimes the kangaroo takes refuge in a pool of water, and if the dog is too intrusive, the kangaroo ducks it instinctively under water, and holds it there till it is dead. The hunt proceeded as rapidly as our fast horses could gallop, but it did not take long before the kangaroo turned on the dogs in the manner I have described. One of the hunters came up, dismounted, and one or two powerful blows from his club put an end to the animal. We killed six of them in this manner.

34The kangaroo jumps as fast as a galloping horse, but it usually tires quickly, especially if it’s an “old man,” as the colonists say. It then positions itself with its back against a tree trunk and tries to defend itself from the dogs to the very last. Woe to the dog that gets within reach of its paws! It grabs it with its arms and tears its belly open with its strong big toe. So, the dog makes sure not to get too close. Sometimes the kangaroo hides in a pool of water, and if the dog gets too pushy, the kangaroo instinctively holds it under water until it’s dead. The hunt went as fast as our fast horses could gallop, but it didn’t take long for the kangaroo to turn on the dogs as I’ve described. One of the hunters approached, got off his horse, and a couple of powerful blows from his club finished off the animal. We killed six of them this way.

Not far from Nogoa river I overtook my travelling companion. In this region I shot two specimens of the beautiful parrot Platycercus pulcherrimus under the following remarkable circumstances. An hour before sunset I left the camp with my gun, and soon caught sight of a pair of these parrots, a male and a female, that were walking near an ant-hill eating grass-seed. After I had shot the male, the female flew up into a neighbouring tree. I did not at once go to pick up the dead bird—the fine scarlet feathers of the lower part of its belly, which shone in the rays of the setting sun, could easily be seen in the distance. Soon after the female came flying down to her dead mate. With her beak she repeatedly lifted the dead head up from the ground, walked to and fro over the body, as if she would bring it to life again; then she flew away, but immediately returned with some dry straws of grass in her beak, and laid them before the dead bird, evidently for the purpose of getting him to eat the seed. As this too was in vain, she began again to raise her mate’s head and to trample on his body, and finally flew away to a tree just as darkness was coming on. I approached the tree, and a shot put an end to the faithful animal’s sorrow.

Not far from the Nogoa River, I caught up with my travel companion. While I was in this area, I shot two specimens of the beautiful parrot Platycercus pulcherrimus under some remarkable circumstances. An hour before sunset, I left the camp with my gun and soon spotted a pair of these parrots, a male and a female, walking near an ant hill and eating grass seeds. After I shot the male, the female flew up into a nearby tree. I didn’t go to pick up the dead bird right away—the bright scarlet feathers on the lower part of its belly shimmered in the setting sun and were easily visible from a distance. Soon after, the female came flying down to her deceased mate. With her beak, she repeatedly lifted his head from the ground, walked back and forth over his body, as if trying to bring him back to life. Then she flew away but quickly returned with some dry grass straws in her beak, placing them in front of the dead bird, clearly trying to get him to eat the seeds. When that didn’t work, she started lifting her mate's head again and stepping on his body, finally flying away to a tree just as darkness began to fall. I approached the tree, and a shot ended the faithful animal's mourning.

A KANGAROO HUNT.

Kangaroo hunt.

35About 250 miles from the coast we passed the part of the Great Dividing Range, which here forms the watershed between Eastern and Western Queensland. In this part the watershed consists of a low range. Nevertheless no one can fail to observe the great difference in animal life on the two sides as well as the immediate change in the character and aspect of the country. No sooner is the range passed than we meet with the red-breasted cockatoo (Cacatua roseicapilla), which is never found on the eastern side.

35About 250 miles from the coast, we passed the section of the Great Dividing Range, which here acts as the watershed between Eastern and Western Queensland. In this area, the watershed is made up of a low range. Still, it's hard not to notice the significant difference in wildlife on both sides, as well as the immediate change in the landscape and overall appearance of the land. As soon as we cross the range, we encounter the red-breasted cockatoo (Cacatua roseicapilla), which isn't found on the eastern side.

From this time we were in Western Queensland, as it is called, the great rich pasturage, where millions of sheep wander about, and we were soon aware that we had come within the confines of the squatters. One can scarcely imagine a more characteristic picture of Australian bush-life than the sight of a wool-waggon approaching from the distance. Eighteen or twenty strong oxen in the scorching heat, their tongues far out of their mouths, laboriously drag a heavy waggon loaded with bales of wool. By the side of the caravan walks the driver, sunburnt and dusty, with his long whip in his hand. Under an awning on the top of the load, which is as high as a house, the driver’s family have their quarters, and a few sheep and goats follow behind.

From this point, we found ourselves in Western Queensland, known for its vast, rich pastures where millions of sheep roam. It didn’t take long for us to realize that we had entered the territory of the squatters. It's hard to picture a more typical scene of Australian bush life than a wool wagon making its way toward us from a distance. Eighteen or twenty strong oxen, struggling in the scorching heat with their tongues hanging out, pull a heavy wagon loaded with bales of wool. Walking alongside the caravan is the driver, sunburned and covered in dust, wielding a long whip. Above him, under an awning on top of the load, which stands as tall as a house, is the driver’s family, while a few sheep and goats trail behind.

Such a carrier makes his living by transporting wool from stations in the far west to the coast, and also by bringing back supplies. Thus he spends his life on the road from one year’s end to another. He is himself the owner of both oxen and waggon. If he has several of such teams and also a wife, she usually drives one, plying her whip as dexterously as any man.

Such a carrier makes a living by transporting wool from stations in the far west to the coast and bringing back supplies. So, he spends his life on the road all year round. He owns both the oxen and the wagon. If he has multiple teams and a wife, she usually drives one, handling her whip as skillfully as any man.

Finally we meet the great flocks of sheep from Minnie Downs, proof that we are now near this station, our goal. The month I spent here gave me an excellent knowledge of station life. The raising of cattle and sheep, the most important industry of Australia, has more or less influence on all kinds of business in that country. In the older colonies the cattle and sheep farmers are also the owners of the land where their herds and flocks graze, but in the larger part of Queensland the pastures are rented from the Government. These great cattle and sheep farmers are called squatters, and they are the aristocracy of Australia. If the squatter is a sheep-farmer, he not unfrequently has 200,000 sheep upon his station, while the cattle-farmer often 36owns 15,000 head. He does not hesitate to pay as high as £2000 for a fine bull, or as high as £600 for a ram of choice pedigree.

Finally, we encounter the large flocks of sheep from Minnie Downs, a sign that we're close to our destination, this station. The month I spent here gave me a great understanding of life on a station. Raising cattle and sheep, the primary industry in Australia, significantly impacts all types of businesses in the country. In the older colonies, cattle and sheep farmers also own the land where their herds and flocks graze, but in most of Queensland, pastures are rented from the government. These large cattle and sheep farmers are known as squatters, and they represent the aristocracy of Australia. If a squatter is a sheep farmer, he often has around 200,000 sheep on his station, while a cattle farmer typically owns about 15,000 head. He doesn’t hesitate to pay up to £2,000 for a top-quality bull or as much as £600 for a well-bred ram.

A station resembles a little village. Besides the main building, which is the residence of the squatter or his superintendent, there are a number of shanties for the workmen, a butcher’s shop, a storehouse for wool, and a shop where most of the necessaries of life may be bought. A garden of vegetables may usually be found down by the water, for there is always a creek or a water-hole near every station. The garden is generally managed by skilful Chinamen, who are, it is true, hated by all colonists (every Chinaman must pay £30 for permission to settle in Queensland), but at the same time are recognised as the most able gardeners. The secret of their art is chiefly the untiring attention they give to the plants, watering them early and late in sunshine and even in rain.

A station looks like a small village. In addition to the main building, which is where the squatter or his superintendent lives, there are several shanties for the workers, a butcher's shop, a wool store, and a shop where you can buy most everyday essentials. You can usually find a vegetable garden by the water, as there’s always a creek or a waterhole near every station. The garden is typically taken care of by skilled Chinese workers, who, it’s true, are disliked by all the colonists (every Chinese person must pay £30 to get permission to settle in Queensland), but at the same time, they are recognized as the best gardeners. The secret to their gardening success is mainly the constant care they give to the plants, watering them early and late, in both sunshine and rain.

The stock-yard is an enclosure indispensable to every station. The cattle are driven into it when they are to be captured, but it is usually occupied by the horses, which are lodged there every morning so that the stock-man may select his own animal. Most of the work on a station is done on horseback, and one can hardly conceive of an Australian unable to ride.

The stockyard is an essential area for every station. Cattle are herded into it when they need to be caught, but it's usually filled with horses, which are kept there every morning so the stockman can choose his mount. Most of the work on a station is done on horseback, and it's hard to imagine an Australian who can't ride.

There is of course much work to be done on a station having such extensive pasturage. The sheep cause the most trouble. The transportation of the wool to the coast is very expensive, and often costs more than the freight from the coast to England. And yet sheep-raising may often give a profit of as much as thirty per cent. The cattle are sent alive to the cities to be slaughtered. Milk is scarcely used at all in the bush. On a station containing about 10,000 head not more than three or four cows may be milked, as the cattle are half wild and have to be tamed for milking purposes. The chief stress is laid on the beef. What, then, becomes of this immense quantity of beef? The greater part is eaten in Australia, where the consumption is enormous. More recently establishments have been built, in which the beef is either canned or frozen for export. Besides, considerable quantities are used for the production 37of tallow. In the neighbourhood of Rockhampton there is an establishment where the carcasses of about 100,000 cattle and sheep are annually boiled down and converted into tallow.

There’s definitely a lot of work to do on a station with such extensive grazing land. The sheep are the biggest hassle. Transporting the wool to the coast is really costly and often ends up being more expensive than shipping it from the coast to England. Still, sheep farming can sometimes yield profits of up to thirty percent. The cattle are sent live to cities for slaughter. Milk is hardly used at all in remote areas. On a station with about 10,000 heads of cattle, only three or four cows are typically milked, as the cattle are semi-wild and need to be tamed for milking. The main focus is on beef production. So, what happens to all this beef? Most of it is consumed in Australia, where demand is incredibly high. Recently, facilities have been established to can or freeze beef for export. Additionally, large amounts are used to produce tallow. Near Rockhampton, there is a facility where the carcasses of about 100,000 cattle and sheep are processed annually to produce tallow.

In Australia, wherever there are good pastures to be found, the land is quickly taken up for the feeding of large droves of cattle and flocks of sheep. First, the cattle consume the coarse grass, then the sheep are turned into the pastures. Distance is a matter of no consequence. It may require months to bring the stock up to the new station, but no place is so far away that there is any hesitation about forming a station there, provided the pasturage is good. The greatest difficulty with which the squatter has to contend is the climate, for prolonged drought may completely ruin him.

In Australia, wherever good pastures are available, the land is quickly claimed for grazing large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. First, the cattle graze on the coarse grass, and then the sheep are brought into the pastures. Distance doesn't really matter. It might take months to transport the livestock to the new station, but no location is too far to hesitate in establishing a station there, as long as the grazing conditions are favorable. The biggest challenge a squatter faces is the climate, as extended drought can completely devastate them.

I was now in one of the best grazing districts of Australia, covered for hundreds of miles with the well-known Mitchell-grass (Astrebla elymoides), which has a remarkable power of withstanding the drought without losing its nourishing qualities.

I was now in one of the best grazing areas in Australia, stretching for hundreds of miles with the famous Mitchell grass (Astrebla elymoides), which has an incredible ability to endure drought without sacrificing its nutritional value.

In the vicinity of Minnie Downs there still were scrubs, but farther west they became less abundant. These were mainly Brigalow-scrubs, and near the station they occupy large tracts of land. Here we also become acquainted with a new kind of scrub, called by the colonists gidyascrub, which manifests itself even at a distance by a very characteristic but not agreeable odour, being especially pungent after rain. The Australian inland scrubs give a vivid impression of solitude and desolation, with their gray or brown masses of stiff, often shadeless trees, which like a sea undulate over barren plains and low hills. To ramble in these woods, where all is dry and hot, and silent as the grave, is no pleasure as it would be elsewhere. It is very difficult to discover life in this woody wilderness, and the monotony is rarely broken by the sight of a bird or any other living thing. These scrubs, which sometimes are of immense extent (for instance in South Australia 9000 square miles), are peculiar to Australia, and, as Mr. Wood well says, are just as characteristic of the country as the steppes of Tartary, the prairies of America, and the deserts of Africa are of these respective countries.

In the area around Minnie Downs, there are still some scrubs, but they become less common as you go farther west. These are mainly Brigalow scrubs, and near the station, they cover large areas. Here, we also encounter a new type of scrub, known by the colonists as gidya scrub, which has a very distinctive but unpleasant smell that you can pick up from a distance, especially strong after it rains. The Australian inland scrubs create a strong sense of isolation and barrenness, with their gray or brown clumps of stiff, often shadeless trees that roll over the dry plains and low hills like a sea. Wandering through these woods, where everything is hot, dry, and as silent as death, is not enjoyable like it would be in other places. It's tough to find any signs of life in this woody wilderness, and the dullness is rarely interrupted by the sight of a bird or any other living creature. These scrubs, which can cover huge areas (for example, 9,000 square miles in South Australia), are unique to Australia, and as Mr. Wood points out, they are just as representative of the country as the steppes of Tartary, the prairies of America, and the deserts of Africa are of their respective regions.

In the great gidya and Brigalow-scrubs in the vicinity of 38the station I could not therefore expect to find any great variety of animal life. Nor does it exist to any extent in the open country generally. The Australian dog (dingo) was formerly very numerous here and in all Western Queensland. But as it is the sworn enemy of the squatters they have begun to kill it, so that it is now in course of extermination. On the large stations a man is kept whose sole work it is to lay out poison for the dingo. The black variety with white breast generally appears in Western Queensland along with the red.

In the vast gidya and Brigalow scrubs near the station, I couldn't realistically expect to find a wide variety of animal life. It also doesn't really exist to any significant extent in the open country overall. The Australian dog (dingo) used to be quite plentiful here and across Western Queensland. However, since it's considered an enemy by the squatters, they have started to kill it, leading to its near extinction. On the large stations, there's usually a person whose only job is to set out poison for the dingo. The black variety with a white chest typically shows up in Western Queensland alongside the red.

SPIDER PARALYSED BY A HORNET (natural size).

SPIDER PARALYZED BY A HORNET (natural size).

I frequently had occasion to observe the spiders, and among them the large woolly Phrictis crassipes was found in great numbers. It makes a hole 18 inches deep, and in a slanting position, but the entrance is not supplied with a trap-door, as is the case with the burrows of many other spiders out here. I once saw a hornet (Mygnimia australasiæ) proceed boldly into one of these holes, which I then immediately closed. I dug to the bottom of the hole from the side. There I saw the spider paralysed by the plucky hornet, which was sitting on its back. I was anxious to test the effect of the poison of this colossal spider, and once let it bite the snout of a kitten, which thereupon became very sick and vomited violently, but soon recovered.

I often had the chance to observe spiders, and among them, the large woolly Phrictis crassipes was quite common. It digs a hole 18 inches deep at an angle, but unlike many other spiders around here, it doesn't have a trap-door at the entrance. One time, I saw a hornet (Mygnimia australasiæ) boldly fly into one of these holes, which I immediately closed off. I dug down to the bottom of the hole from the side. There, I found the spider paralyzed by the brave hornet, which was sitting on its back. I wanted to see what the venom of this huge spider would do, so I let it bite the nose of a kitten, which then got really sick and vomited heavily, but quickly recovered.

39Another spider (Lathrodectus scelio), which is very common here and everywhere in Queensland, is very dangerous even to men. It is a small black animal, of the size of our house-spider, with a brilliant scarlet mark on its back. A friend of mine was bitten in the leg by one of these dangerous spiders, which is feared like a snake. The pain was violent, and was followed by paralysis which lasted for three days. He was able to feel the venom work its way up the leg, pass through the bowels, and descend down the other leg, whereupon it ascended to the breast. But on the third day he had a cold perspiration, and recovered.

39Another spider (Lathrodectus scelio), which is very common here and all over Queensland, is quite dangerous even to humans. It's a small black spider, about the size of a house spider, with a bright red mark on its back. A friend of mine got bitten in the leg by one of these hazardous spiders, which are feared like snakes. The pain was intense and was followed by paralysis that lasted for three days. He could feel the venom traveling up his leg, going through his body, and then moving down the other leg, after which it rose to his chest. But on the third day, he broke out in a cold sweat and recovered.

This spider is found especially in old wood and rubbish, but is also fond of staying in houses, keeping itself concealed during the day and coming out at night. On my verandah at Gracemere I could collect as many as I pleased, for they are not at all timid.

This spider is often found in old wood and trash, but it also likes to hang out in houses, hiding during the day and coming out at night. On my porch at Gracemere, I could gather as many as I wanted because they aren’t shy at all.

I soon began to long for regions farther west, where the fauna is more abundant, and continued my journey alone with only two horses. As a rule there was a path which I could follow. When no path was to be found, I proceeded as best I could, and made my camp wherever night overtook me. Every day I expected new scenes, but I was always disappointed. It was the same over and over again; large, gray plains covered with dry Mitchell-grass undulated before me; here and there stood a solitary gum-tree, especially on the banks of the rivers. Dwarf scrubs were the only things that occasionally varied the landscape.

I quickly started to crave the areas further west, where the wildlife is richer, and continued my journey alone with just two horses. Generally, there was a path I could follow. When there wasn’t a path to be found, I just did my best and set up camp wherever night caught up with me. Every day I anticipated new sights, but I was always let down. It was the same thing over and over; vast, gray plains covered with dry Mitchell-grass stretched out in front of me; here and there, a lone gum tree stood, especially along the riverbanks. Dwarf shrubs were the only things that occasionally added some variety to the landscape.

When I arrived at Barcoo river, I discovered to my surprise only a dry river-bed with pools of water here and there, instead of a veritable stream. Yet this is naturally explained by the fact that the river owes its existence exclusively to the rains, which is the case with the majority of the Australian streams.

When I got to the Barcoo River, I was surprised to find just a dry riverbed with some pools of water scattered around, instead of a flowing stream. This is easily explained by the fact that the river relies solely on rain for its water, which is true for most Australian rivers.

It seldom rains in Western Queensland; but during the rainy season the rivers rapidly fill their beds, overflow their banks, and in some places become several miles wide. The water, however, soon disappears again, and the high temperature reduces the mighty stream to isolated water-holes. Water is therefore a precious article in the Australian 40bush. To furnish drink for the cattle the squatter must build large dams, especially across the rivers, and thus gather a supply which may protect him against irreparable losses. In recent years water has been obtained by boring very deep wells. I may here mention the fact that, at the end of 1887, water was found in Barcaldine at a depth of 691 feet by an artesian boring. It was clear as crystal and perfectly fresh, but very warm, the temperature being 101°F. Through a pipe 10 inches in diameter it rose with such force that it formed a fountain above the ground, and carried to the surface stones of the size of emu eggs. The amount of water from this artesian well is about 176,000 gallons per day.[1]

It rarely rains in Western Queensland; but during the rainy season, the rivers quickly fill their beds, overflow their banks, and in some areas become several miles wide. However, the water soon disappears again, and the high temperatures shrink the mighty stream into isolated water holes. Water is therefore a valuable resource in the Australian bush. To provide drinking water for the cattle, the squatter must build large dams, especially across the rivers, to gather a supply that can protect him against significant losses. In recent years, water has been accessed by drilling very deep wells. I should mention that at the end of 1887, water was found in Barcaldine at a depth of 691 feet through an artesian bore. It was crystal clear and perfectly fresh, but quite warm, with a temperature of 101°F. Through a pipe 10 inches in diameter, it rose with such force that it created a fountain above ground and brought up stones the size of emu eggs. The output from this artesian well is about 176,000 gallons per day.[1]

1. The artesian well at Blackall last year struck water at the depth of 1666 feet and gives 300,000 gallons per day, at a temperature of 119°. In other places several borings have been successful at a slight depth.

1. The artesian well at Blackall hit water last year at a depth of 1,666 feet and produces 300,000 gallons per day, with a temperature of 119°F. In other locations, several drillings have also been successful at shallower depths.

The soil consists, as a rule, of a fertile, deep, and chocolate-coloured deposit. Water is all that is wanted to make a great deal of Western Queensland a large wheat-growing country, and I feel sure, owing to the great success artesian borings of late have had, that such a future is really in store for this country. In the present circumstances it is difficult to keep garden flowers alive.

The soil typically has a rich, deep, and chocolate-brown layer. All that’s needed to turn much of Western Queensland into a major wheat-growing area is water, and I’m confident that, thanks to the recent success of artesian wells, such a future is realistically possible for this region. Right now, it's tough to keep garden flowers alive.

In Western Queensland nobody is surprised if a drop of rain does not fall for eight or ten months together. Nevertheless, cattle and sheep keep fat all the year, for the grass retains its nutriment even though it looks dry and gray, and a shower will make these dry stalks green.

In Western Queensland, no one is shocked if it doesn't rain for eight or ten months straight. Still, cattle and sheep stay fat all year round because the grass holds onto its nutrients, even when it looks dry and gray, and a little rain can bring those dry stalks back to life.

On the way to Thompson river I spent a night with an Irish shepherd, who lived far away from any neighbour, occupied wholly with his sheep. As a peculiar and pedantic hermit, he preferred this solitary life, to which he had accustomed himself for many years. He could not bear any interruption in his habits, and with Australian straightforwardness he did not hesitate to make it apparent that all things in his neat little cottage must be kept in their places. But if one adapted oneself to his habits, it was not difficult to get on with him. He was, in fact, a type of those old Australian shepherds who are rapidly being relegated to the domain of history. Though his 41hair had turned gray in the bush, he had not forgotten his Irish descent. “England is too powerful,” said he; “her fate will be like that of Rome in ancient times.”

On the way to the Thompson River, I spent a night with an Irish shepherd who lived far from anyone else, completely focused on his sheep. As a quirky and particular hermit, he preferred this solitary life, which he had become used to over many years. He couldn't stand any disruption to his routines, and with typical Australian bluntness, he made it clear that everything in his tidy little cottage had to be in its right place. But if you adjusted to his ways, it wasn't hard to get along with him. He was, in fact, a representative of those old Australian shepherds who are quickly becoming a thing of the past. Even though his hair had turned gray in the bush, he hadn't forgotten his Irish roots. "England is too powerful," he said; "its fate will be like that of Rome in ancient times."

After supper he spread some sacks on the floor, and these were to be my bed. But I was not yet ready to retire, so I went out in the starry night, where the moon and the Southern Cross shone cold on the lonely landscape. The pure, clear winter air was chill on the gray plains and dark green trees, while in the cottage the fire blazed high on the hearth and shed a ray of light out through the small windows.

After dinner, he laid some sacks on the floor for me to sleep on. But I wasn’t ready to go to bed yet, so I stepped outside into the starry night, where the moon and the Southern Cross shone brightly over the empty landscape. The crisp, clear winter air felt chilly against the gray plains and dark green trees, while inside the cottage, the fire crackled high in the hearth, casting a warm glow through the small windows.

I opened the door and was deeply touched to find the hermit kneeling before his bed. Here the old man lived alone with his God in the desolate Australian bush.

I opened the door and was deeply moved to see the hermit kneeling by his bed. This old man lived alone with his God in the lonely Australian bush.

On the banks of the Thompson river I observed the well-known nardu (Marsilea). The seed of this plant is crushed and ground by the natives, and used for food. Nardu has become painfully celebrated, for it was on this seed that the famous travellers Burke and Wills subsisted until they finally perished from starvation.

On the banks of the Thompson River, I saw the familiar nardu (Marsilea). The locals crush and grind the seeds of this plant to use as food. Nardu is sadly famous now because it was on this seed that the famous explorers Burke and Wills survived until they ultimately died from starvation.

At Westlands station I had the good fortune to witness a korroboree, that is, a festive dance by the natives in the neighbourhood. The melody sung to this dance was genuine Australian, but the text was mixed with English words. The air was as follows:—

At Westlands station, I was lucky enough to see a korroboree, which is a festive dance performed by the local natives. The melody sung during this dance was truly Australian, but the lyrics included some English words. The tune went like this:—

_Tempo di Valse. _Allegro._ La - la - la - la - la La - la - la - la - la La - la - la - la - la La - la - la - la - la La - la - la - la - la La - la - la - la - la La - la - la - la - la La - la - la - la - la La - la - la - la - la all to - ge - ther yarn a - way all to - ge - ther yarn a - way all to - ge - ther yarn a - way. Bahl bood’gry Bo - ran - do Bahl bood’gry Bo - ran - do.
Click to play song.

42The water we are obliged to drink in the interior of Queensland is wellnigh intolerable. Frequently it is so thick with mud that it has to be boiled, after which the dirt is allowed to sink to the bottom. Very often it is white, mixed with chalk, or it may be coloured black from decayed leaves. When the bushman wants a drink of water he does not hesitate to drink it as it is, and I have even seen these careless people drink from a dam in which there lay a couple of putrid sheep. That people do not oftener fall ill is doubtless due to the circumstance that the water is almost universally drunk boiled with tea. Though the water is not always as unhealthy as its appearance would indicate, I seldom omitted to boil it; but as I often found it inconvenient to dismount and make a fire, I accustomed myself to do without it all day long. I made up for the want, 43however, in the evening, when I was lucky enough to encamp near good water. At one station I emptied two large pitchers in the course of an hour.

42The water we have to drink in the interior of Queensland is almost unbearable. It’s often so muddy that it needs to be boiled first, allowing the dirt to settle at the bottom. Sometimes it's white and chalky, or it might be black from rotting leaves. When a bushman needs a drink, he doesn't hesitate to drink it as is; I've even seen them drink from ponds where there were a couple of rotting sheep. The reason people don’t get sick more often is probably because the water is usually consumed boiled with tea. Although the water isn't always as harmful as it looks, I rarely skipped boiling it; but since it was often inconvenient to dismount and start a fire, I trained myself to go without it all day. I made up for the lack of water, though, in the evening when I was fortunate enough to camp near a good water source. At one station, I drank two large pitchers in about an hour. 43

Though one perspires freely in this climate, still the moisture evaporates so rapidly that one keeps perfectly dry while riding beneath the perpendicular rays of the sun.

Though you sweat a lot in this climate, the moisture evaporates so quickly that you stay completely dry while riding under the direct sunlight.

About a month after my departure from Minnie Downs I reached Windex station, 650 miles from Rockhampton, where I found the same hospitable reception always accorded a stranger in the Australian bush. I was invited to remain for a while to explore the vicinity. The owner was himself interested in zoology, and he believed it would pay me to stop; he was right, for the animal life was interesting even if it were not rich in species. I here added to my collection Australia’s smallest marsupial animal, the beautiful Phascologale minutissima. A cat playing with something that looked like a mouse led to the capture of this specimen, for on closer examination it appeared that it was not an animal of the mouse family, but this little marsupial. It had no less than nine young in the pouch. From Windex I made an excursion for a few days to a mountain region about thirty miles distant. Here I shot the beautiful white species of kite (Elanus axillaris), and a couple of specimens of the charming Diamantina-pigeon. These beautiful little birds are very numerous here, and so tame that the stock-men can easily kill them with their whips.

About a month after I left Minnie Downs, I arrived at Windex Station, 650 miles from Rockhampton, where I received the same warm welcome usually given to strangers in the Australian bush. I was invited to stay for a while to explore the area. The owner was interested in zoology himself and thought it would be worth my time to stop; he was right, as the wildlife was fascinating, even though it wasn’t very diverse. Here, I added Australia’s smallest marsupial, the beautiful Phascologale minutissima, to my collection. A cat playing with something that looked like a mouse led to the capture of this specimen because, upon closer inspection, it turned out to be this little marsupial instead of a mouse. It had nine young in its pouch. From Windex, I took a short trip to a mountain area about thirty miles away. There, I shot the beautiful white kite (Elanus axillaris) and a couple of specimens of the lovely Diamantina-pigeon. These beautiful little birds are quite common here and so tame that stockmen can easily kill them with their whips.

On the broad sandy heights in the vicinity the so-called spinifex is found in great abundance. This grass (Triodia irritans) is the traveller’s torment, and makes the plains, which it sometimes covers for hundreds of miles, almost impassable. Its blades, which have points as sharp as needles, often prick the horses’ legs till they bleed, and it is generally regarded simply as a nocuous grass; still, the horses will eat the tender blades of the young plant.

On the wide sandy areas nearby, the plant known as spinifex grows in large quantities. This grass (Triodia irritans) is a real headache for travelers and makes the plains, which it sometimes covers for miles, nearly impossible to cross. Its blades are as sharp as needles and often stab the horses' legs until they bleed, so it's mostly seen as a harmful grass. However, the horses do eat the tender blades of the young plants.

The district in which I now found myself had a year before been visited by a plague of rats. They came from the north-west and proceeded, viâ Winton, on their wanderings towards the east. A man in Ayrshire Downs told me that they appeared in countless numbers—during the day they kept concealed, but in the evening the ground seemed 44to be alive with them, so numerous were they. One night for amusement he laid a piece of meat on his threshold, and killed with a stick 400 of these animals which came up to eat the meat. An occasional straggler was left behind, but the main body disappeared in a short time. Afterwards I learned that an army of rats had also passed Westwood, doubtless the same clan, but greatly reduced in number, and probably but few of them reached the coast. I have been informed that the small marsupials (Phascologale minutissima) before mentioned make similar periodical migrations.

The area I was in had been hit by a rat plague a year earlier. They came from the northwest, heading towards the east via Winton. A guy in Ayrshire Downs told me that they showed up in staggering numbers—during the day, they stayed hidden, but by evening, the ground seemed alive with them, so many were there. One night, just for fun, he put a piece of meat on his doorstep and killed 400 of these rats with a stick as they came to eat it. A few lagged behind, but the majority vanished quickly. Later, I found out that a swarm of rats also passed through Westwood; it was probably the same group but a lot smaller, and likely only a few made it to the coast. I’ve also been told that the small marsupials (Phascologale minutissima) I mentioned earlier migrate in similar patterns.

From Ayrshire Downs I proceeded south to Elderslie, a station in process of construction. It was so difficult to get building timber in the vicinity that it had been found expedient to use stone for building. The station lies near the confluence of the Diamantina and Western rivers. I here met two men who were looking for opals in the mountains east of the Diamantina river. Not far north of Elderslie lies a very rich copper-bearing district called Cloncurry, which is said to surpass even the celebrated Lake Superior mines in North America. Moreover, gold and actual mountains of pure iron ore abound here, but on account of the difficulty of transportation this enormous wealth is not yet available. Queensland will, it is said, become a centre for the production of precious metals. Besides great wealth of gold, silver, tin, and other metals, the land, according to recent investigations, has so vast an amount of coal that its coast is destined in time to become the most important emporium of coal on the southern hemisphere.

From Ayrshire Downs, I traveled south to Elderslie, a station that's still being built. It was so hard to find building timber nearby that they decided it was better to use stone for construction. The station is located near the meeting point of the Diamantina and Western rivers. Here, I met two men searching for opals in the mountains east of the Diamantina River. Not far north of Elderslie is a very rich copper district called Cloncurry, which is claimed to even be better than the famous Lake Superior mines in North America. Additionally, gold and actual mountains of pure iron ore are abundant in the area, but due to transportation challenges, this incredible wealth isn't accessible yet. It's said that Queensland will become a hub for precious metal production. Besides a lot of gold, silver, tin, and other metals, recent studies show that the land has such an enormous amount of coal that its coast is likely to become the most important coal market in the southern hemisphere over time.

The natives near Diamantina river astonished me by their bodily structure; neither before nor since have I seen them so tall and upon the whole so well nourished as in the tribe near Elderslie. Some of the women were even monstrously large; their hair was generally straight. Their food consisted chiefly of fish, snakes, rats, and clams.

The locals near the Diamantina River amazed me with their physique; I’ve never seen anyone as tall and generally well-fed as the tribe near Elderslie, either before or since. Some of the women were incredibly large; their hair was mostly straight. They primarily ate fish, snakes, rats, and clams.

A conspicuous trait in the character of the Australian native is treachery, and the colonists are wont to give the stranger the warning, “Never have a black-fellow behind you.” Nor should one, as a rule, rely on them. How difficult it is for them to lay aside their uncivilised habits may be seen from the following incident, which happened at 45Dawson river. A squatter was walking in the bush in company with his black boy, hunting brush-turkey (Talegalla). As they sauntered forth, the black boy touched him on the shoulder from behind and said, “Let me go ahead.” When the squatter asked why he wished to go before him, the boy answered, “I feel such an inclination to kill you.” The black boy had been on the station for several years, where he had served as shepherd and had proved himself very capable.

A noticeable trait in the character of the Australian native is betrayal, and the colonists often warn outsiders, “Never have a black-fellow behind you.” Generally, one shouldn’t rely on them. The difficulty they have in putting aside their uncivilized habits can be seen in the following incident that occurred at 45Dawson River. A settler was walking in the bush with his black boy, hunting brush-turkey (Talegalla). As they walked, the black boy tapped him on the shoulder from behind and said, “Let me go ahead.” When the settler asked why he wanted to go in front, the boy replied, “I feel a strong urge to kill you.” The black boy had been on the station for several years, working as a shepherd and had proven to be very capable.

I observed an interesting fact among the natives of this locality. In cases of murder they administer justice in a peculiar manner, as the following instance will illustrate. A black boy at Connemara station was sent on an errand to Diamantina gates. On his way home he fell in with an old man and his two wives, all of whom belonged to the same tribe as the boy. In the course of the journey the boy killed the old man and took possession of the two young wives. Meanwhile, one of them escaped and reported what had happened to the tribe, which caused universal indignation. Fourteen men with spears and other weapons then proceeded to Connemara to punish the murderer. The boy concealed himself, and the white people on the station would not surrender him, for he was a good servant. They even fired one or two shots at the blacks in order to frighten them away. Three or four days passed, and the boy believed that all danger was over. As he went out one morning to take in a horse, he was killed by his tribal kinsmen only half a mile from the station.

I noticed something interesting about the locals in this area. In cases of murder, they handle justice in a unique way, as the following example shows. A young black boy at Connemara station was sent on an errand to Diamantina gates. On his way back, he came across an old man and his two wives, all from the same tribe as the boy. During the journey, the boy killed the old man and took the two younger wives for himself. Meanwhile, one of them managed to escape and told the tribe what had happened, which sparked widespread outrage. Fourteen men armed with spears and other weapons then went to Connemara to punish the murderer. The boy hid, and the white people at the station refused to turn him in because he was a good worker. They even shot a few rounds at the locals to scare them off. Three or four days passed, and the boy thought the danger had passed. However, one morning as he stepped out to bring in a horse, he was killed by his tribal relatives just half a mile from the station.

From Peak Downs I have heard similar stories. A black man who was to be punished, probably for murder, was pursued to the very station. When the white folk got sight of him he was so covered with spears that he looked like a porcupine.

From Peak Downs, I've heard similar stories. A Black man who was supposed to be punished, likely for murder, was chased all the way to the station. When the white people saw him, he was so covered in spears that he looked like a porcupine.

In the new main building at Elderslie station the fleas had already made their appearance. They usually live in the ground, and as soon as you step on the soil they creep by the dozen up your legs. In Europe I have never felt a bite of these insects, but the Australian representatives were genuine blood-suckers. As I could not abstain from scratching, I broke my skin, and thus produced a series of bad 46and irritable sores which would not heal. At last I felt so uncomfortable when I moved, that to my great annoyance I was obliged to keep still for a week. When the week was over, this sitting still became unbearable. Besides, I had received an invitation to take part in an expedition down the Diamantina river.

In the new main building at Elderslie station, fleas had already shown up. They usually live in the ground, and as soon as you step on the soil, they crawl up your legs by the dozen. In Europe, I’ve never felt a bite from these insects, but the Australian ones were true blood-suckers. Since I couldn't stop scratching, I broke my skin and ended up with a series of painful and irritating sores that wouldn’t heal. Eventually, I felt so uncomfortable moving that, much to my annoyance, I had to stay still for a week. By the time the week was over, sitting still had become unbearable. Plus, I had gotten an invitation to join an expedition down the Diamantina river.

QUEENSLAND NATIVE MOUNTED POLICE.

Queensland Native Mounted Police.

An inspector of the native police, whose barracks were down by the river, was going to make a tour of inspection southward, and I was to go with him. In spite of my wounds I started for the barracks, which were situated about thirty miles south; but when I got there I was so ill that I was obliged to give up my intention of joining the expedition. As soon as I stirred, and especially when I rode, swellings arose on various parts of my body, which, however, disappeared whenever I lay down. There was accordingly nothing else to do but to remain idle, lying on the verandah of the policemen’s bark hut. The native police, in whose quarters I now was, is a body organised by the 47Government of Queensland for the protection of the settlers. They are stationed in those parts of the colony where the natives appear to be dangerous. Such a corps of police consists of natives from other parts of Australia, and consequently they are the natural enemies of the blacks against whom they are employed. They are commanded by a white officer, the so-called sub-inspector, and by a sergeant. The force is in uniform, armed with rifles, and consists of splendid horsemen. From the barracks, which are generally some low bark huts, the police several times a year make tours of inspection through the large districts under their charge. When the natives kill a white man, the police punish them, and if they prey upon the cattle of the squatter, the latter sends word to the police barracks and demands that the blacks be “dispersed.” As Queensland becomes colonised, the native police force is being gradually reduced in numbers, and at the present time there are but few barracks in the northern and western part of the colony.

An inspector of the native police, whose base was by the river, was planning to go on an inspection tour southward, and I was supposed to accompany him. Despite my injuries, I headed for the barracks located about thirty miles south; but when I arrived, I felt so unwell that I had to abandon my plan to join the expedition. Every time I moved, especially when I rode, painful swellings appeared on different parts of my body, which went away when I lay down. So, there was nothing left to do but stay put, resting on the verandah of the policemen’s bark hut. The native police, where I was now, is an organization set up by the 47 Government of Queensland to protect the settlers. They are positioned in areas of the colony where the natives seem to pose a threat. This police force is made up of natives from other regions of Australia, making them the natural adversaries of the local black population they are meant to control. They are led by a white officer, known as the sub-inspector, along with a sergeant. The force is uniformed, armed with rifles, and consists of excellent horsemen. From the barracks, which are typically low bark huts, the police conduct inspection tours several times a year throughout the larger districts they oversee. When the natives kill a white person, the police retaliate, and if they threaten the cattle of the settlers, the latter will notify the police barracks and request that the natives be “dispersed.” As Queensland becomes more populated, the native police force is gradually being downsized, and currently, there are only a few barracks left in the northern and western parts of the colony.

During my sojourn here I had the good luck to obtain a valuable flint knife (p. 48) which the natives of Georgina river use for the peculiar mika-operation[2] to prevent the 48increase of population. It has a very sharp point and three sides, two of which are very sharp, so that the blade is in fact two-edged. The handle is made of a lump of resin (probably from a eucalyptus), and is in reality black, but is painted with reddish-brown ochre. The knife is stuck into this handle, the resin having been softened over the fire. On the other end of the handle a flat piece of wood is fastened, painted with chalk figures. To the knife belongs a sheath of the bark of the tea-tree. The pieces of bark are placed side by side and bound together by a kind of string, which is probably spun from the hair of the opossum.

During my time here, I was lucky enough to get a valuable flint knife (p. 48) that the locals along the Georgina River use for the unique mika-operation[2] to control population growth. It has a very sharp point and three sides, two of which are super sharp, making it effectively double-edged. The handle is made from a piece of resin (likely from a eucalyptus), and it’s actually black but painted with reddish-brown ochre. The knife is inserted into this handle after the resin was softened over a fire. On the other end of the handle, there’s a flat piece of wood attached, decorated with chalk drawings. The knife comes with a sheath made from tea-tree bark. The bark pieces are placed side by side and tied together with a kind of string that’s likely made from opossum hair.

2. This remarkable custom, by which the natives produce hypospadi artificially, belongs especially to the tribes west of the Diamantina river, and west and north of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and does not, as might be supposed, originate in lack of means of sustenance, since the districts in question are full of rats, fish, and such vegetables as nardu, pigweed, and the like. In a few tribes the children are operated on, only about five per cent being spared. In other tribes it is the husband who, after becoming the father of one or two children, must submit to the requirements of the law, as it is said, amid certain festivities (as for example trees are cut down and stuck into the ground in a circle around the place of operation). A man about twenty years old from Georgina river, whom I examined, explained to me that the reason for the operation was, that the blacks “did not like to hear children cry in the camp,” and that they do not care to have many children. This person had not been operated on himself, as he had not yet been the father of a child. According to the information I gathered, the cut, which is about an inch long, extends almost to the scrotum. The surface of the wound is first burnt with hot stones, whereupon the wound is kept apart by little sticks which are inserted, and in this manner an opening is formed, through which the sperma is emitted. The natives of these tribes are fat and in good physical condition. Mr. White, a squatter from Rocklands in North-western Queensland, and an excellent observer of the blacks, noticed for the first time in 1876 near Boulya that some of them had been injured in some way, and found that they had been operated on in the manner described. Later he saw a number of cases, and they all explained to him that the reason was that they did not care to be burdened with too many children. (See in regard to this custom also two articles by Baron N. von Miklucho-Maclay in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. Berlin, 1880 and 1882.)

2. This fascinating custom, where the locals create hypospadias artificially, is particularly found among the tribes west of the Diamantina River and those to the west and north of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Contrary to what one might assume, it doesn’t stem from a lack of food resources, since those areas are abundant with rats, fish, and various vegetables like nardu, pigweed, and others. In some tribes, children undergo the procedure, with only about five percent not being subjected to it. In other tribes, it is the husbands who, after becoming fathers to one or two children, must comply with this custom, usually during certain ceremonies (for example, trees are cut down and placed in a circle around the operation site). A twenty-year-old man from the Georgina River I spoke with explained that the reason for the operation was that the locals "did not want to hear children cry in the camp," and they prefer not to have many children. He had not undergone the procedure himself because he had not yet become a father. From what I learned, the cut, which is about an inch long, nearly reaches the scrotum. The wound's surface is initially cauterized with hot stones, and then it is kept apart with small sticks, forming an opening through which sperm is released. The locals from these tribes are generally well-built and in good health. Mr. White, a squatter from Rocklands in northwestern Queensland, an observant individual regarding the locals, first noticed in 1876 near Boulya that some of them had been injured in a certain way and discovered they had undergone the described operation. Later, he encountered several cases, and they all explained to him that the reason was their desire not to be overwhelmed by too many children. (See also two articles on this custom by Baron N. von Miklucho-Maclay in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. Berlin, 1880 and 1882.)

FLINT KNIFE FROM GEORGINA RIVER WITH ITS SHEATH (½ size).

FLINT KNIFE FROM GEORGINA RIVER WITH ITS SHEATH (½ size).

The outer side of the sheath is whitened with chalk, and at the small end of it is a tuft of red cockatoo down. The natives procure the knife by making a fire on the flint rock and then pouring water on it. Thus it splits, and very nice pieces can easily be selected. This flint knife is the finest Australian implement I have seen. One would hardly think that it was made by an Australian native, so much labour has been bestowed upon it.

The outside of the sheath is coated with chalk, and there’s a small tuft of red cockatoo down at the narrow end. The locals make the knife by creating a fire on the flint rock and then pouring water on it. This process causes it to split, allowing for the selection of nice pieces. This flint knife is the best Australian tool I’ve encountered. You would hardly believe it was made by an Australian native, given the amount of effort that went into it.

49

POUCH FOR THE CARRYING OF PITURI (¼ size).

POUCH FOR CARRYING PITURI (¼ size).

I obtained the little pouch represented below on the same occasion. It is a torpedo-shaped network made of plant fibre, and is used exclusively for carrying the leaves of a tree called pituri (Duboisia hopwoodii). The leaves contain a stimulant which possesses qualities similar to those of tobacco and opium, and are chewed by several tribes in the interior of Australia. Pituri is highly valued as a stimulant, and is taken for barter far and wide; the habitat of the tree is, however, probably not so limited as has been supposed. The pituri pouch obtained by me was secured from natives about 200 miles west of Diamantina river, and was knitted with great skill in about two hours.

I got the small pouch shown below at the same time. It's a torpedo-shaped net made from plant fibers, and it's used only for carrying the leaves of a tree called pituri (Duboisia hopwoodii). The leaves have a stimulant that’s similar to both tobacco and opium, and several tribes in the interior of Australia chew them. Pituri is highly valued as a stimulant and is traded widely, but the tree's habitat is probably more extensive than previously thought. The pituri pouch I got was obtained from locals about 200 miles west of the Diamantina River and was knitted with impressive skill in about two hours.

When the native police are at home at their barracks they have not much to do. The troopers are fond of roaming about in the woods, and they devote themselves to the athletics peculiar to their race, usually undressing themselves so as to be more free in their movements. In cool evenings they often amuse themselves with throwing the boomerang, and their matchless skill invariably commanded my admiration. It is strange that so primitive a people as the Australian natives should have invented this weapon, which, as we know, has the peculiarity of returning to the thrower, provided it does not meet with any obstacle on the way. The boomerang is a curved, somewhat flat and slender weapon made from a hard and heavy wood, Brigalow (Acacia excelsa) or myall (A. pendula), but the best one I found was made of a lighter kind of wood. The curving of the boomerang, which often approaches a right angle, must be natural and lie in the wood itself. One side is perfectly flat and the other slightly rounded. The ends are pointed. The peculiarity of the boomerang, viz. that it returns of itself to the thrower, depends on the fact that it is twisted so that the ends are bent in opposite directions; the twisting is accomplished by putting it in water, then heating it in ashes, and finally bending it, but this warp must occasionally 50be renewed, for it sometimes disappears, especially if the weapon is made of light wood. Upon the whole, there is no striking irregularity in the plan of the boomerang; this warped boomerang is, as a rule, used only as a toy.

When the native police are at their barracks, they don’t have much to do. The troopers enjoy wandering through the woods and engage in the sports typical of their culture, often taking off their clothes to move more freely. On cool evenings, they frequently entertain themselves by throwing the boomerang, and their incredible skill always amazed me. It’s interesting that such a primitive people as the Australian natives invented this weapon, which is known for returning to the thrower as long as it doesn’t hit anything on the way. The boomerang is a curved, somewhat flat, and slender weapon made from a hard and heavy wood, such as Brigalow (Acacia excelsa) or myall (A. pendula), but the best one I found was made of a lighter wood. The curve of the boomerang, often approaching a right angle, must be natural and part of the wood itself. One side is completely flat while the other is slightly rounded. The ends are pointed. The unique feature of the boomerang, which allows it to return to the thrower, is due to the fact that it is twisted so that the ends are bent in different directions; this twisting is done by soaking it in water, then heating it in ashes, and finally bending it, but this twist needs to be repaired occasionally, as it can fade away, especially if the weapon is made from lighter wood. Overall, there’s no significant irregularity in the design of the boomerang; this warped version is generally used just as a toy.

In Western Queensland, as elsewhere in Australia, numerous boomerangs which are not twisted are used, but these, which are only for war and hunting, do not return when thrown. They are thrown with killing effect into flocks of pigeons and ducks.

In Western Queensland, like in other parts of Australia, many straight boomerangs are used, but these, meant only for war and hunting, don’t come back when thrown. They’re thrown with lethal precision into groups of pigeons and ducks.

When an Australian is throwing a boomerang, he seizes one end, which is usually made rough in order to afford a better grip, and holds it backward in such a manner that the concave side of the weapon turns forward. Grasping it firmly, he runs a couple of paces forward, and then throws his boomerang in a straight line before him. The moment it leaves his hand it turns into a horizontal position, and starts off, buzzing like a spinning-wheel. While going with great speed, it revolves round its own axis, and in this manner takes a slanting direction upward through the air. It does not return the same way as it went, but curves toward the left, and thus describes an ellipse. Gradually it loses its momentum and so falls slowly, sometimes only a couple of paces from its starting-point.

When an Australian throws a boomerang, he grabs one end, which is typically rough to provide a better grip, and holds it back so that the curved side of the boomerang faces forward. Holding it tightly, he takes a few steps forward and then throws the boomerang straight ahead. As soon as it leaves his hand, it levels out horizontally and takes off, buzzing like a spinning wheel. While moving quickly, it spins around its own axis and starts to rise at an angle into the air. It doesn’t come back the same way it went; instead, it curves to the left, tracing an elliptical path. Gradually, it loses speed and falls slowly, sometimes landing just a few paces from where it started.

Dexterity rather than strength is needed to throw the boomerang with success. Above all, it is important to hold it firmly until it is suddenly let loose. It cannot fail to astonish everybody to see how far and at the same time how gracefully this weapon can whirl through the air. I was never tired of witnessing this amusement, which is so highly prized by the blacks, and also learned to throw the boomerang myself, but did not acquire the skill of the natives. It is very difficult to throw this weapon well, and it requires considerable practice. All the blacks are by no means perfect in its use, and very few white people acquire the art.

Dexterity rather than strength is needed to successfully throw a boomerang. Above all, it's important to hold it firmly until you let it go. It never fails to amaze everyone to see how far and gracefully this weapon can spin through the air. I never got tired of watching this activity, which is highly valued by the Indigenous people, and I also learned to throw the boomerang myself, but I didn't master the skill like the locals did. It's really challenging to throw this weapon properly, and it takes a lot of practice. Not all Indigenous people are perfect at it, and very few white people manage to learn the technique.

The natives frequently make the boomerang touch the ground ten or twelve paces from where it is thrown; but this, far from diminishing the speed, gives it on the contrary increased velocity. It may even touch the ground a second time, and then whirl off in the above-described circle from the right to the left. It is impossible to aim accurately with 51the returning boomerang: with the plain one, which does not return, it is much easier to do so, and the mark is not missed. A man is rarely killed by a boomerang. An acquaintance of mine told me that he once in a skirmish was hit in the thigh; the wound was only about an inch and a half deep, and was soon cured. His horse was hit in several places, without receiving any harm worth mentioning.

The locals often throw the boomerang so it lands about ten or twelve paces away; however, this doesn't slow it down—instead, it actually picks up speed. It can even hit the ground again and then spin off in a circle from right to left as described earlier. It's really hard to aim accurately with a returning boomerang; it's much easier with a regular one that doesn't come back, and you usually hit the target. It's rare for someone to be killed by a boomerang. A friend of mine once got hit in the thigh during a fight; the wound was only about an inch and a half deep and healed quickly. His horse got hit in a few places too, but there was no serious damage.

BOOMERANGS FROM QUEENSLAND (⅐ size).

a, b, c, plain ones from Central Queensland (Coomooboolaroo). d, a returning one from Herbert river.[3]

BOOMERANGS FROM QUEENSLAND (⅐ size).

a, b, c, basic ones from Central Queensland (Coomooboolaroo). d, a returning boomerang from Herbert River.[3]

3. On the Herbert river I never saw boomerangs ornamented with engraved lines like those farther south and west in Queensland.

3. Along the Herbert River, I never saw boomerangs decorated with engraved patterns like those found further south and west in Queensland.

It has been asserted that the Egyptians and Assyrians used the boomerang, and from this the conclusion has been drawn that the Australian natives are descended from a race that have had a higher degree of development than 52they now possess. But, according to Mr. B. Smyth, it is extremely doubtful whether the Dravidic or Egyptian boomerang is identical with the Australian, since the former could not have had the quality of returning. Moreover, we find in Australia intermediate forms of this remarkable weapon, which show a development towards, rather than a retrogression from, the present boomerang.

It has been claimed that the Egyptians and Assyrians used the boomerang, leading to the idea that the Australian natives are descended from a group that was more advanced than they are now. However, according to Mr. B. Smyth, it’s highly questionable whether the Dravidic or Egyptian boomerang is the same as the Australian one, since the former wouldn't have had the ability to return. Furthermore, we see in Australia intermediate forms of this remarkable weapon, indicating a move toward, rather than a decline from, the current boomerang.

It is a remarkable fact, which is asserted by several persons, that the boomerang is also used in South-eastern India; detailed accounts are, however, lacking. This weapon reminds us of the myth about Thor’s hammer, Mjolner, which also returned to the hands of the thrower.

It is an interesting fact, noted by several people, that the boomerang is also used in South-eastern India; however, detailed accounts are missing. This weapon brings to mind the myth about Thor’s hammer, Mjolnir, which also returned to the thrower's hands.

To explain the origin of the boomerang, which is found as far north as Herbert river, would be difficult. But we can conceive it to have been invented by accident. A twig or a piece of wood which was on the ground may have become warped by rain and sunshine, and thereby assumed a form which revealed the striking quality of returning when it was thrown. In the forests the natives generally lay hold of any piece of wood for the purpose of killing a small animal. It is more probable, however, that the idea was discovered in their games. The native Australian seems to amuse himself with everything that comes in his way. Thus I have frequently seen them fold the leaf of a common palm into a square, give the two corners a little twist, one to each side, and throw it into the air, making it skim round and return. A white man told me that his black boys, while round the camp fire, used frequently to amuse themselves with the leaves of the Brigalow-acacia, which have a striking resemblance to the boomerang. They gave them a flick with the finger, causing the leaves to start off, but to return in the same manner as the boomerang. This seems to me to be the most reasonable explanation of the matter. The blacks may also have received a suggestion from the whirling movements described by the winged fruit of the gum-trees as it falls to the ground.

To explain where the boomerang came from, which can be found as far north as the Herbert River, would be challenging. However, we can imagine it might have been invented by accident. A twig or piece of wood lying on the ground may have twisted from rain and sunlight, taking on a shape that showed its unique quality of returning when thrown. In the forests, the indigenous people usually pick up any piece of wood to hunt small animals. It's more likely, though, that the idea emerged during their games. Native Australians seem to find entertainment in everything around them. I've often seen them fold a common palm leaf into a square, twist the corners a bit, and throw it into the air, making it glide and return. A white man told me that his Indigenous boys would often play with the leaves of the Brigalow acacia around the campfire, which look a lot like a boomerang. They would flick them with their fingers, sending the leaves off, but they would return just like a boomerang. This seems to be the most reasonable explanation. The Indigenous people might have also been inspired by the spinning movements of the winged seeds from gum trees as they fell to the ground.

53

CHAPTER IV

Struggle between blacks and whites—116° F. heat—Cool nights—Troubles—Bush-life—How the bushman spends his money—Inundations—Back again to Gracemere—A greedy snake—Courtship in the bush.

Struggle between black and white people—116°F heat—Cool nights—Issues—Living in the bush—How the bushman spends his money—Flooding—Back again to Gracemere—A greedy snake—Dating in the bush.

STOCK-MAN’S WHIP.

Stockman's whip.

After staying eight days at the barracks, I felt so well that I was able to ride back to Elderslie. But on the way I became ill again, and repeatedly had to dismount from my horse and lie down on the ground to rest.

After being at the barracks for eight days, I felt better and could ride back to Elderslie. However, on the way, I got sick again and had to get off my horse and lie down on the ground to rest several times.

It was my original intention to go farther west and nearer the Gulf of Carpentaria, but my miserable condition made it impossible for me to proceed. I did not see how I was to get back to the coast, for I grew worse and worse every day. After being ill for about a month, I was at length able to start on my way back. I now laid my route viâ Bledensbourne, chiefly for the purpose of getting possession of a large, white, fruit-eating bat, but I did not succeed, although I searched several caves which these animals were said to frequent. The large lizards, commonly called iguana, here attain so great a size that they possibly may be a new species.

It was my original plan to go further west and closer to the Gulf of Carpentaria, but my terrible condition made it impossible for me to continue. I couldn’t figure out how to get back to the coast, as I felt worse every day. After being sick for about a month, I was finally able to start my journey back. I decided to head via Bledensbourne, mainly to try to catch a large, white, fruit-eating bat, but I didn’t have any luck, even though I searched several caves where these bats were said to hang out. The large lizards, commonly known as iguanas, here grow so big that they might actually be a new species.

In the vicinity of Bledensbourne I was shown a large number of skulls of natives who had been shot by the black police in the following circumstances:—A couple of teams with provisions for the far west, conducted by two white men, had encamped near the blacks. The latter were lying 54in ambush, and meant to make an assault, as two black women had been ravished by the white men. Instead of defending themselves with their weapons, the white men were cowardly enough to take flight, leaving all their provisions, oxen, tent, and all their other things in the hands of the blacks. The fugitives reported to the police that they had been attacked, and so the “criminals” a few weeks afterwards were pursued far into a narrow valley and shot. I visited the spot in company with the manager of Bledensbourne station, and saw seven or eight of the skulls. According to the statement made by several persons, nearly the whole tribe was killed, as there was no opportunity of flight.

In the area around Bledensbourne, I was shown a large number of skulls of locals who had been shot by the black police under the following circumstances: A couple of teams carrying supplies for the far west, led by two white men, had set up camp near the Indigenous people. The latter were lying in wait and planned to launch an attack because two black women had been assaulted by the white men. Instead of defending themselves with their weapons, the white men cowardly fled, abandoning all their supplies, oxen, tents, and other belongings to the locals. The escapees reported to the police that they had been attacked, and a few weeks later, the “criminals” were tracked down deep into a narrow valley and shot. I visited the site with the manager of Bledensbourne station and saw seven or eight of the skulls. According to several accounts, nearly the entire tribe was killed since they had no chance to escape.

This is one of the many cruelties perpetrated by the native police against the natives, and the most thrilling stories could be told of their conduct. Their cruelties constitute the black page in the annals of Australian colonisation. This police force has become more and more unpopular, and voices have been raised for its entire abolition. The police inspector often left it to his men to do the murdering, “to disperse the blacks,” as it is called, at their own risk. He thus shirked the responsibility and retained his post; for he does not dare kill the blacks openly, at least not at the present time.

This is one of the many brutal acts committed by the native police against the Indigenous people, and some of the most shocking stories could be told about their behavior. Their cruelty represents a dark chapter in the history of Australian colonization. This police force has become increasingly unpopular, and there have been calls for it to be completely dismantled. The police inspector often left it up to his men to carry out the killings, “to disperse the blacks,” as it's referred to, at their own risk. This way, he avoided responsibility and kept his position; he doesn’t dare kill the Indigenous people openly, at least not right now.

It is not strange that such an institution is hated by the blacks, or that they take every opportunity of revenge. During my sojourn here an inspector was killed by a spear hurled by the blacks, while he was treating with the savages, and a year later they killed another inspector in his own camp at night.

It’s not surprising that such an institution is hated by the Black community, or that they seize every chance for revenge. During my time here, an inspector was killed by a spear thrown by the Black people while he was negotiating with them, and a year later, they killed another inspector in his own camp at night.

55

REST UNDER A BOTTLE-TREE (Sterculia).

REST UNDER A BOTTLE TREE (Sterculia).

The summer heat had now set in, as it was already late in November. The sun was at its zenith, and poured down its scorching rays day by day, unrelieved by a cooling breath of air or by any refreshing lake or prattling brook—only mocking fata morgana. There was no animal life to be seen; all living things sought refuge from the burning heat of the sun. 104° to 105° F. in the shade was the average heat. The highest temperature I observed was 116° F., and the heat was then so great that it seemed oppressive even to sit still. The wind that blew was as hot as if it came from an oven, and the thermometer rose and fell with the wind. Still, the climate was more tolerable here than on the banks of the Diamantina river, where the thermometer rose to 126° F. in three consecutive days, a perfectly exceptional heat, even in tropical Australia. The trees which are to be found furnish but little protection against the beams of the sun, for their foliage generally hangs vertically from the branches, and consequently gives but little shade. When I rested at noon, I could find shade nowhere except under the horse. As a 56rule I do not suffer from heat, and am able to ride all day long beneath the perpendicular rays of the sun; but at this time I was weak from my illness, and the hot weather was too much for me. Many times in a day I had to lie down in the burning rays of the sun and rest my weary limbs.

The summer heat had set in, and it was already late in November. The sun was at its peak, pouring down its scorching rays day after day, without a cool breeze or refreshing lakes or babbling brooks—just teasing fata morgana. There was no animal life in sight; all living things were hiding from the intense sun. The average temperature in the shade was 104° to 105° F. The highest temperature I recorded was 116° F., and the heat was so severe that it felt oppressive even to sit still. The wind that blew felt like it came from an oven, and the thermometer fluctuated with the wind. Still, the climate was more bearable here than along the banks of the Diamantina River, where the thermometer hit 126° F. for three consecutive days, an exceptionally high temperature, even in tropical Australia. The trees that were around provided little protection from the sun’s rays, as their leaves generally hung vertically from the branches, offering minimal shade. When I rested at noon, I could find shade only under the horse. As a 56rule, I don’t usually struggle with heat and can ride all day long under the blazing sun; but at this time, I felt weak from my illness, and the heat was overwhelming. Many times a day, I had to lie down in the burning sun and rest my tired limbs.

The coolness of the night, however, makes the people in general feel comfortable. As soon as the sun sets the air is cooled, as it is not moist enough to retain much of the heat. The thermometer would sink 40° F., so that I needed a woollen blanket to keep myself warm during the night. To my other troubles was added the annoyance of the flies, which at some stations were so bad that it was necessary to eat under mosquito-nets. These nuisances are especially troublesome to the eyes, which when bitten by the flies first smart and then swell up, so that they sometimes cannot be opened for several hours. To keep the flies away from the eyes, we wore nets over our faces, and even the horses were protected in this manner.

The coolness of the night, however, makes everyone feel comfortable. As soon as the sun sets, the air cools down because it’s not humid enough to hold onto much heat. The temperature would drop by 40°F, so I needed a wool blanket to stay warm at night. On top of my other troubles, the flies were incredibly annoying; at some stops, they were so bad that we had to eat under mosquito nets. These pests are especially bothersome to the eyes, which, when bitten by the flies, first sting and then swell up, making it impossible to open them for several hours. To keep the flies away from our eyes, we wore nets over our faces, and even the horses were protected this way.

“Life in Western Queensland during the summer is simply a struggle with the flies”; “When I am about to sign a draft, I must have a man to fan the flies away and watch the inkstand,” are expressions which I still remember to have heard in that country.

“Life in Western Queensland during the summer is really just a battle with the flies”; “When I'm about to sign a draft, I need someone to fan the flies away and keep an eye on the inkstand,” are phrases I still recall hearing in that area.

The specimens I had collected were kept in a number of pasteboard boxes, which had to be loaded and unloaded every morning and evening. I had to dismount many times a day to straighten them, for they soon became disordered, and galled the back of the horse by not being evenly balanced. Once I nearly lost all, as my active pack-horse got loose and galloped away, kicking up all sorts of pranks and nearly getting the whole load under his belly. Gradually my horses became so lean and poor from the long journey that I scarcely believed they would live till I reached my destination. In spite of every care taken, the back of my pack-horse became galled, and this was another reason why I had to travel slowly.

The specimens I collected were stored in several cardboard boxes that I had to load and unload every morning and evening. I had to get off my horse multiple times a day to organize them, as they would quickly become disheveled and cause discomfort to the horse by being unbalanced. There was one time when I almost lost everything because my frisky pack horse got loose and took off, playing around and almost getting the entire load under him. Over time, my horses became so thin and weak from the long journey that I hardly thought they would make it to my destination. Despite all the care I took, the back of my pack horse became chafed, which was another reason I had to travel slowly.

Both at Winton and at Thompson I found an old acquaintance from Europe, the greenshank (Totanus glottis), but both times I saw but one bird, and it was exceedingly shy. Animal life awakes and makes its appearance only 57about sunset, and is observed chiefly near the water-holes. There are many varieties of birds, but as a rule there are but few of each kind; generally they are scattered over a large territory, though some of them are strangely confined to a very limited territory. The cockatoos and hawks are comparatively numerous, and the kites and the beautiful black falcons (Falco subniger) are particularly noticeable.

Both at Winton and at Thompson, I ran into an old friend from Europe, the greenshank (Totanus glottis), but I only saw one bird each time, and it was very shy. Wildlife usually comes out and becomes visible around sunset and is mostly seen near water holes. There are many types of birds, but generally, there are only a few of each kind; they are often spread across a large area, although some species are strangely restricted to a very small range. Cockatoos and hawks are relatively common, and the kites and striking black falcons (Falco subniger) are especially notable.

After many difficulties I finally came to a hut, in which there lived a boundary-rider. I now began to approach more densely-populated regions, and the next day I arrived tired, with my exhausted horses, at Isis Downs station, where I for several days enjoyed much-needed rest and obtained milk, which is a great rarity in Western Queensland.

After many challenges, I finally reached a hut where a boundary rider lived. I was now getting closer to more populated areas, and the next day, I arrived tired at Isis Downs station with my worn-out horses. I stayed there for several days, enjoying much-needed rest and getting milk, which is quite rare in Western Queensland.

Christmas Eve I returned to Minnie Downs in terribly hot weather. It was so hot that even under cover at the station we had to seek relief in wet towels wound about the head. In such weather, when the air seems to vibrate, we shrink from going out, just as much as we do at home in Norway when it is bitterly cold. As a rule people in Australia pay no attention to the heat. The work goes on regularly at the station, and singularly enough, the heat is felt much less out of doors when one is hard at work than when sitting still doing nothing in the house. Those who drink to excess are most troubled by it. In Rockhampton, for instance, nine drunkards died in one week. But, with all this, the climate of Queensland is healthier than that of any other country in the same degree of latitude. It is not necessary here, as in many other tropical lands, to send the children to colder climes to be reared. They grow strong, and are the pictures of health. Of course there is fever, but almost exclusively in new-settled districts, where the soil is yet uncultivated. Though sometimes fatal, it is generally of a far milder type here than in other tropical lands. A man who had lived for two years in a fever locality without perceiving any symptoms of the disease, had his first attack after taking cold. As the soil gradually becomes cultivated, the fever disappears.

Christmas Eve, I returned to Minnie Downs in extremely hot weather. It was so hot that even in the shade at the station, we had to find relief with wet towels wrapped around our heads. In this kind of weather, when the air seems to shimmer, we avoid going outside just like we do back home in Norway when it’s freezing cold. Generally, people in Australia don’t mind the heat. The work continues as usual at the station, and oddly enough, it's much less noticeable outdoors when you're busy than when you're sitting still doing nothing at home. Those who drink too much are the most affected by the heat. In Rockhampton, for example, nine drunkards died in just one week. Still, despite this, Queensland's climate is healthier than that of any other country at the same latitude. It's not necessary here, unlike in many other tropical places, to send children to cooler areas to grow up. They thrive and are very healthy. Sure, there’s fever, but it mostly occurs in newly settled areas where the land hasn’t been cultivated yet. Although it can sometimes be fatal, it’s usually much milder here than in other tropical regions. A man who had lived in a fever zone for two years without showing any symptoms first got sick after catching a cold. As the land becomes cultivated, the fever fades away.

Another illness which troubles the colonists is sandy blight, a very severe disease of the eye, which sometimes 58ends in blindness. In Western Queensland people are also subject to bad sores on the hand, called Barcoo-rot; a traveller will be struck by the fact that nearly everybody wears a bandage about his hands, because the most insignificant scratch develops into a large sore which may last for months. Beliander is also a common disease in Queensland; without the slightest apparent cause, a person is suddenly seized with vomiting, but is relieved just as suddenly. These diseases doubtless have their origin in the climatic conditions, and the colonists have therefore acquired the habit of blaming the climate whenever they are ill.

Another illness that affects the colonists is sandy blight, a serious eye disease that can sometimes lead to blindness. In Western Queensland, people also suffer from painful sores on their hands, known as Barcoo-rot; a traveler will notice that almost everyone has bandages on their hands because even the smallest scratch can turn into a large sore that may last for months. Beliander is another common illness in Queensland; without any clear reason, a person can suddenly start vomiting but then recover just as quickly. These diseases likely stem from the climate, which is why the colonists tend to blame the weather whenever they fall ill.

BUSHMEN.

Bushmen.

It cannot but surprise us how people keep in tolerably good health who take as little care of themselves as the bushman does. He gets up before sunrise, eats, saddles his horse and rides to his work. As a rule, he is out all day until sunset. He sleeps in rainy weather under the open sky; he eats whenever it happens to be convenient, if he has the time—if not he waits until he finds time; he lives on salt beef and damper every day; he drinks muddy water or alcohol: such is the bushman’s mode of life.

It’s surprising how people manage to stay relatively healthy while taking as little care of themselves as a bushman does. He wakes up before sunrise, eats, saddles his horse, and rides off to work. Generally, he’s outside all day until sunset. He sleeps under the open sky when it rains; he eats whenever it’s convenient, if he has time—if not, he waits until he can find the time. He eats salt beef and damper every day and drinks muddy water or alcohol: that’s the bushman’s way of life.

Externally there is no difference between the squatter 59and his workmen. All are dressed alike, and do the same work; no kind of work is dishonourable. I have seen young gentlemen beneath a scorching sun do work that the common labourer in Norway would regard as below his dignity. The long, short-handled whip, which the bushman uses for horses and cattle, is his chief implement, and this he handles with great dexterity.

Externally, there’s no difference between the squatter and his workers. They all wear the same clothes and do the same jobs; no kind of work is seen as dishonorable. I’ve seen young men working under a blazing sun, doing tasks that a typical laborer in Norway would consider beneath him. The long, short-handled whip that the bushman uses for horses and cattle is his main tool, and he handles it with impressive skill.

A SQUATTER’S HOMESTEAD.

A squatter's home.

When the day’s work is done, the squatter retires in the evening to the main building, where he usually takes a bath previous to his dinner, which is of a solid kind, frequently with vegetables, but without much variety. At the same time the working man goes to his more modest hut, where he drinks his tea with damper and salt beef. Jams are not uncommon as articles of luxury, and are eaten with the bread.

When the day's work is finished, the squatter heads back to the main building in the evening, where he usually takes a bath before dinner, which is hearty and often includes vegetables, though not much variety. Meanwhile, the working man returns to his simpler hut, where he enjoys tea with damper and salt beef. Jams are sometimes a treat and are eaten with the bread.

Women are but seldom seen at the stations. The squatter is usually a married man, at least in the most civilised districts, but the hands rarely have wives. Hence the women who venture into this far west country soon find their fortunes, for in Queensland there are 142 men to every 100 women.

Women are rarely seen at the stations. The squatter is usually a married man, especially in the more civilized areas, but the workers rarely have wives. Therefore, the women who dare to come into this far west country quickly find their fortunes, as in Queensland, there are 142 men for every 100 women.

During my stay at Winton I had an opportunity of 60observing how quickly the chains of matrimony are forged in Western Queensland. An Irish girl who had recently arrived was standing over the wash-tub, and soon attracted the attention of a bushman. He entered into conversation with her, and after half an hour they agreed to get married; she wiped the soap off her arms, and so both proceeded without making any further toilet to the magistrate to have the ceremony performed.

During my time at Winton, I noticed how quickly people get married in Western Queensland. An Irish girl who had just arrived was standing at the wash-tub when she caught the eye of a bushman. He struck up a conversation with her, and after about thirty minutes, they decided to get married. She wiped the soap off her arms, and they both went straight to the magistrate to have the ceremony performed without doing anything else to get ready.

In the long run the station life becomes very monotonous. The squatter therefore makes a trip to Melbourne, to Sydney, or even to Europe, while the labourer amuses himself as best he can where he is. Twice a year races are got up. The men are very fond of horses, and they take a deep interest in the races in the cities, betting heavily on the different events. Newspapers, which are extensively read everywhere in Australia, also find their way to the bush, as the Government provides for the carrying of mails to nearly every station.

In the long run, life at the station gets really dull. So, the squatter takes a trip to Melbourne, Sydney, or even Europe, while the laborer entertains himself as best he can where he is. Races are organized twice a year. The men really love horses and are very interested in the races happening in the cities, betting a lot on the various events. Newspapers, which are widely read all over Australia, also reach the bush since the Government ensures mail delivery to almost every station.

The bushman has but few wants, and consequently saves nearly all his wages; but after a year or two he naturally feels the need of change, and so goes to the squatter to ask for a cheque—for ready money is not used in the bush. It frequently amounts to £100, and then he makes up his mind to have some sport. He takes his horses, rides off, dismounts in the first little village and “has a good time”—that is to say, he drinks every kind of liquor that is to be had. He hands his cheque or draft to his host, and from this time forward he lives in a perpetual state of intoxication as long as he has a penny left, and all who approach him drink his health at his expense—live and let live! Nervous and prostrated, he finally comes back to the bush, works a year or two more, and again returns to the village as a man of means to repeat the old story. The liquors he consumes are of course manufactured according to the receipt of the keeper of the dram-shop; they are poor and adulterated—simple poison. This shameful business is chiefly carried on on the borders of civilisation, and there are many stories about dram-shop keepers who have accumulated fortunes by vending this awful stuff. A few years ago there was a terrible report about such a liquor-dealer in Isisford. He 61had a special burial-place for all those who were not strong enough to survive his treatment.

The bushman has very few needs, which means he saves almost all of his earnings. However, after a year or two, he naturally feels the urge for a change, so he goes to the squatter to ask for a check—cash isn’t used in the bush. This check often amounts to £100, and then he decides to have some fun. He takes his horses, rides off, and stops in the first small village to “have a good time”—which means he drinks every kind of alcohol available. He hands his check or draft to his host, and from then on, he lives in a constant state of intoxication for as long as he has any money left, and everyone who approaches him drinks to his health at his expense—live and let live! Exhausted and worn out, he eventually returns to the bush, works for another year or two, and then goes back to the village as a man with money to repeat the cycle. The drinks he consumes are, of course, made according to the recipe of the bar owner; they are cheap and diluted—basically poison. This disgraceful trade mostly happens on the fringes of civilization, and there are many tales of bar owners who have made fortunes by selling this terrible stuff. A few years ago, there were awful reports about such a liquor seller in Isisford. He had a special burial spot for all those who weren't strong enough to survive his treatment.

Towards the end of January 1882 I bade farewell to Western Queensland, and left Minnie Downs. From Tambo I travelled for a time in the coach of the well-known stage company, Cobb and Co., but as there was no place for my dog, I had to walk the last twenty-seven miles before I reached the railroad station, and from there I had a long day’s journey by rail to Rockhampton. During the last fourteen days the heat was very oppressive; black clouds gathered in the rainy season; and I reached Gracemere just in the right time, for the following day the rain began to pour down in the greater part of Central Queensland, and it rained so violently that large districts were flooded. A mail-carrier from Aramac had to stay for three days in a tree to escape the flood. These terrible inundations are thought to be periodical. Mr. C. Russel tries to show that they occur every nineteenth year in the Darling river district.

Towards the end of January 1882, I said goodbye to Western Queensland and left Minnie Downs. From Tambo, I traveled for a while on the coach of the famous stage company, Cobb and Co., but since there was no space for my dog, I had to walk the last twenty-seven miles before I got to the railroad station. From there, I had a long day’s journey by train to Rockhampton. During the last two weeks, the heat was really oppressive; dark clouds gathered during the rainy season, and I arrived in Gracemere just in time because the next day the rain started pouring down across most of Central Queensland. It rained so hard that large areas were flooded. A mail carrier from Aramac had to stay in a tree for three days to escape the flood. These terrible floods are believed to be periodic. Mr. C. Russel tries to show that they happen every nineteenth year in the Darling River district.

It seemed refreshing to be once more in a moist coast climate. The results of my journey did not correspond to my exertions, although I had found some very interesting objects. Amid many privations I had traversed 1700 miles, and was now merely gathering strength for a journey to Northern Queensland.

It felt great to be back in a humid coastal climate. The outcomes of my trip didn’t match the effort I put in, even though I discovered some really fascinating things. After dealing with a lot of hardships, I had covered 1,700 miles and was now just regaining my strength for a journey to Northern Queensland.

Before I leave Gracemere I must relate a snake story connected with it. One forenoon I was asked to come down to the garden to kill a snake. As I approached the place I was greatly astonished to find the reptile hanging dead down a stone wall. At the same time I noticed the head of another snake concealed farther up the wall, which had seized the dead serpent by the middle, so that the head and tail of the latter touched the ground. As it was difficult for the victor to swallow his prey in the above-described position, he dropped it to the ground and crept down after it. Meanwhile I had stepped back, and from my place of concealment I could now watch and see what it was going to do. They were both of about the same size. The serpent laid itself conveniently opposite its victim, and began to swallow it. Its jaws were opened wide, wild with 62desire; the head of the dead serpent disappeared past its greedy teeth, and the rest of it soon slipped down.

Before I leave Gracemere, I have to share a snake story connected to it. One morning, I was asked to come down to the garden to deal with a snake. As I got closer, I was shocked to see the snake hanging dead down a stone wall. At the same time, I noticed the head of another snake hidden further up the wall, which had grabbed the dead snake by the middle, making its head and tail touch the ground. Since it was hard for the victor to swallow its prey in that position, it dropped it to the ground and slithered down after it. Meanwhile, I stepped back, and from my hiding spot, I could watch what it was going to do. They were both about the same size. The snake positioned itself conveniently opposite its meal and started to swallow it. Its jaws opened wide, wild with hunger; the head of the dead snake disappeared past its eager teeth, and soon the rest followed.

I allowed it to swallow about one-third of the dead serpent; then I stepped forward and gave it a blow across the back. It now tried with all its might to get rid of its prey, but the head stuck fast in its throat, and it soon had to succumb to my blows. In this condition they were put in spirits, as they could not be separated except by force. The greedy animal was a brown snake (Hoplocephalus), one of the most venomous in Australia. Its prey was a harmless kind, the so-called brown tree-snake (Dipsas fusca). The venomous one measured 4 feet 2 inches, and the other 4 feet 7 inches.

I let it swallow about a third of the dead snake; then I stepped forward and hit it on the back. It now tried with all its strength to get rid of its meal, but the head was stuck in its throat, and it soon had to give in to my blows. In this state, they were placed in alcohol, as they couldn’t be separated without force. The greedy creature was a brown snake (Hoplocephalus), one of the most venomous in Australia. Its prey was a harmless type, the brown tree-snake (Dipsas fusca). The venomous one was 4 feet 2 inches long, while the other was 4 feet 7 inches.

Snakes were numerous in this vicinity, as everywhere in Australia. At Waverley station, not far from Gracemere, one man in two days killed 203. The country was flat, and stood under water in the rainy season. The snakes found their way up to his hut, which was situated on high ground, so that he could do nothing for two days but defend himself, as they literally besieged his house.

Snakes were everywhere in this area, just like in the rest of Australia. At Waverley station, not far from Gracemere, one guy killed 203 in just two days. The land was flat and flooded during the rainy season. The snakes made their way to his cabin, which was on high ground, so for two straight days, he could only defend himself as they practically surrounded his house.

63

CHAPTER V

Journey to Northern Queensland—Mackay-sugar—Employment of South Sea Islanders—Townsville—A rough northern man—Sugar district in Lower Herbert—Visit to a successful Scandinavian—Blacks near Gardiner’s farm—Nolla-nolla—Spring—Arrival at Herbert Vale.

Journey to Northern Queensland—Mackay-sugar—Hiring South Sea Islanders—Townsville—A tough northern guy—Sugar area in Lower Herbert—Visit to a successful Scandinavian—Indigenous people near Gardiner’s farm—Nolla-nolla—Spring—Arrival at Herbert Vale.

In May 1882 I was at length able to set out on my journey to Northern Queensland. Early one morning at four o’clock I arrived by the steamer at Mackay, where I put up at the city hotel. Everything was open; there was nobody to receive you, nor would anybody get up for the purpose. I had to look for my room myself, and at last I succeeded in finding one.

In May 1882, I finally set out on my journey to Northern Queensland. Early one morning at four o'clock, I arrived by steamer in Mackay, where I stayed at the city hotel. Everything was open; there was no one to greet you, and no one was willing to get up for that purpose. I had to find my own room, and eventually, I managed to locate one.

ELEPHANT SUGAR-CANE, MACKAY.

Elephant Sugarcane, Mackay.

64Mackay is a small town, owing its existence to the production of sugar, and the vicinity, celebrated for its fertility, is at the present time the most important sugar-producing district of the colony. Queensland has been found to be upon the whole especially adapted to the cultivation of the sugar-cane, and the colonists have learned how to overcome all the disadvantages of the climate, so that the sugar-cane is raised not only in the tropical regions in the north, but also as far south as the vicinity of Brisbane. The work on these plantations has in a great measure been done by the natives of the South Sea Islands, who in Australia are called Kanakas—a capable and intelligent race, especially suited to this kind of work, for they are strong, and endure the tropical heat far better than the whites. They contract to stay three years, and are paid £18, and get a free passage both ways. As a rule they are well treated on the plantations, and it frequently happens that they settle in the land. They are well liked, because they are willing to work; but they are hated by the white workmen, who look upon them as competitors. Many abuses have crept in through the introduction of the Kanakas, and the Government, earnestly supported by the white working men, has to a great extent prohibited their importation. The result is that it has become necessary to limit the cultivation of sugar in many places, which is very unfortunate, for the Queensland sugar is strong and of an excellent quality. There is an abundance of fertile lands, so that the production of sugar must in time become one of the most important industries of the colony.

64Mackay is a small town that exists because of sugar production, and the surrounding area, known for its rich soil, is currently the most important sugar-producing region in the colony. Queensland has proven to be particularly well-suited for growing sugar cane, and the colonists have figured out how to handle the climate's challenges, allowing sugar cane to be cultivated not only in the tropical north but also as far south as Brisbane. Most of the work on these plantations has been done by natives from the South Sea Islands, known in Australia as Kanakas—a capable and intelligent group that is especially fit for this work, as they are strong and endure the tropical heat much better than white workers. They typically sign contracts for three years, earning £18 and receiving free passage to and from their homes. Generally, they are treated well on the plantations, and it often happens that they choose to settle in the area. They are well-liked for their willingness to work; however, white laborers resent them as competitors. Numerous issues have arisen from the arrival of the Kanakas, leading the government, with strong support from white workers, to largely restrict their importation. As a result, it has become necessary to limit sugar cultivation in many areas, which is unfortunate since Queensland sugar is robust and of excellent quality. There is plenty of fertile land, suggesting that sugar production could eventually become one of the colony's key industries.

During my sojourn in Mackay my dog, a fine Gordon setter, was exposed to great danger at a station near the town. She suddenly stopped in the high grass, and as I cautiously drew near I discovered in front of her a splendid specimen of the black snake (Pseudechis), whose head had assumed the flat form which is peculiar to venomous snakes when they become excited. The hot weather had made it still more angry. With the head slightly raised from the ground, it lay just ready to give my dog a fatal bite if the latter made the slightest motion. I hastily called the dog back, broke off a branch from a tree, and killed the treacherous enemy, the most venomous snake of Australia. It was glistening black with a reddish belly, and longer than myself when I held it up.

During my time in Mackay, my dog, a beautiful Gordon setter, was in serious danger at a station near the town. She suddenly stopped in the tall grass, and as I cautiously approached, I found in front of her a stunning black snake (Pseudechis), whose head had flattened out, a sign of venomous snakes when they're agitated. The hot weather had made it even more aggressive. With its head slightly raised off the ground, it was ready to deliver a fatal bite to my dog if she moved even a little. I quickly called the dog back, broke off a branch from a tree, and killed the deadly snake, the most venomous species in Australia. It was shiny black with a reddish belly and longer than me when I held it up.

MY GORDON SETTER POINTING A BLACK SNAKE.

MY GORDON SETTER POINTING AT A BLACK SNAKE.


65In July I embarked in a coasting steamer which was to take me farther north, and after a journey of two days we reached Townsville. The steam-launch met us out in the bay in order to bring us ashore, for the harbour is so shallow that large ships cannot lie alongside the wharf. Townsville is situated on Cleveland Bay, partly along a little river and partly on the slope of a mountain which rises to the elevation of 900 feet above the town. The latter accordingly has a very fine situation. The locality now occupied by Townsville was first discovered in 1864. The town is growing so rapidly that it is already regarded as the chief metropolis of Northern Queensland, and there is no doubt that it will take the first rank when this part of Queensland is divided from the south as a separate colony.

65In July, I boarded a coastal steamer that would take me further north, and after a two-day journey, we arrived in Townsville. A small launch met us out in the bay to bring us ashore since the harbor is too shallow for large ships to dock at the wharf. Townsville is located on Cleveland Bay, partly along a small river and partly on the slope of a mountain that rises to 900 feet above the town, giving it a stunning location. The area where Townsville now sits was first discovered in 1864. The town is growing so quickly that it is already seen as the main city of Northern Queensland, and it's clear that it will become the leading center once this part of Queensland separates from the south as its own colony.

The value of land in this city, which now contains about 7000 inhabitants, has risen so enormously that it borders on the phenomenal, even in a newly settled land like this. Thus it has not unfrequently happened that a lot in the course of two or three years has doubled in value several times.

The value of land in this city, which now has about 7,000 residents, has risen so dramatically that it almost seems unbelievable, even in a newly settled area like this. As a result, it’s not uncommon for a lot to double in value several times over the span of just two or three years.

Townsville is the terminal station of the northern railway, and were it not for the shallow harbour it might safely be predicted that it would become one of the principal cities of Australia, both on account of its extensive shipping and of the rich soil of the interior. The chief industry in the vicinity is cattle and sheep-raising, and wool is the principal article of export. Nor is the town without importance in relation to the rich gold beds at Charters Towers. As Townsville has an agreeable climate, the squatters in the arid west are accustomed to come to the comfortable Queen’s Hotel, which is situated by the seaside, in order to seek recreation after all their hard work and privations. I also put up at the Queen’s, which in spite of its northern situation is undoubtedly the best hotel in Queensland; but this is, after all, not saying very much in its favour.

Townsville is the northern railway's terminal station, and if it weren't for the shallow harbor, it could be confidently said that it would become one of Australia's major cities, thanks to its extensive shipping and the fertile soil inland. The main industry in the area is raising cattle and sheep, and wool is the primary export. The town also plays a significant role related to the rich gold deposits at Charters Towers. With its pleasant climate, the ranchers from the dry western areas often visit the comfortable Queen’s Hotel, located by the beach, to relax after all their hard work and struggles. I also stayed at the Queen’s, which, despite its northern location, is certainly the best hotel in Queensland; though, to be fair, that isn’t saying much in its favor.

My destination was Herbert Vale, a deserted cattle 66station on Herbert river. My first intention was to get there by way of Cardwell, a little coast town north of the mouth of Herbert river, from which the distance to Herbert Vale would be only twenty miles, while from Dungeness, which is situated at the mouth, it was at least forty miles up the river.

My destination was Herbert Vale, an abandoned cattle station on the Herbert River. I initially planned to reach it by going through Cardwell, a small coastal town north of the Herbert River's mouth, which is only twenty miles away from Herbert Vale. In contrast, traveling from Dungeness, located at the river's mouth, would mean covering at least forty miles upstream.

Meanwhile I learned that there were many obstacles in the way of reaching Herbert Vale from Cardwell. On the other hand, I was strongly advised to go to Dungeness and thence up the river by boat to some sugar plantations, where I should have more chance of obtaining the necessary horses than at Cardwell. Besides, I had a letter of introduction to one of the largest plantation-owners there, and knowing from experience how valuable such an introduction might be in uncivilised districts, I decided to go by way of Dungeness.

Meanwhile, I found out that there were a lot of obstacles to getting to Herbert Vale from Cardwell. On the flip side, I was strongly encouraged to go to Dungeness and then take a boat up the river to some sugar plantations, where I would have a better chance of getting the horses I needed than in Cardwell. Plus, I had a letter of introduction to one of the biggest plantation owners there, and knowing from experience how valuable such an introduction could be in remote areas, I chose to go through Dungeness.

In the afternoon, one or two hours before the departure of the little coast steamer, I went down to the captain to buy a ticket for Dungeness. All my baggage had already been sent on board marked “Cardwell.” I requested the captain to look after it and have it sent ashore, and showed him where it stood. But no sooner did he see that it was marked “Cardwell” than he began to insist that I was obliged to go to Cardwell. In vain did I strive to maintain my right to go where I pleased. The captain insisted that I must go to Cardwell, and not to Dungeness. He was one of those rough fellows whom we occasionally meet on the borders of civilisation, and it was the first time that I made the acquaintance of a specimen of that amiable race of Northern Queensland—the rough northern men, as they are called.

In the afternoon, one or two hours before the little coast steamer was set to leave, I went down to the captain to buy a ticket to Dungeness. All my luggage had already been sent on board labeled “Cardwell.” I asked the captain to take care of it and have it sent ashore, showing him where it was located. But as soon as he saw that it was marked “Cardwell,” he started insisting that I had to go to Cardwell. I tried in vain to assert my right to go wherever I wanted. The captain kept insisting that I had to go to Cardwell, not Dungeness. He was one of those tough guys you sometimes encounter on the edges of civilization, and it was the first time I met someone from that friendly group of Northern Queensland—what they call the rough northern men.

I of course realised that every argument was superfluous; and therefore made no objections, thinking matters would right themselves in due time. The captain went down into his cabin, and I was on the point of going ashore, wondering how so small and modest a boat really could contain so mighty a man, when my eyes fell upon one of the crew, who looked more accommodating than the others. I told him who I was, and that I was bound for Herbert Vale, where I was to collect specimens of natural history for the Christiania University. In proof of my statement I pointed to my red-painted 67spirit cans which were marked, “University of Christiania, Norway.”

I realized that every argument was unnecessary, so I didn’t object, thinking things would work out on their own. The captain went down to his cabin, and I was about to head ashore, wondering how such a small and humble boat could hold such an impressive man, when I noticed one of the crew members, who seemed more helpful than the others. I introduced myself and explained that I was going to Herbert Vale to collect natural history specimens for the University of Christiania. To back up my claim, I pointed to my red-painted spirit cans, which were labeled, “University of Christiania, Norway.”

“Why, are you Norwegian?” asked he with the usual coolness of a sailor; “I am also from Christiania, and the captain yonder is from Horten,” he added, in a genuine, broad Christiania dialect, pointing to a little steam-ferry which lay moored by our side.

“Why, are you Norwegian?” he asked with the typical coolness of a sailor. “I’m also from Oslo, and the captain over there is from Horten,” he added, in a genuine, broad Oslo accent, pointing to a small steam ferry that was moored next to us.

I expressed my surprise at meeting Norwegians so far up in the tropical north, and in the name of our common country I asked him to help me. He had heard my loud conversation with the captain, and exclaiming in a very disrespectful tone that what the captain had said was a matter of no moment, he at once began to have my baggage properly placed for my destination, Dungeness. In the evening we weighed anchor and started for the north. The captain came on deck intoxicated, as we were about to start, and so the crew took command. The next day we arrived safely at Dungeness at the mouth of Herbert river.

I was surprised to meet Norwegians so far up in the tropical north, and on behalf of our shared country, I asked him for help. He had overheard my loud conversation with the captain and, disrespectfully dismissing the captain's words as unimportant, immediately began organizing my luggage for my destination, Dungeness. In the evening, we weighed anchor and set off north. The captain came on deck drunk just as we were about to leave, so the crew took charge. The next day, we arrived safely at Dungeness at the mouth of the Herbert River.

Hinchinbrook Island, a rocky isle rising to an elevation of about 2500 feet above the level of the sea and nearly always enveloped in fog, attracts the attention of the traveller. The few white people who heretofore have visited it were cedar-cutters. The valuable red cedar (Cedrela) grows in the dense scrubs along the rivers in Northern Queensland, and the timber is floated down the streams in the rainy season. Unlike the Australian spruce, which soon decays, the cedar log may lie a whole year in the woods before it is floated. The wood is as beautiful as mahogany, but not quite so firm and solid. It has been in such great demand that whole forests have been entirely exterminated in the most accessible places; it is the only wood exported from Queensland.

Hinchinbrook Island, a rocky land that rises about 2,500 feet above sea level and is almost always shrouded in fog, captures the attention of travelers. The few white people who have previously visited it were cedar-cutters. The valuable red cedar (Cedrela) grows in the thick scrubs along the rivers in Northern Queensland, and the timber is floated down the streams during the rainy season. Unlike Australian spruce, which decays quickly, a cedar log can sit in the woods for an entire year before being floated. The wood is as beautiful as mahogany, though not quite as strong and solid. It has become so sought after that entire forests have been completely wiped out in the most accessible areas; it is the only wood exported from Queensland.

I at once proceeded in a boat up the river, whose banks for several miles are covered with mangrove forests. The landscape gradually widens into a broad and flat valley, with excellent sugar land, which is now thoroughly cultivated; a steam-plough even having recently been brought here. I was well received, but wholly failed to obtain horses, as I had expected. There was none to be hired, nor could any be purchased; hardly a saddle could be procured in this comparatively uncivilised district.

I immediately took a boat up the river, which for several miles is lined with mangrove forests. The scenery gradually opens up into a wide, flat valley with great farmland, which is now fully cultivated; a steam plow has even recently been introduced here. I was welcomed, but I completely failed to get any horses, as I had hoped. There were none available for hire, and I couldn’t buy any either; it was nearly impossible to find a saddle in this relatively undeveloped area.

68

A NATIVE MAN FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND, NEAR ROCKHAMPTON.

A local man from central Queensland, near Rockhampton.

One day I went down to the mangrove swamps to shoot a small gray heron, which I had seen on my arrival. On my way back I passed a farm, which belonged to a countryman of mine. Fastening my boat to the river bank, I went ashore to pay him a visit. The place gave me the impression of wealth and comfort. A corn-field extended up to the house, and on the verandah was a large heap of corn-husks. The farmer was married to a Norwegian woman, but both had nearly forgotten their mother tongue. They 69had several children, and the whole family, having been afflicted with the malarial fever, looked pale; yet they were well and happy. The husband had begun life in Australia as a carpenter on the first sugar plantation in the district. Mechanics are usually the most successful among Australian immigrants. Here, where the climate was unhealthy, they were especially well paid. He therefore accumulated a considerable sum of money in a short time, and bought land. Fortunately for him his property soon rose in value, for the land along the whole river proved to be excellent for sugar-growing. A large plantation was established farther up the stream, and there being a good harbour on his property, he sold a piece of land for a large price, and was now worth about £10,000. Ten years ago he came here penniless.

One day, I went down to the mangrove swamps to hunt a small gray heron I had spotted when I arrived. On my way back, I passed by a farm that belonged to a fellow countryman. I tied my boat to the riverbank and went ashore to visit him. The place gave off a vibe of wealth and comfort. A cornfield stretched up to the house, and on the porch, there was a big pile of corn husks. The farmer was married to a Norwegian woman, but both had nearly forgotten their native language. They had several children, and the whole family, having suffered from malaria, looked pale; yet they were well and happy. The husband started out in Australia as a carpenter on the first sugar plantation in the area. Mechanics usually find the most success among Australian immigrants. Here, where the climate was unhealthy, they were especially well-paid. He quickly saved a significant amount of money and bought land. Luckily for him, his property soon increased in value because the land along the river turned out to be great for growing sugar. A large plantation was set up further upstream, and since there was a good harbor on his land, he sold a plot for a high price, making him worth about £10,000 now. Ten years ago, he arrived here with nothing.

A NATIVE WOMAN FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND, NEAR ROCKHAMPTON.

A local woman from Central Queensland, near Rockhampton.

70The banks of the river consist of rich soil, and on the higher ground are extensive plains covered with mighty gum-trees, which were continually being felled, while the ground was being ploughed for sugar-cane. Down by the river there are scrubs, the favourite of all farmers on account of the fertility of the soil, and they are more dense and thrive better than those in Mackay. The country is, upon the whole, decidedly tropical. A great part of these woods had been cleared, and large waving fields of sugar-cane with some patches of corn had taken their place. The cultivated fields were being extended with great industry, neither capital nor labour being spared, and it made me almost sad to see the field of the naturalist daily disappearing. The large flocks of pigeons had difficulty in finding the high quandang-trees, in which they are wont to light. The magnificent “weaver-birds” flew about homeless in large flocks, for the great trees in which the colony had their numerous nests were felled. The cassowary became more and more rare; still I could see its footprints in the sand. The only animal which was not disturbed by the restless work of man was the crocodile, which was not even affected by the traffic on the river. It frequently happens that both blacks and whites disappear, for the crocodile is no less bold in its own element than it is timid on land. Thus a Kanaka was one day standing near the plantation washing his clothes in the river. His companions suddenly shouted to him to warn him, but he thought they were making fun, for he was standing scarcely up to his knees in the water, and consequently gave no heed to the warning. The crocodile approached noiselessly, pulled the unhappy man out into the river, and the waves closed over them. Only a stream of blood indicated where he had disappeared.

70The riverbanks are made of rich soil, and on the higher ground, there are vast plains filled with huge gum trees, which are constantly being cut down as the land is being plowed for sugar cane. Along the river, there are scrubs that farmers love because of how fertile the soil is, and they are thicker and grow better than those in Mackay. Overall, the area is definitely tropical. A significant portion of these woods has been cleared, replaced by large, waving fields of sugar cane and some patches of corn. The cultivated fields are being expanded vigorously, with no effort or money spared, and it almost makes me sad to watch the natural landscape shrink every day. Large flocks of pigeons struggle to find the tall quandang trees where they usually rest. The beautiful “weaver birds” fly around without a home in large flocks because the big trees where their colonies used to nest have been cut down. The cassowary is becoming increasingly rare, but I could still see its footprints in the sand. The only animal that seemed unaffected by man's relentless work is the crocodile, which remains undisturbed by the river traffic. It's common for both black and white people to go missing, as the crocodile is bold in the water but timid on land. One day, a Kanaka was standing near the plantation, washing his clothes in the river. His friends suddenly shouted a warning to him, but he thought they were teasing him since he was only standing knee-deep in the water and didn’t pay attention to the warning. The crocodile silently approached, dragged the unfortunate man into the river, and the waves washed over him. Only a stream of blood marked the spot where he had vanished.

Having learned that a man who took an interest in natural history lived in the neighbourhood, I one day paid him a visit. His name was Gardiner, and he kindly invited 71me to stop at his house. Here I made my first acquaintance with the blacks of Northern Queensland. A large number of them, both men and women, all entirely naked, had their camp on his land.

Having heard that a guy who was interested in natural history lived nearby, I decided to visit him one day. His name was Gardiner, and he kindly invited me to hang out at his place. This is where I first met the Indigenous people of Northern Queensland. A large group of them, both men and women, completely nude, had their camp set up on his land.

The first thing which attracted my attention was Mr. Gardiner’s treatment of these people. In the uncivilised districts the relations between the whites and the blacks are as bad as possible. In the remote districts the natives are treated almost like brutes. Still there are persons who take an interest in them (the “protectors of the blacks”), and Mr. Gardiner was one of them. He always had work for them on his farm, he furnished them with tools, and frequently went with them, cutting down trees, building fences, and the like. He had a remarkable faculty for getting the slow and lazy people to work, but he was certainly a great worker himself. By way of salary he gave them large quantities of flour, sugar, and tea, and especially tobacco; when he killed cattle, he also gave them meat.

The first thing that caught my attention was Mr. Gardiner’s treatment of these people. In the uncivilized areas, the relationships between whites and blacks are as bad as can be. In the more isolated regions, the natives are treated almost like animals. Still, there are people who care about them (the “protectors of the blacks”), and Mr. Gardiner was one of them. He always had work for them on his farm, provided them with tools, and often joined them in cutting down trees, building fences, and similar tasks. He had a unique talent for motivating slow and lazy people to work, but he was definitely a hard worker himself. As payment, he gave them large amounts of flour, sugar, tea, and especially tobacco; when he slaughtered cattle, he also shared the meat.

He not only abundantly supplied the men who worked, but also furnished the women with every necessity; in short, the whole camp lived at his expense. No wonder then that the blacks were fond of him; they, however, did not forget their nomadic nature. Now and then they had to return to their native woods, but others would come in their places, so that Mr. Gardiner always had a camp of blacks on his farm.

He not only provided plenty for the men who worked, but he also supplied the women with everything they needed; in short, the entire camp lived off his generosity. It’s no surprise that the Black community liked him; however, they didn’t forget their nomadic roots. Every once in a while, they had to go back to their native woods, but others would arrive to take their place, so Mr. Gardiner always had a group of Black people at his farm.

They had gradually learned to make damper from their flour, and they made it as well as any white person. They prepared their own food in the camp, where they had cooking utensils which Mr. Gardiner had provided them with. They could be seen everywhere, even in the kitchen, where they always tried to keep on good terms with the cook, but they were not allowed to enter the sitting-room.

They had slowly picked up the skill of making damper from their flour, and they did it as well as any white person. They cooked their own meals in the camp, using the cooking utensils that Mr. Gardiner had provided. They could be seen around the camp, even in the kitchen, where they always tried to get along with the cook, but they weren't allowed in the sitting room.

Mr. Gardiner liked to have these savages about him, still it was no easy matter to manage them. When he was with them, one would not think that he had much heart, for he addressed them in a harsh tone, and scolded them terribly when they had done anything wrong. If the camp became too unruly, he sometimes had to go out in the night and frighten them with a rifle shot. This was quite necessary in order to maintain discipline, though he was in reality goodness 72itself; he even protected their women against the white working men on the neighbouring plantation.

Mr. Gardiner enjoyed having these wild people around him, but it wasn't easy to keep them in line. When he was with them, you wouldn't think he had much compassion because he spoke to them harshly and really scolded them when they messed up. If the camp got too rowdy, he sometimes had to go out at night and scare them with a shot from his rifle. This was necessary to keep order, even though he was truly kind-hearted; he even looked out for their women against the white workers on the nearby plantation.

It cannot be denied that he was too liberal toward the blacks. They were quite spoiled, and did not appreciate his disinterestedness; the result was that they became bold and aggressive. He told me himself that they would steal from him whenever they got a chance, and everything had to be kept under lock and key; he could never let the axes and knives which they used lie out of doors, and once a black man even broke in and stole. That, however, was an uncommon occurrence.

It can't be denied that he was too generous toward the Black community. They were kind of spoiled and didn't appreciate his selflessness; as a result, they became bold and confrontational. He told me himself that they would steal from him whenever they had the opportunity, and everything had to be kept locked up; he could never leave the axes and knives they used outside, and once a Black man even broke in and stole. However, that was a rare event.

Upon the whole their civilisation was of a rather low order. Eleven days before my arrival they had killed and eaten a man of another tribe on some hills near the farm. They returned triumphant, and boasted of their inhuman act. When they were abused for having eaten a man, they gradually became silent, and understood that it was something which the whites did not do and which accordingly was not right. This is always the habit of the Australian natives: as long as they remain in their native condition they make no secret of their cannibalism, but continued intercourse with the whites teaches them to regard it as something which is not comme il faut. Yet they keep up this infamous custom in secret before abandoning it altogether.

Overall, their civilization was quite primitive. Eleven days before I arrived, they had killed and eaten a man from another tribe on some hills near the farm. They returned proudly and bragged about their brutal act. When they were criticized for having eaten a man, they slowly fell silent and realized that it was something the white people did not do and therefore was not right. This is always the behavior of the Australian natives: as long as they stay in their traditional ways, they openly acknowledge their cannibalism, but continual contact with white people leads them to see it as something that is not comme il faut. Still, they maintain this shameful practice in secret before finally giving it up entirely.

I was continually with the natives, both during the day and in the evening, hunting animals, and I was very much amused by the companionship of these children of nature. The blacks of Herbert river gave me from the very beginning an increased interest in the Australian race.

I spent a lot of time with the locals, both during the day and at night, hunting animals, and I found the company of these children of nature very entertaining. The people of Herbert River sparked my interest in the Australian culture right from the start.

The boomerang was rare in these regions, for in the large scrubs there is no use for it. On the other hand I frequently saw another weapon, the “nolla-nolla” or club, the warlike weapon of the Australian native most commonly in use. It is a piece of hard and heavy wood sharpened to a point at both ends. One end is thick, and tapers gradually to the other end, which is made rough in order to give the hand a more secure hold; in using the weapon the heavy end is thrown back before it is hurled.

The boomerang was uncommon in these areas since there was no real purpose for it in the large scrublands. However, I often saw another weapon, the "nolla-nolla" or club, which is the primary weapon used by Australian natives. It's made of dense, heavy wood sharpened to a point at both ends. One end is thick and gradually narrows to the other end, which is roughened to provide a better grip for the hand. When using this weapon, the heavy end is pulled back before being thrown.

No great pains are taken in the making of these clubs. 73The majority of them are about two feet long. At a distance of ten to twelve yards the native will hit an object with a tolerable degree of certainty, but only small animals can be killed with this weapon.

No great effort goes into making these clubs. 73The majority of them are about two feet long. From a distance of ten to twelve yards, the local can strike an object with a fair amount of accuracy, but only small animals can be killed with this weapon.

“NOLLA-NOLLAS,” CLUBS (⅐ size).

a, c, from Central Queensland, near Rockhampton; b, from Northern Queensland, Herbert Vale. The thickest end of that marked c is usually stained dark brown.

“NOLLA-NOLLAS,” CLUBS (⅐ size).

a, c, from Central Queensland, near Rockhampton; b, from Northern Queensland, Herbert Vale. The thickest end of that marked c is typically stained dark brown.

As a weapon for hunting, the club is also of great service in another way. The small end is used for digging up the ground and loosening it when the native wants to bring out bandicoots, rats, roots, and similar things. With it he searches for eggs in the remarkable mounds of the talegalla. With his nolla-nolla he pounds at the trees to learn whether they are sound, and picks out the larvæ from the decayed trunks.

As a hunting tool, the club is also really useful in another way. The small end is used for digging into the ground and loosening it when the native wants to find bandicoots, rats, roots, and other similar things. With it, he searches for eggs in the impressive mounds of the talegalla. With his nolla-nolla, he taps on the trees to check if they are healthy and digs out the larvae from the decayed trunks.

One day an egg of a cassowary was brought to me; this bird, although it is nearly akin to the ostrich and emu, does not, like the latter, frequent the open plains, but the thick brushwood. The Australian cassowary is found in Northern Queensland, from Herbert river northwards, in all the large vine-scrubs on the banks of the rivers and on the high mountains of the coasts.

One day, I was given a cassowary egg. This bird, while closely related to the ostrich and emu, doesn’t roam the open plains like the latter, but prefers dense brushwood instead. The Australian cassowary is found in Northern Queensland, from the Herbert River northward, in all the large vine scrubs along the riverbanks and on the high coastal mountains.

For some time I made daily visits to the river bank and caught the beautiful green and blue Orthoptera, which from ten to eleven o’clock in the morning were found flitting among the trees and bushes.

For a while, I went to the riverbank every day and caught the beautiful green and blue Orthoptera, which could be seen flitting among the trees and bushes from ten to eleven in the morning.

In the vicinity of Mr. Gardiner’s farm there were both coffee and tobacco plantations, where the plants throve very 74well. According to the owner’s idea, however, the proper varieties had not yet been found. He had a tobacco factory near the plantation, but the tobacco produced here was so inferior in quality that the more fastidious even of the blacks disdained it. Tobacco thrives very well everywhere in Northern Queensland, and like cinchona, quinine, arrowroot, rice, and cotton, which wherever planted have thriven well, its cultivation is doubtless destined to become an important industry. It is only necessary to find the variety adapted to the climate. It requires great care, and the owner told me that he was obliged to look after every plant daily.

Near Mr. Gardiner’s farm, there were coffee and tobacco plantations where the plants grew really well. However, the owner felt that the right varieties hadn’t been discovered yet. He had a tobacco factory close to the plantation, but the tobacco produced there was of such low quality that even the more particular members of the local Black community turned their noses up at it. Tobacco grows very well all over Northern Queensland, and like cinchona, quinine, arrowroot, rice, and cotton, which thrive anywhere they’re planted, its farming will likely become a significant industry. It’s just a matter of finding the right variety for the climate. It requires a lot of attention, and the owner told me he had to check on every plant daily.

Although my visit to Mr. Gardiner’s farm was both interesting and agreeable, I longed to get to my destination. Originally I intended to go there on foot and get some of the blacks to carry my baggage, but Mr. Gardiner surprised me one day by offering me an old horse (Kassik) which he had kept in pasture for a year and a half on the other side of the river. I was permitted to keep him as a pack-horse as long as I pleased. He likewise placed a saddle-horse at my disposal for a limited time. I felt very grateful for this liberal offer, which I accepted with pleasure, as it would relieve me from many difficulties.

Although my visit to Mr. Gardiner’s farm was both interesting and enjoyable, I couldn't wait to reach my destination. I originally planned to walk there and have some local people help carry my luggage, but one day, Mr. Gardiner surprised me by offering me an old horse (Kassik) that he had kept in a pasture for a year and a half on the other side of the river. I was allowed to use him as a pack horse for as long as I wanted. He also provided me with a saddle horse for a limited time. I felt very grateful for this generous offer, which I happily accepted since it would save me from a lot of hassles.

Cheerful and happy, I started on my journey in beautiful, sunny spring weather, following the river upwards. All about me was fresh and green. Light green patches of grass and thriving vine-scrubs, by the side of brooks and streams, which crossed my path on their course down to the river, passed, in pleasing succession. The dark green vine-scrubs which extended along the banks on both sides of the river gave the landscape its most conspicuous character, and contrasted well with the light green spots. The bottom of the valley was flat and fertile. Before me I saw continually the scrub-clad hills, the foot of which I knew to be my destination. It was on these mountains that I based so many hopes. It is true that Mr. Scott, the owner of this deserted cattle station, which he had kindly invited me to use as my headquarters, had warned me that I was coming to a poor place, where I must renounce every comfort. I was well aware of this, but was prepared to submit to various kinds of privation if I could but get the opportunity of living amid 75this instructive Nature, where I anticipated such great results. It was impossible to be melancholy in the midst of such wonderful surroundings! All was bright and inspiring.

Cheerful and happy, I began my journey in beautiful, sunny spring weather, following the river upstream. Everything around me was fresh and green. Light green patches of grass and thriving vines along the banks of brooks and streams crossed my path as they flowed down to the river, appearing in a pleasing succession. The dark green vines that stretched along both sides of the river gave the landscape a distinct character and contrasted nicely with the light green spots. The valley floor was flat and fertile. Ahead of me, I continually saw the scrub-covered hills, the base of which I knew was my destination. It was on these mountains that I had placed so many hopes. Mr. Scott, the owner of this deserted cattle station, which he had kindly invited me to use as my base, had warned me that I was heading to a poor place where I would have to give up all comforts. I was well aware of this but was ready to endure various kinds of hardship if it meant I could experience this enlightening Nature, where I anticipated such great results. It was impossible to feel down in the midst of such amazing surroundings! Everything was bright and inspiring.

On the evening of the second day, as I was approaching Herbert Vale, I constantly heard a peculiar whistling sound in the grass, which I could not comprehend. On dismounting, I found that it came from an infinite number of small grasshoppers which were not yet fully developed. They retreated before my horses, and were so numerous that the blades of grass literally bent under their weight. Herbert river is sometimes visited by vast swarms of grasshoppers, which do considerable damage to the young sugar-cane.

On the evening of the second day, as I was getting close to Herbert Vale, I kept hearing a strange whistling sound coming from the grass that I couldn't figure out. When I got off my horse, I discovered it was from countless young grasshoppers that weren’t fully grown yet. They scattered as my horses approached, and there were so many of them that the blades of grass actually bent under their weight. The Herbert River is sometimes hit by huge swarms of grasshoppers that cause significant damage to the young sugar cane.

Darkness set in, but I continued to ride three-quarters of an hour after sunset. Several times I was obliged to dismount in order to look for the direction of the path. When at length I could no longer find my way in the darkness of the night, I suddenly scented smoke, and after going a few steps in that direction I discovered that the grass had been recently burnt. Far away, the stumps of trees still shone with fresh embers. Fortunately I came across a camp of blacks near the river’s bank. To the great terror of the natives I entered their camp, but quieted them immediately by showing them tobacco, for two pieces of which currency I induced one of them to be my guide to Herbert Vale.

Darkness fell, but I kept riding for about forty-five minutes after sunset. Several times, I had to get off my horse to find the path. When I could no longer see my way in the night, I suddenly smelled smoke, and after walking a few steps in that direction, I realized the grass had been recently burned. In the distance, the stumps of trees still glowed with fresh embers. Luckily, I stumbled upon a camp of Indigenous people by the riverbank. To their great fear, I entered their camp, but I quickly calmed them down by showing them tobacco. With just two pieces of that, I convinced one of them to guide me to Herbert Vale.

76

CHAPTER VI

Headquarters at Herbert Vale—Civilised blacks—Domestic life—Nelly the cook—Cats—Swimming in fat—My bill of fare—Killing the bullock—Strong stomachs and bad fare.

Headquarters at Herbert Vale—Civilized Black people—Home life—Nelly the cook—Cats—Swimming in fat—My menu—Killing the bullock—Strong stomachs and bad food.

Arriving at the entrance to the yard, I met a white object, which proved to be a Kanaka in his Sunday clothes. He took my horses under his care and called the superintendent of the station, who was an old white man. A bureau, a couple of wooden chairs, and a camp-bed constituted the entire furniture of my room. The bed, in which I slept exceedingly well, possessed the unexampled luxury of two thick canvas sheets, and I had been prudent enough to bring with me a heavy double woollen blanket. At breakfast I asked the old man to introduce me to some of the blacks, whose assistance I needed, for I could accomplish nothing without them. I therefore also inquired whether there were any “civilised” ones among them. The answer was, that for the last two years he had permitted them to come to the station, and consequently some of them might have the right to this title. To know that they will be killed if they murder a white man, to be fond of wearing the garments and ornaments of white people, and to smoke tobacco, is all that is required in order to be styled “civilised” among the Australian blacks, though sometimes they do learn a little more than that. These so-called “civilised” blacks look upon their savage brethren with more or less contempt, and call them myall.[4]

Arriving at the entrance to the yard, I encountered a white figure, which turned out to be a local man in his Sunday clothes. He took care of my horses and called for the station's superintendent, an older white man. A desk, a couple of wooden chairs, and a camp bed made up all the furniture in my room. The bed, where I slept very well, had the unique luxury of two thick canvas sheets, and I was smart enough to bring along a heavy double wool blanket. At breakfast, I asked the old man to introduce me to some of the local people, as I needed their help; I couldn’t do anything without them. I also asked if there were any "civilized" ones among them. He replied that for the past two years, he had allowed them to come to the station, so some might actually have the right to that title. To be considered "civilized" among the Australian locals, it only takes knowing that they will be killed if they murder a white person, liking to wear clothes and accessories made for white people, and smoking tobacco, though sometimes they learn a bit more than just that. These so-called "civilized" locals look down on their wild counterparts with varying degrees of disdain and refer to them as myall.[4]

4. A tree (Acacia pendula) which grows extensively in the less civilised districts is called by the Europeans myall. This word was soon applied by the whites as a term for the wild blacks who frequented these large remote myall woods. Strange to say, the blacks soon adopted this term themselves and used it as an epithet of abuse, and hence it soon came to mean a person of no culture.

4. A tree (Acacia pendula) that grows widely in the less developed areas is known to Europeans as myall. This term was quickly adopted by white settlers to refer to the indigenous people who lived in these vast, isolated myall forests. Interestingly, the indigenous people eventually embraced this term and began using it as an insult, which led it to mean a person lacking in culture.

77

PECULIAR POSITION OF NATIVES WHEN RESTING.

PECULIAR POSITION OF NATIVES WHEN RESTING.

We had not finished our breakfast when we saw their heads peeping through the gate;—all were men armed with spears, as they were just going out to hunt the wallaby. Most of them were slender and tolerably well built, though on the average small. Their height varied greatly. One of them, a lean and slender fellow, called by the old man Tommy, who I afterwards learned had five wives, was distinguished for his stature; but he was scarcely over 5 feet 8 inches in height. Their faces varied conspicuously, some having longer noses than I had observed before among the Australian natives, but very flat; all were entirely naked. Some of them wore about their necks a sort of yellow band made of hollow straws cut into small pieces. This band was wound several times round the neck.

We hadn’t finished our breakfast when we spotted their heads peeking through the gate; they were all men carrying spears, as they were just heading out to hunt wallabies. Most of them were lean and fairly well-built, although generally on the smaller side. Their heights varied a lot. One of them, a skinny guy called Tommy by the old man, who I later learned had five wives, stood out for his height, but he was barely over 5 feet 8 inches tall. Their faces were quite different from each other, with some having longer noses than I’d seen before among the Australian natives, but very flat; all were completely naked. Some of them wore a kind of yellow band made of hollow straws cut into small pieces around their necks. This band was wrapped several times around their necks.

The old superintendent pointed out one of these blacks, called Jacky, who knew a few English words. He was a square-built, well-proportioned man, in good physical condition, with a cunning but good-natured face. As he was considered the most civilised person of the lot, I tried to make him explain to the others that I desired to obtain all things creeping on the ground or flying in the air, and that I would give them tobacco for what they brought me. I also wanted one of them to go with me and find tshukki-tshukki. This word is used to the civilised blacks to indicate birds. Jacky said he would “belong to me” to-morrow, but now they were all going out hunting; he added that they would bring me something when they returned in the evening. Jacky was 78the only one with whom I could talk; the others were silent.

The old superintendent pointed out one of these Black men, named Jacky, who knew a few English words. He was a sturdy, well-built guy in good shape, with a clever but friendly face. Since he was considered the most civilized of the group, I tried to have him explain to the others that I wanted to get all the things that crawled on the ground or flew in the air, and that I would give them tobacco for what they brought me. I also wanted one of them to come with me to find tshukki-tshukki. This word is used with the civilized Black people to refer to birds. Jacky said he would “belong to me” tomorrow, but right now they were all going out hunting; he added that they would bring me something when they returned in the evening. Jacky was the only one I could talk to; the others were quiet. 78

I observed that some rested in a most peculiar position, a habit which I have often noticed since then. They stood on one foot, and placed the sole of the other on the inside of the thigh a little above the knee. The whole person was easily supported by a spear (p. 77).[5]

I noticed that some rested in a really strange position, a habit I've often seen since then. They stood on one foot and placed the sole of the other foot on the inside of their thigh just above the knee. The whole body was easily supported by a spear (p. 77).[5]

5. This custom also prevails among the inhabitants of the Soudan and the White Nile district. See James’s Soudan.

5. This tradition is also common among the people of Sudan and the White Nile area. See James’s Soudan.

The blacks left us, and I took this opportunity of studying my surroundings. Herbert Vale, which belongs to the Scott Brothers, had been abandoned as a cattle station, because the soil along the lower part of the river proved to be so excellent for sugar-growing that it rose in value and became too expensive for cattle-raising. The Englishman always knows how to make himself comfortable, so the station had comparatively good houses, and for this reason the owners had left an old white man in charge of the property. His chief duty was to keep the blacks from setting fire to the houses when they burned the grass while hunting.

The workers left us, and I took this chance to observe my surroundings. Herbert Vale, owned by the Scott Brothers, had been abandoned as a cattle station because the soil along the lower part of the river turned out to be so great for growing sugar that its value went up and became too expensive for raising cattle. The English know how to create a comfortable living environment, so the station had relatively decent houses, which is why the owners had left an old white man in charge of the property. His main job was to prevent the workers from setting fire to the houses when they burned the grass while hunting.

Around the whole property there was a natural hedge of sharp thorns. Passing through a little gate we came to a two-storied wooden house painted red, the first floor of which was used for kitchen and dining-room. The kitchen was quite primitive, having neither floor nor door. The main building, a low one-storied house, stood a few steps farther to the west nearer the river.

Around the entire property, there was a natural hedge of sharp thorns. As we went through a small gate, we arrived at a two-story wooden house painted red. The first floor served as the kitchen and dining room. The kitchen was very basic, lacking both a floor and a door. The main building, a single-story house, was a few steps further west, closer to the river.

On the side facing Herbert river I had access from my room to a spacious verandah, from which there was a fine view far up the river. Besides these two buildings, a large storehouse, in which the superintendent kept a supply of flour, sugar, tea, and tobacco, gave the impression of wealth.

On the side facing the Herbert River, I had access from my room to a large verandah, which offered a great view of the river stretching far ahead. In addition to these two buildings, a big storehouse where the superintendent kept a supply of flour, sugar, tea, and tobacco created a sense of prosperity.

Mr. Scott had made a large garden, which now unfortunately was in an entirely dilapidated condition, as the old superintendent made no use of it; the only thing he cultivated being some sweet-potatoes (Batatas edulis). The only care which the garden received was that the grass was mown now and then when it became too high, in order to keep it from smothering the trees. In spite of the miserable 79condition of the garden it was a pleasure to see that even in these uncivilised regions there existed a taste for the beauties and comforts of life, and not simply a love of money. The cheerful houses among the thriving trees could not fail to gladden the traveller, whose eyes in this part of the country rarely witness other than primitive cabins of bark. In Northern Queensland it is even more rare to find things done simply for comfort than it is farther south; farther west and north the country becomes still more wild and uncivilised. The desire to earn money seems to monopolise everything, and there is no time to think of such a luxury as a garden. Of course occasionally a bed of cabbage, carrots, sweet-potatoes, and the like, might be found, but fruit or shady trees are looked for in vain.

Mr. Scott had created a large garden, which unfortunately was now in a completely rundown state because the old superintendent neglected it; the only thing he grew was some sweet potatoes (Batatas edulis). The only maintenance the garden got was the grass being mowed now and then when it got too high, just to keep it from overwhelming the trees. Despite the sad condition of the garden, it was uplifting to see that even in these uncivilized areas there was an appreciation for the beauties and comforts of life, rather than just a focus on making money. The cheerful houses among the lush trees were sure to delight travelers, whose eyes in this part of the country typically only see primitive bark cabins. In Northern Queensland, it’s even less common to find things done just for comfort than it is further south; the farther west and north you go, the wilder and more uncivilized the land becomes. The drive to earn money seems to dominate everything, leaving no time to think about something as luxurious as a garden. Of course, you might occasionally spot a patch of cabbages, carrots, sweet potatoes, and the like, but you’d look in vain for fruit trees or shade.

In the middle of the garden stood a bread-tree, but it did not thrive; this was also the case with a few cocoanut-palms. Conquat, loquat, and guava-trees, on the other hand, bear excellent fruit. A granadilla, which twined itself gracefully round an old fig-tree, furnished us for Christmas with a small amount of palatable fruit. A part of the garden might be called an orange-orchard, which bore oranges in abundance, but, alas, they were, chiefly from want of care, too sour to be eaten. The mango-tree yielded the best fruit to be found in the whole garden.

In the middle of the garden stood a breadfruit tree, but it wasn’t doing well; the same went for a few coconut palms. On the other hand, the conquat, loquat, and guava trees produced excellent fruit. A granadilla, which gracefully wrapped itself around an old fig tree, provided us with a small amount of tasty fruit for Christmas. Part of the garden could be called an orange orchard, which had plenty of oranges, but unfortunately, due to neglect, they were mostly too sour to eat. The mango tree produced the best fruit in the entire garden.

Herbert Vale lies about forty miles above the mouth of Herbert river, 18° S. lat.; its rainfall is about ninety inches annually. The locality is exceedingly beautiful, occupying a high plain on the eastern bank of the river where the latter makes a bend. The bottom of the river valley is very flat, and dotted with grass and brushwood. In the distance in almost every direction appear mountainous uplands covered to the very horizon with dense scrubs, now and then broken by an opening, through which picturesque waterfalls may be seen dashing down the hillside, greatly enlivening the sombre groves. The streams which form these waterfalls often unite and empty into Herbert river, and along their whole course they are bordered with scrub on both sides. The mountains are the same as those extending hundreds of miles northward to Cape York.

Herbert Vale is located about forty miles upstream from the mouth of the Herbert River, at 18° S latitude, with an annual rainfall of around ninety inches. The area is incredibly beautiful, sitting on a high plain along the eastern bank of the river where it curves. The river valley is very flat, sprinkled with grass and shrubs. In almost every direction, you can see mountainous uplands that stretch to the horizon, thick with dense brush, occasionally interrupted by openings where picturesque waterfalls can be seen cascading down the hillsides, adding vibrancy to the dark groves. The streams that create these waterfalls often merge and flow into the Herbert River, and they're lined with brush on both sides along their entire length. The mountains here are the same ones that continue for hundreds of miles northward to Cape York.

In the afternoon the natives returned, but, alas, it was a 80disagreeable surprise to find what they had brought for me—the thigh and tail of a kangaroo—in their estimation the most valuable thing they could procure. It was always difficult to make them understand what I wanted. I succeeded better after I had coaxed them to tell me what animals they knew and what they called them. Notwithstanding the fact that they knew they would be well paid for what they might bring, they rarely found anything of interest; they were too lazy and too stupid to care for anything beyond the present moment. If my efforts were to produce any result, I would have to go with them myself, and stay with them early and late, well supplied with tobacco, a small amount of which will induce them to do anything in their power. For some time I succeeded in keeping one man, who accompanied me on all my tours. Thus I made excursions in the neighbourhood of Herbert Vale until towards the close of October, always attended by the blacks.

In the afternoon, the locals returned, but, unfortunately, it was quite a disappointment to see what they had brought me—the thigh and tail of a kangaroo—believed to be the most valuable items they could find. It was always challenging to make them understand what I wanted. I had better luck after I encouraged them to share what animals they knew and what they called them. Even though they knew they would be well compensated for anything they brought, they rarely found anything interesting; they were too lazy and uninterested to think beyond the present. If I wanted to see any results, I would have to go with them myself and stay with them from morning to night, well-stocked with tobacco, a small amount of which would motivate them to do anything they could. For a while, I managed to keep one man with me, who joined me on all my trips. This way, I explored the area around Herbert Vale until late October, always accompanied by the locals.

I was deeply interested in the study of the Australian natives, who are supposed to be the lowest order of the human race. I went with them on their excursions through the dense scrubs; I admired their skill in climbing the tall gum-trees; and wondered at their keen and trained senses, by which they discovered animals in the most surprising manner. We hunted the cassowary or dug out from the earth bandicoots and Dasyuridæ—not a day passed on which we did not go out on some hunting expedition; in short, I was constantly with them, and frequently spent the evenings in their camp, which, as a rule, was pitched near the station. As I gradually became able to make myself understood, my interest in this remarkable and most primitive race of people increased.

I was really interested in studying the Australian natives, who are thought to be the most basic level of the human race. I joined them on their trips through the thick brush; I admired their ability to climb the tall gum trees and marveled at their sharp and trained senses that allowed them to find animals in amazing ways. We hunted cassowaries and dug up bandicoots and Dasyuridæ from the ground—there wasn’t a day when we didn’t go out on some hunting adventure; in short, I was always with them and often spent the evenings in their camp, which was usually set up near the station. As I slowly learned to communicate, my interest in this fascinating and very primitive group of people grew.

NELLY IN THE KITCHEN.

Nelly in the kitchen.

81Mr. Scott’s keeper at the station was a peevish, conceited old man, who spent most of his time sleeping on a sort of cot which he had placed on the verandah. He had left the care of the house entirely to a Kanaka. This latter had purchased from the tribe in the neighbourhood of Herbert Vale a girl, Nelly, for his wife, and the main burden of housekeeping was put upon her. The only thing that the Kanaka did himself was to milk the cow in the morning, bake the damper, and chop the fuel for the kitchen. There was not much variety in our bill of fare: salt beef and damper, damper and salt beef, were the standing dishes at all three meals. On two occasions a chicken was killed, which was prepared in the plainest manner; the head being chopped off, it was stripped of its feathers, and at once put into the kettle to boil. For a time we also had sweet-potatoes, which Nelly placed on the table for breakfast, dinner, and supper as long as they lasted. No care was bestowed on our hens, however; they laid many eggs, which Nelly, our skilful cook, invariably did her best to serve in an almost petrified condition.

81Mr. Scott’s caretaker at the station was a cranky, arrogant old man who spent most of his time napping on a cot he’d set up on the porch. He had completely handed over the responsibilities of the house to a Kanaka. This man had bought a girl, Nelly, from the nearby tribe in Herbert Vale to be his wife, and she bore the brunt of the household chores. The only things the Kanaka did himself were milking the cow in the morning, baking the damper, and chopping wood for the kitchen. Our meals didn’t have much variety: it was salt beef and damper, or damper and salt beef, for all three meals. On two occasions, we had a chicken, which was cooked in the simplest way; the head was chopped off, the feathers were removed, and it was immediately placed in the pot to boil. For a while, we also had sweet potatoes, which Nelly served at breakfast, lunch, and dinner until they ran out. However, our hens received no attention; they laid many eggs, which Nelly, our talented cook, always made sure to serve in a nearly petrified state.

The old man delighted in a numerous family of cats; for, in his opinion, after a woman, a cat was the chief source of domestic comfort. As soon as they heard the sound of kettle and plates, they gathered in large numbers from all quarters. As a rule a couple of them could be seen in the forenoon sleeping among the washed plates on the kitchen table, while the fowls wandered about everywhere. The cock crowed on the dining-room table, and the hens laid their eggs on the hearthstone. It was indeed strange to see how little pains the old man took to make himself comfortable. How nice he could have made it here if he only had taken some interest in the affairs of the household! Besides the chickens, he had, as we have seen, a cow, and at times fresh meat, for there were several cattle for slaughter left on the deserted station.

The old man loved his large family of cats; to him, after a woman, a cat was the biggest source of comfort at home. As soon as they heard the sounds of the kettle and plates, they would gather in large numbers from all around. Usually, a couple of them could be seen in the morning napping among the clean plates on the kitchen table, while the chickens roamed around everywhere. The rooster crowed on the dining room table, and the hens laid their eggs on the hearth. It was truly odd how little effort the old man made to make himself comfortable. He could have improved things here quite a bit if he had just taken an interest in running the household! Besides the chickens, he also had, as we've mentioned, a cow, and occasionally fresh meat, since there were several cattle for slaughter left at the abandoned station.

In the long run salt beef and damper make rather unwholesome food, and though I therefore repeatedly tried to give Nelly lessons in cooking, my efforts were fruitless. I wanted her to fry the beef, but she used such a quantity of fat that it took away all my appetite. Too old to make any progress in the art of cooking, Nelly clung to her former habits, and preferred to boil salt beef and sweet-potatoes, if she had any. However, I must confess that she had great talent for making the fire burn. Sometimes the fat caught fire, and in this manner I got rid of the detestable fluid; but then the meat was burnt to a cinder.

In the long run, salt beef and damper end up being pretty unhealthy food choices, and even though I tried repeatedly to teach Nelly how to cook, my efforts didn’t work out. I wanted her to fry the beef, but she used so much fat that it completely ruined my appetite. Too old to really learn cooking, Nelly stuck to her old ways and preferred to boil salt beef and sweet potatoes when she had them. However, I have to admit she was really good at getting the fire going. Sometimes the fat would catch fire, and that way I got rid of the disgusting oil; but then the meat would get burnt to a crisp.

The fact that the old man evidently did not like me to meddle with the kitchen affairs made it all the more difficult to bring about any reformation in the culinary 82department; he preferred to keep matters in the old groove and could not bear any interference on the part of an epicure. Nelly had a high opinion of her own ability. When with a pipe in her mouth, she was washing plates and knives, satisfaction beamed from her dark brown face. Her appetite was marvellous; she not only devoured incredible quantities in the kitchen, but also constantly secured food by bartering with her black friends, for she appeared not to have lost her appetite for their plain messes even after her elevation as the white man’s cook. She always had a supply of baskets filled with various kinds of vegetable provisions of the plainest sort hanging in the kitchen.

The fact that the old man clearly didn’t want me interfering with the kitchen made it even harder to make any changes in the cooking department; he preferred to stick to the old ways and couldn’t stand any involvement from a food lover. Nelly thought highly of her own skills. When she had a pipe in her mouth, washing dishes and knives, satisfaction lit up her dark brown face. Her appetite was unbelievable; she not only ate huge amounts in the kitchen but also regularly got food by trading with her black friends, since she hadn’t lost her taste for their simple meals even after becoming the white man’s cook. She always had a stash of baskets filled with various basic vegetables hanging in the kitchen. 82

The highest ideal of these natives’ existence is to have plenty to eat, and Nelly ate most of the time. When she was not engaged in this her favourite occupation, she smoked tobacco, and when she neither ate nor smoked she slept. Thus her existence was a happy one, marred only by an occasional flogging from her husband. In her domestic troubles she was as a rule the wronged party, but being the weaker of the two she of course could never claim the victory, which was determined by fisticuffs.

The main goal of these locals' lives is to have enough food, and Nelly spent most of her time eating. When she wasn't busy with that favorite activity, she smoked tobacco, and when she wasn't eating or smoking, she was sleeping. So, her life was a happy one, only interrupted by the occasional beating from her husband. In her domestic issues, she was usually the victim, but since she was the weaker one, she could never win, with the outcome determined by fights.

Old Walters, the keeper, had forbidden the black men to come within the enclosure, but the women had free admittance. In course of time the most courageous ones ventured not only to pass through the gate but even to steal into the kitchen. They tried to keep on good terms with Nelly, who now and then would save a bite of food for them, especially if they aided her with the work, which of course served them as a convenient pretext. They took every opportunity of helping themselves to tallow and meat, the women doing the stealing by day and the men by night.

Old Walters, the keeper, had forbidden the black men from entering the enclosure, but the women were free to come and go. Over time, the bravest among them dared not only to pass through the gate but even to sneak into the kitchen. They tried to maintain a good relationship with Nelly, who occasionally saved some food for them, especially if they helped her with the work, which conveniently served as an excuse. They seized every chance to help themselves to tallow and meat, with the women stealing during the day and the men at night.

I cannot deny that it annoyed me to know that the food was prepared by the blacks; for the women who washed the dishes were naked, and filthy in the extreme, and moreover the natives were troubled with skin diseases, so that both the old man and myself were liable to catch the infection. Such diseases, the faithful attendants of civilisation, have also found their way to the natives of the Herbert river region. Fortunately but few were sufficiently advanced in civilisation. Nor were there very many who ventured into the kitchen, 83at least at first; but as they gradually became acquainted with the place their number increased in the same proportion as their respect for the keeper diminished.

I can't deny that it bothered me to know that the food was prepared by black people; the women who washed the dishes were naked and extremely dirty, and on top of that, the locals had skin diseases, which meant both the old man and I were at risk of getting infected. These diseases, which often accompany civilization, had also spread to the natives of the Herbert River area. Fortunately, very few were advanced in civilization. Not many ventured into the kitchen, at least at first; however, as they gradually got familiar with the place, their numbers increased in direct proportion to their respect for the cook diminishing. 83

JACKY, A “CIVILISED” BLACK-FELLOW.

JACKY, A “CIVILIZED” BLACK GUY.

84The external mark of civilisation among the Australian natives is usually a European shirt which has been white, but which, on account of age and want of washing, has assumed a colour thoroughly in harmony with the complexion of its owner. Nor is a common English clay pipe ever wanting to complete the impression of being a “gentleman” among his colleagues, to say nothing of a felt hat, which in the eyes of the Australian native is the chief mark of distinction between a white and a black man. They usually ask the white man for a civilised name, and if this request is granted they are constantly called by it among their comrades.

84The visible sign of civilization among the Australian natives is often a European shirt that used to be white, but due to age and lack of washing, it has taken on a color that blends well with its owner's skin tone. Additionally, a common English clay pipe is always present to enhance the impression of being a “gentleman” among peers, not to mention a felt hat, which in the eyes of the Australian native is the main symbol of distinction between a white person and a black person. They usually ask the white man for a civilized name, and if this request is fulfilled, they consistently refer to him by that name among their friends.

The natives on Herbert river near my headquarters had just begun to enter this state of civilisation, but very few of them had succeeded in obtaining a shirt or an old hat. The fact of their incipient civilisation was at least of one advantage to me—they were less afraid of the white man.

The locals by the Herbert River near my base were just starting to adapt to this form of civilization, but only a few had managed to get a shirt or an old hat. At least one benefit of their emerging civilization for me was that they were less fearful of white people.

Whenever a bullock was killed they regularly congregated in large numbers at the station, for at such times there was always something to get. The meat was salted in the usual manner, and the head, the hide, the bones, and all the entrails were given to the blacks. A slaughter day was a real festival at Herbert Vale. It was usually found out several days in advance, was reported from one tribe to another, and was a topic of conversation far away in the mountains among those who did not dare to approach the station.

Whenever a bullock was killed, they would gather in large numbers at the station because there was always something to be gained. The meat was salted in the usual way, and the head, hide, bones, and all the entrails were given to the Indigenous people. A slaughter day was like a real festival at Herbert Vale. It was usually known several days ahead of time, relayed from one tribe to another, and became a topic of conversation even among those in the mountains who were hesitant to get close to the station.

It amused me very much to watch the blacks in the slaughter-yard, an enclosure about 150 yards from the main building. When the time approached for the old keeper to appear with his rifle to shoot the bullock—tomóbero, as the blacks call both the animal and the beef—they came up from their camp, but were not allowed to stand near the enclosure. As the Australian cattle are used to see men only on horseback, they become very frightened at the sight of people on foot, and especially of the blacks, not only because they are on foot, but because the poor beasts occasionally have made the acquaintance of their spears.

It really entertained me to watch the Black workers in the slaughteryard, a pen about 150 yards from the main building. As the time drew near for the old keeper to come with his rifle to shoot the bullock—tomóbero, as the Black workers call both the animal and the meat—they came up from their camp but weren’t allowed to stand close to the pen. Since the Australian cattle are used to seeing people only on horseback, they get very scared when they see people on foot, especially the Black workers, not just because they’re on foot, but also because the poor animals have sometimes encountered their spears.

First, the blacks had to keep themselves concealed from the sight of the bullock, for fear it should get frightened and run to and fro in the yard, and thus make it impossible for 85the old man to shoot it. The keeper would then get so angry that he would hurl empty threats at their heads. They however gradually became so accustomed to this that they did not mind it. Upon the whole his authority was not much respected by them, and the fact that he often missed his mark when he shot at the bullock materially increased their contempt for him, for the blacks expect a man to hit the object at which he aims.

First, the black people had to stay hidden from the bullock so it wouldn’t get scared and run around the yard, making it impossible for the old man to shoot it. The keeper would get really angry and throw empty threats at them. They eventually got so used to this that it didn’t bother them. Overall, they didn’t respect his authority much, and the fact that he often missed when he shot at the bullock only added to their disdain for him, because the black people expected a man to hit what he aimed at.

As soon as the animal falls, which is easy for them to observe from their ambush, they rush forth from all parts of the wood and stand around the enclosure—men, women, and children—all alike eager to get their share of the slaughtered animal.

As soon as the animal falls, which is easy for them to see from their hiding spot, they rush out from all parts of the woods and gather around the enclosure—men, women, and children—all equally eager to get their share of the slaughtered animal.

First, the throat of the bullock is pierced with a long knife that the blood may run out. Some old women are then permitted to come within the yard, and with both hands they scoop up from the ground the coagulated blood into their baskets. Next the flaying begins, and several men are allowed to come in and help. None of them seems much inclined to assist in the work, but they all like to get inside the yard, for then they are sure of securing some of the spoils. Some of them hold the beast by the feet or tail while others remove the hide with the old keeper’s knives. As soon as the animal is cut open it is important to be at hand ready to lay hold of the largest pieces of the entrails, all of which fall to the lot of the blacks. At this point men, women, and children all rush into the yard.

First, the bullock's throat is cut with a long knife to let the blood drain out. Some older women are then allowed to enter the yard, where they scoop up the congealed blood from the ground into their baskets using both hands. Next, the skinning starts, and several men are invited to help. None of them seem very eager to pitch in, but they all want to get into the yard because that ensures they can grab some of the remains. Some hold the animal by its feet or tail while others use the old keeper’s knives to remove the hide. As soon as the animal is opened up, it’s crucial to be ready to grab the biggest pieces of the entrails, which are all given to the Black people. At this moment, men, women, and children all rush into the yard.

Amid deafening noise and clamour a regular fight for the intestines commences; they pull them into pieces in their tussle for them, each one trying to secure the longest piece. The worthiest among them, that is to say the strongest and those who have the most wives, have agreed beforehand who is to have such delicate parts as the liver, the lungs, and the heart. There is also a great struggle for the tail, to say nothing of the hide, which is always an object of lively competition.

Amid the loud noise and chaos, a constant battle for the intestines begins; they tear them apart in their struggle, each one trying to grab the longest piece. The strongest among them, meaning those who can fight the best and have the most wives, have already decided who gets the prized parts like the liver, lungs, and heart. There's also a fierce competition for the tail, not to mention the hide, which is always hotly contested.

A number of blacks gather round it and hold it up between them, but it is no easy matter to divide an ox hide, for it cannot be torn into pieces. Iron implements are needed, and so the axe and large knives are borrowed. One 86begins to cut out a large piece with the axe, while others who have succeeded in getting knives pay no respect to an equitable division of the booty, but cut out as large pieces as possible. Those who have failed to secure any knife stand crestfallen, impatiently watching the proceedings, and expecting every moment that the piece will be cut out; but to their despair the sharp weapon continually plunges farther into the hide. At length the cutting is finished, and only miserable portions of the large hide remain. All that is now left to be done is to divide the head between the two who have taken possession of it, and who have agreed in advance to share it equally.

A group of Black people gathers around and lifts it up between them, but it's not easy to divide an ox hide since it can't be torn into pieces. They need iron tools, so they borrow an axe and large knives. One person starts to cut out a big piece with the axe, while others who manage to get knives disregard fair division of the spoils and take out as big pieces as they can. Those who weren't able to grab a knife stand dejected, impatiently watching the process, anxiously waiting for their turn as they see the sharp tool digging deeper into the hide. Finally, when the cutting is done, only small scraps of the large hide are left. Now, all that's left is to split the head between the two people who claimed it, and they had previously agreed to share it equally.

When the blacks have taken all they can, the whole crowd return to the camp, where they gorge themselves not only with the entrails but also with the hide. The intestines and the stomach have already been emptied and are ready to be prepared for eating, the stomach having been turned and the intestines emptied by drawing them between the fingers; washing them is out of the question. They are torn into smaller pieces and laid on the coals, and after being turned once or twice with a wooden stick, are fished out of the fire and eaten. The hide is treated in the same way.

When the Black people have taken all they can, the whole crowd goes back to the camp, where they stuff themselves not just with the guts but also with the hide. The intestines and stomach have already been emptied and are ready to be cooked, with the stomach turned inside out and the intestines cleared by pulling them between the fingers; washing them isn’t an option. They’re torn into smaller pieces and placed on the coals, and after being turned a couple of times with a stick, they’re pulled out of the fire and eaten. The hide is prepared in the same way.

The old man now has the carcass left and the butchering is done. For dinner, which is to be eaten in about half an hour, he lays aside the most tender parts—the diaphragm, the kidneys, and the pancreas. This is all prepared by Nelly, who on such solemn occasions is particularly proud of her skill as cook. The meat floats on an ocean of fat, while she now and then licks the point of the knife with delight. At such times she can brook no joking, having a sublime sense of her own importance, and being thoroughly convinced that she is indispensable. This important task finished, the delicate viands are placed on a plate in a pyramidal heap.

The old man is left with the carcass, and the butchering is over. For dinner, which will be ready in about half an hour, he sets aside the most tender parts—the diaphragm, the kidneys, and the pancreas. Nelly, who takes great pride in her cooking on such special occasions, handles all the preparation. The meat floats in a sea of fat while she occasionally licks the knife's tip with satisfaction. During these moments, she can't stand any joking, convinced of her own significance and fully believing she is essential. Once this important task is completed, the delicate dishes are arranged on a plate in a towering pile.

One gets accustomed to everything in Australia, and as when people are hungry they will eat almost anything, so the inhabitants of Northern Queensland are willing to live like pigs if they can only make money. The man who can “work well” is most respected, and to this there can be no objection; but the idea of a “good worker” implies that he 87is rough, and does not care what he eats. They do not understand that it is possible to work and eat in a decent manner at the same time. I remember a proprietor in Northern Queensland speaking of this matter in a very characteristic manner. His workmen had requested him to buy for them a little butter and some pickles to eat with their plain food, a luxury they could well afford, as they earned two pounds a week each. But the fact that they could think of such a thing offended him to such a degree that he said to me: “I really think it would be better for people to spend all their money on liquor than to eat it up in this fashion.”

You get used to everything in Australia, and just like hungry people will eat almost anything, the folks in Northern Queensland are willing to live like animals if it means making money. The person who can "work hard" is the most respected, and that’s fair enough; but the idea of a "good worker" suggests that he’s rough and doesn't care about what he eats. They don’t get that it’s possible to work hard and eat decently at the same time. I remember a business owner in Northern Queensland talking about this in a very telling way. His workers asked him to buy them some butter and pickles to go with their basic meals, a little luxury they could easily afford since they earned two pounds a week each. But the very thought of it upset him so much that he said to me, “I honestly think it would be better for people to spend all their money on booze than to waste it on food like that.”

The only extra trouble Nelly had from a butchering, which occurred once every three weeks, was that she had to make tallow for lighting, and for greasing the boots. The tallow was placed in a tin cup in which a rag torn from an old pair of corduroy breeches served as wick; that was our lamp. Usually the tallow soon gave out; for it stood in a kettle on the hearth, and here the fowls, in competition with the blacks, consumed it. As we shall see later on, the blacks have a great predilection for fat.

The only extra hassle Nelly had from butchering, which happened every three weeks, was that she had to make tallow for lighting and for greasing the boots. The tallow was put in a tin cup with a rag torn from an old pair of corduroy pants serving as a wick; that was our lamp. Usually, the tallow ran out quickly; it sat in a kettle on the hearth, and here the chickens, competing with the black ones, gobbled it up. As we will see later, the black ones really love fat.

We had now finished our dinner, which, in addition to the fresh beef, consisted, as usual, of damper and sweet-potatoes. Making beef-tea or soup from any part of the beef was utterly out of the question.

We had just finished our dinner, which, along with the fresh beef, included, as always, damper and sweet potatoes. Making beef tea or soup from any part of the beef was completely impossible.

In the afternoon all the beef is to be salted, and this is old Walters’s task. When he has eaten his dinner, he and Nelly and the Kanaka proceed to the slaughter-house. Meanwhile the natives have returned from their camp, and are sitting patiently waiting for the bones which fall to their lot after the meat has been cut off. The large joints are roasted and then gnawed most thoroughly, the cartilage, hoofs, and the softer parts of the bone disappearing into their strong stomachs.

In the afternoon, all the beef needs to be salted, and that’s old Walters's job. After he finishes his lunch, he, Nelly, and the Kanaka head over to the slaughterhouse. In the meantime, the locals have come back from their camp and are sitting patiently, waiting for the bones they get after the meat has been cut off. The big pieces are roasted and then thoroughly gnawed, with the cartilage, hooves, and softer parts of the bone disappearing into their strong stomachs.

Nelly is wholly occupied with the great event of the day. Her movements indicate unusual solemnity and earnestness. Conscious that something important is going on to-day, she feels her own superiority as compared with the other natives. The idea of belonging to the old man who has such mountains of food! How grand she must appear to the other blacks! 88To-night they expect bits of meat, which she steals from the kitchen and divides among them. Nor does she neglect herself, but is continually chewing something or other.

Nelly is completely focused on the big event of the day. Her actions show an unusual seriousness and determination. Aware that something significant is happening today, she feels a sense of superiority compared to the other locals. The thought of being associated with the old man who has such a huge supply of food! She must look so impressive to the other people. 88Tonight, they expect some pieces of meat, which she sneaks from the kitchen and shares with them. She doesn’t forget about herself, though, and is always munching on something.

Soon after sunset all is over, and the blacks have retired to their camp satiated and happy. They have to-day eaten komorbory, i.e. very much, and consequently from their point of view have experienced the greatest enjoyment that life can afford.

Soon after sunset, everything wraps up, and the people have gone back to their camp, content and happy. Today they've eaten komorbory, i.e. a lot, and therefore feel like they've had the best experience life can offer.

Such was a slaughter day at Herbert Vale. Now and then a sick animal was shot and given to the blacks. I remember that an old cow which was so lean and miserable from pleuro-pneumonia that it could scarcely walk, was driven into the yard to be killed for the natives. Pleuro-pneumonia causes great destruction of cattle in some parts of Australia. Many cattle are saved by inoculating the virus near the upper end of the tail, but the disease is contagious, and when an animal cannot be cured it is best to kill it. The old cow fell at the first shot, and the natives were permitted to do as they pleased with it. They borrowed an axe with which they chopped it in two along the back to get at the kidneys and the fat around them, for these parts they like best. There was a little fat about the kidneys, but none elsewhere; scarcely any meat could be found on the bones, and the lungs were consumed and had a horrible smell. The natives do not like anything which smells bad, but to reject other than the damaged parts was out of the question. The rest was eaten, and no one was taken ill after this disgusting meal.

Such was a slaughter day at Herbert Vale. Now and then, a sick animal was shot and given to the Indigenous people. I remember an old cow that was so lean and miserable from pleuro-pneumonia that it could barely walk, was driven into the yard to be killed for them. Pleuro-pneumonia causes significant destruction of cattle in some parts of Australia. Many cattle can be saved by inoculating the virus near the upper end of the tail, but the disease is contagious, and when an animal can't be cured, it's best to kill it. The old cow fell at the first shot, and the Indigenous people were allowed to do as they pleased with it. They borrowed an axe and chopped it in two along the back to get to the kidneys and the fat around them, which they like best. There was a little fat around the kidneys, but none elsewhere; there was hardly any meat on the bones, and the lungs were consumed and had a horrible smell. The Indigenous people don’t like anything that smells bad, but rejecting anything other than the damaged parts was out of the question. The rest was eaten, and no one got sick after this disgusting meal.

It must be admitted that my headquarters could hardly be called comfortable; but if we understand the art of adapting ourselves to circumstances, we may at all times make things more bearable than they seem to be. In a new country like Northern Queensland, where people live so far apart, and where each one thinks only of himself, it is easy to see what a great advantage it must be to have a place where one can find shelter. Besides, it was a real comfort to know that I was not likely to die of starvation, thanks to Nelly’s damper and salt beef. During a short period there was also fruit in the garden, but, after all, my greatest treat when I came down from the mountains was milk. Every one who has travelled in the tropics knows what a luxury this is.

It has to be said that my headquarters weren't exactly comfortable; however, if we know how to adapt to our circumstances, we can always make things more manageable than they appear. In a new place like Northern Queensland, where people are so spread out and mostly focused on their own needs, having a spot to find shelter is a huge advantage. Plus, it was a real relief to know I wouldn't starve, thanks to Nelly’s damper and salt beef. For a brief time, there was also fruit in the garden, but honestly, my biggest treat when I came down from the mountains was milk. Anyone who has traveled in the tropics knows how luxurious that is.

CLIMBING WITH THE AID OF KĀMIN.

CLIMBING WITH THE HELP OF KĀMIN.

89

CHAPTER VII

Kāmin (implement for climbing)—On top of the gum-trees—Hunting the wallaby—The spear of the natives—Bird life in the open country—Jungle-hens—Cassowary.

Kāmin (tool for climbing)—On top of the eucalyptus trees—Hunting the wallaby—The natives' spear—Birdlife in the open country—Jungle-hens—Cassowary.

A few days after my arrival at Herbert Vale, the natives were to undertake a hunt of the wallaby, and with two black companions I presented myself at the place where the hunt was to begin. We left home in the morning. The forenoon was devoted to hunting for small mammals, which during the daytime keep themselves concealed in the high trees. With kind words and tobacco I induced my blacks to climb up one immense gum-tree after the other.

A few days after I got to Herbert Vale, the locals were set to go wallaby hunting, and with two Black friends, I showed up at the spot where the hunt was starting. We left home in the morning. We spent the morning searching for small mammals that hide in the tall trees during the day. With some encouragement and tobacco, I got my friends to climb one huge gum tree after another.

The Australian black on the Herbert river was more skilful in climbing than any of the other natives I had seen up to this time. If he has to climb a high tree, he first goes into the scrub to fetch a piece of the Australian calamus (Calamus australis), which he partly bites, partly breaks off; he first bites on one side and breaks it down, then on the other side and breaks it upwards—one, two, three, and this tough whip is severed. At one end of it he makes a knot, the other he leaves as it is. This implement, which is usually sixteen to eighteen feet long, is called a kāmin.

The Australian black man on the Herbert River was more skilled at climbing than any of the other locals I had seen up to that point. When he needs to climb a tall tree, he first goes into the underbrush to get a piece of Australian calamus (Calamus australis). He partially bites and partially breaks off the piece; he first bites on one side and then breaks it down, then does the same on the other side and breaks it upward—one, two, three, and this tough whip is cut. At one end, he ties a knot, leaving the other end as it is. This tool, which is usually sixteen to eighteen feet long, is called a kāmin.

After wiping his hands in the grass so as to remove all moisture from perspiration, he takes the knot in his left hand, throws the kāmin around the big tree-trunk, and tries to catch the other end with his right hand. When, after a couple of abortive efforts, he has succeeded in this, he winds this end a few times around the right arm and thus gets a secure hold. The right foot is planted against the tree, the arms are extended directly in front of him, the body is 90bent back, so that it is kept as far as possible away from the tree, and then the ascent begins. He keeps throwing the kāmin up the tree, and at the same time he himself ascends about as easily as a sailor uses an accommodation ladder, but as climbing by means of the kāmin is of course much harder work, he is compelled to stop every few moments to take breath. When he has reached the branches of the tree he hangs the kāmin on one of them, while he examines the holes in the trunk.

After wiping his hands on the grass to dry off the sweat, he takes the knot in his left hand, throws the rope around the large tree trunk, and tries to grab the other end with his right hand. After a few failed attempts, he finally gets it, wraps that end a few times around his right arm for a secure grip. He places his right foot against the tree, extends his arms directly in front of him, and leans back as far from the tree as possible, preparing to climb. He starts tossing the rope up the tree while he climbs, moving up as easily as a sailor uses a boarding ladder. But since climbing with the rope is much tougher, he has to pause every few moments to catch his breath. Once he reaches the branches, he hangs the rope on one of them and checks out the holes in the trunk.

It seemed to me that he placed his kāmin so carelessly that it might easily fall down while he was engaged in the hunt for animals in the tree. If this should happen, I hardly know how he could get down those high and smooth trees. But with the aid of the kāmin it is easy enough. He walks down backwards very rapidly. If it is a very large tree, and the bark very smooth, he chops niches in it for his big toe. He takes his tomahawk in his mouth, and when he wants to use it removes the kāmin from his right arm and winds it around his right thigh, whereupon with his free hand he cuts the next niche or two in the bark of the tree.

It seemed to me that he was handling his kāmin so carelessly that it could easily fall while he was looking for animals in the tree. If that happened, I honestly don't know how he would get down from those tall, smooth trees. But with the kāmin, it's pretty easy. He walks down backwards really quickly. If it's a really big tree and the bark is very smooth, he carves notches in it for his big toe. He holds his tomahawk in his mouth, and when he wants to use it, he removes the kāmin from his right arm and wraps it around his right thigh. Then, with his free hand, he cuts the next couple of notches in the tree's bark.

Thus we see the importance of having a knot in one end of the kāmin and none in the other. This arrangement has also another advantage, that the kāmin can be used in a tree of unequal thickness, and in different trees; for the native usually carries this implement with him and uses it in a number of trees. Instead of rolling it together, or winding—it into a coil, he draws it behind him, simply holding on to the knotted end. Strange to say, this is the most practical way of carrying it, for the kāmin is hard and smooth, so that it never sticks fast in the brushwood. Rolled into a ring it would doubtless be a great source of trouble in the dense scrub. No tree is too high or too smooth for the Australian native to climb, provided its circumference is not too great.

Thus we see the importance of having a knot at one end of the kāmin and none at the other. This setup also offers another advantage: the kāmin can be used on trees of varying thickness and in different types of trees; the native usually carries this tool with him and uses it on several trees. Instead of rolling it up or winding it into a coil, he trails it behind him, simply holding on to the knotted end. Interestingly, this is the most practical way to carry it, as the kāmin is hard and smooth, so it never gets stuck in the underbrush. If it were rolled up into a ring, it would definitely cause a lot of trouble in dense scrub. No tree is too high or too smooth for the Australian native to climb, as long as its circumference isn’t too large.

But my blacks climbed the high gum-trees in vain. They did not succeed in discovering a single opossum, flying-squirrel,[6] or any other nocturnal animal that hides in tree-trunks. The reason for this, in the opinion of the blacks, was 91a circumstance unknown to me, viz. that both the opossum and the flying-squirrel disappear in the summer time and do not return before the rainy season, at which time they are abundant. At first I had grave doubts in regard to this explanation, and made my natives climb a number of trees, but as I did not find a single specimen, I came to the conclusion that they were right. The opossum (Irichosurus vulpecula) and the flying-squirrel leave the bottom of the valley in the summer. I do not know what becomes of the former, but I found Petauroides volans and several species of Petaurus in the middle of the summer on the open grass plains in the mountain regions near Herbert Vale. In the rainy season the opossum and the flying-squirrels were very numerous about the station.

But my people climbed the tall gum trees for nothing. They couldn't find a single opossum, flying squirrel, or any other nocturnal animal that hides in tree trunks. According to them, the reason for this was something I didn't know: both the opossum and the flying squirrel vanish in the summer and don't come back until the rainy season, when they're plentiful. At first, I had serious doubts about this explanation and made my locals climb several trees, but since I didn't find a single one, I concluded they were right. The opossum (Irichosurus vulpecula) and the flying squirrel leave the valley floor in the summer. I’m not sure what happens to the opossum, but I found Petauroides volans and several species of Petaurus in the middle of summer in the open grasslands of the mountain regions near Herbert Vale. During the rainy season, the opossum and flying squirrels were very abundant around the station.

6. The marsupial flying-phalanger is so called by the Australians.

6. The marsupial flying phalanger is what Australians call it.

Late in the afternoon I arrived with my companions at the spot where the wallaby hunt was to take place. It was a large plain, surrounded on all sides by scrub and overgrown with high dense grass. The wallabies (Macropus agilis) are very numerous in the Herbert river bottoms, but keep themselves concealed during the day. The usual way of hunting these animals is by setting fire to the grass; this starts them up and they try to escape. The natives stand on guard ready to attack the flying animals, and try to kill them with spears while they, fleet as the wind, run by. As a rule the hunt is postponed until the afternoon, for there is so much dew in the morning that the grass looks as if there had been a shower of rain; but after noon it is quite dry again.

Late in the afternoon, I arrived with my friends at the location where the wallaby hunt was set to happen. It was a large plain, surrounded by scrub and covered in tall, thick grass. The wallabies (Macropus agilis) are really abundant in the Herbert River bottoms but stay hidden during the day. The usual method of hunting these animals involves setting the grass on fire; this forces them to flee as they try to escape. The locals stand by, ready to catch the running animals, aiming to kill them with spears while they dash by quickly. Generally, the hunt is delayed until the afternoon because there’s so much dew in the morning that the grass appears as if it has just rained; however, after noon, it dries out completely.

I looked in vain for my black hunting companions, but soon discovered that they were just crossing the river, which flowed among the scrubs below the plain. I rode to the bank and discovered one group after the other coming into view behind the trees on the other side, the women peeping curiously from behind the bushes to catch a glimpse of the white man. They looked timid, and deemed it safest to cross the river higher up, where they came over each with her children on her shoulders and a basket on her back. Some of them had fire with them, carrying burning sticks in their hands. The men waded across at the place where I stood. It interested me to watch them in their natural nakedness 92as they gradually gathered around me on the bank of the river, but as usual it was necessary to be watchful of the long spears which they bore.

I searched in vain for my black hunting companions, but soon realized they were just crossing the river that flowed through the scrub below the plain. I rode to the bank and saw group after group emerging from behind the trees on the other side, with the women peeking curiously from behind the bushes to catch a glimpse of the white man. They seemed timid and thought it safer to cross the river further up, each carrying her children on her shoulders and a basket on her back. Some of them brought fire along, holding burning sticks in their hands. The men waded across at the spot where I stood. I found it fascinating to watch them in their natural nudity as they gradually gathered around me on the riverbank, but as usual, I had to be careful of the long spears they carried. 92

They soon separated, some of them stationing themselves on the outside of the field, while the rest remained to set fire to the grass. Jacky, one of my blacks, indicated to me that for the sake of the horse I had better remain where I was. He himself went with the other men, and took his station on the side of the field. Soon those who had remained behind spread themselves out, set fire to the grass simultaneously at different points, and then quickly joined the rest. The dry grass rapidly blazed up, tongues of fire licked the air, dense clouds of smoke rose, and the whole landscape was soon enveloped as in a fog.

They quickly split up, with some of them standing outside the field while the others stayed to set the grass on fire. Jacky, one of my guys, suggested that for the horse's sake, I should stay where I was. He went with the other men to take his position on the edge of the field. Soon, those who stayed behind spread out, ignited the grass at various spots at the same time, and then quickly rejoined the others. The dry grass caught fire fast, flames shot up, thick clouds of smoke billowed up, and the entire landscape was soon covered like it was in a fog.

I fastened up my horse and went into this semi-darkness, watching the blacks, who ran about like shadows, casting their spears after the animals that fled from the flames. But though many spears whizzed through the air, and though a large field was burned, not a single wallaby was slain.

I tied up my horse and entered the dimness, watching the Black people, who moved like shadows, throwing their spears at the animals escaping the flames. Yet, even though a lot of spears flew through the air and a big area was burned, not a single wallaby was killed.

The Australians have the reputation of being able to hurl the spear skilfully; they do much damage to the white man’s cattle, and many a white man is killed by this weapon; but, strange to say, I have never observed any remarkable skill in its use among the blacks of Herbert river. This may be explained by the fact that in a great measure they find their food in the scrubs, where spears cannot be used. Of course it is difficult to hit an animal running at full speed, but I have often seen them miss sitting shots. On the other hand, it sometimes happens that they kill three or four during a hunt.

The Australians are known for their ability to throw spears with skill; they cause a lot of damage to white settlers' cattle, and many white settlers have been killed by this weapon. However, strangely enough, I have not seen any remarkable skill in its use among the Indigenous people of the Herbert River. This could be because they mostly find their food in the underbrush, where spears aren't effective. It’s definitely tough to hit a running animal, but I’ve often seen them miss shots at sitting animals. On the flip side, there are times when they manage to kill three or four during a hunt.

This time all the booty consisted of a few bandicoots (Peramelidæ), which were dug out of the ground between the roots of a large gum-tree. While the men were busy doing this the women stood ready to receive the game and take it home. The bandicoots are good eating even for Europeans, and in my opinion are the only Australian mammals fit to eat. They resemble pigs, and the flesh tastes somewhat like pork.

This time, all the catch consisted of a few bandicoots (Peramelidæ), which were dug up from the ground between the roots of a large gum tree. While the men were busy doing this, the women stood by to receive the game and take it home. Bandicoots are tasty even for Europeans, and I believe they are the only Australian mammals worth eating. They look like pigs, and the meat tastes somewhat like pork.

WALLABY HUNT.

Wallaby hunt.

93During the whole chase the women took the greatest delight in watching the sport of the men. At the same time they were busily occupied in pulling up the roots of acacias, inside which a larva (Eurynassa australis) is concealed, which is eagerly sought after, and is regarded by the natives as a most delicate morsel. The larva when found was immediately roasted in the red-hot ashes lying everywhere on the ground, and was at once devoured.

93Throughout the entire chase, the women enjoyed watching the men’s activities. Meanwhile, they were busy digging up the roots of acacias, where a larva (Eurynassa australis) hides, which the locals highly prize as a delicacy. Once the larva was found, it was quickly roasted in the hot ashes that were everywhere on the ground and then immediately eaten.

On grassy plains the hunt of the wallaby, which is the sport most dear to the men, is always carried on in the manner above described, that is, by burning the grass or simply by wandering about hunting for the sleeping animals. The wallabies have excellent ears, and start at the least noise. They may sit for a few moments moving their large ears to catch any suspicious sound; but, as a rule, even the catlike steps of the blacks are too noisy to enable them to approach sufficiently near the wallaby. When it rains they do not hear so well, and it is then easier to kill them.

On grassy plains, hunting wallabies, which is the sport most loved by the men, is always done in the way described above: either by burning the grass or just wandering around looking for the sleeping animals. Wallabies have excellent hearing and react to even the slightest noise. They can sit still for a moment, moving their large ears to catch any suspicious sounds; however, usually, even the stealthy steps of the hunters are too loud for them to get close enough to catch a wallaby. When it rains, their hearing isn’t as sharp, making it easier to hunt them.

These wallabies, the large kangaroos, and the white man’s cattle are the only animals which the blacks near Herbert Vale kill with their spears, though the latter are their most important weapons. The spear, usually eight to ten feet long, consists of two parts—the front, which is sharp-pointed, made of a heavy hard kind of wood, and the butt end, which is usually the longer of the two, of Xanthorrhœa or a similar light material. These two parts are joined and bound together with wood fibres, or with sinews of the kangaroo’s tail, and beeswax heated over the fire. The point is never envenomed, as they know little or nothing about poison. Nor is there any flint point attached, as is often the case in Australia. In Northern Queensland I have occasionally seen the point of the spear furnished with a barb of fish bones for a length of one or two feet up the spear. Such javelins were thicker and shorter than the common ones and were used only for fishing.

These wallabies, along with the large kangaroos and the white man’s cattle, are the only animals that the Indigenous people near Herbert Vale hunt with their spears, even though spears are their primary weapons. The spear, which is typically eight to ten feet long, has two parts—the front, which is sharp-pointed and made from a heavy, hard wood, and the butt end, which is usually the longer part, made from Xanthorrhœa or a similar lightweight material. These two parts are joined and secured using wood fibers or kangaroo tail sinews, and heated beeswax. The tip is never poisoned, as they have little to no knowledge of toxins. There’s also no flint tip attached, which is common in other parts of Australia. In Northern Queensland, I’ve occasionally seen spear tips with barbs made from fish bones extending one to two feet along the spear. These javelins were thicker and shorter than the standard ones and were only used for fishing.

The spear is thrown with the help of a throwing-stick, which is equal to a quarter or a fifth part of the whole length of the weapon, and has a hook at one end made of wood, likewise fastened with beeswax and fibres of wood or the sinews of the kangaroo’s tail. This hook is attached to the butt end of the spear, which has a socket fitting the hook. Thus the stick lies along the under side of the spear. When 94the latter is to be thrown, the stick and the weapon itself are seized with the first three fingers. Both are carried back as far as possible, and the spear is thrown with the force of a sling.

The spear is thrown using a throwing stick that's about a quarter or a fifth of the spear’s total length. One end of the stick has a wooden hook, which is secured with beeswax and strands of wood or kangaroo tail sinews. This hook attaches to the back end of the spear, which has a fitting for it. The stick rests along the underside of the spear. When it’s time to throw the spear, you grip the stick and the spear itself with the first three fingers. Both are pulled back as far as possible, and then the spear is thrown with the force of a sling.

WALLABY NET FROM HERBERT RIVER (⅛ size).

WALLABY NET FROM HERBERT RIVER (⅛ size).

In the wallaby chase the blacks on Herbert river also use nets with large meshes, placing them in a line between posts to which they are fastened. Such a net is fifteen to twenty feet long, and the meshes are about four inches each way.

In the wallaby chase, the Indigenous people along the Herbert River also use nets with large openings, setting them up in a line between posts to which they are secured. Each net is fifteen to twenty feet long, and the openings are about four inches wide.

The chase took place in the so-called open country on Herbert river, which, to the superficial observer, does not differ in any striking manner from that of Southern Queensland. The high gum-trees are found here, but the country is more fertile, and the grass is so high that it is difficult to get through it. On this moist soil grow whole forests of the screw-palm (Pandanus, p. 95). The country altogether does not look so dry as farther south; small swamps exist here and there, and brooks often cross one’s path.

The chase happened in the so-called open country along the Herbert River, which, to a casual observer, doesn't appear significantly different from Southern Queensland. There are tall gum trees here, but the land is more fertile, and the grass is so high that it's hard to move through it. In this moist soil, entire forests of screw-palm (Pandanus, p. 95) grow. Overall, the area doesn't seem as dry as further south; small swamps can be found here and there, and brooks often cross your path.

I found fewer birds in this open country than I used to see elsewhere in Australia. Nor did I ever meet in the bottoms of Herbert river valley with those birds which seem to belong inseparably to an Australian forest landscape, such as the piping crow (Gymnorhina tibicen), the butcher-bird (Cracticus nigrogularis), or the Australian wagtail (Grallina picata). Parrots were also scarce, but in the scrubs up the mountains I saw plenty of them. The bird Centropus, which is common in all Queensland, is found here in great numbers. Although it really is a cuckoo, the colonists call it the “swamp-pheasant,” because it has a tail like a pheasant. It is a very remarkable bird, with stiff feathers, and flies with difficulty 95on account of its small wings. The “swamp-pheasant” has not the family weakness of the cuckoo, for it does not lay its eggs in the nests of other birds. It has a peculiar clucking voice, which reminds one of the sound produced when water is poured from a bottle—a sound familiar to all who have camped beneath the gum-trees of Australia.

I noticed fewer birds in this open country than I used to see elsewhere in Australia. I also never encountered those birds that seem inseparably linked to an Australian forest landscape in the bottom of the Herbert River valley, like the piping crow (Gymnorhina tibicen), the butcher-bird (Cracticus nigrogularis), or the Australian wagtail (Grallina picata). Parrots were also hard to find, but I saw plenty of them in the scrub up in the mountains. The bird Centropus, which is common throughout Queensland, is found here in large numbers. Although it is actually a cuckoo, the locals refer to it as the “swamp-pheasant” because it has a tail like a pheasant. It’s a very distinctive bird, with stiff feathers, and flies awkwardly due to its small wings. The “swamp-pheasant” doesn’t share the cuckoo's tendency to lay its eggs in other birds' nests. It has a unique clucking sound that reminds one of the noise made when pouring water from a bottle—a sound familiar to anyone who has camped under the gum trees of Australia. 95

THE SCREW-PALM (Pandanus).

THE SCREW-PALM (Pandanus).

The open country was therefore not the best territory for me, for there was but little game. On the other hand I reaped a more abundant harvest in the scrubs, where there is a greater variety of animal life; and to wander with the blacks in these almost impenetrable jungles in the wide river valley was very interesting. Nothing escapes their notice. On one occasion, in the middle of September, when I made an excursion with one of them, he made me understand that he wished to go away for a moment to look for something. Time passed, and I became impatient, but when I began to shout for him I was not a little surprised to hear his response coming from the far distance above. Approaching, I discovered him in the top of an immensely high tree. He threw down to me two large young of the gigantic wader 96Jabiru (Mycteria australis). Quickly, and with the dexterity of an acrobat, he descended, laying hold with his hands of the twining plants which hung like natural ropes down the trunk of the tree.

The open country wasn't the best place for me because there wasn't much game. On the other hand, I had a lot more luck in the scrub areas, where there was a wider variety of animal life. Wandering with the Indigenous people through these dense jungles in the wide river valley was really fascinating. They notice everything. One time, in mid-September, when I went out with one of them, he indicated that he wanted to step away for a moment to look for something. Time went by, and I got impatient, but when I started calling for him, I was quite surprised to hear his voice coming from way up high. When I got closer, I found him in the top of an incredibly tall tree. He tossed down two large young of the huge wader Jabiru (Mycteria australis). Quickly, and with the agility of an acrobat, he climbed down, grabbing onto the twisting vines that hung down like natural ropes along the trunk of the tree.

It is not easy to penetrate this scrub, which is so dense that one has scarcely elbow-room; but along the rivers there is more breathing space. Here beautiful landscapes are often disclosed to view; the most varied trees vie with each other for a place along the quiet stream; while creeping and twining plants hang in beautiful festoons over the water.

It’s not easy to get through this thick underbrush, which is so dense that there’s barely any room to move; but near the rivers, there's more space to breathe. Here, stunning landscapes frequently come into view; the most diverse trees compete for space along the calm stream, while climbing and twisting plants drape in beautiful garlands over the water.

On first entering the scrub, the solemn quiet and solitude which reign there are striking. You work your way through it by the sweat of your brow; you startle a bird, which at once disappears, and your prevailing impression is that there is no life. But if you come there in the early morning or towards evening, and sit down quietly, it is surprising to see the birds approaching gently, as if they had been called, and disappearing as noiselessly as they came. Silence as a rule reigns in the scrubs, and the song of birds is rarely heard; though the doves coo in the evening, and sometimes the melancholy note of the jungle-hen is to be heard, or even, if you are lucky, the thundering voice of the cassowary.

When you first step into the scrub, the serious quiet and solitude that fills the space are striking. You navigate through it with effort; you might scare a bird, which immediately vanishes, leaving you with the strong feeling that there’s no life around. But if you come in the early morning or late evening and sit quietly, it's surprising to see the birds approach gently, as if summoned, and then disappear just as silently. Silence usually dominates the scrub, and you rarely hear birdsong; although the doves coo in the evening, sometimes you can hear the sad call of the jungle-hen, and, if you’re lucky, the booming call of the cassowary.

One of the first birds you notice is the cat-bird (Ælurœdus maculosus), which makes its appearance towards evening, and has a voice strikingly like the mewing of a cat. The elegant metallic-looking “glossy starlings” (Callornis metallica) greedily swoop with a horrible shriek upon the fruit of the Australian cardamom[7] tree. The ingenious nests of this bird were found in the scrubs near Herbert Vale—a great many in the same tree. Although this bird is a starling, the colonists call it “weaver-bird.”

One of the first birds you notice is the cat-bird (Ælurœdus maculosus), which shows up in the evening and has a voice that sounds just like a cat meowing. The sleek, metallic-looking "glossy starlings" (Callornis metallica) eagerly dive with a horrible shriek onto the fruit of the Australian cardamom[7] tree. The clever nests of this bird were found in the bushes near Herbert Vale—many of them in the same tree. Even though this bird is a starling, the colonists call it "weaver-bird."

7. This is a fictitious name, as are the names of many Australian plants and animals. The tree belongs to the nutmeg family, and its real name is Myristica insipida. The name owes its existence to the similarity of the fruit to the real cardamom. But the fruit of the myristica has not so strong and pleasant an odour as the real cardamom, and hence the tree is called insipida.

7. This is a made-up name, just like the names of many Australian plants and animals. The tree is part of the nutmeg family, and its actual name is Myristica insipida. The name comes from how similar its fruit is to real cardamom. However, the fruit of the myristica doesn’t have as strong or pleasant a smell as real cardamom, which is why it’s called insipida.

There are few birds that look better in the green tree-tops than the Torres Strait pigeons (Carpophaga spilorrhoa), which is white, like a ptarmigan in winter dress, with the exception of its wings and tail, which are black. In November a pair of them built their nest in a high tree near 97the, scrub, and like several other varieties of birds, had just arrived from the northernmost part of Queensland and New Guinea; for it was now spring, and all the birds that migrate northward in the winter had returned, such as the celebrated Australian giant cuckoos (Scythrops novæ-hollandiæ), whose terrible shrieks are heard at a great distance when in scores they gorge themselves in the large fig-trees. On the banks of a stream I shot a specimen of the very small kingfisher (Ceyx pusilla), which belongs to New Guinea and Northern Australia. It was the only specimen I saw on Herbert river. The racket-tail kingfisher (Tanysiptera) has also been shot in the scrubs here.

There are few birds that look better in the green treetops than the Torres Strait pigeons (Carpophaga spilorrhoa), which are white, like a ptarmigan in winter plumage, except for their black wings and tail. In November, a pair built their nest in a tall tree near 97 the scrub, and like several other types of birds, they had just arrived from the far northern part of Queensland and New Guinea; it was now spring, and all the birds that migrate north for the winter had returned, such as the famous Australian giant cuckoos (Scythrops novæ-hollandiæ), whose loud cries can be heard from far away when they gather in large numbers to feast on the big fig trees. On the banks of a stream, I shot a specimen of the very small kingfisher (Ceyx pusilla), which is found in New Guinea and Northern Australia. It was the only specimen I saw on the Herbert River. The racket-tail kingfisher (Tanysiptera) has also been shot in the scrubs here.

But what especially gives life and character to these woods are the jungle-hens (mound-builders), which I have already mentioned. The weird, melancholy cry of these birds once heard is not easily forgotten; at sunset and in the twilight of the evening it is in perfect harmony with the stillness and repose of nature. The bird is of a brownish hue, with yellow legs and immensely large feet; hence its name Megapodius. It is very shy, and therefore it is not easy to get a glimpse of it, but its remarkable nests, which are formed of large heaps of earth and decayed leaves, like those of the talegalla, are frequently to be found in the scrubs. From my own experience I venture to assert that the mounds of the jungle-hen are larger than those of the talegalla. For many years they were thought to be the burying-grounds of the natives, says Mr. Eden, who mentions one which was sixteen feet high and sixty-two feet in circumference at the base. One would hardly think that birds could build so large a mound.

But what really brings these woods to life are the jungle-hens (mound-builders) that I've already mentioned. The strange, sorrowful cry of these birds, once heard, is hard to forget; at sunset and during twilight, it perfectly matches the stillness and calm of nature. The bird has a brownish color, with yellow legs and very large feet, hence its name Megapodius. It's quite shy, so catching a glimpse of it isn't easy, but its impressive nests, made from large mounds of earth and rotting leaves like those of the talegalla, are often found in the underbrush. From my own experience, I can confidently say that the mounds of the jungle-hen are bigger than those of the talegalla. For many years, people thought these were burial sites for the natives, according to Mr. Eden, who mentions one that was sixteen feet high and sixty-two feet in circumference at the base. It’s hard to believe that birds could construct such a large mound.

In these scrubs the proud cassowary, the stateliest bird of Australia, is also to be found. I had already made several vain attempts to secure a specimen of this beautiful and comparatively rare creature. We had frequently seen traces of it under the large fig-trees, the fruit of which it eats. The excrement of the cassowary looks more like that of a horse than of a bird, and I saw large heaps under the fig-trees. We often approached without seeing it, for it is exceedingly shy and departs on the slightest noise, consequently it is very difficult to get a shot.

In these scrub areas, you can also find the proud cassowary, the most impressive bird in Australia. I had already tried several times to capture this beautiful and relatively rare creature, but without success. We often spotted signs of it under the large fig trees, whose fruit it enjoys. The droppings of the cassowary look more like those of a horse than a bird, and I noticed large piles under the fig trees. We often got close without seeing it because it’s incredibly shy and will run off at the slightest sound, making it really challenging to get a shot.

98

YOUNG CASSOWARY.

YOUNG CASSOWARY.

On October 6 the natives brought me two eggs and a young bird just hatched. I at once requested one of them to guide me to the nest, whither I took it, hoping thereby to attract the old bird. Near the nest, which was formed of a not very soft bed of loose leaves massed together, we placed the young one and then stepped aside to see what would happen. It first began to run after us, but as it soon lost sight of us, commenced to cry violently. After a lapse of about ten minutes we suddenly heard the voice of the cassowary, which usually sounds like thunder in the distance, but now, when calling its young, it reminded 99us of the lowing of a cow to its calf. The sound came nearer and nearer, and soon the beautiful blue and red neck of the bird appeared among the trees, and its black body became visible. It stopped and scanned its surroundings carefully in the dense scrub, but a charge of No. 3 shot, fired from a distance of fifteen paces, laid it low.

On October 6, the locals brought me two eggs and a newly hatched bird. I immediately asked one of them to show me the nest, where I took the bird, hoping to draw in the mother. Near the nest, which was made of a somewhat rough pile of loose leaves, we placed the young one and then stepped aside to see what would happen. At first, it started running after us, but when it quickly lost sight of us, it began to cry loudly. After about ten minutes, we suddenly heard the voice of the cassowary, which usually sounds like thunder in the distance, but now, calling to its young, it resembled the lowing of a cow to its calf. The sound got closer and closer, and soon the beautiful blue and red neck of the bird appeared among the trees, and its black body became visible. It stopped and carefully scanned its surroundings in the thick brush, but a charge of No. 3 shot, fired from fifteen paces away, brought it down.

My black companion gave a shout of victory, and ran back to the camp to get some men to carry the precious burden home. Six natives took turns in carrying it to the station, where I at once set to work skinning it. The blacks made a feast of its flesh, and the skin formed a valuable addition to my collection. It was an unusually fine specimen of a male, who thus appears to care for the young, at least in the early stage. The eggs, three[8] in number, are frequently laid at long intervals. In this instance there was a bird just hatched, an egg almost hatched, and another egg the contents of which could easily be blown out. Thus we see that the young are not hatched at the same time, and that the male must therefore care for them while the female is busy brooding. After the third egg is hatched, the male and female probably share the burden of supporting the family.

My black companion let out a shout of victory and ran back to the camp to get some guys to carry the valuable prize home. Six locals took turns carrying it to the station, where I immediately started skinning it. The locals had a feast with its meat, and the skin added a valuable piece to my collection. It was an unusually fine male specimen, showing that he seems to care for the young, at least in the early stages. The eggs, three[8] in total, are often laid at long intervals. In this case, there was one bird just hatched, one almost hatched, and another egg from which the contents could easily be blown out. This shows that the young aren’t hatched at the same time, so the male must take care of them while the female is busy brooding. After the third egg hatches, the male and female likely share the responsibility of supporting the family.

8. The colour, which is a light green, varies in shade in the three eggs.

8. The color, which is a light green, changes in shade across the three eggs.

The first specimen of this variety of cassowary (Casuarius australis) was shot in these same scrubs near the close of the sixties.

The first specimen of this variety of cassowary (Casuarius australis) was shot in these same bushes around the end of the sixties.

Its eyes, which cannot fail to be admired, form the most beautiful feature of the cassowary. Their expression is defiant and proud, as that of the eagle’s eyes. The natives hunt the bird with the aid of their dingoes, which are able to kill the half-grown and sometimes even the old birds. The flesh tastes very much like beef, and is very fat. In the rainy season the cassowary is sometimes compelled to take to the water, and proves itself to be a good swimmer.

Its eyes, which are truly impressive, are the most beautiful feature of the cassowary. Their expression is defiant and proud, much like that of an eagle. The locals hunt the bird with the help of their dingoes, which can take down younger and sometimes even older birds. The meat tastes a lot like beef and is quite fatty. During the rainy season, the cassowary sometimes has to go into the water, and it shows that it’s a good swimmer.

The blacks claim that their hands become white if washed in the contents of its stomach at the season of the year when it mainly feeds on a fruit which they call tobola. I give this for what it is worth; but I have seen natives having on their hands white spots which they insisted were produced in this manner; no doubt these spots were nothing more than vitiligo or leucopathia acquisita, found among all races of men.

The Black people say that their hands turn white if washed in what comes from its stomach during the time of year when it primarily eats a fruit they call tobola. I mention this for what it's worth, but I've seen locals with white spots on their hands that they claimed were caused this way; those spots were likely just vitiligo or leucopathia acquisita, which can occur in all races.

100

CHAPTER VIII

Pleasant companions—Two new mammals—Large scrubs in the Coast Mountains—The lawyer-palm—“Never have a black-fellow behind you”—I decide to live with the blacks—Great expectations—My outfit—Tobacco is money—The baby of the gun.

Pleasant companions—Two new mammals—Large scrub areas in the Coast Mountains—The lawyer palm—“Never have a black-fellow behind you”—I decide to live with the Black community—High hopes—My gear—Tobacco is currency—The baby of the gun.

No person can spend many days with the Australian natives before finding out that one of their chief traits is their never-ceasing begging. If you give one thing to a black man, he finds ten other things to ask for, and he is not ashamed to ask for all that you have, and more too. He is never satisfied. Gratitude does not exist in his breast, and friendship he is unable to appreciate. An Australian native can betray anybody, and confidence can rarely be placed in him. You should never let him walk behind you, but always in front. There is not one among them who will not lie if it is to his advantage. Though it is their nature to be lazy, and though they have no inclination whatever for work, yet they can on a hunt develop remarkable energy and endurance.

No one can spend much time with the Australian natives without realizing that one of their main characteristics is their constant begging. If you give any one thing to a black man, he will quickly find ten other things to ask for, and he is unashamed about requesting everything you have and more. He is never satisfied. Gratitude doesn’t exist in him, and he can’t appreciate friendship. An Australian native can betray anyone, and you can rarely trust him. You should never let him walk behind you; he should always be in front. There isn’t one among them who won’t lie if it serves his interests. Although it’s in their nature to be lazy and they show no interest in working, they can demonstrate impressive energy and endurance when hunting.

The women are the humble servants or rather slaves of the native. He does only what pleases himself, and leaves all work to his wives; therefore the more wives he has the richer he is.

The women are the humble servants, or rather slaves, of the native. He only does what pleases him and leaves all the work to his wives; therefore, the more wives he has, the wealthier he becomes.

The Australian aborigines do not cultivate the soil, and their only domestic animal is the dingo (dog). Living from hand to mouth on vegetables or animal flesh, they are constantly flitting from place to place to find their subsistence, and have no permanent abodes. Their character is like their mode of life; they are the children of the moment—capricious; a resolution is quickly formed and as quickly abandoned. They are humorous by nature, have a keen sense of what is comical, and a cheerful disposition; though free from care, 101they are never without a secret fear of being attacked by other tribes, for the tribes are each other’s mortal foes.

The Australian Aboriginal people don't farm the land, and their only domesticated animal is the dingo (dog). They survive by foraging for vegetables or hunting animals, constantly moving from place to place to secure food, and they don't have permanent homes. Their personality reflects their way of life; they live in the moment—often unpredictable; decisions are made quickly and just as quickly reversed. They have a natural sense of humor, a sharp appreciation for what's funny, and a generally upbeat attitude; even though they seem carefree, they always carry a hidden worry about being attacked by other tribes, as those tribes are often enemies. 101

What they lack in personal courage they make up by craft and cunning. If they can kill their enemies by a treacherous attack, they do so without hesitation. The attacked party takes to flight, each one thinking of his own safety alone, for self-preservation is their only law.

What they lack in personal bravery, they compensate for with skill and cleverness. If they can eliminate their enemies through a sneaky attack, they do it without a second thought. The ones being attacked run away, each focused solely on their own safety, as self-preservation is their only rule.

The Australians are cannibals. A fallen foe, be it man, woman, or child, is eaten as the choicest delicacy; they know no greater luxury than the flesh of a black man. There are superstitious notions connected with cannibalism, and though they have no idols and no form of divine worship, they seem to fear an evil being who seeks to haunt them, but of whom their notions are very vague. Of a supreme good being they have no conception whatever, nor do they believe in any existence after death. Such are in brief the main characteristics of the Australian native as I came to know him on the Herbert river.

The Australians are cannibals. A fallen enemy, whether man, woman, or child, is consumed as the ultimate delicacy; they see the flesh of a Black man as the greatest luxury. There are superstitious beliefs tied to cannibalism, and while they don't have idols or forms of divine worship, they seem to fear a malevolent spirit that they believe haunts them, but their understanding of it is quite unclear. They have no concept of a supreme good being, nor do they believe in any life after death. These are, in short, the main traits of the Australian native as I came to know him on the Herbert River.

During my association with these savages I learned that on the summit of the Coast Mountains, before mentioned, there lived two varieties of mammals which seemed to me to be unknown to science; but I had much difficulty in acquiring this knowledge. One of the animals they called yarri. From their description I conceived it to be a marsupial tiger. It was said to be about the size of a dingo, though its legs were shorter and its tail long, and it was described by the blacks as being very savage. If pursued it climbed up the trees, where the natives did not dare follow it, and by gestures they explained to me how at such times it would growl and bite their hands. Rocky retreats were its most favourite habitat, and its principal food was said to be a little brown variety of wallaby common in Northern Queensland scrubs. Its flesh was not particularly appreciated by the blacks, and if they accidentally killed a yarri they gave it to their old women. In Western Queensland I heard much about an animal which seemed to me to be identical with the yarri here described, and a specimen was once nearly shot by an officer of the black police in the regions I was now visiting.

During my time with these natives, I discovered that on the top of the Coast Mountains, there were two types of mammals that seemed unknown to science. However, it was difficult to gather this information. One of the animals was called yarri. Based on their descriptions, I thought it might be a marsupial tiger. They said it was about the size of a dingo, but with shorter legs and a long tail, and they described it as very fierce. If cornered, it would climb trees, where the locals were afraid to follow it, and they showed me with gestures how it would growl and bite their hands at those times. Rocky places were its favorite spots, and it primarily fed on a small, brown type of wallaby that was common in the Northern Queensland scrubs. The locals didn't think much of its meat, and if they accidentally killed a yarri, they would give it to their elderly women. In Western Queensland, I heard a lot about an animal that seemed to be the same as the yarri I just described, and a specimen was almost shot by a black police officer in the area I was visiting.

The other animal also lived in the trees, but fed exclusively 102on leaves. According to the statement of the blacks, it was a kangaroo which lived in the highest trees on the summit of the Coast Mountains. It had a very long tail, and was as large as a medium-sized dog, climbed the trees in the same manner as the natives themselves, and was called boongăry. I was sure that it could be none other than a tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus). Tree-kangaroos were known to exist in New Guinea, but none had yet been found on the Australian continent.

The other animal also lived in the trees but only ate leaves. According to the locals, it was a kangaroo that lived in the tallest trees at the top of the Coast Mountains. It had a very long tail and was about the size of a medium dog. It climbed the trees just like the natives did and was called boongăry. I was convinced it could only be a tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus). Tree kangaroos were known to be in New Guinea, but none had been found on the Australian continent yet.

As is well known, the Great Dividing Range stretches along the coast of Australia at a distance of from fifty to some three hundred miles inland. This range forms in general the watershed between the eastern and western waters, but there are chains of mountains visible from the coast that are often of greater elevation than this range, such as the Blue Mountains, where the streams break through the mountain masses in picturesque chasms on their way to the Pacific. The Dividing Range is sometimes not easily traced, and the spurs coming from it, as well as detached mountains near the coast, are often much higher and are frequently taken for the main range. The whole body of mountains from south to north is spoken of as the Great Dividing Range, and forms, as it were, the Australian Cordilleras. On the extreme south-east the mountains attain an elevation of 5000 to 6000 feet; going north, they diminish rapidly and considerably. In the south part of Queensland they are low, but in Northern Queensland they again rise to a height of 2000 to 4000 feet (the Bellenden Kerr Hills are even 5400 feet high), then they once more diminish, and gradually disappear into the low-lying country of Cape York. The moist monsoons blow over these mountains and are converted into rain, which, together with the warm climate, produces a luxuriant tropical vegetation. Hence these mountains from base to top are extensively covered with scrubs.

As is well known, the Great Dividing Range stretches along the coast of Australia, about fifty to three hundred miles inland. This range generally forms the watershed between the eastern and western waters, but there are mountain chains visible from the coast that are often taller than this range, such as the Blue Mountains, where the streams carve picturesque chasms on their journey to the Pacific. The Dividing Range can sometimes be hard to trace, and the spurs coming from it, as well as separate mountains near the coast, are often much higher and are frequently mistaken for the main range. The entire stretch of mountains from south to north is referred to as the Great Dividing Range, essentially creating the Australian Cordilleras. In the far southeast, the mountains reach heights of 5,000 to 6,000 feet; moving north, they quickly decrease in height. In southern Queensland, they are low, but in Northern Queensland, they rise again to heights of 2,000 to 4,000 feet (the Bellenden Kerr Hills even reach 5,400 feet), then they gradually decrease and fade into the low-lying area of Cape York. The wet monsoons blow over these mountains and turn into rain, which, along with the warm climate, creates lush tropical vegetation. As a result, these mountains are extensively covered with dense vegetation from base to summit.

On Herbert river and northward the Coast Mountains are difficult of access. Perpendicular chasms and tracts covered with loose stone abound; but wherever a root could take hold large trees and bushes have grown, while creeping and twining plants form a carpet on the ground. There are hilly but less stony parts, where the vegetation is 103so dense that a person can hardly penetrate it without being so torn and pricked that blood flows from the wounds.

On the Herbert River and northward, the Coast Mountains are hard to access. Steep chasms and areas filled with loose stones are everywhere; however, wherever a root can grab hold, big trees and bushes have grown, and creeping and climbing plants create a blanket on the ground. There are hilly but less stony areas where the vegetation is so thick that a person can hardly get through without being scratched and pricked, causing blood to flow from the cuts. 103

PALM FOREST IN NORTHERN QUEENSLAND.

Palm forest in North Queensland.

In the mountain scrubs there grows a very luxuriant kind of palm (Calamus australis), whose stem, of a finger’s thickness, like the East Indian Rotang-palm, creeps through the woods for hundreds of feet, twining round trees in its path, and at times forming so dense a wattle that it is impossible to get through it. The stem and leaves are studded with the sharpest thorns, which continually cling to you and draw blood, hence its not very polite name of lawyer-palm.

In the mountain scrubland, there's a lush type of palm (Calamus australis) with a stem about the thickness of a finger. Similar to the East Indian Rotang-palm, it stretches for hundreds of feet, wrapping around trees it encounters and sometimes creating a barrier so dense that you can't get through. The stem and leaves are covered in extremely sharp thorns that latch onto you and draw blood, which is why it has the not-so-nice nickname of lawyer-palm.

In the lower regions the common Australian palm and the fan-palm (Livistonia) are found. There is also the beautiful banana-palm, with its bright green, and towards the summit magnificent tree-ferns spread their splendid leaves over the rivers in the humid vales, blending with the endless mass of other trees and bushes. Rivers and streams everywhere tumble down the mountain sides, and frequently form beautiful waterfalls surrounded 104by luxuriant scrubs. Here, in the shadow of dense trees hiding the sun from sight, the water is cool and clear as crystal.

In the lower areas, you can find the common Australian palm and the fan-palm (Livistonia). There’s also the stunning banana-palm, with its bright green leaves, and towards the peak, magnificent tree-ferns spread their beautiful leaves over the rivers in the lush valleys, blending with the endless mass of other trees and bushes. Rivers and streams tumble down the mountainsides everywhere, often creating beautiful waterfalls surrounded by lush undergrowth. Here, in the shade of dense trees that block out the sun, the water is cool and crystal clear. 104

The real scrubs once left behind, and the summit reached, you come to a more open country, Leichhardt’s basaltic table-land. At first there are hills and dales with the same kind of scrubs as below, but not so dense, for the lawyer-palm is here more rare.

The real scrubs are left behind, and once you reach the summit, you enter a more open area, Leichhardt’s basaltic table-land. Initially, there are hills and valleys with scrubs similar to those below, but they aren't as dense since the lawyer-palm is less common here.

In these picturesque but very inaccessible scrubs the natives live in large numbers undisturbed by the white man, for there is no gold or other treasure to tempt him to subject himself to all the inconveniences connected with the effort to penetrate into these regions.

In these beautiful but hard-to-reach areas, the locals live in large numbers undisturbed by white people, since there’s no gold or other treasures to lure him into dealing with all the hassles of trying to get into these regions.

After having studied the neighbourhood of the station for some time, I soon discovered that I must abandon Herbert Vale as my night quarters and go farther up into the wild woods of the Coast Mountains, where there was much to entice me. Here I was to find the natives in their original condition, uninfluenced by intercourse with the white man. I had long desired to study these savages—the Australian aborigines, the lowest of the human race—in their actual conditions of existence; for the ethnological student no phase of human life is so interesting as the most primitive one. It also seemed clear at the outset that new species of animal life must be found there, and that I might secure them with the aid of the blacks. Having heard them speak of the two remarkable mammals, I resolved to do all in my power to get into these regions. But I could not think of going by myself; I needed help to carry my baggage, and not having any white servant, I was obliged to select black attendants, the only ones of course who could be of any real service to me in the scrubs. It would, moreover, be very difficult to find a capable white man willing to accompany me. In all probability he would not understand how to treat the savages, and this might soon result in death for both of us. It is difficult for a white man to find his way in these pathless regions; besides, it is not likely he would be able to trace the wild animals without the aid of the natives who have their hunting-grounds here. My only choice was to secure natives, and make them my 105friends and comrades, if I wished to attain my purpose; and so I resolved to live surrounded by them alone.

After spending some time studying the area around the station, I soon realized that I had to give up Herbert Vale as my place to sleep at night and move deeper into the wild woods of the Coast Mountains, where there was much to entice me. Here, I would find the locals in their natural state, untouched by interaction with white people. I had long wanted to study these indigenous people—the Australian aborigines, considered the most primitive of humanity—in their actual living conditions; for someone studying culture, nothing is as fascinating as exploring the most basic human life. It also seemed obvious from the start that I would discover new animal species there, and that I could catch them with help from the locals. Having heard them talk about two extraordinary mammals, I decided to do everything I could to reach these areas. However, I couldn't imagine going alone; I needed assistance to carry my luggage, and since I didn't have any white servants, I had to choose Indigenous helpers, the only ones who could genuinely aid me in the dense bush. Moreover, it would be quite hard to find a competent white person willing to join me. Most likely, he wouldn’t know how to interact with the locals, and this could lead to disaster for both of us. It is tough for a white person to navigate these unmarked areas; also, it's unlikely he would be able to track wild animals without the help of the natives who know the hunting grounds. My only option was to secure the support of the locals and make them my friends and companions if I wanted to achieve my goal; so I decided to live surrounded solely by them.

My first object was to find persons willing to go with me; no easy task, for the “civilised” natives on Herbert river were very lazy, and did not care to go up into these mountain regions; besides, they were but poorly acquainted with them. I therefore had to address myself to more remote tribes living nearer the regions which were my goal. From the civilised blacks I had become tolerably well acquainted with the natives. I knew a little of their language, and having had some experience of the manner in which to treat them in order to make them useful to me, I felt comparatively safe; but I must confess to considerable curiosity as to what the result would be.

My first goal was to find people willing to join me; not an easy task, since the "civilized" locals by the Herbert River were quite lazy and weren’t interested in heading into the mountains. Plus, they didn’t know much about those areas. So, I had to reach out to more distant tribes closer to my destination. From the civilized Indigenous people, I had gotten to know the locals well enough. I understood a bit of their language, and I had some experience in how to work with them to make them helpful to me, which made me feel somewhat secure; but I must admit I was quite curious about what the outcome would be.

It was a new experience to a white man this camping with Australian natives, who dwell in miserable huts made of leaves, who have no domestic animals, and are ignorant of agriculture, as well as savage and treacherous. A human life has so little value for them that they think no more of killing a man than we of breaking a glass; provided they feel sufficiently safe, they will kill a white man for a piece of tobacco or a shirt. But on picturing to myself the very interesting life in store for me, my doubts and hesitations were overcome. I was now to have a splendid opportunity of studying these natives. I was to be with them in sunshine and in rain in their own forests; to see them uninfluenced by any form of civilisation, and in their company to make many interesting discoveries and observations.

It was a new experience for a white man to camp with Australian natives, who live in shabby huts made of leaves, have no domestic animals, and know nothing about farming, as well as being savage and untrustworthy. A human life holds so little value for them that they think nothing of killing someone, just as we might think nothing of breaking a glass; if they feel safe enough, they’ll kill a white man for a piece of tobacco or a shirt. But when I imagined the fascinating life ahead of me, my doubts and hesitations faded away. I was about to have a fantastic opportunity to study these natives. I would be with them in sunshine and rain in their own forests, witnessing them untouched by any form of civilization, and in their company, I would make many interesting discoveries and observations.


In the course of this and the following year I made many expeditions in company with the blacks. I began with the nearest tribes and worked my way up through these to the more remote ones, until at last I lived in huts with natives of Australia who never come into contact with the white man.

In the course of this year and the next, I went on many expeditions with the Indigenous people. I started with the closest tribes and gradually moved on to the more distant ones, eventually living in huts with Australian natives who had never interacted with white people.

My supplies on these expeditions usually consisted of from ten to twelve pieces of salt beef in a bag, about thirty pounds of wheat flour for baking damper, and a small sack of sugar. Instead of tea I drank simply sugar-water. It is a 106cooling pleasant drink, especially when the water is as clear and good as in Northern Queensland.

My supplies on these trips usually included ten to twelve pieces of salted beef in a bag, about thirty pounds of wheat flour for making damper, and a small sack of sugar. Instead of tea, I just drank sugar-water. It’s a refreshing drink, especially when the water is as clear and good as it is in Northern Queensland. 106

When my provisions were consumed—and they never lasted very long, for the natives liked them too well—I lived on their fare, which was anything but savoury. If I had been obliged to depend on their vegetable food I should soon have starved to death, but fortunately the large lizards, snakes, larvæ, eggs, etc., and what I shot for myself, to some extent took the place of civilised food. The worst was when the sugar gave out, for the plain dishes on which I had to depend went down much more easily with sweet water. I had no canned food, and of stimulants, which as a rule I consider superfluous in the tropics, I had only a bottle of whisky. I never carried salt, and, like the natives, I experienced no inconvenience from the want of it when eating eggs, lizards, fish, game, etc.

When my supplies ran out—and they never lasted long because the locals liked them too much—I had to eat what they provided, which was far from tasty. If I'd had to rely solely on their vegetables, I would have quickly starved, but luckily the large lizards, snakes, larvae, eggs, and whatever I managed to hunt somewhat replaced the civilized food I was used to. The worst part was when the sugar ran out because the simple meals I had to eat went down much easier with sweetened water. I didn’t have any canned food, and generally, I think stimulants are unnecessary in the tropics; I only had a bottle of whisky. I never carried salt, and like the locals, I didn't find it bothersome when eating eggs, lizards, fish, game, and so on.

As money I used tobacco; my provisions served the same purpose, and these were swallowed by the natives, no matter how satiated they might be with other food. When I ran short of tobacco I was always obliged to go back to the station. Even such things as a shirt or a handkerchief so fell in value when tobacco was wanting as to be almost worthless.

As money, I used tobacco; my supplies served the same purpose, and the locals consumed them regardless of how full they were from other food. Whenever I ran low on tobacco, I always had to return to the station. Even items like a shirt or a handkerchief dropped in value to the point of being almost worthless when tobacco was in short supply.

The natives along Herbert river, who do not come in contact with white people, have but few wants. They never wear clothes either winter or summer, and consequently money has no value. Their only drink is water or water mixed with honey. The blacks of Herbert river have no stimulants, and this is the secret of the influence of tobacco, which they value so highly that they sometimes wrap a small piece of about three to four inches long in grass, in order to enjoy it later with allied tribes with whom they are on a friendly footing, or they may send it in exchange for other advantages to another tribe. In this manner the use of tobacco may be known among tribes who have never seen a white man. The tobacco is not chewed, but only smoked, and they believe that it is good for everybody; I have even seen a mother put a pipe into the mouth of her babe, which was sitting on her shoulder, and the little one apparently enjoyed a whiff.

The people living along the Herbert River, who don’t interact with white people, have very few needs. They don’t wear clothes in either winter or summer, so money doesn’t have any value to them. Their only drink is water or water mixed with honey. The Indigenous people of Herbert River don’t use stimulants, which is why tobacco is so important to them. They value it so much that they sometimes wrap a small piece, about three to four inches long, in grass to enjoy it later with allied tribes they get along with, or they might trade it with another tribe for other benefits. This way, tobacco use is known among tribes who have never encountered a white person. They don’t chew the tobacco; they only smoke it, and they believe it’s good for everyone. I’ve even seen a mother put a pipe in her baby’s mouth while the child was sitting on her shoulder, and the little one seemed to enjoy it.

107Besides tobacco, which I continually dealt out in small quantities to maintain its value, I had to take with me clay pipes, for the blacks cannot even make such things as these. Still, it was more easy to satisfy them with pipes, for the whole camp was usually content with one or two, which were passed from mouth to mouth.

107Besides tobacco, which I constantly distributed in small amounts to keep it valuable, I had to bring along clay pipes because the locals couldn't make them. However, it was easier to please them with pipes since the entire camp was usually happy with just one or two, which were shared around.

A WOMAN FROM NORTHERN QUEENSLAND, NEAR TOWNSVILLE.

A woman from Northern Queensland, near Townsville.

Of kitchen utensils I took with me only a tin pail to fetch and keep water in, and a knife, for I soon learned from the natives how to prepare my food in a less elaborate 108manner than that adopted in a civilised kitchen, so that I easily got on without kettle or frying-pan, hunger and fatigue making sauce and spices superfluous. In addition to the necessary chemicals for preserving specimens, I carried with me a small flask of quinine, two bottles containing medicine for the stomach, and one containing ammonia as an antidote to serpent bites; this and a small amount of lunar caustic constituted my whole drug store. A light merino shirt, a coloured shirt, a pair of corduroy trousers, two pairs of cotton socks, and a pair of shoes, constituted my whole wardrobe. For the night I had a large, double, white woollen blanket in which to wrap myself, and a piece of mackintosh about two yards square, which I spread out on the ground to lie upon. I also always took with me an overcoat, which I put on when it rained. For my toilet I had a tooth-brush, a piece of soap, and a towel. I let my hair grow until I came to the station, where the keeper, who had been a sheep-shearer, plied the shears as a haircutter with all his accustomed skill.

I only took a tin bucket to collect and store water, and a knife, because I quickly learned from the locals how to prepare my meals in a simpler way than what you'd find in a civilized kitchen. This made it easy to get by without a kettle or frying pan, as hunger and fatigue made seasonings unnecessary. Along with the essential chemicals for preserving samples, I packed a small flask of quinine, two bottles of stomach medicine, and one with ammonia to treat snake bites; this and a small amount of lunar caustic made up my entire medicine kit. My wardrobe consisted of a light merino shirt, a colorful shirt, a pair of corduroy pants, two pairs of cotton socks, and a pair of shoes. For sleeping, I had a large double white wool blanket to wrap myself in and a piece of mackintosh about two yards square to lie on. I always carried an overcoat to wear when it rained. For personal care, I had a toothbrush, a bar of soap, and a towel. I let my hair grow until I reached the station, where the keeper, who had been a sheep shearer, expertly cut my hair with his shears.

My watch and compass were left at Herbert Vale, for it was important to be as unencumbered as possible. With the natives I learned to determine time by the sun, and what was lacking in my ability to find my bearings was supplied by the remarkable instinct of the blacks for finding their way everywhere. A double-barrelled gun and an excellent American revolver were of course the most important parts of my whole equipment, which, as has been shown, was plain, but I was obliged to limit my necessities as much as possible. The natives, who dislike to carry anything, looked upon everything save provisions and tobacco as luxuries.

My watch and compass were left at Herbert Vale because it was important to travel as light as possible. With the locals, I learned to tell time by the sun, and what I lacked in navigating was more than compensated by the incredible instinct the indigenous people had for finding their way around. A double-barreled gun and a great American revolver were obviously the most important parts of my entire gear, which, as mentioned, was simple, but I had to limit my needs as much as I could. The locals, who preferred not to carry anything, considered everything except food and tobacco to be luxuries.

The gun and revolver had even more power over them than the tobacco. The Australian aborigines are in great fear of firearms, for they themselves do not even use bows and arrows, except in the outlying parts of Cape York, where they have some clumsy weapons of this kind. But you must be careful not to miss your mark in their presence. You must hit all you aim at, or they will lose their respect for you. It makes no difference whether the object you shoot at is in motion or not; they are as much surprised 109when an opossum is brought down from his tree as when the swiftest bird is shot on the wing. When I was not quite sure of my shot, I took good care not to use the revolver, for it is difficult, as everybody knows, to hit the mark with this weapon. They had great respect for the baby of the gun, as they called the revolver, believing that it never ceased shooting, and I need not add that I allowed them to retain this belief. As a rule they were so afraid of the baby that they did not care to touch it. It was in my belt day and night.

The gun and revolver had even more influence over them than tobacco. The Australian Aborigines are very afraid of firearms because they don’t even use bows and arrows, except in the remote areas of Cape York, where they have some awkward weapons like that. But you have to make sure you don't miss your target in their presence. You need to hit everything you aim at, or they will lose respect for you. It doesn’t matter whether the target is moving or not; they are just as surprised when an opossum is brought down from a tree as they are when the fastest bird is shot in flight. When I wasn't completely confident in my shot, I made sure not to use the revolver, because it’s well known that it’s tough to hit the target with that weapon. They had a lot of respect for the “baby of the gun,” as they called the revolver, believing that it never stopped shooting, and I should add that I let them keep that belief. Generally, they were so frightened of the “baby” that they didn't even want to touch it. It was in my belt day and night.

It was exceedingly difficult to secure men among the lazy natives for these expeditions; at first my friend Jacky assisted me. On account of his strength and cunning he was highly respected, and looked upon as the first man in his tribe, and he supported me with his influence. First, it was necessary to get him to tell me who were the best hunters, and then, by promising him tobacco, I either got him to go with me to the tribe in question or to find another person willing to do so.

It was really hard to find people among the lazy locals for these trips; at first, my friend Jacky helped me out. Because of his strength and smarts, he was well-respected and seen as the top guy in his tribe, and he backed me up with his influence. First, I needed him to tell me who the best hunters were, and then, by offering him tobacco, I either got him to come with me to the tribe in question or to find someone else who was willing to go.

It sometimes took several days to find these people and treat with them. Frequently they changed their minds, and as they were continually moving from place to place I had to give Jacky more tobacco and take a fresh start to find them. At last I would get my people together. As a rule I was attended by five or six young men, sometimes by more, sometimes by less; occasionally women and children, even the whole tribe, went with me. The natives led the way, the one immediately before me leading the pack-horse, while I followed on horseback.

It often took several days to find these people and negotiate with them. They frequently changed their minds, and since they were always moving around, I had to give Jacky more tobacco and start over to locate them. Eventually, I would gather my group. Typically, I had five or six young men with me, sometimes more, sometimes fewer; occasionally women and children, or even the whole tribe, joined me. The locals would lead the way, with the one right in front of me guiding the pack horse, while I followed on my horse.

On the first expeditions it only took us a day or two to get to the base of the mountain range. Here we selected a convenient spot for a camp; a place where there was plenty of grass and water for the two horses, which could not go with us into the large dense scrubs. Their forefeet were hobbled, and they were left to themselves during our absence.

On the first trips, it only took us a day or two to reach the base of the mountain range. We chose a good spot for a campsite, where there was plenty of grass and water for the two horses, which couldn’t follow us into the thick brush. We hobbled their front legs and left them on their own while we were gone.

The next morning we were ready to proceed on our journey, the saddles and bridles were hung up in the trees in order that they might not be consumed by wild dogs, my baggage was divided among the natives, and the ascent of the scrub-clad mountain began.

The next morning, we were set to continue our journey. The saddles and bridles were hung up in the trees to keep them safe from wild dogs, my luggage was distributed among the locals, and we started the climb up the brush-covered mountain.

110As it is easier to get through the scrubs along a river-bed, over stones and crevasses, than it is to crawl through the dense brushwood and be pricked by thorns and sharp branches, we as a rule followed a mountain stream to reach the summit, where were my real hunting-grounds. We frequently made long journeys across the table-land, but every expedition was of course not precisely like the one above described. As a rule we went as far as possible on horseback, then we would penetrate the scrubs and gain the table-lands, where the scrubs, as above indicated, appear in patches of various sizes, partly as isolated groves and partly as a continuation of the forests which cover the ridges next to the ocean.

110It's easier to navigate through the underbrush along a riverbed, over rocks and cracks, than to struggle through thick brush and get scratched by thorns and sharp branches. So, we usually followed a mountain stream to get to the summit, which was my actual hunting ground. We often took long trips across the plateau, but each outing wasn’t always exactly like the one I just described. Typically, we would ride our horses as far as we could, then we’d push into the underbrush and reach the plateaus, where the scrubs, as mentioned earlier, come in different sizes, both as separate groves and as part of the forests that cover the ridges near the ocean.

Every evening I pitched my camp and slept in a hut of leaves built exactly like those of the natives, except that it was a little more tightly put together, so that it usually afforded me protection from the rain. It was put up very hastily just before sundown. A few branches were stuck in the ground and their tops united, and this framework was covered with large leaves of the banana or other palms, or with long grass. A door was out of the question; there was simply an opening large enough for me to crawl through, for the whole hut was not higher than my shoulders.

Every evening, I set up my camp and slept in a hut made of leaves, built just like those of the locals, except mine was a bit more tightly constructed, which usually kept me dry from the rain. It was put together quickly right before sunset. I stuck a few branches into the ground and joined their tops, then covered this frame with large banana leaves or other palm leaves, or with long grass. There was no door; just an opening big enough for me to crawl through since the whole hut was only about shoulder high.

Such is also the mitta, the abode of the natives, which is intended only for a short stay, and adapted to the nomadic life of these people. I took care to have my hut made long enough to enable me to lie straight, and to see that my bed was perfectly horizontal, a matter of no importance to the blacks. It makes no difference to them whether the feet lie higher or lower than the head. My people were on either side of the entrance to my hut, where they built flimsy roofs of trees and grass; if there was promise of fine weather for the night, they simply cut down a tree and laid themselves by the side of it. In the centre a fire was kept burning.

Such is also the mitta, the home of the locals, which is meant for a short stay and suits the nomadic lifestyle of these people. I made sure my hut was long enough for me to lie straight and ensured my bed was perfectly flat, which doesn’t matter to the locals. They don't care if their feet are higher or lower than their heads. My people gathered at both sides of the entrance to my hut, where they built makeshift roofs out of trees and grass; if the weather looked good for the night, they would just cut down a tree and lay down next to it. A fire was kept burning in the center.

MY CAMP.

MY CAMP.

111Every evening, before going to sleep, I went outside my hut and fired my revolver to remind my companions of the existence of this terrible weapon, and in case we were on the territory of strange tribes, to keep them from attacking us. This precaution was my way of saying good-night to my men. I may add that I never had exactly the same companions on these various expeditions, because it is necessary that the blacks should not become too well acquainted with you: as long as they respect the white man it is less dangerous to camp with them; but as soon as they become familiar with his customs and find out that there is no danger in associating with him, he is liable at any moment to a treacherous assault.

111Every evening, before going to bed, I stepped outside my hut and fired my gun to remind my companions of this powerful weapon’s presence and to deter any strange tribes from attacking us. This precaution was my way of saying goodnight to my men. I should mention that I never had exactly the same group of companions on these different expeditions because it's important that the locals don’t get too familiar with you. As long as they respect the white man, it’s less dangerous to camp with them; but once they get to know his habits and realize there's no threat in interacting with him, he becomes vulnerable to a sudden betrayal.

That I was not killed by my men (a circumstance which white people whom I have met have wondered at), I owed to the fact that they never wholly lost their respect for my firearms. At first, at least, I was regarded by them as something inexplicable—as a sort of mysterious being who could travel from land to land without being eaten, and whose chief interest lay in things which, in their eyes, were utterly useless, such as the skins and bones of slain animals.

That I wasn’t killed by my men (something that white people I’ve met have found surprising) was due to the fact that they never completely lost their respect for my firearms. At least initially, they viewed me as something inexplicable—a sort of mysterious being who could travel from land to land without getting eaten, and whose main interest was in things that, to them, were completely useless, like the skins and bones of dead animals.

There was a peculiar protection to me in the fortunate circumstance that they imagined that I did not sleep, and I think this was the chief reason why they did not attack me in the night. During the winter, when there was a great difference between the temperature of the night and that of the day, the cold was very trying to me, and I awoke regularly once or twice in the night when our large camp fire had gone out. All my men lay entirely naked around the extinguished fire; some sleeping, others cold and half awake, who, however, thought it too much of an effort to go after fuel. I then usually called one of them, and by promising tobacco—and I had made them accustomed to have entire confidence in my words—induced him to go out in the dark night and procure more fuel.

There was a strange kind of protection for me in the fortunate situation that they believed I didn’t sleep, and I think this was the main reason they didn’t attack me at night. During the winter, when there was a significant difference between the night and daytime temperatures, the cold was very tough for me, and I would regularly wake up once or twice at night when our big campfire had gone out. All my men lay completely naked around the dead fire; some were sleeping, others were cold and half awake, but they thought it was too much trouble to go get more firewood. I would usually call one of them, and by promising tobacco—and I had made them used to trusting what I said—I convinced him to go out into the dark night and find more fuel.

By being thus perpetually disturbed they acquired the idea that the “white man” was always on the alert and had the “baby of the gun” ready.

By being constantly bothered, they came to believe that the “white man” was always on guard and had the “baby of the gun” ready.

112

CHAPTER IX

My first expedition with the blacks—A night in the forest—Fear of evil spirits—Morning toilet—Maja yarriBorboby—The “lists” of the natives—Warriors in full dress—Swords and shields—Fights—The rights of black women—Abduction of women.

My first trip with the locals—A night in the woods—Fear of bad spirits—Morning routine—Maja yarriBorboby—The “lists” of the community—Warriors in full gear—Swords and shields—Battles—The rights of local women—Kidnapping of women.

The first black man recommended to me by Jacky was named Morbŏra. He belonged to a remote tribe on friendly terms with the blacks of Herbert river, and was regarded as an excellent hunter. Both he and his brother Mangōran declared themselves willing to accompany me. Morbora was a strong, muscular, square-built man hardly twenty years old, with a remarkably low forehead. He was unable to speak a word of English, and trembled with fear when Jacky introduced him to me. I did all in my power to quiet this young black, and took more than usual interest in him, though I soon noticed that he, like all his black brethren, sought to take advantage of my friendliness; still he was very useful to me.

The first Black man Jacky recommended to me was named Morbŏra. He was part of a remote tribe that had good relationships with the Black people around the Herbert River and was known as an excellent hunter. Both he and his brother Mangōran said they were willing to join me. Morbŏra was a strong, muscular guy, stocky and hardly twenty years old, with a notably low forehead. He couldn't speak a word of English and shook with fear when Jacky introduced him to me. I did everything I could to calm this young man and took a special interest in him, although I quickly noticed that he, like others from his community, tried to take advantage of my friendliness; still, he proved to be very helpful to me.

Mangoran was lean and slender in comparison with his brother, and he looked more like a brute than a human being. His mouth was large, extending almost from one ear to the other. When he talked he rubbed his belly with complacency, as if the sight of me made his mouth water, and he gave me an impression that he would like to devour me on the spot. He always wore a smiling face, a mask behind which all the natives conceal their treacherous nature. Besides these two I secured a young lad, whom we called Pickle-bottle. He was to some extent “civilised,” and had learned a few English words; the other two were myall.

Mangoran was lean and slender compared to his brother, and he resembled more of a brute than a human. His mouth was large, stretching almost from one ear to the other. When he spoke, he rubbed his belly with satisfaction, as if the sight of me made him drool, and I got the feeling he would like to eat me right then and there. He always wore a smile, a facade behind which all the locals hide their deceitful nature. In addition to these two, I got a young boy, whom we called Pickle-bottle. He was somewhat "civilized" and had picked up a few English words; the other two were myall.

When we set out we were joined by Mangoran’s wife, a tolerably good-looking woman. The first night we encamped 113near a brook under a newly-fallen tree; we cut down some small trees, laid them sloping on both sides of the tree-trunk, and made a roof of grass.

When we started our journey, Mangoran’s wife came along with us, and she was quite an attractive woman. That first night, we set up camp by a stream underneath a recently fallen tree; we chopped down some smaller trees, leaned them against both sides of the tree trunk, and created a roof from grass. 113

Outside this cabin, of which I took possession, my blacks encamped in the shelter of some bushes which they had procured for the night, for the weather was very fine. I let the horses loose, tied bells on to their necks, and fetched some water in a big tin pail which I had brought with me on this trip to boil the meat in. A large fire was built, as we had to bake bread and needed plenty of ashes. After these preparations, and when I had been to the brook and taken my usual bath, I had to prepare supper. I sent one of the blacks to the nearest large gum-tree to chop off a piece of bark, on which, with the skill of a bushman, I kneaded the dough of wheat flour and water into the regular round cake. This damper was then baked in the ashes, while the beef was slowly boiling in the tin pail.

Outside this cabin that I had taken over, my crew set up camp under some bushes they found for the night because the weather was really nice. I let the horses roam free, put bells around their necks, and got some water in a big tin bucket I had brought along to cook the meat. We built a large fire since we needed to bake bread and had to have plenty of ashes. After getting everything ready and taking my usual bath in the stream, I had to make dinner. I sent one of the crew to the nearest big gum tree to chop off a piece of bark, then, with the skills of a bushman, I mixed the dough made from wheat flour and water into the usual round cake. This damper was then baked in the ashes while the beef was slowly cooking in the tin bucket.

My companions were impatient for their supper, for the white man’s food is a delicacy wellnigh equal to human flesh. I distributed beef and damper equally among them, but I noticed to my surprise that they all gave Mangoran a part of their share, Morbora being particularly generous. The cause of this generosity was not then clear to me; for Mangoran was a very poor hunter and not very strong, neither did he possess more than one wife, so that his authority could not rest on those qualifications, which usually carry influence among allied tribes. I afterwards learned that he was a cunning fellow, and was successful in procuring human flesh, and there is nothing else that ensures respect among the Australian aborigines in so high a degree. In regard to the relation between the two brothers, I afterwards discovered that Mangoran was simply a black Alphonse. Without much physical strength, and very lazy, he preferred to live in idleness, and he left it to his brother to furnish the ménage à trois with the necessities of the day.

My friends were eager for their dinner because the white man's food is almost as desirable as human flesh. I evenly shared beef and damper among them, but I was surprised to see that they all shared part of their portion with Mangoran, with Morbora being especially generous. At that moment, I didn’t understand the reason for this generosity; Mangoran was a poor hunter and not very strong, and he only had one wife, so his authority didn't come from the usual traits that earn respect among allied tribes. I later found out that he was sneaky and managed to get human flesh, which earns a lot of respect among the Australian aborigines. Regarding the relationship between the two brothers, I later realized that Mangoran was basically a black Alphonse. Lacking physical strength and being quite lazy, he preferred a life of idleness and relied on his brother to provide for their shared household.

The food quickly disappeared into the greedy stomachs, and then they all called for tobacco (suttungo) and pipes (pipo). I gave them a piece each. They minced up the tobacco with their nails, rolled it between their hands, 114put it into their pipes, and gave themselves up to the highest enjoyment.

The food quickly vanished into their greedy stomachs, and then they all asked for tobacco (suttungo) and pipes (pipo). I handed them a piece each. They crushed the tobacco with their nails, rolled it between their hands, 114packed it into their pipes, and surrendered themselves to pure enjoyment.

The night was dark, but radiant with stars. The blacks were lying on their backs round the fire smoking their pipes, which now and then went out, for the tobacco was fresh and damp. The smoker rises a little, supports himself on his elbow, and tries to suck fire into his pipe again; then he lays himself down once more and revels in existence. But tobacco makes a man thirsty, especially if he spits a great deal, and now they want water, and their gestures and a few words indicate to me that they want to borrow my tin pail. One gets up and takes the pail, another plucks a handful of grass and twists it around a piece of dry wood or bark. This torch is lit, and a similar one is taken to light the way back. This is done, not so much to find the way, as for the reason that they are afraid to leave the camp in the dark. They are partly afraid of their devil, who is supposed to be prowling about at night, and partly they fear attacks from other tribes. All day long the native is cheerful and happy, but when the sun begins to set he becomes restless from the thoughts of the evil spirits of the night, and especially from remembering his strange neighbours, who may kill and eat him.

The night was dark but filled with stars. The Black men were lying on their backs around the fire, smoking their pipes, which occasionally went out because the tobacco was fresh and damp. One of the smokers rises a bit, props himself up on his elbow, and tries to light his pipe again; then he lies back down and enjoys being alive. But tobacco makes you thirsty, especially if you spit a lot, and now they needed water. Their gestures and a few words showed me that they wanted to borrow my tin pail. One person gets up and takes the pail, while another grabs a handful of grass and wraps it around a piece of dry wood or bark. This torch is lit, and a similar one is taken to light the way back. They do this not just to find their way but also because they’re afraid to leave the camp in the dark. They are partly scared of the devil, who is said to be roaming around at night, and partly they fear attacks from other tribes. All day long, the native is cheerful and happy, but as the sun starts to set, he grows restless thinking about the evil spirits of the night, especially remembering his strange neighbors, who might kill and eat him.

The blacks now kept quiet round the fire. All was still; not a sound was heard except the solitary melancholy bell which indicated where the horses were grazing. The natives usually lie on their backs when they sleep, and sometimes on their sides, but they never have anything under their heads, nor do they use any covering in the night. They therefore frequently waken from the cold, and then turn the other side to the fire. As a rule, they lie two or three huddled together in order to keep each other warm.

The people sat quietly around the fire. Everything was calm; the only sound was the lonely, sad bell that marked where the horses were grazing. The locals typically lie on their backs when they sleep, sometimes on their sides, but they never use anything under their heads or any blankets at night. As a result, they often wake up cold and then turn to lie on the other side facing the fire. Generally, they huddle together two or three at a time to stay warm.

Early the next morning Morbora and I went out into the scrubs which covered a rocky hill close by. He thoroughly examined the trees, and looked carefully among the orchids and ferns, which grew as parasites far up the tree-stems, for rats and pouched mice (Phascologale), and among the fallen leaves he searched for the rare yopolo (Hypsiprymnodon moschatus). According to the uniform custom of the natives when they ramble through the woods, he frequently took a 115handful of dirt or rubbish out of a crevice in the rock, or from a cleft in a tree, and smelt it to see if any animal had passed over it. The Australian has, upon the whole, a highly developed sense of smell. Of him the Scandinavian phrase is literally true, that he “sticks his finger in the ground and smells what land he is in.” When he, for instance, digs a pouched mouse out of its hole, he now and then smells a handful of the earth to see whether the animal is at home or not. In this way he perceives whether he is approaching it. Although I know the smell peculiar to this animal, I was never able to discover it in the ground.

Early the next morning, Morbora and I headed out into the scrubs covering a rocky hill nearby. He thoroughly examined the trees and looked closely among the orchids and ferns, which grew like parasites high up on the tree trunks, searching for rats and pouched mice (Phascologale). He also sifted through the fallen leaves to find the rare yopolo (Hypsiprymnodon moschatus). Following the usual custom of the locals while exploring the woods, he often took a handful of dirt or debris from a crevice in the rock or a split in a tree and smelled it to check if any animals had passed by. Australians, in general, have a highly developed sense of smell. The Scandinavian saying holds true for them, that they “stick their finger in the ground and smell what land they are in.” For example, when he digs a pouched mouse out of its hole, he sometimes smells a handful of dirt to see if the animal is home or not. This helps him figure out whether he is getting close to it. Although I recognize the distinct smell of this animal, I was never able to detect it in the ground.

Morbora’s skill in climbing trees was truly wonderful. He ascended them with about the same ease as we climb a flight of stairs, and everywhere all his senses were on the alert.

Morbora’s tree-climbing skills were amazing. He climbed them with about the same ease as we climb a set of stairs, and all his senses were on high alert everywhere he went.

As there was no lawyer-palm near from which he could get a kāmin to assist him in climbing, he had to manage in some other way. He broke a few branches from a little tree, made them all the same size, and laid them side by side, leaving the leaves on them. But as the branches were not so long as a kāmin, he could not climb in the same manner as with the latter. The leaves furnished a hold and prevented his hands from slipping, thus compensating for the knot and greater length of the kāmin; but in order to climb the tree he had to draw his heels right up to his body, which gave him a striking resemblance to a frog jumping up. If the tree was not too large in circumference, he simply embraced it with his arms without using the improvised kāmin; he folded his hands and leaped up in the same curious attitude. If the tree leaned, it never occurred to him to climb with his knees as a white man would do, but he crawled up in the same manner as an ape would, on all fours, perfectly secure and well balanced.

As there wasn't a lawyer-palm nearby to help him climb, he had to find another way. He broke a few branches from a small tree, made them all the same length, and laid them side by side, leaving the leaves on. But since the branches weren’t as long as a kāmin, he couldn’t climb like he normally would. The leaves provided grip and kept his hands from slipping, making up for the lack of knots and the extra length of the kāmin; but to climb the tree, he had to pull his heels up to his body, which made him look a lot like a jumping frog. If the tree wasn’t too thick, he simply wrapped his arms around it without using the makeshift kāmin; he clasped his hands and jumped up in that same odd position. If the tree leaned, he never thought to climb with his knees like a white man would; instead, he crawled up like an ape, on all fours, completely secure and well balanced.

Although the Australian natives are exceptionally skilful in climbing, still it would be an exaggeration to compare them in this respect to the apes. I also know white people in Australia who from childhood have practised climbing trees, and who have attained the same skill as the blacks.

Although the Indigenous Australians are incredibly skilled at climbing, it would be an exaggeration to compare them to apes in that regard. I also know white Australians who have practiced climbing trees since childhood and have reached the same level of skill as the Indigenous people.

After a day’s march we came to a valley which extended 116to the summit of the Coast Mountains. We were to encamp near the foot of the mountain range, but the air in the bottom of the valley being surcharged with the fragrance of flowers, very hot, damp, and malarial, I determined to pitch our camp higher up, where the air was more pure, a thing utterly incomprehensible to the blacks. I followed my old rule and made my camp on high ground, to escape the miasma which produces fever and is found only in the bottoms. We had hard work to make our way up the slope in order to find a suitable place for encampment. It was dark before I released the horses, which disappeared in the tall grass.

After a day's march, we reached a valley that stretched up to the summit of the Coast Mountains. We planned to camp near the base of the mountain range, but the air in the valley was thick with the scent of flowers, very hot, humid, and prone to malaria. I decided to set up our camp higher up, where the air was cleaner, which was completely baffling to the locals. I stuck to my usual strategy of camping on higher ground to avoid the miasma that causes fever, which is only found in the low areas. We struggled to make our way up the slope to find a suitable camping spot. It was dark by the time I let the horses go, and they vanished into the tall grass.

As usual we awoke a little before sunrise; but it took the natives some time to rub the sleep out of their eyes. When a black is roused he does not at once recover his senses, and he needs more time than the uneducated whites to pull himself together. It was always difficult for my men to find their bearings in the morning, and they always had much to do before they were ready to begin the day. They lazily stretch and rub their limbs, and then sit down by the fire and light their pipes. When they at length are entirely awake they go to work and make a sort of toilet. They clean out their noses in a manner more peculiar than graceful. This morning I took particular notice of Morbora, who took a little round stick and put it up his nose horizontally, at the same time twirling it between his fingers, whereupon the contents disappeared in the same manner as among the apes in zoological gardens. The natives hardly ever wash themselves. In the heat of the summer, it is true, they throw themselves into every pool of water they come to, just like a dog; but this is done only in order to cool themselves, and not for the sake of cleanliness. In the winter, when it is cold, they never bathe. If they have soiled their hands with honey or blood they usually wipe them on the grass, or even sometimes wash them in their own water.

As usual, we woke up a little before sunrise, but it took the locals some time to rub the sleep from their eyes. When a Black person is woken up, they don’t immediately regain their senses, and they need more time than uneducated white people to pull themselves together. My men always struggled to find their bearings in the morning, and they had a lot to do before they were ready to start the day. They lazily stretch and rub their limbs, then sit by the fire and light their pipes. Once they’re completely awake, they get to work on their morning routine. They clear their noses in a way that’s more unusual than graceful. This morning, I particularly noticed Morbora, who took a small round stick and inserted it up his nose horizontally, while twirling it between his fingers, causing the contents to disappear in a manner similar to apes at the zoo. The locals rarely wash themselves. In the summer heat, it’s true they jump into any pool of water they find, just like a dog; but they do this mainly to cool off, not for cleanliness. In winter, when it’s cold, they never bathe. If their hands get dirty with honey or blood, they usually wipe them on the grass, or occasionally wash them in their own water.

In the morning, or when they sit round the fire, they are usually occupied in pulling their beards and the hair from their bodies. It is also a common thing to see even the women take a fire-brand and scorch the hairs off. The hair 117on the head is never pulled out, but at rare intervals, when it grows too long, is burned off with a fire-brand or cut away with a sharp clam-shell or a stone. When they come in contact with civilisation they generally use pieces of glass for this purpose, and I have even seen a black cut his hair off with a blunt axe which he had borrowed from a white man. This is all the care which their hair and beard receive, except that it is now and then freed from vermin, a feature of the toilet which must be regarded as a gastronomic enjoyment. The blacks are not troubled with fleas, but they are full of lice, which are rather large, of a dark colour, and quite different from the common Pediculus capitis; they frequently went astray and came into my quarters, but fortunately they did not there find the necessaries of life. Some of the natives are free from them, but the majority constantly betray their disagreeable presence by scratching their heads with both hands. These animals are also found upon the body, and their possessor may be constantly seen hunting them, an occupation which is at the same time a veritable enjoyment to him, for to speak plainly—he eats them. The blacks also practise this sport on each other for mutual gratification, and the operation is evidence of friendship and politeness.

In the morning, or when they're sitting around the fire, they usually spend their time pulling out their beards and body hair. It’s also common to see even the women take a burning stick and scorch off their hair. They never pull out the hair on their heads, but occasionally, when it gets too long, they burn it off with a fire brand or cut it with a sharp clam shell or stone. When they interact with civilization, they typically use pieces of glass for this purpose. I’ve even seen a Black man cut his hair with a blunt axe he borrowed from a white man. That’s about all the care their hair and beards get, except they sometimes get rid of pests, which seems to be a source of enjoyment. The Black people don’t have fleas, but they do have lice, which are relatively large, dark, and quite different from the common *Pediculus capitis*; they often wander into my quarters, but thankfully, they didn’t find anything to eat there. Some of the locals are free of lice, but most of them are constantly scratching their heads with both hands. These pests can also be found on their bodies, and you can often see them hunting for them, which is actually enjoyable for them, as—let’s be honest—they eat them. They also help each other out in this activity as a way to bond, and this act is seen as a sign of friendship and politeness.

Morbora and I again went out to look for yarri, and we followed the valley to the summit of the mountain range. It was a difficult march, over large heaps of debris covered with carpets of creeping plants. Every now and then he would exclaim: “Now we will soon come to yarri!” for during the daytime the yarri sleeps in this sort of stony place, and Morbora examined with the greatest care every rocky cave in our path. He stated positively that we would find many yarri (Komórbory yarri) when we had ascended farther. But when we finally, with the greatest difficulty, had toiled our way to the summit, he proposed that we should go down again, saying, Maja yarri—that is, No yarri. The fact was that Morbora did not know the district. I became angry, and expressed my dissatisfaction in pretty strong terms, which made such an impression upon him that he showed a disposition to run away. The expression of his countenance and his whole manner were suddenly changed, 118and I was obliged to alter the tone of my voice at once. Had I spoken more angrily than I did, he doubtless would have disappeared and abandoned me to my fate.

Morbora and I went out again to look for yarri, and we followed the valley up to the top of the mountain range. It was a tough trek, over large piles of debris covered with sprawling plants. Every now and then, he would shout, “Now we’ll soon find yarri!” because during the day, the yarri sleeps in these rocky spots, and Morbora carefully examined every rocky cave in our way. He was sure that we would find plenty of yarri (Komórbory yarri) as we climbed higher. But when we finally reached the summit with a lot of difficulty, he suggested we go back down, saying, Maja yarri—meaning no yarri. The truth was that Morbora didn’t know the area well. I got angry and voiced my frustration pretty strongly, which startled him and made him want to run away. His expression and overall demeanor changed instantly, and I had to quickly adjust the tone of my voice. If I had been any angrier, he probably would have just disappeared and left me to face whatever came next.

Several times we saw some small black ants which lay their eggs in trees. Morbora struck the trunk of the tree with my tomahawk while I held my hands out below to receive them. Several handfuls came down, and I winnowed them in the same manner as my companion did—that is, by throwing them up in the air and at the same time blowing at them. In this manner the fragments of bark were separated from the eggs, which remained in my hands, and were refreshing and tasted like nuts.

Several times we saw small black ants that laid their eggs in trees. Morbora hit the trunk of the tree with my tomahawk while I held my hands out below to catch them. Several handfuls fell down, and I sifted them just like my companion did—by tossing them in the air and blowing on them at the same time. This way, the pieces of bark were separated from the eggs, which stayed in my hands and were refreshing and tasted like nuts.

When we returned to the camp we found the others lying round the fire waiting for something to eat. They had brought me nothing useful, as they were simply interested in filling their stomachs. The only things they had for me were some miserable remnants of honey and some white larvæ, delicacies with which they had been gorging themselves all day. We removed our camp to another part of the valley, and made excursions in this region for a couple of days. But it soon appeared that Morbora, who was known as a skilful huntsman, could find nothing and was a stranger in this land, while the others cared only for my provisions and for eating honey and larvæ, so I concluded that it would be a waste of time to stay here. Mangoran, who was a great glutton, always smelt of honey, of which the natives are so fond that they can live on it exclusively for several days at a time. He was lazy and most unreliable, and simply a parasite whom I had to tolerate for the sake of his brother; he only did me harm by demoralising my other people. On one occasion Pickle-bottle stated that there were no boongary to be found here, but that in another “land” he had seen the marks of their claws on the tree-trunks as distinct as if they had been cut with a knife. This was another reason for my leaving as soon as possible. The main result of this, my first expedition, was therefore some valuable experience. I returned to the station and remained there a couple of days, preparing myself for a new expedition to another “land,” where the natives said that yarri and boongary were found in abundance.

When we got back to the camp, we found the others lounging around the fire, waiting for something to eat. They hadn’t brought me anything useful; they were just focused on filling their stomachs. The only things they had for me were some sad leftovers of honey and some white larvae, treats they had been gorging themselves on all day. We moved our camp to another part of the valley and explored this area for a couple of days. But it quickly became clear that Morbora, known as a skilled hunter, couldn’t find anything and didn’t know this land, while the others only cared about my supplies and munching on honey and larvae, so I decided it was pointless to stay there. Mangoran, a huge glutton, always smelled of honey, a favorite of the locals who could survive on it alone for several days. He was lazy and totally unreliable, just a parasite I had to put up with because of his brother; he only harmed my other people by demoralizing them. One time, Pickle-bottle mentioned that there were no boongary here, but in another “land,” he had seen claw marks on the tree trunks as clear as if they had been cut with a knife. This was another reason for me to leave as soon as possible. The main takeaway from this, my first expedition, was some valuable experience. I returned to the station and stayed there for a couple of days, getting ready for a new expedition to another “land,” where the locals said yarri and boongary were plentiful.

119A great borboby was to take place three miles from Herbert Vale. A borboby is a meeting for contest, where the blacks assemble from many “lands” in order to decide their disputes by combat. As I felt a desire to witness this assembly, I asked Jacky if I could accompany him and those who were going with him, and no objection was made.

119A big gathering called a borboby was about to happen three miles from Herbert Vale. A borboby is a meeting for competition, where Indigenous people come together from various regions to settle their disputes through combat. Since I wanted to see this event, I asked Jacky if I could join him and his group, and there were no objections.

In the afternoon we all started from Herbert Vale, I on horseback and taking my gun with me. We crossed Herbert river three times, and as we gradually approached the fighting-ground we met more and more small tribes who had been lying the whole day in the cool scrubs along the river to gather strength for the impending conflict. All of them, even the women and the children, joined us, except a small company of the former who remained near the river. I learned that these women were not permitted to be present because they had menses. As far as I know, the Australians everywhere regard their women as unclean in such circumstances. In some parts of the continent they are isolated in huts by themselves, and no one will touch a dish which they use; among other tribes a woman in this condition is not permitted to walk over the net which the men are making.

In the afternoon, we all set out from Herbert Vale, me on horseback with my gun in tow. We crossed the Herbert River three times, and as we got closer to the battleground, we encountered more and more small tribes that had been resting in the cool bushes along the river all day to gather energy for the upcoming fight. Everyone, including the women and children, joined us, except for a small group of women who stayed near the river. I found out that these women weren’t allowed to be there because they were on their period. As far as I know, Australians everywhere consider their women unclean during that time. In some parts of the continent, they are isolated in huts, and no one will use anything they touch; in other tribes, a woman in this situation can’t walk over the net made by the men.

All were in their best toilet, for when the blacks are to go to dance or to borboby they decorate themselves as best they can. The preparations take several days, spent in seeking earth colours and wax, which are kept by the most prominent members of the tribe until the day of the contest.

All were in their best clothes, because when the Black community prepares to dance or celebrate, they dress up as nicely as they can. The preparations take several days, spent gathering natural dyes and wax, which are stored by the most respected members of the tribe until the day of the event.

On the forenoon of the borboby day they remain in camp and do not go out hunting, for they are then occupied in decorating themselves. They rub themselves partially or wholly with the red or yellow earth paint; sometimes they besmear their whole body with a mixture of crushed charcoal and fat—as if they were not already black enough! As a rule, they do not mind whether the whole body is painted or not, if only the face has been thoroughly coloured.

On the morning of the borboby day, they stay in camp and don’t go out hunting because they are busy decorating themselves. They rub themselves partially or completely with red or yellow clay paint; sometimes they smear their entire body with a mix of crushed charcoal and fat—as if they weren't already dark enough! Generally, they don’t care if their whole body is painted or not, as long as their face is completely colored.

Not only do the men but the women also, though in a less degree, paint grotesque figures of red earth and charcoal across their faces. But one of the most important considerations on these solemn occasions is the dressing of the hair. It is filled with beeswax, so that it stands out in large tufts, or at 120times it has the appearance of a single large cake. They also frequently stick feathers into it. The wax remains there for weeks, until it finally disappears from wear or bathing. This waxed headgear shines and glistens in the sun, and gives them a sort of “polished” exterior. Some of the most “civilised” natives may wear a shirt or a hat. On this occasion two of them were fortunate enough to own old shirts, two others had hats on their heads, while the variegated colour of the body was a substitute for the rest of their attire.

Not only the men but the women too, though to a lesser extent, paint bizarre figures of red earth and charcoal on their faces. However, one of the most important aspects of these serious occasions is how they style their hair. It's packed with beeswax, making it stick out in big tufts, or sometimes it looks like one big clump. They also often add feathers to it. The wax stays in for weeks until it eventually wears off or washes out. This waxed hairstyle shines and sparkles in the sun, giving them a sort of “polished” look. Some of the most “civilized” natives might wear a shirt or a hat. On this occasion, two of them were lucky enough to have old shirts, two others had hats on their heads, while the colorful patterns on their bodies served as a substitute for the rest of their clothing.

WOODEN SHIELDS FROM NORTHERN QUEENSLAND.

Wooden shields from Northern Queensland.

Jacky was the best dressed fellow of the lot. His suit consisted of a white and, strange to say, clean body of a dress that had previously belonged to a woman. How he had obtained it in this part of the country was a mystery to me. As he was stoutly built, this product of civilisation looked like a strait-waistcoat, and threatened every moment to burst in the back. He strutted about among his comrades majestically, with a sense of being far removed above the “myall” (the mob). Two of the natives distinguished themselves by being painted yellow over the whole body except the hair. This was thought to be a very imposing attire, especially calculated to inspire fear.

Jacky was the best-dressed guy of the group. His suit was a white dress that, oddly enough, used to belong to a woman and was surprisingly clean. How he managed to get it in this part of the country was a mystery to me. Since he was stoutly built, this piece of civilization looked like a straitjacket and seemed ready to burst at the seams. He strutted around among his friends with a sense of superiority, feeling elevated above the “myall” (the mob). Two of the natives stood out because they were painted yellow all over, except for their hair. This was considered a very impressive outfit, especially designed to instill fear.

All the natives were armed. They had quantities of spears, whole bundles of nolla-nollas and boomerangs, besides their large wooden shields and wooden swords. The shield, which reaches to a man’s hip and is about half as wide as it is long, is made of a kind of light fig-tree wood. It is oval, massive, and slightly convex. In the centre, on the front side, there is a sort of shield-boss, the inner side being nearly flat. When the native holds this shield in his left hand before him, 121the greater part of his body is protected. The front is painted in a grotesque and effective manner with red, white, and yellow earth colours, and is divided into fields which, wonderfully enough, differ in each man’s shield, and thus constitute his coat of arms.

All the natives were armed. They had lots of spears, bundles of nolla-nollas and boomerangs, along with their large wooden shields and wooden swords. The shield, which reaches up to a man’s hip and is about half as wide as it is long, is made from a type of light fig-tree wood. It is oval, solid, and slightly curved. In the center, on the front side, there’s a sort of shield-boss, the back being almost flat. When the native holds this shield in his left hand in front of him, most of his body is protected. The front is painted in a striking and effective way with red, white, and yellow earth colors, and is divided into sections that, remarkably, are different on each man’s shield, thus creating his coat of arms. 121

The wooden sword, the necessary companion of the shield, is about five inches wide up to the point, which is slightly rounded, and usually reaches from the foot to the shoulder. It is made of hard wood, with a short handle for only one hand, and is so heavy that any one not used to it can scarcely balance it perpendicularly with half-extended arm—the position always adopted before the battle begins.

The wooden sword, the essential partner of the shield, is about five inches wide at the tip, which is slightly rounded, and typically extends from the foot to the shoulder. It’s made of tough wood, has a short handle meant for one hand, and is so heavy that anyone who isn’t accustomed to it can hardly hold it upright with an arm halfway extended—the stance always taken before a battle starts.

FILLET OR BROW-BAND FROM NORTHERN QUEENSLAND (⅓ size).

FILLET OR BROW-BAND FROM NORTHERN QUEENSLAND (⅓ size).

A couple of hours before sunset we crossed Herbert river for the third time, and landed near a high bank, which it was very difficult for the horse to climb. Here I was surprised to find a very large grassy plain, made, as it were, expressly for a tournament. Immediately in front of me was a tolerably open forest of large gum-trees with white trunks, then a large open space, and beyond it another grove of gum-trees. On the west side of the plain was Herbert river, and farther to the west, on the other side of the river, was Sea-View Range, behind the summits of which the sun was soon to set. The battlefield was bounded on the east by a high hill clad from base to top with dark green scrubs, which, in the twilight, looked almost black by the side of the fresh bright green of the grass and the white gum-trees. Near the edge of the woods Jacky’s men and the savages who had joined us on the road made a brief pause. One of those who had last arrived began to run round in a challenging manner like a man in a rage. He was very tall (about 6 feet 4 inches), 122and like some of the natives in this neighbourhood, his hair bore a strong resemblance to that of the Papuans, being about a foot and a half long, closely matted together, and standing out in all directions. Shaking this heavy head of hair like a madman, with head and shoulders thrown back, he made long jumps and wild leaps, holding his large wooden sword perpendicularly in front of him in his right hand, and the shield in his left.

A couple of hours before sunset, we crossed the Herbert River for the third time and landed near a steep bank that was tough for the horse to climb. I was surprised to discover a large grassy plain that seemed almost made for a tournament. Right in front of me was a somewhat open forest of tall gum trees with white trunks, followed by a spacious clearing and then another grove of gum trees. On the west side of the plain flowed the Herbert River, and farther west, across the river, was the Sea-View Range, behind which the sun was about to set. The battlefield was bordered on the east by a high hill covered from base to top with dark green scrub, which looked almost black in the twilight beside the bright green grass and white gum trees. Near the edge of the woods, Jacky’s men and the natives who had joined us on the way paused briefly. One of the newcomers started running around in a challenging way, like a man in a frenzy. He was very tall (about 6 feet 4 inches), and like some of the locals in this area, his hair resembled that of the Papuans, being about a foot and a half long, densely matted, and sticking out in all directions. Shaking his wild hair like a madman and throwing his head and shoulders back, he made big jumps and wild leaps, holding his large wooden sword upright in his right hand and the shield in his left.

When he had run enough to cool his savage warlike ardour he stopped near me. He was so hot that perspiration streamed from him, and the red paint ran in long streaks down his face. Around his head he wore a very beautiful brow-band, for which I offered him a stick of tobacco, and he immediately untied it and gave it to me. It was an extraordinarily neat piece of work, like the finest net, four inches wide, and made of plant fibre forming a delicate and regular texture. The whole was painted red. I saw two others who sold me their brow-bands for tobacco, so that I secured three of these valuable pieces of handiwork (p. 121).

After he had run enough to cool his intense warrior spirit, he stopped near me. He was so hot that sweat was streaming down his body, and the red paint was running in long streaks down his face. He wore a really beautiful headband, and I offered him a stick of tobacco in exchange for it, which he immediately untied and gave to me. It was an incredibly well-made piece, like the finest net, four inches wide, crafted from plant fibers that created a delicate and uniform texture. The entire thing was painted red. I also saw two others who sold me their headbands for tobacco, so I ended up with three of these valuable pieces of craftsmanship (p. 121).

Meanwhile the enthusiastic warrior from whom I had purchased the first brow-band was again busy taking great leaps; gradually the conversation became more lively, the warlike ardour increased, and all held their weapons in readiness.

Meanwhile, the eager warrior I had bought the first brow-band from was busy taking big leaps again; gradually, the conversation got more lively, the fighting spirit grew, and everyone held their weapons at the ready.

Suddenly an old man uttered a terrible war-cry, and swung his bundle of spears over his head. This acted, as it were, like an electric shock on all of them; they at once gathered together, shouted with all their might, and raised their shields with their left hands, swinging swords, spears, boomerangs, and nolla-nollas in the air. Then they all rushed with a savage war-cry through the grove of gum-trees and marched by a zigzag route against their enemies, who were standing far away on the other side of the plain. At every new turn they stopped and were silent for a moment, then with a terrific howl started afresh, until at the third turn they stood in the middle of the plain directly opposite their opponents, where they remained.

Suddenly, an old man let out a fierce war cry and swung his bundle of spears over his head. This acted like an electric shock to everyone; they quickly gathered together, shouted at the top of their lungs, and raised their shields in their left hands, brandishing swords, spears, boomerangs, and nolla-nollas in the air. Then, with a wild war cry, they charged through the grove of gum trees, taking a zigzag path toward their enemies, who stood far away across the plain. At each new turn, they paused and fell silent for a moment, then with a bone-chilling howl charged forward again, until at the third turn, they stood in the middle of the plain, directly facing their opponents, where they remained.

I fastened up my horse at some distance and followed them as quickly as I could; the women and children also hastened to the scene of conflict.

I tied up my horse a bit away and rushed after them as fast as I could; the women and kids also hurried to the site of the fight.

A WARRIOR IN GREAT EXCITEMENT JUST BEFORE BORBOBY COMMENCES.

A WARRIOR IN HIGH SPIRITS JUST BEFORE BORBOBY STARTS.

123The strange tribes on the other side stood in a group in front of their huts, which were picturesquely situated near the edge of the forest, at the foot of the scrub-clad hill. As soon as our men had halted, three men from the hostile ranks came forward in a threatening manner with shields in their left hands and swords held perpendicularly in their right. Their heads were covered with the elegant yellow and white topknots of the white cockatoos. Each man wore at least forty of these, which were fastened in his hair with beeswax, and gave the head the appearance of a large aster. The three men approached ours very rapidly, running forward with long elastic leaps. Now and then they jumped high in the air like cats, and fell down behind their shields, so well concealed that we saw but little of them above the high grass. This manœuvre was repeated until they came within about twenty yards from our men; then they halted in an erect position, the large shields before them and the points of their swords resting on the ground, ready for the fight. The large crowd of strange tribes followed them slowly.

123The unusual tribes on the other side stood together in front of their huts, which were beautifully located at the edge of the forest, at the base of the scrub-covered hill. As soon as our group stopped, three men from the opposing side approached in a menacing way, holding shields in their left hands and swords upright in their right. Their heads were adorned with elegant yellow and white topknots made from white cockatoo feathers. Each man had at least forty of these feathers secured in his hair with beeswax, giving their heads the look of large asters. The three men quickly advanced toward us, leaping forward with long, springy bounds. Occasionally, they leaped high into the air like cats, landing behind their shields, so well hidden that we could barely see them above the tall grass. They repeated this maneuver until they were about twenty yards away from our men; then they stopped upright, with large shields in front of them and the tips of their swords resting on the ground, ready for battle. The large crowd of unfamiliar tribes trailed behind them slowly.

Now the duels were to begin; three men came forward from our side and accepted the challenge, the rest remaining quiet for the present.

Now the duels were about to start; three men stepped up from our side and accepted the challenge, while the others stayed silent for now.

The common position for challenging is as follows: the shield is held in the left hand, and the sword perpendicularly in the right. But, owing to the weight of the sword, it must be used almost like a blacksmith’s sledgehammer in order to hit the shield of the opponent with full force; the combatant is therefore obliged to let the weapon rest in front on the ground a few moments before the duel begins, when he swings it back and past his head against his opponent. When one of them has made his blow, it is his opponent’s turn, and thus they exchange blows until one of them gets tired and gives up, or his shield is cloven, in which case he is regarded as unfit for the fight.

The typical fighting stance is as follows: the shield is held in the left hand, and the sword is held upright in the right. However, because the sword is heavy, it needs to be swung almost like a blacksmith’s sledgehammer to hit the opponent's shield with full force. This means the fighter has to rest the weapon on the ground in front of them for a moment before the duel starts, then swing it back and over their head toward their opponent. After one of them lands a hit, it’s the other person’s turn, and they take turns hitting until one of them gets tired and gives up, or their shield is broken, at which point they are considered unable to continue the fight.

While the first three pairs were fighting, others began to exchange blows. There was no regularity in the fight. The duel usually began with spears, then they came nearer to each other and took to their swords. Sometimes the matter was decided at a distance, boomerangs, nolla-nollas, and 124spears being thrown against the shields. The natives are exceedingly skilful in parrying, so that they are seldom wounded by the first two kinds of weapons. On the other hand, the spears easily penetrate the shields, and sometimes injure the bearer, who is then regarded as disqualified and must declare himself beaten. There were always some combatants in the field, frequently seven or eight pairs at a time; but the duellists were continually changing.

While the first three pairs were fighting, others started exchanging blows. There was no set pattern to the fight. The duel usually began with spears, then they moved in closer and switched to their swords. Sometimes the outcome was determined at a distance, with boomerangs, nolla-nollas, and 124spears thrown at the shields. The natives are extremely skilled at parrying, so they are rarely injured by the first two kinds of weapons. However, the spears can easily penetrate the shields and sometimes injure the person holding them, who is then considered disqualified and must admit defeat. There were always some fighters in the field, often seven or eight pairs at a time; but the duellists kept changing continuously.

The women gather up the weapons, and when a warrior has to engage in several duels, his wives continually supply him with weapons. The other women stand and look on, watching the conflict with the greatest attention, for they have much at stake. Many a one changes husbands on that night. As the natives frequently rob each other of their wives, the conflicts arising from this cause are settled by borboby, the victor retaining the woman.

The women collect the weapons, and when a warrior has to face multiple duels, his wives constantly provide him with weapons. The other women watch closely, paying full attention to the fight because they have a lot at stake. Many of them switch husbands that night. Since the locals often steal each other’s wives, the disputes that arise from this are resolved by borboby, where the winner keeps the woman.

The old women also take part in the fray. They stand behind the combatants with the same kind of sticks as those used for digging up roots. They hold the stick with both hands, beat the ground hard with it, and jump up and down in a state of wild excitement. They cry to the men, egging and urging them on, four or five frequently surrounding one man, and acting as if perfectly mad. The men become more and more excited, perspiration pours from them, and they exert themselves to the utmost.

The older women also join in the chaos. They stand behind the fighters with the same kind of sticks used for digging up roots. They grip the stick with both hands, pound the ground hard with it, and bounce up and down in a frenzy. They shout at the men, cheering and encouraging them, often four or five crowding around one guy, acting completely wild. The men get more and more fired up, sweat pouring off them as they give it their all.

If one of the men is conquered, the old women gather around him and protect him with their sticks, parrying the sword blows of his opponent, constantly shouting, “Do not kill him, do not kill him!”

If one of the men is defeated, the older women gather around him and shield him with their sticks, blocking the sword strikes from his opponent, repeatedly shouting, “Don’t kill him, don’t kill him!”

In order that the natives might not suspect me of hostile purposes I had, in the presence of all, put my gun against the trunk of a gum-tree hard by, thus at the same time showing them that I was not unarmed. I went to the fighting-ground and took my place among the spectators, consisting chiefly of women. The Kanaka, being a foreigner, felt insecure, and thought it wisest to stay near me. He had borrowed one of Mr. Walters’ revolvers at the station, hoping thereby to inspire the blacks with respect; but as it was so rusty and worn that it usually missed fire, he had finally lost all faith in its virtue as a weapon of terror.

To ensure the locals didn’t think I had any hostile intentions, I had, in front of everyone, leaned my gun against a nearby gum tree, showing them that I wasn’t unarmed. I went to the fighting ground and took my place among the mostly female spectators. The Kanaka, being a foreigner, felt uneasy and decided it was best to stay close to me. He had borrowed one of Mr. Walters’ revolvers from the station, hoping it would earn him respect from the locals; however, since it was so rusty and worn that it often misfired, he had eventually lost all confidence in it as a weapon of intimidation.

A BORBOBY.

A butterfly.

125

OLD WOMEN PROTECTING A FALLEN WARRIOR.

OLD WOMEN PROTECTING A FALLEN WARRIOR.

With the greatest attention I watched the interesting duels, which lasted only about three-quarters of an hour, but which entertained me more than any performance I ever witnessed. Where the conflict was hottest my friend Jacky stood cool and dignified, and was more than ever conscious of his civilised superiority. The old white body evidently inspired the multitude with awe. Boomerangs and nolla-nollas whizzed about our ears, without however hindering me from watching with interest the passion of these wild children of nature—the desperate exertions of the men, the zeal of the young women, and the foolish rage of the old women, whose discordant voices blended with the din of the weapons, with the dull blows of the swords, with the clang of the nolla-nollas, and with the flight of the boomerangs whizzing through the air. Here all disputes and legal conflicts were settled, not only between tribes but also between individuals. That the lowest races of men do not try to settle their disputes in a 126more parliamentary manner need not cause any surprise, but it may appear strange to us that aged women take so active a part in the issue of these conflicts.

With great focus, I watched the fascinating duels, which lasted about three-quarters of an hour but entertained me more than any show I've ever seen. Where the battle was the fiercest, my friend Jacky remained calm and dignified, more aware than ever of his civilized superiority. The old white figure clearly inspired the crowd with awe. Boomerangs and nolla-nollas whizzed past our ears, yet I was still captivated by the passion of these wild children of nature—the desperate efforts of the men, the enthusiasm of the young women, and the foolish anger of the older women. Their discordant voices mingled with the clamor of the weapons, the dull thuds of the swords, the clang of the nolla-nollas, and the whoosh of the boomerangs flying through the air. This was where all disputes and legal conflicts were resolved, not just between tribes but also between individuals. It shouldn't be surprising that the most primitive societies don't settle their disputes in a more parliamentary way, but it might seem odd to us that older women play such an active role in the resolution of these conflicts.

With the exception of the murder of a member of the same tribe, the aboriginal Australian knows only one crime, and that is theft, and the punishment for violating the right of possession is not inflicted by the community, but by the individual wronged. The thief is challenged by his victim to a duel with wooden swords and shields; and the matter is settled sometimes privately the relatives of both parties serving as witnesses, sometimes publicly at the borboby, where two hundred to three hundred meet from various tribes to decide all their disputes. The victor in the duel wins in the dispute.

Aside from the murder of a member of the same tribe, the Indigenous Australian is only acquainted with one crime: theft. The punishment for violating someone’s property is not carried out by the community, but by the individual who was wronged. The thief is challenged to a duel with wooden swords and shields by their victim; the issue is resolved either privately, with relatives of both parties as witnesses, or publicly at the borboby, where two hundred to three hundred people from different tribes gather to settle their disputes. The winner of the duel resolves the conflict.

The robbery of women, who also among these savages are regarded as a man’s most valuable property, is both the grossest and the most common theft; for it is the usual way of getting a wife. Hence woman is the chief cause of disputes. Inchastity, which is called gramma, i.e. to steal, also falls under the head of theft.

The theft of women, who are viewed by these savages as a man’s most prized possession, is both the most outrageous and the most common crime; it is the typical method of acquiring a wife. Therefore, women are the main source of conflict. Indecency, known as gramma, i.e. to steal, is also considered a form of theft.

The theft of weapons, implements, and food is rarely the cause of a duel. I do not remember a single instance of weapons being stolen. If an inconsiderable amount of food or some other trifle has been stolen, it frequently happens that the victim, instead of challenging the thief, simply plays the part of an offended person, especially if he considers himself inferior in strength and in the use of weapons. In cases where the food has not been eaten but is returned, then the victim is satisfied with compensation, in the form of tobacco, food, or weapons, and thus friendship is at once reestablished.

The theft of weapons, tools, and food rarely leads to a duel. I can’t recall a single case of stolen weapons. If a small amount of food or another minor item is taken, it often happens that the victim, rather than challenging the thief, acts like they’re offended, especially if they feel weaker or less skilled with weapons. If the stolen food is not eaten but returned, the victim usually accepts compensation in the form of tobacco, food, or weapons, and as a result, their friendship is quickly restored.

Even when the thief regards himself as superior in strength, he does not care to have a duel in prospect, for these savages shrink from every inconvenience. The idea of having to fight with his victim is a greater punishment for the thief than one would think, even though bloodshed is rare.

Even when the thief sees himself as stronger, he isn't interested in the idea of a duel, because these savages avoid any hassle. The thought of having to fight his victim is a bigger punishment for the thief than you might think, even though bloodshed is uncommon.

In these duels the issue does not depend wholly on physical strength, as the relatives play a conspicuous part in the matter. The possession of many strong men on his side is a great moral support to the combatant. He knows 127that his opponent, through fear of his relatives, will not carry the conflict to the extreme; he is also certain that, if necessary, they will interfere and prevent his getting wounded. The relatives and friends are of great importance in the decision of conflicts among the natives, though physical strength, of course, is the first consideration.

In these duels, the outcome isn't solely based on physical strength, as the relatives play a major role in the situation. Having a lot of strong supporters on his side provides significant moral support to the fighter. He knows that his opponent, fearing his family, won't push the fight to the extreme; he's also confident that, if needed, they will step in and keep him from getting hurt. The influence of relatives and friends is crucial in resolving conflicts among the locals, although, of course, physical strength is the primary factor.

After such a conflict the reader possibly expects a description of fallen warriors swimming in blood; but relatives and friends take care that none of the combatants are injured. Mortal wounds are extremely rare. Mangoran had received a slight wound in the arm above the elbow from a boomerang, and was therefore pitied by everybody. In the next borboby one person happened to be pierced by a spear, which, being barbed, could not be removed. His tribe carried him about with them for three days before he died.

After such a conflict, the reader might expect a description of fallen warriors covered in blood, but family and friends make sure that none of the fighters are seriously hurt. Fatal injuries are really uncommon. Mangoran got a minor wound in his arm above the elbow from a boomerang, so everyone felt sorry for him. In the next borboby, one person got pierced by a spear, which was barbed and couldn’t be taken out. His tribe carried him with them for three days before he passed away.

As soon as the sun had set the conflict ceased. The people separated, each one going to his own camp, all deeply interested in the events of the day. There was not much sleep that night, and conversation was lively round the small camp fires. As a result of the borboby several family revolutions had already taken place, men had lost their wives and women had acquired new husbands. In the cool morning of the next day the duels were continued for an hour; then the crowds scattered, each tribe returning to its own “land.” While I remained at Herbert river four borbobies occurred with three to four weeks intervening between each, in the months of November, December, January, and February—that is, in the hottest season of the year. During the winter no borboby is held.

As soon as the sun set, the conflict stopped. The people dispersed, each heading back to their own camp, all very interested in the day’s events. There wasn’t much sleep that night, and conversation flowed around the small campfires. Because of the borboby, several family changes had already happened—men had lost their wives and women had found new husbands. The next morning, the duels continued for an hour; then the crowds broke up, with each tribe going back to its own “land.” While I stayed at Herbert River, four borboby took place, with three to four weeks in between each one, during the months of November, December, January, and February—that is, in the hottest part of the year. No borboby is held during the winter.

128

CHAPTER X

The appearance of the aborigines in the different parts of the continent—My pack-horse in danger—Tracks of the boongary (tree-kangaroo)—Bower-birds—The blacks in rainy weather—Making fire in the scrubs—A messenger from the civilised world—The relations of the various tribes—Tattooing.

The presence of the Indigenous people across various regions of the continent—My pack horse is at risk—Signs of the tree-kangaroo—Bowerbirds—The Indigenous people in wet weather—Starting a fire in the bushes—A messenger from the civilized world—The connections between the different tribes—Tattooing.

The natural conditions varying in different parts of Australia, a fact not to be wondered at in so large a continent, the natives also vary in physical and mental development. Mr. B. Smyth is of opinion that the natives in the different parts of the country are as unlike each other in physical structure and colour of skin as the inhabitants of England, Germany, France, and Italy. The following description applies mainly to the natives on the Herbert river.

The natural conditions vary across different parts of Australia, which isn't surprising given the size of the continent. The indigenous people also differ in physical and mental development. Mr. B. Smyth believes that the natives from various regions are as different from each other in physical traits and skin color as the people of England, Germany, France, and Italy. The following description mainly pertains to the natives along the Herbert River.

The southern part of Australia is, both as regards natural condition and climate, so unlike the tropical north that the mode of life of the natives is materially modified. Thus in the south-eastern part the natives live mainly on animal food, while in the tropical north they subsist chiefly on vegetables. This has no slight influence on their physical development. Those that live near bodies of water, and have an opportunity of securing fish in addition to game and other animal food, are more vigorous physically than those who have to be satisfied with snakes, lizards, and indigestible vegetables—the latter affording but little nourishment. I found the strongest and healthiest blacks in the interior of Queensland, on Diamantina river, where even the women are tall and muscular. According to trustworthy reports the same is true of the natives on Boulya and Georgina rivers, farther west. In the coast districts of Queensland they seem to me to be smaller of stature and to have more slender limbs. It is, however, asserted by other writers that the most powerful natives are to be found on the coast.

The southern part of Australia is, in terms of natural conditions and climate, so different from the tropical north that the lifestyle of the Indigenous people is significantly changed. In the southeastern part, the Indigenous people mainly eat animal food, while in the tropical north, they primarily rely on plant-based foods. This impacts their physical development. Those living near bodies of water, who can catch fish along with game and other animal foods, are generally healthier and stronger than those who only rely on snakes, lizards, and tough vegetables that offer little nutrition. I found the strongest and healthiest Indigenous people in the interior of Queensland, along the Diamantina River, where even the women are tall and strong. According to reliable sources, the same goes for the Indigenous people near the Boulya and Georgina Rivers, further west. In the coastal areas of Queensland, they appear to be smaller and have more slender limbs. However, other authors claim that the most powerful Indigenous people are found along the coast.

ͨPauli.K.A.

A WOMAN FROM MARYBOROUGH, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND.

Pauli.K.A.

A WOMAN FROM MARYBOROUGH, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND.

129Farther south in Australia the climate is cool, and hence the natives have to protect themselves with blankets made of opossum skin, things not needed in the northern part of the continent, where they roam about naked both winter and summer. Upon the whole the struggle for existence is more severe in the south, but as a compensation the natives there attain a higher intellectual development.

129Further south in Australia, the climate is cooler, so the locals need to use blankets made from opossum skin, unlike those in the northern part of the continent, where they walk around naked all year round. In general, the fight for survival is tougher in the south, but as a trade-off, the people there achieve higher intellectual development.

The natives in one part of Australia have words for numbers up to four or five, while in other parts they have no terms beyond three. The natives along Herbert river have very crude and confused religious notions, but it is claimed that even an idea of the Trinity, strikingly like that of the Christian religion, has been discovered among tribes in the south-eastern part of the continent; idolatry exists nowhere in Australia. The blacks in the north-western part of the continent are praised for their honesty and industry, and are employed by the colonists in all kinds of work at the stations. In the rest of Australia the natives are treacherous and indolent.

The Indigenous people in one part of Australia have words for numbers up to four or five, while in other areas, they don't have terms beyond three. The people along the Herbert River have very basic and unclear religious beliefs, but it’s said that some tribes in the southeastern part of the continent have an idea of the Trinity that closely resembles that of the Christian faith; idolatry is not found anywhere in Australia. The people in the northwestern part of the continent are recognized for their honesty and hard work, and the colonists hire them for various tasks on the stations. In the rest of Australia, the Indigenous people are seen as untrustworthy and lazy.

According to the investigations of Dr. Topinard there are two different types of men among the natives of Australia. Those of the lower type are small and black, have curly hair, weak muscles, and prominent cheek-bones. The higher type, on the other hand, are taller, have smooth hair, and a less dolichocephalous form of head. This also agrees with the reports of travellers; at all events, there is no doubt that the tribes of Northern Queensland are inferior to those found in the southern part of the continent, and a theory has been presented that the higher race living mainly in the southern part of Australia has been a race of conquerors who have subjugated the weaker and driven them to the north.

According to Dr. Topinard's research, there are two distinct types of people among the native Australians. The lower type is smaller, has dark skin, curly hair, weak muscles, and prominent cheekbones. In contrast, the higher type is taller, has straight hair, and a less elongated head shape. This aligns with reports from travelers; there is certainly no doubt that the tribes in Northern Queensland are less advanced than those in the southern part of the continent. There’s a theory suggesting that the more advanced race living primarily in southern Australia has been a conquering group that has dominated the weaker tribes and pushed them northward.

In New South Wales the average size of the tribes is tolerably high, and equals that of Europeans (5 ft. 2 in. to 5 ft. 6 in.) At Murrumbidgee the natives are of medium height. Round Lake Torrens they attain, according to Stuart, a height of only 3 ft. 8 in., while the average height in the interior is 5 ft. 11 in. During my sojourn on the Diamantina river I heard of a black at Mullagan (twenty-five miles 130west of Georgina) who was about 7 ft. high. He was well known at the stations out there, and died just before my arrival. In the coast districts along the eastern side of Queensland they are small, while along Herbert river their size was surprisingly irregular; few of them could be called corpulent, a large number were in good condition and well formed though their necks were somewhat short, while others were lean and slender.

In New South Wales, the average height of the tribes is relatively high, comparable to that of Europeans (5 ft. 2 in. to 5 ft. 6 in.). In the Murrumbidgee area, the natives are of medium height. Around Lake Torrens, they reach, according to Stuart, an average height of only 3 ft. 8 in., while in the interior, the average height is 5 ft. 11 in. During my time on the Diamantina River, I heard about a man in Mullagan (twenty-five miles west of Georgina) who was about 7 ft. tall. He was well-known at the stations there and passed away just before I arrived. In the coastal areas along the eastern side of Queensland, they tend to be shorter, while along the Herbert River, their heights were surprisingly varied; few could be described as overweight, many were in good shape and well-proportioned, although their necks were somewhat short, while others were lean and slender.

The most characteristic feature of an Australian’s face is the low receding forehead and the prominence of the part immediately above the eyes. The latter might indicate keen perception, and in this they are not lacking. Their eyes are expressive, dark brown, frequently with a tinge of deep blue. The white of the eye is of a dirty yellow colour and very much bloodshot, which gives them a savage look. The nose is flat and triangular, and narrow at the top, thus bringing the eyes near together. The partition between the two nostrils is very large and conspicuous. Many of the natives pierce it and put a yellow stick into it as an ornament. My men, who of course had neither pockets nor pipe-cases, frequently put their pipes into these holes in their noses as a convenient place to keep them, and fancied that their noses looked all the better for it. Now and then I met men whose noses were almost Roman, and there were all the transitional forms between these and the flat triangular noses. I have also heard of high aquiline noses among the natives of New South Wales. I think it probable that the large noses sometimes found in Northern Queensland may be attributed to a mixture with Papuans, whose noses are known to be their pride. The irregular size of their bodies is evidence in the same direction.

The most distinct feature of an Australian’s face is the low, receding forehead and the prominence of the area just above the eyes. This might suggest sharp perception, and they definitely possess it. Their eyes are expressive, dark brown, often with a hint of deep blue. The whites of their eyes are a dirty yellow color and very bloodshot, which gives them a fierce appearance. The nose is flat and triangular, and narrow at the top, bringing the eyes close together. The divider between the two nostrils is large and noticeable. Many of the locals pierce it and put a yellow stick in it as an ornament. My men, who of course had no pockets or pipe cases, often placed their pipes in these holes in their noses as a convenient spot to keep them, believing that their noses looked better for it. Occasionally, I encountered men with noses that were almost Roman, and there were all the transitional forms between these and the flat triangular noses. I've also heard of high, aquiline noses among the natives of New South Wales. I think it’s likely that the large noses sometimes found in Northern Queensland can be traced back to a mix with Papuans, who are known to take pride in their noses. The irregular size of their bodies supports this idea as well.

The Australian aborigines have high cheek-bones and large, open, ugly-looking mouths. But the blacks on Herbert river usually keep their mouths shut, which improves their looks, and they are, upon the whole, a better looking race than the natives in the south. Their lips are a reddish-blue, and they have small receding chins. Their muscular development is usually slight and their legs and arms are particularly slender; still I have seen many exceptions to this rule. The women are always knock-kneed, and this is often the case with the men, although with them it is not nearly so marked, their legs being almost straight. They are seldom bow-legged to any great extent. The feet, which as a rule are large, leave footprints that are either straight or show the toes slightly turned outward. They have great skill in seizing spears and similar objects with their toes, and in this way they avoid stooping to pick up things.

The Australian aborigines have high cheekbones and large, wide mouths that some might find unattractive. However, the people along the Herbert River tend to keep their mouths closed, which makes them look better overall, and they are generally considered more attractive than the natives in the south. Their lips are a reddish-blue, and they have small, receding chins. They usually have a slim muscular build, with particularly slender legs and arms, though I've seen many exceptions to this. The women tend to be knock-kneed, and while some men are as well, it isn't as noticeable, as their legs are almost straight. They rarely have significant bow legs. Generally, their feet are large, leaving footprints that are either straight or have toes that slightly point outward. They are very skilled at grabbing spears and similar objects with their toes, which allows them to avoid bending down to pick things up.

ͨPauli.K.A.

A YOUNG GIRL FROM MARYBOROUGH, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND.

ͨPauli.K.A.

A GIRL FROM MARYBOROUGH, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND.

131Though the natives are slender, they have a remarkable control over their bodies. They bear themselves as if conscious that they are the lords of creation, and one might envy them the dignity and ease of their movements. The women carry themselves in a dignified manner, and do not look so savage as the men.

131Even though the locals are slim, they have an impressive control over their bodies. They carry themselves as if they know they are the masters of the world, and it’s easy to admire the grace and confidence in their movements. The women present themselves with dignity and don’t appear as wild as the men.

The hair and beard, which are as black as pitch, are slightly curly, but not woolly, like those of the African negro. I seldom saw straight hair on the blacks near Herbert river (I should say not over five per cent had straight hair), but it is quite common in the rest of Australia, especially in the interior. Men and women wear hair of the same length. I only once saw a man with his hair standing out in all directions, like that of the Papuans. There is generally little hair on the rest of the body. Some of the old men near Herbert river had a heavy growth of hair on their breasts and partly on their backs and arms, a fact I have never observed among the women. The natives along Herbert river had but little beard, and they constantly pulled out what little they had. In the rest of Australia men are frequently met with who have fine beards, but they do not themselves regard the beard as an ornament. In New South Wales even women are found with a heavy growth of beard. The hair and beard of the Australian are not coarse, and would be bright and beautiful if he were more cleanly. On Balonne river in Queensland there is a family (not a tribe) of persons who are perfectly hairless. Old individuals sometimes have snow-white hair, but, so far as I know, albinos have never been discovered in Australia.

The hair and beard, which are as black as coal, are slightly curly, but not woolly, like those of African people. I rarely saw straight hair among the people near the Herbert River (I would say not more than five percent had straight hair), but it's quite common in the rest of Australia, especially in the interior. Men and women have hair of similar length. I only once saw a man with his hair sticking out in all directions, like that of the Papuans. Generally, there's little body hair. Some of the older men near the Herbert River had a thick growth of hair on their chests and partly on their backs and arms, which I've never seen among the women. The natives along the Herbert River had very little beard, and they often pulled out what little they had. In the rest of Australia, it’s common to come across men with nice beards, but they don’t see the beard as a decoration. In New South Wales, there are even women with a thick growth of beard. The hair and beard of Australians aren’t coarse and would be bright and beautiful if they were a bit cleaner. Along the Balonne River in Queensland, there’s a family (not a tribe) of people who are completely hairless. Older individuals sometimes have snow-white hair, but as far as I know, albinos have never been found in Australia.

The natives of Australia are called blacks, but as a rule they are chocolate brown; this colour is particularly conspicuous when they are under water while bathing. Their complexion manifestly changes with their emotions; they turn 132pale from fear—that is to say, the skin assumes a grayish colour. I have even seen young persons, whose skin is thin and transparent, blush. Infants are a light yellow or brown, but at the age of two years they have already assumed the hue of their parents.

The native people of Australia are referred to as blacks, but generally, they are chocolate brown; this color stands out especially when they are underwater while swimming. Their skin color clearly changes with their emotions; they go pale from fear—that is, their skin takes on a grayish tone. I've even seen young people whose skin is thin and clear blush. Infants are light yellow or brown, but by the age of two, they have already taken on the color of their parents.

AN OLD MAN FROM HERBERT RIVER.

AN OLD MAN FROM HERBERT RIVER.

The race must be characterised as ugly-looking, though the expression of the countenance is not, as a rule, disagreeable, especially when their attention is awakened. Occasionally handsome individuals may be found, particularly among the men, who as a rule are better shaped than the women. The latter have more slender limbs; the abdomen is prominent, and they have hanging breasts, mainly the result of hard work, unhealthy vegetable food, and early marriage. I have on two occasions seen what might be called beauties among the women of Western Queensland. Their hands were small, their feet neat and well shaped, with so high an instep that one asked oneself involuntarily where in the world they had acquired this aristocratic mark of beauty. Their figure was above criticism, and their skin, as is usually the case among the young women, was as soft as velvet. When these black daughters of Eve smiled and showed their beautiful white teeth, and when their eyes peeped coquettishly from beneath the curly hair which hung in quite the modern fashion down over their foreheads, it is not difficult to understand that even here women are not quite deprived of that influence ascribed by Goethe to the fair sex generally. On the Herbert river I never saw a beautiful girl, but about seventy miles west from there, on the table-land, I met a young woman who had a good figure and a remarkably symmetrical face, beautiful eyes, and a well-shaped nose, 133the lower part of which was narrower than is usual, and consequently the triangular form was less conspicuous. I must confess, however, that I have never seen uglier specimens of human beings than the old women are as they sit crouching round the fire scratching their lean limbs. They have hardly any muscles left. Their abdomen is large, the skin wrinkled, the hair gray and thin, and the face most repulsive, especially as the eyes are hardly visible. The women fade early, and on account of the hard life they live do not attain the age of the men, the latter living a little more than fifty years. It has been thought that the men in some parts of the interior of Queensland attain an age of even seventy to eighty years, but in the northernmost part of the country few are said to live more than forty years. On Herbert river the women are more numerous than the men; this is also the case among the tribes south-west of the Carpentarian Gulf and elsewhere. But according to accurate observations the opposite is the case in a large part of Australia. The women bear their first children at the age of eighteen to twenty years, sometimes later, and seldom have more than three or four. Twins are very rare.

The race may not be attractive overall, but generally, their facial expressions aren't unpleasant, especially when they are engaged. Sometimes, you can find attractive individuals, particularly among the men, who are usually better formed than the women. The women tend to have more slender limbs, a protruding abdomen, and sagging breasts, mainly due to hard labor, unhealthy plant-based diets, and early marriages. I've seen what could be called beauties among the women of Western Queensland on two occasions. Their hands were small, their feet neat and shapely, with such a high instep that one wondered where they got this elegant feature. Their figures were commendable, and their skin, as is common among young women, was soft as velvet. When these black daughters of Eve smiled and displayed their lovely white teeth, and when their eyes peeked cheekily from under the curly hair that hung in a quite modern style over their foreheads, it’s easy to see that even here, women still possess the charm attributed to them by Goethe. On the Herbert River, I never saw a beautiful girl, but about seventy miles west, on the tableland, I met a young woman who had a good figure and a strikingly symmetrical face, beautiful eyes, and a well-shaped nose, the lower part of which was narrower than usual, making the triangular shape less noticeable. I must admit, though, that I've never seen uglier specimens of humanity than the old women hunched around the fire scratching their thin limbs. They barely have any muscle left. Their abdomens are large, their skin is wrinkled, their hair is gray and thin, and their faces are quite unattractive, especially since their eyes are hardly visible. The women age quickly, and due to their tough lives, they don’t live as long as the men, who average a little over fifty years. It is believed that men in some areas of inland Queensland can live between seventy to eighty years, but in the northernmost regions, few are said to live beyond forty. On the Herbert River, there are more women than men; this is also true for the tribes southwest of the Carpentarian Gulf and elsewhere. However, according to reliable observations, the opposite is true in a large part of Australia. Women typically have their first child between the ages of eighteen and twenty, sometimes later, and usually have no more than three or four children. Twins are extremely rare.

A GROUP OF NATIVES FROM HERBERT RIVER.

A GROUP OF LOCALS FROM HERBERT RIVER.

134The birth of a child does not seem to give the mother much trouble. She goes a short distance from the camp, together with an old woman, and when the interesting event has taken place and the child has been washed in the brook, she returns as if nothing had happened, and no one takes the slightest notice of the occurrence. For a long time afterwards she must keep away from her husband. A woman is proud of being with child, and I am able to state as a curiosity that the tribes around the Carpentarian Gulf think they are able to predict the sex of the babe a few months before birth by counting the number of rings on the papillæ mammæ of the mother.

134The birth of a child doesn’t seem to trouble the mother much. She walks a little way from the camp with an older woman, and once the baby is born and washed in the stream, she comes back as if nothing happened, with no one paying any attention to the event. For a while afterwards, she has to keep her distance from her husband. A woman takes pride in being pregnant, and I can share an interesting fact that the tribes around the Carpentarian Gulf believe they can predict the baby's sex a few months before birth by counting the rings on the papillæ mammæ of the mother.

On account of the unhealthy food of the blacks the children are weaned late, and it even happens that a child is nursed at its mother’s breast with the next older brother or sister.

On account of the unhealthy food of the Black community, children are weaned late, and sometimes a child is still nursing at its mother’s breast while their older sibling is breastfeeding as well.

Instances of death from childbearing are very rare. The advent of a baby is not always regarded with favour, and infanticide is therefore common in Australia, especially when there is a scarcity of food, as under such circumstances they even eat the child. In their nomadic life children are a burden to them, and the men particularly do not like to see the women, who work hard and procure 135much food, troubled with many children. In some parts of Australia the papillæ mammæ are cut off to hinder the women from nursing children.

Instances of death from childbirth are very rare. The arrival of a baby isn't always seen positively, and infanticide is therefore common in Australia, especially when food is scarce, as in those situations they might even eat the child. In their nomadic way of life, children can be seen as a burden, and the men especially dislike seeing the women, who work hard and gather a lot of food, overwhelmed with many children. In some areas of Australia, the nipples are cut off to prevent women from nursing children.

A YOUNG BOY FROM HERBERT RIVER, SHOWING ORNAMENTAL SCARS.

A young boy from Herbert River, displaying ornamental scars.

The strong smell of the blacks is quite different from that of an unclean white man. Nor can it be doubted that the blacks have a peculiar smell which disturbs cattle, dogs, and horses when they approach the natives, even if the latter are not seen; this, no doubt, has frequently saved the lives of travellers. This strong odour, moreover, is mixed with the smell of dirt, smoke, paint, and other things with which they constantly smear themselves.

The strong smell of Black people is quite different from that of an unkempt white man. It's clear that Black people have a unique scent that disturbs cattle, dogs, and horses when they come near the natives, even if the latter aren't visible; this has likely saved the lives of travelers on many occasions. This strong odor is also mixed with the scent of dirt, smoke, paint, and other substances they constantly use to cover themselves.

The voice of the Australian is melodious, though sometimes hoarse, and gives evidence of musical propensity. Both men and women have a high tone of voice; bass and falsetto voices are rare.

The voice of the Australian is pleasant, although it can be a bit rough at times, showing a natural musical talent. Both men and women tend to have a high pitch; deep and falsetto voices are uncommon.

The natives are as fond of decorating their bodies as a sailor is, but they do it clumsily with a sharp stone or a clam-shell, with which primitive instruments they cut parallel lines across the breast and stomach. To keep the wounds from healing they put charcoal or ashes in them for a month or two until they swell up into rough ridges. Sometimes they gain the same result by letting ants walk about in the wounds. The shoulders are cut in the same manner, with lines running down three or four inches, making them look as if they had epaulets. In course of time these peculiar lines, 136which in young men are conspicuous and as thick as one’s little finger, become indistinct, so that on old men they are scarcely visible. They always indicate a certain rank, determined by age. Young boys below a certain age are not decorated, but in course of time they get a few lines across the breast and stomach. Gradually the number of lines is increased, and at last when the lad is full grown, crescents are cut round the papillæ of the breast, the horns of the crescent turning outward, thus: ·) (·. This external evidence that the boy is of age is given to him with certain ceremonies, and the strips of skin, which gradually fall off from the wounds as they heal, are gathered in a little basket, which he subsequently carries for some time about his neck until he finally throws its contents out in the woods—gives it to the “devil” as it is called. This is the only trace of a cult that I observed among the blacks of Herbert river, and they doubtless regard it as a sort of sacrifice to avert the wrath of evil spirits. From this time the young man is permitted to eat whatever he pleases, but previously he has been obliged to abstain from certain things, such as eels, large lizards, etc. The transition from boyhood to manhood is not here, as it is in many other parts of Australia, marked by the extraction of one of the front teeth.[9]

The locals enjoy decorating their bodies just as much as a sailor does, but they do it awkwardly using a sharp stone or a clam shell. With these primitive tools, they carve parallel lines across their chest and stomach. To prevent the wounds from healing, they pack them with charcoal or ashes for a month or two until they swell into rough ridges. Sometimes, they achieve the same effect by letting ants crawl over the wounds. The shoulders are marked in the same way, with lines extending down about three or four inches, giving the appearance of epaulets. Over time, these distinctive lines, which are prominent and as thick as a little finger in young men, fade to the point of being barely noticeable in older men. They always signify a specific rank determined by age. Young boys below a certain age go without markings, but as they grow older, they start to receive a few lines across their chest and stomach. Gradually, the number of lines increases, and finally, when the boy reaches adulthood, crescents are cut around the nipples, with the tips of the crescents pointing outward, like this: ·) (·. This visible sign of maturity is given to him through certain rituals, and the strips of skin that gradually shed from the wounds as they heal are collected in a small basket. He carries this basket around his neck for a while before eventually throwing its contents into the woods—giving it to what they call the “devil.” This is the only religious practice I noticed among the people around Herbert River, and they likely see it as a kind of sacrifice to fend off evil spirits. From this moment, the young man is allowed to eat whatever he likes, whereas before he had to avoid certain foods like eels and large lizards. The shift from boyhood to manhood here isn't marked by the removal of a front tooth, as it is in many other areas of Australia. 136

9. A gentleman well known to me told me the following about the Rockhampton blacks: I one day made two or three of those buzzing things, formed by cutting notches in a thin piece of wood with a hole at one end, through which a piece of string is tied; this instrument is whirled quickly round and round one’s head, producing a great noise. I gave these to some black children near my station to play with; directly the noise began the women covered their heads at the command of their men; some of the blacks bolted into the scrub, while two ran up and seized the things from the boys, whom they sent off to the camp. They then told me that in old times these boys would have been killed for seeing those things, which were used only at their “Bora” (transition from boyhood to manhood) ceremonies. I told them that such pieces of wood were common playthings in my country, nevertheless they burnt them in the scrub shortly after.

9. A gentleman I know well told me the following about the Rockhampton Indigenous people: One day, I made a couple of those buzzing toys by cutting notches in a thin piece of wood with a hole at one end, through which a piece of string is threaded; this tool is spun quickly around one's head, creating a loud noise. I gave these to some Indigenous children near my station to play with; as soon as the noise started, the women covered their heads at their men’s command; some of the Indigenous people ran into the bush, while two of them rushed over and took the toys from the boys, sending them back to the camp. They then told me that in the past, those boys would have been killed for seeing those toys, which were only used during their “Bora” (the transition from boyhood to manhood) ceremonies. I explained that such wooden toys are common playthings in my country, but they burned them in the bush shortly after.

SMALL BASKET CARRIED ABOUT THE NECK, HERBERT RIVER.

SMALL BASKET HUNG AROUND THE NECK, HERBERT RIVER.

In addition to these marks of dignity, a man also gets other lines, which are intended as an ornament and are found chiefly on the arms. They are straight, short, parallel lines 137made in groups across the arm, and the wounds are permitted to heal, so that the lines do not become too prominent. A deep cut here and there is also made on the back or on the shoulder-blade. I never saw the face ornamented by incisions.

In addition to these symbols of honor, a man also has other lines that serve as decoration and are mainly located on the arms. They are straight, short, parallel lines made in groups across the arm, and the wounds are allowed to heal, so the lines don’t stand out too much. A deep cut may also be made here and there on the back or shoulder blade. I’ve never seen the face marked with incisions. 137

The men alone receive the above-described marks of dignity on their chests, stomachs, and shoulders. It is their privilege to be decorated with lines and marks cut in the flesh, and it is not considered proper for women to pay much attention to ornaments. The greatest ornament that a woman ever has is a few clumsy marks across the chest (frequently across the breasts), arms, and back. She is very fond of the ornaments granted her, and the sensitiveness which usually characterises the natives is entirely wanting when they are about to be adorned in this way. I once saw two women engaged in cutting marks on each other’s arms with a piece of glass. These marks consisted of short parallel lines down the arms like those worn by the men, but the operation did not seem to give them the least pain, for they smoked their pipes the whole time.

The men are the only ones who get the described symbols of honor on their chests, stomachs, and shoulders. They have the right to be marked with cuts in their skin, and it’s not considered appropriate for women to focus too much on jewelry. The best decoration a woman can have is a few rough marks across her chest (often across her breasts), arms, and back. She is quite proud of the marks she has, and the sensitivity usually seen in the locals is completely absent when they are being marked this way. I once watched two women marking each other’s arms with a piece of glass. These marks were short, parallel lines down their arms, similar to those worn by men, but the process didn’t seem to hurt them at all, as they smoked their pipes the entire time.

Tattooing in the strictest sense of the word—that is, pricking the skin with a sharp instrument—does not exist among the Australians, but only the above-described custom of cutting wounds in the flesh.

Tattooing, in the strictest sense—that is, pricking the skin with a sharp tool—doesn't happen among Australians. Instead, they have the custom of making cuts in the flesh as described above.


On the same morning that the borboby ended I started on my new expedition, taking this opportunity of securing companions, there being so many blacks assembled. In addition to those who accompanied me on my first expedition I secured three new men. We were to go to another “land,” where yarri and boongary were abundant. Tired from the exertions of the previous day, and consequently more lazy than usual, the blacks repeatedly urged me to encamp, although we had travelled only a few miles. We ascended along a mountain stream and passed on our way one of the deserted camps of the blacks, where Pickle-bottle was determined to stop. I called his attention to the fact that the “sun was yet large” (still early in the day), and that neither yarri nor boongary were to be found here; but 138he replied that there were plenty of them in this locality, and that this was a good place to eat.

On the same morning that the borboby ended, I set out on my new expedition, taking the chance to gather companions since there were so many Indigenous people around. Along with those who had come with me on my first expedition, I recruited three new men. We were headed to another "land" that had plenty of yarri and boongary. Exhausted from the previous day's activities and feeling lazier than usual, the Indigenous people kept suggesting that we camp, even though we had only traveled a few miles. We followed a mountain stream and passed one of the abandoned camps of the Indigenous people, where Pickle-bottle insisted on stopping. I pointed out that the "sun was yet large" (still early in the day) and that neither yarri nor boongary could be found here; but he replied that there were lots of them in this area and that this was a good spot to eat. 138

He, of course, sulked when I did not yield to his lazy desires, still he continued the march, leading my pack-horse, as he was the most civilised and was best acquainted with the country. Instead of proceeding up the eastern mountain slope, which seemed to be most accessible, he guided us along the foaming stream, of which the bed became more contracted and the banks more steep as we advanced. Still I depended upon Pickle-bottle as our guide, until the path at length became so narrow that progress was impossible. I now understood that he wanted to force me to submit to his will and get me to encamp in the place which he had proposed. I had no other choice but to return by the same way as we had come, until we could find a convenient place for the ascent. With great difficulty the horses were turned, but being angry on account of the delay, I now led the way myself and gave the blacks orders to follow me.

He sulked, of course, when I didn’t give in to his lazy demands, but he kept leading the way, guiding my pack-horse since he was the most civilized and knew the area best. Instead of taking the easier route up the eastern mountain slope, he took us along the rushing stream, which got narrower and the banks steeper as we moved forward. I relied on Pickle-bottle as our guide until the path became so narrow that we couldn’t go any further. It dawned on me that he was trying to force me to camp where he wanted us to. I had no choice but to retrace our steps until we could find a better spot to climb up. It was really tough to turn the horses around, but since I was frustrated with the delay, I took the lead myself and instructed the others to follow me.

Now and then I looked back to assure myself that I had them all near me. But to my great surprise I discovered at a turn of the way Pickle-bottle and the pack-horse high up the slope, not far from the place where our progress had been blocked. When he saw that I was determined to advance, he wanted to save part of the road, and had resolved to climb with the horse straight over the high and steep precipice. He believed, like most of the blacks, that a horse can go wherever a man can pass. He was just at the point of bringing the horse over the summit—its forefeet were already planted on the top—when it lost its foothold and its balance among the loose stones, and came rolling slowly down the steep slope like a heavy sack of flour. Greatly excited, I expected every moment that it would stop. But it rolled on and on until it came to the edge of the river, where it fortunately stopped.

Now and then I looked back to make sure everyone was still with me. But to my surprise, I spotted Pickle-bottle and the pack horse high up the slope, not far from where we had hit a dead end. When he realized I was set on moving forward, he wanted to save some time and decided to take the horse straight up the steep cliff. He believed, like most of the locals, that a horse could manage anywhere a person could go. He was just about to get the horse over the top—its front hooves were already on the summit—when it lost its grip and balance on the loose stones, and began rolling down the steep slope like a heavy sack of flour. I was really worried, expecting it to stop any second. But it kept rolling until it reached the riverbank, where it finally came to a halt.

Pickle-bottle and the other blacks vanished. When they saw that I was becoming angry they were afraid that I would shoot them, so they hid in the scrubs. Calling to them in a friendly tone of voice, I at once began to loosen the pack from the fallen horse. They cautiously peeped at me from behind the trees to see in what mood I 139was, then they took courage and came out. I now found to my great satisfaction and surprise that the horse, barring a few unimportant scratches, was not injured and had not broken a bone. When we had raised him on to his feet again and washed him in the river, he shook himself, snorted, and seemed to feel as well as ever after his unsuccessful effort to climb the mountain.

Pickle-bottle and the other guys disappeared. When they noticed I was getting angry, they got scared I might shoot them, so they hid in the bushes. I called to them in a friendly voice as I started to loosen the pack from the fallen horse. They cautiously peeked at me from behind the trees to gauge my mood, and then they gained some confidence and came out. To my great satisfaction and surprise, I found that the horse, aside from a few minor scratches, wasn’t hurt and hadn’t broken any bones. After we helped him to his feet and washed him in the river, he shook himself off, snorted, and seemed to feel just as good as ever after his failed attempt to climb the mountain.

We continued the journey, and Pickle-bottle was henceforth less obstinate. “No tobacco to-day, Pickle-bottle,” I said to him, a threat which made him very thoughtful. He now easily found the right ascent, and for an hour or two we followed the paths of the blacks up the ridges. The scrubs were very dense on all sides, and the mountains came closer and closer together, until suddenly the landscape expanded into a broad, high valley with grassy plains in the bottom surrounded by scrub-clad hills. Here we encamped on the bank of the river. There was plenty of grass for the horses, for the soil was fertile and the ground had never been used for pasture.

We continued our journey, and Pickle-bottle was less stubborn from that point on. “No tobacco today, Pickle-bottle,” I said to him, a threat that made him think deeply. He easily found the right path, and for an hour or two, we followed the trails of the Indigenous people up the ridges. The underbrush was very thick on all sides, and the mountains came closer together until the landscape suddenly opened up into a broad, high valley with grassy plains at the bottom, surrounded by scrub-covered hills. Here we set up camp by the riverbank. There was plenty of grass for the horses since the soil was fertile and the land had never been used for grazing.

This camp was made the starting-point of many excursions into the surrounding scrubs. One day the blacks showed me traces of boongary on the trunk of a tree. I was now certain of the existence of the animal, and resolved not to give up till I had a specimen in my possession. I did not realise how many annoyances were in store for me, and that I was to wander about for three months before I should succeed in securing it. The traces were old, but still so distinct as to be unmistakable.

This camp became the starting point for many trips into the nearby scrubland. One day, the locals pointed out signs of a boongary on the trunk of a tree. I was now convinced that the animal existed and decided I wouldn't stop until I had one in my possession. I had no idea how many challenges lay ahead of me and that I would be wandering for three months before I finally succeeded in catching it. The signs were old, but still clear enough to be unmistakable.

On one of these excursions on the top of the mountain I heard in the dense scrubs the loud and unceasing voice of a bird. I carefully approached it as it sat on the ground, and shot it. It was one of the bower-birds already mentioned (Scenopæus dentirostris), with a gray and very modest plumage, and of the size of a thrush.

On one of these trips to the top of the mountain, I heard the loud and continuous call of a bird coming from the thick bushes. I quietly got closer to it as it sat on the ground and shot it. It was one of the bower-birds I mentioned earlier (Scenopæus dentirostris), with a gray and very plain plumage, about the size of a thrush.

As I picked up the bird my attention was drawn to a fresh covering of green leaves on the black soil. This was the bird’s place of amusement, which beneath the dense scrubs formed a square about one yard each way, the ground having been cleared of leaves and rubbish. On this neatly cleared spot the bird had laid large fresh leaves, one by the 140side of the other, with considerable regularity, and close by he sat singing, apparently extremely happy over his work. As soon as the leaves decay they are replaced by new ones. On this excursion I saw three such places of amusement, all near one another, and all had fresh leaves from the same kind of trees, while a large heap of dry withered leaves was lying close by. It seems that the bird scrapes away the mould every time it changes the leaves, so as to have a dark background, against which the green leaves make a better appearance. Can any one doubt that this bird has the sense of beauty?

As I picked up the bird, I noticed a fresh layer of green leaves on the black soil. This was the bird’s play area, which formed a square about a yard on each side underneath the thick bushes, where the ground had been cleared of leaves and debris. On this tidy spot, the bird had laid large fresh leaves, placed one next to the other in a neat arrangement, and nearby, he sat singing, clearly very happy with his work. As soon as the leaves start to decay, they are replaced by new ones. On this outing, I saw three such play areas, all close to each other, all featuring fresh leaves from the same type of trees, while a big pile of dry, withered leaves was lying nearby. It seems that the bird scrapes away the soil each time it changes the leaves to create a dark background, which makes the green leaves stand out better. Can anyone doubt that this bird has an appreciation for beauty?

The bird was quite common. Later on I frequently found it on the summit of the Coast Mountains in the large scrubs, which it never abandons. The natives call gramma—that is, the thief—because it steals the leaves which it uses to play with.

The bird was pretty common. Later, I often spotted it on the top of the Coast Mountains in the large bushes, which it never leaves behind. The locals call it gramma—meaning the thief—because it takes the leaves to play with.

During the summer there is much rain in the mountains. You are never sure of dry weather, and nearly every night it pours. One day we were overtaken by a heavy shower. The mountain brook grew fast into a torrent, down which we waded to get home, preferring this road to the scrubs, which in rain are impassable and dripping wet and dark.

During the summer, it rains a lot in the mountains. You can never count on dry weather, and almost every night it pours. One day, we were caught in a heavy downpour. The mountain stream quickly turned into a rushing torrent, and we waded through it to get home, choosing this path over the scrub land, which becomes impossible to navigate when it rains and is soaked, dark, and murky.

The natives, who under such circumstances are much more susceptible than Europeans, do not like this sort of weather. When it rained I could never persuade them to accompany me, and they have such a dread of rain that in the wet season they prefer to starve for several days rather than leave their huts in quest of food. They shrugged their shoulders, and shivering with cold, hastened down the brook so fast that I could scarcely keep up with them. On the way we found a place where the mountain formed a shelter, and here the blacks soon discovered with their keen sight that a fire could be built, and so they halted. I could not understand where they would find dry faggots, as everything was dripping wet. It did not take long, however, before the shivering fellows found handfuls of dry rubbish from hollow trees and bundles of leaves from the lawyer-palm. A little fire was soon blazing, and the natives crept round it like kittens, wafting the smoke on to themselves with their hands in order to get warm more quickly.

The locals, who are much more sensitive to weather than Europeans, really dislike this kind of weather. When it rained, I could never convince them to come with me, and they were so afraid of the rain that during the wet season, they would rather go hungry for several days than leave their huts in search of food. They shrugged their shoulders, and shivering from the cold, hurried down the stream so quickly that I could barely keep up with them. On the way, we found a spot where the mountain offered some shelter, and there the locals quickly noticed, thanks to their sharp eyesight, that a fire could be made, so they stopped. I couldn't figure out where they would find dry twigs since everything was soaking wet. However, it didn't take long before the cold guys found handfuls of dry debris from hollow trees and bundles of leaves from the lawyer-palm. A small fire was soon crackling, and the locals gathered around it like kittens, fanning the smoke onto themselves with their hands to warm up more quickly.

141

MAKING FIRE.

Starting a fire.

When my men had to make a fire, I usually gave them matches, which they were so delighted to use that they always asked for them to light their pipes with, even when a large fire was burning. They called them mardshe, after the English “matches,” a word which I gradually taught them. As a rule, they produce fire with two pieces of light wood from eight to fifteen inches long, either cork-tree (Erythrina vespertilio) or black fig. One piece, which is half of a split branch, is laid on the ground with the flat side up, the other, a round straight stick, is placed perpendicularly on the former, and is twirled rapidly between the hands, so that it is bored into the lower piece, the wood of which is usually of a softer kind. After a few seconds they begin to smoke, and soon there fall out of the bore-hole red-hot sparks which kindle the dry leaves laid around. The man assists by blowing at the sparks. Twigs and branches, which are now quickly collected, are not broken in the manner usual with us—across the knees—but always across their hard skull, the bone of which is so thick that they can easily break branches one and a half to two inches in diameter. The natives usually carry with them the two pieces of wood for kindling fire as long as they are serviceable. I tried to use them, but succeeded only in producing smoke.

When my men needed to start a fire, I typically gave them matches. They were so excited to use them that they would always ask for matches to light their pipes, even when a big fire was already going. They called them mardshe, after the English word "matches," which I gradually taught them. Generally, they create fire using two pieces of lightweight wood, about eight to fifteen inches long, either from the cork tree (Erythrina vespertilio) or black fig. One piece, which is half of a split branch, lies flat on the ground, while the other, a straight round stick, is positioned upright on top of it. They quickly rotate this stick between their hands, which bores into the lower piece made of softer wood. After a few seconds, they start to smoke, and soon, red-hot sparks fall from the hole, igniting the dry leaves arranged around. The man helps by blowing on the sparks. The twigs and branches that they gather are not snapped in the usual way—across the knees—but instead, they break them over their hard skulls, which are so thick that they can easily snap branches one and a half to two inches thick. The natives usually carry these two pieces of wood for starting fires as long as they are usable. I tried to use them as well, but I only managed to produce smoke.

Whenever the Australians rest they build a fire, though it be ever so warm, and at all times of the day, partly for comfort, partly in order to roast the provisions which they may have found. On short expeditions they usually make the women carry a fire-brand with them, finding this more convenient than to use the apparatus above described. They always have fire in front of their huts, but usually a small one, no doubt to avoid attracting the attention of hostile tribes.

Whenever the Australians take a break, they start a fire, no matter how warm it is, and they do this at any time of day. They do it partly for comfort and partly to roast the food they’ve gathered. On short trips, they typically have the women carry a firebrand with them, finding it easier than using the equipment mentioned earlier. They always have a fire in front of their huts, but it’s usually small, probably to avoid drawing the attention of hostile tribes.

As we were encamped round the fire I, feeling icy cold in my wet clothes, could not help envying the naked blacks who, independent of garments, became warm and goodhumoured 142in a few minutes. But in a short time they were as cold as ever, for we had to proceed on our journey in the ceaseless rain. Now and then they exclaimed with a sigh, Takolgŏro ngipa!—that is, Poor me!—and we had to halt, so that they might warm themselves again, and soon they were once more merry and happy.

As we sat around the fire, I, feeling freezing in my wet clothes, couldn’t help but envy the naked locals who, without any clothing, warmed up and became cheerful in just a few minutes. But soon they were as cold as ever, as we had to continue our journey in the relentless rain. Occasionally, they sighed and said, Takolgŏro ngipa!—which means, Poor me!—and we had to stop so they could warm up again, and soon they were happy and lively once more. 142

The rain had ceased when, late in the evening, we returned to our camp. The natives were hungry, and were determined to hinder me from taking my usual bath, striking their stomachs impatiently, and crying, Ammeri! ammeri!—that is, Hungry! hungry! I threatened them with my revolver, as I did not wish to be cheated out of my only pleasure for the day, so they became quiet, and I took a refreshing bath in the clear water of a mountain brook.

The rain had stopped when we got back to our camp late in the evening. The locals were hungry and were determined to stop me from taking my usual bath, tapping their stomachs impatiently and shouting, Ammeri! ammeri!—which means, Hungry! hungry! I threatened them with my revolver because I didn’t want to miss out on my only pleasure for the day, so they settled down, and I enjoyed a refreshing bath in the clear water of a mountain stream.

I always began the day before sunrise, and after making the necessary preparations for the excursion, I rambled about with the blacks all day long, frequently without eating. Marching through the dense scrubs is very exhausting, the hot climate makes one weak, and it requires much effort to maintain one’s good humour and courage and at the same time to stimulate the indolent natives to do their work. Add to this that it is constantly necessary to be on one’s guard against attacks, and it will be evident that I needed a few moments’ respite; and in order to preserve my health and vigour I availed myself of the opportunity of taking a bath in the nearest pond or brook.

I always started my day before sunrise, and after getting ready for the trip, I spent the whole day wandering around with the locals, often without eating. Walking through the thick brush is really tiring, the hot weather makes you feel weak, and it's a struggle to keep your spirits up and encourage the laid-back natives to do their jobs. On top of that, I had to constantly stay alert for any attacks, so it was clear that I needed a few moments to rest. To stay healthy and energized, I took the chance to have a bath in the nearest pond or stream.

After refreshing myself in this manner I had to be cook both for myself and my greedy companions. Fortunately I did not that evening have to prepare the animals I had shot, for the weather was so cool after the rain that they would keep overnight.

After cleaning myself up this way, I had to cook for both myself and my greedy friends. Luckily, that evening I didn’t have to prepare the animals I had shot, because the weather was so cool after the rain that they would be fine overnight.

On the way home to Herbert Vale we passed the forests of gum-trees which clothe the base of the mountain range. Here is the favourite resort of the bees, and my blacks at once began to look for their hives, for honey is a highly valued food of the natives, and is eaten in great quantities. Strange to say, they refuse the larvæ, however hungry they may be. The wax is used as a glue in the making of various implements, and also serves as a pomade for dressing the hair for their dances and festivals. The Australian bee is 143not so large as our house-fly, and deposits its honey in hollow trees, the hives sometimes being high up. While passing through the woods the blacks, whose eyes are very keen, can discover the little bees in the clear air as the latter are flying thirty yards high to and from the little hole which leads into their storehouse. When the natives ramble about in the woods they continually pay attention to the bees, and when I met blacks in the forests they were as a rule gazing up in the trees. Although my eyesight, according to the statement of an oculist, is twice as keen as that of a normal eye, it was usually impossible for me to discover the bees, even after the blacks had indicated to me where they were. The blacks also have a great advantage over the white man, owing to the fact that the sun does not dazzle their eyes to so great an extent. One day I discovered a small swarm about four yards up from the ground, and thereby greatly astonished my men. One expressed his joy by rolling in the grass, the others shouted aloud their surprise that a white man could find honey.

On the way back to Herbert Vale, we passed the gum tree forests at the foot of the mountain range. This is the favorite spot for bees, and my crew immediately started looking for their hives because honey is a highly valued food for the locals and is eaten in large quantities. Strangely, they refuse to eat the larvae, no matter how hungry they are. The wax is used as glue for making various tools and also serves as a pomade for styling their hair for dances and festivals. The Australian bee is not as big as our housefly and stores its honey in hollow trees, with some hives located high up. While moving through the woods, the locals, who have very sharp eyesight, can spot the little bees in the clear air as they fly thirty yards high to and from the small openings that lead into their storage. When the natives wander around in the woods, they constantly keep an eye on the bees, and when I met locals in the forest, they were usually looking up at the trees. Even though my eyesight, according to an eye specialist, is twice as sharp as that of a normal person, I typically couldn't spot the bees, even after the locals pointed out where they were. The locals also have an advantage over white people because the sun doesn’t blind their eyes as much. One day, I found a small swarm about four yards off the ground, which really surprised my men. One of them showed his excitement by rolling in the grass, while the others shouted in amazement that a white man could find honey.

It is an amusing sight to observe the natives gathering honey. One of them will climb the tree and cut a hole large enough to put his arm through, whereupon he takes out one piece after another of the honeycombs, and as a rule does not neglect to put a morsel or two of the sweet food into his mouth. He drops the pieces down to his comrades, who stand below and catch them in their hands. At the same time the bees swarm round him like a black cloud, but without annoying him to any great extent, for these bees do not sting, they only bite a little.

It’s quite a sight to see the locals collecting honey. One of them will climb the tree and cut a hole big enough to fit his arm through, then pull out piece after piece of the honeycomb, usually not forgetting to pop a bite or two of the sweet stuff into his mouth. He drops the pieces down to his friends below, who catch them in their hands. Meanwhile, the bees buzz around him like a swarm of black clouds, but they don’t bother him too much, since these bees only bite a little and don’t sting.

Most of the honey is consumed on the spot, but part of it is taken to the camp, being transported in baskets specially made for this purpose. These baskets are of the same form as the other baskets made by the natives, but more solid and smaller in size; they are made of bark, so closely joined with wax that they will hold water. Sometimes the honey is carried a short distance on a piece of bark, a border of fine chewed grass being laid round the edges in order to keep it from running off. Sometimes also a palm leaf is used, which is folded and tied at both ends, so that it looks like a trough. It is the same kind of 144trough as the natives use for carrying water, and can be made in a few minutes.

Most of the honey is consumed right there, but some of it is taken back to the camp, transported in baskets designed specifically for this. These baskets are shaped like the regular baskets made by the locals, but they are sturdier and smaller; they are made from bark that is so tightly bound with wax that they can hold water. Sometimes the honey is carried a short distance on a piece of bark, with a border of finely chewed grass laid around the edges to prevent it from spilling. Other times, a palm leaf is used, which is folded and tied at both ends, making it look like a trough. It’s the same type of trough the locals use for carrying water, and it can be made in just a few minutes.

In almost every hive some old honey is to be found which has fermented and become sour, because these bees, which have only rudimentary stings, are not in possession of any poison to preserve it with. It must also be noted as a remarkable fact that this honey yielded by the poisonless bees never quite agreed with me; it used to give me, nay even the natives, diarrhœa, while on the other hand I can enjoy any quantity of European honey with perfect comfort. The old honey, which the bees do not eat themselves, looks like soft yellow cheese, and the civilised blacks call it old-man-sugar-bag. The blacks do not reject it, but mix it with fresh honey and water in the troughs just described. Fresh honey is also sometimes mixed with water.

In almost every hive, you'll find some old honey that has fermented and turned sour because these bees, which have only basic stings, don’t have any venom to keep it fresh. It's also interesting to note that this honey from the stingless bees never agreed with me; it often gave me, and even the locals, diarrhea, whereas I can enjoy as much European honey as I want without any issues. The old honey that the bees don't eat looks like soft yellow cheese, and the civilized locals call it old-man-sugar-bag. The locals don’t refuse it but mix it with fresh honey and water in the troughs mentioned earlier. Fresh honey is also sometimes mixed with water.

This mixture of honey and water is not drunk, as one would suppose, but is consumed in a peculiar manner. The blacks take a little fine grass and chew it, thus making a tuft which they dip in the trough and from which they suck the honey as from a sponge. While they eat they sit crouching round the trough, and as each one tries to get as much as possible, the contents quickly disappear. Where spoons are wanting this would seem a natural and practical invention, and is surely calculated to secure an equitable division of the honey, as in this way it is difficult for any one person to get more than his share. After the meal the tufts are placed in the basket, where they are carried as long as they are fit for use.

This mix of honey and water isn’t drunk like you might expect; instead, it’s consumed in a unique way. The people chew on a bit of fine grass, creating a tuft that they dip into the trough to suck the honey out like it’s a sponge. They sit crouched around the trough while they eat, and since everyone tries to grab as much as they can, the honey runs out quickly. Where spoons are lacking, this seems like a natural and practical solution and definitely helps ensure that everyone gets a fair share, since it’s hard for anyone to take more than their portion. After eating, the tufts go into a basket, where they’re kept as long as they’re still usable.

The Australian wild honey, which is of a dark brown colour, is hardly equal to the best European. Its aroma is too pungent, and its flavour is not so delicate. In the trunks of the trees it keeps cool even when the weather is very hot, and supplies a healthy, pleasant food; but I could not, like the natives, make a meal of it. I soon grew tired of it, although it now and then formed an agreeable change in my simple bill of fare, and was to some extent a substitute for sugar. In the large scrubs we never found honey.

The Australian wild honey, which is a dark brown color, doesn't quite compare to the best European varieties. Its smell is too strong, and its taste isn't as refined. It remains cool in the tree trunks even when the weather is really hot, providing a healthy and enjoyable food source; however, I couldn't make a meal out of it like the locals could. I quickly got tired of it, although it occasionally added a nice variety to my simple diet and served as a partial substitute for sugar. In the dense scrublands, we never found any honey.

When I reached Herbert Vale the mail had just arrived. It was a real festival when the postman, twice a month, 145passed the station and brought us news from the outside world. He was in the habit of spending the night here on his way up to the table-land, where there were some stations. Armed with a revolver or a rifle, a postman must often ride 300 miles to deliver the mail.

When I got to Herbert Vale, the mail had just come in. It was like a celebration when the postman arrived twice a month, bringing us updates from outside our little world. He usually spent the night here before heading up to the table-land, where there were a few stations. A postman, equipped with a revolver or a rifle, often had to ride 300 miles to deliver the mail.

Sometimes in an evening the Kanaka and I would sit together at the hearth and listen to the postman’s stories and news from the civilised world. He was a man of varied experience, and a fine specimen of the so-called rough men, who are not, however, always so repulsive as the name would imply. The horse was not to be found that he could not ride; or, as he expressed himself, “I can ride any beast that has got hair on.” He was a reckless fellow, utterly indifferent, always cool and self-possessed, and he shrank from nothing. He cared not what he ate so that he got food, and whether it rained or shone was a matter of supreme indifference to him.

Sometimes in the evening, the Kanaka and I would sit together by the fire and listen to the postman’s stories and updates from the civilized world. He was a man with a lot of experience and a great example of the so-called rough men, who aren’t always as off-putting as the term suggests. There wasn’t a horse he couldn't ride; or, as he put it, “I can ride any creature that has hair on it.” He was a bold guy, completely unconcerned, always calm and collected, and he didn’t shy away from anything. He didn’t care what he ate as long as he had food, and whether it rained or shone didn’t matter to him at all.

Born in Victoria, he had been obliged to leave that colony on account of some of his youthful exploits, and had come to these uncivilised regions of the north, but ere long his admiration for the fair sex was transferred to the sable beauties of the forest, and for this very reason he had accepted employment in these wilds of the blacks. Upon the whole he was a good-natured fellow, and a type of the working class among the white men of Australia. They are reliable, correct in their habits, and attentive to their duties, open-handed, but reckless and unrestrained in their associations. “I care for nobody, and nobody cares for me” is their motto.

Born in Victoria, he had to leave that colony because of some of his youthful antics and had come to these untamed areas of the north. Before long, however, he found himself admiring the beautiful women of the region rather than those back home. For this reason, he took a job among the Indigenous people in these wild lands. Overall, he was a good-natured guy and represented the working class among the white men of Australia. They are dependable, disciplined in their routines, and committed to their tasks, generous but also carefree and uninhibited in their relationships. “I don’t care about anyone, and no one cares about me” is their motto.

At the station I met another “rough man,” less chivalrous than the postman, and his revolver rested less firmly in his belt. He had encamped close by, and expected to make money by catching living cassowary young for the zoological gardens. He also looked for a kind of palm, which he claimed would make splendid billiard cues. Supplied with tobacco and coloured handkerchiefs as a means of paying the blacks, he made a number of fruitless excursions.

At the station, I ran into another "rough guy," who was less heroic than the postman, and his revolver wasn’t secured as tightly in his belt. He had set up camp nearby and hoped to make money by capturing live cassowary chicks for the zoos. He was also on the lookout for a type of palm that he said would make great billiard cues. Equipped with tobacco and colorful handkerchiefs to pay the locals, he went on several unsuccessful trips.

I happened to tell him that I had been present at a borboby, and this aroused his desire to witness the next one, which was to take place in a few days. He did not want me to be the only white man who had seen such a contest, 146and got the Kanaka to show him the way up there. But both were obliged to save their lives by flight, the blacks having surrounded them, shouting, Talgȏro, talgȏro!—that is, Human flesh, human flesh!

I happened to mention that I had been at a borboby, and this sparked his interest in seeing the next one, which was happening in a few days. He didn't want me to be the only white guy who had witnessed such a contest, so he got the Kanaka to show him the way there. But both had to escape for their lives, with the locals surrounding them, shouting, Talgȏro, talgȏro!—that is, Human flesh, human flesh! 146

Willy, one of the blacks who sometimes came to the station, had noticed that I had both meat and tobacco, and one day expressed a desire to accompany me. He said, “Go with me to my land, and you shall get both yarri and boongary.” Willy’s land is not far from Herbert Vale, and his mountain tribe was on friendly terms with many of the blacks of Herbert river; but still, being a border tribe, it was on an unfriendly footing with others. As I was fairly well acquainted with Willy, and had some confidence in him, I resolved to visit this region which he praised in such high terms.

Willy, one of the Black guys who sometimes came to the station, had noticed that I had both meat and tobacco, and one day he asked if he could join me. He said, “Come to my land with me, and you’ll get both yarri and boongary.” Willy’s land is not far from Herbert Vale, and his mountain tribe had friendly relations with many of the Black people from the Herbert River; however, being a border tribe, they weren’t on good terms with some others. Since I knew Willy pretty well and trusted him, I decided to check out this area he spoke so highly of.

147

CHAPTER XI

Respect for right of property—New country—My camp—Mountain ascent—Tree-ferns—A dangerous nettle—A night in a cavern—Art among the blacks—Eatable larvæ—Omelette aux coléoptères—Music of the blacks—Impudent begging.

Respect for property rights—New country—My camp—Climbing the mountain—Tree ferns—A dangerous nettle—A night in a cave—Art among the Indigenous people—Edible larvae—Omelette with beetles—Music of the Indigenous people—Brazen begging.

I was now to make an expedition to Willy’s much-lauded country, taking both him and his friend Chinaman into my service, and retaining some of my previous companions. On account of the recent borboby, several of my men were supplied with swords and spears. As they would have no use for them, they hid them in the course of the day under a bush for some other occasion. I never heard of such things being stolen from them. They always left them in the fullest confidence that they would find them again. The contrary is the case with provisions, which they sometimes conceal in this manner; every man will take what food he can lay his hands on. There is, however, considerable respect for the right of property, and they do not steal from one another to any great extent.

I was about to head out on a journey to Willy’s highly praised homeland, bringing him and his friend Chinaman along, while keeping some of my earlier companions. Due to the recent chaos, several of my men were equipped with swords and spears. Since they wouldn't need them, they buried them under a bush during the day for later use. I never heard of them getting stolen. They always left them there, fully confident that they would see them again. The opposite is true for food; they sometimes hide provisions this way, and every man grabs whatever food he can find. However, there is a strong respect for property rights, and they don’t really steal from each other to any significant degree.

If, for instance, a native finds a hive of honey in a tree, but has not an immediate opportunity of chopping it out, he can safely leave it till some other day; the discoverer owns it, and nobody else will touch it if he has either given an account of it or marked the tree, as is the custom in some parts of Western Queensland. If they hunt they will not take another person’s game, all the members of the same tribe having apparently full confidence in each other. Thus the right of property is to a certain extent respected; but least of all, as has before been pointed out, when it concerns their dearest possession—the women. But it is, of course, solely among members of the same tribe that there is so 148great a difference between mine and thine; strange tribes look upon each other as wild beasts.

If, for example, a native discovers a beehive in a tree but can't chop it down right away, he can safely leave it for another day; the person who found it owns it, and no one else will take it if he has either reported it or marked the tree, as is the practice in some parts of Western Queensland. When they hunt, they won't take someone else's game, and all the members of the same tribe seem to have complete trust in one another. So, the right to property is somewhat respected; however, as mentioned before, this is least respected when it comes to their most valued possession—the women. But, of course, this significant distinction between mine and yours exists only among members of the same tribe; different tribes consider each other as wild animals.

The road was very difficult. We climbed hills and marched through deep valleys, and sometimes had to fell the trees in order to get through. I was surprised to see how quickly the blacks cut down the trees with their tomahawks. Though I was stronger than they, still they brought a tree down more rapidly, because they understood how to give the axe more force. After riding for some time up a grassy slope, which at length became perfectly level, we suddenly caught sight of a broad and long scrub-grown mountain valley, through which there flowed a river, which now foamed in rapid currents and now fell over high precipices, forming magnificent waterfalls. The roar of the waters and the dark green vegetation clothing the hills on both sides of the valley from base to top made me cheerful, and awakened in me hopes of interesting finds. Against the dark green background the palms stood out in strong contrast among the lower parts of the scrub. There were great numbers of these stately trees, with their bright, glittering crowns towering far above the rest of the forest.

The road was really tough. We climbed hills and trudged through deep valleys, and sometimes had to chop down trees to get through. I was amazed at how quickly the locals cut down the trees with their tomahawks. Even though I was stronger than them, they brought down a tree faster because they knew how to use the axe more effectively. After riding for a while up a grassy slope that eventually flattened out, we suddenly saw a wide, long valley covered in scrub, through which a river flowed. The water roared in fast currents and cascaded over high cliffs, creating stunning waterfalls. The sound of the water and the dark green vegetation covering the hillsides from bottom to top made me feel cheerful and sparked hopes of exciting discoveries. Against the dark green backdrop, the palms stood out prominently among the lower scrub. There were lots of these tall trees, with their bright, shimmering crowns rising high above the rest of the forest.

An air of indescribable freshness seemed to breathe upon us as we entered the last grassy plateau. Willy proposed that we should build our huts in a different manner from what we had done before. His motive was, of course, laziness, for he wanted to avoid fetching palm leaves from the scrub, but his proposition was a fortunate one, for I thereby obtained a more solid hut than I should otherwise have had. He hewed the stems of some slender trees, and made four short fork-shaped stakes, the lower ends of which were sharpened so as to be easily driven into the ground. The stakes were put in a square, and were scarcely a yard high. In the forks long branches were laid, and over these the roof was made with more branches and long dry grass. I made myself a very comfortable bed of leaves and grass, spreading a mackintosh over the latter, and using some of the things I carried with me for a pillow; among these was my dearest treasure—the tobacco. By my side was my gun, which was always my faithful bedfellow.

A refreshing breeze greeted us as we stepped onto the last grassy plateau. Willy suggested we build our huts differently this time. His main reason was laziness; he wanted to skip the trip for palm leaves from the scrub. However, his idea turned out to be a good one since I ended up with a sturdier hut than I would have otherwise. He chopped down some slender trees and made four short forked stakes, sharpening the lower ends so they'd easily go into the ground. The stakes were arranged in a square and barely reached a yard high. He laid long branches in the forks, and then built the roof using more branches and long dry grass. I created a comfy bed with leaves and grass, placing a mackintosh over the grass and using some of my items as a pillow; among them was my most precious possession—my tobacco. My gun was by my side, always my faithful companion at night.

While we were occupied in making the huts, Chinaman 149had disappeared. He soon returned with a large number of jungle-hens or grauan (Megapodius tumulus), a name applied by the natives both to the bird and to its eggs. This was Chinaman’s own “land,” and so he knew every spot in the forest, and particularly all the mounds in which jungle-hens’ eggs were to be found. November was just the time for the grauan, which is found in great abundance in the lower part of the scrubs, but not higher up, where the cootjari (Talegalla) takes its place.

While we were busy building the huts, the Chinaman had disappeared. He soon came back with a lot of jungle-hens, or grauan (Megapodius tumulus), a term used by the locals for both the bird and its eggs. This was the Chinaman's own “land,” so he knew every part of the forest, especially all the mounds where jungle-hens’ eggs could be found. November was just the right time for the grauan, which is very common in the lower part of the scrubland, but not higher up, where the cootjari (Talegalla) takes over.

JUNGLE-HEN (Megapodius tumulus).

Jungle Hen (Megapodius tumulus).

The eggs are about four times the size of hens’ eggs, and are prepared and eaten in the following original manner: The blacks, having first made a hole on one side of the egg, place it on the hot ashes, and after a minute or two the contents begin to boil. Two objects are gained by making a hole in the egg—in the first place it does not break easily, and in the second place it can be eaten while lying boiling in the ashes. They dip into the egg the end of a 150cane that has been chewed so as to form a brush, and use this as a spoon.

The eggs are about four times the size of hen's eggs and are prepared and eaten in this unique way: The people make a hole on one side of the egg, then place it in the hot ashes, and after a minute or two, the contents start to boil. There are two benefits to making a hole in the egg—first, it doesn't break easily, and second, it can be eaten while it’s boiling in the ashes. They use the chewed end of a cane, which has been shaped like a brush, to dip into the egg and use it as a spoon.

As is well known, the jungle-hen, like the brush-turkey (Talegalla), hatches her eggs in a large mound, which she constructs herself from earth and all sorts of vegetable debris; and the heat generated in the mound by the fermenting of the decaying vegetable matter is sufficient for hatching the eggs. Several females use the same mound, and the eggs being laid at long intervals, they are, of course, in different stages of development. As a rule there are chickens in them, but far from being rejected these eggs are preferred to the fresh ones. If the chicken is about half developed and lies, so to speak, in its own sauce, the natives first eat with their “spoons” the white and what remains of the yolk, and then the egg is crushed and the chicken taken out. The down having been removed, the chicken is laid on the coals, and then eaten—head, claws, and all.

As is well known, the jungle-hen, like the brush-turkey (Talegalla), hatches her eggs in a large mound that she builds herself from soil and various plant materials. The heat generated in the mound from the decaying plant matter is enough to hatch the eggs. Several females use the same mound, and since the eggs are laid at different times, they are at various stages of development. Usually, there are chicks inside them, and rather than being discarded, these eggs are preferred over fresh ones. If the chick is about halfway developed and is, so to speak, in its own juices, the locals first eat the egg white and what’s left of the yolk with their “spoons,” then the egg is crushed, and the chick is removed. After the down is taken off, the chick is placed on the coals and eaten—head, claws, and all.

The next day we made our ascent along the river. We had to wade most of the time. The natives made the most remarkable progress, stepping lightly on the stones, while I with my shoes on could scarcely keep pace with them. It was a long and difficult road to travel. Weary and thirsty, I often stooped to drink the cool water, and to bathe my head in it. But I was cheered by the sight of the luxuriant and beautiful surroundings. Trees and bushes formed a wall along the mountain stream, overhanging the babbling water. In the woods all was dark and damp, but on gazing upward I saw the tree-tops flooded with the most brilliant sunlight, which occasionally penetrated through the branches, and above us was spread the sky in an infinite expanse of azure blue. Occasionally among the trees I caught a glimpse of the hills, rising on both sides in a mass of green of the most varied shades and tints. Here and there could be seen the tall slender stem of the common Australian palm, or of the fan-palm with its large glistening leaves.

The next day, we made our way up the river. We had to wade most of the time. The locals moved with incredible ease, stepping lightly on the stones, while I, in my shoes, could hardly keep up with them. It was a long and tough journey. Tired and thirsty, I often bent down to drink the cool water and to splash my head in it. But I was uplifted by the sight of the lush and beautiful surroundings. Trees and bushes formed a wall along the mountain stream, overhanging the gurgling water. In the woods, everything was dark and damp, but looking up, I saw the treetops bathed in brilliant sunlight that occasionally broke through the branches, and above us stretched the sky in an endless expanse of blue. Now and then, between the trees, I caught sight of the hills rising on both sides, a mass of green in the most varied shades and tints. Here and there, I could see the tall, slender trunk of the common Australian palm or the fan-palm with its large, shining leaves.

Now and then we startle from its branch the beautiful little indigo blue and red kingfisher (Alcyone azurea), which with quick wing-strokes flies before us up the stream. Among 151the tree-tops the large brilliant blue or green butterflies (Ornithoptera) flutter. In the water pools were seen numerous crawfish, which the natives are fond of spearing with a stiff palm branch sharpened at one end, which they thrust down to the creature, at the same time uttering a low babbling sound to attract its attention. The crawfish takes hold of the stake; a quick thrust with the nimble hand of the black man, and it is pierced by the point.

Now and then, we startle the beautiful little indigo blue and red kingfisher (Alcyone azurea) from its branch, and it quickly flaps its wings as it flies upstream ahead of us. Among the tree tops, large, vibrant blue or green butterflies (Ornithoptera) flutter around. In the water pools, we see many crawfish, which the locals like to spear with a stiff palm branch sharpened at one end. They thrust it down toward the creature while making a low babbling sound to get its attention. The crawfish grabs onto the stake; with a quick jab from the nimble hand of the local man, it gets pierced by the point.

As we ascend, the landscape gradually grows wilder and more picturesque. The river gorge becomes narrower, the amount of water diminishes, and no more kingfishers are seen. The palms are replaced by gigantic tree-ferns, which here, in the damp rocky clefts, spread their mighty leaves in all their splendour over trickling brooks, which frequently disappear in little waterfalls down steep precipices. To form an idea of the size of these ferns I broke off one of the secondary leaves, and found that it reached up to my chin, but I saw several that were much larger. The effects of light and shade are magnificent here, the scenery is simply overwhelming in its splendour, and yet there is no one to admire all this beauty save the blacks, who do not comprehend it!

As we climb higher, the scenery becomes increasingly wild and beautiful. The river gorge gets narrower, the water level drops, and kingfishers are nowhere to be seen. The palm trees give way to huge tree ferns, which here in the damp rocky crevices spread their enormous leaves in all their glory over small streams that often tumble down steep cliffs in little waterfalls. To get a sense of how big these ferns are, I snapped off one of the smaller leaves, and it reached up to my chin, but I saw several that were even larger. The play of light and shadow here

Thus approaching the end of our day’s march, and making our way up among the rocks, Willy, who led the way, suddenly stopped, and gave me to understand that I must come to him quickly with my gun. But before I got half way the animal had disappeared. It was a young yarri, which he had frightened up from its lair only a few steps away. Willy might have killed it with his tomahawk, but neglected to do so, as he had contracted the habit of thinking that everything must be shot with the gun, in whose fatal and unerring influence my blacks had acquired great confidence, and for this reason they usually left it to me to kill the game we happened to find. On account of Willy’s stupidity we this time failed to secure this rare animal. Then we had a difficult march over debris of round stones or in thorny scrubs. Among these thick masses of stony debris there grew tall, slender, foliferous trees, and here it was that my blacks expected to find boongary; for the leaves of these trees are their principal food. Where no trees grew, creeping plants covered the debris like 152a carpet, which made walking dangerous, for the stones would roll away, while our feet stuck fast in this net of climbing plants.

As we were nearing the end of our day’s hike and making our way through the rocks, Willy, who was leading, suddenly stopped and signaled for me to come quickly with my gun. But by the time I got halfway there, the animal had vanished. It was a young yarri that he had startled from its hiding spot just a few steps away. Willy could have taken it down with his tomahawk, but he didn’t, as he had developed the mindset that everything needed to be shot with a gun, in which my black companions had gained a lot of trust. Because of this, they usually left it to me to take down the game we came across. Due to Willy’s foolishness, we missed out on securing this rare animal. After that, we had a tough trek over loose stones and through thorny scrub. Among those thick piles of rocky debris, there were tall, slim trees with leaves, where my companions expected to find boongary, since the leaves of these trees are their main source of food. In areas without trees, creeping plants covered the rubble like a carpet, making it tricky to walk, as the stones would shift while our feet got stuck in the web of climbing plants.

On the summit we also meet with scenes of a wholly different character. Here is the real home of the lawyer-palm, which grows on small hills, where the soil consists of a deep black mould, and consequently is so fertile that it produces everything in the greatest abundance. Progress is difficult here, because this palm grows into immense heaps twenty to twenty-eight feet high, one by the side of the other, and often firmly woven together. In this way large connected masses are formed, appearing like an impenetrable wall. But the native usually finds a narrow passage, through which he can crawl, but not without getting badly scratched.

On the summit, we also encounter scenes that are completely different. This is the true home of the lawyer palm, which thrives on small hills where the soil is rich, dark, and extremely fertile, allowing for abundant growth. Progress is tough here because these palms grow into massive piles, twenty to twenty-eight feet high, standing next to each other and often intertwined. This creates large interconnected masses that look like an impenetrable wall. However, the locals usually manage to find a narrow path they can squeeze through, though they often end up with a lot of scratches.

In this dense and pathless forest the boongary has his home, and we found many traces of the animal, some of them quite recent, both on the high slender stems and on the smaller trees of the scrub.

In this thick, unmarked forest, the boongary makes its home, and we discovered many signs of the animal, some of them quite recent, both on the tall, slender stems and on the smaller trees of the underbrush.

Working our way up the side of the mountain near the summit, the natives called my attention to an animal the size of a cat, which ran about in the branches of a tree. They called it toollah. It was late in the afternoon when I killed this animal, which proved to be a kind of opossum now known in zoology by the name of Pseudochirus archeri; it has a peculiar greenish-yellow colour with a few indistinct stripes of black or white, and thus looks very much like a moss-grown tree-trunk. Though it is a night animal, it also comes out about three or four o’clock in the afternoon, and is the only one of the family which appears in the daytime.

Working our way up the mountain near the top, the locals pointed out an animal about the size of a cat that was moving around in the branches of a tree. They called it toollah. It was late in the afternoon when I shot the animal, which turned out to be a type of opossum now classified in zoology as Pseudochirus archeri; it has a unique greenish-yellow color with a few faint stripes of black or white, making it resemble a moss-covered tree trunk. Although it's primarily a nocturnal animal, it also comes out around three or four in the afternoon, and it's the only member of its family that appears during the day.

One of the greatest annoyances in this almost inaccessible region is the poisonous nettle, the stinging-tree (Laportea moroides). It is so poisonous that if its beautiful heart-shaped leaves are only put in motion they cause you to sneeze. The fruit resembles raspberries in appearance, the leaves are covered with nettles on both sides, and a sting from them gives great pain. It will make a dog howl with all his might; but it has an especially violent effect on horses. They roll themselves as if mad from pain, and if they do not at once receive attention they will in this way kill themselves, as frequently happens in Northern Queensland. The natives greatly dread being stung by this nettle, and always avoid it. If you are stung in the hand you soon feel a pricking pain up the whole arm, and finally in the lymphatic glands of the armpit. You sleep restlessly the first night. The pain gradually leaves the arm, but for two to three weeks you have a sense of having burned your hand if the latter comes in contact with water, for then the pain at once returns where you were stung by the nettle.

One of the biggest nuisances in this nearly inaccessible area is the poisonous nettle, the stinging tree (Laportea moroides). It’s so toxic that just moving its beautiful heart-shaped leaves can make you sneeze. The fruit looks like raspberries, and the leaves are covered in nettles on both sides, with a sting that causes intense pain. It can make a dog howl at the top of its lungs, but it has a particularly severe effect on horses. They roll around as if they're going crazy from the pain, and if they don’t get immediate help, they can hurt themselves badly, which happens often in Northern Queensland. The locals are very careful to avoid this nettle, fearing its sting. If you get stung on your hand, you’ll soon feel a sharp pain shoot up your whole arm and eventually reach the lymph nodes in your armpit. The first night, you’ll have restless sleep. The pain will slowly fade from your arm, but for two to three weeks, you’ll feel like you’ve burned your hand whenever it comes into contact with water, as the pain will immediately come back to where you were stung by the nettle.

Harald Jensen lith. Hoffensberg & Trap Etabl.

PSEUDOCHIRUS ARCHERI. N.SP.

Harald Jensen lithograph. Hoffensberg & Trap Established

PSEUDOCHIRUS ARCHERI. N.SP.

153Still, I found the fear of this nettle to be exaggerated. If you at once put on some of the juice of the plant called Colocasia macrorhiza, which resembles an arum, and which is always found growing near the nettle, the pain is soothed and the effect of the poison neutralised. This sharp white juice, which is itself poisonous, produces a violent smarting pain where the skin is thin, as for instance on the lips.

153Still, I thought the fear of this nettle was overblown. If you immediately apply some of the juice from the plant called Colocasia macrorhiza, which looks like an arum and is usually found growing near the nettle, it eases the pain and neutralizes the poison's effects. This sharp white juice, which is toxic itself, causes a severe stinging pain where the skin is thin, like on the lips.

It is a remarkable fact that the antidote to this poisonous nettle always grows in its immediate vicinity, and I cannot help thinking of a parallel case, viz. kusso and kamala, the best remedies for tape-worm, which are found in Abyssinia, the home of the tape-worm.

It’s interesting to note that the cure for this poisonous nettle always grows nearby, and I can’t help but think of a similar case, like kusso and kamala, the top treatments for tapeworm, which can be found in Abyssinia, the tapeworm’s home.

One night we spent in a cave near the brook. I had some hesitation at first in spending the night in these scrubs, where the air is unhealthy and apt to produce fever. Four white men died in one week in the scrubs along Johnston river. But I assumed that I, being by this time used to the climate, could sleep there as well as the blacks, who did so without injury. Besides, the lower scrubs are surely much more unhealthy than those farther up the mountains, and I had never suffered any harm from stopping in them overnight. The cave was not large, and was low, cold, and damp, and thus not very inviting. We had but its naked stones for a couch, for there was of course no grass to be found in the scrub. A big fire was kindled; outside it was pitch dark.

One night, we stayed in a cave near the stream. I was a bit hesitant at first about spending the night in this thicket, where the air is unhealthy and likely to cause fever. Four white men died in just one week in the thickets along the Johnston River. But I figured that since I had gotten used to the climate by now, I could sleep there just as well as the locals, who did so without any issues. Plus, the lower thickets must be much less healthy than those higher up in the mountains, and I had never been harmed by sleeping in them overnight. The cave was small, low, cold, and damp, so it wasn’t very inviting. We had nothing but its bare stones to sleep on since there was obviously no grass in the thicket. A big fire was lit; outside, it was completely dark.

My blacks had found in a large fallen tree some larvæ of beetles (Coleoptera), on which we feasted. There are several varieties of these edible larvæ, and all have a different taste. The best one is glittering white, of the thickness of a finger, and is found in the acacia-trees. The others live in the scrubs, and are smaller, and not equal to the former in flavour. The blacks are so fond of them that they even eat 154them alive while they pick them out of the decayed trunk of a tree—a not very attractive spectacle. The larvæ were usually collected in baskets and so taken to the camp. The Australian does not as a rule eat raw animal food; the only exception I know of being these coleoptera larvæ.

My people had discovered some beetle larvae (Coleoptera) in a large fallen tree, which we enjoyed as a feast. There are several types of these edible larvae, and each has a different taste. The best one is shiny white, about the thickness of a finger, and can be found in acacia trees. The others live in the bushes, are smaller, and don't taste as good as the first. My people love them so much that they even eat them alive while picking them out of the decayed trunk of a tree—a rather unappealing sight. The larvae were usually gathered in baskets and taken back to camp. Generally, Australians don’t eat raw animal food; the only exception I know of are these coleoptera larvae.

Edible Beetle (Eurynassa australis) (natural size).

Edible Beetle (Eurynassa australis) (actual size).

Larva of Same (natural size).

Larva of Same (actual size).

The large fire crackled lustily in the cave while we sat round it preparing the larvæ. We simply placed them in the red-hot ashes, where they at once became brown and crisp, and the fat fairly bubbled in them while they were being thus prepared. After being turned once or twice they were thrown out from the ashes with a stick, and were ready to be eaten. Strange to say, these larvæ were the best food the natives were able to offer me, and the only kind which I really enjoyed. If such a larva is broken in two, it will be found to consist of a yellow and tolerably compact mass rather like an omelette. In taste it resembles an egg, but it seemed to me that the best kind, namely the acacia larva, which has the flavour of nuts, tasted even better than a European omelette. The natives always consumed the entire larva, while I usually bit off the head and threw aside the skin, but my men always consumed my leavings with great gusto. They also ate the 155beetles as greedily as the larvæ, simply removing the hard wings before roasting them. The natives are also fond of eating the larger species of wood-beetles. Some crawfish, moreover, were roasted, and had as fine a flavour as those in Europe; unfortunately there were not many of them.

The big fire crackled energetically in the cave while we gathered around it getting the larvae ready. We just put them in the hot ashes, where they quickly turned brown and crispy, and the fat bubbled as they cooked. After turning them a couple of times, we used a stick to take them out of the ashes, and they were ready to eat. Strangely enough, these larvae were the best food the locals could offer me, and they were the only thing I actually liked. If you break one of these larvae in half, you’ll find it has a yellow, fairly compact mass that’s somewhat like an omelet. It tastes like an egg, but to me, the best kind, the acacia larva, which has a nutty flavor, tasted even better than a European omelet. The locals always ate the whole larva, while I typically bit off the head and discarded the skin, but my crew always happily ate my leftovers. They also devoured the beetles just as eagerly as the larvae, simply removing the tough wings before roasting them. The locals also enjoyed eating the larger types of wood beetles. Additionally, some crawfish were roasted and were as tasty as those in Europe; unfortunately, there weren't many of them.

In the strong light from the fire my eyes discovered on the roof of the cave some figures made by the blacks who frequented these regions: these figures represented a man and a woman with a baby. The drawing consisted merely of a few lines scratched with charcoal and red paint, and the figures had large spreading fingers and toes. They were upon the whole very imperfect, still not without symmetry; the left side was precisely like the right, but apart from this the figures were very irregular. The natives can draw pictures only of the crudest kind. I once showed them my photograph, but they had no idea of what it was meant to represent, or of how it was to be held; they turned it upside down and every other way, but the Kanaka, who was present, at once knew what it was. The civilised blacks, on the other hand, have a clearer notion of pictures, and easily recognise a person from a photograph.

In the bright light from the fire, I noticed some figures on the cave's roof created by the locals who often visited the area. These figures depicted a man and a woman with a baby. The drawing was just a few lines scratched with charcoal and red paint, and the figures had large, splayed fingers and toes. Overall, they were quite rough, but still had some symmetry; the left side mirrored the right, although the figures were very irregular. The locals can only create very basic drawings. I once showed them my photograph, but they didn't understand what it was supposed to show or how to hold it; they kept turning it upside down and in different directions. However, the Kanaka who was there immediately recognized what it was. On the other hand, the more civilized locals have a better understanding of pictures and can easily identify a person in a photograph.

In the morning we were roused by the lively singing of birds. Most prominent was the monotonous and persistent sound of a bird which the blacks call towdala, on account of its unceasing chattering. Its breast is reddish-brown; it is about as large as a quail, is very shy, and usually stays on the ground, moving very rapidly. This morning one was sitting on the other side of the river singing so persistently and so loudly that it irritated one of the natives, who tried to drive it away, throwing stones at it. The bird (Orthonyx spaldingii) is inseparably connected with the scrubs, and keeps up a lively song morning and evening. Though its song is monotonous, I always liked to hear its jubilant and happy voice.

In the morning, we were woken up by the cheerful singing of birds. The most noticeable was the constant and persistent sound of a bird that the locals call towdala, because of its nonstop chattering. Its breast is reddish-brown; it's about the size of a quail, very skittish, and usually stays on the ground, moving quickly. This morning, one was sitting on the other side of the river singing so loudly and persistently that it annoyed one of the locals, who tried to scare it off by throwing stones. The bird (Orthonyx spaldingii) is closely associated with the bushes and sings lively morning and evening. Even though its song is repetitive, I always enjoyed hearing its joyful and vibrant voice.

In the sand along the stream the common “water-iguana” had laid its eggs, which are so well concealed that it is almost impossible to find them, but nothing escapes the keen eyes of the natives. Every now and then they dig out the eggs, which are not, however, very numerous in any one place. 156They also occasionally succeed in capturing the lizard itself, or in killing it by throwing sticks at it. It usually lies resting near the stream, but is very shy, and on being disturbed disappears into the water with a great splash. Both the lizard, which tastes like a chicken, and its eggs are eagerly eaten by the natives.

In the sand by the stream, the common “water iguana” has laid its eggs, which are so well hidden that it's almost impossible to find them, but nothing escapes the sharp eyes of the locals. Now and then, they dig up the eggs, though there aren't usually many in one spot. 156 They also sometimes manage to catch the lizard itself or kill it by throwing sticks at it. It usually rests near the stream but is very skittish, and when disturbed, it jumps into the water with a big splash. Both the lizard, which tastes like chicken, and its eggs are keenly eaten by the locals.

We spent several nights at our headquarters in this beautiful and invigorating mountain region. When we had eaten our supper and put all things to rights we laid ourselves round the fire, feeling very comfortable after the fatiguing journeys of the day. One of the natives then usually sang a song while lying on his back, accompanying himself with two wooden sticks. The song was, as usual, a ceaseless repetition of a couple of strophes, each one of which ended in a long monotonous series of deep tones by which the strophe was repeated. To be able to hold the last tone very long is a sign of ability to sing well. If a song has been known a long time in a tribe, it gradually loses its popularity, and gives place to a new composition, which is either original or borrowed from a neighbouring tribe. But they do not often have the opportunity of learning new songs, and consequently their repertoire is very limited. The song in vogue at this time, and which was sung repeatedly, was as follows:—

We spent several nights at our base in this beautiful and refreshing mountain area. After dinner and tidying up, we settled around the fire, feeling relaxed after the tiring journeys of the day. One of the locals usually sang a song while lying on his back, using two wooden sticks to accompany himself. The song was, as always, a continuous repetition of a couple of verses, each ending with a long, monotonous series of deep tones that repeated the verse. Being able to hold the last note for a long time is a sign of good singing ability. If a song has been known in a tribe for a long time, it gradually becomes less popular and is replaced by a new piece, which is either original or borrowed from a neighboring tribe. However, they don't often get the chance to learn new songs, so their repertoire is quite limited. The song that was popular at the time and sung repeatedly was as follows:—

_Tempo di marcia._ Mol-le-mom-bâ  va-ri-nâ   (â)  mombâ va-ri - nâ Kat - su - râ    in-dan-gô    gân-go-ril - la mol-le-mom-bâ  va - ri - nâ  mom-bâ va - ri - nâ  kat-su-bu - râ  in-dan-go  gan-go- ril - la mol - le - mom-bâ va - ri - nâ mom-bâ va - ri - nâ  kat-su-bu - râ  in-dan-gô  gan-go- ril - la -  - -  -
Click to play song.

157It is a remarkable fact that they themselves sometimes do not understand the words which they sing, the song having been learned from a tribe which speaks another dialect. Thus a good song will travel from tribe to tribe. I heard the above-quoted song sung by “civilised” blacks near Rockhampton, 500 miles due south of Herbert Vale. Doubtless it originated in the vicinity of Rockhampton, and accordingly it must have travelled through “many lands” before it came to the savages in the mountains on Herbert river, where it was sung without being understood.

157It's interesting to note that sometimes they don’t even understand the words to the songs they sing, as they learned the song from a tribe that speaks a different dialect. A good song can spread from tribe to tribe. I heard the song mentioned earlier sung by "civilized" Black people near Rockhampton, 500 miles directly south of Herbert Vale. It likely originated around Rockhampton, so it must have traveled through "many lands" before reaching the people in the mountains by the Herbert River, where it was sung without understanding.

They rarely sing without accompaniment. The singer produces this by beating a boomerang against a nolla-nolla, the former hitting the latter with both ends, but not quite simultaneously. When weapons are wanting, pieces of wood are used. Sometimes they also have their own musical instrument. It is a somewhat thick piece of hard wood in the form of a club. But this, their only musical instrument, is rare, and I only saw it once on Herbert river.

They hardly ever sing without some kind of backing. The singer creates this by hitting a boomerang against a nolla-nolla, with the boomerang striking the nolla-nolla at both ends, just not at the same time. When they don’t have weapons, they use pieces of wood. Occasionally, they also have their own musical instrument. It's a somewhat thick piece of hard wood shaped like a club. However, this is their only musical instrument, and it's uncommon; I only saw it once by the Herbert River.

158The natives have a better ear for rhythm than for melody. Still I learned from them a few tolerably melodious songs, as for instance the one above quoted. They took no interest whatever in my songs. There was but one of them that they could appreciate at all, and this only when strongly accentuated, namely, Erik Bögh’s: “I have sailed around the world, and I have walked many a mile.” But I did not often attempt to entertain so unappreciative an audience.

158The locals have a better sense of rhythm than melody. Still, I picked up a few reasonably pleasant songs from them, like the one I mentioned earlier. They didn’t care at all for my songs. There was only one they seemed to appreciate, and that was only when it had a strong beat: Erik Bögh’s “I have sailed around the world, and I have walked many a mile.” But I didn't often try to entertain such an indifferent crowd.

Their voices are hoarse, but never seem to give out. The singer in the camp usually sits with his legs crossed before the fire. As a rule only one, but sometimes two, sing at a time, accompanying themselves, but they never sing in chorus. A black man rambling among the trees alone may at times be heard making the woods echo with his joyful song. He feels free and happy in his native hunting-grounds. The following war-song, which celebrates the knob on the throwing-stick, I used to hear in the woods on Herbert river:—

Their voices are raspy, but they never seem to run out of steam. The singer in the camp usually sits cross-legged in front of the fire. Typically, only one person sings at a time, but sometimes two will join in, accompanying themselves, though they never sing together. A Black man wandering alone among the trees can occasionally be heard filling the woods with his joyful song. He feels free and happy in his native hunting grounds. The following war song, which honors the knob on the throwing stick, is one I used to hear in the woods by the Herbert River:—

_Andante_ Wom - bon  ma - ræ - ry!  Wom - bon  ma- ræ - ry!  mo - ri - dan  ko - by  bee - bon  bindalgoh!
Click to play song.

The women are also sometimes heard singing in the woods, but hardly ever in the camp.

The women are also sometimes heard singing in the woods, but hardly ever at the camp.

The Australian natives are gay and happy, but their song is rather melancholy, and in excellent harmony with the sombre nature of Australia. It awakened feelings of sadness in me when I heard it from the solemn gum-tree forest, accompanied by the monotonous clatter of the two wooden weapons.

The Australian natives are cheerful and lively, but their song carries a sense of sadness that reflects the serious nature of Australia. Hearing it among the solemn gum-tree forest made me feel a deep sadness, accompanied by the repetitive sound of the two wooden weapons.

My men were in good spirits on this expedition, and they sang nearly every night of their own accord. The sole cause of their happiness was that they received plenty of the white man’s food. I had taken with me an abundance of provisions, and I distributed them liberally, on the false 159assumption that the more I gave them the better they would work. Though I had long been careful to give them nothing gratis, and always to demand work for what I bestowed, I had not yet learned to give them only fair compensation, for the more they get the more they want. To be liberal is simply dangerous, for they assume that the gift is bestowed out of fear, and they look upon the giver as a person easy to kill. Too great liberality demoralises them. They become exacting and disobedient, and finally treacherously assault the giver.

My crew was in a good mood on this trip, and they sang almost every night on their own. The main reason for their happiness was that they got plenty of food from me. I had brought a lot of supplies, and I shared them generously, mistakenly thinking that the more I gave them, the better they would work. Although I had always made sure to give them nothing for free and to expect work in return for what I provided, I still hadn’t figured out to give them only fair compensation because the more they got, the more they wanted. Being too generous is simply risky because they think the gifts are given out of fear, and they see the giver as someone who is easy to attack. Extreme generosity demoralizes them. They become demanding and disobedient, and eventually, they might even betray and attack the giver.

As long as they understand that they can have advantages from a white man, they let him live. The one thing which keeps them from killing him is fear.

As long as they realize they can benefit from a white man, they spare his life. The only thing that prevents them from killing him is fear.

After having received all the food they wanted they became lazy, and demanded a fuller compensation for their work. Their demands increased day by day, and were no longer limited to food, but gradually included the most unreasonable things, such as the clothes I wore, not to mention my weapons and the whole supply of tobacco.

After getting all the food they wanted, they became lazy and started asking for more compensation for their work. Their demands grew every day and weren’t just about food anymore; they eventually included unreasonable things like my clothes, not to mention my weapons and all the tobacco I had.

One morning when Willy and I went out to get the horses, he boldly demanded the trousers I was wearing. When I positively refused to give them to him, he wanted to borrow them to protect himself from the dew on the grass, which he said annoyed him.

One morning when Willy and I went out to get the horses, he confidently asked for the pants I was wearing. When I flat-out said no, he wanted to borrow them to keep himself dry from the dew on the grass, which he claimed bothered him.

No matter how much they had eaten, they never said no when I, in excessive liberality, offered them more food. They laid by what they did not eat, but I did not scold them, for I was anxious to keep them in my service. It soon became plain to me, however, that I must take a different course if I wished to save my life.

No matter how much they had eaten, they never turned down my generous offers of more food. They set aside what they didn't eat, but I didn't scold them because I wanted to keep them around. It quickly became clear to me, though, that I needed to change my approach if I wanted to save my life.

160

CHAPTER XII

The position of woman among the blacks—The husband the hunter, and the woman the provider of the family—Black female slaves—“Marking” the wives—A twelve-year-old wife—Considerate husbands—Wives an inheritance—Deserted by my followers—Reasoning power of the blacks—Darkness and rain.

The role of women among Black individuals—The husband as the hunter, and the woman as the family provider—Black female slaves—“Marking” the wives—A twelve-year-old wife—Thoughtful husbands—Wives as property—Abandoned by my supporters—The reasoning abilities of Black people—Darkness and rain.

The wives of Willy and Chinaman had kept far in the rear of the expedition all the time, as they, in company with other women of the tribe, were in search of fruits and larvæ. Among the blacks it is the women who daily provide food, and they frequently make long excursions to collect things to eat. The position of woman here, as elsewhere among savages, is a very subordinate one.

The wives of Willy and Chinaman had always stayed behind during the trip, as they, along with other women from the tribe, were looking for fruits and larvae. Among the Black community, the women are the ones who gather food every day, often going on long trips to collect things to eat. The role of women here, like in other indigenous cultures, is quite subordinate.

She must do all the hard work, go out with her basket and her stick to gather fruits, dig roots, or chop larvæ out of the tree-stems. She finds the fruits partly within her reach, partly in the trees, which she climbs, though less skilfully than the men. The stick in question, the woman’s only implement, is indispensable to her on her expeditions after food. It is made of hard tough wood four or five feet long, and has a sharp point at one end made by alternately burning it in the fire and rubbing it with a stone. Even at dances and festivals the married women carry this stick as an emblem of dignity, as the provider of the family.

She has to do all the hard work, going out with her basket and stick to gather fruits, dig up roots, or scrape larvae from the tree trunks. She finds some fruits within her reach and others in the trees, which she climbs, though not as skillfully as the men. The stick, her only tool, is essential for her when searching for food. It's made of tough wood, around four or five feet long, with a sharp point at one end created by alternately burning it in the fire and rubbing it with a stone. Even at dances and festivals, married women carry this stick as a symbol of respect, representing their role as the family's provider.

The woman is often obliged to carry her little child on her shoulders during the whole day, only setting it down when she has to dig in the ground or climb trees.

The woman often has to carry her little child on her shoulders all day, only putting them down when she needs to dig in the ground or climb trees.

When she comes home again, she usually has to make great preparations for beating, roasting, and soaking the fruits, which are very often poisonous. It is also the woman’s duty to make a hut and gather the materials for the purpose. 161Her husband assists her in cutting down the four or five slender trees for the frame, but the woman herself has to carry the large armfuls of palm leaves or grass to the camp, and level the ground for the hut, removing with her stick and her fingers all inequalities. She also provides water and fuel.

When she gets home again, she usually has to prepare a lot for beating, roasting, and soaking the fruits, which are often poisonous. It’s also the woman’s job to build a hut and gather the materials for it. 161 Her husband helps her cut down the four or five slender trees for the frame, but she has to carry the big bundles of palm leaves or grass to the camp and level the ground for the hut, clearing away any bumps with her stick and fingers. She also collects water and fuel.

When they travel from place to place the woman has to carry all the baggage. The husband is therefore always seen in advance with no burden save a few light weapons, such as spears, clubs, or boomerangs, while his wives follow laden like pack-horses with even as many as five baskets containing provisions. There is frequently a little child in one of the baskets, and a larger child may also be carried on the shoulders.

When they move from one place to another, the woman has to carry all the luggage. The husband is usually seen ahead, carrying nothing but a few light weapons, like spears, clubs, or boomerangs, while his wives follow behind, loaded down like pack animals with as many as five baskets filled with food. Often, there’s a small child in one of the baskets, and a bigger child might also be carried on the shoulders.

The husband’s contribution to the household is chiefly honey, but occasionally he provides eggs, game, lizards, and the like. He very often, however, keeps the animal food for himself, while the woman has to depend principally upon vegetables for herself and her child. The husband hunts more for sport than to supply the family with necessaries, a matter that does not really concern him. Upon the whole he feels no responsibility as the father of a family, but lives a thoroughly selfish life, waiting in the morning until the grass is dry before he goes out, and often returning to the camp with empty hands, having consumed his game where he caught it.

The husband mainly brings home honey, but sometimes he also provides eggs, game, lizards, and similar items. However, he often keeps the animal food for himself, forcing the woman to rely mostly on vegetables for herself and their child. He hunts more for fun than to provide for the family, which he doesn’t really see as his concern. Overall, he doesn’t feel any responsibility as a father, living a completely selfish life, waiting until the morning dew dries before heading out, and often coming back to camp empty-handed after having eaten whatever he caught.

He treats his wife with but little consideration, and is often very cruel; he may take her life if he desires. In cold rainy nights she is obliged to go out to fetch water and fuel. If in the evening I requested one of my blacks to do this, he usually transferred the order to one of his wives, who went at once; as a rule he had no regard for her age. During one night which I passed on a farm not far from Mackay, I heard a terrible cry in a camp of civilised blacks near by. On going down there the next morning we found one of the young women in a pitiful condition, bathed in blood and weeping; two of her fingers were broken. She said that her husband had flogged her during the night. I asked him why he had done so, and he answered that it had been very cold in the night, and that this wretch of a woman 162had not been willing to go at once and fetch fuel for the camp fire. He was an unusually capable black, who, on one occasion, had accompanied a Catholic missionary across the continent to the Gulf of Carpentaria. But with all his good qualities he had not yet learned to treat his wife otherwise than his black brethren, who do not regard her as a human being like themselves.

He treats his wife with very little consideration and can be quite cruel; he might even take her life if he wants to. On cold, rainy nights, she has to go out to get water and firewood. If I asked one of my workers to do this in the evening, he'd usually assign the task to one of his wives, who would go immediately; generally, he didn’t care about her age. One night, while I was staying on a farm not far from Mackay, I heard a terrible scream from a nearby camp of civilized Black people. The next morning, when we went over there, we found one of the young women in a heartbreaking state, covered in blood and crying; two of her fingers were broken. She said her husband had beaten her during the night. I asked him why he did that, and he replied that it had been very cold, and that this miserable woman hadn’t wanted to go right away to fetch wood for the campfire. He was a particularly capable man who had once accompanied a Catholic missionary across the continent to the Gulf of Carpentaria. But despite his good qualities, he still hadn’t learned to treat his wife any differently than his fellow Black men, who don’t see her as a human being like themselves.

The worst crime a woman can commit is, of course, to run away from her husband, whose slave she in reality is. She is oppressed, but is as a rule contented with slavery, having no knowledge of a freer condition. She has no will of her own, and she knows that her husband will not brook opposition. But, however subject to the will of her husband she may appear to be, and however oppressed she has been for generations, many instances are still to be found where she has refused to submit to her fate and has taken flight. She may also have some one whom she adores, and a woman frequently runs away to a person she loves, although she risks punishment; she may even be maimed by her husband if he ever gets hold of her again. In such cases he usually gives her one or two blows on the back with his tomahawk, which the blacks call “marking” the woman. Frequently the woman is killed, particularly if she tries to run away a second time.

The worst thing a woman can do is, of course, to run away from her husband, who is essentially her master. She is oppressed but usually feels okay with her situation, having no idea what freedom feels like. She doesn’t have her own will and knows her husband won’t tolerate any dissent. But despite appearing completely at her husband’s mercy and enduring oppression for generations, there are still many cases where she has refused to accept her fate and has escaped. She might also have someone she loves, and women often run away to be with someone they care about, even though it puts them at risk; they could even be hurt by their husbands if caught again. When that happens, he usually hits her on the back with his tomahawk, which the black community refers to as “marking” the woman. Often, the woman is killed, especially if she tries to escape a second time.

When a wife is punished for other errors, the husband usually gives her a rap on the head with the first object he can lay his hands on. As a result of this treatment the women are often marked or scarred from blows received from their cruel husbands. The punishments are quite informal, and are inflicted in the excitement of the moment, no matter whether others are present or not.

When a wife is punished for her mistakes, her husband usually hits her on the head with whatever he can grab. Because of this treatment, many women are often left with marks or scars from the blows they receive from their abusive husbands. The punishments are pretty casual and happen in the heat of the moment, regardless of whether other people are around or not.

As the women perform all the labour, they are the most important part of the property of an Australian native, who is rich in proportion to the number of wives he possesses.

As the women do all the work, they are the most important part of an Australian native's possessions, with his wealth measured by the number of wives he has.

NATIVES FROM HERBERT RIVER.

HERBERT RIVER NATIVES.

163They usually have two, frequently three, sometimes four wives, and I saw one man who had six. All the wives live in the same hut with their husband. He who has many is envied by the others. “No one should have more than two wives,” said my men to me, who had only one wife apiece, and whose highest ambition it was to double the number. The black man usually has a favourite wife, whom he prefers to the others and treats better. Still, polygamy does not give rise to as many family troubles as one would think, though there may be discord enough among the men on account of the women. As a rule, man and wife apparently get on very well, and the women are not constantly being flogged. I have even seen instances where the husband was governed by his wife, and was scolded and corrected by her, and I have also seen husbands ask their wives for advice; but such cases as these are, of course, very rare.

163They usually have two, often three, and sometimes four wives, and I even saw one man with six. All the wives live in the same hut with their husband. Those with many wives are envied by others. “No one should have more than two wives,” my men told me, who each had only one wife and dreamed of doubling that number. A man often has a favorite wife, whom he treats better than the others. However, polygamy doesn't lead to as many family issues as one might expect, although there can be enough conflict among the men because of the women. Generally, husbands and wives appear to get along well, and the women are not always being beaten. I've even seen cases where the husband was managed by his wife, being scolded and corrected by her, and I've seen husbands asking their wives for advice; but those instances are quite rare.

It must be admitted that sometimes the Australian treats his wives well, even in cases where the husband is the boss, and two of the men who were with me on this expedition were exceptions of this kind.

It has to be acknowledged that sometimes the Australian treats his wives well, even when the husband is the boss, and two of the men who were with me on this expedition were examples of this.

It was an unusually fine trait in the characters of Willy and Chinaman that they saved part of the provisions which they received from me for their wives. One afternoon, when they wanted to go and see their wives, they asked me to lend them a bag, and soon afterwards I saw them starting off with a large amount of provisions which they had saved. This consideration did not imply any self-denial on their part, for I had given them more than they could eat, but I have since learned that they sometimes did make sacrifices for their wives, and in this instance it may be said to their credit that they gave them what they themselves might have consumed at a later time.

It was a really nice thing about Willy and Chinaman that they saved some of the food I gave them for their wives. One afternoon, when they wanted to visit their wives, they asked to borrow a bag, and soon after, I saw them head out with a lot of the food they had saved. This thoughtful gesture didn't mean they were denying themselves anything, since I had given them more than they could eat, but I've since learned that they sometimes did make sacrifices for their wives. In this case, it's worth noting that they shared what they could have eaten later.

Willy and Chinaman’s wives were very young, one of them being a little girl of about twelve years. As long as the wives are so young I think they receive better treatment than they do later on.

Willy and Chinaman’s wives were very young, one of them being a little girl of about twelve years. As long as the wives are so young I think they receive better treatment than they do later on.

Thus even Australian women may have their honeymoon. These two men were proud of their young wives, because it is, as a rule, difficult for young men to marry before they are thirty years old. The old men have the youngest and best looking wives, while a young man must consider himself fortunate if he can get an old woman.

Thus even Australian women can have their honeymoon. These two men were proud of their young wives because, as a rule, it’s tough for young men to marry before they’re thirty years old. The older men have the youngest and most attractive wives, while a young man should consider himself lucky if he can find an older woman.

A woman is delivered over to her husband when she is about nine or ten years old. It is simply ridiculous to see a man with a wife whom one would take to be his young daughter. She lives with her husband, who may be said to 164rear her, the two being at the same time really married. In this respect the custom existing among the more southern tribes, as, for instance, near Rockhampton, where the woman is not married before she has reached maturity, differs from that on Herbert river; even here, however, some respect is paid to her age, for a twelve-year-old wife is not expected to provide as much as a grown woman. “She runs about too much when she is so little,” said Willy and Chinaman, meaning that she was not as capable as the older ones of finding food. I invariably observed that the grown woman performed her work in an earnest and careful manner, and did not permit herself to be disturbed. It is not uncommon for an Australian to inherit a wife; the custom being that a widow falls to the lot of the brother of the deceased husband. But the commonest way of getting a wife is by giving a sister or a daughter in exchange. Marriage may be either exogamous or endogamous. I have previously stated that it is usual to steal one another’s wives; but it should be added that this, as a rule, occurs among the smaller families or sub-tribes, and but rarely among the larger tribes. A beautiful girl from another tribe was maltreated and killed not far from my headquarters. When I asked why they did not keep her rather than take her life in this manner, they said that they feared the strange tribe, to whose attacks they would continually be exposed if they kept the woman alive. Killing her would give less cause for resentment.

A woman is given to her husband when she's about nine or ten years old. It’s pretty absurd to see a man with a wife who looks like his young daughter. She lives with her husband, who can be said to raise her, while they are technically married at the same time. This is different from customs among more southern tribes, like those near Rockhampton, where a woman isn't married until she's reached maturity. Even there, though, her age is considered; a twelve-year-old wife isn’t expected to contribute as much as an adult woman. “She runs around too much when she’s so little,” said Willy and Chinaman, implying she wasn’t as skilled as the older women at finding food. I always noticed that the adult women worked seriously and carefully and didn’t let themselves be distracted. It’s not unusual for an Australian man to inherit a wife, as the custom is for a widow to belong to her deceased husband's brother. However, the most common way to acquire a wife is by exchanging a sister or daughter. Marriages can be either outside or within the tribe. I’ve mentioned before that it’s common to steal each other’s wives; however, this generally happens among smaller families or sub-tribes, and rarely among larger tribes. A beautiful girl from another tribe was abused and killed not far from my base. When I asked why they didn’t keep her instead of killing her, they explained that they feared the other tribe, from whom they would constantly face attacks if they kept her alive. Killing her would create less reason for anger.

Willy and Chinaman always took into consideration the youth of their wives, and did not make them carry the large burdens usually laid upon women. Of course they had to fetch leaves and grass for the hut, run after water, and find larvæ and fruits, and go on errands in general, but upon the whole they had an easy time of it, and their husbands gave them a considerable amount of food. Surely when they received the bag of food I mentioned before, their husbands must have been prompted by higher motives than simply the idea that the food would make them stronger, and therefore capable of doing more work.

Willy and Chinaman always considered the youth of their wives and didn’t make them carry the heavy loads usually expected of women. Sure, they had to gather leaves and grass for the hut, fetch water, look for larvae and fruits, and run errands in general, but overall they had a pretty easy life, and their husbands provided them with plenty of food. When they received the bag of food I mentioned earlier, their husbands must have been motivated by more than just the idea that the food would make them stronger and able to do more work.

In the evening, when Willy and Chinaman came back from their wives, they brought a basket of fruit from the poisonous palm Cycas media, which is called by the natives 165kadjĕra. When the nut is cracked, the kernel is subjected to an elaborate process of pounding, roasting, and soaking, until all is changed into a white porridge. Although my men were very fond of my fare, which I shared with them plentifully, still they felt a need of their own food. Kadjera constitutes during this season of the year, from October to December, the principal food of the blacks, tobŏla and koraddan, other fruits, being what they live chiefly upon from January to March. When the time comes for harvesting these fruits, the women set out together to gather and prepare them, and they are frequently absent from the camp for several days.

In the evening, when Willy and Chinaman returned from visiting their wives, they brought back a basket of fruit from the poisonous palm Cycas media, which the locals call kadjĕra. After cracking the nut, the kernel goes through a detailed process of pounding, roasting, and soaking until it turns into a white porridge. Even though my men really enjoyed the food I shared with them generously, they still craved their own meals. Kadjera is the main food for the locals during this time of year, from October to December, while tobŏla and koraddan, along with other fruits, make up most of their diet from January to March. When it’s time to harvest these fruits, the women head out together to gather and prepare them, often being away from the camp for several days.

We had now exerted ourselves a long time, and suffered much fatigue from trying to secure a specimen of boongary, when all the men one day suddenly declared that nothing would induce them to hunt the boongary without a dog, and that there was no use in continuing the expedition. Though this was a great disappointment to me, there was nothing else to do but to return to my headquarters to get a dingo and more provisions.

We had been working hard for a long time and were really tired from trying to catch a boongary when all the guys suddenly said that nothing would make them hunt the boongary without a dog, and that there was no point in continuing the trip. Although this was a huge letdown for me, there was nothing else to do but head back to my base to get a dingo and more supplies.

On my arrival at Herbert Vale I also secured some new men. Among them Jimmy was especially noteworthy. He was a square-built, athletic fellow with a short neck and broad shoulders. There was a sinister expression in his face, and he was a man of few words. I also enlisted in my service another native, Mangola-Maggi, a smooth-haired young man who, in spite of his youth, was highly respected among the blacks on account of his ability to procure talgoro—that is, human flesh. This was certainly not the particular qualification that I sought. What I wanted was good hunters, and in choosing my men I had to pay special attention to this point without regard to other less desirable qualities.

On my arrival at Herbert Vale, I also brought in some new guys. Among them, Jimmy was particularly impressive. He was a solidly built, athletic guy with a short neck and broad shoulders. There was a dark look about him, and he didn't say much. I also brought on another local, Mangola-Maggi, a young man with smooth hair who, despite his youth, was well-respected among the locals for his skill in procuring talgoro—that is, human flesh. This was definitely not the kind of skill I was looking for. What I really needed were good hunters, and when I chose my team, I had to focus on this aspect without worrying about other less desirable traits.

I suggested that they should take their wives with them, and they were the more easily persuaded to do so as the women were going in the same direction to gather fruits, and the latter received orders to keep a sharp look-out for boongary, which during the day sleep in the high trees.

I suggested that they should bring their wives along, and they were easily convinced to do so since the women were headed in the same direction to gather fruit. The women were also instructed to stay alert for boongary, which sleep in the high trees during the day.

On our journey across the open country Willy and I led the way. In the afternoon some of my people remained behind to dig out a bandicoot, among them Lucy, Willy’s 166wife. She had stayed without her husband’s consent, and for this she must be punished. When, after about an hour, she overtook us, Willy, greatly enraged, asked her why she had remained behind, and at the same time picked up a large piece of wood and hurled it past her face. She did not dare to stir or hardly to blink with her eyes, and made no effort to ward off the projectile, knowing that her husband would become only more angry and try the more to hit her. As it was, he only threw the piece of wood several times to frighten her.

On our journey across the open countryside, Willy and I led the way. In the afternoon, some of my group stayed behind to dig out a bandicoot, including Lucy, Willy’s wife. She had stayed without her husband’s permission, and for this, she had to face the consequences. When she caught up to us about an hour later, Willy, furious, demanded to know why she hadn’t come with us, and at the same time picked up a large stick and threw it past her face. She didn’t dare move or barely blink, making no attempt to dodge the thrown object, knowing that it would only make her husband angrier and more likely to aim at her next. As it turned out, he only threw the stick several times to scare her.

The bandicoot, which had given rise to this domestic scene between Willy and Lucy, I wanted for my collection; but Chinaman would not give it up. He was, on the whole, very selfish, passionate, and greedy. He twice told me that he liked the flesh of little children better than that of grownup people, because the former were “so fat.” When we had slain an animal the thought of eating was uppermost in his mind, and I often failed to secure rare specimens which he and his comrades had killed and eaten before I could claim them. It was therefore necessary not only to find and kill the animals, but also to save them from disappearing into the hungry stomachs of the blacks. Even though they knew that they would get tobacco for the animal, momentary enjoyment so predominated in their minds that they had no time to think of the tobacco.

The bandicoot that caused the domestic situation between Willy and Lucy was something I wanted for my collection, but the Chinaman wouldn’t let it go. Overall, he was pretty selfish, passionate, and greedy. He told me twice that he preferred the flesh of little kids over that of adults because kids were “so fat.” When we hunted an animal, eating it was always on his mind, and I often missed out on rare specimens he and his friends had killed and eaten before I could get to them. So, it was crucial not only to find and kill the animals but also to keep them from being devoured by the hungry locals. Even though they knew they’d get tobacco for the animal, the immediate pleasure of eating it was so strong that they didn’t have time to think about the tobacco.

We rose at sunrise the next morning, and continued the ascent. I had so distributed my baggage among the natives that the women carried the provisions and the men the gun and ammunition and the thighs of a wallaby, which I had taken as a lure for yarri. Saturated with strychnine, the flesh of the wallaby was exposed in various places along the river, particularly where brooks emptied into the latter, for here, according to the statements of the natives, the yarri were apt to be found during the night.

We got up at sunrise the next morning and kept climbing. I had arranged for the locals to carry my stuff so that the women carried the food while the men took the gun, ammo, and the legs of a wallaby, which I had used as bait for yarrie. The wallaby meat was soaked in strychnine and was left in different spots along the river, especially where streams flowed into it, because the locals said that’s where the yarrie could be found at night.

We worked our way up over large stones and among creeping vines, and toward noon approached the goal of our day’s march, about 600 ft. below the level of the mountain summit. Before us we still had a very steep and difficult country to traverse, and we now halted near the confluence of two mountain brooks to get something to eat.

We made our way over big rocks and through creeping vines, and by noon we got close to our destination, about 600 feet below the mountain's peak. In front of us was still a very steep and challenging area to cross, so we stopped near where two mountain streams met to grab something to eat.

167I had so planned that the women were to go for several days by themselves in another direction in order to search the scrubs, and at the same time gather fruits, while we were to follow the brook and make our camp on the summit of the mountain. The woods are so dense that a man cannot make a long journey in a day, and as it was of importance to investigate as large a region as possible, I hoped that the women would in this way be of great use to us. The men were, however, unwilling to agree to this plan, and they suggested instead not to send the women out until the next day, but to send them on now with the provisions and baggage to the proposed camping-place, while they and I were to make a digression to the south in order to look for boongary. We were to meet again on the top of the mountain. Their proposition seemed to me excellent, for in this way we might make a better use of our time, and so we set out, without any suspicion on my part of their treacherous intentions. As usual, it was not long before I was some distance behind my people, who during such ascents were wont to proceed much more rapidly than I did; my boots making it difficult for me to keep pace with them. Certainly I thought they were in a greater hurry than usual, but I paid no particular attention to this fact. Finally, I had only Chinaman and his dog before me. Our course along a little brook was very steep, and so narrow that we frequently had to creep on our hands and knees under the enormous fern-trees, in order to get through.

167I had planned for the women to go off on their own for a few days to explore a different area, searching the scrublands and picking fruits, while we followed the brook and set up camp at the top of the mountain. The woods are so thick that you can’t cover much ground in a day, and since it was important to explore a large region, I thought the women would be really helpful. However, the men didn’t agree with this plan and instead suggested that we wait until the next day to send the women out. They proposed sending them ahead now with the supplies and gear to the planned campsite while they and I would take a detour south to look for boongary. We’d meet up again at the mountain’s summit. Their suggestion seemed perfect to me, as it would help us use our time better, so we set off, without any idea of their hidden motives. As usual, it wasn’t long before I fell behind my group, who tended to move much faster than I did during such climbs, my boots making it hard to keep up. I noticed they seemed more rushed than usual, but I didn’t think much of it. Eventually, only Chinaman and his dog were ahead of me. Our path along a small brook was steep and narrow, requiring us to often crawl on our hands and knees beneath the massive fern trees to get through.

Presently Chinaman also disappeared in the scrub, and I suddenly found myself all alone with my dog “Donna.” I shouted, but heard no answer, and it now dawned upon my mind that I was the victim of a plot. In order to get possession of my provisions, they had, of course, agreed on a place where they were to join the women, or perhaps they intended to meet at the place fixed upon for a camp, in order to feast on my food. I knew that they would not rob and eat everything, for like children who help themselves to sweets, they imagine that nothing will be discovered if only something is left, be it ever so little. There was danger, however, that my provisions would be consumed to such a degree as to make it impossible to continue the expedition. I had 168been careless enough to leave the food in two open bags, but had looked better after the tobacco, the latter being well packed in the centre of my baggage.

Right now, Chinaman also disappeared into the bushes, and I suddenly found myself all alone with my dog “Donna.” I shouted, but heard no response, and it hit me that I was a target of a scheme. To get hold of my supplies, they must have made plans to meet with the women, or maybe they intended to gather at the spot chosen for camping, to feast on my food. I knew they wouldn’t take everything; like kids who sneak candy, they think nothing will be noticed if they leave even a little behind. However, there was a risk that my supplies could be eaten to the point that continuing the trip would be impossible. I had been careless enough to leave the food in two open bags, but I had taken more care with the tobacco, which was well packed in the center of my gear.

After a short time I heard them in the distance giving signals to the women. The only thing for me to do was to make an effort to proceed alone. I knew pretty nearly where we were to encamp, but it was not so easy to find the way through the scrub, where nothing is to be seen to guide the traveller.

After a little while, I heard them in the distance signaling to the women. The only thing I could do was to try to move forward on my own. I had a pretty good idea of where we were supposed to set up camp, but it wasn't easy navigating through the thick brush, where there’s nothing visible to guide a traveler.

I was several hours in reaching the summit. Meanwhile it had begun to rain, sunset was drawing on, and it was high time that I found the camp. At length I heard the blacks talking on the top of a little hill near by, and I soon found the place, a little opening in the dense scrub scarcely eight yards square, where they had already built their huts. It was a very convenient place for a camp, and I could see that it had frequently been used for this purpose, for on all sides there were large heaps of fruit husks.

I took several hours to reach the top. In the meantime, it started to rain, the sun was setting, and I really needed to find the camp. Eventually, I heard the locals talking on a small hill nearby, and I quickly located the spot—a small clearing in the thick brush just about eight yards wide, where they had already set up their huts. It was a great spot for a camp, and I could tell it had been used often for this purpose because there were big piles of fruit husks all around.

I at once commanded them to produce the provision bags, and discovered to my satisfaction that they had consumed less of the contents than I feared. When I asked them why they had abandoned me in order to steal the provisions, they answered that they had been very much afraid that the white man would get lost, but added, in an ingratiating manner, that they were now going to make him a good hut. The only way to punish them which was left me was to shoot one of them, and I therefore let the matter drop, but gave them to understand that if the offence was repeated I should use the revolver. I then ordered them to build a hut, as it was already night and the rain was increasing. From this incident it is clear that it is not true, as many maintain, that the Australian native is guided wholly by his instincts. I am willing to admit that his reasoning powers are but slightly developed, as he is unable to concentrate his thoughts for any length of time on one subject, but he can come to a logical conclusion, a fact which has been denied.[10]

I immediately told them to bring the food bags, and I was pleased to find they hadn’t eaten as much as I had feared. When I asked them why they had left me to steal the food, they said they were really worried that the white man might get lost, but then added, trying to be charming, that they would now make him a nice hut. The only way I had left to punish them was to shoot one of them, so I decided to let it go but made it clear that if they did it again, I would use the revolver. I then ordered them to build a hut since it was already night and the rain was getting heavier. This incident clearly shows that it’s not true, as many people claim, that the Australian native is driven entirely by instincts. I’m willing to admit that his reasoning skills are pretty underdeveloped, as he struggles to focus on one topic for very long, but he can reach a logical conclusion, something that has been denied.[10]

10. See, for example, Transactions of Royal Society of New South Wales for January 1883.

10. See, for example, Transactions of the Royal Society of New South Wales for January 1883.

In a few minutes my hut was ready. It made me feel depressed to be alone with the savages in such a stormy 169night. The fog was dense, and it was so dark that we could not see our hands before our eyes. As my hut stood in the centre of those of the natives, I had built a fire on either side, and in order to keep close watch of them I made two entrances. I was tired, and soon fell asleep.

In just a few minutes, my hut was ready. It made me feel down to be stuck with the natives during such a stormy night. The fog was thick, and it was so dark that we could hardly see our hands in front of our faces. Since my hut was in the middle of the natives’ huts, I built a fire on both sides. To keep a close eye on them, I made two entrances. I was exhausted, and I soon fell asleep.

Later in the night a most violent shower of rain suddenly fell upon us; the water poured through the roofs of our huts and put out the fires. I awoke in inky darkness and heard the natives groaning in their disgust at this unexpected shower-bath on their naked bodies. I got up and drew my woollen blanket close around me and waited for the dawn of day.

Later that night, a heavy downpour suddenly hit us; the rain poured through the roofs of our huts and extinguished the fires. I woke up in complete darkness and heard the locals groaning in frustration at this unexpected shower on their bare skin. I got up, wrapped my wool blanket tightly around me, and waited for daylight.

Long before daybreak the natives began making fresh fires, and with their remarkable skill in this respect they soon had a fire kindled in front of each hut. By constructing a sort of shed of palm leaves they succeeded in keeping them alive through the night. Every now and then they had to go out into the scrubs and gather pieces of bark or dry rubbish from hollow trees. Our huts became united, as it were, by these little sheds under one roof, and the result was that we were considerably troubled by smoke.

Long before dawn, the locals started new fires, and with their impressive skill, they quickly got a fire going in front of each hut. By building a kind of shelter made of palm leaves, they managed to keep the fires going through the night. From time to time, they had to venture into the bushes to collect bits of bark or dry debris from hollow trees. Our huts ended up connected, in a way, by these little shelters under one roof, and as a result, we were quite bothered by smoke.

It is most delightful to be able to stretch one’s wet and tired limbs by the fire even in the hut of a savage, and to be warm and cosy while the rain pours down outside. To the Australian the fire is, of course, of great importance, for with him it takes the place of clothes in cold weather. On Herbert river the natives, as before stated, go naked all the year round. The women, and particularly the older ones, may occasionally be seen covered with a mat made from the inner bark of the tea-tree, and this mat was also sometimes used on the floor of the hut. They wear it over their shoulders, but it scarcely does more than cover their shoulderblades, like a lady’s cape. The skins of animals are never used as mats or clothes.

It’s incredibly pleasant to be able to stretch out your wet and tired limbs by the fire, even in a savage’s hut, and to feel warm and cozy while the rain pours down outside. For Australians, the fire is essential, as it acts as a substitute for clothing in cold weather. Near the Herbert River, the natives, as mentioned earlier, go without clothes all year round. Occasionally, the women, especially the older ones, can be seen wearing a mat made from the inner bark of the tea tree, which is sometimes used on the floor of the hut as well. They drape it over their shoulders, but it barely covers their shoulder blades, resembling a lady’s cape. Animal skins are never used as mats or clothing.

During the two or three days that we stayed here the blacks spent most of the time in sleeping and eating. The women mended the fires and repaired the roofs where they leaked. I was busy much of the time drying my clothes. I hung them in front of the fire, and in the course of a day they were sufficiently dry to put on. As exercise in the open air was out of 170the question, I had to spend these days in my hut either in a reclining or a sitting position, and, like the blacks, tried to pass the time by sleeping. The unceasing rain soon destroyed the roofs of our huts, so that both the men and the women had to repair to the scrub and get more palm leaves. They also made a little trench round each hut to carry the water away, but they were usually idle. When they did not sleep they continually demanded food and tobacco; the men had some right to do so, but the women had no claim on me, for it was originally agreed that they were to accompany me at their own expense. They had also brought with them their own food, consisting of the usual unpalatable plants and fruits.

During the two or three days we were here, the Black people mostly spent their time sleeping and eating. The women tended to the fires and fixed the roofs where they leaked. I spent a lot of time drying my clothes. I hung them in front of the fire, and by the end of the day, they were dry enough to wear. Since getting outside for exercise wasn’t an option, I had to stay in my hut either lying down or sitting, and, like the Black people, tried to pass the time by napping. The constant rain quickly damaged the roofs of our huts, so both the men and women had to go into the brush to gather more palm leaves. They also dug a small trench around each hut to redirect the water, but they often just lounged around. When they weren't sleeping, they kept asking for food and tobacco; the men had some right to ask, but the women had no claim on me since it was originally agreed that they would join me at their own expense. They had also brought their own food, which consisted of the usual unappetizing plants and fruits.

My people had noticed that I took my meals—breakfast, dinner, and supper—regularly, and this had given rise to their habit of asking for food at the same time and of applying civilised names to the meals. Savages live irregularly, and eat when they are hungry. It was curious to hear them demand “breakfast,” “dinner,” and “supper,” even if they had just been gorging themselves with their own food. During these days I scarcely heard any other words from their lips.

My people noticed that I ate my meals—breakfast, lunch, and dinner—on a regular basis, which led them to start asking for food at the same times and to refer to the meals with civilized names. Savages eat at irregular times and only when they're hungry. It was strange to hear them asking for "breakfast," "lunch," and "dinner," even right after they had stuffed themselves with their own food. Throughout those days, I hardly heard any other words from them.

I was astonished to see the men on this occasion give the women a part of their rations, and what particularly surprised me was that they gave them more than they kept themselves. The native likes to assume a liberal air, sometimes even towards his wife; for a person bestowing gifts right and left is looked upon as a great man. Thus it is the custom for a man who has slain a wild animal to eat but little of it himself, and to distribute it freely among his comrades, whom he watches with satisfaction while they prepare and consume his game. This chivalry towards the fair sex was an annoyance to me, for my provisions were not over abundant.

I was shocked to see that the men, on this occasion, shared part of their rations with the women, and what really surprised me was that they gave them more than they kept for themselves. The locals like to play the generous role, sometimes even toward their wives; someone who gives gifts to everyone is seen as impressive. So, it's common for a man who has hunted a wild animal to eat very little of it himself and share it generously with his friends, watching with satisfaction as they prepare and enjoy his catch. This chivalry toward women annoyed me because my supplies were already limited.

As the rain continued some days longer, I was obliged to call the attention of the blacks to the fact that my provisions were nearly consumed, so that they must look for their own food. Two of them did go out, and soon returned with a few larvæ and some young shoots of the palm-tree. This was all the effort considered necessary to supply themselves 171with food for a whole day. These shoots consisted of the fresh buddings of the Ptychosperma cunninghamii. It was roasted in the ashes, but is usually eaten raw. I could not eat it, for it has an insipid and revolting taste even when boiled in water.

As the rain went on for several more days, I had to point out to the Black people that my supplies were almost gone, so they needed to find their own food. Two of them went out and quickly came back with a few larvae and some young palm tree shoots. This was all they thought was needed to feed themselves for an entire day. These shoots were the fresh buds of the Ptychosperma cunninghamii. They were roasted in the ashes, but they’re usually eaten raw. I couldn’t eat it because it has a bland and disgusting taste, even when boiled in water. 171

RIFLE-BIRD (Ptiloris victoriæ).

Rifle bird (Ptiloris victoriæ).

One day, as I went outside the hut to stretch my cramped legs, I discovered in the fog a bird which acted in a singular manner. While sitting on a branch it raised its wings, twisting its body to either side, in which position it looked like a cormorant drying its wings. I shot it, and the blacks fetched it to me out of the scrub. It was an Australian bird of paradise, the celebrated Rifle-bird (Ptiloris victoriæ), which, according to Gould, has the most brilliant plumage of all Australian birds. It is difficult to determine its colour, as its velvet-like plumage assumes the most varied tints according as the light falls upon it.

One day, as I stepped out of the hut to stretch my cramped legs, I spotted a bird in the fog that was acting strangely. While perched on a branch, it lifted its wings and twisted its body to either side, making it look like a cormorant drying its wings. I shot it, and the locals brought it to me from the brush. It was an Australian bird of paradise, the famous Rifle-bird (Ptiloris victoriæ), which, according to Gould, has the most vibrant feathers of all Australian birds. It's hard to pin down its color, as its soft, velvety plumage takes on a variety of shades depending on the light.

172

CHAPTER XIII

Mongan, a new mammal—For my collection or to feed the blacks?—Natives do not eat raw meat—A young yarri—A meteorite—Fear of attacks—Cannibals on the war-path—The relations between the tribes.

Mongan, a new mammal—For my collection or to feed the locals?—Natives do not eat raw meat—A young yarri—A meteorite—Fear of attacks—Cannibals on the warpath—The relationships between the tribes.

The following day the rain had entirely ceased, but the natives refused to continue the journey because the scrub was so wet. Still I had determined to raise the disagreeable quarantine, even though I should expose myself to still greater discomfiture. After an hour or two I actually succeeded in getting them to start, in spite of Willy’s assurances that it was impossible to get into the other valley for which I was making. Jimmy went alone upon some hills to find mongan, a mammal which the natives had mentioned to me, but which I had not yet seen. The women were excused from gathering fruits in the scrub, which was now scarcely accessible, and instead they were to go down to the grassy plain and examine the poisoned meat which we had laid there as lures for the yarri. The men accompanied me to a neighbouring valley, where the women declared they had seen boongary on one of their expeditions to gather fruit.

The next day, the rain had completely stopped, but the locals refused to continue the journey because the underbrush was too wet. Still, I was determined to lift the frustrating quarantine, even if it meant putting myself in a more uncomfortable situation. After an hour or so, I actually managed to get them to start moving, despite Willy’s claims that it was impossible to reach the other valley I was aiming for. Jimmy went off on his own to some hills to look for mongan, a mammal that the locals had mentioned but that I hadn't seen yet. The women were excused from picking fruits in the scrub, which was now barely accessible, and instead were to head down to the grassy plain to check the poisoned meat we had placed there as bait for the yarri. The men came with me to a nearby valley, where the women said they had spotted boongary on one of their fruit-gathering trips.

The long incessant rain had formed countless brooks, which, with their clear and sparkling water, frequently crossed our path to vanish in the dense scrub. The sky was now clear and cloudless, and the wet, dense forest lay bathed in the bright glittering sunshine, which produced an intense heat, while warm vapours rising from the ground and from the trees made the air so damp and oppressive that we became very much exhausted.

The long, constant rain had created countless streams, which often crossed our path with their clear, sparkling water before disappearing into the thick brush. The sky was now clear and free of clouds, and the wet, dense forest was drenched in bright, shining sunlight, which generated intense heat. Meanwhile, warm vapors rising from the ground and trees made the air so humid and stifling that we became really exhausted.

We often found large coils of the lawyer-palm obstructing our passage. Willy repeatedly called my attention to the fact that he had been right in urging that the scrub was impassable, but still we managed to get on, partly by going round, partly by creeping under the obstructions.

We often came across big coils of the lawyer-palm blocking our way. Willy kept reminding me that he was right to say the scrub was impossible to get through, but we still made progress, sometimes by going around and sometimes by crawling under the barriers.

Harald Jensen lith. Hoffensberg & Trap Etabl.

PSEUDOCHIRUS HERBERTENSIS. N.SP.

Harald Jensen lithograph. Hoffensberg & Trap Establishment

PSEUDOCHIRUS HERBERTENSIS. N.SP.

173When we got out of the scrub we went along the side of a steep heap of debris overgrown with creeping plants, a difficult road, for the stones were continually loosened under our feet and rolled down with a tremendous crash. We saw nothing but old traces of boongary; on the other hand, I shot a specimen of the toollah (Pseudochirus archeri) described above. The dogs proved useless, my Gordon setter was, of course, too heavy to work in the scrub, to which she was not accustomed, and Chinaman’s dog also disappointed my expectations, for it refused to range at all, thereby making its master so angry that he pelted it with sticks. We had agreed to meet the women and Jimmy at the foot of the mountains, and when we reached the camp at dusk we found them already there; they had inspected all the poisoned meat lures, but none of them had been touched. Jimmy, however, had, to my great delight, found mongan (Pseudochirus herbertensis), a new and very pretty mammal, whose habitat is exclusively the highest tops of the scrubs in the Coast Mountains (see coloured plate).

173After we got out of the underbrush, we walked alongside a steep pile of debris covered in creeping plants. It was a tough path because the stones kept slipping under our feet and crashing down. We didn’t see anything but old signs of boongary; however, I did manage to shoot a specimen of the toollah (Pseudochirus archeri) mentioned earlier. The dogs were no help; my Gordon setter was too heavy to navigate the underbrush, which she wasn’t used to, and the Chinaman’s dog also let me down by refusing to scout at all, which made its owner so mad that he threw sticks at it. We had planned to meet the women and Jimmy at the base of the mountains, and when we arrived at the camp at dusk, they were already there; they had checked all the poisoned meat lures, but none of them had been touched. Jimmy, however, to my great pleasure, found mongan (Pseudochirus herbertensis), a new and very beautiful mammal that only lives in the highest areas of the underbrush in the Coast Mountains (see colored plate).

Willy and Chinaman persisted in having the toollah which I had shot, and as our provisions were giving out, I was obliged to surrender it, much to my chagrin. I tried to keep the skin, but they eagerly objected that the animal would lose its flavour if roasted without it. In order to satisfy their hunger, I was therefore obliged to give them both the skin and the body.

Willy and Chinaman kept insisting on having the animal I had shot, and since our supplies were running low, I had to give it up, which really annoyed me. I tried to hold onto the skin, but they quickly argued that the meat would lose its taste if cooked without it. So, to satisfy their hunger, I had no choice but to give them both the skin and the body.

They now threw the animal on the fire, in order to singe the hair off. Then they cut its belly open with a sharp piece of wood, placed it on the coals, and as soon as it was half roasted it was torn into several pieces and distributed, whereupon each one roasted his share. In this way the Australian prepares and roasts all small mammals. He does not like to eat the meat raw, but has not the patience to wait until it is thoroughly done. As soon as a crust is formed on the meat, he takes it from the coals and gnaws off the roasted part; he then puts it back to roast the rest.

They threw the animal onto the fire to singe off the hair. Then they sliced open its belly with a sharp stick, placed it on the coals, and as soon as it was half-cooked, they tore it into pieces and shared it out, each person roasting their portion. This is how Australians prepare and cook small mammals. They don’t like to eat the meat raw but aren't patient enough to wait for it to be fully cooked. As soon as a crust forms on the meat, they take it off the coals and bite into the roasted part; then they put it back to cook the rest.

The women returned from their expedition with a lot of fruit rather like red peas, called by the natives koraddan. 174It grows on a climbing plant found in abundance in the scrub, but as a rule cannot be reached from the ground, hence the women must climb the trees to gather it. The koraddan is roasted between grass and hot stones, and has a comparatively good flavour, smelling and tasting like boiled peas.

The women came back from their trip with a lot of fruit similar to red peas, called koraddan by the locals. 174 It grows on a climbing plant that's plentiful in the scrub, but usually can't be reached from the ground, so the women have to climb the trees to collect it. The koraddan is roasted between grass and hot stones, and has a fairly good flavor, smelling and tasting like boiled peas.

YARRI (Dasyurus maculatus).

YARRI (Dasyurus maculatus).

I had much trouble in getting the natives to look after the strychnine lures, in the effect of which they had no faith, as they are not in possession of any kind of poison. I promised them tobacco if they could bring me the animal I wanted. At last they started, and one day, to my great surprise, they brought me a yarri. The natives having a superstition that “a great water will rise” if a young man picks up a dead yarri, Jimmy, who was the oldest, had to carry the animal, and at the head of the others he brought it in triumph to the camp, holding it carefully by the tail high in the air. Had he not been present, I doubt whether I should have obtained the animal.

I had a lot of trouble getting the locals to take care of the strychnine lures because they didn't believe in them, as they didn't have any experience with poison. I promised them tobacco if they could bring me the animal I wanted. Finally, they went out, and one day, to my great surprise, they brought me a yarri. The locals believed that "a great water will rise" if a young man picks up a dead yarri, so Jimmy, the oldest among them, had to carry the animal. Leading the others, he proudly brought it back to the camp, holding it carefully by the tail high in the air. If he hadn't been there, I'm not sure I would have gotten the animal.

175I concealed my joy, and in order to test them insisted that it was not a yarri that they had caught, but they shouted wildly Yarri, yarri, yarri! declaring, however, that it was a young one. The skin was hardly three feet long from the snout to the end of the tail. It was of a yellowish-gray colour, with whitish round spots. It proved to be a Dasyurus maculatus, yarri being a name applied to the whole family of Dasyuridæ. I am, however, convinced that there exists a large animal of this kind that has not yet been discovered. The one which the natives particularly call yarri I shall have occasion to mention farther on.

175I hid my excitement, and to test them, I insisted that it wasn’t a yarri they had caught, but they shouted wildly Yarri, yarri, yarri! claiming instead that it was a young one. The skin was barely three feet long from the snout to the tip of the tail. It was a yellowish-gray color with round white spots. It turned out to be a Dasyurus maculatus, with yarri being a term used for the entire family of Dasyuridæ. However, I’m convinced there is a larger animal of this type that hasn’t been discovered yet. The one that the locals specifically call yarri I will elaborate on later.

I was sorry to find that the specimen now brought to me had been lying so long that it had already become greenish on the under side, and had a bad smell. As my knives were rather blunt, it was no pleasant task to flay the animal, whose skin is very tough. Unfortunately my knife slipped and cut a deep gash in my thumb. To prevent blood-poisoning I applied caustic and carbolic acid, and continued my work with a bandage on my thumb.

I was disappointed to see that the specimen brought to me had been sitting out so long that it had turned green on the underside and had a terrible smell. Since my knives were pretty dull, it wasn't a fun job to skin the animal, whose hide is really tough. Unfortunately, my knife slipped and made a deep cut in my thumb. To avoid blood poisoning, I used caustic and carbolic acid and kept working with a bandage on my thumb.

One day I secured a specimen of the wonderful Hypsiprymnodon moschatus, which forms the connecting link between the kangaroos and the phalangers. This animal, called by the natives yopŏlo, is not very rare in the lower part of the scrubs, but is difficult to kill, as it haunts the banks of the rivers and is never seen on the grassy plain. When we walked along a river in the scrubs my blacks would often make a smacking sound that causes the animal, which is very curious, to come forth and thus be discovered. The yopolo is brown, and about the size of a stoat. Its lair is formed like a globular nest from fallen leaves near the root of a tree, but it is only to be discovered among the leaves and grass by the keen eyes of the blacks. The natives frequently succeed in catching the animal by placing their feet quickly on the lair, but as a rule the yopolo is hunted with a dingo.

One day I got my hands on a specimen of the amazing Hypsiprymnodon moschatus, which connects kangaroos and phalangers. This animal, called yopŏlo by the locals, isn’t very rare in the lower parts of the scrubs, but it’s tough to catch since it stays close to riverbanks and is never seen on the grassy plains. When we walked along a river in the scrubs, my companions would often make a smacking sound that draws the very curious animal out, allowing us to spot it. The yopolo is brown and about the size of a stoat. Its nest looks like a round ball made of fallen leaves near the base of a tree, but it can only be found among the leaves and grass by the sharp eyes of the locals. The natives often manage to catch the animal by quickly stepping on its nest, but usually, the yopolo is hunted with a dingo.

The last evening but one of this expedition a very curious event happened. While we were eating supper we suddenly heard a terrible cry from the women, who had a camp by themselves farther down the river. After a moment’s reflection the men ran down and soon brought 176the women up to our camp. A stone been thrown against a rock close by, nearly hitting one of them, and this made them afraid of camping down there alone. They assumed that the stone had been thrown by strange natives, and they requested me to “shoot the land” to frighten them. When I had fired four or five times they thought they would be able to “sleep first-rate.”

The night before the last of this expedition, a very strange event took place. While we were having dinner, we suddenly heard a terrifying scream from the women, who had set up their camp further down the river. After a moment to think, the men ran down and quickly brought the women back to our camp. A stone had been thrown against a rock nearby, almost hitting one of them, which made them scared to camp there alone. They assumed that the stone had been thrown by unfamiliar natives, and they asked me to “shoot the land” to scare them off. After I fired four or five shots, they felt they would be able to “sleep just fine.”

The next morning I went down to the deserted camp, and they at once pointed out to me where the stone had hit the rock with great force. Close by we also found all the pieces, which together formed a heavy stone about the size of a potato, and was, no doubt, a meteorite. The women had made a false alarm, and there was no danger on this occasion. But as a rule they have every reason for being on their guard, for the neighbouring tribes are continually on a war-footing, and they are always in danger of attacks.

The next morning, I headed down to the empty camp, and they quickly showed me where the stone had struck the rock with a lot of force. Nearby, we also found all the pieces that came together to form a heavy stone about the size of a potato, which was definitely a meteorite. The women had overreacted, and there was no danger this time. However, usually, they have every reason to be cautious because the neighboring tribes are constantly prepared for war, and they are always at risk of attacks.

Individuals belonging to the same tribe are usually on the best of terms, but the different tribes are each other’s mortal enemies. Woe therefore to the stranger who dares trespass on the land of another tribe! He is pursued like a wild beast and slain and eaten. In connection with this it should, however, be stated that the small subdivisions of the tribes that live nearest the border are on amicable terms with their neighbours, and that accordingly the borders between the tribes are frequently very indistinct. The family tribes have well-defined limits, and as a rule they are on friendly terms with each other. I am hardly able to state the extent of a tribe. The one living around Herbert Vale owned an area of land which I should estimate to be about forty miles long and thirty miles wide. It was divided into many sub-tribes or family tribes, which lived within their own well-defined limits, the country within which was well known to them. Outside their borders they had no acquaintance with the country. This was one of the difficulties I had to contend with, as I soon found that a native outside his own “land” was of little or no service to me, for he there felt very insecure. The case was still worse when he entered the domain of another tribe; there he was utterly restless and timid.

Individuals from the same tribe usually get along well, but different tribes are often enemies. Woe to the outsider who dares to enter another tribe's land! They are hunted down like a wild animal and killed and eaten. It should be noted, though, that the smaller divisions of tribes near the borders often have friendly relations with their neighbors, so the borders between tribes are often pretty blurry. The family tribes have clear boundaries and, as a rule, are friendly with each other. I'm not really sure how big a tribe is. The tribe around Herbert Vale controlled an area of land that I would estimate to be about forty miles long and thirty miles wide. It was made up of many sub-tribes or family units, each living within their own clearly defined limits, and they knew the land very well. Outside their borders, they didn't know the area at all. This was one of the challenges I faced, as I quickly learned that a native outside his own “land” was of little use to me because he felt very insecure there. It was even worse when he entered another tribe’s territory; he was completely anxious and frightened.

In a family tribe there may be about twenty to 177twenty-five individuals, often less. How many such small divisions it takes to make a tribe it is impossible to say, as there exists no sort of organisation. They do not even have chiefs, and in this respect they differ from the natives in other parts of Australia, where there are sometimes even two chiefs in one tribe, usually an old man and a young man. It is probably not far from the truth to estimate a tribe at two hundred to two hundred and fifty individuals. On important occasions the old men’s advice is sought, and their counsel is mostly taken by the whole tribe, but there is no restraint put on the liberty of the individual. When a camp is broken up, those who wish to follow, do so; those who prefer to go somewhere else or to remain, take their choice. In most cases, however, there is a wonderful consonance between them. The natives on Herbert river have not much use for a chief, as the tribes do not, as in Western Queensland, carry on open warfare with each other, but simply seek to diminish the number of their enemies by treacherous attacks.

In a family group, there are usually around twenty to twenty-five people, often fewer. It's hard to determine how many of these small groups make up a tribe since there’s no real organization. They don’t even have chiefs, which sets them apart from Indigenous people in other parts of Australia, where there might be two chiefs in one tribe—typically an older man and a younger man. It's fair to estimate that a tribe consists of about two hundred to two hundred and fifty individuals. During important events, the tribe consults the elders for advice, which is generally respected by everyone, but individuals still enjoy their freedom. When a camp breaks up, those who want to follow others can do so; those who prefer to go elsewhere or stay behind are free to choose. Most of the time, however, they are in sync with each other. The people along the Herbert River don’t really need a chief because, unlike tribes in Western Queensland, they don’t engage in open warfare; they tend to reduce the number of their enemies through sneak attacks.

The Australian rambles about in his woods all day long, free from care, though he always feels a secret fear of strange blacks. But when “the sun is near the mountains” (vi molle mongan), he is filled with anxiety and restlessness at the thought of the dangers which threaten him after darkness falls upon the earth. The least sound makes him suspicious; he shudders and listens, and whispers timidly to his comrades, Kolle! mal!—that is, Hush! man! When he has assured himself that the fear is unfounded, he soon recovers his balance, to be again frightened by the next suspicious sound. During the daytime a torn-off leaf or a footprint which he does not understand at once awakens his mistrust.

The Australian wanders through the woods all day long, carefree, though he always carries a hidden fear of unfamiliar black people. But when “the sun is near the mountains” (vi molle mongan), he becomes anxious and restless, thinking about the dangers that come with nightfall. The slightest sound makes him wary; he flinches and listens closely, whispering nervously to his friends, Kolle! mal!—which means Hush! man! Once he convinces himself that his fears are groundless, he quickly regains his composure, only to be startled again by the next suspicious noise. During the day, even a torn leaf or an unfamiliar footprint can trigger his distrust.

178

CHAPTER XIV

Dingo a member of the family—A black who does not smoke—Hunting the flying-squirrel—Diseases among the natives—Their remedies—A splendid offer—Unpleasant companions—Trouble in getting dogs.

Dingo, a member of the family—A black who doesn’t smoke—Hunting the flying squirrel—Diseases among the natives—Their remedies—A great offer—Unpleasant companions—Difficulty in getting dogs.

It was a pleasure to return to Herbert Vale and meet once more Nelly’s smiling face at the gate. She asked with deep interest what kind of animals I had secured, and seemed delighted when I showed her the skins I had brought. My first visit was to the kitchen cupboard, where I took possession of a bowl of fresh milk. Into it I broke a piece of fresh-made damper and sprinkled on it a lot of sugar, making a dish which, under the circumstances, tasted better to me than a dinner at Bignon’s.

It was great to return to Herbert Vale and see Nelly’s smiling face at the gate again. She eagerly asked what kind of animals I had caught and looked thrilled when I showed her the skins I had brought. My first stop was the kitchen cupboard, where I grabbed a bowl of fresh milk. I broke off a piece of fresh damper and sprinkled a lot of sugar on it, creating a dish that, given the situation, tasted better to me than a dinner at Bignon’s.

In the middle of the night both the superintendent and myself were roused by a terrible howl from Nelly, who was being flogged by her husband, the Kanaka, up in the loft of the storehouse. Old Walters had to go up there with his cane, which he always kept near the door, but he did not succeed in getting the Kanaka to respect his authority.

In the middle of the night, both the superintendent and I were jolted awake by a terrible howl from Nelly, who was being beaten by her husband, the Kanaka, in the loft of the storehouse. Old Walters had to go up there with his cane, which he always kept near the door, but he couldn't get the Kanaka to listen to him.

The next morning I at once set out to find a dingo suitable for my next expedition; this was a very difficult matter, for the dingoes are much more rare here than farther south in Australia, where natives can be seen followed by ten or twelve dogs, which are of different breeds, for the dingoes of the natives quickly mix with the shepherd-dogs, greyhounds, and terriers of the colonists. On Herbert river there are rarely more than one or two dingoes in each tribe, and as a rule they are of pure blood. The natives find them as puppies in the hollow trunks of trees, and rear them with greater care than they bestow on their own children. The dingo is an important member of the family; it sleeps in 179the huts and gets plenty to eat, not only of meat, but also of fruit. Its master never strikes, but merely threatens it. He caresses it like a child, eats the fleas off it, and then kisses it on the snout.

The next morning, I immediately set out to find a dingo for my next expedition. This was quite difficult because dingoes are much rarer here than further south in Australia, where you can see natives accompanied by ten or twelve dogs of various breeds. The native dingoes quickly mix with the shepherd dogs, greyhounds, and terriers of the colonists. Along the Herbert River, there are usually only one or two dingoes in each tribe, and they're typically purebred. The natives find them as puppies in hollow tree trunks and care for them more than they do their own children. The dingo is a significant part of the family; it sleeps in the huts and gets plenty to eat, not just meat but also fruit. Its owner never hits it, only threatens it. He treats it like a child, picks off its fleas, and then kisses it on the snout.

DINGO.

Dingo.

Though the dingo is treated so well it often runs away, especially in the pairing season, and at such times it never returns. Thus it never becomes perfectly domesticated, still is very useful to the natives, for it has a keen scent and traces every kind of game; it never barks, and hunts less wildly than our dogs, but very rapidly, frequently capturing the game on the run. Sometimes it refuses to go any farther, and its owner has then to carry it on his shoulders, a luxury of which it is very fond. The dingo will follow nobody else but its owner; this materially increased my difficulties in finding a dog, for it was useless unless the owner could be persuaded to go with me; besides, but few of the dingoes understand hunting the boongary, for which they have to be specially trained from the beginning.

Though the dingo is treated pretty well, it often runs away, especially during mating season, and during those times, it never comes back. So, it never becomes fully domesticated, but it's still very helpful to the locals because it has a sharp sense of smell and can track all types of game; it doesn't bark, and it hunts less wildly than our dogs, but very quickly, often catching prey while it’s on the move. Sometimes, it refuses to go any further, and then its owner has to carry it on their shoulders, something it really enjoys. The dingo will only follow its owner; this significantly increased my challenges in finding a dog, since it was useless unless the owner could be convinced to come with me; also, very few dingoes are trained to hunt the boongary, as they need to be specifically trained from the start.

180In company with four men I rode across Sea-View Range. On its summit a tribe was said to be encamped owning a very good dog, which I had heard much talked of. I sent two of my men to the camp with a supply of tobacco, in order to borrow the dog, but they returned in the evening minus both dog and tobacco, for the dog had followed its owner to another camp, and still they had, with their usual liberality, distributed the tobacco right and left.

180 I rode across Sea-View Range with four men. At the top, there was a tribe that was said to have a really good dog, which I had heard a lot about. I sent two of my men to the camp with some tobacco to borrow the dog, but they came back in the evening without the dog or the tobacco. The dog had followed its owner to another camp, and in their usual generous way, they had given away the tobacco to others.

On the way I shot a kangaroo, which I wanted to use as a lure. Kangaroos are very hard to kill, and once one of these animals hopped ninety paces after it had been shot by an express rifle, the exploding ball of which had torn its heart into pieces. According to my experience they die most speedily when they are hit in the breast with a charge of large shot, which, if the distance is not too great, generally makes them fall on the spot. In such a case the quick death of the kangaroo made so deep an impression upon my natives that the event was the topic of their conversation for several days, accustomed, as they are, to see kangaroos run away pierced with several spears.

On the way, I shot a kangaroo that I wanted to use as bait. Kangaroos are really tough to kill, and I once saw one hop ninety paces after it had been shot with an express rifle, the explosive bullet of which had shattered its heart. From my experience, they die the quickest when hit in the chest with a large shot, which usually makes them drop right there if the distance isn’t too far. In this case, the kangaroo's quick death made such a strong impression on my locals that it became the talk of the town for several days, since they are used to seeing kangaroos run off after being pierced by multiple spears.

In the evening, as we approached the tribe said to have the dog, I sent two of my men in advance to inform the natives of my coming, otherwise they would be afraid of the white man and take to their heels. We encamped close by on a plat of grass extending into the scrubs. Gongola, the owner of the dog, and two other men came to me when they had learned the object of our visit. Gongola was a large stout fellow, and very friendly. In order to get on the right side of him I at once gave him a piece of tobacco, which he appropriated and then went away.

In the evening, as we got closer to the tribe known to have the dog, I sent two of my men ahead to let the locals know I was coming; otherwise, they might be scared of the white man and run away. We set up camp nearby on a patch of grass that stretched into the bushes. Gongola, the owner of the dog, and two other men approached me when they found out why we were there. Gongola was a big, stocky guy and very friendly. To get on his good side, I immediately gave him a piece of tobacco, which he took and then left.

Before long he returned with two mound-builder’s eggs, which he presented to me. This liberality surprised me, for it is rare among the blacks, except among themselves. I suppose he wanted to show me that I was welcome. My experience is, on the whole, that uncivilised blacks are much more friendly and unpretentious than those who have been in contact with the white men. Gongola’s friendliness was all the more praiseworthy, since my gift was of no value to him; for he did not like tobacco. It is rare to meet natives who are not fond of tobacco; I only saw one other besides 181Gongola. I invited him to have supper with us, and he took his meals with us as long as we remained here.

Before long, he came back with two mound-builder’s eggs, which he gave to me. I was surprised by his generosity since it’s uncommon among the black people, except among their own. I guess he wanted to show me that I was welcome. Overall, I’ve found that uncivilized black people are generally friendlier and more down-to-earth than those who have interacted with white people. Gongola’s kindness was especially commendable since my gift meant nothing to him; he didn’t like tobacco. It’s rare to find natives who don’t enjoy tobacco; I only met one other besides Gongola. I invited him to have dinner with us, and he joined us for meals as long as we stayed there.

Late in the evening my men heard the flying-squirrel (Petauroides) climbing the tall gum-trees above our heads, and the next day the blacks hunted these animals. Some of the men climbed the trees with the aid of their kāmins, in order to frighten them out from their abodes. Like chimney-sweeps they pulled the kāmins up and down in the hollow tree-trunks, at the same time shouting Po-pò! po-pò! in imitation of a night bird, and this po-pò was repeated by all those who stood below. The natives think that in this manner they can give the flying-squirrels the impression that it is night, and thus more easily coax them out. As a rule, they come forth quite suddenly, stretch their fliers, and fly slowly and elegantly into another tree, and while climbing the stem of this tree they are killed with sticks thrown at them.

Late in the evening, my crew heard the flying squirrel (Petauroides) climbing the tall gum trees above us, and the next day the locals went out to hunt these animals. Some of the men climbed the trees using their kāmins to scare the squirrels out of their homes. Like chimney sweeps, they pulled the kāmins up and down the hollow tree trunks while shouting Po-pò! po-pò! to mimic a night bird, and this po-pò was echoed by everyone below. The locals believe that this way, they can trick the flying squirrels into thinking it’s night, making it easier to lure them out. Generally, the squirrels come out suddenly, stretch their wings, and fly slowly and gracefully to another tree. While climbing the trunk of that tree, they are hit with sticks thrown at them.

They soon succeeded in frightening one of these animals out of a tree, and although the sun was shining in all its splendour, the squirrel landed with remarkable accuracy at the foot of a gum-tree eighty paces distant. While ascending the trunk I shot it.

They quickly managed to scare one of these animals out of a tree, and even though the sun was shining brightly, the squirrel landed with impressive precision at the base of a gum tree eighty paces away. As it climbed up the trunk, I shot it.

The natives here, particularly the women, looked wretched, being both poor and filthy. Some of them had a sickly, pale complexion and dry skin, and many of the children were covered with eruptions. My impression is that there was too little variety in their food, as they lived chiefly on vegetables. The Australian is usually sound and healthy, and not much troubled with illness. But for the skin diseases, which he gets from the white men, he is usually a healthy individual. It is very rare to see any one with a bodily defect, though an old warrior with one hand was well known near Rockhampton.

The locals here, especially the women, looked miserable, being both poor and unclean. Some had a sickly, pale look and dry skin, and many of the kids had rashes all over. I got the sense that there wasn't much variety in their diet, since they mainly ate vegetables. Australians are usually fit and healthy, not often plagued by sickness. Except for the skin conditions picked up from white men, they are typically healthy individuals. It’s pretty uncommon to see someone with a physical disability, although an old warrior with one hand was well-known around Rockhampton.

In Central Queensland, about 300 miles west of Rockhampton, an epidemic of erysipelas is said to have raged about fifty years ago. The manager of a station in that district told me that there were caves on the property in which there were hundreds of skeletons, indicating that there must have been an epidemic among the natives. The blacks had informed him that a great many had died at the 182same time, being “sick in their mouths and noses.” Smallpox has also been known among the Australian natives, for example, near Murrumbidgee in New South Wales, as reported by Beveridge.

In Central Queensland, about 300 miles west of Rockhampton, there was an outbreak of erysipelas around fifty years ago. The manager of a station in that area told me that there were caves on the property filled with hundreds of skeletons, suggesting that an epidemic had occurred among the local people. The Indigenous Australians had told him that many had died at once, feeling “sick in their mouths and noses.” Smallpox has also been reported among the Indigenous Australians, such as near Murrumbidgee in New South Wales, as mentioned by Beveridge.

I did not think lung diseases possible among the savages of Australia before I saw these pale faces on Sea-View Range. They certainly looked as if they had consumption. But as I had no other symptoms to go by than their exterior, my assumption is not of course of much value.

I didn’t believe lung diseases could exist among the indigenous people of Australia until I saw these pale faces on Sea-View Range. They definitely seemed like they had tuberculosis. However, since I had no other symptoms to go on besides their appearance, my assumption isn't very reliable.

Strange to say, the natives on Herbert river never complained of rheumatism. They were to some extent troubled with venereal diseases, against which they know no remedy; but these diseases do not appear in their most violent forms in Australia. The blacks who came in to Herbert Vale used to rub their wounds with tar, which they procured at the station. Apart from this, they let the disease run its course.

Strangely enough, the locals along the Herbert River never complained about rheumatism. They did deal with some venereal diseases, for which they had no remedy; however, these diseases didn’t seem to manifest in the most severe forms in Australia. The Indigenous people who visited Herbert Vale would rub their wounds with tar, which they got from the station. Other than that, they just allowed the illness to run its course.

When the Australian becomes “civilised” and begins to wear clothes he becomes more subject to disease. He regards clothes simply as ornaments that he may wear or not as he pleases. He will perspire during the whole day in a woollen jacket, but in the evening, when he really might need it on account of the cool temperature, he is sure to take it off and sleep in his old-fashioned way. On a hunt he lays aside all clothes for the sake of convenience, no matter how “civilised” he may be, for he wants to be naked when he climbs trees and pursues animals. But this thoughtless way of wearing clothes brings on colds, and as a result rheumatic fevers and lung diseases. I never found fever and ague among the Australian savages, except in the solitary case of a well-dressed civilised black on Herbert river.

When an Australian becomes "civilized" and starts wearing clothes, he becomes more prone to illness. He sees clothes just as decorations that he can put on or take off whenever he likes. He’ll sweat all day in a wool jacket, but in the evening, when he could really use it because it’s cooler, he’ll definitely take it off and sleep in his traditional way. When he goes hunting, he strips down completely for comfort, regardless of how "civilized" he may be, because he prefers to be naked when climbing trees and chasing animals. However, this careless approach to clothing leads to colds, which can result in rheumatic fevers and lung diseases. I never encountered fever and ague among the Australian natives, except for one case of a well-dressed civilized black man near the Herbert River.

As the hard and tough vegetables eaten by the blacks are a severe tax on their teeth, which they also constantly use for making their implements, the older members of the tribe have their fore-teeth worn down to the gums, which therefore become very tender. I have also seen blacks troubled with toothache. In such cases they make one of their comrades suck the cheek until the blood flows, very much as we use leeches. Toothache in one of the front teeth is sometimes radically cured by placing a stick against 183the tooth, whereupon the “dentist” with a violent blow knocks the tooth into the mouth.

As the tough vegetables that Black people eat are really hard on their teeth, which they also use all the time for making tools, the older members of the tribe have their front teeth worn down to the gums, making them very sensitive. I've also seen people complaining about toothaches. In those situations, they have a friend suck on the cheek until blood comes out, kind of like how we use leeches. A toothache in one of the front teeth is sometimes solved by placing a stick against the tooth, and then the "dentist" delivers a strong blow, knocking the tooth out into the mouth.

The Herbert river blacks have no medicines. The only remedies used are to suck out the blood over the spot where the pain is felt, or to rub the sore place with saliva. The sick are treated by the “doctor,” who as a rule is the most cunning man in the tribe and a great humbug. When he has sucked blood from a spot where the patient feels pain, he usually shows to the latter a piece of bone or a little stone, which he pretends he has sucked out, and which he declares to be the cause of the illness. In other parts of Australia, where diseases must be more common, the blacks are said to know healing herbs, and in many places they have peculiar ways of treating diseases.

The Herbert River Indigenous people don’t have any medicines. The only remedies they use involve sucking out the blood from the area where the pain is felt or rubbing the sore spot with saliva. The sick are treated by the “doctor,” who is usually the smartest person in the tribe and quite a trickster. After sucking blood from the painful area, he often shows the patient a piece of bone or a small stone that he claims to have pulled out, saying it’s the cause of their illness. In other parts of Australia, where illnesses are more common, Indigenous people are said to know healing herbs, and in many areas, they have unique methods for treating diseases.

On Herbert river no remedy is known against snake bites. The victim simply lays himself down to die. In New South Wales, on the other hand, snake bites are cured in a very interesting manner. The wound is squeezed between the thumb nails until the blood flows; then a piece of warm opossum skin is laid on the wound, which is sucked as soon as the skin becomes cold. The opossum is warmed a second time, and the process is repeated until the patient is out of danger. The operation usually lasts about forty-five minutes. It is a remarkable fact that the Herbert river natives attribute a healing virtue to the sweat of the armpits, to which they attach supernatural qualities, putting it under the nose of the patient to make him well.

On the Herbert River, there’s no known treatment for snake bites. The victim just lies down to die. In New South Wales, however, snake bites are treated in a really interesting way. The wound is squeezed between the thumbnail until blood flows; then a warm piece of opossum skin is placed on the wound and sucked once the skin cools. The opossum is warmed again, and the process is repeated until the patient is safe. This procedure typically takes about forty-five minutes. Interestingly, the natives of the Herbert River believe in the healing power of armpit sweat, which they think has supernatural qualities. They put it under the patient’s nose to help them recover.

Wounds and scratches on the blacks heal with remarkable rapidity. Two natives near a station, having borrowed knives from white men, fought. One cut numerous gashes in his opponent’s back, while the other continually inflicted wounds right down to the hip-bone of the former. The combatants were separated and brought into the camp in a miserable condition. All their comrades did was to strew ashes in the wounds, and after three weeks’ time the victims were perfectly restored.

Wounds and scratches on Black people's skin heal surprisingly fast. Two locals near a station, after borrowing knives from white men, got into a fight. One inflicted several cuts on his opponent's back, while the other kept stabbing him down to his hip bone. They were pulled apart and brought back to camp in pretty bad shape. Their fellow tribesmen just sprinkled ashes on the wounds, and after three weeks, the victims were completely healed.

The natives are very kind and sympathetic towards those who are ill, and they carry them from camp to camp. This is the only noble trait that I discovered in the Australian natives.

The natives are very kind and empathetic towards those who are sick, and they carry them from camp to camp. This is the only admirable quality that I found in the Australian natives.

184After having borrowed Gongola’s dog in return for a large piece of damper, I rambled about for a few days before I returned to Herbert Vale. The chief result of the hunt was a kind of bandicoot (Perameles nasuta), which utters a peculiar sound which the natives imitate in order to coax it out.

184After borrowing Gongola’s dog for a big piece of damper, I wandered around for a few days before heading back to Herbert Vale. The main thing I got from the hunt was a type of bandicoot (Perameles nasuta), which makes a strange sound that the locals mimic to draw it out.

The next evening I was requested by the young men of the tribe to lead an attack on a neighbouring tribe. The purpose was to steal women. They represented to me what beautiful women there were in the other tribe, and how easy it would be to make an assault with a gun. To tempt me still further they held out a promise of the first choice in the division of the spoils. They also called my attention to the fact that we would find a number of yarri. I declined all their tempting offers, but they continued to urge on me their plans for this “Rape of the Sabines”; as they were unable to persuade me, and consequently failed to get the valuable support of the gun, they finally desisted from their purpose.

The next evening, the young men of the tribe asked me to lead an attack on a neighboring tribe. They wanted to steal women. They talked about how beautiful the women in the other tribe were and how easy it would be to carry out an assault with a gun. To tempt me further, they promised me the first pick of the spoils. They also pointed out that we would come across a number of yarri. I turned down all their tempting offers, but they kept pushing their plans for this "Rape of the Sabines." Since they couldn't persuade me and therefore missed out on my valuable support with the gun, they eventually gave up on their plan.

The majority of the young men wait a long time before they get wives, partly for the reason that they have not the courage to fight the requisite duel for one with an older man. They therefore prefer to wait until they can get a wife in exchange or by inheritance. It is rare, however, for a man to die unmarried, and as the majority of men have at least two wives, the women are more numerous on Herbert river than the men. The same observation is made by the excellent observer Mr. White of Western Queensland, but so far as I know the opposite is true of a large portion of Australia.

Most young men wait a long time before they marry, partly because they lack the courage to duel an older man for a woman. So, they prefer to wait until they can acquire a wife through exchange or inheritance. However, it’s rare for a man to die single, and since most men have at least two wives, there are more women than men along the Herbert River. This same observation is noted by the keen observer Mr. White from Western Queensland, but as far as I know, the opposite is true for a large part of Australia.

After spending the night at Herbert Vale, where I secured more men, I started on a new expedition. I was supplied with provisions for a long time, had an excellent dog and several capable hunters, one of whom was well acquainted with the regions I intended to visit. I started early the next morning in the finest of summer weather. A heavy dew had fallen in the night, running like rain from the roofs of the station houses, and the wet grass glistened in the bright sunshine. There was every promise of a successful expedition. At noon the natives were determined to 185turn northward, as they wanted to go to the “land” that I had visited on my last expedition, urging that we would there find many boongary. Their real reason was no doubt that, as they knew the country, they would have an easy time of it consuming my provisions, and thus escape the long difficult journey to the strange “land.” I became angry, and called their attention to the fact that they had agreed to accompany me to this more distant region, and I gave them distinct orders to proceed.

After spending the night at Herbert Vale, where I picked up more men, I set out on a new expedition. I was stocked with enough supplies for a long time, had a great dog, and several skilled hunters, one of whom knew the areas I planned to explore. I left early the next morning on a beautiful summer day. A heavy dew had fallen overnight, running off the roofs of the station houses like rain, and the wet grass sparkled in the bright sunlight. Everything pointed to a successful trip. By noon, the locals insisted on heading north, wanting to go to the “land” I had visited on my last expedition, claiming we would find many boongary there. Their real motive was likely that, since they knew the territory, they could easily consume my supplies and avoid the long and difficult trek to the unfamiliar “land.” I got angry and reminded them that they had agreed to join me on this more distant journey, and I gave them clear orders to move forward.

Slowly and lazily they started on the journey, and continually presented new difficulties. They frequently stopped in order to prove to me that it was impossible to progress. We came to a river with steep banks, which it was necessary to cross, but I could not possibly get the blacks to show me the fording-place, and so was obliged to search up and down the river in order to find a place myself where it was possible to get to the other side.

Slowly and lazily, they began their journey, constantly bringing up new challenges. They often paused to show me that moving forward was impossible. We reached a river with steep banks that we needed to cross, but I couldn't get the locals to show me where to ford it, so I had to search along the riverbank to find a spot where I could get to the other side.

Chinaman, who was our guide and the only person acquainted with the country, proved himself to be a perfect rascal, and was the leading spirit in all these intrigues. He preferred my food and his own comfort to the fatigues of the journey, but as I firmly opposed all his pretexts, he finally declared that he was unwilling to toil any longer among these rocks and scrubs! It was impossible to attempt to cross that night, for the sun was already setting behind the mountains.

Chinaman, who was our guide and the only person familiar with the area, turned out to be a complete scoundrel and was the mastermind behind all these schemes. He cared more about my food and his own comfort than the exhaustion of the journey, but when I strongly rejected all his excuses, he eventually said he was no longer willing to work among these rocks and brush! It was impossible to try to cross that night since the sun was already setting behind the mountains.

We experienced some difficulty in finding materials for our huts on this grassy plain. A few trees were cut down and made into a shed, open on one side. This was all the shelter we had, and I made a pillar of brushwood, which at the same time formed a partition wall between me and the blacks. Two of my companions, who had a fancy to imitate the white man, laid claim to the opposite side of my pillow. Although I was not particularly pleased at having them so close, I was too tired to make any objections.

We had some trouble finding materials for our huts on this grassy plain. We cut down a few trees and built a shed that was open on one side. That was the only shelter we had, and I built a pillar of brushwood that also served as a wall between me and the locals. Two of my companions, who wanted to copy the white man, claimed the other side of my pillow. Even though I wasn't thrilled about them being so close, I was too tired to say anything.

I felt Ganindali’s waxed hair against my head, and knew that it was inhabited by those small black animals which give so much trouble to the natives; but as they thrive only on the blacks, I felt no uneasiness about going to sleep. Now and then my bedfellows roused me by scratching their heads 186to get at the uninvited guests, of which process my head not unfrequently had to pay the penalty. When, under these disagreeable circumstances, I was aroused from my sleep, I noticed a horrible smell, which I could not understand.

I felt Ganindali’s waxed hair against my head and knew it was filled with those tiny black bugs that cause so much trouble for the locals. But since they feed only on black people, I wasn’t worried about falling asleep. Every now and then, my bedfellows would wake me up by scratching their heads to get to the unwanted guests, and my head often ended up suffering for it. When I was jolted awake under these unpleasant conditions, I noticed a terrible smell that I couldn’t figure out. 186

Finally the odour became so strong that I could not sleep, and not until I had ordered the blacks away did I get peace for the rest of the night. In the morning I discovered that the terrible smell came from a large sore on Ganindali. His comrades told me that he had had it from childhood, and that he had got it from the devil. It cannot be denied that it was very disagreeable to have such a fellow in our company, but the dog would follow no one else, and so he was indispensable.

Finally, the smell got so bad that I couldn't sleep, and I didn’t find peace for the rest of the night until I ordered the guys away. In the morning, I found out that the awful odor was coming from a big sore on Ganindali. His friends told me he had it since childhood and that he got it from the devil. I can't deny it was really unpleasant to have someone like that around, but the guy wouldn’t follow anyone else, so he was essential.

To my great annoyance Chinaman had disappeared, having deserted during the night; I hoped he would come back, and waited for him until noon, but he did not put in an appearance. We then proceeded without him, and succeeded in finding a good place to cross the river. In the evening we encamped at the foot of the mountains. My people were very willing to do all in their power, but it proved to be utterly impossible to accomplish anything in this unknown country without a guide.

To my great annoyance, the Chinese man had vanished, having left during the night; I hoped he would return and waited for him until noon, but he never showed up. We then moved on without him and managed to find a good spot to cross the river. In the evening, we set up camp at the base of the mountains. My team was eager to help in any way they could, but it turned out to be completely impossible to achieve anything in this unfamiliar land without a guide.

There was therefore nothing else to be done except to accommodate myself to the circumstances and to return to Herbert Vale to make preparations for an expedition in some other direction. I started on my way back in low spirits, my thoughts dwelling on the folly of mankind. As a warning to the others, I threatened to shoot Chinaman if he ever came near me.

There was nothing else to do but adjust to the situation and head back to Herbert Vale to prepare for an expedition in a different direction. I set off on my way back feeling down, my thoughts focused on the foolishness of humanity. As a warning to others, I threatened to shoot the Chinaman if he ever approached me again.

The heat was intense; the ground was gray, the grass withered and scorched by the sun; everything had a wintry look. The appearance of Herbert Vale at this time therefore was not inviting. Large swarms of grasshoppers filled the air, greedily attacking the few green shoots to be found at the bottom of the dry grass. They produced a peculiar buzzing sound when in dense swarms they flew up from the ground, and as I stood among them I could not help thinking of a snowstorm. Black lads amused themselves by running round and frightening the grasshoppers. The women gathered large quantities of them in their 187baskets. In one place a number of natives sat round a fire eating them. First, the contents of the baskets are thrown into the fire in order to burn off the wings and legs, whereupon each grasshopper is roasted separately; they taste like nuts, but there is of course very little to eat on them.

The heat was intense; the ground was gray, the grass was dry and scorched by the sun; everything had a wintry look. So, Herbert Vale didn't seem inviting at this time. Large swarms of grasshoppers filled the air, greedily munching on the few green shoots found at the bottom of the dry grass. They made a weird buzzing sound when they flew up in dense swarms, and as I stood among them, I couldn't help but think of a snowstorm. Black kids were having fun running around and scaring the grasshoppers. The women collected large amounts of them in their baskets. In one spot, several locals sat around a fire eating them. First, the contents of the baskets are tossed into the fire to burn off the wings and legs, then each grasshopper is roasted individually; they taste like nuts, but there isn't much meat on them.

I ordered my blacks to encamp near the station, and at once began to get ready for a new expedition, but as it was difficult to secure more men in a hurry, they became impatient and disappeared with the dog, and thus all my plans were frustrated for the present.

I ordered my team to set up camp near the station and immediately started preparing for a new mission. However, since it was hard to gather more people quickly, they grew impatient and left with the dog, which messed up all my plans for now.

Finally, having secured the aid of a few men, I rode off as soon as possible to capture the fugitives, and after a couple of days succeeded in finding Ganindali and some other blacks out hunting, but they had already delivered the dog to its owner, Gongola. They came to me rejoicing, and told me that it had recently captured a large yarri. It had chased the animal up into a tree, and the natives had themselves killed it with clubs. I asked very eagerly where the animal was, but alas! the old women had already eaten it, they said. The poor comfort I received was that next time they would give the yarri to me.

Finally, after getting a few guys to help me, I set off as quickly as I could to catch the runaways. After a couple of days, I found Ganindali and some other locals out hunting, but they had already returned the dog to its owner, Gongola. They came to me happily and told me that it had recently caught a big yarri. The dog had chased the animal up a tree, and the locals had killed it with clubs. I eagerly asked where the animal was, but unfortunately, the old women had already eaten it, they said. The only consolation I got was that next time they would give me the yarri.

From Gongola’s tribe I had frequently heard that there were many boongaries in a “land” very far away.

From Gongola's tribe, I often heard that there were many boongaries in a "land" really far away.

They pointed up Herbert river valley to some mountains in the far distance, and thither I now resolved to make my next expedition.

They pointed up the Herbert River valley to some mountains in the far distance, and I decided that would be my next adventure.

188

CHAPTER XV

Blacks on the track—A foreign tribe—Native baskets—Two black boys—Bringing up of the children—Pseudochirus lemuroides with its young—The effect of a shot—A native swell—Relationship among the blacks—Their old women.

Blacks on the track—A foreign tribe—Native baskets—Two black boys—Raising the kids—Pseudochirus lemuroides with its young—The impact of a gunshot—A local celebrity—Connections among the blacks—Their elderly women.

It was more difficult than ever to secure men. The country we were to visit was situated so far away that the blacks I approached made all sorts of objections. They did not care to run the risk of being eaten. My friends also advised me most positively not to undertake the expedition. Both Willy and Jacky shook their heads, saying, Komórbŏry talgoro—that is, Much human flesh. The people there were all myall, they said, and would eat both us and our horses, but I comforted myself with the fact that I had in my company a man who belonged to a family tribe living near the boundary of the land we were to visit. Ganindali was also acquainted with one of the neighbouring tribes. Besides, I had with me a “civilised” black, on whom I could place considerable reliance.

It was tougher than ever to find men. The country we were going to visit was so far away that the Black people I approached had all kinds of objections. They didn’t want to take the risk of being eaten. My friends also strongly advised me against going on the expedition. Both Willy and Jacky shook their heads, saying, Komórbŏry talgoro—which means a lot of human flesh. They said the people there were all myall and would eat both us and our horses, but I comforted myself knowing I had a man in my group who belonged to a family tribe near the border of the land we were going to visit. Ganindali also knew one of the neighboring tribes. Plus, I had a “civilized” Black person with me, whom I could count on.

On leaving Herbert Vale in the morning the old women took leave of us in a horrible manner, crying and groaning because their friends were going to a dangerous land; there is, however, an old saying that you must not take evil omens from old women.

On leaving Herbert Vale in the morning, the old women said goodbye to us in a terrible way, crying and groaning because their friends were heading to a dangerous place; however, there’s an old saying that you shouldn’t take bad omens from old women.

We followed Herbert river in a north-western direction, and at noon rested on the river bank. Just as we were ready to continue our journey, we were overtaken by a violent thunderstorm. Before the rainy season begins thunder-showers are frequent, and come on very suddenly, sometimes attended by terrific winds. Flashes of lightning and peals of thunder came almost simultaneously. My men at once sought shelter under the trees, and they could not comprehend why I stood in the open field and got wet. Strange to say, the natives have no fear of thunder and lightning, which they say are very angry with the trees but do not kill the blacks. Though many trees are seen splintered by lightning, they do not understand that it is dangerous for them to seek shelter under them in a thunderstorm.

We followed the Herbert River to the northwest and stopped for a break on the riverbank at noon. Just as we were about to continue our journey, a severe thunderstorm hit us. Thunderstorms are common just before the rainy season and can start suddenly, sometimes with strong winds. The lightning flashes and thunderclaps happened almost at the same time. My crew immediately looked for shelter under the trees, but they couldn’t understand why I chose to stay out in the open and get soaked. Interestingly, the natives aren’t afraid of thunder and lightning; they believe these phenomena are angry at the trees but won’t harm the people. Even though many trees have been struck by lightning, they don’t realize it’s dangerous to hide under them during a storm.

START FOR AN EXPEDITION.

START FOR ADVENTURE.

189We went up along the river as far as it was possible to ride, and crossed it three times. In some places it was a raging torrent, while in others it flowed quietly, but the large stones on the bottom always made the crossing difficult, and twice I had to unload the baggage and let the natives carry it. For the sake of convenience I was lightly clad, wearing simply a shirt, shoes, and round my waist a belt in which I carried my revolver. I also tried to go barefooted like the natives, but I had to give it up, for the stones, heated by the sun, burned my feet. Sometimes the river formed large basins, in which the water was deep, dark, and still, as in a pond. These the crocodiles like to frequent.

189We rode along the river as far as we could, crossing it three times. At some spots, it was a raging torrent, while in others it flowed calmly, but the big rocks at the bottom made it hard to cross, and twice I had to unload the bags and let the locals carry them. To make it easier, I dressed lightly, just a shirt, shoes, and a belt around my waist where I kept my revolver. I also tried going barefoot like the locals, but I had to stop because the sun-heated stones burned my feet. Sometimes, the river formed large pools where the water was deep, dark, and still, almost like a pond. These were the places the crocodiles liked to hang out.

The farther we ascended the narrower the valley became, and at last it was impassable for horses. So we made a camp, where we left the horses, distributing the baggage among the natives. Our aim now was to find a little tribe with which Ganindali was acquainted, and which I hoped would be of service to us in hunting the boongary.

The higher we went, the narrower the valley got, until it was impossible for the horses to pass. So we set up camp, leaving the horses behind and splitting up the supplies among the locals. Our goal now was to locate a small tribe that Ganindali knew, which I hoped would help us in hunting the boongary.

I observed with interest how my men acted in order to discover these people. They sought out every trace to be found, took notice of broken branches and bark, or of stones that were turned, or of a little moss that had been rubbed off; in short, of everything that would escape a white man’s attention, and which he hardly would understand if his attention were drawn to it.

I watched with interest how my men worked to find these people. They looked for every clue, paying attention to broken branches and bark, stones that had been moved, or bits of moss that had been brushed off; in short, they noticed everything that would go unnoticed by a white man and that he wouldn’t really get even if it was pointed out to him.

The keen ability of the Australian to find and follow traces seems to be unique, and doubtless surpasses even that of the North American Indians. The white population has been greatly benefited by this sleuth-hound talent of theirs, which has rendered valuable service in the discovery of murderers. A black tracker of the native police can pursue a trace at full gallop.

The sharp ability of Australians to find and follow tracks seems to be unique and probably exceeds that of Native Americans. The white population has greatly benefited from this tracking skill, which has been invaluable in catching murderers. A black tracker from the native police can follow a trail at full speed.

190The first day we did not succeed in finding the above tribe, but we saw several of their deserted camps. The natives do not destroy their primitive huts when they change their abode, but outside the camp they leave a palm leaf to indicate to their friends in what direction they have gone. By the aid of these signals we finally got on the sure track of the strange tribe. At one of these camps we also found a dingo that had run away from its owner. As it might prove useful to us, we fed it, and thus persuaded it to go with us.

190On the first day, we weren’t able to find the tribe mentioned above, but we did come across several of their abandoned camps. The locals don’t tear down their simple huts when they move; instead, they leave a palm leaf outside the camp to show their friends which way they went. With these signals, we eventually got on the right track to find the unfamiliar tribe. At one of the camps, we also found a dingo that had escaped from its owner. Since it could be helpful, we fed it and managed to encourage it to come along with us.

BASKET FROM NORTH QUEENSLAND.

NORTH QUEENSLAND BASKET.

Not until the afternoon of the third day did we approach the little tribe. The natives showed me smoke not far away. As usual, I sent a couple of men in advance to announce our arrival. The strangers were reserved and silent, as they usually are the first time they come in contact with the white man. Some tribes are less cautious on such occasions, and they are in the habit of feeling him all over his body to assure themselves that he is a human being.

Not until the afternoon of the third day did we get close to the small tribe. The locals pointed out some smoke not too far away. As always, I sent a couple of guys ahead to let them know we were coming. The newcomers were quiet and reserved, which is typical the first time they meet a white person. Some tribes are more open during these encounters, and they often have a habit of checking him all over to make sure he’s really human.

On entering the camp I noticed a few women, who sat beating fruits, while two or three of the older men were busy 191plaiting baskets. The young men were lying down doing nothing.

On entering the camp, I saw a few women sitting and processing fruits, while two or three of the older men were busy weaving baskets. The young men were lying around, doing nothing.

As soon as the natives became acquainted with my purpose, they were so polite that they sent a message to an old man who lived in the neighbourhood, and had the reputation of being a most skilful boongary hunter. We had to wait for the old man about a day, and this time I spent in the camp with these children of nature. Here they lived uninfluenced by any form of civilisation, uncontaminated by the corruption which always manifests itself when the natives have had intercourse with white men. It was nature in her pristine state, and it is this kind of savage which it is most profitable to study. Nor are these blacks as dangerous as those who have become familiar with the white man’s customs and character.

As soon as the locals understood my intentions, they were so courteous that they sent a message to an elderly man who lived nearby, known for being an exceptionally skilled boongary hunter. We had to wait for him about a day, and I spent that time in the camp with these people connected to nature. Here, they lived unaffected by any form of civilization, untainted by the corruption that often arises when natives interact with white people. It was nature in its purest form, and this kind of unspoiled life is what’s most valuable to study. Moreover, these individuals are not as hazardous as those who have become accustomed to the ways and traits of white men.

The men sleep late in the morning, for they do not care to go out before ten or eleven o’clock, when the dew has left the grass. The first task of the women in the morning is to kindle a fire, which is always built at the entrance to the hut, where the family gradually assemble. They seat themselves in the ashes, stretch themselves a long time, and spend half an hour in scraping and scratching their bodies, a favourite occupation when they sit round the fire. When the men are thoroughly awake they reach out for the baskets, which are filled with tobola, kadjera, or perchance with the remnants of a roasted wallaby. What the blacks are unable to eat on the spot is put away, and may be kept for one or two days. Meat is slightly roasted for this purpose, or it may be preserved in water. Then the women and the children go out to gather fruits, while the men proceed on some hunting expedition or to look for honey. Every day, when it does not rain, the Australian must have his hunt; even the natives who are sufficiently civilised to be employed in the native police force feel this necessity so strongly that they occasionally take off their clothes and make an expedition with the tomahawk. When they return in the afternoon the inevitable fires are at once built; some of them lie down to sleep, while others chat a little and wait for the women to come back with fruits. Some one of the old men may go to work at a basket on which he is engaged.

The men wake up late in the morning because they prefer not to go out before ten or eleven o’clock, when the dew has dried on the grass. The first thing the women do in the morning is start a fire, which is always lit at the entrance to the hut, where the family gradually gathers. They sit in the ashes, stretch for a while, and spend about half an hour scratching and cleaning their bodies, which is a favorite activity while sitting around the fire. Once the men are fully awake, they grab the baskets filled with tobola, kadjera, or maybe the leftovers of a roasted wallaby. Any food that the older ones can’t eat right away is saved and can be kept for a day or two. Meat is lightly roasted for storage, or it can be kept in water. Then the women and children head out to gather fruits, while the men go hunting or searching for honey. Every day, when it’s not raining, Australians need to hunt; even those natives who are advanced enough to work in the native police feel this need so strongly that they sometimes strip down and head out with a tomahawk. When they come back in the afternoon, they immediately build the usual fires; some lie down to nap while others chat and wait for the women to return with the fruits. One of the older men might start working on a basket he’s making.

192The women come home late in the afternoon, and then have their hands full preparing the poisonous plants, but they never work late in the evening. If they have brought much they leave it until the next day. All now enjoy a dolce far niente after the more or less fatiguing work of the day. There is nothing to tax their brains, and they have no cares. They have no concern about the morrow or for the future in general. But few words are spoken. They feel somewhat anxious for their lives when night drops her curtain upon the camp, but gradually the whole family falls asleep, and nothing is heard save the melancholy buzzing of insects in the profound silence of the scrubs.

192The women return home in the late afternoon and spend their time preparing the toxic plants, but they never work late into the evening. If they've collected a lot, they'll leave it for the next day. Now, they all enjoy a dolce far niente after the tiring work of the day. There's nothing to challenge their minds, and they have no worries. They're not concerned about tomorrow or the future overall. Few words are exchanged. They feel a bit anxious about their safety when night falls over the camp, but gradually the whole family drifts off to sleep, and the only sound is the sad hum of insects in the deep silence of the scrub.

A little before sundown the next day the old man arrived, accompanied by his two good-looking, well-fed wives. He was one of the oldest men in the tribe and was highly respected. As soon as they entered the camp they seated themselves with crossed legs, but said nothing. When they had rested a while the old man ordered out his wives to find palm leaves for a hut, which was built in a few minutes. To show us that we were welcome, they sent a present, consisting of two large baskets, to our camp, which we had made close by. It was an act of politeness which my blacks expected, and had mentioned to me in advance. The baskets were very nice, in fact admirable specimens of native handiwork (see p. 190).

A little before sunset the next day, the old man showed up with his two attractive, well-fed wives. He was one of the oldest men in the tribe and was well-respected. As soon as they got to the camp, they sat down with their legs crossed but didn’t say anything. After resting for a while, the old man sent his wives to gather palm leaves for a hut, which they built in just a few minutes. To show us they were welcoming, they sent a gift of two large baskets to our nearby camp. This was a polite gesture that my guys had expected and mentioned to me beforehand. The baskets were really nice, truly impressive examples of local craftsmanship (see p. 190).

In this strange tribe there were two little boys who pleased me particularly. They took a deep interest in me and my camp, and they were not afraid to approach me. They were also very accommodating. I was astonished to find them so obliging and kind, but I have since seen other instances of a similar kind. The black children are not, upon the whole, as bad as one might suppose, considering their education, in which their wills are never resisted. The mother is always fond of her child, and I have often admired her patience with it. She constantly carries it with her at first in a basket, but later on, when it is big enough, on her shoulders, where either she supports it with her hand or else the child holds itself fast by its mother’s head. Thus she carries it with her till it is several years old. If the child cries she may perhaps get angry, but she will never allow herself to strike it. The 193children are never chastised either by the father or the mother.

In this unusual tribe, there were two little boys who particularly caught my attention. They were genuinely interested in me and my camp and weren't afraid to come closer. They were also very willing to help. I was surprised to see them being so friendly and kind, but I've since encountered other similar situations. The black children aren't, on the whole, as bad as one might think, given their upbringing, where their wills are never challenged. The mother is always affectionate toward her child, and I've often admired her patience. At first, she carries the child in a basket, but as it grows, she carries it on her shoulders, either supporting it with her hand or the child holding onto her head. She does this until the child is several years old. If the child cries, she might get upset, but she would never hit it. The 193children are never punished by either the father or the mother.

An acquaintance of mine, who had associated extensively with the blacks, once gave a naughty child a box on the ear, at which the mother became very much excited, and said, “There was no use in striking the child. He was only a little fellow, not big enough.”

An acquaintance of mine, who had interacted a lot with Black people, once slapped a naughty child, which made the mother very upset. She said, “There was no point in hitting the child. He was just a little guy, not big enough.”

Before the children are big enough to hold a pipe in their mouth they are permitted to smoke, and the mother will share her pipe with the nursing babe.

Before the kids are old enough to hold a pipe in their mouth, they’re allowed to smoke, and the mom will share her pipe with the nursing baby.

The children always belong to the tribe of their father, but are fonder of their mother than of their father. When grown up they rarely mention him, in fact oftentimes do not know who he is; for the women frequently change husbands. The father may also be good to the child, and he frequently carries it, takes it in his lap, pats it, searches its hair, plays with it, and makes little boomerangs which he teaches it to throw. He however, prefers boys to girls, and does not pay much attention to the latter. The children play all day long, build mounds, draw figures in the sand, throw boomerangs, etc.

The children always belong to their father's tribe, but they tend to be closer to their mother than to him. When they grow up, they rarely bring him up and often don’t even know who he is, since women frequently change husbands. The father can be good to the child, often carrying them, holding them on his lap, playing with their hair, having fun with them, and making little boomerangs to teach them how to throw. However, he prefers boys over girls and doesn’t pay much attention to the girls. The children play all day, building mounds, drawing shapes in the sand, throwing boomerangs, and so on.

Thus they grow up in perfect freedom, and are never punished. As soon as they can walk they acquire the manners and habits of their elders, but the boys are not permitted to go hunting with their fathers before they are nine years old. Little boys are treated like grown men, or to speak more correctly, the Australian never becomes a man, the father being in thought and deed as much a child as the son.

Thus they grow up in complete freedom and are never punished. As soon as they can walk, they pick up the manners and habits of their elders, but the boys aren’t allowed to go hunting with their fathers until they’re nine years old. Little boys are treated like grown men, or to put it more accurately, Australians never really grow up; the father is just as much a child in thought and action as the son.

When the men are in camp their chief occupation, providing they do not sleep, is to make weapons, and particularly to plait baskets. It was interesting to observe their marvellous skill in this work. Only the men plait baskets—the women never—and they are proud of exhibiting the most beautiful specimens of their handiwork.

When the men are at camp, their main activities, unless they're sleeping, are making weapons and especially weaving baskets. It was fascinating to see their incredible talent in this craft. Only the men weave baskets—the women never do—and they take pride in showing off the most beautiful examples of their work.

The basket varies in size, but the shape is usually the same, more or less oval, narrow at the top and broad at the bottom. The material consists almost exclusively of the branches of the lawyer-palm, which are split with the aid of the teeth into thin slender strings, and these 194are scraped smooth and even with clam-shells and stones. The baskets are made wonderfully fine and strong, and are often painted with red, yellow, or white ochre, and sometimes with stripes or dots of human blood, which the maker takes from his own arm. The basket is carried by a handle made of the same material, and hangs down the back. The handle is placed against the forehead, so that the weight of the basket rests on the head of the person carrying it, as the blacks do not like to carry anything in their hands.

The basket comes in different sizes, but the shape is usually pretty much the same—more or less oval, narrow at the top and wider at the bottom. It's mainly made from the branches of the lawyer palm, which are split into thin, slender strings with the help of teeth, and these are smoothed out with clam shells and stones. The baskets are crafted to be both fine and strong, often painted with red, yellow, or white ochre, and sometimes decorated with stripes or dots made from human blood that the maker gets from their own arm. The basket is carried by a handle made from the same material, which hangs down the back. The handle rests against the forehead, so the weight of the basket sits on the person's head since they prefer not to carry things in their hands.

A BASKET MADE OF SOFT MATERIALS (GRASS) FROM HERBERT RIVER (⅙ size).

A basket made of soft materials (grass) from Herbert River (⅙ size).

We arose early in the morning to hunt the boongary; for we had a long day’s march before us to the place where this animal was said to be found in great numbers. I did not expect anybody but the old man and one or two of the blacks to accompany me, but we were joined by the whole tribe, so that we were a large party as we proceeded across the table-land. At noon we discovered in the distance a series of scrub-clad hills rising one above the other, and these we were to reach in the evening. The men and I then took a circuitous route through a scrub, while the women, carrying the provisions and the men’s weapons, went directly to the place where we were to pitch our camp for the night. On their journeys the natives seldom carry their provisions with them, but depend for their subsistence on what they can find on the way. They therefore take different routes, not very wide apart, and assemble in the evening in the place agreed upon for a camp, bringing with them the opossums, lizards, eggs, honey, and whatever else they may have collected during the day.

We got up early in the morning to hunt the boongary because we had a long trek ahead of us to where this animal was said to be plentiful. I only expected the old man and one or two of the locals to join me, but the entire tribe came along, making us a large group as we crossed the plateau. By noon, we spotted a range of scrub-covered hills in the distance, which we planned to reach by evening. The men and I took a winding path through the brush, while the women, carrying the food and the men’s weapons, went straight to where we’d set up our camp for the night. On their journeys, the locals usually don’t carry their food with them but rely on what they can find along the way. They choose different routes that aren’t too far apart and meet up in the evening at the agreed camp spot, bringing back opossums, lizards, eggs, honey, and whatever else they’ve gathered during the day.

The only result of our march was a considerable amount of honey, which we found near the top of a high tree, which from its character the natives believed to be hollow all the way down to the root. The honey would in that case have fallen to the bottom and been wasted if they had 195attempted to gather it in the usual way—by cutting a hole in the trunk. They therefore borrowed my axe to fell the large tree, which was more than three feet in diameter, and of very hard wood. They worked very industriously for an hour and a half, taking turns at chopping down the gigantic tree, and they did not rest till it fell. This may serve as an illustration of the perseverance and energy of the otherwise indolent and lazy Australian native while pursuing any game that he has discovered.

The only outcome of our journey was a significant amount of honey that we found near the top of a tall tree, which the locals believed to be hollow all the way down to the root. If that were the case, the honey would have fallen to the bottom and been wasted if they had tried to collect it the usual way—by cutting a hole in the trunk. So, they borrowed my axe to chop down the large tree, which was over three feet in diameter and made of very hard wood. They worked really hard for an hour and a half, taking turns chopping down the massive tree, and they didn’t take a break until it fell. This shows the determination and energy of the otherwise lazy Australian native when pursuing any game they’ve found.

BASKET FROM HERBERT RIVER, PAINTED WITH STRIPES AND DOTS OF HUMAN BLOOD (¼ size).

BASKET FROM HERBERT RIVER, PAINTED WITH STRIPES AND DOTS OF HUMAN BLOOD (¼ size).

They were well rewarded for their trouble. The great amount of honey found in this tree astonished me, and it had a fine flavour and in spite of the excessive heat was solid and cool. The natives brought the greater part of the honey to a brook close by, and not having any trough at hand, they mixed the old and the new honey with water in the most primitive manner. They laid the honey in a hollow rock near the stream, and scooped water into it with both hands, afterwards stirring it. Then they all sat down round the “flowing bowl,” and with tufts of fine grass growing near, they soon emptied the hollow rock.

They were definitely rewarded for their efforts. The huge amount of honey found in this tree amazed me, and it had a great flavor; despite the intense heat, it was thick and cool. The locals took most of the honey to a nearby stream, and since they didn’t have a container, they mixed the old and new honey with water in a very basic way. They placed the honey in a hollow rock by the water and scooped up water with both hands, then stirred it together. After that, they all sat around the "flowing bowl" and, using clumps of fine grass that were growing close by, they quickly finished off the honey in the hollow rock.

196Upon our arrival at the camp the women were sitting on the green grass round a little fire. A strange tribe had come to the camp, who were friendly to my companions. All were as lazy as possible; some lying on their backs, others sitting still and gazing vacantly into space, while a few were engaged in conversation. The women had told the strange tribe about the arrival of the white man, and had of course made great boasts of the tobacco and provisions which he carried with him. They were very proud of having him with their own tribe, but had not made the slightest preparations for building huts nor even gathered palm leaves. As soon as we came the women began to bestir themselves, for the sun was already setting. The strange tribe, and many of those who had come with me, encamped on the one side of the valley, while my men and I pitched our camp on the other side.

196When we arrived at the camp, the women were seated on the green grass around a small fire. A strange tribe had come to the camp, and they got along well with my companions. Everyone seemed as lazy as possible; some were lying on their backs, others sat quietly gazing off into the distance, while a few were chatting. The women had told the strange tribe about the arrival of the white man and had, of course, boasted about the tobacco and supplies he brought with him. They felt very proud to have him in their tribe, but they hadn't made any preparations for building huts or even gathering palm leaves. As soon as we arrived, the women began to get moving because the sun was already setting. The strange tribe and many of the people who came with me set up camp on one side of the valley, while my men and I set up our camp on the other side.

It was an excellent locality for hunting the boongary, and not so difficult to penetrate as the scrubs in the mountains. Our semi-wild dingo was utterly useless, and I had no person with me whom it would follow; but I was now accompanied by so large a number of natives that I still looked for good results.

It was a great place for hunting the boongary, and it wasn’t as hard to navigate as the scrub in the mountains. Our half-wild dingo was completely useless, and I had no one with me that it would follow; but since I was now with a large group of locals, I still expected good results.

In the scrubs here I shot a very remarkable specimen of a phalanger, which has since been described by the name of Pseudochirus lemuroides, because it bears a certain resemblance to the lemurs of Madagascar; its tail is not smooth on the under side, as in the other members of this family, but is nearly entirely covered with hair. In some respects it unites the characteristics of the phalanger proper with the pseudochirus, and thus possibly forms a new sub-genus, Hemibelideus. The natives call it yabby. They first attempted to kill it in the usual way—by climbing the trees and throwing sticks at it. The animal is not very shy, but when disturbed it runs rapidly out upon the branches, so that it is difficult for a native to kill it unless he has one or two of his companions to hinder it escaping on to the neighbouring trees. The natives kill all phalangers in this manner. In order to end the chase the natives shouted to me and asked me to shoot it. It fell from the branch, but remained for a moment suspended by the tail before it dropped down dead. When they saw the animal fall from so great a height they broke out in shouts of wonderment, and this event was for a long time the leading subject of conversation among them. It proved to be a female with a remarkably large young one, entirely covered with hair, in her pouch. The young one, which had also received a fatal shot, was nearly half the size of its mother. Although it was midsummer, the animal had a full coat of hair on its beautiful skin. I have found no marsupials of this kind since, and the two above described are the only specimens that have hitherto been shot. The Pseudochirus lemuroides is not found in the part of the Coast Mountains lying east of Gowri Creek. We first meet with it in the mountains between Gowri Creek and Herbert river, and it increases in number as we proceed toward the north; these two specimens were shot in a table-land scrub.

In the brush here, I shot a very impressive specimen of a phalanger, which has since been named Pseudochirus lemuroides because it resembles the lemurs of Madagascar. Its tail isn't smooth on the underside like other members of this family but is almost entirely covered in hair. In some ways, it combines the features of the true phalanger with the pseudochirus, potentially forming a new sub-genus, Hemibelideus. The locals call it yabby. They initially tried to catch it the usual way—by climbing trees and throwing sticks at it. The animal isn’t very skittish, but when disturbed, it quickly moves out onto the branches, making it hard for a local to catch it unless he has one or two friends to help prevent it from escaping to nearby trees. The locals kill all phalangers this way. To end the chase, the natives called out to me and asked me to shoot it. It fell from the branch but hung there for a moment by its tail before dropping down dead. When they saw the animal fall from such a height, they erupted in shouts of amazement, and this event became a popular topic of conversation among them for a long time. It turned out to be a female with a surprisingly large young one, completely covered in hair, in her pouch. The young one, which had also been fatally shot, was nearly half the size of its mother. Even though it was midsummer, the animal had a full coat of hair on its beautiful skin. I haven’t encountered any marsupials of this kind since, and the two I just described are the only specimens I’ve managed to shoot so far. The Pseudochirus lemuroides is not found in the part of the Coast Mountains east of Gowri Creek. We first find it in the mountains between Gowri Creek and the Herbert River, and its numbers increase as we move north; these two specimens were shot in a scrubland tableland.

Bolboceras rhinoceros.

Bolboceras rhinoceros.

Stigmodera alternata. N.sp.

Stigmodera alternata. New species.

Harald Jensen lith. Hoffensberg & Trap Etabl.

PSEUDOCHIRUS LEMUROIDES. N. SP.

Harald Jensen lithograph. Hoffensberg & Trap Established

PSEUDOCHIRUS LEMUROIDES. N. SP.

197Late one evening, after we, as usual, had encamped on both sides of the little valley which extended down toward the river, a shout came from the other camp that hostile natives were heard in the grass on the other side of the river from where our camp was situated. My companions arose at once and cried Kolle! mal!—that is, Hush! man!

197Late one evening, after we had set up camp, as usual, on both sides of the small valley leading down to the river, we heard a shout from the other camp that hostile natives were spotted in the grass across the river from where we were. My companions immediately got up and shouted Kolle! mal!—which means, Hush! man!

I was so accustomed to the imaginary fears of the natives in the evening that I did not pay much attention to their alarm, but a few moments later I too thought I heard voices in the distance. No sooner had my men discovered my suspicion than they called over to the other camp, “Mami[11] also hears.” There was now a stillness so profound that a leaf falling to the ground might have been heard. For my part I attributed the suspicious sound to the trees rubbing against each other in the evening breeze. My opinion was at once reported to the other camp; but the natives there were not to be quieted; they still heard voices, and after a short time a number of young men, followed by children crying with all their might, came to me: all were very much frightened. I was obliged to rise and fire two shots in the pitchy darkness of the night; this quieted my men, 198and they even expressed their sympathy for their comrades in the other camp, where there reigned the stillness of death, and where an old man stood guard during the whole night. From what I afterwards learned I am persuaded that we had actually heard the voices of a hostile tribe, which in all probability would have attacked us had I not frightened them away with my shooting. How little it takes to demonstrate the superiority of a civilised man over the savage!

I was so used to the imaginary fears of the locals in the evening that I didn’t pay much attention to their alarm, but a few moments later I thought I heard voices in the distance too. As soon as my men sensed my suspicion, they called over to the other camp, “Mami[11] also hears.” There was a silence so deep that you could’ve heard a leaf fall to the ground. Personally, I thought the strange sound was just the trees rubbing against each other in the evening breeze. My opinion was relayed to the other camp, but the locals there weren’t calmed; they still heard voices. After a short while, a group of young men, followed by children crying loudly, came to me: all of them were very frightened. I had to get up and fire two shots into the pitch-black night; this calmed my men, and they even showed compassion for their comrades in the other camp, where there was a stillness like death, and an old man stood guard all night. From what I learned later, I’m convinced we had actually heard the voices of a hostile tribe, which likely would have attacked us if I hadn’t scared them away with my shooting. It’s shocking how little it takes to show the superiority of a civilized person over a savage!

11. Mami, which means a great man, is the same name as the natives give to the officers of the native police. Thus they gave me the highest title of which they had any knowledge.

11. Mami, which means a great man, is the same name that the locals use for the officers of the native police. So, they gave me the highest title they knew of.

I found it useless to remain here any longer. There were but few traces of boongary to be seen, and the natives had, during the whole time, evinced little disposition to hunt them, partly because the animals were so scarce, and partly because we did not have dogs. My men, however, had much to say of a more distant “land,” where they claimed there were komórbory (many) boongary. They were, however, afraid to accompany me thither, on account of strange tribes. Nevertheless I determined to visit this “land,” but as not one of my people would admit that he was acquainted with it, I had to try to find a guide among natives who had friends there. This proved to be a far more difficult task than I had supposed. I offered provisions, I offered tobacco—but all in vain. All thought it was sheer madness to attempt to go there, for they were afraid of the strangers whom they had heard that night.

I found it pointless to stay here any longer. There were only a few signs of boongary around, and the locals had shown little interest in hunting them, partly because the animals were so few and partly because we didn’t have dogs. My team, however, talked a lot about a more distant “land” where they insisted there were many boongary. They were too scared to go with me there because of unfamiliar tribes. Still, I decided to visit this “land,” but since none of my people claimed to know it, I had to find a guide among locals who had connections there. This turned out to be a much tougher challenge than I expected. I offered food, I offered tobacco—but it was all in vain. Everyone thought it was crazy to try and go there, as they were scared of the strangers they had heard about that night.

I tried to make a friend of the old boongary hunter, and gave him something to eat. Before meeting me he had tasted neither salt beef nor damper, and he had become exceedingly fond of both. He ate with a ravenous appetite, but stubbornly refused to accede to my wishes. After much parleying I at length succeeded in inducing one of them to go with me by giving him a shirt and the promise of much tobacco and much food if he procured a boongary. To make sure of him I gave the old hunter, who had considerable influence over him, a large piece of meat, and requested him to encourage my new guide to stand by his purpose and go with me.

I tried to befriend the old boongary hunter and offered him something to eat. Before he met me, he had never tried salt beef or damper, and he had grown very fond of both. He ate with a huge appetite but stubbornly refused to agree to my requests. After a lot of discussion, I finally managed to convince one of them to come with me by giving him a shirt and promising plenty of tobacco and food if he found a boongary. To ensure his agreement, I gave the old hunter, who had a lot of influence over him, a big piece of meat and asked him to encourage my new guide to stick to his decision and come with me.

The old man kept but a very small piece for himself, and with the liberality peculiar to the Australian native, generously distributed the rest in all directions for the purpose of enhancing his influence in the tribe. The Australian 199native is by nature lavish, and when he bestows gifts he does it liberally. Thus when a civilised black man returns with his master to the station after a prolonged journey he shows great liberality to his comrades, who then gather round him. His new clothes are freely distributed, and after a few hours one black may be seen wearing his trousers, another his spurs, a third his hat, etc., while he himself frequently retains nothing but the shirt.

The old man kept only a tiny piece for himself, and with the typical generosity of an Australian native, he generously shared the rest everywhere to boost his influence in the tribe. The Australian 199 native is naturally generous, and when he gives gifts, he does so freely. So, when a civilized black man returns with his boss to the station after a long trip, he is very generous to his friends, who gather around him. His new clothes are handed out freely, and after a few hours, one black man might be seen wearing his trousers, another his spurs, a third his hat, etc., while he might end up with just the shirt.

The black man whom I had persuaded to go with me was related to one of my men, Yanki. He was Yanki’s Otero. In the tribes the words otĕro, gorgĕro, gorilla, and gorgorilla are found, which designate various kinds of relations. Sometimes a man would be called otero or gorgero without the addition of any other name, and still everybody knew who was meant. There are similar words to designate female relatives, in which case the termination ingan is substituted for the final o or a, thus oteringan, gorgeringan, etc.

The black man I had convinced to come with me was related to one of my guys, Yanki. He was Yanki’s Otero. In the tribes, the terms otĕro, gorgĕro, gorilla, and gorgorilla are used to describe different kinds of relationships. Sometimes a guy would be called otero or gorgero without adding any other name, and everyone still knew who was being referred to. There are similar terms for female relatives, where the ending ingan replaces the final o or a, making it oteringan, gorgeringan, and so on.

Doubtless these appellations are in some way connected with the matrimonial system of the natives, but I have never been able to get to the bottom of this subject. The natives were either unwilling or unable to give me a satisfactory explanation, while the men, contrary to what has been experienced in other places, made no objections to telling me their own or the women’s names, or who was their otero, etc. As a rule the members of Australian communities are divided into four classes, and according to the Australian author Mr. E. M. Curr, the object of this division is to prevent the intermarriage of relatives, a thing for which the Australian natives appear to have the greatest abhorrence.

These names are definitely linked to the marriage system of the locals, but I’ve never been able to fully understand this topic. The locals seemed either unwilling or unable to provide a clear explanation. In contrast to experiences in other places, the men had no problem sharing their own names, the women’s names, or who their otero was, etc. Generally, members of Australian communities are divided into four classes. According to the Australian author Mr. E. M. Curr, this division aims to prevent relatives from marrying each other, which the Australian natives seem to strongly dislike.

Yanki was exceedingly amiable to his otero, and was very happy that he was to be one of my party. Yanki was to share his bed and his tobacco with him, and they were to have a very nice time together. And now the rest of my men were willing to accompany me. Happy at the result, I gave small pieces of meat to those who were not going with me, and we parted the best of friends.

Yanki was extremely friendly to his otero and was very glad that he was going to be part of my group. Yanki was going to share his bed and his tobacco with him, and they were going to have a great time together. Now the rest of my guys were also willing to join me. Happy with the outcome, I gave small pieces of meat to those who weren’t coming with me, and we parted as the best of friends.

It did not escape my observation that during all these negotiations the blacks kept consulting an old woman. She took a very serious part in the discussion, and gave the most positive advice not to accompany me because mal had been 200so near to us that night. The reason why the natives consulted her I do not know. It may be that she was skilful in procuring human flesh and other food. The Australian native has a certain respect for old women, provided the latter are not too old to be useful. The instinct of the blacks for finding food seems to increase with their years, the fact being, I suppose, that they have the advantage of experience. Old women usually take part in the hunting of human game, and they even find means of supporting those of their sex who are too old to leave the camp and seek food for themselves. Were this not the case the men would certainly soon get these old women out of the way; for the Australian does not hesitate to remove anything which is an obstacle to him. But these old women are far from being superfluous. I have often seen strong young men appeal to them for food, and their requests have been granted.

I noticed that throughout all these negotiations, the Indigenous people kept consulting an older woman. She played a serious role in the discussion and firmly advised against accompanying me because mal had been so close to us that night. I'm not sure why the locals turned to her for guidance. It might be because she was skilled at gathering human flesh and other food. Indigenous Australians have a certain respect for older women, as long as they are still considered useful. The instinct of the Indigenous people to find food seems to grow with age, likely due to their experience. Older women often participate in hunting for human prey, and they also manage to support those of their gender who are too old to leave the camp and search for food themselves. If this weren’t the case, the men would likely try to get rid of these older women, as Australians don’t hesitate to remove anything that gets in their way. But these older women are far from useless. I’ve often seen strong young men ask them for food, and they’ve received what they asked for.

As we were proceeding across the grassy plain my men suddenly shouted, Boongary! boongary! and started off after an animal which disappeared behind a grassy hill. They soon returned with empty hands, but they were convinced that they had seen a boongary. I expressed my surprise at its being found on the grassy plain; but the natives assured me that it moved about a great deal, and made long journeys across the table-land from one scrub to the other.

As we were crossing the grassy plain, my men suddenly shouted, Boongary! boongary! and took off after an animal that vanished behind a grassy hill. They soon came back empty-handed, but they were sure they had seen a boongary. I was surprised that it was found on the grassy plain, but the locals assured me that it roamed around a lot and made long trips across the table-land from one patch of scrub to another.

201

CHAPTER XVI

Wild landscape on the Upper Herbert—Kvingan, the devil of the blacks—A fatal eel—Mourning dress—Flight of the blacks—A compromise—Christmas Eve—Lonely—Christmas fare—A “faithful” relative—A welcome wallaby.

Wild landscape on the Upper Herbert—Kvingan, the devil of the black people—A deadly eel—Mourning attire—The flight of the black people—A compromise—Christmas Eve—Lonely—Christmas meal—A “loyal” relative—A friendly wallaby.

The season was already so far advanced that it was out of the question to get back to my headquarters before Christmas. The new “land,” which we reached after a short time, presented a grand, wild, and romantic aspect. We descended from the table-land and suddenly got sight of Herbert river, flowing dark and restless far down in the depths below.

The season had progressed to the point where returning to my headquarters before Christmas was impossible. The new “land” we reached after a short while looked grand, wild, and romantic. We descended from the plateau and suddenly caught sight of the Herbert River, flowing dark and restless far down in the depths below.

We followed the bend of the river to the east, walking on a ledge of the steep mountain nearly a thousand feet above the level of the water. Below us the mountain presented a wild, broken mass, while above it was overgrown with dense scrubs. Near the chief bend of the river we made our camp by the side of a mountain brook which plunged down over the precipice. It was no easy matter to find a place for a camp here, for it was a spot on which a person could scarcely lie in a horizontal position.

We followed the bend of the river east, walking on a ledge of the steep mountain nearly a thousand feet above the water level. Below us, the mountain looked wild and jagged, while above it was covered with thick shrubs. Near the main bend of the river, we set up our camp beside a mountain brook that cascaded down over the cliff. It wasn't easy to find a place to camp here, as it was an area where a person could barely lie down flat.

The natives had some strange superstitions in regard to this place. In the depths below dwelt a monster, Yamina, which ate men, and of which the natives stood in mortal fear. No one dared to sleep down there. Blacks who had attempted to do so had been eaten, and once, when a dance had been held there, some persons had been lost. I proposed to take a walk thither, but they simply shrugged their shoulders and did not answer. A gun would be of no use they said, for the monster was invulnerable.

The locals had some odd superstitions about this place. Deep down below lived a monster, Yamina, that devoured people, and the locals were terrified of it. No one dared to sleep there. Those who had tried were eaten, and once, during a dance held there, some people went missing. I suggested taking a walk over there, but they just shrugged and didn’t say anything. They said a gun wouldn’t help because the monster was invulnerable.

It was Kvingan, their evil spirit, who chiefly haunted this spot. His voice was often heard of an evening or at 202night from the abyss or from the scrubs. I made the discovery that the strange melancholy voice which they attributed to the spirit belonged to a bird which could be heard at a very great distance. But I must admit that it is the most mysterious bird’s voice that I have ever heard, and it is not strange that a people so savage as the Australian natives should have formed superstitious notions in regard to it. Kvingan is found in the most inaccessible mountain regions, and I have heard it not only here but also in the adjoining districts. During these moonlight nights I tried several times to induce the natives to go with me to shoot the bird, but it was, of course, blasphemous to propose such a thing, and their consent was out of the question.

It was Kvingan, their evil spirit, who mostly haunted this place. His voice was often heard in the evening or at night from the depths or from the bushes. I found out that the strange, melancholic voice they attributed to the spirit actually belonged to a bird that could be heard from very far away. But I have to admit, it’s the most mysterious bird’s call I’ve ever heard, and it’s not surprising that a people as fierce as the Australian natives would have developed superstitious beliefs around it. Kvingan is found in the most remote mountain areas, and I’ve heard it not only here but also in the nearby regions. During those moonlit nights, I tried several times to convince the natives to come with me to shoot the bird, but of course, it would have been blasphemous to suggest such a thing, and getting their consent was out of the question.

At other times, when they spoke of their evil spirit, I found that it manifested itself in a cicada. Their notions in regard to their evil spirit appeared to be very much confused. This insect, the cicada, produces in the summer a very shrill sound in the tree-tops, but it is impossible to discover it by the sound. It is this loud shrill sound, which comes from every direction, and which is not to be traced to any particular place, that has evidently given rise to superstitious ideas concerning it.

At other times, when they talked about their evil spirit, I found that it showed up as a cicada. Their beliefs about this evil spirit seemed quite mixed up. This insect, the cicada, makes a very loud, high-pitched sound in the treetops during the summer, but you can't locate it by the sound alone. It's this loud, shrill noise that comes from all around and can't be pinpointed to one specific place that has clearly led to superstitious ideas about it.

In the south-eastern part of Australia the evil spirit of the natives is called Bunjup, a monster which is believed to dwell in the lakes. It has of late been supposed that this is a mammal of considerable size that has not yet been discovered. It may be added that the devil in various parts of Australia is described as a monster with countless eyes and ears, so that he is able to see and hear in all directions. He has sharp claws, and can run so fast that it is difficult to escape him. He is cruel, and spares no one either young or old. The reason that the natives so frequently move their camp is, no doubt, owing to the fact that they are anxious to avoid the devil, who constantly discovers where they are. At times he is supposed to reveal himself to the older and more experienced men in the tribe, who accordingly are highly esteemed. The natives on the Gulf of Carpentaria say that the devil’s lips are fastened by a string to his forehead.

In the southeastern part of Australia, the local evil spirit is called Bunjup, a monster believed to live in the lakes. Recently, it's thought to be a large mammal that hasn't been discovered yet. It's also noted that the devil in various regions of Australia is described as a monster with countless eyes and ears, allowing him to see and hear in every direction. He has sharp claws and can run so fast that escaping him is difficult. He is cruel and shows no mercy to anyone, young or old. The reason the locals often move their camp is likely because they want to avoid the devil, who always finds out where they are. Sometimes, he is believed to show himself to the older, more experienced men in the tribe, who are therefore highly respected. The communities around the Gulf of Carpentaria say that the devil’s lips are attached to his forehead by a string.

203With the exception of the instance already described,[12] I never heard of any effort being made by the natives to propitiate the wrath of this evil being. They simply have a superstitious fear of it and of the unknown generally.

203Other than the situation already mentioned,[12] I never heard of any attempts by the locals to appease the anger of this malicious spirit. They just have a superstitious fear of it and of the unknown in general.

12. Page 136.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__. Page __A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_1__.

YELLOW NECKLACE WORN BY THE BLACKS AS AN EMBLEM OF MOURNING.

YELLOW NECKLACE WORN BY BLACK PEOPLE AS A SYMBOL OF GRIEF.

We searched the scrubs in the vicinity thoroughly, and found many traces of boongary in the trees, but they were all old. The animal had been exterminated by the natives. It could be hunted more easily here, for the reason that the lawyer-palm is rare, and consequently the woods are less dense. The natives told me that their “old men” in former times had killed many boongary in these woods on the table-land.

We thoroughly searched the bushes around the area and found many signs of boongary in the trees, but they were all old. The natives had wiped out the animal. It could be hunted more easily here because the lawyer-palm is rare, making the woods less dense. The locals told me that their "elders" used to kill many boongary in these woods on the plateau.

Two of my men brought to the camp a very large eel, about as thick as a man’s arm and very long. They had found it dead, for the sun had dried up the puddle in which it had lived. This was enough to keep me from tasting it; but the blacks were very much excited about it. It was prepared in the same refined manner as the chief delicacies of the natives.

Two of my guys brought a really big eel to the camp, about as thick as a man's arm and really long. They found it dead because the sun had dried up the puddle where it lived. That was enough to make me not want to taste it; but the locals were really excited about it. It was prepared in the same fancy way as the chief dishes of the natives.

Several of my companions were not old enough to be permitted to enjoy the privilege of tasting it. Others wearing yellow necklaces as an emblem of sorrow were also forbidden to eat of this aristocratic food. These necklaces consist, as above stated, of short-cut pieces of yellow grass strung on a string long enough to go round the neck ten to twelve times. Sometimes they are worn as ornaments by both men and women. While in mourning the Australian natives carefully abstain from certain kinds of food, and it was a surprise to me that they could maintain this fast so well as they did; but at last I found out that the reason for this was a superstitious notion that the forbidden food, if eaten, would burn up their bowels. They are very happy when the season of mourning is ended, and although they have but vague notions of time, they know precisely when they may lay 204aside their mourning dress—that is, the yellow necklace. I have also seen the women paint their bodies with chalk while they are in mourning. Near Rockhampton the blacks used to cut themselves with stones or tomahawks; the women besides paint round their eyes with white chalk. On the Barcoo I once met two women who had their whole head plastered over with the same kind of stuff, which they wear for weeks.

Several of my friends weren't old enough to enjoy the privilege of tasting it. Others, wearing yellow necklaces as a symbol of grief, were also not allowed to eat this fancy food. These necklaces are made of short pieces of yellow grass strung together on a string long enough to wrap around the neck ten to twelve times. Sometimes both men and women wear them as accessories. While in mourning, the Australian natives carefully avoid certain foods, and I was surprised at how well they could stick to this fast; but eventually, I learned that this was due to a superstitious belief that eating the forbidden food would cause their insides to burn. They feel very happy when the mourning period ends, and even though they have a vague understanding of time, they know exactly when they can take off their mourning attire—that is, the yellow necklace. I've also seen women paint their bodies with chalk during mourning. Near Rockhampton, the black people used to cut themselves with stones or tomahawks; the women, in addition, would paint around their eyes with white chalk. On the Barcoo, I once came across two women who had their entire heads covered with the same substance, wearing it for weeks.

Their sorrow for the dead is not very deep; they chant their funeral dirge for several evenings, but this is simply a formal respect paid the deceased. I have many times heard these melancholy mourning tunes in the silent night. The same strophe—for example, Wainta, bēmo, bémo, yongool naiko? (Where is my brother’s son, the only one I had?)—was continually repeated. As a rule, the old women furnished the lamentations.

Their grief for the dead isn't very profound; they sing their funeral songs for several evenings, but this is merely a formal respect for the deceased. I've often heard these sad mourning tunes in the quiet of the night. The same lines—for instance, Wainta, bēmo, bémo, yongool naiko? (Where is my brother’s son, the only one I had?)—were repeated over and over. Typically, the older women provided the lamentations.

In the vicinity of Coomooboolaroo in Central Queensland an old woman exhibited her sorrow at the deathbed of her husband in a very singular manner. Having made a series of breakneck somersaults along the ground, she took two pieces of wood and beat them together in despair. Her husband died soon afterwards, and in a quarter of an hour he was buried.

In the area of Coomooboolaroo in Central Queensland, an old woman showed her grief at her husband's death in a very unusual way. After performing a series of dangerous somersaults on the ground, she picked up two pieces of wood and struck them together in frustration. Her husband passed away shortly after, and within fifteen minutes, he was buried.

During the days of mourning the deceased is rarely mentioned, and when the yellow necklace has been laid aside his name is never heard again. This is doubtless the reason why the Australian natives have no traditions. Many of them do not even know their father, and any knowledge of earlier generations is out of the question. Strange thoughts came to my mind as I walked the scrub paths which the blacks had trodden with their naked feet for centuries. Here generation had succeeded generation without a thought in regard to the past, and with no care in reference to the future, living only for the present moment.

During the mourning period, people rarely mention the deceased, and once the yellow necklace is put away, their name is never spoken again. This is likely why the Australian natives don’t have any traditions. Many of them don’t even know their fathers, and any knowledge of previous generations is out of the question. Strange thoughts filled my mind as I walked the bush paths that the Indigenous people had walked barefoot for centuries. Here, each generation had followed the last without thinking about the past and without concern for the future, living solely for the present moment.

In the evening, after the eel had been consumed, the natives laid themselves round the fire and enjoyed rest after the toils of the day. It was late, and I thought my men were sleeping. The beaming rays of the full moon illuminated the romantic landscape. Now and then the silence was broken by the mysterious notes of that singular 205night bird, the evil spirit of the natives. Suddenly two of the natives arose, came to my hut, and said: “We must depart, a great water will rise here; this is not a good place to remain in!”

In the evening, after they had eaten the eel, the locals gathered around the fire and relaxed after the hard work of the day. It was late, and I thought my crew was asleep. The bright light of the full moon lit up the beautiful landscape. Occasionally, the quiet was interrupted by the strange sounds of that unique night bird, considered an evil spirit by the locals. Suddenly, two of the locals stood up, came to my hut, and said: “We need to leave; a big flood will come here; this isn't a safe place to stay!”

I remained perfectly calm and quiet in my hut, and expressed my contempt for their silly notions. I answered that they might go if they pleased, but that I would stay where I was. My opinion was that they would remain with me. But presently they all got up, and pointing with their open hands to the two persons who had eaten the eel, they said that these men best understood the dangers connected with this place.

I stayed completely calm and quiet in my hut, showing my disdain for their foolish ideas. I told them they could leave if they wanted, but I would stay where I was. I thought they would choose to stay with me. But soon, they all got up and, pointing with their open hands at the two guys who had eaten the eel, said that those men understood the dangers associated with this place the best.

The fact was, of course, that they had become ill from eating the eel, which had died a natural death. They now cursed the place by spitting in all directions. The others followed their example, and immediately thereupon they all proceeded up the mountain slope, spitting all the time. I hoped they would return, but in this I was disappointed.

The truth was, of course, that they had gotten sick from eating the eel, which had died of natural causes. They started cursing the place by spitting everywhere. The others copied them, and soon they all made their way up the mountain, spitting the whole time. I hoped they would come back, but I was let down.

At length I came to the conclusion that it would be best for me to follow them, lest they should leave me altogether. In that case my situation would be a most deplorable one; for, although I had abundance of tobacco, my supply of provisions was very low, and without the aid of the natives I would be unable to get the necessaries of life. Game is scarce in this part of the world, and the vegetables are either uneatable or of very poor quality. All I had in my possession was a small piece of meat and a handful or two of flour, scarcely enough for a small damper.

Eventually, I came to the conclusion that it would be best for me to follow them, or else they might leave me completely. If that happened, my situation would be pretty hopeless; even though I had plenty of tobacco, my food supplies were very low, and without the help of the locals, I wouldn't be able to get the essentials for survival. Game is hard to find in this part of the world, and the vegetables are either inedible or really poor quality. All I had on me was a small piece of meat and a handful or two of flour, hardly enough for a small damper.

I arose and climbed after them up a grassy and stony slope extending to the top of the mountain along the scrub. The moon shone bright and clear, so that it was not difficult to find the path. I called to them, but they did not answer. Finally I reached the summit, and there I caught sight of them. They sat crouched together under a casuarina-tree, and were utterly speechless. They had actually intended to run away. But when they heard me calling they decided to wait, in order that I might join them and go to the “land” we had left. This place was evidently too full of Kvingan.

I got up and followed them up a grassy and rocky slope leading to the mountain top through the bushes. The moon was shining bright and clear, making it easy to find the path. I called out to them, but they didn’t reply. Eventually, I reached the top, and there I saw them. They were huddled together under a casuarina tree, completely silent. They had actually planned to run away. But when they heard me calling, they chose to wait so I could join them and head back to the “land” we had left. This place was clearly too full of Kvingan.

I refused, however, to go, and threatened to return to 206Herbert Vale and get the black police to deal with the matter, and they, I said, would hunt them for months and shoot them. On the other hand, I used kind words and promised them much tobacco, the only thing I had left worth mentioning. Without guides I could not, of course, continue my journey. We finally compromised the matter. I agreed that we should all sleep on the summit of the mountain, but, on the other hand, they were to go with me down to the camp to fetch our baggage. Strange to say, they made no objections to this proposition. Their main object was to avoid sleeping down in the valley.

I refused to leave, though, and threatened to head back to 206Herbert Vale to get the black police involved, saying they would track them down for months and take them out. At the same time, I spoke kindly and promised them a lot of tobacco, the only thing I had left that mattered. Without guides, I obviously couldn't continue my journey. In the end, we reached a compromise. I agreed that we would all sleep on the mountain summit, but they would accompany me back to the camp to get our bags. Surprisingly, they didn’t argue against this plan. Their main goal was to avoid sleeping in the valley.

On our return to the camp we found that the dingo had availed himself of the opportunity of stealing the small piece of meat I had left. All agreed that he should suffer for this mischief, but unfortunately he was nowhere to be found.

On our way back to the camp, we discovered that the dingo had taken the chance to steal the small piece of meat I had left. Everyone agreed that he should pay for this trouble, but unfortunately, he was nowhere to be seen.

The next day we came into a wild region abounding in scrubs and declivities. Progress was most difficult, and it was almost impossible to find a place suitable for a camp. Otero, who knew the country, conducted us at last to a small flat spot near the upper edge of the scrub. Here there was a little brook, though, upon the whole, water was very scarce in this region. We remained here several days. I had never before seen so many fresh traces of boongary, and the natives did their best to secure specimens of the animal in this terrible locality; but we had no dog, for the tribes we had visited had none, and the want of dogs was a great misfortune. Still we were not discouraged. It must, however, be admitted that the blacks did not feel perfectly safe in this region: mal was not very far away. We could see smoke on the mountains very distinctly, when they burned the grass to hunt the wallaby.

The next day we entered a wild area filled with scrubs and slopes. It was very hard to make progress, and finding a suitable spot to set up camp was nearly impossible. Otero, who was familiar with the area, eventually led us to a small flat area near the edge of the scrub. There was a little stream there, but overall, water was pretty scarce in this region. We stayed there for several days. I had never seen so many fresh signs of boongary, and the locals tried their best to catch some of the animals in this tough area; however, we didn’t have a dog since the tribes we visited didn’t have any, and not having dogs was a big setback. Still, we didn’t let it discourage us. It must be acknowledged, though, that the locals didn’t feel entirely safe in this area: mal was not too far away. We could clearly see smoke on the mountains when they burned the grass to hunt wallabies.

One day, as we were rambling through the scrubs, we heard somebody chopping with an axe in the distance. Otero climbed a tree in order to give a signal to the persons chopping, for he was acquainted with the tribe that owned this “land.” He shouted at the top of his voice, the chopping ceased, and a shout was heard from the distance.

One day, as we were wandering through the bushes, we heard someone chopping wood in the distance. Otero climbed a tree to signal to the people chopping because he knew the tribe that owned this “land.” He shouted loudly, the chopping stopped, and a voice called back from afar.

Otero shouted: Ngipa ngipa Ka-au-ri!—that is, I—I [am] Ka-au-ri!

Otero shouted: I am Ka-au-ri!—that is, I—I [am] Ka-au-ri!

My blacks had already comprehended the situation. 207The man whom we had heard chopping was out in search of honey, and from this they at once made up their minds as to where his camp was, for the natives usually have regular places for camping. They also discovered his name, for they knew whose land it was. Where the women of the tribe were, and what they were doing, my men also seemed to know; for it was the season for harvesting a certain kind of fruit, and they knew where this fruit grew most abundantly.

My team already understood the situation. 207The man we had heard chopping was out looking for honey, and from this, they quickly figured out where his camp was located, since locals usually have specific camping spots. They also found out his name, as they knew whose land it was. My team seemed to know where the women of the tribe were and what they were up to; it was the season for harvesting a particular kind of fruit, and they were aware of where this fruit grew in abundance.

In other parts of Australia I have seen the people make signals with fires, indicating by the number of columns of smoke in what direction they intended to go, etc. It is said that they can also make themselves understood by the inflection of the words shouted.

In other parts of Australia, I have seen people signaling with fires, indicating their intended direction by the number of smoke columns, etc. It's said that they can also communicate through the tone of the words they shout.

It was Christmas Eve, and in honour of the day I had requested my men to do their best to procure me something good to eat. I had promised them twice the usual amount of tobacco if they were successful.

It was Christmas Eve, and to celebrate the day, I had asked my crew to do their best to get me something tasty to eat. I promised them double the usual amount of tobacco if they succeeded.

I was sitting all alone by my hut. A strange feeling came over me as I pondered on the fact that it was Christmas Eve, and that I was in the midst of an Australian forest and far away from the borders of civilisation. The summer sun had clad the neighbouring hills with a heavy carpet of green, the gloomy scrubs below had the appearance of a boundless sea, and the sun shone in all its effulgence on the fresh colours. On the summit of the mountain where I was sitting it was somewhat cooler than in the bottom of the valley, where the heat was oppressive. There was not a breath of air stirring, and the entire landscape presented a scene of refreshing repose. In the tree-tops the cicadas vociferously chanted the praises of the midsummer. All was light and cheerful,—if we had only had something to eat!

I was sitting all alone by my hut. A strange feeling came over me as I thought about the fact that it was Christmas Eve, and that I was in the middle of an Australian forest, far away from civilization. The summer sun had covered the nearby hills with a thick carpet of green, the dark scrubs below looked like a vast ocean, and the sun shone brightly on the vibrant colors. At the top of the mountain where I was sitting, it was cooler than in the valley below, where the heat was stifling. There wasn’t a breath of wind, and the whole landscape offered a sense of refreshing calm. In the treetops, the cicadas loudly celebrated midsummer. Everything felt light and cheerful—if only we had something to eat!

All I had was a piece of bread; rather slender fare for Christmas. In the afternoon the natives returned, bringing a few pieces of a rare root called vondo, some honey, and a few white larvæ. But the nicest present they brought me was an animal, which I had not seen before. The natives called it borrogo. It is a marsupial of a brownish-yellow colour, and about the size of a small cat. My menu therefore was: broiled borrogo, a small piece of bread, broiled vondo, 208and honey mixed with water. The food was not to be complained of, the only trouble being that there was not enough for so many people as we were. I could not help thinking of all the kettles in which delicious rice porridge was now boiling in far-off Norway. What would I not have given for a plate of it!

All I had was a piece of bread; a pretty meager meal for Christmas. In the afternoon, the locals came back, bringing a few pieces of a rare root called vondo, some honey, and a few white larvae. But the best gift they brought me was an animal I hadn't seen before. The locals called it borrogo. It’s a marsupial with a brownish-yellow color, about the size of a small cat. So, my menu was: grilled borrogo, a small piece of bread, grilled vondo, 208 and honey mixed with water. The food wasn’t bad; the only issue was that there wasn’t enough for all of us. I couldn’t help thinking of all the pots of delicious rice porridge that were boiling in far-off Norway. What I wouldn’t have given for a plate of it!

Thus it will be seen that it is no easy matter to sustain life in the wilds of North Australia, when one has to depend upon what he can find in the woods and on the plains. The fare of the Australian native is not well adapted to the wants of the constitution of a European. The flesh of the marsupials has a sickly taste, while talegallas and pigeons, the best game to be had, are rare. Lizards are not bad, but snakes are dry and tasteless. There are only one or two kinds of fruits or roots that can be eaten with appetite. One of them is the above-mentioned vondo, which grows in sandy soil on the summit of the scrub-clad mountains, has a stem as slender as a thread, and climbs the trees; hence is difficult for any one but a native to find it. A fig called yanki, which is yellowish in colour and semi-transparent, has an excellent flavour, but it is so rare that I did not see it more than a single time during my whole sojourn in Northern Queensland. Another variety of fig, veera, grows on the grassy plains and is more common.

So, it’s clear that surviving in the wilds of North Australia isn’t easy when you have to rely on what you can find in the woods and on the plains. The diet of the Australian native doesn't really suit the needs of a European’s constitution. The meat from marsupials has an unappealing taste, and talegallas and pigeons, the best game available, are hard to come by. Lizards are decent, but snakes are dry and flavorless. There are only a couple of types of fruits or roots that can actually be enjoyed. One of them is the vondo, which grows in sandy soil at the top of scrub-covered mountains, has a stem as thin as a thread, and climbs trees, making it hard for anyone but a local to find. There’s a fig called yanki, which is yellowish and semi-transparent, and tastes great, but it’s so rare that I only saw it once during my entire time in Northern Queensland. Another type of fig, veera, grows on the grassy plains and is more common.

One evening a dingo came stealing into the camp, and we soon discovered that it was our old runaway rogue who had abused our hospitality in so shameful a manner. The natives eagerly besought me to shoot it, and although I had a faint hope that it might be of some use to me, I finally yielded to their entreaties, and to their great satisfaction made the dingo suffer the penalty of death.

One evening, a dingo sneaked into the camp, and we quickly realized it was our old runaway troublemaker who had taken advantage of our hospitality in such a disgraceful way. The locals eagerly urged me to shoot it, and even though I had a slight hope it might be useful to me, I ultimately gave in to their pleas, and to their great satisfaction, I put the dingo to death.

On our march through the scrub I heard Otero tell one of his comrades, that in that very place he had once seen a boongary jump from a tree down on the ground and then disappear. He pointed out the tree. This report made me still more eager, but all our exertions were in vain. Meanwhile we secured a few other specimens of Australian fauna, and among them four little flying-squirrels (Petaurus breviceps), which we found lying together in a hollow tree.

On our walk through the bush, I heard Otero tell one of his friends that he had seen a boongary jump down from a tree right in that spot and then vanish. He pointed out the tree. This made me even more excited, but all our efforts were for nothing. In the meantime, we managed to collect a few other examples of Australian wildlife, including four little flying squirrels (Petaurus breviceps) that we found huddled together in a hollow tree.

It was still very difficult to secure a sufficient amount 209of food; and when Otero one day suddenly absconded, remaining longer was out of the question, for the others were all strangers in this “land,” and hence they felt unsafe and were anxious to get home.

It was still really hard to find enough food; and when Otero suddenly ran away one day, staying longer was not an option because the others were all strangers in this “land,” so they felt unsafe and wanted to go home.

The one who, next after me, had the most cause to be vexed at Otero’s flight was Yanki, his faithful relative. Yanki had on all occasions devoted himself to his Otero—had shared with him his food, his tobacco, and all other good things he had. Despite his innocent looks, Otero had now run away, and he had also taken Yanki’s shirt with him. His conduct was most disgraceful, and it illustrates how little the Australian blacks are to be depended on.

The person who had the most reason to be upset about Otero’s escape was Yanki, his loyal relative. Yanki had always dedicated himself to Otero—sharing his food, tobacco, and everything else he had. Despite his innocent appearance, Otero had now fled, taking Yanki’s shirt with him. His behavior was utterly shameful, showing just how unreliable the Australian blacks can be.

I persuaded the others to remain here one day longer, and promised them to shoot a wallaby when we reached the grassy plain. But they were of but little service to me after we had lost our guide, and we were obliged to leave, to get something to eat, if for no other reason.

I convinced the others to stay here for one more day and promised to catch a wallaby when we got to the grassy plain. But they didn't really help me much after we lost our guide, and we had to leave to find something to eat, if for no other reason.

We had to take a zigzag course to reach the bottom of Herbert river valley, so steep was the descent. A rock-wallaby ran across our path and disappeared at once. At noon we passed the great falls of the river, and made a short halt in their vicinity. The surroundings were exceedingly wild and romantic, but I confess I was too hungry to enjoy the imposing scenery. Then we followed the course of the river, and walked as fast as we were able in the high grass. All nature seemed to be fast asleep. We did not see a sign of life as we walked along the bank of the river in the scorching heat of the sun and in the tall grass. The only sound I heard was the roar of the waterfall thundering among the mountains in the distance. It has been said that an Australian landscape breathes melancholy, and the truth of this statement is fully appreciated by a person who, on a day like this, wanders amid these sober, awe-inspiring gum-trees and acacias. One’s mind cannot help being overcome by a sense of solitude and desertion.

We had to take a winding path to get to the bottom of Herbert River Valley because the slope was so steep. A rock wallaby darted across our path and vanished instantly. At noon, we passed the big falls of the river and took a short break nearby. The place was incredibly wild and picturesque, but I have to admit I was too hungry to appreciate the stunning scenery. Then we followed the riverbank and walked as quickly as we could through the tall grass. Everything in nature seemed to be completely still. We didn't see any signs of life as we made our way along the river in the blazing sun and thick grass. The only sound I could hear was the thunderous roar of the waterfall echoing through the mountains in the distance. They say that an Australian landscape exudes a sense of sadness, and anyone wandering through these solemn, awe-inspiring gum trees and acacias on a day like this can really feel that truth. It's impossible not to feel a sense of isolation and abandonment.

One or two hours before sunset and early in the morning the wallabies are in the habit of coming out to feed on the grass, and at such times it is not very difficult to get within shooting range of them; but on this particular evening they were very shy. The few that we got sight of disappeared 210again, thus frustrating all hopes of getting a good supper that night.

One or two hours before sunset and early in the morning, the wallabies usually come out to eat the grass, and during those times, it’s not too hard to get within shooting range of them. However, on this particular evening, they were very skittish. The few we spotted quickly vanished, crushing any hopes of having a nice dinner that night. 210

It was late and perfectly dark when we arrived at our old camp, where we had left our horses. I had been prudent enough to save a small piece of bread for myself, and I would have preferred as usual to share it with my men, but it was not enough to divide, and besides, I knew that the natives were able to endure hunger far better than I was.

It was late and completely dark when we got to our old camp, where we had left our horses. I had wisely saved a small piece of bread for myself, and I would have usually preferred to share it with my team, but it wasn’t enough to go around, and besides, I knew that the natives could handle hunger way better than I could.

As they had nothing to eat, I gave them a little tobacco, in order that they might have some comfort; but they put it away without smoking it, and soon laid themselves down by the fire to sleep the time away—a common habit of the blacks when it, for instance in the wet season, is difficult to secure food to allay their hunger.

As they had nothing to eat, I gave them a bit of tobacco to offer some comfort; however, they set it aside without smoking it and soon lay down by the fire to pass the time—something the Black community often does when it's tough to find food during the wet season to satisfy their hunger.

We had left the horses in a place enclosed by nature in such a manner that they could not get away. It would, therefore, be an easy matter to find them, provided they had not been killed by the natives during our long absence. There was reason to suspect this, and we were agreeably surprised when, in the darkness of the night, we heard the tinkling of the bell, and the next morning found them all safe and sound.

We had left the horses in a spot surrounded by nature in such a way that they couldn't escape. So, it would be easy to find them as long as they hadn't been killed by the locals during our long absence. There was some reason to think this might have happened, so we were pleasantly surprised when, in the darkness of the night, we heard the sound of the bell, and the next morning found them all safe and sound.

Before sunrise the next morning Ganindali and I set out to hunt the wallaby, and near the camp we discovered a large number feeding on the grass, and shot two of them. Ganindali brought one to the camp, and asked one of his comrades to fetch the other, while he and the rest began to cook the first. This produced life in the camp! Within two minutes a splendid fire was burning. One of the animals was thrown upon the burning embers, and was turned by its long tail. Ganindali acted as chief cook. When the hair was scorched off the skin, the animal was dragged out of the fire. The belly was opened with a sharp stone, and the entrails were drawn out. Four red-hot stones replaced the bowels, and the animal was placed on the cinders. As soon as it was tolerably well roasted, the blacks attacked it most greedily and tore it into pieces.

Before sunrise the next morning, Ganindali and I went out to hunt wallabies. Near the camp, we found a large group grazing on the grass and shot two of them. Ganindali carried one back to the camp and asked one of his friends to get the other, while he and the others started cooking the first one. This brought life to the camp! Within two minutes, a great fire was roaring. One of the animals was tossed onto the glowing embers, and it was turned with its long tail. Ganindali took charge as the head cook. Once the hair was burned off the skin, the animal was pulled out of the fire. Its belly was cut open with a sharp stone, and the insides were taken out. Four red-hot stones were put in place of the entrails, and the animal was set on the coals. As soon as it was pretty well cooked, the group eagerly dug in and ripped it to pieces.

Before long they had eaten their fill of the juicy meat; then they ran down to the river, waded a little way into the stream, and drank from the hollow of their hands. Having 211quenched their thirst, they returned in a leisurely way to the camp and resumed their eating. Then they sat down round the fire and began lighting their pipes. But they did not want to light their pipes with embers from the fire; they demanded matches. I did not as a rule give them matches when we sat round a blazing fire, but now, as our journey was nearly at an end, I did not begrudge them the pleasure of lighting their pipes in the same manner as the white man does, and of hearing the crack of a match. Meanwhile I, too, had finished my supper, and the unsavoury kangaroo flesh had a most excellent flavour on this occasion.

Before long, they had eaten their fill of the juicy meat; then they ran down to the river, waded a bit into the stream, and drank from the hollow of their hands. After quenching their thirst, they returned leisurely to the camp and resumed their eating. Then they sat around the fire and started lighting their pipes. However, they didn’t want to use embers from the fire; they wanted matches. Normally, I wouldn’t give them matches when we were sitting around a blazing fire, but since our journey was nearly over, I didn’t mind letting them light their pipes like white people do, enjoying the crack of a match. Meanwhile, I had also finished my dinner, and the not-so-great kangaroo meat tasted really good this time.

212

CHAPTER XVII

A wedding—Love among the Australian natives—My first meeting with Yokkai—Big eaters—An accident—Left alone with Yokkai—A difficult descent—Return to Herbert Vale—A new beetle—Friends of the animals.

A wedding—Love among the Australian natives—My first meeting with Yokkai—Big eaters—An accident—Left alone with Yokkai—A tough descent—Return to Herbert Vale—A new beetle—Friends of the animals.

On our return to Herbert Vale after a month’s absence the old keeper gave me an unusually friendly reception. He said he had repeatedly been on the point of sending some blacks to look for me, as he feared I might have been attacked by the natives.

On our return to Herbert Vale after a month away, the old keeper gave me a surprisingly warm welcome. He mentioned that he had almost sent some locals to look for me because he was worried I might have been attacked by the natives.

I experienced great satisfaction in being able to sleep comfortably and safely once more.

I felt really satisfied to be able to sleep comfortably and safely again.

The next day two natives came down from the mountains and reported that the blacks with two dogs “were killing and eating a lot of boongary up there.” The result was that I had to be off again, and I made haste to gather men and provisions; but the next day, just as we were ready to start, it began to rain. I feared that the rainy season had set in, and in that case it would be impossible to undertake an expedition. The rainy season usually lasts from three to four months, with slight interruptions, in Northern Queensland, generally commencing in January, and we were now at the beginning of this month. After a day or two, however, the rain ceased, and we started on our journey.

The next day, two locals came down from the mountains and reported that the black people with two dogs "were killing and eating a lot of boongary up there." As a result, I had to get moving again and hurried to gather men and supplies. But the following day, just as we were about to leave, it started to rain. I was worried that the rainy season had begun, and if that was the case, it would be impossible to go on an expedition. The rainy season in Northern Queensland typically lasts three to four months, with only brief breaks, and it usually starts in January. We were now at the beginning of this month. However, after a day or two, the rain stopped, and we set out on our journey.

Near Herbert Vale I had the good fortune to be able to witness a marriage among the blacks. A camp of natives was just at the point of breaking up, when an old man suddenly approached a woman, seized her by the wrist of her left hand and shouted, Yongul ngipa!—that is, This one belongs to me (literally “one I”). She resisted with feet and hands, and cried, but he dragged her off, though 213she made resistance during the whole time and cried at the top of her voice. For a mile away we could hear her shrieks. I jokingly asked some of my men if they did not want to help her, but they simply laughed at me. There had long been gossip about this match. What was now happening was simply the public declaration of the marriage, and there are no other wedding ceremonies. In this instance the match was a very appropriate one. He was a widower, she a widow. But the women always make resistance, for they do not like to leave their tribe, and in many instances they have the best of reasons for kicking their lovers. If a man thinks he is strong enough, he will take hold of any woman’s hand and utter his yongul ngipa. If a woman is good-looking, all the men want her, and the one who is most influential, or who is the strongest, is accordingly generally the victor. Thus she may happen to change husbands many times in her life, but sometimes, despite the fact that her consent is not asked, she gets the one she loves—for a black woman can love too,—and then she is very happy. It not infrequently happens that women elope with men whom they love. The black women are also capable of being jealous, and they often have bitter quarrels about men whom they love and are anxious to marry. If the husband is unfaithful, the wife frequently becomes greatly enraged. However fond a man and his wife may be of each other, they are never known to kiss each other.

Near Herbert Vale, I was fortunate enough to witness a wedding among the Indigenous people. A camp of natives was about to pack up when an elderly man suddenly approached a woman, grabbed her by the wrist of her left hand, and shouted, Yongul ngipa!—which means "This one belongs to me" (literally “one I”). She resisted with all her might and cried out, but he dragged her away, even though she fought back the entire time and screamed at the top of her lungs. We could hear her cries from a mile away. I jokingly asked some of my men if they didn't want to help her, but they just laughed at me. There had been rumors about this couple for a long time. What was happening was simply the public announcement of their marriage, and there are no other wedding ceremonies. In this case, the match was quite fitting. He was a widower and she was a widow. But women always resist because they don't want to leave their tribe, and often they have good reasons for rejecting their suitors. If a man feels strong enough, he will grab any woman's hand and declare his yongul ngipa. If a woman is attractive, all the men want her, and generally, the one who is the most influential or strongest wins. As a result, she may end up changing husbands multiple times in her life, but sometimes, despite not being asked for her consent, she ends up with the one she loves—because Black women can love too—and then she is very happy. It often happens that women run away with the men they truly love. Black women can also be jealous, leading to fierce arguments over the men they love and wish to marry. If a husband is unfaithful, the wife often becomes extremely angry. No matter how fond a man and his wife may be of each other, they are never known to kiss.

The women are more fond of a handsome face than of a good figure, though they do not despise the latter. They take particular notice of the part of the face about the eyes, and they like to see a frank and open, or perhaps more correctly a wild, expression of the countenance. They pay but little attention to a man’s size.

The women prefer a good-looking face over a fit body, although they don’t ignore the latter. They pay special attention to the area around the eyes, and they enjoy seeing a candid and straightforward, or maybe more accurately a wild, expression on a person’s face. They don't really focus on a man's size.

That these blacks also may be greatly overcome by the sentiment of love is illustrated by the following incident. A “civilised” black man entered a station on Georgina river and carried off a woman who belonged to a young black man at the station. She loved her paramour and was glad to get away from the station; but the whites desired to keep her for their black servant, as he could not be made to stay without her, and they brought her back, threatening to shoot 214the stranger if he came again. Heedless of the threat, he afterwards made a second attempt to elope with his beloved, but the white men pursued the couple and shot the poor fellow.

That these Black individuals can also be deeply affected by the feeling of love is shown by the following incident. A "civilized" Black man entered a station on the Georgina River and took away a woman who belonged to a young Black man at the station. She loved her partner and was happy to escape from the station; however, the white people wanted to keep her as their Black servant because he wouldn’t stay without her. They brought her back, threatening to shoot the stranger if he returned. Ignoring the threat, he later made a second attempt to run away with his beloved, but the white men chased the couple and shot the poor guy.

Our first camp was in a valley far up in the mountains, where we fell in with some blacks, who had just killed a very young ornithorhynchus in a brook which falls into Herbert river, and here we left our horses.

Our first camp was in a valley high in the mountains, where we ran into some locals who had just caught a very young platypus in a stream that flows into the Herbert River, and here we left our horses.

The next day as we proceeded up the valley we met two natives, who had taken part in the boongary hunt which had been reported to me. My men informed me that these two men owned one of the dogs that had been used in the chase and it was therefore of importance to secure the attendance of both the men and the dog. The one remained half concealed behind a gum-tree, but kept peeping out and laughing the whole time, while the other man stood perfectly quiet by his side. Apparently they had never before seen a white man in this part of the country, and could not comprehend what business I had there. I offered them food and tobacco, and asked if they would not take their dog and come with me. They seemed to be very anxious to do so, this being particularly the case with the one who stood behind the tree. His name was Yokkai. Although the dog was with a tribe far away, they offered to go and fetch it and join me as soon as possible, so we agreed to meet on the top of the mountain.

The next day, as we moved up the valley, we ran into two locals who had participated in the boongary hunt I had heard about. My crew told me that these two men owned one of the dogs that had been used in the chase, so it was important to get both the men and the dog to come along. One of them hid half behind a gum tree, peeking out and laughing the whole time, while the other stood completely still beside him. They had likely never seen a white man in this part of the country and couldn't understand what I was doing there. I offered them food and tobacco and asked if they would take their dog and come with me. They seemed eager to do so, especially the one hiding behind the tree. His name was Yokkai. Although the dog was far away with another tribe, they offered to go get it and join me as soon as they could, so we agreed to meet at the top of the mountain.

After a few hours’ march we came to a little tribe camping near the foot of the mountain where we hoped to find the other dog. But after the hunt the tribe had scattered in various directions, and I was consequently unable to secure many men. We encamped in the evening far up in the mountain, in order to wait for the two men with the dogs. As the weather was clear, the natives put up a hut for me alone. The strangers, who were perfectly savage, looked at my baggage with the greatest curiosity, and watched every motion of mine with intense interest.

After walking for a few hours, we reached a small tribe camping at the base of the mountain where we hoped to find the other dog. However, after the hunt, the tribe had scattered in different directions, so I couldn’t gather many men. We set up camp in the evening higher up in the mountain to wait for the two men with the dogs. Since the weather was clear, the locals built a hut just for me. The strangers, who were completely wild, examined my belongings with great curiosity and watched my every move with keen interest.

Up here I saw several nests of the beautiful king-pigeon (Megaloprepia magnifica). The nest is built near the outer end of a branch, and according to the habit of the pigeons, it is constructed very carelessly, consisting simply of a few sticks. I never found more than one egg in these nests. How the 215young keep from falling down when the wind blows is a mystery to me. The natives, who are fond of eating them, generally shake them down.

Up here, I saw several nests of the beautiful king-pigeon (Megaloprepia magnifica). The nests are built near the outer end of a branch, and, typical of pigeons, they're made quite carelessly, just using a few sticks. I never found more than one egg in these nests. I can’t figure out how the young ones don’t fall out when the wind blows. The locals, who enjoy eating them, usually shake them down.

On the summit of the mountain there were also talegallas in great numbers. My men found several of their nests, and dug out a considerable number of eggs from the large mounds. While the result of my hunt was of but little consequence, the natives were perfectly happy, and burst out in shouts of joy every time they found talegalla eggs. Once or twice we stopped to rest, and then they fairly gorged themselves with these large eggs. One man consumed fourteen of them in two hours, and yet he felt no inconvenience therefrom. It was a feast day for my men.

On the top of the mountain, there were also a lot of talegallas. My men found several of their nests and dug out quite a few eggs from the large mounds. While my hunt didn't yield much, the locals were really happy and cheered every time they found talegalla eggs. We stopped to take a break a couple of times, and they stuffed themselves with these large eggs. One guy ate fourteen of them in two hours and didn’t feel any discomfort afterward. It was a feast day for my men.

In the course of the day Willy procured me an unusually large specimen of mongan (Pseudochirus herbertensis), full grown, black as coal, with a bright white breast and white shoulders. He was proud of his conquest, and expected a fine lot of tobacco. Though I was very anxious to secure the specimen, still I told him to keep it, for I wanted to make it plain that it was boongary I was in search of.

During the day, Willy managed to get me an unusually large example of mongan (Pseudochirus herbertensis), fully grown, black as coal, with a bright white chest and white shoulders. He was proud of his catch and expected a good amount of tobacco in return. Although I was eager to get the specimen, I told him to hold onto it because I wanted to make it clear that it was boongary I was really looking for.

I soon made up my mind that these big eaters were of no use to me, and I therefore resolved to go to another tribe to find men who could be of service to me. On my way I met the two natives with the dog. They had put on their best clothes. One of them strutted about in a shirt, the other wore a woman’s hat. Articles of clothing are precious ornaments in the eyes of the blacks, and they pass from one tribe to another, from the more “civilised,” who dwell near the settlers, to the savages who have never come in contact with the white man. Ere long the hat was borrowed by my men, and several of them sported this emblem of civilisation. One of them presented a most comical figure as he strutted before me and perspired in puris naturalibus, with my gun on his shoulders and the woman’s hat aslant on his head. I could not help thinking of all the experiences of this hat on its long and eventful journey from its original white owner to these savages in the mountains.

I quickly decided that these big eaters were no good to me, so I resolved to go to another tribe to find people who could help me. On my way, I ran into the two natives with the dog. They had dressed in their best clothes. One was showing off in a shirt, while the other wore a woman's hat. Clothes are valuable treasures to the locals, and they trade them between tribes, from the more "civilized" ones living near the settlers to the savages who have never encountered white people. Before long, my men borrowed the hat, and several of them proudly wore this symbol of civilization. One of them looked particularly ridiculous as he walked in front of me, sweating in puris naturalibus, with my gun on his shoulder and the woman's hat tilted on his head. I couldn't help but think about all the experiences this hat had been through on its long and eventful journey from its original white owner to these savages in the mountains.

When we came down to the camp of the strange tribe, Willy’s game was to be prepared. It vexed me to see the 216beautiful skin scorched over the fire, for it deserved a better fate, but this could not be helped.

When we arrived at the camp of the unusual tribe, Willy's plan was ready. It frustrated me to see the beautiful skin burned over the fire, as it deserved a better end, but there was nothing we could do about it.

I still had difficulties in securing people to assist me. In addition to the two who owned the dog, I secured only four for the continuation of the journey. Willy, who was well acquainted with the “land” we were to visit, could not be persuaded to go with us. Another person whom I had positively counted on also failed me. He and I had gone out in the morning in order to find the horses and ride them home, but when we dismounted he declared that he was unable either to walk or ride any farther, and so refused to continue the journey. I became vexed at this ridiculous excuse, but his comrades took his side and assured me that he was wholly unable to take part in the expedition. The blacks doubtless suffer less pain from wounds or scratches than we do, but they are utterly lacking in endurance and in patience, and if one of them has a crack in the skin of his toe, he is the object of everybody’s sympathy and remains at home in the camp.

I still had trouble getting people to help me. Besides the two who owned the dog, I managed to find only four for the rest of the journey. Willy, who knew the “land” we were heading to well, couldn’t be convinced to come with us. Another person I had counted on also let me down. He and I had gone out in the morning to find the horses and ride them back, but when we got off, he said he couldn’t walk or ride any further, so he refused to keep going. I got annoyed at this ridiculous excuse, but his friends backed him up and insisted that he really couldn’t take part in the trip. The Black people likely feel less pain from wounds or scratches than we do, but they completely lack endurance and patience; if one of them has a small cut on their toe, everyone sympathizes with him, and he stays back in camp.

By an insignificant circumstance like this I lost another man, so that there were only five of us when we started. After a journey of two days we reached the summit of our hunting district, where we made our camp. The natives were not able to find their bearings. The only exception was Mangola-Maggi, who had twice before been with me on similar expeditions. He was not, however, an ideal man, but a lazy cunning fellow, whose highest ambition was to consume my provisions. Not only, therefore, was his acquaintance with the country of no advantage to me, but on the contrary he demoralised the others, who were lazy and silent, and utterly indifferent to the things that interested me. It may be, too, that they stood in more or less fear of the white man. Nor could they understand why a man should travel so far and have so much trouble for the sake of a boongary. The dog kept faithfully in the footsteps of its master and did not care to chase the game.

By a trivial circumstance like this, I lost another man, leaving only five of us when we started. After two days of traveling, we reached the peak of our hunting area, where we set up camp. The locals were lost and couldn't find their way. The only exception was Mangola-Maggi, who had gone with me on similar trips twice before. He wasn’t the ideal guy, though; he was a lazy, crafty character whose main goal was to eat my supplies. So, his familiarity with the land didn’t help me; instead, he brought down the morale of the others, who were lazy and quiet, completely uninterested in what I cared about. They might have also been somewhat afraid of the white man. They just couldn’t understand why someone would go so far and endure so much trouble for a boongary. The dog stayed loyally by its master’s side and wasn’t interested in chasing after any game.

It was also a source of great annoyance to me that I did not have suitable shoes. My shoes were worn out, and the soles fell off, so that I was obliged to stop several times and tie them on with bark strips of the lawyer-palm.

It was also really annoying to me that I didn't have proper shoes. My shoes were worn out, and the soles came off, so I had to stop several times and tie them on with strips of bark from the lawyer palm.

217The next day I sent two of the blacks away to look after the poisoned pieces of meat, which I had laid in various places for the yarri. I showed them a lot of tobacco, which I said I would give them if they came back with any game. Having been assured again and again that the other dog, “Balnglan,” which had been mentioned to me, was the only one fit to be used, I resolved to send two other blacks to fetch it. I gave them a lot of meat and damper, and promised them more if they brought the dog. I showed them my whole store of provisions, in order to make sure of their return.

217 The next day, I sent two of the locals to check on the poisoned pieces of meat that I had spread out in different spots for the yarri. I showed them a bunch of tobacco and promised to give it to them if they came back with any game. After being assured multiple times that the other dog, “Balnglan,” which I had been told about, was the only one suitable for use, I decided to send two other locals to get it. I gave them plenty of meat and damper, promising them more if they brought back the dog. I showed them all my supplies to ensure they would return.

Thus I was now left alone with only one of the blacks in the midst of the dense scrubs. It was Yokkai, the above-named owner of our dog. We spent the day in rambling about waiting for the return of the others. Yokkai gathered fruits and I shot a talegalla, but on our return in the evening the camp was still deserted, not even those who went to look after the poisoned meat having returned.

Thus I was now left alone with only one of the locals in the middle of the thick bushes. It was Yokkai, the person mentioned earlier who owned our dog. We spent the day wandering around, waiting for the others to come back. Yokkai collected fruits while I shot a talegalla, but when we returned in the evening, the camp was still empty; not even those who had gone to check on the poisoned meat had returned.

In the evening Yokkai prepared tobola, and ate with all his might. I also ate half a dozen roasted kernels, but I neglected to beat them before doing so. An hour afterwards I was sick and chilly, and felt very ill. I feared I had taken malarial fever, but Yokkai at once understood that the cause of my indisposition was the fact that I had eaten the tobola without beating it. He was right, and the next morning I was well again.

In the evening, Yokkai prepared tobola and ate as much as he could. I also ate half a dozen roasted kernels, but I forgot to crush them first. An hour later, I felt sick and cold, and I was really unwell. I was worried I had caught malaria, but Yokkai quickly figured out that my illness was because I had eaten the tobola without crushing it. He was right, and by the next morning, I was feeling fine again.

The four men did not return the next day, and so I was forced to the conclusion that they had deserted me. The atmosphere was clear and hot, but heavy and oppressive. Not a leaf was seen to stir, and the only sound that came to my ears was the monotonous, melancholy humming of the cicadas in the tree-tops, a sound that only served to increase the sense of desolation. The only rational being near me was Yokkai, but it was very difficult to make ourselves understood to each other; besides, he was still more or less timid. It surprised me that he, too, did not find an opportunity of stealing away. Evidently he was not sufficiently well acquainted with these regions.

The four men didn’t come back the next day, so I had to conclude that they had abandoned me. The air was clear and hot, but also heavy and stifling. Not a leaf stirred, and the only sound I could hear was the dull, sorrowful humming of the cicadas in the treetops, a noise that only amplified my sense of loneliness. The only other living being nearby was Yokkai, but we struggled to understand each other; on top of that, he was still quite timid. I was surprised that he didn’t try to slip away either. Clearly, he wasn’t familiar enough with this area.

He was a well-built man, but not strong, with something almost feminine in his looks. His forehead was 218very low and receding, still less so than the average foreheads of the blacks. For a black man, he had uncommonly beautiful eyes; hazel-brown and clear, with long eyelashes, but at times when the light fell on them in a certain way they had a bluish tinge. His nose had an upward tendency, and bore the marks of having once been broken. There were distinct scars on the rest of his body. He spoke a different dialect from that of the other blacks of Herbert Vale.

He was a well-built guy, but not particularly strong, with a look that was almost feminine. His forehead was pretty low and receding, even less so than the average foreheads of the black community. For a black man, he had exceptionally beautiful eyes; hazel-brown and clear, with long eyelashes, but sometimes when the light hit them just right, they had a bluish tint. His nose had a slight upward curve and showed signs of having been broken before. There were noticeable scars on the rest of his body. He spoke a different dialect than the other black residents of Herbert Vale.

We waited and waited. Alone we could do nothing. I did not even dare use my gun, for Yokkai might get frightened and run away.

We waited and waited. Alone, we couldn’t do anything. I didn’t even dare to use my gun, because Yokkai might get scared and run away.

When it became dark I had given up all hopes of my men returning. I was left to my fate on the summit of a steep mountain difficult of access, surrounded on all sides by dense scrubs, and thus shut out from the world. The damp air, like that of a cellar, streamed in upon me in the inky darkness. The only light I had came from my camp fire, and this illuminated Yokkai’s despairing face. If he, too, deserted me, I should have to climb down the rocks alone with my gun.

When it got dark, I had lost all hope of my men coming back. I was left to face my fate on top of a steep mountain that was hard to get to, surrounded on all sides by thick bushes, completely cut off from the world. The damp air, like that of a basement, closed in on me in the pitch-black darkness. The only light I had came from my campfire, which highlighted Yokkai's hopeless face. If he deserted me too, I'd have to climb down the rocks by myself with just my gun.

I went into my hut and tried to sleep. I then observed that my tomahawk was not in its place, and I asked Yokkai, who had borrowed it during the day, where he had put it. He did not know, and began to look for it. After he had searched for it everywhere, both in-doors and out-of-doors, and after I had given up all hopes of getting it back, he suddenly, to my great surprise, found it in his own hut. This was rather suspicious, and I scarcely knew what to make of it. Perhaps I misjudged Yokkai, but I feared that my provisions—a large bag of meat—were a greater temptation than he could bear, and I was well aware that the Australian natives do not hesitate to sacrifice the life of a man to satisfy their desires. Meanwhile I concealed the tomahawk, and decided to rise early the next morning and watch him so that he might not run away.

I went into my hut and tried to sleep. Then I noticed that my tomahawk was missing, so I asked Yokkai, who had borrowed it during the day, where he had put it. He didn’t know and started looking for it. After he searched everywhere, both inside and outside, and I had given up hope of getting it back, he suddenly, to my surprise, found it in his own hut. This seemed a bit suspicious, and I hardly knew what to think about it. Maybe I was misjudging Yokkai, but I feared that my provisions—a big bag of meat—were too tempting for him to resist, and I knew that the Australian natives wouldn’t hesitate to take a life to satisfy their desires. In the meantime, I hid the tomahawk and planned to wake up early the next morning to keep an eye on him so he wouldn’t run away.

I slept quietly that night, and rose early the next morning, and then waked my companion, whereupon we at once got ready for the descent. I promised him plenty of food and tobacco if he would assist me in carrying my 219baggage. Strange to say, he agreed to this, and he helped me faithfully during the whole day.

I slept soundly that night and woke up early the next morning, then I roused my companion. Right away, we started preparing for the descent. I promised him a lot of food and tobacco if he would help me carry my 219baggage. Surprisingly, he agreed, and he helped me out all day long.

During this difficult descent I discovered that Yokkai was no common black man, and before I reached my headquarters I had formed a very high opinion of him. From that time he was my constant companion until I left Herbert river, and during these many months he was of great help and service to me; nay, he even saved my life several times, and he was at all times faithful and devoted to me. Still I could not place full confidence even in him, and I was always obliged to be cautious in regard to him; for he had a flighty temperament, and I was not sure but that his black companions might at any time persuade him to betray me, and find some opportunity of taking my life.

During this tough descent, I realized that Yokkai wasn’t just any ordinary black man, and by the time I got to my headquarters, I had developed a really high opinion of him. From that moment on, he was my constant companion until I left Herbert River, and during those many months, he was incredibly helpful and supportive; in fact, he even saved my life several times, and he was always loyal and devoted to me. Despite that, I couldn’t fully trust him, and I always had to be cautious around him; he had a restless personality, and I wasn’t sure if his black friends could convince him to turn against me or find a way to take my life.

Yokkai was not so lazy as the other blacks with whom I had had to deal. Upon the whole, though active and lively, and far more frank and emotional than the other natives, he was cunning and had a perception quick as lightning and a good understanding. When I asked him to do anything, he never grumbled, but was attentive and helpful, and frequently did things without being asked to do them.

Yokkai wasn't as lazy as the other Black individuals I had encountered. Overall, while he was active and lively, and much more open and emotional than the other locals, he was also clever and had a sharp perception and good understanding. When I asked him to do something, he never complained; instead, he was attentive and helpful, often taking the initiative to do things without needing to be asked.

He thought the descent proceeded rather slowly, and repeatedly urged me to quicken my steps or we would not reach the foot of the mountain before night. But the march was a severe one. I frequently had to crawl on my hands and feet and drag the baggage after me. Add to this, that my boots were in the worst possible condition. Yokkai was now and then obliged to find strips of bark with which to fasten the soles on. If we waded across a river I had at least this advantage, that the water ran out of my boots as fast as it came into them. Sometimes leeches would creep in through the holes in my socks and fasten themselves between my toes.

He thought the descent was going pretty slowly and kept urging me to pick up the pace, or we wouldn’t reach the bottom of the mountain before nightfall. But the trek was tough. I often had to crawl on my hands and knees and drag my gear behind me. On top of that, my boots were in terrible shape. Yokkai had to find strips of bark now and then to patch the soles. If we crossed a river, at least I had the advantage of the water draining out of my boots as quickly as it got in. Sometimes, leeches would find their way in through the holes in my socks and latch onto my toes.

A short time before sunset we reached the foot of the mountain, and having rested there, we finally arrived at the station in safety.

A little while before sunset, we got to the bottom of the mountain, and after taking a break there, we finally made it to the station safely.

The rainy season had set in, but much rain had not yet fallen. Meanwhile wet weather might be looked for any day. It was, therefore, impossible to think of undertaking 220long expeditions. We might run the risk of finding our return cut off, for the heavy rains make the rivers utterly impassable. During this season the blacks stay on the grassy plains, and are unwilling to visit the scrubs. The animals, and all nature for that matter, were now one scene of restlessness. It was evident that we were in the transition between two seasons. The birds of passage had nested, or hatched their young, and were only waiting for cooler weather to start for the north. The Torres-Strait pigeons (Carpophaga spilorrhoa) were now very numerous, and had nests everywhere in the trees.

The rainy season had begun, but not much rain had actually fallen yet. Meanwhile, we could expect wet weather any day now. Because of this, it was impossible to think about going on long trips. We might risk being unable to get back, as the heavy rains make the rivers completely unpassable. During this season, the locals stay on the grassy plains and aren’t keen on visiting the scrublands. The animals, and nature in general, were all restless. It was clear we were in a transition between two seasons. The migratory birds had nested or hatched their young and were just waiting for cooler weather to head north. The Torres-Strait pigeons (Carpophaga spilorrhoa) were now very abundant, with nests all over the trees.

During the expeditions I made in the neighbourhood of the station I succeeded in securing a number of interesting specimens for my collection. I also shot a snipe and a white kite of the same kind as that which I secured in Western Queensland (Elanus axillaris). The blacks brought me a fine specimen of the beautiful black and white ngalloa (Dactylopsila trivirgata), which is as fond of honey as the natives themselves. This rare animal, which also occurs in New Guinea, is not found south of Herbert river.

During my expeditions around the station, I managed to gather a number of interesting specimens for my collection. I also shot a snipe and a white kite, similar to the one I got in Western Queensland (Elanus axillaris). The locals brought me a beautiful specimen of the striking black and white ngalloa (Dactylopsila trivirgata), which loves honey just like the natives do. This rare animal, which can also be found in New Guinea, isn't present south of the Herbert River.

I gathered several beautiful beetles both in the trees and in the grass. Thus I found in the grass near Herbert river, near the end of December 1882, a beautiful beetle, a Stigmodera (see coloured plate), which is new to science. The head and the under side of the body are of a metallic green; the thorax is nearly a purple-blue. The wing-cases are yellow a little more than one-third from the base; the rest is dark blue with a red band about a third of the distance from the point, the band being narrowest at the centre. Underneath, the body has five yellow spots on each side. The length of the beetle is one inch. I would suggest that it be denominated Stigmodera alternata.

I collected several beautiful beetles from both the trees and the grass. Near the end of December 1882, I found a stunning beetle in the grass by the Herbert River, a Stigmodera (see colored plate), which is new to science. The head and underside of the body are a metallic green, while the thorax is almost a purple-blue. The wing cases are yellow for a little over one-third from the base; the rest is dark blue with a red band about a third of the way from the tip, the band being narrowest in the center. On the underside, the body has five yellow spots on each side. The beetle measures one inch in length. I propose that it be named Stigmodera alternata.

One day I observed a peculiarity of conduct, which shows what respect the natives may have for the relations of their wives. I was walking with one of my men in the scrub, when we discovered thousands of flying-foxes (Pteropus) hanging down in long strings from the branches. My companion urged me to shoot some of these animals for him, though I had no use for them and did not care to frighten the game I was pursuing; but he persisted in his 221request, and explained to me what a delicate morsel these animals would be for him, especially now, as he was so hungry. At length I yielded to his requests and shot three of the flying-foxes. On our way home we met an old man who was returning from the chase, and my companion surprised me by immediately throwing the three animals to the old man, who was exceedingly glad to get them. To my question why he did not himself keep what I had shot for him, he replied that the stranger was his wife’s uncle. Though himself hungry, he wanted to show magnanimity to his uncle, from whom he had received his wife, and he was anxious to give some proof of the gratitude he owed him. This young man had not stolen his wife, nor did he have any sister or daughter to give in exchange. He must, therefore, have obtained her in some other way. I have reasons for believing that certain peculiar laws exist, known only to the blacks, according to which women even from their birth are intended for certain men. The man who has obtained a wife in this manner shows his gratitude to her relatives by gifts of food, tobacco, and other things.

One day I noticed something unusual that shows how much respect the locals have for their wives' relatives. I was walking with one of my guys in the bush when we came across thousands of flying foxes (Pteropus) hanging from the branches in long lines. My companion urged me to shoot some of these animals for him, even though I had no use for them and didn't want to scare off the game I was after. But he kept insisting, explaining how delicious these animals would be for him, especially since he was so hungry. Eventually, I gave in to his requests and shot three of the flying foxes. On our way home, we ran into an old man who was coming back from the hunt, and my companion surprised me by immediately handing the three animals to the old man, who was incredibly happy to receive them. When I asked him why he didn't keep what I had shot for him, he told me that the old man was his wife’s uncle. Despite being hungry himself, he wanted to show generosity to his uncle, from whom he had received his wife, and he felt it was important to show some gratitude. This young man didn’t steal his wife, nor did he have any sister or daughter to exchange. He must have gotten her through some other way. I have reason to believe that there are certain unique laws known only to the Indigenous people that determine which men the women are meant for from birth. The man who gets a wife in this way shows his appreciation to her family with gifts of food, tobacco, and other items.

The weather continued to grow more variable, and in the evenings we frequently had heavy thunderstorms. At Herbert Vale everything was quiet as usual. The only change I observed was that the natives about the station had become much more bold than they were before. They entered everywhere, stole potatoes from the garden and meat from the kitchen. They usually stole into the kitchen in the twilight of the evening, and there took what they could find.

The weather kept changing, and in the evenings we often had intense thunderstorms. At Herbert Vale, everything was calm as usual. The only difference I noticed was that the locals around the station were much bolder than before. They wandered in everywhere, stealing potatoes from the garden and meat from the kitchen. They typically snuck into the kitchen during the twilight hours and grabbed whatever they could find.

One evening we caught in the kitchen a half-tame opossum (Ir. vulpecula). It made the most violent resistance, and wanted to get away from us. One of the blacks then offered to quiet it. He seized it with one hand and held it close to him, while with the other hand he gathered perspiration from his armpits and rubbed it on the nose of the opossum. This did not, however, seem to do any good, for the animal was as wild as ever. I take this opportunity of remarking that the civilised blacks have a remarkable talent for gaining the goodwill of the domestic animals of Europe, especially of horses. No matter how wild and 222unmanageable a horse may be, they make it so gentle that a white man will scarcely care to ride so dull a beast. More than once did I get vexed at Nelly for spoiling my dog; for she used to take it into her lap to hunt fleas, and would keep it on her knees by the hour and eat the fleas she found.

One evening, we spotted a half-tame opossum (Ir. vulpecula) in the kitchen. It resisted strongly and tried to escape from us. One of the Indigenous men then offered to calm it down. He grabbed it with one hand and held it close, while using the other hand to gather sweat from his armpits and rubbed it on the opossum's nose. However, this didn’t seem to help, as the animal remained just as wild. I want to note that the settled Indigenous people have a unique skill for winning the affection of domestic animals from Europe, especially horses. No matter how wild and unmanageable a horse is, they can make it so gentle that a white person wouldn’t want to ride such a dull beast. More than once, I got annoyed with Nelly for spoiling my dog; she used to take it into her lap to hunt for fleas and would keep it on her knees for hours, eating the fleas she found.

During my sojourn at Herbert Vale a woman offered to sell me a bird, which she had deprived of the power of flight by plucking out the feathers of the wings and tail. She laughed at and was merry over the poor bird, which was unable to fly away. The natives may often appear cruel toward animals and birds, though it is not their intention to give pain to the game they capture. It amuses them to see maimed animals making desperate efforts to get away. As a rule they kill the animal at once, not for the purpose of relieving it from pain, but simply to make sure of their game. On many occasions I observed how the blacks amused themselves by watching kangaroos whose hind legs had been maimed struggling in vain to get away.

During my stay at Herbert Vale, a woman tried to sell me a bird that she had made unable to fly by pulling out its wing and tail feathers. She laughed and seemed to enjoy the plight of the poor bird, which couldn’t escape. The locals might seem cruel to animals and birds, but they don’t mean to cause pain to the creatures they catch. They get a kick out of watching injured animals desperately try to flee. Usually, they kill the animal right away, not to spare it from suffering, but just to ensure they have their catch. I often saw the locals entertained by watching kangaroos with injured back legs struggling hopelessly to get away.

Any studied cruelty toward the white men is out of the question. They do not, like the Indians, use torture, for they are anxious to take the life of their enemies as quickly as possible.

Any deliberate cruelty towards white men is out of the question. They don't, like the Indians, resort to torture, as they prefer to end the lives of their enemies as swiftly as possible.

Cicada aurora.

Cicada aurora.

223

CHAPTER XVIII

Native politeness—How a native uses a newspaper—“Fat” living—Painful joy—Boongary, boongary—Veracity of the natives—A short joy—A perfect cure—An offer of marriage—Refusal.

Native politeness—How a native uses a newspaper—“Fat” living—Painful joy—Boongary, boongary—Truthfulness of the natives—A brief joy—A complete cure—A marriage proposal—Rejection.

The blacks had for several days been talking about a dance to be held in a remote valley.

The Black community had been discussing a dance that was going to take place in a secluded valley for several days.

A tribe had learned a new song and new dances, and was going to make an exhibition of what it had learned to a number of people. The Herbert Vale tribe had received a special invitation to be present, and the natives assured me that there would be great fun. My action was determined by the fact that Nilgŏra, who owned the splendid dog “Balnglan,” already mentioned, would be there. But I had my misgivings on account of the horses, for as we were in the midst of the rainy season, I ran some risk of not being able to bring them back again.

A tribe had learned a new song and new dances, and was going to showcase what it had learned to a crowd. The Herbert Vale tribe received a special invitation to attend, and the locals assured me it would be a lot of fun. My decision was influenced by the fact that Nilgŏra, who owned the impressive dog “Balnglan,” would be there. However, I was worried about the horses, as we were in the middle of the rainy season and I risked not being able to bring them back.

Early one morning we set out, a large party of men, women, and children. A short time before reaching our destination we were met by a number of natives, for they expected us that night. Some of the strangers were old acquaintances of my people, but this fact was not noticeable, for they exchanged no greetings. In fact an Australian native does not know what it is to extend a greeting. When two acquaintances meet, they act like total strangers, and do not even say “good-day” to each other. Nor do they shake hands. After they have been together for some time they show the first signs of joy over their meeting.

Early one morning, we set off as a big group of men, women, and children. Just before we reached our destination, we were greeted by several locals who were expecting us that evening. Some of the newcomers were familiar faces to my people, but you couldn't really tell, as they didn't exchange any greetings. In fact, an Australian native doesn’t really understand the concept of saying hello. When two people who know each other meet, they act like complete strangers and don’t even say “good day.” They also don’t shake hands. After they’ve spent some time together, they start to show the first signs of happiness about seeing each other.

If a black man desires to show how glad he is to meet his old friend, he sits down, takes his friend’s head into his lap, and begins to look for the countless little animals that annoy the natives, and which they are fond of eating. When 224the one has had his head cleaned in this manner, the two change places, and the other is treated with the same politeness. I accustomed myself to many of the habits of the natives during my sojourn among these children of nature, but this revolting operation, I confess, was a great annoyance to me. A more emphatic sign of joy at meeting again is given by uttering shrieks of lamentation on account of the arrival of strangers to the camp. I was frequently surprised at hearing shrieks of this sort in the evenings, and found upon examination that they were uttered in honour of some stranger who had arrived in the course of the day. This peculiar salutation did not last more than a few moments, but was repeated several evenings in succession during the visit of the stranger. The highest token of joy on such occasions is shown by cutting their bodies in some way or other.

If a Black man wants to show how happy he is to see his old friend, he sits down, takes his friend’s head in his lap, and starts looking for the countless little bugs that annoy the locals, which they like to eat. When one person has had his head cleaned like this, they switch places, and the other person is treated with the same kindness. I got used to many of the customs of the locals during my time among these people, but I have to admit that this unpleasant act was a major annoyance to me. A more pronounced sign of joy upon reuniting is expressed by letting out shrieks of mourning because of the arrival of newcomers in the camp. I was often surprised to hear these kinds of shrieks in the evenings and found out upon checking that they were in honor of some stranger who had arrived that day. This unique greeting only lasts a few moments but is repeated several evenings in a row during the stranger’s visit. The highest expression of joy in such situations is shown by marking their bodies in some way.

Later in the afternoon we arrived in the valley where the dance was to be. Those who were to take part in the dance had already been encamped there for several days. We had also taken time by the forelock, for the festivities were not to begin before the next evening. Several new arrivals were expected in the course of the next day, among them Nilgora. A proposition was made that two men should be sent to meet him on the mountain and request him to look for boongary on the way down, and early the next morning before sunrise they actually started after being supplied with a little tobacco.

Later in the afternoon, we arrived in the valley where the dance was going to take place. Those participating in the dance had already been camped there for several days. We had also been proactive since the festivities weren’t set to begin until the next evening. A few new arrivals were expected the following day, including Nilgora. A suggestion was made to send two men to meet him on the mountain and ask him to look for boongary on the way down, and early the next morning, just before sunrise, they actually set off after being given a bit of tobacco.

My men and I had encamped about 200 paces from the others. I made a larger and more substantial hut than was my usual custom. It did not reach higher than my chest, but the roof was made very thick and tight on account of the rain. At first the blacks were very timid, but gradually the bravest ones among them began to approach my hut. As was their wont, they examined everything with the greatest curiosity. Yokkai walked about in the most conscious manner possible, and assumed an air of knowing everything. He brought water from the brook, put the tin pail over the fire, and accompanied by one or two admirers, went down to the brook to wash the salt out of some salt beef which was to be boiled. The matches, the great amount of tobacco, my pocket handkerchief, my clothes, and my boots,—all 225made the deepest impression upon the savages. After unpacking, a newspaper was left on the ground. One of the natives sat down and put it over his shoulders like a shawl, examining himself to see how he looked in it; but when he noticed the flimsy nature of the material, he carelessly let it slip down upon the ground again.

My men and I set up camp about 200 steps away from the others. I built a bigger and sturdier hut than I usually would. It wasn't taller than my chest, but the roof was really thick and snug because of the rain. At first, the locals were pretty shy, but over time, the bravest among them started to come closer to my hut. As they usually do, they checked everything out with great curiosity. Yokkai walked around as confidently as he could, acting like he knew everything. He fetched water from the stream, put the metal bucket over the fire, and along with a couple of admirers, went down to the stream to rinse the salt off some salted beef that was going to be cooked. The matches, the big stash of tobacco, my handkerchief, my clothes, and my boots—all made a big impression on the locals. After unpacking, a newspaper was left on the ground. One of the natives sat down and draped it over his shoulders like a shawl, checking himself out to see how he looked in it; but when he realized how flimsy the material was, he just let it fall to the ground again.

My white woollen blanket provoked their greatest admiration, which they expressed by smacking with their tongues, and exclaiming in ecstasy: Tamin, tamin!—that is, Fat, fat! The idea of “excellent” is expressed by the natives, as in certain European languages, by the word “fat.”

My white wool blanket got their biggest admiration, which they showed by clicking their tongues and shouting in excitement: Tamin, tamin!—that is, Fat, fat! The natives express the idea of “excellent” with the word “fat,” similar to some European languages.

It is an interesting fact that, much as the civilised Australian blacks like fat, they can never be persuaded to eat pork. “There is too much devil in it,” they say.

It’s interesting to note that, even though the civilized Australian Blacks enjoy fatty foods, they can never be convinced to eat pork. “There’s too much devil in it,” they say.

At noon I heard continuous lamentations, but as I supposed they were for some one deceased, I paid but little attention to them at first. Lamentations for the dead, however, usually take place in the evening, and so I decided to go and find out what was going on. Outside of a hut I found an old woman in the most miserable plight. She had torn and scratched her body with a sharp stone, so that the blood was running and became blended with the tears, which were flowing down her cheeks as she sobbed aloud.

At noon, I heard constant wailing, but I thought it was just someone mourning a death, so I didn’t pay much attention at first. However, mourning usually happens in the evening, so I decided to go check it out. Outside a hut, I found an old woman in very bad shape. She had scratched and torn her body with a sharp stone, and blood was dripping down, mixing with the tears running down her cheeks as she cried out loudly.

Uncertain as to the cause of all this lamentation, I entered the hut, and there I found a strong young woman, lying half on her back and half on her side, playing with a child. I approached her. She turned her handsome face toward me, and showed me a pair of roguish eyes and teeth as white as snow, a very pleasing but utterly incomprehensible contrast to the pitiful scene outside. I learned that the young woman inside was a daughter of the old woman, who had not seen her child for a long time, and now gave expression to her joy in this singular manner. I expressed my surprise that the old woman’s face did not beam with joy, but this seemed to be strange language to them. These children of nature must howl when they desire to express deep feeling.

Uncertain about the reason for all the crying, I entered the hut, where I found a strong young woman lying half on her back and half on her side, playing with a child. I approached her. She turned her beautiful face toward me, revealing a pair of mischievous eyes and teeth as white as snow, a very striking yet completely baffling contrast to the sad scene outside. I discovered that the young woman inside was the daughter of the old woman, who had not seen her child for a long time and was now expressing her joy in this unusual way. I mentioned my surprise that the old woman’s face didn’t shine with happiness, but this seemed like strange talk to them. These children of nature must howl when they want to show deep emotions.

Night was approaching, the sun was already setting behind the horizon, the air was very hot and oppressive, and 226it was evident that there would soon be a thunderstorm. The blacks sat at home in their huts or sauntered lazily from place to place, waiting until it became cool enough for the dance to begin. I had just eaten my dinner, and was enjoying the shade in my hut, while my men were lying round about smoking their pipes, when there was suddenly heard a shout from the camp of the natives. My companions rose, turned their faces toward the mountain, and shouted, Boongary, boongary! A few black men were seen coming out of the woods and down the green slope as fast as their legs could carry them. One of them had a large dark animal on his back.

Night was coming, the sun was setting behind the horizon, the air was hot and heavy, and 226 it was clear that a thunderstorm would hit soon. The Black people were either inside their huts or wandering around slowly, waiting for it to cool down enough for the dance to start. I had just finished my dinner and was enjoying the shade in my hut while my men were lounging around smoking their pipes when suddenly we heard a shout from the native camp. My companions stood up, turned their faces toward the mountain, and shouted, Boongary, boongary! A few Black men emerged from the woods and rushed down the green slope as fast as they could. One of them carried a large dark animal on his back.

Was it truly a boongary? I soon caught sight of the dog “Balnglan” running in advance and followed by Nilgora, a tall powerful man.

Was it really a boongary? I quickly saw the dog “Balnglan” running ahead, followed by Nilgora, a tall and strong man.

The dark animal was thrown on the ground at my feet, but none of the blacks spoke a word. They simply stood waiting for presents from me.

The dark animal was thrown to the ground at my feet, but none of the Black people said a word. They just stood there waiting for gifts from me.

At last, then, I had a boongary, which I had been seeking so long. It is not necessary to describe my joy at having this animal, hitherto a stranger to science, at my feet. Of course I did not forget the natives who had brought me so great a prize. To Nilgora I gave a shirt, to the man who had carried the boongary, a handkerchief, and to all, food. Nor did I omit to distribute tobacco.

At last, I had a boongary, which I had been searching for so long. I don't need to explain how happy I was to finally have this animal, previously unknown to science, at my feet. Of course, I didn’t forget the locals who brought me such an amazing find. I gave Nilgora a shirt, the man who carried the boongary a handkerchief, and food to everyone. I also made sure to share some tobacco.

I at once began to skin the animal, but first I had to loosen the withies with which its legs had been tied for the men to carry it. The ends of these withies or bands rested against the man’s forehead, while the animal hung down his back, so that, as is customary among the Australians, the whole weight rested on his head.

I immediately started to skin the animal, but first, I needed to untie the ropes that had been used to secure its legs so the men could carry it. The ends of these ropes rested against the man’s forehead while the animal hung down his back, so, as is typical among Australians, all the weight was on his head.

I at once saw that it was a tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus). It was very large, but still I had expected to find a larger animal, for according to the statements of the natives, a full-grown specimen was larger than a wallaby—that is to say, about the size of a sheep. This one proved to be a young male.

I immediately recognized it as a tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus). It was quite large, but I had anticipated finding a bigger animal because, according to what the locals said, an adult was larger than a wallaby—about the size of a sheep, in fact. This one turned out to be a young male.

Harald Jensen lith. Hoffensberg & Trap Etabl.

DENDROLAGUS LUMHOLTZII. N.SP.

Harald Jensen lithographer. Hoffensberg & Trap Established

DENDROLAGUS LUMHOLTZII. N.SP.

227The tree-kangaroo is without comparison a better proportioned animal than the common kangaroo. The forefeet, which are nearly as perfectly developed as the hind-feet, have large crooked claws, while the hind-feet are somewhat like those of a kangaroo, though not so powerful. The sole of the foot is somewhat broader and more elastic, on account of a thick layer of fat under the skin. In soft ground its footprints are very similar to those of a child. The ears are small and erect, and the tail is as long as the body of the animal. The skin is tough, and the fur is very strong and beautiful. The colour of the male is a yellowish-brown, that of the female and of the young is grayish, but the head, the feet, and the under side of the tail are black. Thus it will be seen that this tree-kangaroo is more variegated in colour than those species which are found in New Guinea.

227The tree-kangaroo is clearly a better-proportioned animal than the common kangaroo. Its forefeet are almost as well-developed as its hind feet and have large, curved claws, while the hind feet are similar to those of a kangaroo, although not as strong. The sole of the foot is a bit wider and more flexible due to a thick layer of fat beneath the skin. In soft ground, its footprints resemble those of a child. The ears are small and stand upright, and the tail is as long as the body. The skin is tough, and the fur is strong and beautiful. The male is a yellowish-brown, while the female and young are grayish, but the head, feet, and underside of the tail are black. This shows that the tree-kangaroo has a more varied coloration than the species found in New Guinea.

Upon the whole, the boongary is the most beautiful mammal I have seen in Australia. It is a marsupial, and goes out only in the night. During the day it sleeps in the trees, and feeds on the leaves. It is able to jump down from a great height and can run fast on the ground. So far as my observation goes, it seems to live exclusively in one very lofty kind of tree, which is very common on the Coast Mountains, but of which I do not know the name. During rainy weather the boongary prefers the young low trees, and always frequents the most rocky and inaccessible localities. It always stays near the summit of the mountains, and frequently far from water, and hence the natives assured me that it never went down to drink.

Overall, the boongary is the most beautiful mammal I've seen in Australia. It's a marsupial that only comes out at night. During the day, it sleeps in the trees and eats leaves. It can jump down from a great height and run quickly on the ground. From what I've observed, it seems to live mainly in one very tall type of tree, which is quite common in the Coast Mountains, but I don’t know its name. During rainy weather, the boongary prefers younger, shorter trees and often hangs out in the most rocky and hard-to-reach places. It always stays near the top of the mountains and often far from water, which is why the locals told me that it never goes down to drink.

During the hot season it is much bothered with flies, and then, in accordance with statements made to me by the savages, it is discovered by the sound of the blow by which it kills the fly. In the night, they say, the boongary can be heard walking in the trees.

During the hot season, it has a lot of trouble with flies, and according to what the locals told me, you can hear the sound it makes when it kills the fly. At night, they say you can hear the boongary walking in the trees.

I had finished skinning the animal, and so I put a lot of arsenic on the skin and laid it away to dry in the roof of my hut, where I thought it would be safe, and placed the skin there in such a way that it was protected on all sides.

I had finished skinning the animal, so I covered the skin with a lot of arsenic and set it aside to dry on the roof of my hut, where I thought it would be safe, positioning the skin in a way that it was protected on all sides.

Meanwhile my men had gone down to witness the dance. Happy over my day’s success I too decided to go thither and amuse myself, but before I had prepared the skin with arsenic and could get away, darkness had already set in, and the dancing was postponed until the moon was up. The 228natives had in the meantime retired to their camps until the dance was to begin again.

Meanwhile, my men had gone down to watch the dance. Feeling pleased with my day's success, I decided to join them for some fun. But before I could finish preparing the skin with arsenic and leave, it was already dark, and the dancing was postponed until the moon came up. The 228natives had meanwhile gone back to their camps until the dance was set to start again.

The tribe that was to give the dance had its camp farthest away, while the other tribes, who were simply spectators, had made their camps near mine. There was lively conversation among the huts. All were seated round the camp fires and had nothing to do, the women with their children in their laps, and those who had pipes smoking tobacco. I went from one group to the other and chatted with them; they liked to talk with me, for they invariably expected me to give them tobacco. Occasions like this are valuable for obtaining information from the natives. Still, it is difficult to get any trustworthy facts, for they are great liars, not to mention their tendency to exaggerate greatly when they attempt to describe anything. Besides, they have no patience to be examined, and they do not like to be asked the same thing twice. It takes time to learn to understand whether they are telling the truth or not, and how to coax information out of them. The best way is to mention the thing you want to know in the most indifferent manner possible. The best information is secured by paying attention to their own conversations. If you ask them questions, they simply try to guess what answers you would like, and then they give such responses as they think will please you. This is the reason why so many have been deceived by the savages, and this is the source of all the absurd stories about the Australian blacks.

The tribe that was set to perform the dance had their camp farthest away, while the other tribes, just there to watch, had pitched their camps close to mine. There was lively conversation among the huts. Everyone was gathered around the campfires, having nothing to do, with women holding their children in their laps and those with pipes smoking tobacco. I went from one group to another and chatted with them; they enjoyed talking to me because they always expected me to give them tobacco. Events like this are useful for gathering information from the locals. Still, it's tough to get any reliable facts since they tend to lie a lot and often exaggerate when trying to describe things. Plus, they can’t stand being questioned and don’t like to be asked the same thing twice. It takes time to figure out whether they’re being honest or not, and how to get them to share information. The best approach is to bring up what you want to know in the most casual way possible. The most accurate information comes from listening to their own conversations. If you ask them direct questions, they usually just try to guess what answers you’d like to hear, giving responses they think will make you happy. This is why so many have been misled by the locals, and it’s the reason behind all the ridiculous stories about the Australian blacks.

Among the huts the camp fires were burning, and outside of the camp it was dark as pitch, so that the figures of the natives were drawn like silhouette pictures in fantastic groups against the dark background.

Among the huts, the campfires were burning, and outside the camp it was pitch dark, which made the figures of the natives look like silhouette images in striking groups against the dark background.

It amused me to make these visits, but my thoughts were chiefly occupied with the great event of the day. In the camp there were several dingoes, and although the boongary skin was carefully put away, I did not feel perfectly safe in regard to it. I therefore returned at once to look after my treasure; I stepped quickly into my hut, and thrust my hand in among the leaves to see whether the skin was safe; but imagine my dismay when I found that it was gone.

It was entertaining to make these visits, but my mind was mostly on the big event of the day. There were several dingoes in the camp, and even though I had securely stashed away the boongary skin, I didn’t feel completely safe about it. So, I quickly went back to check on my treasure; I hurried into my hut and reached among the leaves to see if the skin was okay; but I was horrified to find that it was missing.

ALL THE DOGS WERE PRODUCED.

ALL THE DOGS WERE MADE.

229I was perfectly shocked. Who could have taken the skin? I at once called the blacks, among whom the news spread like wild-fire, and after looking for a short time one of them came running with a torn skin, which he had found outside the camp. The whole head, a part of the tail and legs, were eaten. It was my poor boongary skin that one of the dingoes had stolen and abused in this manner. I had no better place to put it, so I laid it back again in the same part of the roof, and then, sad and dejected in spirits, I sauntered down to the natives again.

229I was completely shocked. Who could have taken the skin? I immediately called the locals, and the news spread like wildfire. After a short search, one of them came running back with a torn skin that he had found outside the camp. The whole head, part of the tail, and legs were eaten. It was my poor boongary skin that one of the dingoes had stolen and messed up like this. I didn’t have a better place for it, so I put it back in the same spot on the roof, and then feeling sad and downhearted, I walked back to the natives.

Here every one tried to convince me that it was not his dog that was the culprit. All the dogs were produced, and each owner kept striking his dog’s belly to show that it was empty, in his eagerness to prove its innocence. Finally a half-grown cur was produced. The owner laid it on its back, seized it by the belly once or twice, and exclaimed, Ammery, ammery!—that is, Hungry, hungry! But his abuse of the dog soon acted as an emetic, and presently a mass of skin-rags was strewed on the ground in front of it.

Here, everyone tried to convince me that it wasn’t his dog that was the culprit. All the dogs were brought out, and each owner kept hitting their dog’s belly to show that it was empty, eager to prove its innocence. Finally, a half-grown mutt was brought forward. The owner laid it on its back, grabbed its belly a couple of times, and exclaimed, Ammery, ammery!—that is, Hungry, hungry! But his mistreatment of the dog soon made it sick, and soon a mass of skin and rags was scattered on the ground in front of it.

My first impulse was to gather them up, but they were chewed so fine that they were useless. As the skin had been thoroughly prepared with arsenic, it was of importance to me to save the life of the dog, otherwise I would never again be able to borrow another.

My first instinct was to pick them up, but they were chewed up so much that they were useless. Since the skin had been treated with arsenic, it was crucial for me to save the dog's life; otherwise, I would never be able to borrow another again.

Besides, I had a rare opportunity of increasing the respect of the natives for me. I told them that the dog had eaten kóla—that is, wrath—as they called poison, and as my men had gradually learned to look at it with great awe, it would elevate me in their eyes if I could save the life of the dog. I made haste to mix tobacco and water. This I poured into the dog, and thus caused it to vomit up the remainder of the poisoned skin. The life of the dog was saved, and all joined in the loudest praises of what I had done. They promised me the loan of “Balnglan” again, and thus I had hopes of securing another boongary; of course they added as a condition that I must give them a lot of tobacco.

Besides, I had a rare opportunity to boost the respect of the locals for me. I told them that the dog had eaten kóla—which they referred to as wrath, meaning poison—and since my men had gradually come to view it with great fear, it would raise my status in their eyes if I could save the dog's life. I quickly mixed tobacco and water, which I poured into the dog, causing it to vomit up the rest of the poisoned skin. The dog's life was saved, and everyone praised what I had done. They promised to lend me “Balnglan” again, giving me hope of securing another boongary; of course, they added that I had to give them a lot of tobacco.

The next morning early I persuaded them to get ready for the chase, but they did not want me to go with them, as the dog was afraid of the white man.

The next morning, I got them to prepare for the chase, but they didn’t want me to join them since the dog was scared of the white man.

Most of the blacks remained to witness the dance, for 230the camp was in a festive mood, and in the morning before daylight I was awakened by the noise. As soon as the weather became hot, they again gathered in groups under the shady trees, where they chatted in idleness until it became cool enough to dance again in the evening. I went from one group to the other. They asked me to give them European names, a request often made to me on my journeys among the tribes. The reason appeared to be that the savage blacks, who had not been in contact with the white man, were anxious to acquire this first mark of civilisation, which they found among my men, and which they imagined brought tobacco and other gifts. Among themselves these savage natives kept their own names, which, as a rule, are taken for both men and women from animals, birds, etc. The father will under no circumstances give his son his own name.

Most of the Black people stayed to watch the dance because the camp was in a festive mood, and I was awoken by the noise early in the morning before dawn. Once the weather got hot, they gathered in groups under the shady trees, chatting idly until it was cool enough to dance again in the evening. I moved from one group to another. They asked me to give them European names, a request I often received during my travels among different tribes. It seemed that the Black people, who had not interacted with white people, wanted to obtain this first sign of civilization, which they saw in my men and believed brought things like tobacco and other gifts. Among themselves, these native people kept their own names, which are usually derived from animals, birds, and so on. A father would never give his son his own name.

I gave them various Norwegian names. It was difficult for them to pronounce some of them, but such names as Ragna, Inga, Harald, Ola, Eivind, etc., became very popular.

I gave them different Norwegian names. It was tough for them to pronounce some of them, but names like Ragna, Inga, Harald, Ola, Eivind, and so on became really popular.

One of the natives came to me and asked for some salt beef, giving as an excuse that he had a pain in his stomach, because he had for a long time eaten nothing but tobola, the main food of the natives during about two months of the year. This fruit, which grows in the scrubs on the mountain tops, is of a bluish colour, and of the size of a plum. The tree is very large and has long spreading branches, so that the natives prefer waiting until the fruit falls on the ground to climbing the trees for it. It is gathered by the women and brought to the camp, where it is roasted over the fire until the flesh is entirely burnt off and the kernel is thoroughly done. The shell round the kernel then becomes so brittle that it is easily peeled off. Then the kernels are beaten between two flat stones until they form a mass like paste. When they have been beaten thoroughly in this manner, they are placed in baskets and set in the brook to be washed out, and the day after they are fit to be eaten. The paste, which is white as chalk and contains much water, looks inviting, but is wellnigh tasteless. The blacks eat this porridge with their hands, which they half close into the form of a spoon. This food is certainly very unwholesome, for the 231natives, who, by the way, are very fond of it, often complained that they did not feel well after eating it for some time. The amount of nourishment in tobola is very small, and the natives eat a very large amount before they satisfy their hunger, a fact which, in connection with its indigestible character, cannot fail to produce harm. I have often wondered how they can preserve their health so well as they do, considering all the unwholesome and indigestible vegetable food they consume, and the great lack of variety. It is even more surprising that they have found out that there is any nourishment at all in the poisonous plants, which they know how to prepare, and which at the very outset would appear to be unfit for human food. It is also an interesting fact that different poisonous plants, or plants not fit to be eaten raw, are used in different parts of Australia and prepared by one tribe in a manner of which another tribe has no knowledge.

One of the locals came to me and asked for some salt beef, saying he had a stomachache because he had been eating nothing but tobola, the main food for the natives for about two months each year. This fruit grows in the scrub on the mountain tops, is bluish in color, and is about the size of a plum. The tree is quite large with long, spreading branches, so the locals prefer to wait for the fruit to fall rather than climbing the trees for it. The women gather it and bring it back to camp, where it’s roasted over the fire until the flesh is completely burnt off and the kernel is thoroughly cooked. The shell around the kernel becomes so brittle that it can be easily peeled off. After that, the kernels are crushed between two flat stones until they form a paste-like mass. Once they’re properly crushed, they are placed in baskets and put in the creek to wash out, and the next day they are ready to eat. The paste, which is white like chalk and contains a lot of water, looks tempting but has almost no taste. The locals eat this porridge with their hands, which they shape like a spoon. This food is definitely not very healthy, as the locals, who enjoy it, often complain of not feeling well after eating it for a while. The nutritional value of tobola is very low, and they have to eat a large quantity to satisfy their hunger, which, along with its hard-to-digest nature, can’t help but cause problems. I often wonder how they maintain their health so well given all the unhealthy and hard-to-digest plant foods they consume and the lack of variety. It’s even more surprising that they’ve discovered there’s any nutrition at all in the poisonous plants, which they know how to prepare, even though they initially seem unfit for human consumption. It’s also interesting that different poisonous plants, or plants that can’t be eaten raw, are utilized in different regions of Australia, and one tribe prepares them in a way that another tribe doesn’t understand.

On my visits to the huts I met Chinaman, who had deserted me in so disgraceful a manner and ruined my whole expedition. He now imagined that all was forgotten. After a month the blacks think no insult is remembered, not even a murder. Chinaman tried to be polite, but I kept him at a respectable distance in order to show the blacks that I did not tolerate such conduct as that of which he was guilty.

On my visits to the huts, I ran into Chinaman, who had abandoned me in such a shameful way and messed up my entire trip. He now thought everything was forgotten. After a month, the locals believe no insult is remembered, not even murder. Chinaman tried to be polite, but I kept him at a respectful distance to show the locals that I wouldn't accept behavior like his.

Late in the afternoon we were overtaken as usual by a heavy thunderstorm. One flash of lightning followed the other in rapid succession. The thunder-claps were echoed back from the steep mountain walls, and I expected the trees around us would be struck by lightning every moment. The natives, however, were not afraid. At every flash of lightning they shouted with all their might and laughed heartily. It was a great amusement to them.

Late in the afternoon, we were once again caught in a heavy thunderstorm. One flash of lightning followed another in quick succession. The thunder rumbled back from the steep mountain walls, and I thought the trees around us would be hit by lightning at any moment. However, the locals weren't scared. With every flash of lightning, they shouted loudly and laughed heartily. It was a great source of amusement for them.

At sunset, just as the dance was to begin, Nilgora and his companions returned from their hunt, and to my great satisfaction they brought with them another boongary. This was also a male, but somewhat smaller than the one I had lost. On its back it had distinct marks of “Balnglan’s” teeth. As I have since learned, this animal is hunted in the following manner:

At sunset, just as the dance was about to start, Nilgora and his friends came back from their hunt, and to my delight, they brought another boongary with them. This one was also a male but a bit smaller than the one I had lost. It had clear marks from "Balnglan’s" teeth on its back. As I've learned since, this animal is hunted in the following way:

The chase begins early in the morning, while the scent 232of the boongary’s footprints is still fresh on the ground. The dog takes his time, stops now and then, and examines the ground carefully with his nose. Its master keeps continually urging it on, and addresses it in the following manner: Tshe’—tshe’—gangary pul—pulka—tshe’, pul—tshinscherri dundun—mormango—tshe’, pul—pulka! etc.—that is, Tshe’—tshe’—tshe’, smell boongary—smell him—tshe’, smell—seize him by the legs—smart fellow—tshe’, smell—smell him, etc. If the dog finds the scent, it will pursue it to the tree which the animal has climbed. Then some of the natives climb the surrounding trees to keep it from escaping, while another person, armed with a stick, ascends the tree where the animal is. He either seizes the animal by the tail and crushes its head with the stick, or he compels it to jump down, where the dingo stands ready to kill it.

The chase starts early in the morning, while the scent 232 of the boongary’s footprints is still fresh on the ground. The dog takes its time, stopping occasionally to carefully sniff the ground. Its owner keeps urging it on and talks to it like this: Tshe’—tshe’—gangary pul—pulka—tshe’, pul—tshinscherri dundun—mormango—tshe’, pul—pulka! etc.—which means Tshe’—tshe’—tshe’, smell boongary—smell him—tshe’, smell—grab him by the legs—good boy—tshe’, smell—smell him, etc. If the dog catches the scent, it will follow it to the tree where the animal has climbed. Then some of the locals climb the nearby trees to prevent its escape, while another person, armed with a stick, climbs the tree where the animal is. He either grabs the animal by the tail and crushes its head with the stick, or he forces it to jump down, where the dingo is ready to kill it.

In the evening, when I came down to the blacks, who were waiting for the moon to give light to the dancers, my men expressed a fear that strange tribes would attack the camp in the course of the night. I ridiculed this fear, now that they were assembled in such numbers, but they replied that the strangers also were numerous, and they would not be at rest until I had fired a shot.

In the evening, when I went down to the black people who were waiting for the moon to light up the dancers, my men voiced their fear that strange tribes might attack the camp during the night. I laughed off their concern, especially since we were gathered in such large numbers, but they responded that the strangers were also many, and they wouldn't feel safe until I fired a shot.

Thereupon a few persons came in great haste to the blacks with whom I was talking, from the camp of the dancers, who had evidently been frightened by the shot, and explained that they would like to talk with me, and asked me to go with them, so we all went to the dancers, where all was excitement; everybody was talking at the same time, but when I came nearer I could catch in the midst of the confusion such words as kóla (anger), nili (young girl), Kélanmi Mamigo[13] (Kélanmi shall belong to Mami). One of my men explained to me: The blacks wish to give you a nili. They are afraid of the baby of the gun! “Very well,” I answered, “bring her to my hut.”

Then a few people rushed in to the Black individuals I was speaking with, coming from the dancers' camp, clearly shaken by the shot. They said they wanted to talk to me and asked me to go with them, so we all headed to the dancers, where there was a lot of excitement; everyone was talking at once, but as I got closer, I could catch snippets of words like kóla (anger), nili (young girl), Kélanmi Mamigo[13] (Kélanmi shall belong to Mami). One of my men explained, “The Black people want to give you a nili. They are scared of the baby of the gun!” “Alright,” I replied, “bring her to my hut.”

13. Go is a suffix, which means with reference to; thus literally, Kélanmi with reference to Mami—that is, me.

13. Go is a suffix that means regarding; so, literally, Kélanmi means regarding Mami—that is, me.

The blacks had become afraid of me, having interpreted the shot I fired as a sign that I was angry, and to propitiate me they wished to give me Kélanmi, a young girl, who was 233looked upon as the prettiest woman in the whole tribe. When I agreed to accept her they became quiet and their fears were allayed.

The Black people had come to fear me, thinking that the shot I fired meant I was angry, and to appease me, they wanted to offer me Kélanmi, a young girl who was seen as the prettiest woman in the entire tribe. When I agreed to take her, they relaxed, and their fears were eased. 233

KÉLANMI.

KÉLANMI.

234Evidently Kélanmi was afraid of the white man, and was reluctant to leave her tribe; when I went away I heard them scold her and try to force her to go to the white man. I learned that she was, in fact, promised to one of the blacks, by name Kāl-Dúbbaroh, and so I asked him to go with her to my hut. I kindled a fire in my hut, and waited for them to come with Kélanmi. The moon was just rising, so that I was able to discern the dark figures approaching me, but at first I saw no nili, as she was walking behind one of the men, who held her by the wrist. She made no resistance, and came willingly. When the party reached my hut the men let go of the girl, but said nothing, and I asked her to sit down. She was a young and tolerably handsome girl about twelve years old, with a good figure, and was clad in her finest attire in honour of the dance, both her face and her whole body being pretty well covered with red ochre. She was very much opposed to getting married, particularly to a white man, and sat trembling by the fire, awaiting the orders of her new master. To quiet her, I at once got some bread and beef, but she concealed it, out of fear of the bystanders, for such delicacies are too good for a woman. Then I gave her a little tobacco, which she also put away. No doubt she intended to give it to her old adorer Kal-Dubbaroh, who I suppose expected some compensation for his loss. I pitied the little embarrassed girl, and told her, to the great surprise of the spectators, that she might go, whereupon she immediately ran out. This puzzled the blacks, who could not conceive any other reason for my refusal than that I was displeased with her, and so they offered me another girl. But I tried to explain to them that all was well between us, and I proposed that we should go down and dance.

234Kélanmi was clearly afraid of the white man and didn’t want to leave her tribe. When I left, I heard them scolding her and trying to force her to go with him. I found out that she was promised to one of the black men named Kāl-Dúbbaroh, so I asked him to accompany her to my hut. I started a fire in my hut and waited for them to come with Kélanmi. The moon was just rising, allowing me to see the dark figures approaching, but at first, I didn’t see her since she was walking behind one of the men, who held her by the wrist. She didn’t resist and came willingly. When they arrived at my hut, the men let go of her but didn’t say anything, so I asked her to sit down. She was a young girl, around twelve, quite pretty, and dressed in her finest clothes for the dance, her face and body covered in red ochre. She was very opposed to getting married, especially to a white man, and sat trembling by the fire, waiting for orders from her new master. To comfort her, I immediately got some bread and beef, but she hid it out of fear of the onlookers, as such treats were too good for a woman. Then I gave her a bit of tobacco, which she also tucked away, likely intending to give it to her old admirer Kāl-Dúbbaroh, who I assumed expected something in return for his loss. I felt sorry for the embarrassed girl and, to the surprise of the onlookers, told her she could go, and she immediately ran out. This confused the black men, who couldn’t understand my refusal except to think I was unhappy with her, so they offered me another girl. I tried to explain that everything was fine between us, and I suggested we go down and dance.

They were just beginning to dance when we came down to the camp, where I sat down among the spectators and amused myself by witnessing the manner in which the natives enjoyed themselves on such occasions. To give them a proof of my goodwill, I took a whole stick of tobacco and threw it down among the dancers. This liberality was a surprise to the natives, who, of course, vied with each other in trying to secure the tobacco. Quick as lightning, one of the men caught hold of the stick and ran with it to his hut.

They were just starting to dance when we arrived at the camp, where I sat among the spectators and enjoyed watching how the locals had fun on occasions like this. To show my goodwill, I took an entire stick of tobacco and tossed it among the dancers. This generosity surprised the locals, who immediately competed to grab the tobacco. In an instant, one of the men snatched the stick and sprinted back to his hut.

235On the way home Yokkai urged me to shoot Kal-Dubbaroh, saying: “Kal-Dubbaroh not good man.” I could not quite comprehend the meaning of this. The fact was, however, as I afterwards learned, owing to his so frequently troubling me with this request, that Yokkai himself was anxious to marry Kélanmi, and consequently would like to have his rival out of the way.

235On the way home, Yokkai kept pushing me to take out Kal-Dubbaroh, saying, “Kal-Dubbaroh isn’t a good man.” I didn’t fully understand what he meant at the time. However, as I later found out, Yokkai was eager to marry Kélanmi and wanted to get rid of his competition.

The next day Nilgora again consented to go out hunting, and returned with a young boongary, still smaller than the others. The day was so hot that when I undertook to prepare the new specimen, the feet had already begun to decay, and I was afraid the animal would spoil before I got the skin off it. I therefore took it to the coolest place I could find, and prepared the skin. I sat in the shade of a gum-tree, and had to keep continually moving out of the sun’s scorching rays. The flesh, which we roasted on the coals, had a fine gamey flavour, and did not taste at all like kangaroo meat. One circumstance, however, detracted from the enjoyment. The boongary, like most of the Australian mammals living in the trees, is infested by a slender, round, hard worm, which lies between the muscles and the skin. There these little worms, rolled together in coils, are found in great numbers. They did not trouble the natives, who did not even take the pains to pick them out.

The next day, Nilgora agreed to go out hunting again and came back with a young boongary, which was still smaller than the others. It was so hot that by the time I started to prepare the new specimen, its feet had already begun to decay, and I was worried the animal would spoil before I could get the skin off. So, I took it to the coolest spot I could find and prepped the skin. I sat in the shade of a gum tree and had to keep moving out of the sun’s intense rays. The meat we grilled over the coals had a great gamey flavor and didn’t taste like kangaroo at all. However, one thing took away from the enjoyment. The boongary, like many Australian mammals that live in trees, is infested with a slender, round, hard worm that lies between the muscles and the skin. These little worms, rolled up in coils, are found in large numbers. They didn’t bother the natives, who didn’t even bother to pick them out.

They grumbled, on the other hand, because they were not permitted to gnaw the bones, especially the feet, which they looked upon as the best part of the animal.

They complained, on the other hand, because they weren't allowed to gnaw on the bones, especially the feet, which they considered the best part of the animal.

236

CHAPTER XIX

A festival dance of the blacks—Their orchestra—A plain table—Yokkai wants to become a “white man”—Yokkai’s confession—A dangerous situation—A family drama.

A festival dance of the Black community—Their band—A simple table—Yokkai wants to become a “white man”—Yokkai’s confession—A risky situation—A family drama.

The next day, before sunset, the dance began again. At one end of the little place for dancing, where the grass had already been well trampled down, sat the orchestra, consisting, as usual, of only one, or sometimes of two men. The musician was sitting on the ground with his legs crossed, and was singing the new song, accompanying himself by beating together a boomerang and a nolla-nolla.

The next day, before sunset, the dance started up again. At one end of the small dance area, where the grass was already well worn, sat the band, which, as usual, was made up of just one or sometimes two men. The musician sat on the ground with his legs crossed, singing a new song while keeping time by clapping a boomerang and a nolla-nolla together.

In front of him on the little plat of level ground fourteen to sixteen men were dancing in ranks of four or five each. Near the orchestra, on the right, a woman kept dancing up and down, keeping time with the men and with the music.

In front of him on the small patch of flat ground, fourteen to sixteen men were dancing in groups of four or five. Near the band, to the right, a woman was moving up and down, matching the rhythm of the men and the music.

On Herbert river more than one woman never takes part in the dance. This is a great honour to her, and she is envied by all the other women, who sit in rows on both sides of her and the musician. They assume their favourite position and do not, like the men, cross their legs before them or sit on one of their hams, but they rest on their legs and heels, the legs being very close together. In this position they usually play an accompaniment to the music by beating both their open hands against their laps, thus producing a loud hollow sound.

On the Herbert River, no more than one woman participates in the dance. This is considered a significant honor for her, and all the other women, who sit in rows on either side of her and the musician, envy her. They take their favorite positions and, unlike the men, don’t cross their legs in front of them or sit on one of their legs; instead, they rest on their legs and heels with their legs close together. In this position, they typically play along with the music by clapping their open hands against their laps, creating a loud, hollow sound.

The spectators sit on both sides of the dancers all the way up to the corners occupied by the women. The arrangement is as follows:—

The audience sits on both sides of the dancers all the way up to the corners where the women are. The layout is as follows:—

237

m. the music. f.d. the female dancer. ww. the women. dddd. the dancers. ss. the spectators.

m. the music. f.d. the female dancer. ww. the women. dddd. the dancers. ss. the spectators.

A TUFT OF TALEGALLA FEATHERS.

A bunch of talegalla feathers.

A SHELL USED AS AN ORNAMENT.

A SHELL USED AS A DECORATION.

As a rule the spectators do not decorate themselves much for the occasion; one may be seen here and there who has painted himself with a little ochre borrowed from a comrade. The dancers, on the other hand, have done all in their power to beautify themselves. Their bodies shine with red, yellow, or white paint. Their hair is well filled with beeswax, and decorated with feathers, with the crests of cockatoos, and similar ornaments. For the purpose of giving themselves a savage look, some of them hold in their mouths tufts either 238of talegalla feathers or of yarn made from opossum hair. The latter kind of tufts or tassels the natives call itaka. Some of the natives have mussel-shells glued fast to their beards with wax. The Australian blacks and the Malayans are the only savages who employ this ornament in this manner.

Generally, the spectators don’t put much effort into their appearance for the event; you might spot a few who have painted themselves with a little ochre borrowed from a friend. The dancers, on the other hand, have done their best to look impressive. Their bodies are adorned with red, yellow, or white paint. Their hair is thick with beeswax and decorated with feathers, cockatoo crests, and other similar accessories. To enhance their fierce appearance, some of them hold tufts in their mouths, either made of talegalla feathers or yarn made from opossum hair. The natives refer to these tufts or tassels as itaka. Some of the locals have mussel shells glued to their beards with wax. The Australian Aboriginals and the Malayans are the only groups that use this kind of decoration in this way.

Several of the women had painted themselves, some of them with alternating black and red bands across the face. Strange to say, the dombi-dombi (dancing-woman) wore no ornaments. She was middle-aged, with a pair of beautiful eyes, but her limbs were slender, and she had a large protruding stomach. The very uniform hopping movements of her lean body were not graceful. She kept her arms extended and spread the long slender fingers of her hands as far apart as possible. The sight of this woman jumping up and down in the same place, in the attitude above described, and with her large breasts dangling, was truly disgusting. But the woman seemed to enjoy herself wonderfully, and she was not relieved by any of the other women.

Several of the women had painted their bodies, some with alternating black and red stripes across their faces. Oddly enough, the dombi-dombi (dancing woman) wore no decorations. She was middle-aged, had striking eyes, but her limbs were thin, and she had a large protruding belly. The uniform hopping movements of her lean body weren’t graceful. She kept her arms outstretched and spread her long, slender fingers as wide as possible. Watching this woman jump up and down in the same spot, in the described stance, with her large breasts swaying, was truly off-putting. But the woman seemed to be having a great time, and she didn’t get any support from the other women.

The chief attention centres on the male dancers, who are the heroes of the day. They start on the open side of the ground opposite the orchestra, and gradually approach the latter. Their twists and turns keep time with the music, and they continually give forth a grunting sound with accents in harmony with the music and their own movements. Near the orchestra they suddenly pause, scatter for a moment, and then begin again as before.

The main focus is on the male dancers, who are the stars of the show. They start on the open side of the area opposite the orchestra and gradually move closer to it. Their twists and turns match the rhythm of the music, and they constantly produce a grunting sound that complements both the music and their movements. Near the orchestra, they suddenly stop, spread out for a moment, and then start again just like before.

The music was quick and not very melancholy; the monotonous clattering, the hollow accompaniment of the women, the grunting and the heavy footfall of the men, reminded me, especially when I was some distance away from the scene, of a steam-engine at work.

The music was fast and not very sad; the constant clattering, the empty backing from the women, the grunting, and the heavy footsteps of the men reminded me, especially when I was a bit further from the scene, of a steam engine in action.

While both the music and the song are an endless repetition of the same strophes, the dance has a few variations. Now and then a different figure is presented. One of those figures looked very well. Six men marched to the music in closed ranks, accompanying the rhythmical tramping of their feet with blows to the right and left with tomahawks and boomerangs. In other figures they presented a variety of comical movements. With arms akimbo, they spread their knees as far apart as possible, and jumped and grunted in time with the music.

While the music and the song keep repeating the same lines, the dance has a few variations. Every now and then, a different move is showcased. One of those moves looked really good. Six men marched to the music in tight formation, matching the rhythmic stomping of their feet with swings to the right and left using tomahawks and boomerangs. In other moves, they displayed a range of funny actions. With their arms on their hips, they spread their knees as wide as they could and jumped and grunted in sync with the music.

DANCE OF THE NATIVES.

Natives' Dance

239The dance was utterly childish, but it interested me to observe that they had a somewhat different programme for each evening. They several times produced what might be called a pantomime, but, as I did not quite comprehend it, I cannot fully describe it. On the open side of the square, opposite the music, a sort of chamber was constructed, where the chief performers made their toilets and kept themselves concealed until the performance commenced. When it was time to begin the pantomime, they rushed forth, all more ornamented than usual with ochre spots of different colours over their whole bodies, and with false beards and hair made of fibres of wood. They took their places in line with the other dancers, and with the usual twists and turns and keeping time with the music, marched up to the orchestra, where they paused for a moment. Then they formed in two long lines, opposite each other, and two of the most gaudily decorated men stepped forth from the ranks. While the others remained standing in their places, these two kept running up and down along the ranks, acting like clowns, and making all sorts of ridiculous gestures. The most important part of their acting consisted in kneeling down opposite one another and putting a stick into the ground with the right hand, at the same time bending to one another with various kinds of gestures and grimaces. Thus they kept entertaining the spectators for a long time, and it must be admitted that these two natives gave evidence by their performances of no small amount of comic talent. The closing scene was vociferously applauded, and the charmed natives asked me if I, too, did not think the acting splendid. I could not induce them to explain to me the significance of the performance, but still I managed to find out that it had some connection with the devil.

239The dance was totally childlike, but I found it interesting to see that they had a slightly different program for each night. They often performed what could be called a pantomime, but since I didn’t quite understand it, I can’t describe it fully. On the open side of the square, across from the music, they built a sort of dressing area where the main performers got ready and stayed hidden until the show started. When it was time to begin the pantomime, they burst out, all more decorated than usual with colorful ochre spots all over their bodies, and with fake beards and hair made from wood fibers. They lined up with the other dancers, and with the usual twists and turns, keeping to the music, they marched up to the orchestra, where they paused for a moment. Then they formed two long lines facing each other, and two of the most elaborately decorated men stepped out from the ranks. While the others stayed in position, these two ran up and down the lines, acting like clowns and making all sorts of silly gestures. The most significant part of their act involved kneeling opposite one another and sticking a stick in the ground with their right hand, while bending toward each other with various kinds of gestures and faces. They entertained the spectators for a long time, and it must be said that these two performers showed a decent amount of comedic talent. The finale received loud applause, and the captivated locals asked me if I didn’t think the performance was great, too. I couldn’t get them to explain the meaning of the act, but I did manage to find out that it had something to do with the devil.

The spectators now and then indicate their approbation by laughing aloud. The women sit with smiles on their lips, and take great pleasure in witnessing the performance. The female dancer also keeps her eyes constantly on the male dancers, but the musician at her side apparently takes no interest in what is going on. He sits there beating his 240wooden weapons together and singing with his hoarse but powerful tenor voice. He rarely looks up, as he has already been watching the exercises for weeks, and knows them all by heart; but even he sometimes seems to be amused. Now and then he raises his eyes and looks happy as a lark at the naked figures moving backwards and forwards in the strangest contortions. He never tires of singing, and whenever he begins the strophe anew he raises his voice with a sort of enthusiasm.

The audience occasionally shows their approval by laughing out loud. The women sit with smiles on their faces and enjoy watching the performance. The female dancer keeps her eyes on the male dancers, but the musician next to her seems uninterested in what’s happening. He sits there, banging his wooden instruments together and singing with his rough but strong tenor voice. He rarely looks up, as he has been watching the performances for weeks and knows them all by heart; yet even he sometimes appears entertained. Every so often, he lifts his gaze and looks as cheerful as can be at the naked figures moving back and forth in the most bizarre twists. He never gets tired of singing, and whenever he begins the verse again, he raises his voice with a kind of enthusiasm.

These festivals, called by the civilised blacks korroboree, are of course evidence of friendly relations between the tribes. On this occasion the dance was given by several neighbouring tribes that were on friendly terms with each other. As a rule, however, the korroborees in Australia are given upon the settlement of wars and feuds among the tribes, and are a sort of ratification of the treaty of peace. Doubtless these festivals have, in the history of Australia, been of considerable importance in regard to the social development of the natives. The korroborees have facilitated bartering among them, and have also contributed toward promoting social intercourse among the tribes. It is a curious fact that these “ratifications of treaties of peace” frequently give rise to new feuds, on account of insults to women that are apt to occur at such festivals.

These festivals, known by the civilized blacks as korroboree, clearly show the friendly relations between tribes. On this occasion, the dance was performed by several neighboring tribes that had good relationships with one another. Generally speaking, though, korroborees in Australia are held to celebrate the end of wars and disputes among tribes and act as a sort of confirmation of peace treaties. These festivals have undoubtedly played a significant role in the social development of the natives throughout Australian history. The korroborees have enabled trade between them and also helped foster social interactions among the tribes. Interestingly, these “confirmations of peace treaties” often lead to new conflicts due to insults towards women that can happen during such festivals.

The dance always begins with the full moon and about half an hour before sunset. When the sun’s last rays disappear from the horizon there is a pause until the moon rises, when the dancing begins in earnest and may last all night; but, not satisfied with the pale light of the moon, they kindle a large camp fire, the red flames of which, mingling with the white light of the moon, produce a strange fantastic effect. Toward morning they took a little rest, but before dawn I was again awakened by their monotonous song and clattering. When the sun rises it becomes too hot to dance.

The dance always starts with the full moon and about half an hour before sunset. When the last rays of the sun disappear from the horizon, there’s a pause until the moon rises, at which point the dancing really kicks off and can go all night; however, not content with the faint light of the moon, they light a big campfire, the red flames of which mix with the white light of the moon to create a strange, magical effect. Toward morning, they take a short break, but before dawn, I’m woken up again by their monotonous singing and clattering. Once the sun rises, it gets too hot to dance.

The natives are wonderfully frugal in their eating at their festivals. I have never seen them eat together for pleasure or to celebrate any event. Anything like a banquet is entirely out of the question, nay, on the occasion I have described they might be said to be fasting. Those invited had taken 241no provisions with them, as they expected to be fed by their hosts. The latter supposed that the guests would bring food with them, and the result was that they had to subsist on almost nothing during the three days devoted to the dance. Some of them got a little tobacco. There were no other stimulants, for the blacks of Herbert river produce no intoxicating drink. They contented themselves with pleasure and water, but when the three days were gone they had to take to the scrubs and look for tobola. After gathering tobola for a few days, they renewed the dance in another place, where the same songs and the same performances were repeated, after which they again took to the woods to find means of subsistence.

The locals are really careful about what they eat during their festivals. I've never seen them gather to eat just for fun or to celebrate something. A banquet is completely out of the question; in fact, during the occasion I mentioned, it could be said they were almost fasting. Those who were invited didn't bring any food because they thought they would be fed by their hosts. The hosts, on the other hand, expected the guests to bring food, so the result was that they had to make do with almost nothing during the three days dedicated to dancing. Some of them managed to get a little tobacco. There were no other stimulants since the people near Herbert River don’t produce any alcoholic drinks. They were satisfied with just enjoying themselves and drinking water, but once the three days were over, they had to head into the bushes to find tobola. After collecting tobola for a few days, they started the dance again in another location, where they repeated the same songs and performances. Afterward, they returned to the woods to look for food.

In this manner the scene of the dance gradually approached Herbert Vale, and as the dancers were on a friendly footing with the blacks of that district, they gave entertainments on two evenings for their benefit. These festivities continued for nearly six weeks. On the other hand, it may take years before the blacks give another dance, for they must have new dances and new songs every time they dance, and their song-makers and dancing-masters, do not care to bother their brains with too much exertion.

In this way, the dance scene gradually made its way to Herbert Vale, and since the dancers were on friendly terms with the local Black community, they held events over two evenings to support them. These festivities lasted for nearly six weeks. On the flip side, it might take years before the community hosts another dance, as they need new dances and songs each time, and their songwriters and dance instructors don’t want to put in too much effort.

While the blacks went up into the mountains to gather tobola, I persuaded Nilgora and one or two others to remain with Yokkai and me. I did not like to leave a place where boongary were to be found without securing a full-grown specimen, but they preferred to go up the mountains with the others, and were tired of hunting for me day after day. The natives are fond of change, and cannot endure monotony. They repeatedly tried to convince me that there were no more boongary, but I knew this to be mere pretext. I explained to them what I would pay them, and though I offered them all I had, even the shirt I wore, if they could procure me a boongary, they still answered Wainta boongary, wainta? maja, maja! nongarshly yongul! (Where is boongary, where? no, no! there is but one in the woods).

While the black folks went up into the mountains to gather tobala, I managed to get Nilgora and a couple of others to stick around with Yokkai and me. I wasn't keen on leaving a spot where boongary could be found without getting a mature specimen, but they preferred to head up the mountains with the others and were fed up with hunting for me day after day. The locals love change and can’t stand boredom. They kept trying to convince me that there were no more boongary, but I knew this was just an excuse. I explained how much I would pay them, and even offered them everything I had, even the shirt I was wearing, if they could find me a boongary, but they still replied Wainta boongary, wainta? maja, maja! nongarshly yongul! (Where is boongary, where? no, no! there is but one in the woods).

Finally Nilgora and his men started early one morning to go hunting with “Balnglan.” As he returned in the evening without any game, I had the next morning to renew my persuasions, and I showed him my tobacco. My provisions 242were no temptation to Nilgora, for I had none, and as I had already given him a shirt, the one I wore was no inducement to him. My last hope was my hat, an ornament highly prized by the blacks. He finally yielded, but to no purpose, as he returned in the evening as empty-handed as the day before.

Finally, Nilgora and his team set out early one morning to go hunting with “Balnglan.” When he came back in the evening without any game, I had to persuade him again the next morning, showing him my tobacco. My supplies were no temptation for Nilgora since I had none, and since I had already given him a shirt, the one I was wearing didn't appeal to him either. My last hope was my hat, an item that was highly valued by the locals. He eventually gave in, but it was pointless, as he returned in the evening just as empty-handed as the day before.

Nilgora started for the mountains to attend the dance, while Yokkai and I betook ourselves back to Herbert Vale.

Nilgora set off for the mountains to go to the dance, while Yokkai and I headed back to Herbert Vale.

Nilgora was a typical savage, and as he had never before been in contact with white men, he was more easy to manage than the others, but was reticent and reserved. I was surprised to find him always armed with a sword-bayonet, the history of which it was impossible for me to get at. He was very much afraid of the white men, and for this reason he never came down from the mountains, and hence I infer that this weapon must long have travelled from tribe to tribe before it came into his possession. The native police do not use bayonets.

Nilgora was a typical savage, and since he had never interacted with white men before, he was easier to manage than the others, but he was quiet and distant. I was surprised to see that he was always carrying a sword-bayonet, the origins of which I couldn't uncover. He was very fearful of white men, which is why he never came down from the mountains, so I conclude that this weapon must have been passed down from tribe to tribe before it reached him. The native police do not use bayonets.

What particularly attracted my attention in Nilgora’s looks were his tall powerful figure and his almost Roman nose, another proof to me that the natives here are mixed with the Papuans.

What really caught my attention about Nilgora’s looks were his tall, strong build and his almost Roman nose, which I saw as further evidence that the locals here have mixed ancestry with the Papuans.

On the descent to Herbert Vale, Yokkai had the important task of carrying the skins in a bag. They had to be handled with great care, a fact that my black friend did not understand. Fortunately, he was afraid of the poison with which the skins were prepared, and this made him very circumspect.

On the way down to Herbert Vale, Yokkai had the important job of carrying the skins in a bag. They needed to be handled very carefully, something my Black friend didn’t quite get. Luckily, he was scared of the poison used to treat the skins, which made him extra cautious.

In a cheerful frame of mind I proceeded down to the grassy plain. The dark claws of the boongary protruding out of the bag reminded me of what had been accomplished during the past few days, and besides it was a source of gratification to me that Yokkai did not, on a nearer acquaintance, disappoint the good hopes I had formed in regard to him on our first meeting. I felt that I could look the future cheerfully in the face, and I had reason to hope for good results so long as he was my companion. Yokkai was well acquainted with several of the most savage tribes in the neighbourhood, and with his help it would be more easy for me to secure companions on my expeditions. By reason of 243his naïveté and good humour, I might count on having in him a lively and entertaining companion. Nor was he so savage and greedy as the other blacks. A circumstance which made him particularly devoted to me was his decided eagerness to become a “white man.” His ambition was to eat the food of a white man, to smoke tobacco, to make damper, to shoot, to take care of horses, to wear clothes, and to talk English.

In a happy mood, I headed down to the grassy plain. The dark claws of the boongary sticking out of the bag reminded me of what I had accomplished over the past few days, and it was also satisfying that Yokkai didn’t disappoint my expectations upon getting to know him better after our first meeting. I felt I could face the future with optimism, and I had good reason to believe things would turn out well as long as he was by my side. Yokkai was familiar with several of the most aggressive tribes in the area, and with his help, it would be easier for me to find companions for my adventures. Thanks to his innocence and good humor, I could count on him to be an entertaining companion. Plus, he wasn’t as savage and greedy as the other locals. What made him particularly devoted to me was his strong desire to become a “white man.” He aspired to eat white people food, smoke tobacco, make damper, shoot guns, care for horses, wear clothes, and speak English.

He told me a number of stories in regard to himself, and gave me much interesting information about the life and customs of the natives. Among other things, he said that he once had stolen from a white man, but it seems that in connection with that he acquired a great dread of the white men and their dangerous weapons. The whites were too angry, he said, and he assured me that he never more would gramma—that is, steal. Together with his comrades, he had ventured to go down to a farm near the coast, where he had been tempted by the sight of a wash-tub containing some clothes. On one of his shoulders he still bore the mark of a rifle ball, by which he had been greeted on his visit to the white man.

He shared several stories about himself and gave me a lot of interesting information about the life and customs of the locals. One thing he mentioned was that he once stole from a white man, but it seems that experience made him really afraid of white people and their dangerous weapons. The white man was too angry, he said, and he assured me that he would never gramma—meaning steal—again. Along with his friends, he had taken the risk to go down to a farm near the coast, where he was tempted by the sight of a wash-tub full of clothes. He still had a mark on one of his shoulders from a bullet he got when he visited that white man.

My plan now was to go to the table-land seventy miles to the west, where Mr. Scott, the owner of Herbert Vale, had his head station, the Valley of Lagoons. Up there it rains less in the rainy season than it does at Herbert Vale, and for this reason I decided to change my headquarters. When I came to the station, I met a white man who was going the same way as I, and we decided to travel together. Yokkai remained at Herbert Vale. The next day, January 30, we proceeded toward Sea-View Range, where we arrived the first afternoon. Here my companion wanted to encamp for the night.

My plan now was to head to the plateau seventy miles to the west, where Mr. Scott, the owner of Herbert Vale, had his main station, the Valley of Lagoons. It rains less up there during the rainy season compared to Herbert Vale, which is why I decided to move my base. When I arrived at the station, I met a white man who was heading the same way as I was, and we decided to travel together. Yokkai stayed at Herbert Vale. The next day, January 30, we continued toward Sea-View Range, where we arrived that afternoon. Here, my companion wanted to set up camp for the night.

I looked back upon the scrub-clad mountains on the other side of the valley. The air was clear, and the setting sun caused long shadows to fall in the mountain declivities. Far away, on the summit of a mountain, smoke was ascending. The blacks were burning the grass and were hunting the wallaby, free from every care and anxiety. The palms, the ferns, the rays of the sun glistening in the waterfalls, all this charming scenery I was now to abandon, and I was to live 244at a station with the white men on the prosy plains. No, this was not possible; I longed to get back to my black friends! When I saw the sun setting amid an effulgence of crimson, and thus indicating fine weather for the morrow, my mind was made up. I decided to wait for the rain as long as possible, and this year the rainy season set in unusually late.

I looked back at the scrub-covered mountains on the other side of the valley. The air was clear, and the setting sun cast long shadows in the mountain dips. Far away, on the peak of a mountain, smoke was rising. The Indigenous people were burning the grass and hunting wallabies, carefree and relaxed. The palms, the ferns, the sunlight sparkling in the waterfalls—this beautiful scenery I was about to leave behind, and I was going to live on a station with the white settlers on the dull plains. No, that couldn't happen; I really wanted to return to my Indigenous friends! When I saw the sun setting in a brilliant display of red, signaling good weather for tomorrow, I made my decision. I would wait for the rain as long as I could, and this year, the rainy season started unusually late.

I bade farewell to my travelling companion, and started back for Herbert Vale.

I said goodbye to my travel buddy and started back to Herbert Vale.

Early the next morning I went in search of Yokkai, whom I soon found. He and I started up the mountains to procure, if possible, more people to assist us.

Early the next morning, I went looking for Yokkai, and I found him quickly. We headed up the mountains to see if we could find more people to help us.

In a small tribe which we came to, some of the natives were found willing to go with us, and soon afterwards we had the good fortune to meet Nilgora and “Balnglan.” We made our camp in the same place as before—on the old dancing-ground. Nilgora was now very accommodating. He had employed his time since we parted in eating tobola, and was now longing for the white man’s food, which he had learned to like when he was with me before. During the four days we spent here we succeeded in securing a small female boongary and a young one. Thus I now had in all five males and one female, though none of them were full grown. The female (represented on the coloured plate) had a little young one in her pouch, but the black had already given it to “Balnglan,” thinking it was worthless.

In a small tribe we visited, some of the locals were eager to join us, and not long after, we were fortunate to meet Nilgora and “Balnglan.” We set up our camp in the same spot as before—on the old dancing ground. Nilgora was very accommodating now. He had spent his time since we last met eating tobola and was now craving the white man's food, which he had come to like during our previous time together. During the four days we stayed there, we managed to catch a small female boongary and a young one. So now I had a total of five males and one female, though none of them were fully grown. The female (shown in the colored plate) had a little young one in her pouch, but the black one had already given it to “Balnglan,” thinking it was worthless.

One day, when Yokkai and I were left alone in the camp, he suddenly broke out, “Poor fellow,—white-fellow!” Thinking that he referred to me, I, half angry, asked him what was the matter. “Poor fellow, white-fellow—Jimmy,” said he, beating the back of his head, “Jimmy, white-fellow ngallogo”—that is, “in the water.” I now understood that something was the matter, and on inquiry at last found out that the same Jimmy who had been with me before had killed a white man and thrown him into the water. The white man had been camping near a river in the middle of the day, “while the sun was big,” not far from Herbert Vale. Jimmy had gone to him and offered to find fuel and build a fire, services which were accepted. The white man made his tea and sat down to eat, but Jimmy did not get any of the food, and at 245once became angry, and struck the white man on the back of the head with his tomahawk as he brought his tin cup to his lips to drink, so that he fell down dead. Then Jimmy robbed all that the white man had and threw his body into the water.

One day, when Yokkai and I were alone at the camp, he suddenly exclaimed, “Poor fellow—white fellow!” Thinking he was talking about me, I felt a bit angry and asked him what was going on. “Poor fellow, white fellow—Jimmy,” he said, hitting the back of his head, “Jimmy, white fellow ngallogo”—which means “in the water.” I realized that something was wrong, and after asking around, I finally found out that the same Jimmy who had been with me before had killed a white man and thrown him into the water. The white man had been camped near a river in the middle of the day, “while the sun was big,” not far from Herbert Vale. Jimmy had approached him and offered to gather firewood and start a fire, which the man accepted. The white man made his tea and sat down to eat, but Jimmy didn’t get any food, which made him angry. He struck the white man on the back of the head with his tomahawk just as the man was about to take a sip from his tin cup, causing him to fall down dead. Then Jimmy robbed the man of everything he had and tossed his body into the water.

The report of the murder made a deep impression on me. Perhaps I ought to be satisfied with the results I had already gained. If I remained longer I might meet with a similar fate. I did not dare show Yokkai that the information affected me, though the words did escape my lips, that the black police would be angry with Jimmy and kill him.

The news about the murder really struck me. Maybe I should be content with what I had already accomplished. If I stayed any longer, I could end up facing the same fate. I didn't want Yokkai to see how much the information impacted me, but I did let slip that the black police would be furious with Jimmy and would kill him.

When Nilgora came home in the evening, I heard Yokkai at once informing him “that the police would kill Jimmy.” That whole evening the blacks were very reticent and unapproachable. Doubtless my ill-advised statement had frightened them, for they were aware that the police paid no respect to persons, but would shoot the first native they found, and they were also afraid that Yokkai would have to suffer for his thoughtlessness in telling tales out of school.

When Nilgora got home in the evening, I heard Yokkai immediately telling him “that the police were going to kill Jimmy.” The whole evening, the black community was very quiet and unresponsive. My careless comment probably scared them because they knew the police didn’t care who they shot; they would just shoot the first native they came across. They were also worried that Yokkai would face consequences for his thoughtlessness in sharing secrets.

It was necessary to be equal to every emergency, for it was in their power to hinder the news of the murder from spreading. To avoid every danger, I resolved to be on the alert that night—the only night I ever kept awake during my life with the blacks. As was my custom, I fired a shot to remind my companions that my weapon was still in existence.

It was crucial to be ready for any situation, as they could prevent the news of the murder from getting out. To avoid any risks, I decided to stay alert that night—the only night I ever stayed awake during my time with the blacks. As I usually did, I fired a shot to remind my companions that my weapon was still ready to use.

The natives were lying down round the fire in front of the opening of my hut, and from time to time they cast sly glances at me lying with half-closed eyes in my hut. The camp fire made it easy for us to watch each other. To convince them that I was wide awake, I now and then ordered them to fetch wood for the fire. I did not feel at all safe, and not until morning did I fall asleep, exhausted with fatigue.

The locals were stretched out around the fire in front of my hut, and every now and then, they shot me sneaky glances while I lay inside with half-closed eyes. The campfire made it easy for us to keep an eye on each other. To show them that I was alert, I occasionally told them to go get more wood for the fire. I didn't feel safe at all, and it wasn't until morning that I finally fell asleep, completely worn out.

When I opened my eyes the first rays of the morning sun were shining into my hut, and it was a source of the keenest gratification to know that I was unscathed. Never before had the dewy tropical morning seemed so beautiful as it did after this night.

When I opened my eyes, the first rays of the morning sun were shining into my hut, and it felt incredibly satisfying to know that I was unharmed. Never before had the dewy tropical morning looked so beautiful as it did after this night.

I decided to go back to Herbert Vale for the present, and 246the same day Yokkai and I started on our return. I was determined to do all in my power to secure the punishment of Jimmy. Something ought to be done to show the blacks that they could not with impunity take the life of a white man.

I decided to head back to Herbert Vale for now, and on the same day, Yokkai and I began our journey home. I was determined to do everything I could to make sure Jimmy faced consequences. We had to show the black community that they couldn't just take a white man’s life without facing repercussions.

Jimmy had accompanied me on several expeditions, so that I knew him well. He was a brutal, despotic fellow, and very reserved. Not long before this he had also killed one of his wives. He had robbed a man of his pretty young wife, Mólle-Mólle. But she loved her first husband and could not get on well with Jimmy, the less so as he had another wife, who was very jealous and always inflamed him against Mólle-Mólle. She tried to escape to her former husband, but was recaptured by Jimmy, who cut her on the shoulder with his axe to “mark” her. Still, she soon again found an opportunity to escape, and came to Herbert Vale, where I then happened to be staying. On her shoulder was a large open wound, which did not, however, appear to give her much pain. She requested me to shoot Jimmy, for he was “not good.” In spite of her beautiful, beseeching eyes and her coquettish smiles, I could make her no promise, but I urged her to make haste and go to her former husband, whom she was seeking. The same night she disappeared.

Jimmy had joined me on several expeditions, so I knew him well. He was a cruel, controlling guy, and very secretive. Not long before this, he had also killed one of his wives. He had taken a man’s pretty young wife, Mólle-Mólle. But she loved her first husband and couldn’t get along with Jimmy, especially since he had another wife who was very jealous and always turned him against Mólle-Mólle. She tried to get back to her former husband, but Jimmy caught her and cut her shoulder with his axe to “mark” her. Still, she soon found another chance to escape and made it to Herbert Vale, where I happened to be staying. On her shoulder was a large open wound, but it didn’t seem to cause her much pain. She asked me to shoot Jimmy, because he was “not good.” Despite her beautiful, pleading eyes and flirtatious smiles, I couldn’t promise her anything, but I urged her to hurry and go to her former husband, whom she was looking for. That same night, she vanished.

I afterwards learned that she had found the man she loved, but her joy was of short duration. Jimmy was the stronger of the two men; he recaptured her, and punishment was again inflicted. According to the statements of the natives, he had almost killed her. He had struck her with a stone on the head, so that she fell as if dead on the hot sand. There he left her, in the middle of the day, after covering her with stones. The next time I saw Mólle-Mólle she had grown very thin and pale, and had great scars on her head. She was on the point of going with Jimmy down the river to another “land.” On this journey he killed her with his tomahawk, and an old man buried her. This happened only three weeks after Jimmy had slain the white man.

I later found out that she had found the man she loved, but her happiness was short-lived. Jimmy was the stronger of the two men; he won her back, and once again she faced punishment. According to the locals, he had nearly killed her. He had hit her on the head with a stone, causing her to fall as if she were dead on the hot sand. He left her there in the middle of the day after burying her under stones. The next time I saw Mólle-Mólle, she had become very thin and pale, with large scars on her head. She was about to go with Jimmy down the river to another "land." During that trip, he killed her with his tomahawk, and an old man buried her. This happened only three weeks after Jimmy had killed the white man.

Yokkai was afraid that he would be killed by the blacks at Herbert Vale, because he had revealed the murder of the white man, but I quieted him with the assurance that his name should not be mentioned.

Yokkai was scared that the black people at Herbert Vale would kill him because he had disclosed the murder of the white man, but I calmed him down by assuring him that his name wouldn’t be mentioned.

247

CHAPTER XX

Arrival of the native police—The murderer caught—Examination—Jimmy is taken to Cardwell—Flight of the prisoner—The officer of the law—Expedition to the Valley of Lagoons—A mother eats her own child—My authority receives a shock.

Arrival of the local police—The criminal apprehended—Investigation—Jimmy is taken to Cardwell—Escape of the prisoner—The law enforcement officer—Mission to the Valley of Lagoons—A mother consumes her own child—My authority is shaken.

When I arrived at the station I talked with the natives about the event. They seemed to be surprised, but observing that I knew all about the matter, they found there was no use of assuming ignorance, and they began to converse with me about the murder as a matter well known to them. Thus I secured all the details in regard to this horrible affair. But they held it perfectly proper for Jimmy to kill the white man who was unwilling to share his food with him. I made them understand that this was not my view, and threatened to send for the police. This threat I would also have carried out, had not, three days later, a sergeant of the native police, with a few troopers, accidentally come and encamped at Herbert Vale. He had been in Cardwell to fetch provisions and liquor for his chief, who lived on the table-land.

When I got to the station, I chatted with the locals about the incident. They looked surprised, but once they realized I was well-informed about it, they dropped the act and began to talk to me about the murder as if it was common knowledge. This way, I gathered all the details about this terrible event. However, they believed it was completely acceptable for Jimmy to kill the white man who refused to share his food with him. I made it clear that I didn’t agree with that, and I threatened to call the police. I would have followed through on that threat, but three days later, a sergeant from the local police, along with a few officers, happened to arrive and set up camp at Herbert Vale. He had been to Cardwell to pick up supplies and alcohol for his chief, who lived on the table-land.

When the blacks saw the police their memory again failed them. It was no longer Jimmy who had murdered the white man, but two other blacks, Kamera and Boko. In a certain sense this was true, for a year and a half previously they had actually murdered a white man. It was thought that he had been eaten by a crocodile, and now for the first time it was discovered that a murder had been committed, but this man was not Jimmy’s victim. By confusing the two events, they tried to draw attention away from Jimmy. For Kamera and Boko they cared less, they being strangers, but Jimmy belonged to their own tribe and must be saved. 248The boldest and most experienced of these “civilised” natives therefore sought to make friends with the police. They brought them their best women, carried wood and water for them, and tried to serve them in every way. I told the police sergeant what had happened, and requested him to arrest Jimmy, who could be found at a great borboby which was to be celebrated just at this time two or three miles from Herbert Vale.

When the black community saw the police, their memories suddenly went blank again. It was no longer Jimmy who had killed the white man, but two other black men, Kamera and Boko. In a way, this was true because a year and a half earlier, they had actually killed a white man. It was believed that he had been eaten by a crocodile, and now for the first time, it was revealed that a murder had taken place, but this man wasn’t Jimmy’s victim. By mixing up the two events, they were trying to divert attention away from Jimmy. They cared less for Kamera and Boko since they were strangers, but Jimmy was from their own tribe and needed to be protected. 248 The boldest and most experienced of these “civilized” natives sought to befriend the police. They offered their best women, fetched wood and water for them, and tried to assist them in every possible way. I told the police sergeant what had happened and asked him to arrest Jimmy, who could be found at a big celebration happening just two or three miles from Herbert Vale.

The next day the sergeant went to the borboby to arrest him, taking with him three of the blacks at the station, and also the Kanaka, in order that they might identify Jimmy.

The next day, the sergeant went to the borboby to arrest him, bringing along three of the locals from the station and the Kanaka to help identify Jimmy.

While he was absent, the postman came from Cardwell. When he learned what had happened, he remembered that he several times had felt a bad smell where the murder was supposed to have taken place—that is, near Dalrymple Creek.

While he was away, the postman came from Cardwell. When he found out what had happened, he recalled smelling a bad odor several times near where the murder was said to have occurred—that is, close to Dalrymple Creek.

We now hoped that the sergeant would bring the murderer in the evening, but he returned without the prisoner. Three persons called Jimmy had been shown to him, and they all denied having perpetrated the murder. The natives who had gone with the sergeant to the borboby had declared that the right Jimmy was not there. I knew this to be not true, and so I requested the sergeant to make another effort. The Kanaka told me that the right Jimmy really was there, and that it had vexed him to see that the sergeant would not arrest him. The sergeant had given all his attention to the fair sex, and had taken no interest in finding Jimmy.

We were hoping the sergeant would bring the murderer in that evening, but he returned without the prisoner. Three guys named Jimmy had been presented to him, and they all denied committing the murder. The locals who had gone with the sergeant to the borboby said that the right Jimmy wasn't there. I knew that wasn't true, so I asked the sergeant to try again. The Kanaka told me that the real Jimmy was indeed there, and it annoyed him to see that the sergeant wasn't arresting him. The sergeant had focused all his attention on the women and hadn't bothered to find Jimmy.

As I insisted that the murderer should be arrested, the sergeant started off early the next morning, again in company with the Kanaka. He now took with him two of his own men and handcuffs for the culprit. In a few hours they returned with the prisoner, and I was sent for. It was Jimmy. He was handcuffed; his suspicious face was restless, the blood rose to his face, and if a black man can be said to blush, then Jimmy did so now.

As I insisted that the murderer be arrested, the sergeant set off early the next morning, once again accompanied by the Kanaka. He now had two of his own men with him and handcuffs for the suspect. After a few hours, they returned with the prisoner, and I was called in. It was Jimmy. He was handcuffed; his uneasy face was tense, the blood rushed to his cheeks, and if a Black man can be said to blush, then Jimmy was definitely doing that now.

Under the storehouse, which stood on high posts, there was a large room surrounded by a lattice. Here the court was held. The prisoner was brought in by two of the troopers, and the examination began. The persons present were the sergeant, the old keeper of the station, the postman, the Kanaka, and I. The blacks stood outside the 249gate and watched the whole proceeding with the greatest interest.

Under the storehouse, which was elevated on tall posts, there was a large room enclosed by a lattice. This was where the court took place. The prisoner was brought in by two troopers, and the questioning started. Those present included the sergeant, the old station keeper, the postman, the Kanaka, and me. The Black people stood outside the 249gate and watched the entire process with keen interest.

The sergeant, a tall powerful man, who was the representative of the law there, began the trial by snatching a throwing-stick from one of those standing outside and striking Jimmy on the head with it, in order to force him in this brutal manner to tell the truth.

The sergeant, a tall, strong man who represented the law there, kicked off the trial by grabbing a throwing stick from someone outside and hitting Jimmy on the head with it to harshly force him to tell the truth.

“You have killed the white man,” he kept repeating, and added new weight to his words by inflicting fresh blows; but the criminal denied everything, while he tried to protect himself with his fettered hands.

“You’ve killed the white man,” he kept saying, adding emphasis to his words by landing more blows; but the criminal denied it all, attempting to shield himself with his bound hands.

“You have killed your wife,” shrieked the sergeant; but Jimmy made no answer to this charge, he simply tried to ward off the hard blows he was getting. Suddenly the sergeant broke the stick over Jimmy’s head, which fortunately ended this inquisitorial part of the trial. The sergeant, who in the meantime had become heated by his exertions, then turned and said in a faint voice: “There is no doubt that he is the culprit, but let us now hear what the blacks have to say.”

“You’ve killed your wife,” yelled the sergeant; but Jimmy didn’t respond to this accusation, he just tried to deflect the harsh blows he was receiving. Suddenly, the sergeant smashed the stick over Jimmy’s head, which thankfully ended this questioning phase of the trial. The sergeant, who had gotten worked up from his efforts, then turned and said in a weak voice: “There’s no doubt that he’s guilty, but let’s hear what the black people have to say.”

One or two of them were called in, and made the same statements as Jimmy, insisting that he had not killed the white man, but they all testified unanimously that he had murdered his wife, Mólle-Mólle. As she was a woman, they saw no peril in making this admission. Jimmy, too, confessed this crime.

One or two of them were called in and made the same statements as Jimmy, insisting that he hadn’t killed the white man, but they all testified unanimously that he had murdered his wife, Mólle-Mólle. Since she was a woman, they felt no risk in making this admission. Jimmy also confessed to this crime.

“That is quite sufficient,” muttered old Walters.

"That's more than enough," mumbled old Walters.

“Take him down to the river and wipe him out,” said the sergeant to his men.

“Take him down to the river and get rid of him,” said the sergeant to his team.

“And throw him into the water, then there will be no smell,” added the postman.

“And toss him into the water; then there won’t be any smell,” the postman added.

In a hesitating manner the troopers began to execute the order of their stern master. One of them, David, suggested that the prisoner ought first to show the body of the dead man, a pretext for getting the matter postponed and thus saving Jimmy’s life, for the police were anxious to do him and his friends a service in return for the women they had sent as a bribe.

In a hesitant way, the troopers started to follow the orders of their strict leader. One of them, David, suggested that the prisoner should first present the body of the dead man, a way to delay things and potentially save Jimmy’s life, since the police were eager to help him and his friends in exchange for the women they had sent as a bribe.

Meanwhile the sergeant gave orders that they should bring the culprit to the camp and make short work of it. 250When Jimmy discovered that the sergeant was in earnest he became literally pale, and went with them as one having no will of his own. The natives, who at first were utterly perplexed, followed slowly and silently.

Meanwhile, the sergeant ordered them to bring the culprit to the camp and deal with it quickly. 250 When Jimmy realized the sergeant was serious, he turned pale and went with them as if he had no will of his own. The locals, who were initially completely confused, followed slowly and silently.

The keeper of the station had during the trial suggested that the matter ought not to be reported to any white man. The fact is, the police had no authority to carry out the sergeant’s severe orders. I found upon investigation that, no matter how clearly the murder is established, the English law does not permit the shooting of a criminal in this manner without a regular procedure. The prisoner had not confessed the murder, nor, as was remarked by David, had the corpse been produced. I was anxious that the proceedings should be in all respects regular and legal. I therefore at once went down to the camp and explained my doubts in the matter to the sergeant.

The station manager had suggested during the trial that this shouldn't be reported to any white man. The truth is, the police had no right to enforce the sergeant's harsh orders. After looking into it, I found that, no matter how clearly the murder was established, English law doesn't allow a criminal to be shot this way without following the proper procedures. The prisoner hadn't confessed to the murder, and as David pointed out, the body hadn't been presented. I wanted to make sure everything was done properly and legally. So, I immediately went down to the camp and shared my concerns with the sergeant.

Here all was quiet. The police were taking things easy, and the prisoner, who had received something to eat, seemed very comfortable.

Here, everything was quiet. The police were relaxed, and the prisoner, who had gotten something to eat, looked quite comfortable.

The sergeant informed me that the prisoner had now made a full confession. When he got sight of the guns he became very communicative, and had given a number of details. He had attacked the white man at Dalrymple Creek, had given him a blow with his axe on the back of the head, and had thrown his body into the water. He was also willing to show the place where he had committed the murder.

The sergeant told me that the prisoner had now fully confessed. When he saw the guns, he became quite chatty and shared a lot of details. He had attacked the white man at Dalrymple Creek, struck him with his axe on the back of the head, and disposed of his body in the water. He was also ready to show where he had committed the murder.

I suggested to the sergeant that Jimmy should be taken to the Cardwell police court, which was the proper court to decide this matter. On the way thither the prisoner might show the body of the dead man. The sergeant considered my suggestion to be very proper, and not thinking himself particularly qualified to make a written statement to the authorities, he left it to me to prepare the written report.

I suggested to the sergeant that Jimmy should be taken to the Cardwell police court, which was the right place to handle this situation. On the way there, the prisoner could point out the body of the dead man. The sergeant thought my suggestion was very appropriate, and since he didn't feel particularly qualified to write a statement for the authorities, he asked me to prepare the written report.

Jimmy rode a horse between David and another policeman. The handcuffs were taken off, put on his ankles, and fastened to the stirrups. All this surprised me, but I said nothing, as I supposed they knew best what was necessary. In my letter to the police magistrate in Cardwell I informed him that the prisoner had confessed the murder and was willing to go and point out the body of his 251victim. The police were to travel the whole night, and might be expected back in the evening of the next day.

Jimmy rode a horse between David and another cop. They took off the handcuffs, put them on his ankles, and attached them to the stirrups. I was surprised by all this, but I said nothing, assuming they knew what they were doing. In my letter to the police magistrate in Cardwell, I informed him that the prisoner had confessed to the murder and was ready to show them where the body of his victim was. The police were set to travel all night and would likely be back the next evening. 251

The sergeant now relapsed into a most astonishing dolce far niente. He went into his tent and began to drink the rum that belonged to his chief, and for the sake of convenience he had set the jug by the side of his bed.

The sergeant now fell into a surprising dolce far niente. He went into his tent and started drinking the rum that belonged to his superior, and to make it easier, he had placed the jug next to his bed.

Early the next morning I was greatly surprised at meeting David, who handed me back the letter I had written, and told me they had had the misfortune to lose the prisoner. On their arrival at Dalrymple Creek, Jimmy had shown them the dead body in the creek, then he suddenly severed the stirrup straps and fled with the irons on his feet. The night was dark, and it was raining, so that it was easy for him to escape, although the police fired some shots after him.

Early the next morning, I was really surprised to run into David, who gave me back the letter I had written and told me they had unfortunately lost the prisoner. When they got to Dalrymple Creek, Jimmy had shown them the dead body in the creek, then suddenly cut the stirrup straps and ran off with the handcuffs still on his feet. It was dark and raining that night, making it easy for him to escape, even though the police fired a few shots after him.

This information was a great disappointment to me, but it had an opposite effect on the natives, who assured me that Jimmy would break the irons with stones and thus free himself from them. I could not help suspecting that David had been in collusion with the natives and given aid to the prisoner, and I did not conceal the fact that I was greatly displeased. Meanwhile it was impossible to discuss the matter with the sergeant. He was dead drunk in his tent, and continued in this condition for four days and nights. Now and then he became conscious, but then he would take another drink, and perhaps request some one to fan him with the tent door. Once or twice a day he would take a little walk round the tent, supporting himself on two of the troopers, who almost had to carry him. The condition of affairs kept growing worse. The troopers availed themselves of this opportunity to help themselves from the jug, and they even gave the natives grog, or “gorrogo,” as they called it.

This news really disappointed me, but it had the opposite effect on the locals, who assured me that Jimmy would smash the chains with rocks and set himself free. I couldn’t shake the suspicion that David had worked with the natives and helped the prisoner, and I didn’t hide the fact that I was very unhappy about it. In the meantime, it was impossible to talk about the situation with the sergeant. He was completely wasted in his tent and stayed that way for four days and nights. Occasionally, he would become aware of his surroundings, but then he would grab another drink and maybe ask someone to fan him with the tent door. Once or twice a day, he would take a short walk around the tent, leaning on two of the troopers, who almost had to carry him. The situation kept getting worse. The troopers took advantage of this chance to help themselves to the liquor, and they even gave the locals alcohol, or “gorrogo,” as they called it.

In this manner the sergeant maintained the law in the eyes of the natives, and in this manner he preserved discipline among his subordinates. What an impression this would leave among the blacks in regard to right and wrong! When sober, he was in the habit of saying that “the only way of civilising a black-fellow is to give him a bullet.”

In this way, the sergeant enforced the law in the eyes of the locals and kept order among his team. What an impact this would have on the community's views on right and wrong! When he was sober, he often said that “the only way to civilize a black man is to give him a bullet.”

I sent a letter to Mr. Stafford, the sergeant’s superior officer, who lived in the police barracks on the table-land. I gave him an account of what had happened, and demanded 252the punishment of Jimmy for the two murders he had committed. I added that, if nothing was done in the matter, I would make a full report to the Government.

I sent a letter to Mr. Stafford, the sergeant's boss, who lived in the police barracks on the plateau. I explained what had happened and demanded that Jimmy be punished for the two murders he committed. I also mentioned that if nothing was done about it, I would report the whole thing to the Government. 252

STRIPED-FACED POUCHED MOUSE (Sminthopsis virginiæ).

Striped-Face Pouched Mouse (Sminthopsis virginiæ).

After putting my collections away in good order at my headquarters, I got myself ready to depart for the Valley of Lagoons, where I intended to pass the worst part of the rainy season. During the last days my collection was augmented by the addition of two most interesting specimens of the Australian fauna. The one was a pouched mouse (Sminthopsis virginiæ) which is tolerably abundant in the Herbert, river valley. It burrows in the earth and is dug up by the natives, who are fond of its flesh. The specimen I secured is the only one to be found in museums. From a complete description by De Tarragon in 1847 it is evident that he found the same animal, but his specimen has been lost.

After organizing my collections at my base, I got ready to leave for the Valley of Lagoons, where I planned to stay during the worst part of the rainy season. Recently, my collection was enhanced by two fascinating specimens of the Australian wildlife. One of them is a pouched mouse (Sminthopsis virginiæ), which is fairly common in the Herbert river valley. It digs burrows in the ground and is dug up by the locals, who enjoy eating it. The specimen I obtained is the only one in museums. From a detailed description by De Tarragon in 1847, it’s clear that he encountered the same animal, but his specimen has been lost.

Under very peculiar circumstances I also secured a young talegalla, which the Kanaka had obtained from the blacks. It was in fact intended for the sergeant, but he had requested the Kanaka to keep it for him. The animal was placed under a kettle on the bare ground in the kitchen, where it spent six days without food. The Kanaka informed me that 253the talegalla was in his keeping, and offered it to me, since its rightful owner was in no condition to take care of it. The poor creature had tried to maintain life by scratching the hard ground, where no food was to be found, and still it was in perfectly good condition. The blacks had taken it out of the nest while they were digging for eggs, and when found it was not more than one or two days old.

Under very unusual circumstances, I also ended up with a young talegalla, which the Kanaka had gotten from the locals. It was actually meant for the sergeant, but he had asked the Kanaka to hold onto it for him. The animal was kept under a kettle on the bare ground in the kitchen, where it stayed for six days without food. The Kanaka told me that the talegalla was in his care and offered it to me since its rightful owner couldn't take care of it. The poor animal had tried to survive by scratching at the hard ground, where there was no food, and still it was in perfectly good shape. The locals had taken it out of the nest while searching for eggs, and when they found it, it was only one or two days old.

Near the end of February I said good-bye to Herbert Vale for a time, and was glad to get away from the annoyances I had had during the latter part of my sojourn there. My relations with the blacks had become more complicated, for they had noticed that I was the only one who insisted on the punishment of Jimmy, and they saw that my efforts were frustrated. They had for the time being lost their respect for me, but I had hopes of re-establishing my authority when Mr. Stafford came down and made them fear the agents of the law. My safety demanded that severe measures should be taken, and I therefore made up my mind to try to meet him personally. He lived not far from Mr. Scott’s station, the Valley of Lagoons.

Near the end of February, I said goodbye to Herbert Vale for a while and was relieved to escape the troubles I had experienced during the last part of my stay there. My interactions with the Indigenous people had become more complicated because they noticed that I was the only one who insisted on punishing Jimmy, and they saw my efforts were being blocked. They had temporarily lost their respect for me, but I hoped to regain my authority when Mr. Stafford arrived and made them fear the law. My safety required that serious actions be taken, so I decided to try to meet him in person. He lived not far from Mr. Scott’s station, at the Valley of Lagoons.

The scenery is quite different on the table-land from that in the Herbert river valley, and consists of large green grassy fields extending far and wide, sometimes covered with tall forests of gum-trees. The heat and rainfall are considerably less, but still water is abundant, especially around the Valley of Lagoons, which has its beautiful name from the numerous fresh-water lakes found in that locality. At the station, situated on a high hill, there was always a cool refreshing breeze.

The scenery on the tableland is quite different from that in the Herbert River valley. It features vast green grassy fields stretching for miles, sometimes topped with tall eucalyptus forests. The heat and rainfall are noticeably lower, but water remains abundant, especially around the Valley of Lagoons, named for the many freshwater lakes in the area. At the station, located on a high hill, there was always a cool, refreshing breeze.

There are several indications that this region is gold-bearing, and some day we may hear of the discovery of large quantities of the precious metal. Near the station is a large district covered with lava, in which are many caverns serving as hiding-places for the savages, who are constantly at war with the white population. Rock-wallabies are fond of this lava district. I there shot the beautiful little bird Dicæum hirundinaceum.

There are several signs that this region has gold, and someday we might hear about the discovery of large amounts of the precious metal. Close to the station is a vast area covered with lava, which contains many caves that serve as hideouts for the natives, who are continuously at war with the white settlers. Rock-wallabies love this lava area. I shot the lovely little bird Dicæum hirundinaceum there.

In Burdekin river, which is full of fish, I one day discovered an Ornithorhynchus anatinus swimming in the clear water.

In the Burdekin River, which is full of fish, I one day discovered an Ornithorhynchus anatinus swimming in the clear water.

254A few days after my arrival I received a visit from Mr. Stafford, who expressed his regret that his men had acted so foolishly. As soon as he could get his horses shod, he would himself go down to Herbert Vale and “investigate the matter.” He said nothing about calling the sergeant to account for his conduct, but seemed to be chiefly interested in a journey which he was about to make to Townsville.

254A few days after I arrived, Mr. Stafford came to visit me. He mentioned that he was sorry his men had acted so recklessly. As soon as he could get his horses shod, he planned to head down to Herbert Vale and “look into the situation.” He didn’t say anything about holding the sergeant responsible for his actions and seemed mainly focused on a trip he was about to take to Townsville.

The blacks in this vicinity were not to be trifled with. They had repeatedly surrounded the police barracks in the night, and there was constant danger of an attack. They were also dangerous enemies to Mr. Scott’s cattle, and according to the statement of the overseer, they had killed thousands of them. Three blacks were servants at the station, and were therefore “civilised,” but their life here had not had any visible influence on their morals. One of them, a woman, told me that her fellow-servant had given birth to three children, all of which had been killed. The mother had put an end to two of them herself, while the third had been permitted to live until it was big enough to be eaten. The one who told me the story had herself put her foot on the child’s breast and crushed it to death; then both had eaten the child. This was told me as an everyday occurrence, and not at all as anything remarkable.

The black people in this area were not to be messed with. They had often surrounded the police station at night, and there was always a risk of an attack. They were also a serious threat to Mr. Scott’s cattle, and according to the overseer, they had killed thousands of them. Three black individuals worked at the station and were therefore considered "civilized," but their life there had not noticeably improved their morals. One of them, a woman, told me that her fellow worker had given birth to three children, all of whom had been killed. The mother had ended two of them herself, while the third had been allowed to live until it was large enough to be eaten. The woman sharing this story had also stepped on the child's chest and crushed it to death; then both of them had eaten the child. This was shared with me as a normal incident, not at all as something unusual.

I remained only fourteen days at this station, and in the middle of March I was back at Herbert Vale. The keeper told me that Mr. Stafford had spent a night at the station and had proceeded to Cardwell without taking any step in regard to Jimmy. He might possibly give his attention to the matter on his return. Meanwhile the postman and a sergeant sent by the police court at Cardwell had found the body of the white man and buried it. Jimmy had grown very bold, and had made his camp only a mile and a half from Herbert Vale. Still, it would be difficult to capture him. I tried to induce the blacks to kill him, representing to them that in that event no one else would be shot, while, if they did not kill him, they might all have to suffer.

I stayed at this station for only fourteen days, and by mid-March, I was back at Herbert Vale. The keeper told me that Mr. Stafford had spent a night at the station and had headed to Cardwell without doing anything about Jimmy. He might deal with it when he returned. In the meantime, the postman and a sergeant sent by the police court at Cardwell had found the body of the white man and buried it. Jimmy had become quite bold and had set up camp just a mile and a half from Herbert Vale. Still, capturing him would be tough. I tried to persuade the locals to take him out, arguing that if they did, no one else would be shot, but if they didn’t act, they might all end up suffering.

They did, in fact, seem to get frightened, and told me they would have him shot. Under all circumstances, they promised to deliver him up as soon as Mr. Stafford returned. Had the latter taken up the matter on his return, Jimmy 255would not have escaped his deserts. But Mr. Stafford was wholly indifferent. He spent the night at the station, and in the morning, as he was mounting his horse, he addressed a few words to one or two natives who happened to be present, and said, “You had better kill Jimmy yourselves.” That was all he did in the matter.

They really did seem scared and told me they would have him shot. No matter what, they promised to hand him over as soon as Mr. Stafford got back. If Mr. Stafford had taken action when he returned, Jimmy definitely wouldn't have gotten away with it. But Mr. Stafford didn’t care at all. He spent the night at the station, and in the morning, as he was getting on his horse, he spoke a few words to a couple of locals who were there and said, “You should just kill Jimmy yourselves.” That was all he did about it.

My position was a perilous one, and my authority among the blacks had now received a new shock. The natives saw that they could take the life of a white man with impunity, and that Mr. Stafford was unwilling to pay any attention to my representations. From this they concluded that he was on their side, and that it would be safe to kill me. Even Jimmy felt secure. The next day he moved his camp nearer to Herbert Vale, and before long he visited the station itself. Still I never saw him. A few weeks later he broke into Mr. Gardiner’s farm on the Lower Herbert and killed his dog.

My situation was risky, and my influence among the black community had taken a hit. The locals realized they could take a white man's life without facing any consequences, and that Mr. Stafford wasn’t interested in my concerns. From this, they assumed he was on their side and that it would be safe to get rid of me. Even Jimmy felt safe. The next day, he moved his camp closer to Herbert Vale, and before long, he came to the station itself. Still, I never saw him. A few weeks later, he broke into Mr. Gardiner’s farm on the Lower Herbert and killed his dog.

JIMMY.

JIMMY.

256

CHAPTER XXI

The rainy season—How the evenings are spent—Hardy children—Mangola-Maggi’s revenge—The crania of the Australians—The expedition to Cardwell—Dalrymple Gap—A scandalous murder—Entry into Cardwell—Yokkai as cook—“Balnglan’s” death—Tobacco cures sorrow.

The rainy season—How the evenings are spent—Resilient kids—Mangola-Maggi’s revenge—The skulls of the Australians—The trip to Cardwell—Dalrymple Gap—A shocking murder—Arriving in Cardwell—Yokkai as the cook—“Balnglan’s” death—Tobacco eases sorrow.

It grew more and more difficult to secure serviceable men. Yokkai I could usually depend on, but all the others I suspected more or less. Several times I was nearly ready for an expedition, when it began to rain. The weather was, of course, very unreliable during the rainy season. Old Walters had gone down to Cardwell for provisions, and I was left alone at the station with the Kanaka, where time hung heavily on my hands, for I had but few books. I kept writing as long as I was able, and the rest of the day I sat in the kitchen chatting with the Kanaka and the blacks, who usually came in late in the afternoon to warm their naked bodies by the fire. Their bodies were washed clean by the rain, and the wet steamed off them in the warm kitchen. They had a hard time of it during this season. The weather was cold and wet, and the women did not find much food in the woods, so that they suffered from hunger.

It became increasingly challenging to find reliable men for help. I could usually count on Yokkai, but I had my doubts about the others. There were several times when I was almost ready for an expedition, only for it to start raining. The weather was, of course, quite unpredictable during the rainy season. Old Walters had gone down to Cardwell for supplies, leaving me alone at the station with the Kanaka, where time dragged since I had very few books. I kept writing as long as I could, and for the rest of the day, I sat in the kitchen chatting with the Kanaka and the local Black people, who usually came in late in the afternoon to warm their bodies by the fire. Their bodies were washed clean by the rain, and steam rose off them in the warm kitchen. They struggled during this season. The weather was cold and wet, and the women had a hard time finding food in the woods, so they suffered from hunger.

We generally sat round the fire, and the blacks told stories from their everyday life. One of them, who was the most frequent visitor, was Jacky, whom I mentioned before, a cunning black man, but upon the whole a good-natured, sociable fellow, who was highly respected by his companions. We therefore looked upon him as a sort of chief. One evening he remained long, and entertained us with his stories. The conversation turned upon our flour which was nearly finished, and it was stated that we soon would have to live on the potatoes in the garden until the overseer 257returned. It might take weeks before he came back, as the rivers had overflowed their banks and the rain still continued. Jacky, the rogue! pitied us. The next morning the Kanaka told me that most of the potatoes were gone. Either Jacky’s women had stolen them, while he kept us talking to prevent any suspicion on our part, or he must have taken them immediately after he left us.

We usually gathered around the fire while the locals shared stories from their daily lives. One of the regulars was Jacky, who I mentioned earlier, a clever guy but overall a good-natured and sociable person, well-liked by his peers. We considered him a kind of leader. One evening, he stayed with us for a long time, entertaining us with his tales. The conversation shifted to our flour supply, which was running low, and it was noted that we would soon have to survive on the potatoes in the garden until the overseer returned. It could take weeks for him to come back since the rivers had overflowed, and the rain was still pouring. Jacky, the trickster! felt sorry for us. The next morning, the Kanaka told me that most of the potatoes were gone. Either Jacky's women had taken them while he distracted us to avoid raising any suspicion, or he must have taken them right after he left us.

After a week’s continuous rain we again got clear weather. The only pleasure I had had during this time was bathing. Whenever the weather permitted, I would go down to the river in the misty cold air, but it was necessary to keep a sharp look-out for crocodiles and not venture too far out in the stream. In the same stream where I was in the habit of bathing, a dog had recently been caught by a crocodile, while swimming by the side of his master. Thus the dog saved the man’s life, for the crocodile is particularly fond of dog’s flesh. Strange to say, the natives are not afraid of swimming across a river, but I would not advise a white man to attempt it.

After a week of constant rain, we finally had clear weather again. The only enjoyment I found during that time was swimming. Whenever the weather allowed, I would head down to the river in the chilly mist, but I had to keep a watchful eye out for crocodiles and not venture too far into the water. In the same river where I usually swam, a dog had recently been caught by a crocodile while swimming alongside its owner. That dog ended up saving the man's life, since crocodiles really like eating dog meat. Strangely enough, the locals aren't afraid to swim across rivers, but I wouldn't recommend that a white person try it.

Whenever it was possible I made excursions with the blacks, even during this time. One day while we were out I met a black woman, who I knew had a child two weeks old. She carried a basket on her back, and I, assuming that the child was in the basket, asked her to show it to me. She at once placed the basket on the ground, thrust her hand into it, seized the child by the feet, and held it with the head down for me to look at. The child awoke and began to cry a little, but did not seem to suffer much by this treatment. The children are, upon the whole, hardy. At a station near the tropics the white people several times saw a child only a few days old lying out in the cold on a piece of bark with hoar-frost round about it; and apparently it was not injured thereby.

Whenever I could, I went out with the locals, even during this time. One day while we were out, I met a woman who I knew had a two-week-old baby. She was carrying a basket on her back, and thinking the baby was inside, I asked her to show it to me. She quickly set the basket on the ground, reached inside, grabbed the baby by the feet, and held it upside down for me to see. The baby woke up and started to cry a bit, but didn't seem to be hurt by this. Generally, babies are quite tough. At a station near the tropics, the white people saw a baby just a few days old lying out in the cold on a piece of bark with frost around it; somehow, it seemed to be fine.

At another time the conversation turned on a child that had died about a month ago. One of the natives, who was aware that I collected various things, asked me whether I would like to get this child, and added: “Why have they been so stupid as to lay it in the ground? You and I will dig it up and hang it in a tree to dry.” He was very eager to undertake this work for me, hoping thereby to earn some tobacco. 258The child’s mother, who had not thought of the possibility of getting any profit out of her dead child, became from this moment very eager to sell it.

At one point, the conversation shifted to a child who had died about a month ago. One of the locals, knowing that I collected various items, asked if I would be interested in obtaining this child and added, “Why were they so foolish as to bury it? You and I can dig it up and hang it in a tree to dry.” He was very enthusiastic about helping me with this task, hoping to earn some tobacco in return. 258 The child's mother, who hadn’t considered the possibility of profiting from her dead child, suddenly became very eager to sell it.

It is not often that it is so easy to get the natives to part with their dead. They dislike to disturb their own, and are afraid to meddle with those of other tribes. At this very time I was trying to secure a cranium of a full-grown individual, and in connection with this I had some very interesting experiences. I offered a reward of tobacco for the head of a man of a distant tribe, who some time ago had been killed at a borboby. From fear of the strange tribe they could not be persuaded to procure it, so I made up my mind to try to get it myself. I took Yokkai with me to show me the grave, but I did not find it.

It’s not often that it’s so easy to get the locals to part with their dead. They don’t like to disturb their own people and are hesitant to interfere with those from other tribes. At that moment, I was trying to get a skull from an adult, and I had some very interesting experiences related to this. I offered a reward of tobacco for the head of a man from a distant tribe who had been killed at a borboby some time ago. Out of fear of the other tribe, they couldn’t be persuaded to get it, so I decided to try to find it myself. I took Yokkai with me to show me the grave, but I couldn’t find it.

Finally I succeeded in inducing Mangola-Maggi to fetch the head; but the skull he brought me belonged to a young person and not to a full-grown man. Besides, there was a large hole in the top of it, which made it much less desirable as a cranium. I asked him what had produced the hole. “Dingo has eaten it,” he said. Though I insisted that this could not be true, he kept asserting that it was the right head. As, however, he got no tobacco and as I promised him a large amount if he would bring the right one, he set out again in company with another native. After he had gone, the blacks explained to me the facts concerning this skull. Mangola-Maggi as a young man had experienced great difficulty in getting a wife, and had therefore requested an old man to give him one of his. But, as was natural, the old man refused to do this. Mangola-Maggi, who was a person of high authority on account of his ability to secure human flesh, became angry, and decided to take revenge. On meeting the young son of the man, he struck him on the head with a stone and killed him, and it was the skull of this young man that they had now brought to me and were trying to get a reward for. The body he had eaten immediately after the murder.

Finally, I managed to get Mangola-Maggi to go fetch the head; however, the skull he brought me belonged to a young person and not an adult man. Plus, there was a large hole at the top of it, which made it much less desirable as a cranium. I asked him what had caused the hole. “A dingo has eaten it,” he said. Although I insisted that this couldn’t be true, he kept claiming it was the right head. However, since he didn’t get any tobacco and I promised him a substantial amount if he brought the correct one, he set out again with another native. After he left, the locals explained the story behind this skull to me. As a young man, Mangola-Maggi had struggled to find a wife, and so he asked an old man to give him one of his daughters. But, as was to be expected, the old man refused. Mangola-Maggi, being a man of high status due to his ability to capture human flesh, became angry and decided to take revenge. When he encountered the old man’s young son, he struck him on the head with a stone, killing him, and it was this young man's skull that they had brought to me and were trying to get a reward for. He had eaten the body right after the murder.

The next day Mangola-Maggi and his companion brought the right cranium and got their reward. When I reproached Mangola-Maggi for his conduct toward the old man’s son, he simply shrugged his shoulders and smiled. I afterwards 259learned that he was challenged by the father to a duel with wooden swords and shields, and that in this manner the whole affair was settled.

The next day, Mangola-Maggi and his friend brought the right skull and received their reward. When I confronted Mangola-Maggi about how he treated the old man’s son, he just shrugged and smiled. Later, I found out that the father challenged him to a duel using wooden swords and shields, and that’s how everything was resolved.

A MALE CRANIUM FROM ROCKHAMPTON, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND, SEEN FROM FIVE SIDES.

A MALE SKULL FROM ROCKHAMPTON, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND, VIEWED FROM FIVE ANGLES.

260It is a well-known fact that the Australian natives, according to Gustaf Retzius, belong to the prognathous dolichocephalous class. Their projecting jaws make them resemble the apes more than any other race, and their foreheads are as a rule very low and receding. The bone is thick and strong. Few crania are to be found without marks of injuries, whether they be male or female. The muscles of the face, particularly the masticatory muscles, are very fully developed; the superciliary arches are very prominent; the cheek-bones are high, and the temporal fossæ very deep. The skull-bones form a high arch. The orbital margin is very thick, the nasal bones are flat and broad, and the teeth large and strong, the inner molars having as many as six cusps. The hollow of the neck takes an upward and receding direction.

260It’s a well-known fact that Australian natives, according to Gustaf Retzius, belong to the class with prominent jaws and long heads. Their jutting jaws make them resemble apes more than any other race, and their foreheads are usually very low and sloping. The bone structure is thick and strong. Few skulls are found without signs of injuries, whether male or female. The facial muscles, particularly those used for chewing, are highly developed; the brow ridges are very pronounced; the cheekbones are high, and the side of the head is quite deep. The skull bones create a high arch. The eye sockets are very thick, the nasal bones are flat and wide, and the teeth are large and strong, with the inner molars having as many as six points. The shape of the neck goes upward and slopes back.

In the eight crania brought by me from Central and Northern Queensland the length-breadth index is 71, the length averages 180.5, and the breadth 128. The dolichocephalous character of the skull is mainly owing to the great narrowness of the cranium.

In the eight skulls I brought back from Central and Northern Queensland, the length-breadth index is 71, the average length is 180.5, and the average breadth is 128. The long-headed nature of the skull is primarily due to the significant narrowness of the cranium.

The facial angle averages 68°. Index orbitalis is microseme (81.5), index nasalis is platyrhine (53), and Daubenton’s angle averages 5°.

The facial angle is about 68°. Index orbitalis is microseme (81.5), index nasalis is platyrhine (53), and Daubenton’s angle is around 5°.

The male crania have the savage type even to a greater degree than the female.

The male skulls are even more savage in type than the female ones.

The above measurements, particularly the small capacity of the cranium, and the low receding forehead, which is unfavourable to a development of the frontal lobes, indicate the low plane of intellectual development of the Australian natives. The smaller the skull is the lower the race ranks in culture, but the organs of the face are all the more developed in comparison with the rest of the head.

The measurements mentioned above, especially the small size of the skull and the low, receding forehead—which isn't conducive to the development of the frontal lobes—point to the lower level of intellectual development among Australian natives. Generally, the smaller the skull, the lower the race's cultural ranking, but the facial features tend to be more developed in relation to the rest of the head.

The features distinguishing the cranium of the Australian from that of the European are, in the first place, the projecting jaws (the prognathous character), which are very rare and never marked among Europeans; in the second place, the low forehead and the small capacity, which among Europeans would be called microcephalous, and would indicate a weak mind; in the third place, the flat nose, which is also very rare in Europe; and finally, the large Daubenton angle.

The characteristics that set the skull of Australians apart from Europeans include, first, the jutting jaws (the prognathous trait), which are very uncommon and never prominent among Europeans; second, the low forehead and small brain size, which would be labeled microcephalic among Europeans and suggest a lack of intelligence; third, the flat nose, which is also quite rare in Europe; and finally, the large Daubenton angle.

DALRYMPLE CREEK.

Dalrymple Creek.

261In course of time we got better weather, so that I was able to start on a long expedition to Cardwell to buy provisions, and thereupon to examine the country north-west of this village. Yokkai and I succeeded after much trouble in gathering a few people for this journey. We also had the dog “Balnglan.” All looked fresh and green after the rain; but it is wonderful how quickly everything dries up again, and how soon the rivers fall to their usual level. After all the rainfall the air was cool and very pleasant.

261Eventually, the weather improved, allowing me to embark on a lengthy journey to Cardwell to get supplies and then explore the area northwest of this village. Yokkai and I managed, after quite a bit of effort, to gather a few people for this trip. We also brought along the dog “Balnglan.” Everything looked fresh and green after the rain; however, it’s amazing how quickly everything dries up again and how soon the rivers return to their normal levels. After all the rainfall, the air was cool and very pleasant.

One evening I got a tangible proof, showing how important it is to clear with fire the ground on which one is going to camp for the night. Yokkai called my attention to the remains of a venomous serpent that had been in the grass. The above precaution is also important in sanitary respects, for the old grass is full of miasma, which makes the ground unhealthy.

One evening, I got clear evidence of how important it is to clear the ground with fire before setting up camp for the night. Yokkai pointed out the remains of a venomous snake that had been in the grass. This precaution is also crucial for health reasons, as the old grass is full of miasma, making the ground unhealthy.

On our way we passed the place on Dalrymple Creek where Jimmy had murdered the white man. A heap of stones marked the spot where the postman had buried him. In the pool of water hard by I found a few bones. Soon after this we crossed the ridge at a place called Dalrymple Gap. To a person looking down from the summit there is a most beautiful view on either side. The spectator is greeted by a luxuriant tropical vegetation; palms and bananas, and a multitude of other trees of greater or lesser size, cover the ground, while across the gap hangs the telegraph wire which connects civilised Australia with Europe. It made a strange impression on me to find this emblem of civilisation after spending so long a time among the savages. A wide swath for the telegraph wire is cut through the dense forest, and continues its way northward all the way to Cape York. This opening must constantly be cleared, otherwise the rank vegetation would soon disturb the telegraph.

On our way, we passed the spot on Dalrymple Creek where Jimmy had killed the white man. A pile of stones marked the place where the postman had buried him. In the nearby pool, I found a few bones. Shortly after, we crossed the ridge at a spot called Dalrymple Gap. From the summit, there’s a stunning view on either side. You’re welcomed by lush tropical vegetation; palms, bananas, and a variety of other trees, large and small, cover the ground, while across the gap hangs the telegraph wire that connects civilized Australia with Europe. It felt strange to see this symbol of civilization after spending so much time among the people living in the wild. A wide path for the telegraph wire is cut through the thick forest, stretching north all the way to Cape York. This clearing has to be maintained regularly; otherwise, the thick vegetation would soon interfere with the telegraph.

In these very regions a horrible murder was committed a few years ago by the blacks. The fact is well known in Northern Queensland, but except the natives, very few people are familiar with the details of the murder. The natives often talked with me concerning this event, which has not been forgotten by the white population either. The 262blacks did not hesitate to talk about it now, as so long a time has elapsed since it happened.

In these same areas, a terrible murder was committed a few years ago by the Aboriginal people. This is well known in Northern Queensland, but aside from the locals, very few people are aware of the details of the crime. The locals often discussed this event with me, which hasn’t been forgotten by the white community either. The Aboriginal people are now willing to talk about it, as enough time has passed since it occurred.

A settler named Mr. O’Connor, who had come to reside on the Lower Herbert, cultivated a farm, and employed a great many blacks to help him to clear the scrubs and to work in the fields. He paid them well, was very kind to them, and did not shoot them, as so many of the other colonists did, but was what is called “a blacks’ protector.” He paid them in meat, flour, and tobacco, but was too kind to them, and so the natives felt perfectly safe and had an irresistible desire to possess all his property.

A settler named Mr. O’Connor, who moved to the Lower Herbert, ran a farm and hired a lot of Indigenous people to help clear the brush and work in the fields. He paid them fairly, treated them kindly, and didn’t harm them like many other colonists did; he was known as “a protector of the Indigenous people.” He compensated them with meat, flour, and tobacco, but he was overly generous, so the locals felt completely secure and had a strong desire to take all his belongings.

They resolved to make an attack on his farm, and marched against the house armed with wooden swords and shields. O’Connor became alarmed, took his revolver, and finally had to shoot at them. But at every shot the natives ran behind the trees and shouted: “Shoot away, it will soon be our turn!” At last he had fired his six shots without hitting one of them. They had ceased to fear him to such a degree that they did not even respect his revolver, and rushing upon him, they slew him with their heavy swords, mangled his body, and plundered his house. They took the bananas in his garden and stole his chickens. His wife was dragged in an unconscious condition into the woods, where she was killed.

They decided to attack his farm and marched towards the house armed with wooden swords and shields. O’Connor got worried, grabbed his revolver, and eventually shot at them. But every time he fired, the locals ran behind the trees and shouted, “Keep shooting, it’ll soon be our turn!” In the end, he had fired all six shots without hitting any of them. They had lost their fear of him to the point where they didn’t even respect his revolver, and they charged at him, killing him with their heavy swords, mutilated his body, and looted his house. They took the bananas from his garden and stole his chickens. His wife was dragged into the woods in an unconscious state, where she was killed.

A police officer happened at the time to be on a tour of inspection in the neighbourhood. As O’Connor was the only settler in this district, the inspector wanted to visit him, and thus he discovered the crime that had been committed. He ordered a battue of the blacks in all directions. The troopers, who had on several occasions enjoyed the hospitality of the settler, were furiously enraged, and pursued the criminals like bloodhounds. The blacks report, however, that they did not succeed in shooting more than two of the men—an old man and a youth—but nearly all the women fell into their hands. The women, who generally are spared by the native police, were on this occasion obliged to suffer for the crimes of the men, and even the children were murdered and thrown into the flames.

A police officer happened to be inspecting the area at the time. Since O’Connor was the only settler in the district, the inspector decided to visit him, which led to the discovery of the crime that had occurred. He ordered a hunt for the local Indigenous people in all directions. The troopers, who had previously enjoyed the settler's hospitality, were furious and chased the criminals like bloodhounds. However, the Indigenous reports indicate that they managed to shoot only two men—an old man and a young one—but nearly all the women were captured. The women, who are usually spared by the local police, had to suffer for the men's crimes this time, and even the children were killed and thrown into the flames.

This account, given me by several natives whose statements agreed, I consider perfectly reliable.

This account, provided to me by several locals whose statements matched, I consider completely trustworthy.

263We encamped near Cardwell, a little settlement of about a hundred inhabitants on the seashore. I had great trouble in getting any of my men to go with me into the village, but finally succeeded in persuading one man to accompany me, while the others remained in the camp awaiting our return.

263We set up camp near Cardwell, a small settlement with around a hundred residents by the sea. I had a hard time convincing any of my men to join me in the village, but I eventually managed to persuade one guy to come along while the others stayed back at the camp, waiting for us to return.

AN OLD MAN FROM TOWNSVILLE, NORTHERN QUEENSLAND.

AN OLD MAN FROM TOWNSVILLE, NORTHERN QUEENSLAND.

Our entrance into the village attracted considerable attention. I was on horseback, and my attendant, Morbora, marched at my side in his “garments of paradise.” With one hand he shouldered my gun, and with the other hand he led the pack-horse. We must have looked like travelling gypsies.

Our arrival in the village drew a lot of attention. I was on horseback, and my attendant, Morbora, walked beside me in his "paradise clothes." He carried my gun on one shoulder and led the pack horse with his other hand. We must have looked like wandering gypsies.

264The people of the village gathered round us, and asked with the greatest curiosity how I could live among the natives without being killed. They all knew me from the postman, whose route began at Cardwell. I at once went to the “hotel”—for there is no town with twenty inhabitants without its hotel—to get my dinner, and procured for Morbora, who was sitting on the verandah and taking care of the horse, a large amount of leavings—“a black-fellow’s meal,” as it is called. He seemed to enjoy the food immensely, as he had never before had such a feast. He was in perfect ecstasy over all that he saw, and every trace of fear had left him. The white men entered into conversation with him, and it surprised me to see how well he used the few English words I had taught him. He felt like a lord as he sat there eating the food of the white man.

264The villagers gathered around us, curious about how I could live among the locals without being harmed. They all recognized me from the postman, whose route started at Cardwell. I headed to the "hotel"—since no village with twenty residents is without one—to get my dinner and brought back a generous amount of leftovers for Morbora, who was sitting on the porch looking after the horse. He seemed to thoroughly enjoy the meal, as he had never experienced such a feast before. He was completely captivated by everything around him, and all signs of fear had vanished. The white men chatted with him, and I was surprised to see how well he used the few English words I had taught him. He felt like a king as he sat there enjoying the food of the white man.

I paid a visit to the police magistrate, and talked with him about Jimmy. Then I bought provisions and returned to the camp, bringing with me woollen blankets for all my men. The Government of Queensland annually distributes blankets to the natives on the Queen’s birthday, if they will but come and get them. This is the only thing the Government does for the black inhabitants. The day for distribution had not yet arrived, but I succeeded in getting blankets for my men in advance. Here, on the borders of civilisation, there are but few natives who avail themselves of this privilege, as they are too timid to approach the whites.

I visited the police magistrate and talked to him about Jimmy. Then I bought supplies and returned to the camp, bringing wool blankets for all my men. The Queensland Government gives out blankets to the natives on the Queen’s birthday every year, as long as they come to claim them. This is the only support the Government provides for the Indigenous people. The day for distribution hadn’t come yet, but I managed to get blankets for my men ahead of time. Here, on the edge of civilization, only a few Indigenous people take advantage of this opportunity because they are too shy to approach the white settlers.

On our return to the camp these blankets were a source of joy and admiration. My blacks now made their first acquaintance with this sort of luxury, and they seemed to be perfectly delighted. The flour and sugar I had brought made, however, the deepest impression on them. The amount was not large, but my blacks had never before seen such a lot of dainties. In their simplicity they thought all was to be eaten at once, though I tried to make them understand that it was to last a long time. I did not give them much of the sugar, as they were able to procure honey for themselves. Sugar had become an absolute necessity to me, and I was unable to swallow my food without sweetening the water. It frequently happened that I lay down in the evening 265munching dry food without being able to swallow it. This made the natives envious, for, having devoured their own share at once, they wanted to get what I was trying to eat.

On our way back to the camp, these blankets brought us a lot of joy and admiration. My workers were experiencing this kind of luxury for the first time, and they seemed really happy. However, the flour and sugar I had brought left the biggest impression on them. The quantity wasn’t large, but my workers had never seen so many treats before. In their innocence, they thought everything was supposed to be eaten all at once, even though I tried to explain that it was meant to last a long time. I didn’t give them much sugar since they were able to get honey on their own. Sugar had become essential for me, and I couldn’t eat my food without sweetening the water. Often, I would lie down in the evening, munching on dry food that I struggled to swallow. This made the locals envious because, after finishing their share quickly, they wanted what I was trying to eat.

We proceeded up the Coast Mountains north-west from Cardwell, and encamped near the summit on a grassy lawn in the scrub, constructing our huts with more care than usual, and digging ditches round them so that we could keep dry. The vegetation here was remarkably luxuriant. We had a fine view of the ocean and of the coast below us, including a long series of scrub-clad hills toward the north.

We went up the Coast Mountains northwest from Cardwell and set up camp near the top on a grassy area in the bushes. We built our huts more carefully than usual and dug ditches around them to stay dry. The plants here were really lush. We had a great view of the ocean and the coastline below us, including a long line of scrub-covered hills to the north.

Yokkai, whom I had educated as well as I could to prepare the food, was very proud of being permitted to handle the white man’s things. I had taught him to wash himself and to keep himself clean, but only insisted on his doing this when he acted as cook, and at such times I was always present, as he was especially fond of baking damper. It was never necessary to ask him twice to do this. He made no delay in procuring the bark, on which he carefully laid the necessary amount of flour, adding the proper amount of water, and kneaded the dough with a skill that a baker might envy. When the dough was kneaded, and he had shaped it, he threw it a few times into the air, and caught it like a ball, to show us that he understood the art perfectly. After placing the cake in the ashes, he carefully collected all the small pieces of dough remaining and made a little cake of them, which he baked for his own special benefit. Besides, I gave him, as his perquisite, a small piece of the damper when it was done.

Yokkai, whom I had taught as best as I could to prepare food, was very proud to be allowed to handle the white man’s belongings. I had taught him to wash himself and stay clean, but I only insisted on this when he was cooking, and I was always there since he particularly enjoyed baking damper. He never needed to be asked twice to do this. He quickly gathered the bark, carefully spread the right amount of flour on it, added the correct amount of water, and kneaded the dough with a skill that a baker would envy. Once the dough was kneaded and shaped, he tossed it into the air a few times and caught it like a ball to show us he had mastered the skill. After placing the cake in the ashes, he carefully collected all the little bits of leftover dough and made a small cake for himself, which he baked for his own enjoyment. Additionally, I gave him a small piece of the damper when it was finished as a little extra.

As he gradually grew more accustomed to the baking, I noticed that the remnants of dough on the bark kept increasing in quantity, but as he was, upon the whole, a rather scrupulous man, I said nothing about it. I also gave him permission to prepare the meat. I had abandoned the tin pail and now prepared my meat in the same manner as the natives.

As he got more used to baking, I noticed that the leftover dough on the bark kept getting more and more, but since he was generally a pretty meticulous guy, I didn't say anything about it. I also let him prepare the meat. I had stopped using the tin pail and now cooked my meat the same way the locals did.

We made daily excursions into the woods, which were unusually dense and abounded with lawyer-palms. As usual, the leeches[14] were very numerous in these mountains, and were very annoying. As you walk through the woods, 266exhausted and dripping with perspiration, you scarcely notice their bites before they have satisfied their thirst for blood, but then the blood flows freely from the wound. The ticks, however, are a far greater annoyance. All the scrubs up here are so full of these insects that a white man dreads to enter them, though the natives are not at all annoyed by them. A splendid remedy for the itching caused by these insects is lemon juice, and hence I always took lemons with me on my expeditions from Herbert Vale. I put this juice over my whole body, and thus the insects were doubtless killed, for I immediately felt relief. A larger species of tick is also found here which kills the dogs of Europeans, but, strange to say, has no effect on the dingo. They are, however, a great inconvenience to the white man, and should at once be killed by applying petroleum to them. It is useless to try to jerk them out, for a part of them will remain in the flesh and may cause bad sores. I know a man who became blind for a few minutes on account of a tick which he could not get entirely rid of, a part of it remaining in the flesh of his back.

We went on daily trips into the woods, which were unusually thick and filled with lawyer-palms. As usual, the leeches[14] were very common in these mountains and quite bothersome. While walking through the woods, tired and sweating, you hardly notice their bites before they've quenched their thirst for blood, but then the blood flows freely from the wound. However, the ticks are an even bigger annoyance. All the underbrush here is so infested with these insects that a white man is hesitant to venture in, though the locals seem unaffected by them. A great remedy for the itching these insects cause is lemon juice, so I always brought lemons with me on my trips from Herbert Vale. I poured the juice over my whole body, and it likely killed the insects, as I felt immediate relief. There’s also a larger type of tick in this area that can kill European dogs, but oddly enough, it doesn't affect the dingo. Nevertheless, they are a significant hassle for white people and should be killed right away by applying petroleum to them. Trying to pull them out doesn’t work because part of them will stay in the flesh and can lead to nasty sores. I know of a guy who went blind for a few minutes because of a tick he couldn't completely remove, leaving a piece of it stuck in his back.

14. They are not eaten by the natives.

14. The locals don’t eat them.

On my wanderings here, my blacks found in a pool formed by a mountain brook a toollah (Pseudochirus archeri). The natives all shouted at once, yarri. They told me that the large yarri, which I never succeeded in securing, but of whose existence I have no doubt, subsists for a great part on this animal, which, in this instance, it had left in the cool water for future consumption. One is tempted to believe that the yarri understands the preserving quality of the water. The natives, too, preserve their meat in the water during the hot summer months, as the temperature of the water is, of course, lower than that of the air. The fact probably is, that the yarri has found the water to be a safer place for storing the meat. The toollah was put between some stones near the edge of the river. I was much pleased with what the natives told me, for it awakened in me hopes of securing a specimen of this large marsupial. Fortunately, I had strychnine with me. I poisoned the toollah and laid it on the bank. Farther up the stream I left several pieces of meat, likewise prepared with poison, a source of great aggravation to the blacks, who would have 267liked to eat the meat. As we went to examine the snares every day, I was very much afraid that our dog might eat the poison, and I kept constantly warning the blacks.

During my travels here, my team discovered a wallaby (Pseudochirus archeri) in a pool formed by a mountain stream. The locals all shouted at once, yarri. They told me that the large yarri, which I never managed to catch but believe exists, feeds a lot on this animal, which it had left in the cool water for later. One might think that the yarri knows about the water's preserving properties. The locals also keep their meat in the water during the hot summer months since the water is cooler than the air. It's likely that the yarri has found the water to be a safer storage option for the meat. The wallaby was placed between some rocks near the river’s edge. I was quite pleased with what the locals shared, as it made me hopeful about getting a specimen of this large marsupial. Luckily, I had strychnine with me. I poisoned the wallaby and laid it on the bank. Further up the stream, I left several pieces of meat, also poisoned, which upset the locals since they wanted to eat it. As we checked the traps every day, I worried that our dog might eat the poison, so I kept warning the locals.

One day, as we were returning to the camp, the natives were to take a beat by themselves through the scrub. I urged them particularly not to return along the river, but to come through the woods, so as to avoid the poisoned meat. Later in the day, as they were coming home, I heard them talking about poison and about “Balnglan.” I at once became suspicious, and asked if the dog had eaten any of the poison. They denied it, but when I pressed them with questions they admitted that they had returned by the way of the river, probably because they were too lazy to go the other way, and they also confessed that “Balnglan” had taken the poisoned toollah in his mouth. Yokkai had at once taken the toollah out of “Balnglan’s” mouth, so that he had not eaten any of it. No sooner had they made this statement than the dog fell into spasms. I rushed into my hut, mixed as quickly as I could some tobacco and water to pour down the dog’s throat, while Yokkai and another man held it, but it died at once.

One day, as we were heading back to the camp, the locals were supposed to take a path on their own through the scrub. I specifically told them not to come back along the river, but to go through the woods to avoid the poisoned meat. Later in the day, when they were coming home, I overheard them talking about poison and “Balnglan.” I instantly became suspicious and asked if the dog had eaten any of the poison. They denied it, but when I pressed them, they admitted that they had taken the river route, probably because they were too lazy to go the other way. They also confessed that “Balnglan” had taken the poisoned toollah in his mouth. Yokkai immediately removed the toollah from “Balnglan’s” mouth, so he hadn’t swallowed any of it. No sooner had they said this than the dog went into spasms. I dashed into my hut, mixed up some tobacco and water as quickly as I could to pour down the dog’s throat while Yokkai and another man held it, but it died right away.

Yokkai gazed at it for a moment, then turned away and wept bitterly. He sat down and wrung his hands in despair, while large tears rolled down his cheeks. The other man also began to sob and cry aloud.

Yokkai looked at it for a moment, then turned away and cried hard. He sat down and wrung his hands in despair, while big tears streamed down his cheeks. The other man also started to sob and cry out loud.

Though I felt the deepest sympathy for them, I could not endure these endless lamentations. I got two large pieces of tobacco, and offered it as a reward to them if they would cease their sobbing. Yokkai became silent at once and straightened himself up, while he looked at the tobacco with his eyes full of tears. He accepted it with contentment, but there was not a smile on his face. The other continued sobbing until it came to be his turn to get tobacco, then his sorrow was cured instantly.

Though I felt really sorry for them, I couldn't stand their endless crying. I got two big pieces of tobacco and offered it to them as a reward if they would stop sobbing. Yokkai shut up immediately and straightened up, looking at the tobacco with tear-filled eyes. He accepted it happily, but there was no smile on his face. The other kept crying until it was his turn to get tobacco, and then his sadness disappeared instantly.

I myself was touched by this event, for the good beast, which lay there dead and rigid, had been of great service to me. It was the best dog for miles round, and was the most intelligent dingo I have ever seen. I not only placed a high value on it, but I was also very fond of it, though it had several times attacked my leather traps, 268such as strings, shoes, and even my revolver case. I was anxious to preserve at least its fine black skin with white breast and yellow legs, and I suggested to Yokkai that he should let me have it. Knowing that such a request would be opposed, I at the same time offered tobacco as a compensation. He at first objected, but when he saw two whole sticks of tobacco, every scruple vanished and his eyes beamed with satisfaction. He even assisted me in skinning the dingo, and from this time he regained his usual good humour. He had some suspicions that Nilgora, the owner of the dog, would become angry when he learned of this sad event, but he felt certain that he could satisfy him by giving him his woollen blanket and some tobacco.

I was personally affected by this event because the great dog that lay there, dead and stiff, had been incredibly helpful to me. It was the best dog around for miles and the smartest dingo I’ve ever seen. I valued it a lot and was really fond of it, even though it had attacked my leather traps, like strings, shoes, and even my revolver case, several times. I wanted to keep at least its beautiful black skin with a white chest and yellow legs, and I suggested to Yokkai that he should let me have it. Knowing he might oppose my request, I offered tobacco as compensation. He initially hesitated, but when he saw two whole sticks of tobacco, all his doubts disappeared and he looked really pleased. He even helped me skin the dingo, and from that moment on, he was back to his usual cheerful self. He suspected that Nilgora, the owner of the dog, would be upset when he heard about this unfortunate event, but he was sure he could make it up to him by giving him his wool blanket and some tobacco.

269

CHAPTER XXII

Unpleasantnesses at Herbert Vale—New expeditions—Hunting human flesh—Cannibalism—Human flesh is the greatest delicacy of the Australian blacks—Superstitions in connection with the eating of human flesh—The taste of the cannibals—Cannibalism in Burma.

Unpleasant experiences at Herbert Vale—New adventures—Hunting human flesh—Cannibalism—Human flesh is considered the ultimate delicacy by the Australian Aboriginals—Superstitions related to the consumption of human flesh—The preferences of cannibals—Cannibalism in Burma.

NATIVES ON HERBERT RIVER.

Natives on Herbert River.

From this time forward I seldom visited Herbert Vale. It was easy to understand that the old overseer was anxious to get rid of me, though I had not troubled him much with my presence. He was one of those Australian hermits who had lived so long by himself that he could not brook others near him. I did all in my power to avoid any change in his old habits. But he got tired of my skins and was annoyed by my skeletons, the smell of which he could not bear, though I kept them in another building. At last I hardly knew what to do with them. He was peevish and unsociable. We never conversed unless it was absolutely necessary.

From that point on, I rarely visited Herbert Vale. It was clear that the old overseer wanted me gone, even though I hadn’t bothered him much. He was one of those Australian hermits who had been alone for so long that he couldn’t stand having people around him. I did everything I could to avoid disrupting his old routine. But he grew tired of my skins and was irritated by my skeletons, which he couldn’t tolerate, even though I kept them in a separate building. Eventually, I hardly knew what to do with them. He was grumpy and unfriendly. We only talked when it was absolutely necessary.

My relations with Nelly and the Kanaka had hitherto been pleasant; but things came to pass which made a change in their conduct. Nelly had an old one-eyed cur that it was dangerous to approach. When I returned from the expedition to Cardwell it was determined to hinder me from 270entering my room, barking the whole time and showing its angry teeth. I took a stick and gave it a severe blow, but as I was too angry to calculate the weight of the blow, the dog fell to the ground unconscious. Nelly, who meanwhile had come to the rescue, at once uttered a shriek so terrible that I could hardly conceive it as coming from a human being. It was impossible to get her to stop. She threw herself upon the dog and did not cease shrieking until it became conscious again. She thought I had killed it, but it became perfectly well again, though the pleasant relations between Nelly and myself were gone for ever.

My relationship with Nelly and the Kanaka had been good until something happened that changed their behavior. Nelly had an old one-eyed dog that was dangerous to approach. When I got back from the expedition to Cardwell, they decided to prevent me from entering my room, barking the whole time and showing their teeth. I grabbed a stick and hit it hard, but I was too angry to think about how hard I hit it, and the dog collapsed unconscious. Nelly, who had rushed over to help, let out a scream so terrible that it was hard to believe it came from a human. I couldn’t get her to stop. She threw herself on the dog and didn’t stop screaming until it regained consciousness. She thought I had killed it, but it recovered completely, even though the friendly relationship between Nelly and me was gone forever.

The Kanaka did not take much interest in this matter, for he was used to hearing Nelly cry, but another incident disturbed our intercourse. I reproached him for his conduct towards a girl eleven years old, and for this he could never forgive me.

The Kanaka didn’t think much of this situation, as he was used to hearing Nelly cry, but another issue upset our relationship. I criticized him for his treatment of an eleven-year-old girl, and he could never forgive me for that.

On account of these strained relations, Herbert Vale was even less attractive than before. I spent most of my time with the blacks, simply paying an occasional short visit to the station. Yokkai was still my faithful companion, and assisted me in gathering men.

On account of these strained relations, Herbert Vale was even less appealing than before. I spent most of my time with the Black community, only dropping by the station for short visits now and then. Yokkai was still my loyal companion and helped me in gathering men.

One day we crossed a valley, where he told me many blacks had at one time lived of whom not a trace was now to be seen. They had gradually been killed and eaten by other tribes.

One day we crossed a valley, where he told me that many Black people had once lived there, but now there was no trace of them. They had gradually been killed and eaten by other tribes.

As has repeatedly been stated, the Australian tribes are constantly at war with each other. They try to exterminate one another whenever there is an opportunity. They constantly plan attacks, and in their warfare exhibit a cunning worthy of a better cause. This enmity between the tribes is attributable to the superstition that any black man can by witchcraft cause death among the members of his tribe. Hence it is of importance to kill as many strangers as possible, but as cowardice is no vice or fault among the Australians, they content themselves with hating and fearing one another, except when the opportunity of taking life is, so to speak, forced upon them. There is much talking and loud boasting, but the words seldom ripen into action. Still, it sometimes happens that they attack each other for the purpose of revenging direct insults, as for instance the 271stealing of women, hunting on another tribe’s territory, or on account of some death, for which the strangers are of course blamed. Then they are enticed by the hope of getting more wives; but the greatest incentive to taking life is their appetite for human flesh. The blacks never wage war to conquer new territory.

As has been said many times, the Australian tribes are always at war with each other. They try to wipe each other out whenever they get the chance. They constantly plan attacks and show a cleverness in their fighting that deserves a better reason. This hostility between the tribes comes from the belief that any black man can cause death among his own tribe through witchcraft. Therefore, it's important for them to kill as many strangers as possible. However, since cowardice isn't seen as a fault among Australians, they mostly settle for hating and fearing each other unless they feel forced to take a life. There’s a lot of talk and loud boasting, but these words rarely turn into action. Still, they occasionally attack each other to get back at direct insults, like when women are stolen, when someone hunts on another tribe's land, or when there is a death for which the strangers are blamed. They are tempted by the hope of gaining more wives, but their strongest motivation for killing is their craving for human flesh. The tribes don’t fight wars to seize new land.

On Herbert river expeditions are sometimes undertaken for the special purpose of securing talgoro—that is, human flesh. On such occasions a small company of the boldest and most depraved gather together, and they are, of course, persons of high standing in the tribe. They are not many in number, as a rule only three or four; for the attacks are made on small family tribes that live scattered through the district, sometimes consisting of not more than five or six individuals. The expedition travels slowly, as they have no provisions with them and must find their subsistence from day to day. It is of course necessary to proceed with the greatest caution, lest they be themselves discovered and attacked.

On Herbert River, expeditions are sometimes organized specifically to secure talgoro—that is, human flesh. On these occasions, a small group of the boldest and most depraved individuals come together, and these people are typically of high status within the tribe. They aren't usually many in number, generally only three or four, as the attacks target small family tribes that are scattered throughout the area, sometimes made up of only five or six individuals. The expedition moves slowly, as they carry no food with them and need to find their sustenance day by day. It's essential to proceed with extreme caution to avoid being discovered and attacked themselves.

When they have found a small family tribe to be attacked, they try to stay near their camp in the evening. Nothing having happened to cause apprehension during the day, the family sits comparatively secure round the camp fire. Early in the morning, before sunrise, a noise is suddenly heard and the family wakes up in a fright. The black man’s highly-wrought fancy always makes him imagine that his enemies are far more numerous than they are in reality. Each one tries to save his life as best he can; resistance being out of the question, there is no gallant defence of women and children. Each one has to look after himself; and it is generally worst for the old individuals, who are killed and eaten. A woman is as a rule splendid booty; if she be young her life is generally spared, but if she be old she is first ravished and then killed and eaten.

When they find a small family tribe to attack, they try to stay close to their camp in the evening. Since nothing happened during the day to cause worry, the family feels relatively safe around the campfire. Early in the morning, just before sunrise, a loud noise suddenly wakes the family in a panic. The man’s overactive imagination often makes him think that his enemies are far more numerous than they actually are. Each person tries to save themselves as best as they can; fighting back is not an option, and there’s no brave defense of women and children. Everyone has to look out for themselves, and it’s usually the elderly who suffer the most, as they are killed and eaten. A woman is typically seen as great loot; if she's young, her life is usually spared, but if she's old, she's first assaulted and then killed and eaten.

The natives of Northern Queensland and of many other parts of Australia are cannibals. My people never made any secret of this, and in the evenings it was the leading topic of their conversation, which finally both disgusted and irritated me. The greatest delicacy known to the Australian native is human flesh. The very thought of talgoro makes 272his eye sparkle. When I asked my men what part of the human body they liked best, they always struck their thighs. They never eat the head or the entrails. The most delicate morsel of all is the fat about the kidneys. By eating this they believe that they acquire a part of the slain person’s strength, and so far as I could understand, this was even more true of the kidneys themselves. For according to a widespread Australian belief, the kidneys are the centre of life.

The people of Northern Queensland and many other regions of Australia practice cannibalism. My community never hid this, and in the evenings, it was the main topic of their conversations, which eventually disgusted and annoyed me. The greatest delicacy known to the Australian native is human flesh. Just the thought of talgoro makes their eyes light up. When I asked my men which part of the human body they liked best, they always pointed to their thighs. They never eat the head or the entrails. The most prized morsel is the fat around the kidneys. By consuming this, they believe they gain a part of the strength of the person they’ve killed, and as far as I could gather, this was even more true for the kidneys themselves. According to a common belief in Australia, the kidneys are the center of life.

It happened years ago in Victoria that a white policeman was attacked by the blacks. They struck him with their clubs until they believed him dead, and then they took out his kidneys and ran away. The man came to his senses again for a moment and was able to relate what had happened, but a few hours afterwards he died. The natives on Herbert river are particularly fond of the fat of a dead foe, which is not only eaten as a delicacy and as a strengthening food, but is also carried as an amulet. A small piece is done up in grass and kept in a basket worn round the neck, and the effect of this is, in their opinion, success in the chase, so that they can easily approach the game. A man told me that immediately after beginning to wear a small piece of human fat, he waded across the river, and came at once to a tree where he found a large edible snake.

It happened years ago in Victoria that a white policeman was attacked by Black people. They hit him with their clubs until they thought he was dead, and then they took out his kidneys and ran away. The man came to his senses for a moment and was able to explain what had happened, but a few hours later, he died. The natives on the Herbert River particularly enjoy the fat of a dead enemy, which is eaten as a delicacy and a source of strength, but is also carried as a good luck charm. A small piece is wrapped in grass and kept in a basket worn around the neck, and they believe this brings success in the hunt, allowing them to get close to their prey. A man told me that right after he started wearing a small piece of human fat, he crossed the river and immediately found a tree where he discovered a large edible snake.

As a rule the Australian natives do not eat persons belonging to their own tribe. Still, I know instances to the contrary, and I have even heard of examples of mothers eating their own children. Besides the circumstance already related, it happened in 1883, about a hundred miles from Townsville, that a child which had died a natural death was eaten, and that the mother herself took part in the feast. A day or two later she too died and was eaten. In connection with this I must call attention to the fact that the killing of children rarely happens on Herbert river, for the mothers are invariably fond of their children. I know of examples of their killing their children because they were a burden to them, but such things also happen in civilised countries. Moreover, the father is the one who determines whether the child is to live or not, so that when the mother kills the child she usually obeys the orders of her husband.

As a general rule, Australian natives don’t eat members of their own tribe. However, I know of exceptions, including stories of mothers consuming their own children. In one instance in 1883, about a hundred miles from Townsville, a child who died of natural causes was eaten, with the mother participating in the feast. A day or two later, she also died and was eaten. It's important to note that killing children is quite rare along the Herbert River, as mothers typically love their kids. There are cases of mothers killing their children because they were seen as a burden, but similar events happen in civilized countries as well. Additionally, it is usually the father who decides whether the child will live or not, so when a mother kills her child, she is often following her husband’s orders.

273Mr. White has informed me that the natives south of the Carpentarian Gulf also are cannibals to some extent. They never kill anybody for the purpose of eating him, but the women eat those who die a natural death; near Moreton Bay the dead are also eaten, and by their own relatives.

273Mr. White has told me that the people south of the Carpentarian Gulf are also cannibals to some degree. They don’t kill anyone just to eat them, but the women eat those who die of natural causes; near Moreton Bay, the dead are also consumed, and by their own relatives.

In Western Queensland, at Westlands station on Thompson river, a woman belonging to a tribe of civilised blacks gave birth to a so-called half-caste child—that is, the offspring of a black mother and a white father. Such half-breeds are not as a rule much liked, and are therefore usually killed by the blacks who are in the first stages of civilisation. In this instance the blacks had indeed been in long intercourse with white people, and still the child was killed. It was permitted to live about three weeks, but one day one of the men put his hand round its neck and held it up till it was choked to death. Thereupon it was roasted on the fire and distributed among those present, and eaten most greedily. Many of the white people at the station were witnesses of this event. It is not known whether the mother in this instance ate any of the flesh of her child or not.

In Western Queensland, at Westlands station on the Thompson River, a woman from a tribe of civilized Indigenous people gave birth to a so-called half-caste child—that is, the offspring of a black mother and a white father. Generally, these mixed-race children aren’t liked much, so they are often killed by the Indigenous people who are in the early stages of civilization. In this case, the Indigenous people had actually had prolonged contact with white people, and still, the child was killed. It was allowed to live for about three weeks, but one day a man wrapped his hand around its neck and held it up until it was choked to death. Then, it was roasted over the fire and shared among those present, and they ate it eagerly. Many of the white people at the station witnessed this event. It’s unknown if the mother in this case ate any of her child’s flesh or not.

The blacks do not like to eat white people. When Jimmy had killed the white man near my headquarters, my question as to whether the dead man had been eaten caused great surprise. The answer was: Kólle mah! komorbory kawan!—that is, By no means! terrible nausea! At the same time the person pointed at his throat to indicate his disgust for the flesh of a white man. The other persons present agreed with him. I have often since heard them say that the white man’s flesh is not good; this may be owing to his constant diet of salt beef, tea, and bread, which possibly gives his flesh a different taste from that of the blacks. The black man lives on vegetables nearly all his life. I have heard it stated by “civilised” blacks that the white man’s flesh has a salt taste, which the natives do not like.

The black people don’t like to eat white people. When Jimmy killed the white man near my headquarters, my question about whether the dead man had been eaten surprised everyone. The answer was: Kólle mah! komorbory kawan!—which means Absolutely not! It’s disgusting! At the same time, the person pointed to his throat to show his disgust for white flesh. The others present agreed with him. I've often heard them say that white flesh isn’t good; this might be because of the constant diet of salt beef, tea, and bread that gives it a different taste compared to the black man’s diet, which is mostly vegetables. I've heard “civilized” black people say that white flesh has a salty taste that the natives don’t like.

This also seems to harmonise with their fondness for the flesh of the Chinese, whose food consists largely of rice and other vegetables. Farther north in Queensland it twice happened during my sojourn in Australia that the blacks killed the Chinese in great numbers. It was said that ten Chinamen were eaten at one dinner. All strangers who 274travel through the land of a tribe are of course their enemies. This is true both of the Chinese and the white men, both of which races are looked upon as another kind of black who come from distant lands, and are killed when the opportunity presents itself.

This seems to fit with their liking for the flesh of the Chinese, whose diet mainly consists of rice and other vegetables. During my time in Australia, I witnessed two instances in northern Queensland where the Indigenous people killed a large number of Chinese. It was said that ten Chinese men were eaten at one dinner. All outsiders who pass through a tribe's territory are considered their enemies. This applies to both the Chinese and the white people, who are viewed as another type of black person from far-off lands, and are killed when the chance arises.

Human flesh, however, is not the daily food of the Australian. On the contrary, he seldom gets a mouthful of this delicacy. During all the time I spent on Herbert river only two blacks were killed and eaten. One of them was a young man who had ventured to go into the territory of a strange tribe, where he was surprised and killed. The other was an old man who was not able to run fast enough when his tribe was attacked, and he was stoned to death. His flesh was brought in baskets to Herbert Vale.

Human flesh, however, isn’t something Australians eat regularly. In fact, it’s quite rare for them to have a bite of this delicacy. During the time I spent by the Herbert River, only two Indigenous people were killed and eaten. One was a young man who went into the territory of a different tribe, where he was caught off guard and killed. The other was an old man who couldn’t run fast enough when his tribe was attacked, and he was stoned to death. His body was brought in baskets to Herbert Vale.

It is a mistake to suppose that the cannibals have an uglier look than other savages. Those who go in search of human flesh are certainly the boldest and the most cunning, but a cannibal may look very quiet and approachable. Both men and women take part in the feast of human flesh.

It’s a mistake to think that cannibals look uglier than other savages. Those who hunt for human flesh are definitely the boldest and most clever, but a cannibal can appear very calm and friendly. Both men and women are involved in the feast of human flesh.

Doubtless cannibals can be found even at the present time in other lands than Australia. There are said to be cannibals in the interior of Africa and in Borneo, but I doubt whether it is generally known that there is a peculiar kind of cannibalism in certain hill districts of Burma, in regard to which I have recently obtained interesting and reliable information from the distinguished Burmese barrister Mr. Chan-Toon, and I take this opportunity of relating some of the facts gathered from him. He says that in the north-east part of Burma there are mountain tribes who live a savage life resembling that of the Australian blacks, and who eat the congealed blood of their enemies. The blood is poured into bamboo reeds, corked up, and in course of time hardens. The filled reeds are hung under the roofs of the huts, and when the chief of the tribe wants to treat his friends to this kind of food the reed is broken and the contents devoured with the greatest relish. The origin of this custom is, according to Mr. Chan-Toon, a superstition that the natives will thereby acquire the courage and strength of their enemies. He thinks that at first the blood of captives must have been drunk as soon as they were slain.

There are definitely still cannibals in places other than Australia today. It's said that there are cannibals in the interior of Africa and in Borneo, but I'm not sure if most people know about a unique form of cannibalism found in certain hill regions of Burma. Recently, I got some intriguing and reliable information on this from the notable Burmese lawyer Mr. Chan-Toon, and I want to share some of the facts he provided. He mentions that in the northeast part of Burma, there are mountain tribes living a primitive lifestyle similar to that of the Australian Aboriginals, and they consume the congealed blood of their enemies. The blood is poured into bamboo tubes, sealed, and over time it hardens. These filled tubes are hung under the roofs of their huts, and when the tribe's chief wants to treat his friends to this delicacy, he breaks the tube and everyone enjoys the contents with great pleasure. Mr. Chan-Toon explains that the origin of this practice comes from a superstition that by doing this, the natives believe they will gain the courage and strength of their foes. He thinks that initially, the blood of captives was likely consumed right after they were killed.

275

CHAPTER XXIII

The burial of the blacks—Black mummies—Sorcerers or wizards—Myths and legends—The doctrine of the Trinity in New South Wales—The belief in a future life among the blacks.

The burial practices of Indigenous Australians—Indigenous mummies—Witches or magicians—Myths and stories—The concept of the Trinity in New South Wales—The belief in an afterlife among Indigenous Australians.

BURIAL IN NORTHERN QUEENSLAND.

Burial in North Queensland.

On our way home from an expedition we discovered a grave in a “white ants’” hill. The entrance was about a yard high. It was built on the side of the ant-hill, extending about half way up, and had a sloping front. In front of the opening large pieces of the bark of the tea-tree were placed, on which heavy stones were rolled in order to keep wild dogs from getting to the corpse. In a tree near the grave hung a capacious basket. This led me to think that the Australian natives probably believe in a future life, and I examined this basket to see whether provisions had been left in it, but I found it empty. I asked the natives whether there had been food in the basket, so that the deceased might have something to eat, but this was an idea which they could not comprehend. 276They informed me that a child was buried here. The parents were so much grieved at the loss of their child that they did not care to keep the basket in which they had carried it, and had accordingly left it beside the grave.

On our way home from an expedition, we stumbled upon a grave in a “white ants’” hill. The entrance was about a yard high. It was built on the side of the ant hill, extending about halfway up, and had a sloping front. In front of the opening, large pieces of tea tree bark were placed, with heavy stones rolled on top to keep wild dogs from reaching the corpse. In a nearby tree, there was a large basket hanging. This made me think that the Australian natives probably believe in an afterlife, so I checked the basket to see if any provisions had been left in it, but it was empty. I asked the natives if there had been food in the basket for the deceased to eat, but they couldn’t understand that idea. They told me that a child was buried here. The parents were so devastated by the loss of their child that they didn’t want to keep the basket they used to carry it, so they left it beside the grave. 276

A LARGE BASKET FROM NORTHERN QUEENSLAND FOR CARRYING CHILDREN (¼ size).

A LARGE BASKET FROM NORTHERN QUEENSLAND FOR CARRYING KIDS (¼ size).

The Australian natives usually bury their dead, but they invariably strive to avoid letting the corpse come into direct contact with the earth, and the dead body is therefore wrapped in bark or other materials. The graves are not very deep, and sometimes have a direction from east to west, and the foot of the grave is toward the rising sun. In some parts of Queensland two sticks, painted red and about a yard high, are erected near the grave, and on the tops of the sticks feathers of the white cockatoo are fastened. If the deceased was a prominent man, a hut is sometimes built over his grave. The entrance, which faces the east, has an opening through which a grown person may creep. In some 277parts of Australia the dead body is placed in a sitting posture, and a mound is built over it. There are also tribes which bury their dead in a standing position. Near Rockhampton I saw several graves not more than a foot deep, in which the feet were directed toward the rising sun. Hills are usually selected as burial-places. At Coomooboolaroo the dead bodies both of women and men are laid into graves as long as the corpses, about a yard under the sod, and wrapped in pieces of cloth or bark. The graves are filled with small tree-trunks up to the level of the ground, and then a thin layer of soil is laid on the top.

The Australian natives typically bury their dead, but they always try to prevent the corpse from coming into direct contact with the ground, so the body is wrapped in bark or other materials. The graves aren't very deep and sometimes run from east to west, with the feet of the grave facing the rising sun. In some areas of Queensland, two sticks painted red and about a yard tall are set up near the grave, with white cockatoo feathers attached to the tops. If the deceased was an important person, a hut is sometimes built over their grave. The entrance, which faces east, has an opening big enough for an adult to crawl through. In some parts of Australia, the body is placed in a sitting position, and a mound is built over it. There are also tribes that bury their dead standing up. Near Rockhampton, I saw several graves that were only about a foot deep, with the feet pointing toward the rising sun. Hills are usually chosen as burial sites. At Coomooboolaroo, both women and men are laid in graves the same length as their bodies, about a yard beneath the surface, wrapped in pieces of cloth or bark. The graves are filled with small tree trunks up to ground level, and then a thin layer of soil is placed on top.

East of Fitzroy river women are laid in an open trench, the earth having been dug out with a “yam-stick” and neatly piled up all round; the body is in this way left quite exposed, and the legs are bent upwards. The grass all round for a couple of yards or more is removed, leaving the ground quite bare; this is probably done to protect the grave in case of bush-fire. After a time their relations come and gather the bones, cut a hole in a hollow tree, and put the bones into it. The hole is then filled up with grass, and twigs or sticks are laid on the top to keep the grass in. The tree-trunk above and below the hole (around which the bark is cut away) they paint with red or red and white colours.

East of the Fitzroy River, women are placed in an open trench, with the earth dug out using a “yam-stick” and neatly piled around. This way, the body is left fully exposed, and the legs are bent upwards. The grass surrounding the area for a few yards or more is cleared, leaving the ground bare; this is likely done to protect the grave in case of a bushfire. After a while, their relatives come to gather the bones, make a hole in a hollow tree, and place the bones inside. The hole is then filled with grass, and twigs or sticks are laid on top to secure the grass. They paint the tree trunk above and below the hole (where the bark has been stripped away) with red or red and white colors.

An old warrior who has been a strong man and therefore much respected by his tribe, is after his death put on a platform made with forked sticks, cross-pieces, and a sheet or two of bark; he is hoisted up amidst a pandemonium of noise, howling, and wailing, besides much cutting with tomahawks and banging of heads with nolla-nollas. He is laid on his back with his knees up, like the females, and the grass is cleared away from under and all round. The place is now for a long time carefully avoided, till he is quite shrivelled, whereupon his bones are taken away and put in a tree. The common man is buried like a woman, only that logs are put over him and his bones are not removed. Young children are put bodily into the trees.

An old warrior who was a strong man and highly respected by his tribe is laid on a platform made of forked sticks, cross-pieces, and a couple of sheets of bark after his death. He is hoisted up amid a chaotic scene of noise, howling, and wailing, along with a lot of cutting with tomahawks and banging of heads with nolla-nollas. He is positioned on his back with his knees up, like women do, and the grass is cleared away from underneath and all around. This spot is carefully avoided for a long time until he has completely shriveled up, after which his bones are taken and placed in a tree. The average man is buried like a woman, except that logs are placed over him, and his bones are not removed. Young children are placed directly into the trees.

The fact that the natives bestow any care on the bodies of the dead is doubtless owing to their fear of the spirits of the departed. In some places I have seen the legs drawn 278up and tied fast to the bodies, in order to hinder the spirits of the dead, as it were, from getting out to frighten the living. Women and children, whose spirits are not feared, receive less attention and care after death.

The fact that the natives take care of the bodies of the dead is likely due to their fear of the spirits of the departed. In some places, I've seen the legs drawn up and tied securely to the bodies to prevent the spirits of the dead from escaping and frightening the living. Women and children, whose spirits aren't feared, receive less attention and care after death.

In several tribes it is customary to bury the body where the person was born. I know of a case where a dying man was transported fifty miles in order to be buried in the place of his nativity. It has even happened that the natives have begun digging outside a white man’s kitchen door, because they wanted to bury an old man born there. In Central Queensland I saw many burial-places on hills. Such are also said to be found in New South Wales and in Victoria. These burial-grounds have been in use for centuries, and are considered sacred.

In several tribes, it's common to bury a person where they were born. I know of a case where a dying man was taken fifty miles so he could be buried in his birthplace. There have even been instances where the locals started digging right outside a white man's kitchen door because they wanted to bury an old man who was born there. In Central Queensland, I saw many burial sites on hills. Similar sites are also said to be found in New South Wales and Victoria. These burial grounds have been used for centuries and are considered sacred.

In South Australia and in Victoria the head is not buried with the body, for the skull is preserved and used as a drinking-cup. It is a common custom to place the dead between pieces of bark and grass on a scaffold, where they remain until they are decayed, and then the bones are buried in the ground. In the northern part of Queensland I have heard people say that the natives have a custom of placing themselves under these scaffolds to let the fat drop on them, and that they believe that this puts them in possession of the strength of the dead man.

In South Australia and Victoria, the head isn't buried with the body; instead, the skull is kept and used as a drinking cup. It's common to place the deceased between layers of bark and grass on a scaffold, where they stay until they decompose, and then the bones are buried in the ground. In northern Queensland, I've heard people say that the locals have a practice of sitting under these scaffolds to catch the fat that drips down, believing that this gives them the strength of the deceased.

A kind of mummy, dried by the aid of fire and smoke, is also found in Australia. Male children are most frequently prepared in this manner. The corpse is then packed into a bundle, which is carried for some time by the mother. She has it with her constantly, and at night sleeps with it at her side. After about six months, when nothing but the bones remain, she buries it in the earth. Full-grown men are also sometimes carried in this manner, particularly the bodies of great warriors. This is done, for instance, in the southern part of Queensland, and a mummy of this kind may be seen in the Brisbane Museum. Mr. Finch-Hatton relates in Advance Australia that when an old warrior dies he is skinned with the greatest care, and after the survivors have eaten as much of him as they like, the bones are cleaned and packed into the skin, and thus the remains are carried for years.

A type of mummy, dried with the help of fire and smoke, is also found in Australia. Male children are most often prepared this way. The body is then wrapped up in a bundle, which the mother carries for a while. She keeps it close to her and sleeps with it by her side at night. After about six months, when only the bones are left, she buries it in the ground. Adult men are sometimes carried this way too, especially the bodies of great warriors. This is done, for example, in the southern part of Queensland, and you can see a mummy like this in the Brisbane Museum. Mr. Finch-Hatton mentions in Advance Australia that when an old warrior dies, he is carefully skinned, and after the survivors have eaten as much as they want, the bones are cleaned and placed back into the skin, allowing the remains to be carried for years.

279The natives in the neighbourhood of Portland Bay, in the south-western part of South Australia, cremate their dead by placing the corpse in a hollow tree and setting fire to it. This is also done by the tribes west of Townsville.

279The locals around Portland Bay, in the southwestern part of South Australia, burn their dead by putting the body in a hollow tree and lighting it on fire. The tribes west of Townsville also practice this.

In connection with this, I am reminded of Lucian’s words: “Various people have various modes of burial. The Greeks cremated their dead; the Persians buried them; the Hindoos anoint them with a kind of gum; the Scythians eat them; and the Egyptians embalm them.” Here we are given nearly all the modes of burial which have existed both among civilised people and among barbarians, and strange to say, we find all these modes represented among the savages of Australia.

In this regard, I think of Lucian’s words: “Different cultures have different burial practices. The Greeks cremated their dead; the Persians buried them; the Hindus anoint them with a type of gum; the Scythians consume them; and the Egyptians embalm them.” This gives us a comprehensive look at the burial methods that have existed among both civilized societies and barbaric ones, and interestingly, we see all of these practices represented among the Indigenous peoples of Australia.

The natives of Australia have this peculiarity, in common with the savages of other countries, that they never utter the names of the dead, lest their spirits should hear the voices of the living and thus discover their whereabouts.

The indigenous people of Australia share a unique trait with other tribes around the world: they avoid saying the names of the deceased, fearing that their spirits might hear the voices of the living and discover where they are.

There seems to be a widespread belief in the soul’s existence independently of matter. On this point Fraser relates that the Kūlin tribe (Victoria) believes that every man and animal has a mūrŭp (ghost or spirit), which can pass into other bodies. A person’s mūrŭp may in his lifetime leave his body and visit other people in their dreams. After death the mūrŭp is supposed to appear again, to visit the grave of its former possessor, to communicate with living persons in their dreams, to eat remnants of food lying near the camp, and to warm itself by their night fires.[15] A similar belief has been observed among the blacks of Lower Guinea. On my travels I, too, found a widespread fear of the spirits of the dead, to which the imagination of the natives attributed all sorts of remarkable qualities. The greater the man was on earth the more his departed spirit is feared. Of the spirits of those long since departed there is no dread. Upon the whole, it may be said that these children of nature are unable to conceive a human soul independent of the body, and the future life of the individual lasts no longer than his physical remains.

There seems to be a common belief in the existence of the soul independent of the body. In this regard, Fraser mentions that the Kūlin tribe in Victoria believes that every person and animal has a mūrŭp (ghost or spirit), which can inhabit other bodies. A person's mūrŭp might leave their body during their lifetime and visit others in their dreams. After death, the mūrŭp is thought to return to visit the grave of its former owner, communicate with the living in their dreams, consume leftover food near the camp, and warm itself by their night fires.[15] A similar belief has been noted among the people of Lower Guinea. During my travels, I also encountered a widespread fear of the spirits of the dead, with the natives attributing all sorts of extraordinary qualities to them. The greater a person was in life, the more their spirit is feared. There is no fear of the spirits of those who have been dead for a long time. Overall, it can be said that these children of nature struggle to imagine a human soul that exists independently of the body, and the individual's afterlife lasts no longer than their physical remains.

15. Transactions of Royal Society of New South Wales, 1882.

15. Transactions of Royal Society of New South Wales, 1882.

In the various tribes are so-called wizards, who pretend to communicate with the spirits of the dead and get information 280from them. They are able to produce sickness or death whenever they please, and they can produce or stop rain and many other things. Hence these wizards are greatly feared. Mr. Curr has very properly called attention to the influence of this fear of witchcraft upon the character and customs of the natives. It makes them bloodthirsty, and at the same time darkens and embitters their existence. An Australian native is unable to conceive death as natural, except as the result of an accident or of old age, while diseases and plagues are always ascribed to witchcraft and to hostile blacks.

In the different tribes, there are so-called wizards who claim to talk to the spirits of the dead and get information from them. They can cause illness or death whenever they want, and they can also bring rain or stop it, among other things. Because of this, these wizards are greatly feared. Mr. Curr has rightly pointed out how this fear of witchcraft affects the character and customs of the natives. It makes them bloodthirsty, while also darkening and souring their lives. An Australian native can't see death as a natural part of life, except as something that happens due to an accident or old age; instead, they always blame diseases and plagues on witchcraft and hostile tribes.

This superstitious fear causes and maintains hatred between the tribes, and is the chief reason why the Australian blacks continue to live in small communities and are unable to rise to a higher plane of social development.

This superstitious fear creates and keeps alive hatred between the tribes, and it’s the main reason why Indigenous Australians continue to live in small communities and can’t advance to a higher level of social development.

In order to be able to practise his arts against any black man, the wizard must be in possession of some article that has belonged to him—say, some of his hair or of the food left in his camp, or some similar thing. On Herbert river the natives need only to know the name of the person in question, and for this reason they rarely use their proper names in addressing or speaking of each other, but simply their class-names. The wizard is, as a rule, a man far advanced in years, but I knew a youth of only twenty who enjoyed a great reputation for his sorcery. The wizard is also the physician of the tribe, and imagines that he can cure all diseases and that he has great power over the “devil-devil.”

To practice his magic against any Black person, the wizard must have something that belonged to them—like some of their hair, leftover food from their campsite, or something similar. Along the Herbert River, the locals only need to know the name of the person involved, which is why they rarely use their real names when talking to or about each other; they just use their class names. Generally, the wizard is an older man, but I met a twenty-year-old who was well-known for his sorcery. The wizard is also the tribe's healer and believes he can cure all illnesses and has significant control over the "devil-devil."

I once met a black man who told me that he personally had been the victim of strange wizards, and that ever since that time he had been a sufferer from headache. One afternoon, many years ago, two wizards had captured him and bound him; they had taken out his entrails and put in grass instead, and had let him lie in this condition until sunrise. Then he suddenly recovered his senses and became tolerably well, a result for which he was indebted to a wizard of his own tribe, who thus proved himself more powerful than the two strangers. The blacks call an operation of this kind kóbi, and a man who is able to perform it, and who, as a matter of course, is very much respected and feared, is 281said to be “much kóbi,” a fact of which I, too, used to boast, for the purpose of maintaining my importance in the eyes of the blacks, and in this I was successful, at least in the beginning. “Kóbi” was the most dreadful thing imaginable. It usually ended in death, and although the life of the victim might be saved, he would for ever after have a reminder in the form of constant headache.

I once met a black man who told me he had personally been the victim of strange wizards, and ever since that time, he had been suffering from headaches. One afternoon, many years ago, two wizards had captured him and bound him; they had taken out his insides and replaced them with grass, leaving him in that state until sunrise. Then he suddenly recovered his senses and felt somewhat okay, a result for which he was grateful to a wizard from his own tribe, who proved to be more powerful than the two strangers. The blacks refer to this kind of operation as kóbi, and a person who can perform it is, not surprisingly, very much respected and feared, and is said to be “much kóbi.” I used to boast about this too, to maintain my significance in the eyes of the blacks, and it worked, at least at first. “Kóbi” was the most terrifying thing imaginable. It usually ended in death, and even if the victim's life was saved, they would forever have a reminder in the form of constant headaches.

An old warrior in a tribe not far from Rockhampton was taken very ill. The tribe being at the time near a station, asked the manager, who was a friend of mine, to give the sick man some medicine. “Holloway’s pills,” the usual medicine in the bush, was accordingly supplied to him, but without making him any better. The doctor of the tribe had then to bring his powers into action. All the blacks attributed his illness to some strange black-fellows who had put some pieces of broken glass into him, and these the doctor was now willing to take out, in order to effect a cure. The old man was laid in front of a big fire; all the members of the tribe had placed themselves solemnly round him, some of his five “gins” crying. Suddenly out of the darkness appeared a huge black-fellow dressed up to his eyes in paint and feathers and carrying a long spear in his one hand, while in the other he held a small pouch made out of a kangaroo’s scrotum. Then began the most awful row one can imagine—crocodile tears flowing in streams. The doctor placed himself within reach of the patient, stretched out his spear and touched him with the point, and all the noise at once ceased; the eager look on all the dark faces round was something to see. Every time the doctor raised his spear he produced a piece of broken glass from his hair and put it into the bag, this performance being followed by a great yell from all those assembled. He produced altogether seven pieces of glass, and the crowd uttered a yell for each piece. When all was over, the doctor disappeared into the darkness, and the sick man recovered. All the blacks believed that he had drawn these pieces up the spear into his hair, and to try to convince them of the absurdity of such an opinion only made them sulkily say, “White-fellow stupid fellow.”

An old warrior from a tribe near Rockhampton fell seriously ill. At the time, the tribe was close to a station, so they asked the manager, who was a friend of mine, to provide some medicine for the sick man. He was given "Holloway’s pills," the usual remedy in the bush, but it didn’t help him at all. The tribe's doctor then had to step in. Everyone in the tribe believed his illness was caused by some mysterious black men who had somehow put pieces of broken glass inside him, and the doctor was now ready to take it out to heal him. The old man was laid in front of a large fire, with all the tribe members solemnly gathered around him, and some of his five wives crying. Suddenly, out of the dark, a large black man appeared, completely covered in paint and feathers, carrying a long spear in one hand and a small pouch made from a kangaroo's scrotum in the other. Then the most chaotic scene you can imagine broke out—crocodile tears flowed in torrents. The doctor positioned himself close to the patient, extended his spear, and touched him with the tip, causing all the noise to immediately stop; the eager expressions on all the dark faces around him were something to behold. Every time the doctor lifted his spear, he pulled a piece of broken glass from his hair and placed it into the pouch, which was followed by a loud yell from the crowd. He pulled out a total of seven pieces of glass, and the crowd shouted for each one. Once it was all done, the doctor vanished into the darkness, and the sick man recovered. Everyone in the tribe was convinced that he had drawn those pieces up through the spear into his hair, and whenever I tried to explain the ridiculousness of that belief, they would just sulkily respond, “White man is a stupid man.”

Strange to say, many of the civilised blacks believe that 282they will be changed hereafter into white men—that they will “jump up white-fellow,” and it is also an interesting fact that many tribes use the same word for “spirit” and for “white man.” It has frequently happened that the savages have taken white men to be their own deceased fellows, which confirms the theory prevalent in many parts of Australia that the natives believe in a future life. Near a station in Central Queensland the white population observed that a black woman repeatedly brought food to the grave of her deceased husband.

Strangely enough, many educated Black people believe that they will be transformed into white people in the future—that they will "become white." It's also interesting that many tribes use the same word for "spirit" and "white man." There have been instances where Indigenous people mistook white men for their own deceased relatives, supporting the idea found in many parts of Australia that the natives believe in an afterlife. Near a station in Central Queensland, the white residents noticed that a Black woman consistently brought food to the grave of her dead husband.

The Australian blacks do not, like many other savage tribes, attach any ideas of divinity to the sun or moon. On one of our expeditions the full moon rose large and red over the palm forest. Struck by the splendour of the scene, I pointed at the moon and asked my companions: “Who made it?” They answered: “Other blacks.” Thereupon I asked: “Who made the sun?” and I got the same answer. The natives also believe that they themselves can produce rain, particularly with the help of their wizards. To produce rain they call milka. When on our expeditions we were overtaken by violent tropical storms my blacks always became enraged at the strangers who had caused the rain. Even my naïve friend Yokkai once boasted that he and the young Mangola-Maggi, who was a wizard, had produced rain to worry other blacks.

The Aboriginal Australians don’t, like many other tribal groups, associate any divine qualities with the sun or moon. During one of our trips, the full moon rose large and red over the palm trees. Captivated by the beauty of the scene, I pointed at the moon and asked my companions, “Who created it?” They replied, “Other Aboriginals.” I then asked, “Who created the sun?” and received the same answer. The locals also believe they can summon rain, especially with the help of their shamans. They call this rainmaking milka. Whenever we were caught in intense tropical storms during our expeditions, my Aboriginal companions would get upset at the outsiders they believed caused the rain. Even my innocent friend Yokkai once bragged that he and the young Mangola-Maggi, who was a shaman, had brought about rain to upset other Aboriginals.

I never succeeded in discovering myths and legends among the blacks of Herbert river; but they are close observers of the starry heavens, and I was surprised to find that they had different names for the planets, distinguishing them by their size. In other parts of Australia the fancy of the natives makes the stars inhabited, and in this way several beautiful myths have been developed.

I never managed to find any myths and legends among the Black people of Herbert River; however, they are keen observers of the night sky, and I was surprised to learn that they have different names for the planets based on their size. In other regions of Australia, the local people imagine that the stars are inhabited, which has led to the creation of several beautiful myths.

The southern tribes of Australia not only occupy their minds with myths and legends, but they also have definite religious notions. Some very interesting information in regard to the idea of a God cherished by these southern natives has been furnished by Mr. Manning, who in 1845 discovered among some tribes of New South Wales a doctrine of the Trinity, which bears so striking a resemblance to that of the Christian religion that we are tempted to take it 283to be the result of the influence of missionaries.[16] But according to the author, the missionaries did not visit these tribes until many years later. They recognise a supreme, benevolent, omnipotent Being, Boyma, seated far away in the north-east on an immense throne made of transparent crystal and standing in a great lake. He has an omniscient son, Grogoragally, who brings men to his father’s throne, to be judged by the latter, and the son is the mediator. There is also a third person, half human, half divine, Moogeegally, who is the great lawgiver to men, and who makes Boyma’s will known to them. They also believe in a hell with everlasting fire, and a heaven, where the blessed dance and amuse themselves. Several other authors agree that the southern tribes of Australia believe in a supreme good Being, though they have nowhere found a religious system so perfectly developed as the one above described. Mr. Ridley’s statements concerning the Kamilaroy tribe are particularly remarkable. These natives believe in a creator, Bhaiamé, who is to judge mankind. The word is derived from baio, to cut or make—thus creator,—and is distinctly identical with Manning’s Boyma.

The southern tribes of Australia not only fill their minds with myths and legends, but they also have specific religious beliefs. Some fascinating details about the concept of God held by these southern natives have been provided by Mr. Manning, who in 1845 uncovered among some tribes of New South Wales a doctrine of the Trinity that closely resembles that of Christianity, making it tempting to view it as a result of missionary influence. But according to the author, the missionaries did not reach these tribes until many years later. They recognize a supreme, benevolent, omnipotent Being, Boyma, who sits far away in the northeast on a huge throne made of clear crystal, standing in a vast lake. He has an all-knowing son, Grogoragally, who brings people to his father’s throne for judgment, and the son acts as the mediator. There is also a third figure, half human and half divine, Moogeegally, who is the great lawgiver to humans and conveys Boyma’s will to them. They also believe in a hell with everlasting fire and a heaven, where the blessed dance and enjoy themselves. Several other authors agree that the southern tribes of Australia believe in a supreme good Being, although they have not found a religious system as fully developed as the one described above. Mr. Ridley’s observations about the Kamilaroy tribe are particularly noteworthy. These natives believe in a creator, Bhaiamé, who will judge humanity. The term is derived from baio, meaning to cut or make—thus creator—and is clearly identical to Manning’s Boyma.

16. Transactions of Royal Society of New South Wales, 1882.

16. Transactions of the Royal Society of New South Wales, 1882.

Others again, as for instance Mr. Mann (in New South Wales), who has made a thirty years’ study of the blacks, deny that the natives have any religion whatever except fear of the “devil-devil.”

Others, like Mr. Mann (in New South Wales), who has studied the Aboriginal people for thirty years, claim that the natives don’t have any religion at all except for a fear of the “devil-devil.”

It is not easy to understand this want of agreement among the authorities. If, however, the above-mentioned theory, that the south part of Australia is inhabited by a higher and more developed race than that in the north, is correct, then this supplies the solution of the problem.

It's not easy to grasp why there’s such a lack of agreement among the authorities. However, if the aforementioned theory that the southern part of Australia is populated by a more advanced and developed race than that in the north is correct, then this provides the answer to the issue.

As to the natives on Herbert river, it is my opinion that they do not believe in any supreme good Being, but only in a demon, and it was even difficult for them to give any definite account of this devil. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the natives are very reluctant to give any information in regard to their religious beliefs. They look upon them as secrets not to be divulged to persons not of their own race. Hence there is a possibility that they believed in a God and had more developed notions than I 284suspected, but I do not regard this as probable. Besides, I have evidence from various sources that the same is the case with other tribes.

Regarding the natives along the Herbert River, I believe they don't have a belief in a supreme good Being, but rather only in a demon. They even find it tough to provide a clear description of this devil. However, it should be noted that the natives are quite reluctant to share any details about their religious beliefs. They consider these beliefs to be secrets that shouldn't be revealed to people outside their race. Therefore, it's possible that they might believe in a God and have more complex ideas than I thought, but I don't find this likely. Additionally, I have evidence from various sources that suggests the same is true for other tribes. 284

Mr. George Angas[17] says of the tribes on Murray river in South Australia: “They appear to have no religious observances whatever. They acknowledge no Supreme Being, worship no idols, and believe only in the existence of a spirit, whom they consider as the author of ill, and regard with superstitious dread. They are in perpetual fear of malignant spirits, or bad men, who, they say, go abroad at night; and they seldom venture from the encampment after dusk, even to fetch water, without carrying a fire-stick in their hands, which they consider has the property of repelling these evil spirits.”

Mr. George Angas[17] says about the tribes along the Murray River in South Australia: “They seem to have no religious practices at all. They don’t recognize any Supreme Being, don’t worship idols, and only believe in the existence of a spirit, whom they view as the source of evil and regard with superstitious fear. They are constantly afraid of malevolent spirits or bad people, who they claim roam at night; and they rarely leave the camp after dark, even to get water, without carrying a fire-stick, which they believe can repel these evil spirits.”

17. Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand. London, 1850, vol. i. p. 88.

17. Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand. London, 1850, vol. i. p. 88.

In The Fifth Continent, p. 69, Mr. Charles Eden appears to me to use rather strong language when he says: “I verily believe that we have arrived at the sum total of their religion, if a superstitious dread of the unknown can be so designated. Their mental capacity does not admit of their grasping the higher truths of pure religion.”

In The Fifth Continent, p. 69, Mr. Charles Eden seems to use rather strong language when he says: “I truly believe that we have reached the complete understanding of their religion, if a superstitious fear of the unknown can be called that. Their mental capacity doesn’t allow them to grasp the deeper truths of true religion.”

Mr. Curr is of the opinion that the religious ideas which people claim to have found among the Australian natives are simply the result of the influence of the white man, the ideas being modified to suit the fancy of the natives.

Mr. Curr believes that the religious beliefs people say they’ve discovered among the Australian natives are merely a product of the white man's influence, with these ideas being adapted to match the preferences of the natives.

At all events, it is certain that neither idolatry nor sacrifices are to be found in Australia. Nor have the natives, so far as I know, ever been seen to pray.

At any rate, it's clear that there are no idols or sacrifices in Australia. Also, as far as I know, the natives have never been observed praying.

In conclusion, I will give a brief account of a conversation which I had one evening with the Kanaka at Herbert Vale, for in my estimation it throws some light on this question. In his native home, in the far-off South Sea Islands, he had received instruction from missionaries, but had not been converted to Christianity. He said he did not like the missionaries. On this occasion—it was a mild, starlit night, such a one as can be seen only in the tropics—he asked me if it was true that we would some day go to the stars up there. I explained to him what Christianity teaches in regard to a life hereafter. “There is a much 285better place up there after death,” he remarked. Some of the natives were standing round us with their mouths wide open. Suddenly he burst into laughter, and pointing with one hand to the glittering stars, said: “The blacks do not believe that there is anybody above us up there.”

In conclusion, I’ll share a short story about a conversation I had one evening with the Kanaka at Herbert Vale, as I think it sheds some light on this issue. Back in his homeland, in the distant South Sea Islands, he had learned from missionaries but hadn’t converted to Christianity. He mentioned that he didn’t like the missionaries. That night—it was a pleasant, starlit evening, the kind you can only see in the tropics—he asked me if it was true that we would someday go to the stars up there. I explained to him what Christianity teaches about life after death. “There’s a much better place up there after death,” he said. Some of the locals stood around us, clearly surprised. Suddenly, he burst out laughing, and while pointing at the twinkling stars, he said, “The blacks don’t believe that there’s anyone up there above us.”

The objection might be made to this statement, that the natives, particularly the older ones, had secrets which they were unwilling to divulge to the younger members of the tribe, with whom the Kanaka mostly associated, and that he consequently was not acquainted with the religious ideas of the tribe, but it appears to me that so important a matter as the belief in a God could scarcely have escaped his observation, for he was constantly with them both by day and by night. He spoke their language fluently, was married to a woman of their tribe, and had become wholly identified with them in customs and habits of thought.

The objection to this statement might be that the natives, especially the older ones, had secrets they weren’t willing to share with the younger members of the tribe, with whom the Kanaka mostly interacted. As a result, he may not have been familiar with the tribe's religious beliefs. However, I believe that such an important topic as the belief in a God couldn’t have gone unnoticed by him, considering he was always with them day and night. He spoke their language fluently, was married to a woman from their tribe, and had completely integrated into their customs and ways of thinking.

286

CHAPTER XXIV

My life in danger—Morbora’s ingratitude—Another danger—My position grows more precarious—The black man’s fondness for imitating.

My life is at risk—Morbora’s lack of gratitude—Another threat—My situation becomes more uncertain—The black man's tendency to mimic.

During the last part of my sojourn in Australia my situation grew more and more perilous. In an unguarded moment Yokkai even happened to tell me how the blacks were constantly laying plots against me.

During the final part of my time in Australia, my situation became increasingly dangerous. In an unguarded moment, Yokkai even let slip that the locals were always scheming against me.

We were at this time about to set poison for some animals, which I was trying to secure in Morbora’s “land.” Morbora was himself one of our party, and I promised him not only tobacco, but also a handkerchief of many colours, if he would tell me honestly where I had better lay the poison. There were two valleys to choose between, and I had a strong suspicion that he from sheer laziness chose the nearest one. I therefore assured him most positively that if he deceived me he would get nothing, but he insisted that the animals were usually found in the nearest valley, which accordingly was to be preferred.

We were about to set poison for some animals, which I was trying to catch in Morbora’s “land.” Morbora was part of our group, and I promised him not only tobacco but also a colorful handkerchief if he would honestly tell me where I should lay the poison. There were two valleys to choose from, and I strongly suspected that he was just being lazy and picked the closest one. I assured him repeatedly that if he deceived me, he wouldn’t get anything, but he insisted that the animals were usually found in the nearest valley, which should be chosen instead.

As the others declared themselves willing to go farther, but still maintained that he was right, I was forced to believe him. We had much work and trouble in placing poisoned pieces of meat in various places along the river.

As the others said they were willing to go further, but still insisted that he was right, I had no choice but to believe him. We had a lot of work and trouble setting out poisoned pieces of meat in different spots along the river.

Here we remained for two days without catching anything, and I therefore grew impatient, and declared that he had deceived me. To my surprise the others admitted this with smiles in their faces: Oito Morbora—that is, Morbora’s jest. He accordingly received no pay from me, although he demanded it. Still, later in the evening, I gave him a little tobacco so that he might be able to join the others in smoking, but he was not satisfied with this. He had made up 287his mind to get possession of all the tobacco I had left by taking my life. He got Mangola-Maggi—who, by the way, had admitted that Morbora had lied to me—to join him in this foul plot. As the reader will remember, he was an experienced cannibal. Together with two others he had recently been out in search of human flesh, and had been successful. He had no objection to give his assistance on this occasion, the more so as the reward would be abundant according to the standard of the blacks. Only the opportunity was wanting.

Here we stayed for two days without catching anything, which made me impatient, and I said that he had tricked me. To my surprise, the others agreed with smiles on their faces: Oito Morbora—Morbora’s joke. So, I didn’t pay him, even though he asked for it. Still, later that evening, I gave him a bit of tobacco so he could join the others in smoking, but he wasn’t happy with that. He had decided to get all the tobacco I had left by taking my life. He got Mangola-Maggi—who, by the way, had confessed that Morbora had lied to me—to join him in this nasty scheme. As the reader will remember, he was an experienced cannibal. Recently, he had gone out with two others in search of human flesh and had been successful. He was willing to help this time, especially since the reward would be generous by their standards. Only the right opportunity was missing.

The opportunity presented itself the next morning. They, were all ready to attack me, and a part was assigned to each one of them. Mangola-Maggi was to seize me from behind my back, while Morbora, who was the strongest, was to strike me on the head. I was sitting on the ground a short distance from the hut, and had carelessly left my revolver and my belt in my hut. They also tried to get Yokkai into the plot, but at this time he had, fortunately for me, been inspired to do all in his power to save my life, and so he detained them for some time with his objections, advising them not to attack me just at that time. Before they had come to any definite conclusion I had got up and gone into my hut, and so I this time escaped Morbora’s murderous plot. It was not until some time afterwards that I learned from Yokkai the details of this intended attack.

The opportunity arose the next morning. They were all set to ambush me, and each of them had a specific role. Mangola-Maggi was supposed to grab me from behind, while Morbora, the strongest among them, was meant to hit me on the head. I was sitting on the ground not far from the hut, having carelessly left my revolver and belt inside. They also tried to get Yokkai involved in their plan, but luckily for me, he felt inspired to do everything he could to save my life, so he held them back for a while with his objections, suggesting they shouldn't attack me at that moment. Before they reached any solid decision, I got up and went into my hut, thus escaping Morbora's deadly plan this time. It wasn't until later that I learned the details of this intended attack from Yokkai.

Later in the day, while we were resting on the bank of a river which we were about to cross, we met a dozen natives, with whom Morbora at once entered into a spirited conversation. I had seated myself on the soft sand, and intended to eat my dinner there, but I began to suspect that mischief was brewing, for I observed that Morbora grew more and more excited in his conversation with the strangers, and at last became perfectly pale with rage. I therefore decided to cross the river and eat my dinner on the other side, where I would feel more secure. I afterwards learned from Yokkai that he had heard Morbora propose to the strange blacks that they should join him in killing me now that the opportunity was so favourable. It was not, therefore, strange that Morbora did not cross the river with me. He remained 288with the natives he had met, and with whom he soon disappeared in the scrubs. After that time I never saw him again.

Later in the day, while we were resting on the bank of a river we were about to cross, we met a dozen locals, and Morbora immediately struck up an intense conversation with them. I had settled down on the soft sand, planning to eat my dinner there, but I started to feel like something was off. I noticed that Morbora was getting more and more agitated in his talk with the strangers, and eventually he turned completely pale with anger. So, I decided to cross the river and have my dinner on the other side, where I would feel safer. I later found out from Yokkai that he heard Morbora suggest to the strange locals that they should team up to kill me since the moment was so right. It wasn't surprising that Morbora didn't follow me across the river. He stayed with the natives he had met, and soon disappeared into the bushes with them. After that, I never saw him again.

I had taken more interest in the education of this man than in that of any other; I had treated him well and taught him, timid as he was in the beginning, to have confidence in the white man. And now my reward was that he tried to take my life no less than twice on the same day. It was to me a new and striking evidence of the bad character of the Australian native.

I was more invested in this man's education than in anyone else's; I had treated him kindly and helped him, despite his initial shyness, to trust white people. And now my reward was that he tried to kill me not once, but twice on the same day. It was a surprising and clear indication of the bad nature of the Australian native.

At another time the danger was even more imminent. I had my camp near a little tribe, where there was an old acquaintance of mine, viz. Mangoran. As will be remembered, he had accompanied me on my first expedition with the blacks.

At another time, the danger was even more immediate. I set up my camp close to a small tribe, where there was an old friend of mine, Mangoran. As you may recall, he had joined me on my first expedition with the locals.

We had just made our camp when he put in his appearance, and my people, who were afraid of him, gave him the greater part of the food and tobacco which they had received from me. This was more than I could stand, and as his laziness, moreover, had a bad influence on my people, I requested him to remain in his own camp. On this account Mangoran became mortally offended, and from that day I was the object of his deadly hate. My request that he should leave my premises was not complied with at once, but threats to use my revolver had the desired effect. Still, I did not care to lose sight of him, for my provisions were never safe in his greedy propinquity.

We had just set up our camp when he showed up, and my people, who were scared of him, gave him most of the food and tobacco they had gotten from me. This was more than I could tolerate, and since his laziness was negatively affecting my people, I asked him to stay in his own camp. Because of this, Mangoran got really offended, and from that day on, he hated me deeply. My request for him to leave didn’t get an immediate response, but after threatening to use my revolver, he finally complied. Still, I didn’t want to lose sight of him because my supplies were never safe around his greedy presence.

Yokkai, too, comprehended the situation, for soon afterwards, when we were to start on an expedition, he proposed that for safety’s sake we should take Mangoran, otherwise he would steal our provisions during our absence. Mangoran appeared willing at once, and seemed to be pleased with the usual reward of meat and tobacco which he would get on our return.

Yokkai also understood what was happening, because soon after, when we were about to set out on a trip, he suggested that for our safety, we should bring Mangoran along, otherwise he would steal our supplies while we were gone. Mangoran immediately seemed willing and appeared happy with the usual rewards of meat and tobacco that he would receive when we returned.

The same evening I went down to the mountain stream near the camp to take my bath. My daily intercourse with the natives had made me less observant than caution demanded. I had left my revolver in the hut. While I was absent a council of war was held in the camp. Mangoran, who for several days had been looking for an opportunity, 289was now eagerly urging the others to murder me, and was explaining how easy it would be to do this.

The same evening, I went down to the mountain stream near the camp to take a bath. My daily interactions with the locals had made me less cautious than I should have been. I had left my revolver in the hut. While I was gone, a council of war took place in the camp. Mangoran, who had been looking for an opportunity for several days, was now eagerly persuading the others to kill me and explaining how easy it would be to do so.

The grass all the way to the bank of the river was tall, so that they could steal down upon me unobserved. He explained to them what their reward would be—flour, meat, tobacco, and a large woollen blanket. They could take all, even my gun. The other blacks, however, hesitated. An old man who once had been shot in the leg by the native police considered the undertaking risky. Yokkai and another boy who was with me also argued against killing the white man. The end of the deliberations was that Mangoran and his wife should commit the murder. They were to steal down through the grass and attack me in the water—he armed with an axe, she with her “yam-stick.” It is not difficult to see how this matter would have ended had I remained in the water as long as usual; but as good luck would have it, the weather happened to be so cool that I could only take a short bath, and I made haste to dress myself again. Thus they did not get to the river in time to attack me in my defenceless condition, and when they saw that I was already dressed and on my way to my hut, they abandoned the project for the time.

The grass all the way to the riverbank was tall, allowing them to sneak up on me without being seen. He explained to them what they would get as a reward—flour, meat, tobacco, and a large wool blanket. They could take everything, even my gun. However, the other guys hesitated. An old man who had been shot in the leg by the local police thought this plan was risky. Yokkai and another boy who was with me also argued against killing the white man. In the end, it was decided that Mangoran and his wife would go through with the murder. They were to sneak through the grass and attack me in the water—he with an axe, and she with her “yam-stick.” It's easy to imagine how this could have turned out if I had stayed in the water as long as I usually did; but luckily, the weather was cool, so I could only take a quick bath and hurried to get dressed again. Because of this, they didn’t make it to the river in time to catch me off guard, and when they saw that I was already dressed and heading to my hut, they abandoned their plan for now.

When Yokkai, a long time afterwards, reported these facts to me, I asked him if they were not afraid of the police, to which he made the very appropriate response, “That the scrub is very large.” They had been so sure that the murder would be a success that they had already in advance divided my property among themselves, and decided that my body was to be thrown into the water and not eaten. One of the horses was to be eaten, but the other, the old pack-horse, which was very lean, was to be set at liberty. Yokkai added that he had made up his mind not to allow this, but would have taken both the horses to the station, and would there have told the keeper what had happened. All this came from Yokkai’s lips as naïvely and confidently as if he were talking about a person already dead and gone.

When Yokkai reported these facts to me a long time later, I asked him if they weren’t afraid of the police. He replied aptly, “The scrub is very large.” They had been so sure the murder would go off without a hitch that they had already divided my belongings among themselves and decided my body would be thrown into the water instead of being eaten. One of the horses was to be eaten, but the other, the old pack horse, which was very thin, was to be set free. Yokkai added that he had determined not to let this happen and would have taken both horses to the station, where he would have informed the keeper of what had occurred. He spoke all of this so naively and confidently, as if he were discussing someone who was already dead and gone.

It seemed to me like reading in a newspaper about my own death and all its details, for I fully comprehended how near I had in fact been to death’s door. I was surrounded by dangers on all sides, and I had no reason to look for any 290bettering of the circumstances, for the natives respect only those whites who shoot them, and as I did not use my gun against them, I at length came to be looked upon as “a small white man.” Yokkai frequently blamed me for not being sufficiently kóla—that is, angry. “You do not shoot anybody,” he added.

It felt like reading a newspaper about my own death and all its details, because I totally understood how close I had actually been to death. I was surrounded by threats on all sides, and I had no reason to expect anything to improve, since the locals only respect those white people who shoot them. Since I didn’t use my gun against them, I eventually became seen as “a small white man.” Yokkai often criticized me for not being angry enough. “You don’t shoot anyone,” he would say. 290

My clothes were so tattered and torn that they scarcely hung together, and this fact did not tend to raise me in the eyes of the natives, who, like children, have a keen eye for such exterior matters, and regarded my rags as evidence that I was no longer the great man they had supposed. Add to this the defeat I had suffered on account of the conduct of the police, and it is evident that my life hung by a thread.

My clothes were so tattered and torn that they barely stayed on me, and this didn’t help my reputation with the locals, who, like kids, notice these kinds of things and saw my rags as proof that I was no longer the important person they thought I was. On top of that, I had faced defeat due to the police’s actions, making it clear that my situation was precarious.

The blacks near Herbert Vale having proved themselves lazy and useless, I never took them with me, so they got no tobacco, which made them angry. Every time I started out on an expedition they urged my people to murder me and throw my body into the water. This advice came, not only from my former friends Willy and Jacky, but even from Nelly and the Kanaka.

The Black people near Herbert Vale had shown themselves to be lazy and unhelpful, so I never took them along with me, which meant they didn't get any tobacco, and that made them angry. Every time I set out on an expedition, they encouraged my people to kill me and throw my body in the water. This suggestion came not just from my former friends Willy and Jacky, but also from Nelly and the Kanaka.

The greatest danger, however, threatened me from my own people, though I felt convinced that Yokkai, despite his emotional disposition, would defend me to the extent of his ability. He had himself on one occasion told me that “he did like the white man.”

The biggest threat, however, came from my own people, even though I was sure that Yokkai, despite his emotional nature, would protect me as much as he could. He had once told me that “he did like the white man.”

Despite these many difficulties, I was determined not to give up, feeling sure that I would yet be able to make new discoveries in these interesting and strange regions.

Despite these many difficulties, I was determined not to give up, feeling confident that I would still be able to make new discoveries in these fascinating and unusual areas.

Yokkai was my only faithful friend. Once in a while he had to go to his mother to get some tobola, but he soon returned, and he stayed with me, for “he wanted to become white man.”

Yokkai was my only loyal friend. Every now and then he had to visit his mother to get some tobola, but he quickly came back, and he stayed with me because “he wanted to be a white man.”

He had also made considerable progress. He could smoke tobacco as well as anybody, was himself the owner of a clay pipe, and was able to use a few English words with more or less ease. Still, there were some gaps in his education. He was continually pestering me to teach him how to ride and shoot. His eagerness to ride was soon cured. To mount the horse he would climb up one of the forelegs, just 291as if he were about to climb a tree. Not entirely pleased with this new style of being mounted, my pack-horse, old Kassik, put forth the remnant of his strength and made a buck, so that Yokkai came down much quicker than he had climbed up; and from that time I heard no more about his desire to ride.

He had also made a lot of progress. He could smoke tobacco as well as anyone, owned a clay pipe, and could use a few English words with more or less ease. Still, there were some gaps in his education. He kept bugging me to teach him how to ride and shoot. His eagerness to ride didn’t last long. To get on the horse, he would climb up one of the front legs, just like he was about to climb a tree. Not too happy with this new way of getting on, my pack-horse, old Kassik, summoned the last of his strength and bucked, which made Yokkai come down a lot faster than he had climbed up; and from that point on, I didn’t hear anything more about his desire to ride.

As my cook he was very useful, and saved me much trouble, but I always had to watch him. On one occasion, when he was to bake damper (he first had to wash his hands, a trouble he did not care to take), instead of going down to the brook he filled his mouth with water from the pail and squirted it upon his fingers, which, he thereupon dried on the grass. He showed his hands to me to convince me that he had washed them, but I insisted on his doing it once more and in the proper way.

As my cook, he was quite helpful and saved me a lot of hassle, but I always had to keep an eye on him. One time, when he was supposed to bake damper (he first needed to wash his hands, which he didn't really want to do), instead of going down to the creek, he filled his mouth with water from the bucket and squirted it on his fingers, which he then dried on the grass. He showed me his hands to prove he had washed them, but I insisted that he wash them again, properly this time.

Whatever fault might be found with Yokkai, he had become utterly indispensable to me, and besides I gained much pleasure and entertainment from his company.

Whatever flaws Yokkai may have had, he had become completely essential to me, and on top of that, I really enjoyed his company and found it entertaining.

I also made him laugh many a time, and after I had become a tolerable master of his language, and was able to tell him things for his amusement, he laughed so heartily that I have sometimes seen the tears stream down his cheeks. What is comic to the blacks strikes them at once, and makes them laugh immediately. They are very humorous, have a decided talent for drollery, and are skilful mimics. I once saw a young Australian receive an order from his master, whereupon he immediately went to his companions and imitated his master’s manner of speaking and acting, to the great amusement of the whole camp. In their dances they imitate in a striking manner the hopping of the kangaroo and the solemn movements of the emu, and never fail to make the spectators laugh.

I also made him laugh many times, and after I got decent at his language and could share stories to entertain him, he laughed so hard that I sometimes saw tears rolling down his cheeks. What’s funny to the Black people hits them instantly and makes them laugh right away. They have a great sense of humor, a real knack for comedy, and are skilled at mimicking others. I once saw a young Australian get an order from his master, and right after, he went to his friends and copied his master’s way of speaking and acting, which had everyone in the camp cracking up. In their dances, they mimic the kangaroo’s hops and the serious movements of the emu so well that they always make the audience laugh.

The natives like to imitate the white man’s manners. My people had observed that I rinsed my mouth every evening; when they had observed this for some time I was surprised to find some of them doing the same thing. They were also very fond of soap, not for the purpose of washing themselves clean, but to wash some shirt or other article of clothing which I had given them. They had frequently seen me use soap in washing my clothes.

The locals liked to copy the white man’s behavior. My people noticed that I rinsed my mouth every evening; after a while, I was surprised to see some of them doing the same. They also liked soap a lot, not to clean themselves, but to wash a shirt or some other piece of clothing I had given them. They had often seen me use soap to wash my clothes.

292In spite of their respect for the gun, the clothes, and the many good things of the white man, they still look upon him as their inferior when they are on their own territory, and it must be admitted that there he actually is their inferior in many respects.

292Even though they respect the gun, the clothes, and the many good things of the white man, they still see him as lesser when they're on their own land, and it's true that in many ways he actually is their inferior there.

293

CHAPTER XXV

Winter in Northern Queensland—Snakes as food—Hunting snakes—An unexpected guest at night—Yokkai’s first dress—Norway’s “mountains of food”—Departure from Herbert Vale—Farewell to the world of the blacks.

Winter in Northern Queensland—Snakes for food—Hunting snakes—An unexpected nighttime guest—Yokkai’s first outfit—Norway’s “mountains of food”—Leaving Herbert Vale—Saying goodbye to the world of the Aboriginals.

HUNTING THE PYTHON.

Hunting the Python.

Winter had now set in in earnest The fields were gray, and the sun had lost much of its power. During the daytime it was still quite warm, though the heat was not oppressive. A more agreeable temperature than Northern Queensland during this season of the year can scarcely be conceived, especially toward sunset. I felt perfectly comfortable in my shirt sleeves without any vest. During the night so much dew falls that the woollen blanket becomes saturated if one sleeps beneath the open sky. Walking in the grass in the morning is almost like wading 294in a river. One becomes drenched to the hips. But what glorious mornings! They stimulate a person to work, and their freshness awakens all the joys of life.

Winter had really set in now. The fields were gray, and the sun had lost most of its strength. During the day, it was still pretty warm, but the heat wasn't overwhelming. You can hardly imagine a more pleasant temperature than Northern Queensland during this time of year, especially around sunset. I felt completely comfortable in my shirt sleeves without any undershirt. At night, so much dew falls that a wool blanket gets soaked if you sleep under the open sky. Walking through the grass in the morning is almost like wading in a river. You get drenched up to your hips. But those mornings are so beautiful! They inspire you to work, and their freshness brings out all the joys of life.

The scrubs are very still in winter, and it is this stillness that gives the season its peculiar character. While the mammals and birds have donned their most beautiful and warmest furs and plumage, the natives go about as naked as in the summer. Not even in the night do they wear clothes, but warm themselves by the camp fires. Yet it is easy to procure subsistence during this season of the year. Fruits are not so abundant, but, on the other hand, animal food is easily obtained. During this season the natives are much occupied in hunting snakes, which during the winter are very sluggish, and can be slain in great numbers. The blacks are particularly fond of eating snakes, but they do not, like many of the southern tribes, eat poisonous serpents.

The scrublands are very quiet in winter, and it's this quietness that gives the season its unique vibe. While the mammals and birds wear their most beautiful and warmest fur and feathers, the locals go about as bare as in summer. Even at night, they don’t wear clothes but keep warm by the campfires. Still, it’s easy to find food during this time of year. Fruits may not be as plentiful, but on the flip side, animal food is easy to come by. During this season, the locals are heavily focused on hunting snakes, which are quite sluggish in winter and can be caught in large numbers. The indigenous people particularly enjoy eating snakes, but unlike many southern tribes, they avoid poisonous ones.

One of the snakes most commonly eaten is the Australian python (Morelia variegata), the largest snake found in Australia, which here in Northern Queensland may even attain a length of more than twenty feet. During winter it seems to prefer staying in the large clusters of ferns found on the trunks of trees. At night it seeks shelter from the cold among the leaves, but during the daytime it likes to bask in the sunshine, which enables the natives to discover and kill it with their clubs. If attacked it may bite with its many and sharp teeth, but the wound produced is not dangerous. These ferns grow in wreaths round the large trunks of trees, and look like the topsails of a ship, but they are far more numerous, and like the orchids, which grow pretty much in the same manner, are constant objects of interest to the natives, for in them they find not only snakes, but also rats and other small mammals, Uromys, Sminthopsis, Phascologale, etc. They therefore, as a rule, take the trouble to climb the trees to make the necessary search. They discover the snakes at a great distance, though the wreath may be fifty to sixty yards above the ground.

One of the snakes most commonly eaten is the Australian python (Morelia variegata), the largest snake found in Australia, which here in Northern Queensland can even grow to more than twenty feet long. During winter, it seems to prefer hiding in the large clusters of ferns on the trunks of trees. At night, it seeks shelter from the cold among the leaves, but during the day, it enjoys basking in the sun, making it easier for the locals to spot and kill it with their clubs. If attacked, it may bite with its many sharp teeth, but the resulting wound isn't dangerous. These ferns grow in wreaths around the large trunks of trees and look like the topsails of a ship, but they are much more plentiful. Like orchids, which grow in a similar way, they are constant sources of interest for the locals, as they provide not just snakes, but also rats and other small mammals like Uromys, Sminthopsis, Phascologale, etc. So generally, they make the effort to climb the trees to search for these animals. They can spot the snakes from quite a distance, even if the wreath is fifty to sixty yards above the ground.

We were at one time travelling along one of the mountain streams, while the blacks as usual kept a sharp look-out and examined the numerous clusters of fern in the 295scrub. Suddenly they discovered something lying on the edge of one of these fern clusters, but very high in the air. Notwithstanding their keen eyesight, they were unable to make out whether it was a serpent or a broken branch, so a young boy, whom I usually called Willy, climbed up in a neighbouring tree to investigate the matter. Ere long he called down to us, Vindcheh! vindcheh!—that is, Snake! snake! I was very much surprised, for the object looked to me like an old leafless limb of a tree. Willy came down at once, and lost no time in ascending the tree where the serpent was lying.

We were once traveling along one of the mountain streams, while the Indigenous people kept a watchful eye and checked the many clusters of ferns in the bush. Suddenly, they noticed something up high at the edge of one of these fern clusters. Despite their sharp eyesight, they couldn't tell if it was a snake or a broken branch, so a young boy, whom I usually called Willy, climbed up a nearby tree to check it out. Before long, he shouted down to us, Vindcheh! vindcheh!—that is, Snake! snake! I was really surprised because the thing looked to me like an old, leafless branch. Willy quickly came down and wasted no time climbing back up the tree where the snake was lying.

When he had obtained a foothold near the fern wreath, he broke off a large branch and began striking the serpent, which now showed signs of life. The lazy snake soon received so many blows on the head that it fell down, and proved to be more than ten feet long. While we were taking a look at it we heard Willy, whom it was almost impossible to discover so high up in the tree, call down that he had found another snake, and this made the blacks jubilant.

When he got a good position near the fern wreath, he broke off a big branch and started hitting the snake, which was now showing signs of life. The sluggish snake soon took so many hits to the head that it fell down and turned out to be over ten feet long. While we were checking it out, we heard Willy, who was hard to spot so high up in the tree, shout down that he had found another snake, which excited the locals.

It seemed, however, to be more difficult for Willy to get this snake down, for it was protected among the leaves, and he was obliged to use his stick with all his might in order to drive it out. At last it tried to make its escape, and crept out over the edge of the wreath of ferns in order to lay hold of the tree-trunk, but the distance was too great, and it slipped. It could not get back, for Willy stood there striking it, and so this serpent, which was more than sixteen feet long, fell off; in coming down it struck the crown of a palm-tree, which broke its fall, and quick as lightning, it coiled itself round the trunk of the tree like a corkscrew. Willy did not give up. He came down, and immediately climbed up in the palm-tree to his victim, which was, however, so tenacious of life that it did not let go its hold until its head was crushed.

It seemed to be harder for Willy to get this snake down because it was hidden among the leaves, and he had to use his stick with all his strength to drive it out. Finally, it tried to escape, slithering over the edge of the fern wreath to grab onto the tree trunk, but the gap was too wide, and it slipped. It couldn't get back because Willy was there hitting it, and so this serpent, which was over sixteen feet long, fell off; as it came down, it hit the crown of a palm tree, breaking its fall, and in an instant, it coiled around the trunk of the tree like a corkscrew. Willy didn't give up. He climbed down and quickly went up the palm tree to his prey, which, however, was so determined to survive that it didn't let go until its head was crushed.

When we came to look for the former serpent we were astonished to find it gone. We all searched carefully everywhere among the stones on the bank of the river, but it was not to be found, and we had given up the search when Willy, to our surprise, came dragging it behind him. He had 296found it at the bottom of a hole in the river, and had dived after it.

When we came to look for the old snake, we were shocked to find it missing. We all searched thoroughly among the rocks by the riverbank, but it was nowhere to be seen, and we were about to give up when Willy, to our surprise, showed up dragging it behind him. He had found it at the bottom of a hole in the river and had gone in after it.

These serpents are wonderfully tenacious of life. The one in question was apparently dead and motionless when we left it, still it had been able to crawl twenty paces, and keep itself hidden at the bottom of a hole in the river-bed.

These snakes are incredibly resilient. The one we were talking about seemed dead and unmoving when we left it, yet it managed to slither twenty paces and stay concealed at the bottom of a hole in the riverbed.

The natives, being anxious to secure themselves against other mishaps of this sort, decided to roast the serpents at once. But, as we had not time for this, they procured a withy band from a lawyer-palm, tied the two together until we returned in the evening, and made them fast to a tree, round the trunk of which the serpents coiled themselves. When we passed the place in the afternoon there was still life in them, but they were soon despatched, put together in bundles, and carried to the camp to be roasted for supper.

The locals, eager to protect themselves from any more trouble like this, decided to roast the snakes right away. However, since we didn’t have time for that, they made a band from a lawyer-palm, tied the two snakes together until we got back in the evening, and secured them to a tree, around which the snakes coiled themselves. When we walked by in the afternoon, the snakes were still alive, but they were quickly killed, bundled up, and taken to the camp to be roasted for dinner.

As quickly as possible the camp fire was made and stones were heated; for snakes are one of those delicacies which are prepared in the most recherché manner. The snakes were first laid carefully in circular form, in order that they might occupy as small a space as possible; each forming a disc fastened together with a reed, they looked like the rope-coils made by sailors on the deck of a ship. Large serpents, and the flesh of fish, cattle, and men, are all prepared in the following interesting manner. First a hole is made in the ground about a foot deep, and in it a great fire is built. Over the fire a few stones about twice the size of a man’s fist are placed. When the stones have become red-hot, they are laid aside and the rest of the fire is cleared away. Then a number of the stones are put down into the hole, and over them are laid fresh green leaves, especially of the so-called native ginger (Alpinia cærulea). Upon these the meat is placed, and is covered with leaves and with the rest of the hot stones; the dug-out earth is then spread over the whole, which has the appearance of an ant-hill. If an opening is discovered letting out steam, it is immediately covered so as to keep the heat within the hill.

As quickly as possible, the campfire was set up and stones were heated because snakes are one of those delicacies that are prepared in a very gourmet style. The snakes were first carefully arranged in a circular shape to take up as little space as possible; each one formed a disc tied together with a reed, resembling the rope coils made by sailors on a ship's deck. Large snakes, as well as the flesh of fish, cattle, and humans, are all prepared in this fascinating way. First, a hole about a foot deep is dug in the ground, and a big fire is built in it. A few stones, roughly twice the size of a man's fist, are placed over the fire. When the stones become red-hot, they are set aside, and the rest of the fire is cleared away. Several of the stones are then placed in the hole, and fresh green leaves, particularly from the native ginger (Alpinia cærulea), are spread over them. The meat is placed on top of these leaves and covered with more leaves and the remaining hot stones; the dug-out earth is then spread over everything, making it look like an ant hill. If any steam escapes through an opening, it is quickly covered to keep the heat trapped inside.

Now the baking is permitted to go on undisturbed. The natives know precisely when the meat is done, and they never make a mistake. The hot stones have developed an 297intense heat, which gradually bakes or roasts the food thoroughly and preserves all its flavour.

Now the baking can continue without interruption. The locals know exactly when the meat is ready, and they never get it wrong. The hot stones have reached a high temperature, which slowly cooks or roasts the food completely and keeps all its flavor.

On opening the mound the outer leaves are found to be scorched, while the inner ones are fresh and green, and give the dish a very inviting appearance. Beef prepared in this manner has a very fine flavour. If leaves of the ginger-plant are used, they give the food a peculiar, piquant taste. While I lived among the savages I adopted this manner of preparing my salt beef, after leaving it in a brook over night to get rid of the saltness.

On opening the mound, the outer leaves are scorched, while the inner ones are fresh and green, giving the dish a very appealing look. Beef prepared this way has a wonderful flavor. If you use leaves from the ginger plant, they add a unique, spicy taste to the food. When I lived among the natives, I started preparing my salt beef this way after soaking it in a stream overnight to remove the saltiness.

No one who has never tasted meat prepared in this manner has any conception of what an excellent flavour it has. The principle is much the same as that applied in France, of roasting birds in clay; and in America, of baking clams. In my opinion, fishermen and hunters should adopt this method of preparing their meat. Large leaves are not necessary—common grass may be used, but it must be fresh and green, and must be put on in thick layers.

No one who has never tasted meat cooked this way can really understand how amazing it tastes. The idea is quite similar to the method used in France for roasting birds in clay, and in America for baking clams. I believe that fishermen and hunters should start using this technique to prepare their meat. You don’t need large leaves—regular grass will work, but it has to be fresh and green, and should be layered thickly.

The Australian native does not take so great pains with common meat, but simply roasts it on the fuel or in the hot ashes. In this manner he also prepares his larvæ, beetles, birds, lizards, and eggs. His fish he wraps up in leaves, and then roasts it in the ashes. The natives never use boiling water in preparing their food, hence they have no kettles. Food is not kept in a raw state, but is always roasted before it is put away. There is, however, rarely anything to save.

The Australian native doesn't put much effort into cooking common meat; he just roasts it over a fire or in hot ashes. He uses the same method for preparing larvae, beetles, birds, lizards, and eggs. For fish, he wraps it in leaves and then roasts it in the ashes. The natives never use boiling water to prepare their food, so they don’t have kettles. Food is never left raw; it’s always roasted before being stored. However, there’s usually not much to save.

When the serpents were done and were taken out of the hot leaves, they were perfectly whole as before. The bands were loosened, and the snakes stretched out to their full length and cut open along one side with one of their own jaw-bones. First the fat is taken and handed in long strings to the greedy mouths; then the heart, liver, and lungs; finally the body itself is to be divided. As the jaw-bone is not a sufficiently sharp tool for this purpose, they bite the serpent into pieces with their teeth. Nothing is wasted, for even the back-bone is crushed between the stones and eaten, and the blacks lick and suck the small amount of juice which drops from the meat, and enjoy themselves hugely. But the greatest delicacy is the fat. What cannot 298be eaten on the spot is put away in the hut, and in this instance they ate the leavings for four whole days, until the meat finally became putrid. When we left the camp I observed that they, strange to say, did not burn these remains of the serpents, which is their usual custom with uneaten food, in order to prevent the witchcraft of strangers.

When the snakes were finished and taken out of the hot leaves, they were just as whole as before. The bindings were loosened, and the snakes stretched out to their full length and made a cut along one side with one of their own jawbones. First, they handed out the fat in long strings to the eager mouths; then the heart, liver, and lungs; finally, the body itself was to be divided. Since the jawbone wasn’t sharp enough for this, they bit the snake into pieces with their teeth. Nothing went to waste, as even the backbone was crushed between stones and eaten, and the people licked and sucked the small amount of juice that dripped from the meat, thoroughly enjoying themselves. But the biggest delicacy was the fat. What they couldn’t eat right away was stored in the hut, and in this case, they ate the leftovers for four whole days until the meat finally went bad. When we left the camp, I noticed that, strangely enough, they didn’t burn the remains of the snakes, which they usually do with leftover food to ward off the witchcraft of outsiders.

Snake-flesh has a white colour, and does not look unappetising, but it is dry and almost tasteless. The liver, which I found excellent, tastes remarkably like game, and reminds one of the best parts of the ptarmigan. While they were being carved the serpents diffused an agreeable fragrance like that of fresh beef, and the large liver, which I obtained in exchange for tobacco, supplied me for several days with a welcome change of my monotonous fare.

Snake meat is white and doesn't look unappetizing, but it's dry and nearly tasteless. The liver, which I found to be excellent, tastes surprisingly like game and reminds me of the best parts of ptarmigan. While they were being sliced, the snakes gave off a pleasant aroma similar to that of fresh beef, and the large liver I traded for tobacco provided me with a much-appreciated break from my monotonous diet for several days.

The natives stand in great fear of poisonous serpents, a fact no doubt due to their helplessness against them. If they discover such a one they usually get out of its way, and if they attempt to kill it they do so by throwing at it from a distance. Accordingly the blacks were frequently surprised to see me go close to a poisonous snake and kill it with a stick. On such occasions they certainly realised the superiority of the white man. For my part, I had gradually become so accustomed to snakes that it simply amused me to see them, if they did not come into too dangerous proximity. The beauty of their forms and motions awakened my admiration, though on the other hand it must be admitted that their life and habits are not particularly interesting.

The locals are very afraid of poisonous snakes, probably because they feel powerless against them. If they spot one, they usually steer clear, and if they try to kill it, they do so from a distance by throwing things. So, they were often shocked to see me get close to a poisonous snake and kill it with a stick. In those moments, they definitely recognized the superiority of white people. As for me, I had gotten so used to snakes that it just entertained me to see them, as long as they didn’t get too close. I admired the beauty of their shapes and movements, although I have to admit that their lives and behaviors aren’t all that interesting.

About two-thirds of the Australian serpents are poisonous, but only five varieties are said to be absolutely dangerous to man.

About two-thirds of Australian snakes are venomous, but only five species are considered truly dangerous to humans.

People who visit the tropics for the first time always fear these reptiles at first, and no doubt justly so, but in course of time they discover that their fear has been too great and that it should be overcome. When a person is bitten it is especially important to keep cool, for fear and excitement make the matter worse and may end in disaster. It is no rare thing for a bushman when bitten to be foolish enough to chop off the bitten limb.

People visiting the tropics for the first time often fear these reptiles, and understandably so, but over time they realize that their fear is excessive and needs to be managed. When someone gets bitten, it's especially important to stay calm, as fear and panic can make things worse and lead to disaster. It's not uncommon for a bushman who is bitten to recklessly decide to cut off the bitten limb.

SNAKE FEAST IN MY CAMP.

SNAKE FEAST AT MY CAMP.

299As the serpents are so numerous in Australia, it is of course necessary to keep a sharp look-out and not get too close to them. They may be met with everywhere—on the ground, in the trees, in the water, nay, even in the houses. Though most of the snakes seek their food at night, one’s watchfulness should not be relaxed in the daytime. The bushman’s precaution of always examining his bed before retiring to rest I deem worthy of imitation. A boy near Rockhampton was bitten by a brown snake in his bed and died.

299Since there are so many snakes in Australia, it's important to stay alert and not get too close to them. They can be found everywhere—on the ground, in the trees, in the water, and even inside houses. While most snakes hunt at night, you should still be careful during the day. I think the bushman’s habit of checking his bed before going to sleep is a good practice to follow. A boy near Rockhampton was bitten by a brown snake in his bed and died.

Deaths from serpent bites are rare in Australia. In a case known to me a man died from the bite of the brown serpent (Diemenia) without feeling any pain to the very last, while I also know of instances where serpent bites have caused the most violent pain.

Deaths from snake bites are rare in Australia. In a case that I know of, a man died from the bite of the brown snake (Diemenia) without feeling any pain right until the end, while I also know of instances where snake bites have caused excruciating pain.

The serpents are in fact timid, and are inclined to run away from danger, and so far as I have been able to observe, they never attack men unless during the pairing season. But if we come suddenly upon them, their irritable and ugly temper makes them bite with a movement as quick as lightning.

The snakes are actually timid and tend to flee from danger. From what I've seen, they never attack humans unless it's mating season. However, if we surprise them, their bad temper makes them bite in a flash.

Poisonous serpents were not so numerous here as farther south in Queensland, still they could not be called rare. One day, as we were sitting together round the fire, I was startled by the cry of the blacks, Vindcheh! vindcheh!—that is, Snake! snake! A serpent had appeared in my hut, but hid when it heard the shouting of the blacks. Being utterly unable to get it out of the foliage of which the wall of my hut was constructed, I assumed that it had crept back into the grass which grew outside. The same night I was awakened by some inexplicable cause; there was no sound, and in the clear light of the camp fire no suspicious object could be discerned. At the same moment I discovered a serpent, which was slowly and noiselessly creeping up my left side toward my head. I quietly allowed the snake to proceed until I saw its tail pass my cheek. After a few moments I arose, quickly changed my bed, and slept the rest of the night on the other side of the camp fire. Had I made the slightest motion the snake would doubtless have bitten me.

Poisonous snakes were not as common here as they were further south in Queensland, but they weren't exactly rare. One day, while we were sitting around the fire, I was shocked by the cries of the locals, Vindcheh! vindcheh!—which means Snake! Snake! A snake had appeared in my hut but hid when it heard their yelling. Unable to get it out of the vines that made up the wall of my hut, I figured it had slithered back into the grass outside. That same night, I woke up for some unexplained reason; there was no noise, and in the clear light of the campfire, nothing looked suspicious. Then I spotted a snake quietly and silently slithering up my left side toward my head. I let the snake keep going until I felt its tail brush against my cheek. After a few moments, I got up, quickly changed my sleeping spot, and spent the rest of the night on the other side of the campfire. If I had made even the slightest move, the snake probably would have bitten me.


It was near the end of June. The expeditions I had made during the last weeks were in a certain sense interesting, 300but they were less profitable than heretofore. I had discovered that there was not much more for me to do here. And even though I might have had a rich field to explore, I was hardly able to stand any longer the many privations and difficulties with which I had to contend.

It was almost the end of June. The trips I had taken over the past few weeks were somewhat interesting, but they were not as rewarding as before. I realized there wasn't much more for me to do here. Even though there could have been plenty to explore, I could barely handle the numerous hardships and challenges I faced any longer.

I did not find my occupation tedious, but still I could not help longing to get away. There was here absolutely nothing of that to which I had been accustomed; for months I had lived with people who were not even able to pronounce my name. A feeling akin to home-sickness kept getting possession of me. I longed for civilisation. No matter how zealous a naturalist a man may be, he is first of all a human being, and when this feeling comes upon us we cannot conquer it, but must perforce give in.

I didn’t find my job boring, but I still couldn’t shake the desire to escape. There was nothing here that I was used to; for months I had been around people who couldn’t even say my name. A feeling similar to homesickness kept taking over me. I craved civilization. No matter how passionate a naturalist someone might be, they are first and foremost a human being, and when that feeling hits us, we can’t fight it—we have to give in.

I accordingly went back to Herbert Vale, and prepared to leave these regions and return to Central Queensland.

I went back to Herbert Vale and got ready to leave this area and head back to Central Queensland.

It was necessary to get some of the natives to go with me to assist in carrying the baggage, but it was important to be careful in the choice of men. I was unwilling to trust myself to the blacks about the station, and the others were afraid of the strange land which we had to traverse. Their speech would betray them, they said, and so they would in a short time be killed and eaten. Yokkai alone expressed a desire to accompany “Mami,” still he would not dare unless he was joined by another black man, viz. Chinaman—the person I disliked most of them all. As the reader may remember, he was a great rascal who had caused me much annoyance, but as there was no other way, I had to swallow this bitter pill, for I could not go alone.

I needed to get some locals to help carry the luggage, but it was crucial to choose the right people carefully. I didn’t want to rely on the Black people around the station, and the others were scared of the unfamiliar land we had to cross. They said their accents would give them away, and they'd soon be killed and eaten. Yokkai was the only one who wanted to come with "Mami," but he wouldn't do it unless he had another Black man with him, specifically Chinaman—the person I disliked the most. As you might recall, he was a real troublemaker who had caused me a lot of frustration, but since there was no other option, I had to accept this unpleasant reality because I couldn’t go alone.

With the greatest care all my specimens were packed into large cloths which the postman had brought me from Cardwell, and which I had sewed into a kind of bag. Then all was put on the backs of the horses, and it made them look like camels. Yokkai and Chinaman carried some of the smaller bundles and led the horses, and I followed on foot.

With the utmost care, I packed all my specimens into large cloths that the postman had delivered from Cardwell, which I sewed into a sort of bag. Then everything was loaded onto the horses' backs, making them look like camels. Yokkai and the Chinaman carried some of the smaller bundles and led the horses, while I followed on foot.

To Yokkai I had given a whole suit of clothes as a reward for his services. I am sorry to say it was about all I was able to do for him. He was, however, exceedingly happy in his first dress and felt more secure against strange blacks, who would judge by his clothes that he was in the service of 301a white man. The natives hesitate to attack a black man who is dressed, for they are afraid they may be shot by his master. Yokkai had of late talked much about going to Norway—across the great water in the great canoe. There he was sure of getting all he wanted of flour and tobacco. In Norway he would get him a wife, he said. She must be a white woman, but one was enough; it would not be good to have two, he thought. I had also taught him to say Norway, and he believed that we were now bound for that country, with its mountains of “food and tobacco.”

To Yokkai, I had given a whole set of clothes as a reward for his help. I’m sorry to say that was about all I could do for him. He was really happy with his new outfit and felt safer from unfamiliar people who would think that he worked for a white man based on his clothing. The locals hesitate to attack a black man who is dressed nicely because they’re afraid they might be shot by his master. Lately, Yokkai had talked a lot about going to Norway—across the big water in the big canoe. He was sure he could get all the flour and tobacco he wanted there. In Norway, he said he would get himself a wife. She should be a white woman, but he thought one was enough; having two wouldn’t be good. I also taught him how to say Norway, and he believed that we were now headed for that country, with its mountains of “food and tobacco.”

On the way my old pack-horse tumbled backwards down a steep river bank, and lay on his side with my valuable baggage under him. I got him up again, and was happy to find that no damage had been done. With the exception of this mishap, I arrived unscathed at Mr. Gardiner’s farm at Lower Herbert, where I met with the most friendly reception.

On the way, my old pack-horse fell backwards down a steep riverbank and landed on his side with my valuable stuff underneath him. I managed to get him up again and was relieved to see that nothing was damaged. Besides this incident, I arrived safely at Mr. Gardiner’s farm at Lower Herbert, where I received a really warm welcome.

Great changes had been made here since I left. I could scarcely recognise the place. Near the farm a whole sugar plantation had grown up. Where the dense scrubs flourished when I was there before, the fields were now covered with sugar-cane, and there was life and bustle everywhere. On the plantation I got some boxes, in which I packed my collection, and soon was ready to go on board a barge which was to carry me down the river to Dungeness.

Great changes had happened here since I left. I could barely recognize the place. Near the farm, a whole sugar plantation had sprung up. Where the thick brush used to thrive when I was there before, the fields were now filled with sugar cane, and there was activity and energy everywhere. At the plantation, I got some boxes to pack my collection, and soon I was ready to board a barge that would take me down the river to Dungeness.

Yokkai took a deep interest in all that he saw and heard. He lived high, stuffed himself with sugar-cane, and pretended to be a man of great importance; in this case it certainly was “the clothes that made the man.” But everything was so new and strange to him that he did not feel perfectly at home. He had already given up the journey across the great water, and he was longing to get back to his own mountains.

Yokkai was really interested in everything he saw and heard. He lived luxuriously, indulging in sugar cane, and acted like he was a person of great significance; in this case, it was definitely “the clothes that made the man.” But everything felt so new and strange to him that he didn’t fully feel at home. He had already abandoned the idea of crossing the big sea, and he was eager to return to his own mountains.

I had taken precautions that he should in no way suffer in “the strange land,” and I also made arrangements for his safe return to his own tribe.

I made sure he wouldn’t suffer in “the strange land,” and I also planned for his safe return to his own tribe.

Before I went on board the boat I asked him if he would like to go with me to Norway. He shrugged his shoulders and answered a positive No. I shook his hand and bade him good-bye; but I did not discover the faintest sign of emotion. He gazed at me steadfastly with his large brown eyes beneath his broad-brimmed hat, but did not understand the significance 302of shaking hands. Thus I parted from my only friend among the savages, and many emotions crowded upon me as the vessel glided away, memories of the stirring days I had passed with him, and a sense of deep gratitude for the many services he had done me.

Before I got on the boat, I asked him if he wanted to come with me to Norway. He shrugged and said no. I shook his hand and said goodbye, but I didn’t see any sign of emotion from him. He looked at me steadily with his large brown eyes under his broad-brimmed hat, but didn’t get what shaking hands meant. So, I said farewell to my only friend among the natives, and as the ship drifted away, a mix of emotions hit me—memories of the exciting days I had spent with him and a deep sense of gratitude for all the help he had given me.

Upon the whole, I took leave of the country of the blacks and my interesting life in the mountains with strange feelings in my breast. Some of the impressions derived from this grand phase of nature I shall never forget. When the tropical sun with its bright dazzling rays rises in the early morning above the dewy trees of the scrub, when the Australian bird of paradise arranges its magnificent plumage in the first sunbeams, and when all nature awakens to a new life which can be conceived but cannot be described, it makes one sorry to be alone to admire all this beauty. Or when the full moon throws her pale light over the scrub-clad tops of the mountains and over the vast plains below, while the breezes play gently with the leaves of the palm-tree, and when the mystic voices of the night birds ring out on the still quiet night, there is indeed melancholy, but also untold beauty, in such a situation.

Overall, I said goodbye to the land of the black people and my fascinating life in the mountains with mixed feelings. Some of the memories from this incredible part of nature will stay with me forever. When the tropical sun rises in the early morning, casting its bright, dazzling rays over the dewy trees, and when the Australian bird of paradise displays its stunning feathers in the first light, and when all of nature wakes up to a new life that is felt but can't be fully described, it truly makes you wish you weren't alone to enjoy all this beauty. Or when the full moon casts its soft light over the scrub-covered mountain tops and the vast plains below, while the gentle breezes rustle the palm leaves, and when the enchanting calls of the night birds echo in the quiet night, there’s a sense of melancholy, but also indescribable beauty, in such moments.

I was, however, not sorry to leave the people. I had come to Herbert Vale full of sympathy for this race, which the settler drives before him with the rifle, but after the long months I had spent with them my sympathy was gone and only my interest in them remained. Experience had taught me that it is not only among civilised people that men are not so good as they ought to be.

I wasn't sad to leave the people. I had arrived at Herbert Vale full of empathy for this group, which the settler pushes away with a rifle, but after the long months I spent with them, my empathy had faded and only my interest in them remained. Experience taught me that it's not just among civilized people that men aren't as good as they should be.

303

CHAPTER XXVI

Message sticks—The common origin of the dialects—Remarkably complicated grammar—The language on Herbert river—Comparison of a few dialects.

Message sticks—The common origin of the dialects—Remarkably complex grammar—The language spoken along the Herbert River—Comparison of a few dialects.

A race so uncivilised as the Australian natives has of course no written language. Still they are able to make themselves understood by a kind of sign language. Now and then the natives send information to other tribes, and this is done by the aid of figures scratched on a “message stick” made of wood, about four to seven inches long, and one inch wide. Some of them are flat, while others are round and about as thick as a man’s finger; they often are painted in different colours. I myself saw one of these sticks which came to a native among my acquaintances on Herbert river. The man told me that he understood the inscription perfectly well, and he even prepared a similar stick, on which he wrote an answer. The message stick shown on page 304 is from Central Queensland. One side is meant to represent an enclosed piece of ground. There is a gate in the fence, and the dots mean grass and sheep. I am also fortunate in being able to give an illustration of another message stick (p. 304), with the interpretation of its inscription, which conveys a message from a black woman named Nowwanjung to her husband Carralinga of the Woongo tribe. Other message sticks are engraved with straight or circular lines in regular patterns as in embroidery; this has caused an entirely different view of their significance, which supposes them to be merely cards to identify the messenger. This view may be correct, but it is not corroborated by my experience on Herbert river.

A group as uncivilized as the Australian natives doesn’t have a written language. However, they can still communicate using a form of sign language. Occasionally, the natives send messages to other tribes, which they do by scratching symbols on a “message stick” made of wood, about four to seven inches long and one inch wide. Some are flat, while others are round and about as thick as a man’s finger; they are often painted in various colors. I personally saw one of these sticks that was sent to a native I knew on the Herbert River. The man told me he understood the message perfectly and even created a similar stick to reply. The message stick shown on page 304 is from Central Queensland. One side represents a fenced area of land. There’s a gate in the fence, and the dots symbolize grass and sheep. I’m also lucky to be able to show another message stick (p. 304) along with its interpretation, which carries a message from a Black woman named Nowwanjung to her husband Carralinga of the Woongo tribe. Other message sticks are engraved with straight or circular lines in regular patterns, resembling embroidery; this has led to a different interpretation of their significance, suggesting they are simply identification cards for the messenger. While this interpretation might be accurate, it doesn’t align with my experiences on the Herbert River.

304Nearly every tribe has its own language, or at least its own dialect, so that the members of different tribes are unable to understand each other. The reason for this is to a great extent the hostility existing between the tribes. Of course every tribe is familiar with the language of its nearest neighbours, and makes use of nearly the same dialect when they talk with a friendly tribe, but they treat a hostile tribe with scorn, and ridicule their language. The language, not being written, is constantly undergoing change, and there is even a difference between the speech of the old people and the children. If you put the same question to a black man three or four times, his last answer will be expressed differently, though he uses the same words.

304Almost every tribe has its own language, or at least its own dialect, which makes it hard for members of different tribes to understand each other. This is largely due to the hostility between the tribes. Naturally, each tribe knows the language of its closest neighbors and uses a similar dialect when speaking with a friendly tribe, but they treat hostile tribes with disdain and mock their language. Since the language isn't written down, it constantly evolves, and there’s even a difference between how older people and children speak. If you ask a black man the same question three or four times, his final answer will be expressed differently, even if he uses the same words.

A MESSAGE STICK FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND.

A MESSAGE STICK FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND.

REVERSE SIDE OF THE SAME.

OTHER SIDE OF THE SAME.

MESSAGE STICK, WITH INTERPRETATION OF INSCRIPTION.

MESSAGE STICK, WITH EXPLANATION OF INSCRIPTION.

In spite of difference between the languages spoken in the various parts of the continent, an intimate relation is believed to exist between them, and it is the prevailing opinion that they spring from a common root language. At all events it is a fact that many words are the same in very large districts, even in places so far apart that they cannot possibly have influenced each other by communication. I know a case where a black man from Clermont 305understood the language spoken in Aramac and on Georgina river, and yet he had never been there.

Despite the differences between the languages spoken in various parts of the continent, there is a strong belief that they share a close relationship, and most people think they come from a common root language. In any case, it's a fact that many words are the same across vast areas, even in places that are so far apart they couldn’t possibly have influenced one another through communication. I know of a case where a Black man from Clermont understood the language spoken in Aramac and along the Georgina River, even though he had never been there. 305

This similarity of vocabulary must not be confounded with those words which are used everywhere, and which have been spread by Europeans. Many of these are not Australian in their origin. The colonist, who moves from one part of the country to another, generally takes with him some of the words of the language of the blacks, and thus these are transplanted into new soil. In this manner many words have emigrated from Victoria and New South Wales, and have taken root with the new civilisation. There are now a number of such words which are in vogue throughout the civilised part of the continent—for example, yariman, horse; dillibag, basket; kabra,[18] head; bingee, belly; gin, woman; gramma, to steal; bael, not; boodgary, excellent; korroboree, festive dance; dingo, dog, etc. We can even trace words which the Europeans have imported from the natives of other countries—for example, picaninny, a child. This word is said to have come originally from the negroes of Africa through white immigrants. In America the children of negroes are called picaninny. When the white men came to Australia, they applied this word to the children of the natives of this continent.

This similarity in vocabulary shouldn't be confused with the words that are universally used and have been spread by Europeans. Many of these aren't originally Australian. Colonists moving from one area of the country to another typically bring some words from the Indigenous languages, which then get introduced to new regions. In this way, many words have traveled from Victoria and New South Wales and established themselves with the new civilization. There are now several such words commonly used throughout the civilized areas of the continent—for example, yariman, horse; dillibag, basket; kabra, head; bingee, belly; gin, woman; gramma, to steal; bael, not; boodgary, excellent; korroboree, festive dance; dingo, dog, etc. We can even trace words imported by Europeans from Indigenous people in other countries—for instance, picaninny, meaning a child. This word is believed to have originated from the African negroes through white immigrants. In America, black children are referred to as picaninny. When white settlers arrived in Australia, they used this term for the children of the Indigenous people on this continent.

18. According to a word-list from the beginning of the century this word was used in Port Macquarie (cahbrah), and Port Jackson (cabbra).

18. According to a word list from the start of the century, this word was used in Port Macquarie (cahbrah) and Port Jackson (cabbra).

Such “civilised” words, however, seldom take root in the language of the blacks. They simply use them in conversation with the white man. Though a few words are carried in this manner from one district to another, this method of transplanting is not of any great importance.

Such "civilized" words, however, rarely become part of the language of the Black community. They mainly use them in conversations with white people. While a few words may get passed along from one area to another, this way of sharing isn't very significant.

A natural affinity between the languages can with certainty be pointed out. Some words are almost identical throughout the continent. An excellent illustration of this is found in the word for eye.

A clear connection between the languages can definitely be seen. Some words are almost the same all over the continent. A great example of this is the word for eye.

In Caledon Bay, on the Gulf of Carpentaria, it is mail; Endeavour river, on the north-west coast (16° S. lat.), meul; Moreton Bay (29° S. lat.), mill; Port Macquarie (33° S. lat.), 68 miles south from Sydney, me; Port Jackson (Sydney), mi or me; Limestone Creek (140 miles west of Sydney), milla; Yarra tribe, Victoria, mii; King George Sound 306(south-west coast, 35° S. lat.), mil; Herbert river (18° S. lat.), mill.

In Caledon Bay, on the Gulf of Carpentaria, it’s mail; Endeavour River, on the northwest coast (16° S. lat.), meul; Moreton Bay (29° S. lat.), mill; Port Macquarie (33° S. lat.), 68 miles south of Sydney, me; Port Jackson (Sydney), mi or me; Limestone Creek (140 miles west of Sydney), milla; Yarra tribe, Victoria, mii; King George Sound 306 (southwest coast, 35° S. lat.), mil; Herbert River (18° S. lat.), mill.

An equally interesting example is found in the numeral 2, which is tolerably constant throughout the continent—bular, bulara, buloara, budelar, burla, bulla, buled, boolray, pulette, pular, pollai, bolita, bulicht, bollowin, etc. Even in Tasmania the word is found, pualih. The words for 1 and 3 are, on the other hand, always different. For comparison I give the following table—

An equally interesting example is found in the number 2, which is reasonably consistent across the continent—bular, bulara, buloara, budelar, burla, bulla, buled, boolray, pulette, pular, pollai, bolita, bulicht, bollowin, etc. Even in Tasmania, the word is pualih. The words for 1 and 3, on the other hand, are always different. For comparison, I provide the following table—

Numbers.
 
  1 2 3 4 5
Near Adelaide, South Australia kumande purlaitye marnkutye purlaitye-purlaitye  
Moreton Bay, Southern Queensland ganar burla burla ganar burla burla korumba (much)
Boraipar, West Australia keiarpe pulette pulekvia pulette-pulette  
Burapper, S. E. Australia, near Murray river kiarp bullait bullait-kiarp bullait bullait  
Mount Elliot, Northern Queensland, 19° S. lat. woggin boolray goodjoo munwool murgai
Tasmania, south coast marrava pûalih   wullyava  

A common root can also be shown in the personal pronoun. I is called ngaia, nganya, ngatoa, ngaii, ngai, ngie, ngan, ngu, ngipa, ngâpe, etc. Thouinta, nginta, nginte, nginda, ngin, ninna, nindu, nginne, etc.

A common root can also be seen in the personal pronoun. I is called ngaia, nganya, ngatoa, ngaii, ngai, ngie, ngan, ngu, ngipa, ngâpe, etc. Youinta, nginta, nginte, nginda, ngin, ninna, nindu, nginne, etc.

Upon the whole, though the various languages have but little in common, there are certain peculiarities which may be regarded as characteristic of them all. They are polysyllabic, the accent is usually on the penultimate or antepenultimate, and the words are, therefore, not unpleasant to the ear. Indeed, many of them are full of euphony and harmony. The large number of vowels contributes 307much to this result. Guttural sounds are particularly prominent. The s sound appears to be very rare. On Herbert river I heard only two words which contained the letter ssuttungo, tobacco, and sinchen, syphilis, and so far as I know, s is found only in the beginning of words.

Overall, even though the different languages have little in common, there are certain features that can be seen as typical of all of them. They tend to be polysyllabic, with the stress usually on the second-to-last or third-to-last syllable, making the words quite pleasant to hear. In fact, many of them are full of melody and rhythm. The large number of vowels really adds to this effect. Guttural sounds are especially noticeable. The s sound seems to be very rare. On the Herbert River, I heard only two words that included the letter ssuttungo, tobacco, and sinchen, syphilis, and as far as I know, s is only found at the beginning of words.

In grammar the languages also differ widely. At all events, the authors who have sought to discuss these matters thoroughly have arrived at very different results.

In grammar, the languages also vary greatly. In any case, the authors who have tried to discuss these issues in depth have reached very different conclusions.

Mr. Beveridge, who has studied the languages of Victoria, claims that the syntax is very simple, saying that the various grammatical relations are expressed solely by prolongations, accentuations, and changes of position of the words. Mr. Lang, on the contrary, holds an entirely different opinion. He supports the popular theory that the Australian natives have in the past occupied a much higher plane of civilisation than at present, and thinks he is able to find traces of a decayed civilisation in the languages of the tribes, which in his opinion are very perfect.

Mr. Beveridge, who has studied the languages of Victoria, claims that the syntax is quite simple, stating that the different grammatical relationships are shown only through word lengthening, emphasis, and changes in word order. Mr. Lang, on the other hand, has a completely different view. He supports the common belief that the Australian natives once had a much more advanced level of civilization than they do now, and he believes he can find evidence of a lost civilization in the languages of the tribes, which he considers to be very sophisticated.

As a striking example he mentions the inflections of the verbs. At Moreton Bay the verbs have far more inflections than the verbs in the Hebrew language. They can be conjugated reflexively, reciprocally, frequentatively, causatively, and permissively. They have not only indicative, imperative, and subjunctive, past, present, and future, expressed by definite inflectional endings, but each one of these endings may assume distinct shades of meaning expressed by different inflections. The imperfect of the verb to speak (goal) has not only a form which means “spoke,” but forms which mean “spoke to-day,” “spoke yesterday,” “spoke some days ago,” etc. The same is the case with the future. There are three imperatives: (1) speak; (2) thou shalt speak (emphatic); (3) speak if you can, or if you dare (ironical). The nouns are regularly inflected by suffixes; ngu means of, go to, da in, di from, kunda with, etc. The pronouns have both dual and plural form: ngaia I, ngulle we two, you and I; ngullina (comp. Herbert river, allingpa) we two, he and I, etc. This complicated syntax is found in many tribes, though they may have widely different languages.

As a striking example, he points out the verb inflections. At Moreton Bay, the verbs have significantly more inflections than those in Hebrew. They can be conjugated in reflexive, reciprocal, frequentative, causative, and permissive ways. They include not just indicative, imperative, and subjunctive moods, as well as past, present, and future tenses, each expressed by specific inflectional endings. Each of these endings can convey different nuances through various inflections. The imperfect form of the verb to speak (goal) has not only a form that means “spoke,” but also forms that mean “spoke today,” “spoke yesterday,” “spoke some days ago,” and so on. The same applies to the future tense. There are three imperatives: (1) speak; (2) you shall speak (emphatic); (3) speak if you can, or if you dare (ironic). The nouns are regularly inflected with suffixes; ngu means of, go means to, da means in, di means from, kunda means with, etc. The pronouns have both dual and plural forms: ngaia is I, ngulle is we two, you and I; ngullina (comp. Herbert river, allingpa) means we two, he and I, etc. This complex syntax appears in many tribes, even though they may have very different languages.

Mr. E. M. Curr, of Melbourne, has recently in a great and very meritorious work, The Australian Race, pointed out 308a most striking resemblance between the languages of the Australian blacks and those of the African negroes. His opinion is that the Australian natives are descended from the African negroes by a cross with some other race. He admits that the Australian blacks look quite different from the natives of Africa, but he shows that the customs, the superstitions, and above all the languages, agree in many respects in a most remarkable manner. He points out the striking fact that while the Papuan and the Australian languages are almost totally different, still many of the words used by the Australian blacks are almost identical with those employed by the negroes of Africa.

Mr. E. M. Curr, from Melbourne, has recently published an important and commendable work, The Australian Race, where he highlights a significant resemblance between the languages of Australian Aboriginal people and those of African people. He believes that the Australian natives are descended from African ancestors, mixed with another race. He acknowledges that the Australian Aboriginal people look quite different from the natives of Africa, but he demonstrates that their customs, superstitions, and especially their languages share many remarkable similarities. He notes the striking fact that while Papuan and Australian languages are nearly completely different, many words used by Australian Aboriginal people are almost identical to those used by African people.

The language of the natives on Herbert river is imperative and brief. A single word frequently expresses a whole sentence. “Will you go with me?” is expressed simply by the interrogation nginta? (thou?), and the answer, “I will stay where I am,” by karri ngipa (I remain). “I will go home,” ngipa míttago (literally, I in respect to the hut).

The language of the locals by the Herbert River is direct and concise. Often, a single word can convey an entire sentence. “Will you go with me?” is simply asked with the word nginta? (you?), and the response, “I will stay where I am,” is karri ngipa (I stay). “I will go home,” is ngipa míttago (literally, I concerning the hut).

The suffix go literally means “with regard to,” and is usually added to nouns to give them a verbal meaning, but it is also sometimes added to verbs. The question Wainta Morbora?—that is, “Where is Morbora?”—can be answered by saying only títyengo (he has gone hunting títyen) (wallaby), (literally, with respect to wallaby); or, for example, mittago he is at home (literally, with regard to the hut). Mottaigo means “he is eating” (literally, with regard to eating). “Throw him into the water,” is expressed simply by ngallogo. As is evident, this is a very convenient suffix, as it saves a number of moods and tenses. It may also be used to express the genitive—for example, toolgil tomoberogo, the bones of the ox.

The suffix go literally means “about,” and is usually added to nouns to give them a verbal meaning, but it can also be added to verbs sometimes. The question Wainta Morbora?—which means, “Where is Morbora?”—can be answered by simply saying títyengo (he has gone hunting títyen) (wallaby), (literally, about wallaby); or, for example, mittago he is at home (literally, about the hut). Mottaigo means “he is eating” (literally, about eating). “Throw him into the water” is simply expressed as ngallogo. Clearly, this is a very handy suffix, as it eliminates the need for various moods and tenses. It can also be used to express the genitive—for example, toolgil tomoberogo, the bones of the ox.

There frequently is no difference between nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Kola means wrath, angry, and to get angry. Poka means smell, to smell, and rotten; oito means a jest, and to jest.

There often isn't a distinction between nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Kola means wrath, angry, and to get angry. Poka means smell, to smell, and rotten; oito means a joke, and to joke.

“It is noon,” is vi ōrupi (sun big). “It is early in the morning,” is vi naklam (sun little). “It is near sunset,” is vi molle mongan. Kolle is a very common word. It is, in fact, used to call attention to a strange or remarkable sound, and means “hush!” Kolle mal! “Hush, there is a strange 309man!” Kólle is also used to express indignation or a protest, “far from it.” A superlative of an adjective is expressed by repetition—for example, krally-krally, “very old.”

“It is noon,” is vi ōrupi (big sun). “It is early in the morning,” is vi naklam (little sun). “It is near sunset,” is vi molle mongan. Kolle is a very common word. It’s actually used to draw attention to a strange or noteworthy sound, and means “hush!” Kolle mal! “Hush, there is a strange 309man!” Kólle is also used to express indignation or protest, “definitely not.” A superlative of an adjective is expressed by repetition—for example, krally-krally, “very old.”

The vocabulary is small. The language is rich in words describing phenomena that attract the attention of the savage, but it lacks words for abstract notions. The natives, being utterly unable to generalise, have no words for kinds or classes of things, as tree, bird, fish, etc. But each variety of these things has its own name. Strange to say, there are words not only for the animals and plants which the natives themselves use, but also for such as they have no use for or interest in whatever. On Georgina river the natives have a special word for sweetheart.

The vocabulary is limited. The language has plenty of words for things that catch the attention of the locals, but it lacks terms for abstract ideas. The natives, unable to generalize, don’t have words for categories or types of things like tree, bird, or fish. However, each specific variety of these things has its own name. Interestingly, there are words not just for the animals and plants the locals use, but also for ones they have no interest in or use for at all. Along the Georgina River, the natives even have a specific word for sweetheart.

On Herbert river I found, to my surprise, various names for flame and coals. Vákkun meant camp fire, coals, or the burning stick of wood, while the flame was called koyílla.

On the Herbert River, I was surprised to find different names for fire and coals. Vákkun referred to a campfire, coals, or a burning stick of wood, while the flame was called koyílla.

Of numerals the Australian natives have no comprehension. Many tribes have only two numerals, viz. 1 and 2, and by combining these they can count to five, thus—1 keiarpe, 2 pulette, 3 pulette-keiarpe, 4 pulette-pulette, 5 pulette-pulette-keiarpe. Several tribes have three numerals, as, for instance, Herbert Vale tribe—1 yóngul, 2 yákkan, 3 kárbo, 4, etc., is usually expressed by taggin (many). Occasionally a tribe may be found which has a word for 10. The word literally means two hands (bolita murrung), a remarkable parallel existing in many other languages (from the Sandwich Island to Madagascar) in which the word lima means both hand and five.

The Aboriginal Australians don’t understand numbers. Many tribes have only two numbers: 1 and 2. By combining them, they can count to five like this—1 keiarpe, 2 pulette, 3 pulette-keiarpe, 4 pulette-pulette, 5 pulette-pulette-keiarpe. Some tribes have three numbers; for example, the Herbert Vale tribe uses 1 yóngul, 2 yákkan, 3 kárbo. To express 4, they usually say taggin (many). Sometimes, a tribe may have a word for 10, which literally translates to two hands (bolita murrung). This is similar to many other languages (from the Sandwich Islands to Madagascar) where the word lima means both hand and five.

The dialects of the natives abound in proper nouns. Every locality has its name, every mountain, every brook, every opening in the woods. Many of these names are remarkable for their euphony. As a curiosity I quote the following stanza—

The local dialects of the natives are full of proper names. Every place has its name, every mountain, every stream, every clearing in the woods. Many of these names are notable for their pleasant sound. As a curiosity, I’ll share the following stanza—

“I like the native names as Paramatta
And Illawarra and Woolloomoollo.
Toongabbe, Mittagong, and Coolingatta,
And Yurumbon, and Coodgiegang, Meroo,
Euranarina, Jackwa, Bulkomatta,
Nandowra, Tumbarumba, Woogaroo;
The Wollondilly and the Wingycarribbee,
The Warragumby, Daby, Bungarribee.”

310It is a strange fact that the dialects in a great part of the country are named after their respective negatives. Wiraiaroi is a dialect in which wirai means “no,” and Wailiwun is one in which wail means “no.” Thus Kamilaroi, Wolaroi, etc. Pikumbul is an exception. In this dialect piku means “yes.” One cannot help thinking of the French Langue d’Oc and Langue d’Oyl.

310It's a curious fact that the dialects in much of the country are named after their respective words for "no." Wiraiaroi is a dialect where wirai means “no,” and Wailiwun is one where wail means “no.” So, Kamilaroi, Wolaroi, etc. Pikumbul is an exception, as in this dialect piku means “yes.” It’s hard not to think of the French Langue d’Oc and Langue d’Oyl.

311

Comparative Analysis of Certain Australian Dialects.

  Endeavour river, York peninsula. Herbert river, Northern Queensland. Mount Elliot, Northern Queensland, 19° S. lat. Moreton Bay, Southern Queensland. Goulbourn river, New South Wales. Port Jackson, New South Wales. Yarra tribe, Victoria. Near Adelaide, South Australia. Boraipar, West Australia.
Man bama mal munyah malar goleen mulla kolin (pl.) meyu (pl.) wootawolli
Woman mootjel dombi-dombi youngoorah jundal badyuroo din bajor ngammaitya liu
Kangaroo kangooroo   oodra bourgoola kurruman marram wallibah mirrm nanto wauwe  
Stone walbah faringa   mulla moid yerre keba[19] giber mojerr pure  
Water poorai ngallo doongalla dabil parn badoo paen kauwe wolpool
Sun gallan vee ingin beeké nummi goona ngumi tindo nauwingy
Moon   ballan wurboonbura kibbom minnun yennadah meenean piki mityah
Head wageegee mogil coode magul kowanoo cobbra[20] kuvang makarta poorpai
Hair morye pocka weir kapui kowung kewarra yarré yoka  
Hand marigal mallan (pl.) cabankabun marra munangoo tammirra marnong pemarra mannangy
Foot (pl.) edamal bingan (pl.) deenah sidney (tchidna) tinnanoo manoe jenong (pl.) tidna (pl.) tchinnangy
Nose bonjo poteer wooroo   muloo garknoo nogro kâ-ang mudla cheen-je
Belly melmal vomba booloo gunnung bendé barrong      
Excrements   kona   koodna koornong   conong kudna  
Fire meanang (flame) koyilla ejugabah kuddum wein gweeyong ween gadla wanappe

19. See the Gospel of St. John i. 42, “Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called Cephas, which is by interpretation, A stone.” Arabic: ka-aba or giber (Gibraltar).

19. See the Gospel of John 1:42, “You are Simon, son of John. You will be called Cephas, which means Peter, or a rock.” Arabic: ka-aba or giber (Gibraltar).

20. Spanish: cobra.

__A_TAG_PLACEHOLDER_0__. Spanish: snake.

312

Collection of Words from Herbert River

(g before i and a pronounced hard).
  • Allínkpa, we two.
  • Ámmery, hungry.
  • Ámmon, breast.
  • Átta [Moreton Bay and Rockhampton: atta], I.
  • Bággoro, sword, serpent-liver.
  • Bállan, moon.
  • Bámbo, egg.
  • Bámpa, distant.
  • Bátta, take.
  • Bémo, brother’s son.
  • Bínghan, foot, footprint.
  • Bínna, ear.
  • Boongary, Dendrolagus lumholtzii.
  • Bórboby, battle, duels.
  • Bórrogo, a variety of Pseudochirus.
  • Deerbera, to-morrow.
  • Dómbi-dómbi, woman.
  • Era, teeth.
  • Etaka, tuft.
  • Evin, Calamus australis.
  • Farínga, stone, rock.
  • Gangítta, handkerchief.
  • Gílgla [the l to be pronounced with thick palatal sound], cassowary.
  • G’rauan, Megapodius tumulus (bird, egg, nest).
  • -Go [suffix, Moreton Bay: -co], in regard to.
  • Gómbian, Echidna.
  • Góri, blood.
  • Hánka, whence?
  • Káddera, opossum (Irichosurus vulpecula).
  • Kádjera, Cycas media.
  • Kainno, to-day.
  • Kainno-kainno, well, sound.
  • Kakavagó, go.
  • Kalló, come on!
  • Kāmin, climbing implement.
  • Kāmo, water.
  • Kárbo, 3.
  • Kárri, remain.
  • Kawan, nausea.
  • Káwri, axe.
  • Kedool, cold.
  • Kelán, old man, sir [word of address].
  • Kóbi, arts of witchcraft.
  • Kóla [subst. and adj.], anger, angry.
  • Kólle, hush!
  • Komórbory, many, large multitude.
  • Kóna, excrements.
  • Kónka, unharmed, raw, not roasted.
  • Kóntagan, nice weather.
  • Kontáhberan, dark, dark night.
  • Koonduno, thunder.
  • Koráddan, a kind of fruit.
  • Koyílla, flame.
  • Králly, old.
  • Kuroonguy, thirsty.
  • Kootjary, Talegalla lathami.
  • Kvíkkal, Perameles nasuta.
  • Kvíngan, evil spirit, devil.
  • Mah,
  • Maja, not, no.
  • Mal [Moreton Bay: malar. Yelta: mallé], man, especially of a strange and hostile tribe.
  • Mállan, hand.
  • Mally, good, excellent.
  • Mami, master.
  • Mánta, membrum virile.
  • Manta korán, an oath of uncertain meaning, also a word of abuse.
  • Márbo, louse.
  • Márgin, gun.
  • Máwa, crawfish.
  • Mílka [verb], produce rain.
  • Míll, eye.
  • Minná [cf. Moreton Bay: menäh], how?
  • Minná-minnana-gó, how in the world?
  • 313Mítta, hut.
  • Mogil [Moreton Bay: magul], head.
  • Mólle, near.
  • Móngan, mountain.
  • Móngan, Pseudochirus herbertensis.
  • Móttai [verb and subst.], eat, food.
  • Móyo, anus.
  • Nahyee, no.
  • Naiko [verb], own.
  • Naklam [the l to be pronounced with thick palatal sound], little.
  • Ngallo, water.
  • Ngalloa, Dactylopsila trivirgata.
  • Nginta, you.
  • Ngipa, I.
  • Nongáshly, only.
  • Nili, girl.
  • Oito, jest.
  • Oonda, see.
  • Ōrupi, large.
  • Peera [subst. and adj.], fear, afraid.
  • Pipo [from the English], pipe.
  • Póka, hair; smell [Echuca: boka].
  • Pókkan, grass-land, grass.
  • Pul [verb], smell.
  • Púlli, flea.
  • Sinchen, rash, syphilis.
  • Suttúngo, tobacco.
  • Tággin, many, much, also the numeral 4.
  • Takólgoro [a word of exclamation], poor fellow!
  • Tálgoro, human flesh.
  • Tállan, tongue.
  • Tamin, fat.
  • Tchígga, sit.
  • Títyen, wallaby.
  • Tobola, a kind of fruit.
  • Tomóbero, cattle, meat.
  • Toollah, Pseudochirus archeri.
  • Toolgil, bone, bones.
  • Toolgin, scrub.
  • Toongna, drink.
  • Toongu, sweet.
  • Towdala, Orthonyx spaldingii.
  • Vákkun, coals.
  • Vaneera, hot.
  • Vee, sun.
  • Veera, a kind of fig which grows on grass-land.
  • Vikku, bad.
  • Víndcheh, snake.
  • Vómba, belly.
  • Vóndo, an edible root of a climbing plant.
  • Vooly [adj.], dead.
  • Vooroo, nose.
  • Vótel, sleep.
  • Vukka, thigh.
  • Wainta, where?
  • Yábby, Pseudochirus lemuroides.
  • Yákkan, 2.
  • Yálla, remain.
  • Yamina, a monster (p. 201).
  • Yanky, a kind of fig.
  • Yárri, Dasyurus.
  • Yári, honey.
  • Yeergilíngera, star.
  • Yókkan, fog, rain.
  • Yóngul, 1.
  • Yópolo, Hypsiprymnodon moschatus.
  • Men's Names.
  • Eergon.
  • Ganindály.
  • Góngola.
  • Kāl-Dúbbaroh.
  • Kawri.
  • Mángola-Mággi.
  • Mangóran.
  • Mawa.
  • Mórbora.
  • Nángo-Maddal.
  • Nílgora.
  • Píngaro.
  • Póko.
  • Yánky.
  • Yáwra.
  • Yókkai.
  • Women's Names.
  • Gónbaro.
  • Kélanmi.
  • Mólle-Mólle.
  • Olánga.
314

CHAPTER XXVII

Frozen meat—Again at Gracemere—Australian scenery—In a carriole—Hunting the dugong—Cosmopolitan quarters for the night—Cure for nervous diseases—Poisonous rabbits—Marry only a person with good teeth—Bush girls—Mount Morgan.

Frozen meat—Back at Gracemere—Australian landscape—In a carriage—Searching for the dugong—Diverse places to stay for the night—Treatment for anxiety—Toxic rabbits—Only marry someone with good teeth—Country girls—Mount Morgan.

THE FREEZING ESTABLISHMENT, LAKES CREEK, NEAR ROCKHAMPTON.

THE FREEZING ESTABLISHMENT, LAKES CREEK, NEAR ROCKHAMPTON.

After a voyage of a few days I arrived in safety at Gracemere. On the journey from Herbert river down the coast you pass two establishments for freezing meat for export, viz. Bowen and Rockhampton. This comparatively new industry in Australia has recently been largely developed, and is no doubt destined to become of great importance to the country, which will in this manner be able to dispose of its great 315surplus of meat. The largest amount is exported from New Zealand.

After a few days of travel, I safely arrived at Gracemere. On the way from Herbert River down the coast, you pass two meat freezing facilities for export: Bowen and Rockhampton. This relatively new industry in Australia has grown significantly recently and is likely to become very important to the country, allowing it to sell off its large surplus of meat. The majority of exports come from New Zealand.

Gracemere was now in its winter dress. How poor Central Queensland looks to a person coming from the charming tropics of Northern Queensland! But here in the south the genuine Australian landscape is found, the characteristic feature of which is the fantastical and the gloomy; solemn gum-trees, which lose their white bark in winter just as European trees shed their leaves, stiff grass-trees, solemn-looking acacias, can hardly give any charm to a landscape. And yet I have seen beautiful landscapes outside Northern Queensland, as for instance the fern-tree gully in Victoria, where the most splendid tree-ferns grow at the feet of the highest trees in the world. The views from the heights in the rear of the capital of South Australia across the wide Adelaide plains are very imposing, as are also those obtained on a journey across the Blue Mountains in New South Wales, especially where the windings of the Paramatta river are seen in the distance.

Gracemere was now dressed for winter. How dull Central Queensland looks to someone coming from the beautiful tropics of Northern Queensland! But here in the south, you find the true Australian landscape, which is both strange and somber; serious eucalyptus trees that lose their white bark in winter just like European trees drop their leaves, stiff grass-trees, and serious acacias hardly add any charm to the scenery. And yet, I’ve seen beautiful landscapes outside Northern Queensland, like the fern-tree gully in Victoria, where magnificent tree-ferns grow at the base of the tallest trees in the world. The views from the heights behind the capital of South Australia across the vast Adelaide plains are quite impressive, as are the sights on a journey across the Blue Mountains in New South Wales, especially where the twists and turns of the Parramatta River can be seen in the distance.

Though I enjoyed in a high degree the pleasure attendant upon a return to the comforts of civilisation, I soon began to make expeditions northward along the coast.

Though I really enjoyed the pleasure of returning to the comforts of civilization, I soon started making trips north along the coast.

On one occasion I was invited to take part in hunting the dugong (Halicore dugong). I set out in the latter part of August in a carriole (karjol) which the Archers many years ago had imported from Norway, and which probably is the only one of the kind in all Australia. A carriole requires a good road, for it easily upsets, on account of the short distance between the two wheels, but in the open woodlands of Australia it is possible to drive almost anywhere, if there are no fences, brooks, or other obstacles.

On one occasion, I was invited to join a dugong hunt (Halicore dugong). I set off in late August in a carriole (karjol) that the Archers had imported from Norway many years ago, which is likely the only one of its kind in all of Australia. A carriole needs a good road because it can easily tip over due to the short distance between the two wheels. However, in the open woodlands of Australia, you can drive almost anywhere as long as there are no fences, streams, or other obstacles.

After a journey of four days I arrived at Torilla, where preparations were at once made for the hunt. The first need was a boat. My host had only a small sailing boat given to him by some French Communists who had escaped from their confinement in New Caledonia and landed on his premises. One of these fugitives had been employed on the farm, and was an excellent carpenter. He undertook to repair the old rotten hulk, which had been lying on the bank of the river for a long time exposed to the sun and rain. It was a well-built 316boat with new sails and good masts, but in other respects it had seen its best days. The Frenchman went to work industriously, encouraged by the lady of the house, who promised him that he should be permitted to take part in the hunt, which in her mind was a guarantee that he would repair the boat properly. And after he had spent eight days in calking, rigging, and pitching the craft, he declared her seaworthy, and we at length put to sea. The crew consisted of my host, my English friend the squatter, the Frenchman, and myself. We were to take turns in baling.

After a four-day journey, I arrived in Torilla, where preparations for the hunt began immediately. The first priority was getting a boat. My host had a small sailing boat that some French Communists had given him after they escaped from confinement in New Caledonia and landed on his property. One of these escapees had worked on the farm and was a skilled carpenter. He offered to fix up the old, rotten hulk, which had been sitting on the riverbank for a long time, exposed to the sun and rain. It was a well-built boat with new sails and sturdy masts, but in other respects, it had seen better days. The Frenchman worked hard, motivated by the lady of the house, who promised him that he could join the hunt, which she believed would ensure he properly repaired the boat. After spending eight days caulking, rigging, and pitching the vessel, he declared it seaworthy, and we finally set off. The crew consisted of my host, my English friend the squatter, the Frenchman, and me. We would take turns bailing.

After a pleasant sail we reached an island late in the evening, and there we made our camp on the shore. We had taken drinking water with us. The old mangrove stems made an excellent fire, and the soft sand a pleasant bed. We also set fire to some tall grass, in order to give the signal to some blacks who had agreed to join us here.

After a nice sail, we arrived at an island late in the evening, and we set up our camp on the shore. We had brought drinking water with us. The old mangrove trunks made a great fire, and the soft sand provided a comfortable bed. We also ignited some tall grass to signal to some locals who had agreed to meet us here.

Early the next morning two natives, who were to assist us in hunting, came rowing in a canoe from the mainland. One of them paddled the canoe, while the other one kept baling out water with a large shell.

Early the next morning, two locals who were going to help us hunt arrived by canoe from the mainland. One of them paddled the canoe while the other bailed out water using a large shell.

The canoe of the natives here is made of three pieces of bark, one forming the bottom and two the sides. The pieces are sewed together with wood fibres, and there is nothing, by way of ribs, to keep the pieces of bark together; simply a small cross-piece to support the sides, nor are there rowlocks or rudder. There is only room for two, and as the water continually pours in, one man is occupied in baling, while the other paddles on the two sides alternately with a stick about two yards long.

The native canoe here is made from three pieces of bark: one for the bottom and two for the sides. The pieces are stitched together with plant fibers, and there are no ribs to hold the bark together, just a small cross-piece to support the sides. It doesn’t have rowlocks or a rudder. It can only fit two people, and since water constantly leaks in, one person bails out water while the other paddles on both sides with a stick about two yards long.

We took both the blacks and their canoe on board and started with full sail for Saltwater Bay. The difference between ebb and flood was here about twenty-eight feet. In Broad Sound, which lies a little farther to the north, the difference is said to be greater than anywhere else in the world—that is, about thirty-three feet.

We brought both the Black individuals and their canoe on board and set off with full sails for Saltwater Bay. The difference between low and high tide here is about twenty-eight feet. In Broad Sound, which is a bit further north, the difference is said to be greater than anywhere else in the world—around thirty-three feet.

Saltwater Bay is very shallow, and the large fields of mud that become visible at ebb-tide are covered with submarine Algæ. Here the dugong, the strange Australian seacow, seeks its food when the tide rises. In the innermost part of the bay we found a place for a camp; we rose early 317the next morning, and as soon as the water was deep enough rowed out. The blacks brought the implements to be used. The harpoon consists of two parts, the handle and spear, of which I give an illustration below. The point or spear is a piece of wire about eleven inches long, sharpened at one end, the other being enclosed in grass and wood fibre, forming a sort of knot which fits exactly into a hole in the handle so as to be held firmly in its place. To this knot a line is fastened. When the harpoon is thrown the point enters the animal, and at the same time the handle is set free and floats about on the water. This handle is a heavy wooden rod about three yards long.

Saltwater Bay is really shallow, and the large stretches of mud that appear at low tide are covered with underwater algae. Here, the dugong, the unusual Australian sea cow, searches for food when the tide comes in. In the innermost part of the bay, we found a spot to set up camp; we got up early the next morning, and as soon as the water was deep enough, we rowed out. The locals brought the tools we needed. The harpoon has two parts: the handle and the spear, which I’ll illustrate below. The spear is a piece of wire about eleven inches long, sharpened at one end, with the other end wrapped in grass and wood fibers, forming a knot that fits perfectly into a hole in the handle to keep it secure. A line is attached to this knot. When the harpoon is thrown, the point penetrates the animal, while the handle is released and floats on the water. This handle is a heavy wooden rod about three yards long.

A WIRE HARPOON POINT.

A wire harpoon tip.

A WOODEN PLUG.

A wooden stopper.

A WOODEN HARPOON POINT.

A wooden harpoon tip.

Although the point is without barbs, still it sticks fast in the dugong’s thick skin, as if the latter were made of gutta-percha. The point of the harpoon is bent into a hook the moment the animal starts away, and when, from 318tugging at the canoe, it has become sufficiently exhausted, it is finally towed up to the boat and its nostrils adroitly closed with wooden plugs, and thus it is choked. Before the natives in this part of Australia had come in contact with Europeans and had learned the value of iron, they used barbed harpoon points made of wood. The manner in which the natives catch the dugong shows more thought and reflection than we would expect from savages so low in the scale of development as the Australian aborigines. The fact that the black man, lazy as he is by nature, will submit to all the toil necessary to capture the animal is proof of the great value he puts upon its flesh and fat.

Although the point is without barbs, it still sticks firmly in the dugong’s thick skin, as if it were made of gutta-percha. The point of the harpoon bends into a hook the moment the animal takes off, and when it has tugged at the canoe enough to become exhausted, it is finally pulled up to the boat, and its nostrils are skillfully closed with wooden plugs, effectively choking it. Before the natives in this part of Australia interacted with Europeans and learned the value of iron, they used barbed harpoon points made of wood. The way the natives catch the dugong demonstrates more thought and planning than we might expect from people considered less developed, like the Australian aborigines. The fact that the black man, naturally lazy as he is, will endure all the effort needed to catch the animal shows how much he values its flesh and fat.

As we sailed across the bay before a light breeze our natives did not fail to discover a large amount of loose grass floating on the water, positive evidence that the dugong was not far away. Nor did many moments pass before the man keeping watch in the stern of the boat called out: Parábela, parábela!—that is, Dugong, dugong! We sent the blacks out in their own canoe. One of them seized the baling-shell, while the other put his long spear and his lines in order, and so they rowed softly out among the animals, which kept coming nearer and nearer. We remained as quiet as possible in the distance and witnessed the scene before us with the deepest interest.

As we sailed across the bay in a light breeze, our local guides quickly spotted a large patch of loose grass floating on the water, clear evidence that the dugong was nearby. It wasn’t long before the lookout at the back of the boat shouted: Parábela, parábela!—that is, Dugong, dugong! We sent the locals out in their own canoe. One of them grabbed the baling-shell, while the other got his long spear and lines ready, and they quietly rowed out among the animals, which kept getting closer. We stayed as quiet as possible in the distance and watched the scene unfold with great interest.

More than fifty dugongs were approaching, and one or two came within a few yards of our boat. They frequently raised their heads above the water to get breath; making a heavy loud expiration, and then, with a quick inspiration, they again disappeared in the deep.

More than fifty dugongs were swimming toward us, and one or two came within a few yards of our boat. They often lifted their heads out of the water to catch their breath; letting out a loud, heavy exhale, and then, with a quick inhale, they disappeared back into the depths.

The blacks kept rowing among them in order to select a suitable victim. At length the spear leaves the unerring hand of the black hunter. A great splash in the water shows that the harpoon has not missed its aim. The animal is pierced by a second harpoon and starts off with two lines. After half an hour it is so exhausted that it can be brought up to the canoe, where its nostrils are plugged.

The hunters kept paddling around to find a suitable target. Finally, the spear flies from the skilled hand of the hunter. A big splash in the water indicates that the harpoon has hit its mark. The animal gets struck by a second harpoon and swims off with two lines attached. After about half an hour, it is so worn out that it can be pulled up to the canoe, where its nostrils are blocked.

By uniting our efforts we at length succeeded in bringing the animal into our boat. Although it was a mere calf, it was no easy matter to get it on board.

By working together, we finally managed to get the animal into our boat. Even though it was just a calf, it wasn't easy to haul it on board.

We took the blacks into our boat and set sail so as to reach 319our camp at the head of the bay before the water became too shallow. It was a touching sight to see the mother of the slain animal following us for a long time, swimming to and fro near the boat for half an hour and then going away.

We brought the Black people into our boat and set off to reach our camp at the top of the bay before the water got too shallow. It was a moving sight to see the mother of the killed animal following us for a long time, swimming back and forth near the boat for half an hour before finally leaving.

We brought our game safe ashore, and at once began to skin it. In the meantime the blacks were cooking a gray mullet (Mugil), which has an excellent flavour. They fried it in fat from the dugong, and this, accompanied by a glass of whisky, formed an excellent meal. The successful hunt put us in the best of spirits. The squatter jokingly proposed that we, like the blacks, should anoint our bodies with dugong oil and dance a korroboree all night through. The Frenchman, our cook, was as happy as a lark, and was quite in his element when some of the most tender parts of the dugong were placed over the coals to roast.

We brought our game safely to shore and immediately started to skin it. Meanwhile, the locals were cooking a gray mullet (Mugil), which tastes great. They fried it in dugong fat, and paired with a glass of whiskey, it made for a fantastic meal. The successful hunt lifted our spirits. The squatter jokingly suggested that we, like the locals, should rub dugong oil on our bodies and dance a korroboree all night long. Our cook, the Frenchman, was extremely happy and in his element when some of the tenderest parts of the dugong were put over the coals to roast.

THE DUGONG, OR AUSTRALIAN SEA-COW (Halicore dugong).

THE DUGONG, OR AUSTRALIAN SEA-COW (Halicore dugong).

The meat had an exceedingly delicate flavour, and tasted like something midway between veal and pork, but far better than either. The squatter imagined himself in Paris, and was reminded of the Hôtel du Louvre, where he had spent many a day of his earlier life.

The meat had an incredibly delicate flavor and tasted like a mix between veal and pork, but way better than both. The squatter pictured himself in Paris and thought of the Hôtel du Louvre, where he had spent many days of his earlier life.

My host and myself were busy preparing the skin. The blacks were in the best of spirits. They fried and ate as much of the meat as they pleased, and thereupon an unlimited 320supply of tobacco was placed at their disposal. When night set in, our camp presented a most picturesque appearance. Three large camp fires blazed among the gum-trees, the columns of smoke ascended in the calm evening, and the stars glittered over a company as wide apart in tastes and interests as in nationality, but all gay and happy: one Englishman, a white Australian, a Frenchman, a Norseman, and two Australian blacks.

My host and I were busy prepping the skin. The locals were in great spirits. They fried and enjoyed as much meat as they wanted, and then we provided them with an endless supply of tobacco. When night fell, our camp looked incredibly picturesque. Three large campfires blazed among the gum trees, the smoke rising softly into the calm evening air, and the stars twinkled above a group that, despite our different tastes and backgrounds, was all cheerful and happy: one Englishman, a white Australian, a Frenchman, a Norseman, and two black Australians.

The dugong has become widely known on account of its fat, which even several years ago was found to be an excellent remedy for consumption and nervous prostration. A physician in Brisbane found it difficult to procure cod-liver oil from Europe for his patients, and so he determined to try the fat of the dugong. He boiled it into an oil, of which the medicinal qualities were found to be most remarkable. Near Brisbane a dugong-fishing establishment was started and a number of black harpoonists were employed. Dugong oil fetched a high price, but unfortunately it soon became adulterated with shark-liver oil and similar fats. Its reputation fell, and the market was destroyed. There was also a large demand for skeletons to supply all the museums of the world.

The dugong has become well-known because of its fat, which, even a few years ago, was discovered to be a great remedy for tuberculosis and nervous exhaustion. A doctor in Brisbane found it hard to get cod-liver oil from Europe for his patients, so he decided to try dugong fat. He boiled it down to make an oil that had remarkable medicinal properties. Near Brisbane, a dugong fishing operation was started, and several Black harpoon fishermen were hired. Dugong oil sold for a high price, but unfortunately, it was soon mixed with shark-liver oil and other similar fats, which hurt its reputation and ruined the market. There was also a big demand for dugong skeletons to supply museums around the world.

The fat used for medicinal purposes is taken from the sides, and the oil, which is almost as clear as water, is absolutely tasteless. As the animals have become very scarce, and as they, moreover, are very shy, the oil is naturally very expensive. This fact is greatly to be deplored, for its nourishing and nerve-invigorating qualities can scarcely be over-estimated. There are most remarkable instances on record of its having cured nervousness, and according to the report of Dr. Hobbs it must be credited with being in all respects superior to cod-liver oil. I am familiar by experience with the excellent effect of both on the nervous system, and although I greatly prefer the dugong oil, still, as we have in cod-liver oil so good a substitute for it, I cannot but regret that the value of this kind of food is not appreciated more than it is. Is it not possible that we here have a cure for the overworked nerves of our time? Unfortunately most people have a dislike to cod-liver oil, which is in part attributable to the poor preparation of former times and in 321part to the fact that it is rarely obtained fresh. Nowadays conscientious manufacturers produce an article having, when in good condition, the flavour of fresh cod-liver oil, which by the majority of people is looked upon as a delicacy. It now only remains to find some way of preserving that flavour of the oil.

The fat used for medicinal purposes comes from the sides, and the oil, which is nearly as clear as water, is completely tasteless. As these animals have become very rare and are also quite elusive, the oil is understandably very expensive. This is regrettable, as its nourishing and nerve-strengthening properties are invaluable. There are remarkable cases on record of it curing nervousness, and according to Dr. Hobbs, it is considered superior to cod-liver oil in every way. I’ve seen the positive effects of both on the nervous system, and while I greatly prefer dugong oil, I must still acknowledge that we have a good substitute in cod-liver oil, which makes me wish the value of this type of nourishment was more recognized. Could this be the solution for our modern overstressed nerves? Sadly, many people dislike cod-liver oil, partly due to the poor preparation methods of the past and partly because it’s rarely obtained fresh. These days, dedicated manufacturers produce a version that, when in good condition, tastes like fresh cod-liver oil, which many consider a delicacy. Now we just need to figure out how to keep that flavor intact.

At present there are two dugong-fishing establishments in Queensland, both on the east coast, but they are not managed with sufficient energy, and the result is that cod-liver oil is used more extensively than dugong oil. The fact that the animals move from one place to another, and have to be followed by the fishermen, makes the capture of the dugong very difficult. The fishing is carried on mainly by very strong nets, in which the animals are caught when they return, with the ebb-tide, from their pasture grounds on the shoals to deep water. The dugong is not found south of Moreton Bay, but is plentiful everywhere north of it, particularly in the Gulf of Carpentaria. It is also found in the Mozambique Channel and in the Indian Ocean, and the Malayans are said to be skilful in harpooning it. Besides the oil, the skin of the dugong, which is an inch thick, is also very valuable, as it is made into a gelatine or into strong leather. The bones, which are very heavy, may be used as a substitute for ivory.

Currently, there are two dugong-fishing operations in Queensland, both located on the east coast, but they are not run with enough energy, leading to cod-liver oil being used more often than dugong oil. The fact that these animals move around and have to be tracked by fishermen makes catching them quite challenging. Fishing is primarily done using very strong nets, which trap the dugongs as they return with the ebb tide from their grazing areas on the shoals to deeper waters. The dugong isn’t found south of Moreton Bay but is abundant everywhere north of it, especially in the Gulf of Carpentaria. It can also be seen in the Mozambique Channel and the Indian Ocean, and the Malaysians are reputed to be skilled at harpooning them. Besides the oil, the dugong's skin, which is an inch thick, is also really valuable, as it can be turned into gelatin or strong leather. The heavy bones can be used as a substitute for ivory.

It is said that the dugong mother constantly holds fast to her young with her pectorals, and in ancient times this gave rise to the traditions about sirens or mermaids. The Dutchman called the dugong baardmannetje, i.e. the little bearded man.

It’s said that a dugong mother always keeps her young close with her flippers, and in ancient times, this inspired the legends of sirens or mermaids. The Dutch referred to the dugong as baardmannetje, i.e. the little bearded man.

The next morning, while I was putting the finishing touches to the preparation of my skin, I heard the squatter cry out, “Here! the boat is sinking!” We all ran to see what was the matter, and we discovered our boat on the point of being swallowed by the waves, and my two bottles of alcohol floating in the water. There was no actual danger of the boat being lost, for the water was shallow, but the tide was now rising with the force of a river, so that it was not long before only the masts of our boat were visible. As there were traces of crocodiles to be seen everywhere on the strand, one of us took a rifle in order to keep guard, while 322the rest tried to save the boat, which after wading in mud up to our waists, we finally succeeded in doing.

The next morning, as I was finishing my skincare routine, I heard the squatter yell, “Hey! The boat is sinking!” We all rushed over to see what was happening and found our boat almost submerged by the waves, with my two bottles of alcohol floating in the water. There wasn’t any real danger of losing the boat since the water was shallow, but the tide was rising like a river, and soon only the masts of our boat were visible. Since there were signs of crocodiles everywhere on the shore, one of us grabbed a rifle to keep watch while the rest of us worked to save the boat. After wading through mud up to our waists, we finally managed to do it.

It was impossible to secure a full-grown dugong, for our lines were not strong enough, and we therefore started on our journey home again. The next night we made our camp on an island, and the squatter at once went out to shoot rabbits with his rifle. The rabbits had been placed on this island a few years previously, and although there was no fresh water excepting when it rained, still they throve very well, and had greatly increased in numbers. Strange to say, these rabbits are said to be poisonous, doubtless on account of the food on which they are obliged to subsist. The squatter informed me that a year ago he had visited this island and shot some of these animals, which were roasted and eaten, but had made both him and his companions ill.

It was impossible to catch a full-grown dugong because our lines weren't strong enough, so we started our journey home again. That night, we set up camp on an island, and the squatter immediately went out to hunt rabbits with his rifle. These rabbits had been introduced to the island a few years earlier, and although there was no fresh water except when it rained, they thrived and significantly increased in number. Strangely enough, these rabbits are said to be poisonous, likely due to their diet. The squatter told me that a year ago he had visited this island and shot some of these animals, which were cooked and eaten, but it made both him and his companions sick.

A large number of Australian plum-trees were found on this island. We shot a mound-builder and several pigeons. The next morning the blacks left us, and we continued our sail home. On the coast we saw large numbers of rock-oysters. It happened to be ebb-tide and there were three large peninsulas, like a yellow-brown mass, entirely covered with these fine-flavoured shell-fish.

A lot of Australian plum trees were found on this island. We hunted a mound-builder and a few pigeons. The next morning, the locals left us, and we continued our sail home. Along the coast, we saw a ton of rock oysters. It was low tide, and there were three large peninsulas, looking like a yellow-brown mass, completely covered with these tasty shellfish.

I remained a few days longer with my most amiable hosts at Torilla. The lady of the house was a very intelligent woman. Her parents had taught her Greek and Hebrew in order to enable her to read both the Old and the New Testament in the original tongue. Though she was well versed in both languages, she was no blue-stocking, but a very practical woman. She gave her daughter the very prudent advice, “Never you marry a bad breakfast-man.” The first thing she noticed in a man was his teeth. If these were sound, the rest of the body was sure to be right—a sound mind in a healthy body. Like the majority of Australian ladies, the daughter was natural and free from affectation. She took a deep interest in zoology, and was an industrious collector of specimens. On her solitary excursions she did not hesitate to climb trees after birds’ eggs, and she complained bitterly that the men were too lazy to help her. The ladies who are brought up in the Australian bush have, upon the whole, a peculiar frankness and independence, for from their very childhood they have to rely on themselves. Another “bush girl” of my acquaintance rode thirty miles to try on a dress.

I stayed a few more days with my lovely hosts at Torilla. The lady of the house was very intelligent. Her parents had taught her Greek and Hebrew so she could read both the Old and New Testaments in the original language. Although she was fluent in both languages, she wasn't a bookworm; she was a very practical woman. She gave her daughter the wise advice, “Never marry a man who doesn't make a good breakfast.” The first thing she noticed in a guy was his teeth. If those were good, the rest of him was likely in good shape too—a sound mind in a healthy body. Like most Australian women, the daughter was straightforward and down-to-earth. She was really interested in zoology and was a dedicated specimen collector. During her solo outings, she didn't hesitate to climb trees for birds' eggs and she often complained that the men were too lazy to help her. Women raised in the Australian bush tend to have a unique frankness and independence, as they've had to rely on themselves from a young age. Another “bush girl” I know even rode thirty miles just to try on a dress.

NEAR THE COAST OF CENTRAL QUEENSLAND. JABIRU IN THE FOREGROUND.

NEAR THE COAST OF CENTRAL QUEENSLAND. JABIRU IN THE FOREGROUND.

323The whole family at Torilla were excellent riders, and had the reputation of being the best in Queensland. An unmanageable horse at the station had thrown both his master and mistress, nearly killing them, but they nevertheless continued to care for the animal with the greatest tenderness, a proof of the great sympathy an Australian feels for his horse.

323The whole family at Torilla were great riders and were known as the best in Queensland. A wild horse at the station had thrown both its owner and his partner, almost injuring them badly, but they still took care of the horse with much love, showing the strong bond Australians have with their horses.

On my way back to Gracemere I saw a large number of wading birds in the lagoons. I took special notice of the splendid Australian jabiru (Mycteria australis), and I had the good fortune to shoot on the wing a specimen of this beautiful variety of the stork family with swan shot at a distance of no less than 127 paces.

On my way back to Gracemere, I spotted a lot of wading birds in the lagoons. I particularly noted the impressive Australian jabiru (Mycteria australis), and I was lucky enough to take a shot at a flying specimen of this beautiful stork variety using swan shot from a distance of 127 paces.

I passed the oldest gold mine in Queensland, called Canoona Diggings, but the place was now almost entirely abandoned. Here I met a Dane, who was very kind to me. He had been in the gold mines since their discovery, about thirty years ago, and in spite of the fact that both he and his family had to work hard for a living, they looked healthy and contented.

I passed the oldest gold mine in Queensland, called Canoona Diggings, but the place was now almost completely deserted. Here I met a Dane who was really kind to me. He had been working in the gold mines since they were discovered, around thirty years ago, and even though he and his family had to work hard to make ends meet, they looked healthy and happy.

It is a great mistake to suppose that digging gold is easy work. As everybody knows, “nuggets of gold” are scarce. Most of the gold is found as fine grains, and requires great labour to separate it from the gravel, which in this case had to be hauled a great distance to the only place where water was to be found in the whole region. Here the water was pumped up from a deep well by horse power. This is the so-called alluvial gold. Gold in quartz has to be worked by mining and by costly crushing machines, in the construction of which a fortune must be spent before any pure ore can be secured. Most of the gold is now produced in the latter manner in Australia.

It’s a big mistake to think that digging for gold is easy work. As everyone knows, “nuggets of gold” are rare. Most gold is found as tiny grains, which require a lot of effort to separate from the gravel. In this case, the gravel had to be transported a long distance to the only place in the area where water could be found. Here, the water was pumped from a deep well using horse power. This is what’s known as alluvial gold. Gold found in quartz needs to be mined and processed with expensive crushing machines, which require a significant investment before any pure ore can be obtained. Most of the gold is currently produced in this way in Australia.

I watered my horse at the pump of the gold digger, said good-bye to the kind people, and continued my journey down along Fitzroy river.

I watered my horse at the gold digger's pump, said goodbye to the kind folks, and continued my journey down the Fitzroy River.

The country along the lower part of this river is very rich in gold. Farther east, near Rockhampton, a whole 324gold-bearing mountain was discovered in 1884—Mount Morgan, which at present is the richest gold bed in the whole world, and has made Queensland the first gold-producing colony of Australia. It is also a remarkable fact that the gold here appears in an entirely new form. Mount Morgan, which is about 300 feet high, has been produced in the tertiary period by a hot spring, which may have resembled the geysers of Iceland or the hot springs of Yellowstone Park. It is formed of siliceous sinter, with some limonite and clayey substances, and the gold is distributed throughout the rocky mass. This discovery has made the owners immensely rich; the value of some of the original shares exceeding one and a half million pounds. One of my friends who bought a share for £1000 has now made out of this an income of more than £2000 a year. By boring it has been demonstrated that the gold increases in quantity with the depth, so that there seems to be no end of this fabulous wealth. No wonder that it has attracted the attention of speculators in every part of the world.

The area along the lower part of this river is very rich in gold. Further east, near Rockhampton, a gold-rich mountain was discovered in 1884—Mount Morgan, which is currently the richest gold deposit in the world and has made Queensland the top gold-producing colony in Australia. It's also noteworthy that the gold here appears in a completely new form. Mount Morgan, standing about 300 feet high, was formed during the tertiary period by a hot spring, which might have been similar to the geysers in Iceland or the hot springs in Yellowstone Park. It consists of siliceous sinter, with some limonite and clay, and the gold is spread throughout the rocky mass. This discovery has made the owners incredibly wealthy; the value of some of the original shares has exceeded one and a half million pounds. A friend of mine who bought a share for £1000 is now earning over £2000 a year from it. Boring has shown that the gold quantity increases with depth, suggesting that this amazing wealth seems endless. It's no surprise that it has caught the attention of speculators from all over the world.

At the present time the weekly output of ore is 1500 tons. The average yield is 6 ounces per ton, and accordingly £36,000 of pure gold is produced per week.

At present, the weekly output of ore is 1,500 tons. The average yield is 6 ounces per ton, so £36,000 of pure gold is produced each week.

This great find of gold is interesting, both from a theoretical and from a practical point of view. It shows that gold-bearing siliceous sinter can be the result of volcanic agencies, and that there is a hope that gold may yet be found in formations that have hitherto been regarded as worthless.

This amazing discovery of gold is fascinating, both theoretically and practically. It demonstrates that gold-bearing siliceous sinter can result from volcanic activity, and it suggests that there is a possibility of finding gold in formations that have previously been considered worthless.

MOUNT MORGAN GOLD MINE.

Mount Morgan Gold Mine.

325

CHAPTER XXVIII

A family of zoologists—Flesh-eating kangaroos—How the ant-eater propagates—Civilised natives—Weapons and implements—Civilisation and demoralisation.

A family of zoologists—Flesh-eating kangaroos—How the ant-eater reproduces—Civilized natives—Weapons and tools—Civilization and demoralization.

Nephrurus asper.

Nephrurus asper.

Some time afterwards I made a journey to the west to a station owned by Mr. Barnard, and bearing the strange name Coomooboolaroo. The family of the squatter was particularly interested in natural history, an interest I had observed in several places, but rarely so marked as here. Mr. Barnard himself was a very able entomologist, and possessed a fine collection of insects, which he was constantly increasing. His wife was a great help to him, and made excellent drawings of the specimens. Their four sons had a similar taste, and they added to the family museum many valuable specimens. Upon the whole, these boys were the most skilful collectors I have ever met. They accompanied me on many excursions into the woods, when we camped together, and on such occasions I had the best opportunity of witnessing their matchless skill.

Some time later, I took a trip west to a station owned by Mr. Barnard, which had the unusual name Coomooboolaroo. The squatter's family was especially interested in natural history, a passion I've noticed in many places, but rarely as pronounced as here. Mr. Barnard was a very skilled entomologist and had an impressive collection of insects that he was always expanding. His wife was a huge help, creating excellent drawings of the specimens. Their four sons shared the same interest and contributed numerous valuable specimens to the family museum. Overall, these boys were the most skilled collectors I've ever encountered. They joined me on many trips into the woods where we camped together, and during those times, I got the best chance to see their unmatched skill in action.

They climbed the trees as easily as any black man. When they had their tomahawks in their hands no tree was too high for them. Like the blacks, they cut niches in the bark for the support of their toes, and in this way they were able to secure insects found only in the highest tree-tops.

They climbed the trees as effortlessly as anyone else. With their tomahawks in hand, no tree was too tall for them. Like others, they carved notches in the bark to support their toes, allowing them to reach insects that could only be found in the highest treetops.

326They were always barefooted, in order to get about more easily, and the stones and uneven ground gave them no trouble on our excursions, as they planted their supple and sure feet in the most difficult places. Ever on the alert, nothing escaped their attention. Even when they stood ready to fire their guns, they would suddenly start off to catch an insect flying by; and in the woods they were able to seize with their hands, while running, one beetle after the other that came flying past.

326They were always barefoot so they could move around more easily, and the stones and uneven ground didn't bother them during our trips, as they placed their flexible and confident feet in the trickiest spots. Always alert, nothing went unnoticed by them. Even when they were poised to shoot their guns, they would suddenly dash off to catch an insect buzzing by; and in the woods, they could grab one beetle after another with their hands while running as they flew past.

Their keen faculty of observation astonished me again and again. They studied the life and habits of animals, and gave me much valuable information, for they knew the fauna of the locality perfectly. They did not confine themselves to the neighbourhood of the station. Their father sometimes sent them on long expeditions, and they invariably returned with large collections.

Their sharp observation skills amazed me time and time again. They studied the lives and habits of animals and provided me with a lot of valuable information since they knew the local wildlife inside and out. They didn’t limit themselves to just the area around the station. Their father sometimes sent them on lengthy trips, and they always came back with large collections.

There were many brush-turkeys (Talegalla lathami) in this region. So far as I am aware, it has not hitherto been known how the young of this bird work their way out of the peculiar mound in which the eggs are laid to be hatched by artificial heat, after the custom of the megapodidæ. Mr. Barnard thinks he has found this out. His sons had at one time brought home some eggs from such a mound made of earth and decayed plants. Two of them were laid under a hen, but rotted away. One egg he placed in a heap of goats’ manure near his house. When a few days later he went to look after the egg, and carefully removed the covering, he at once discovered the fact that a little bird was lying on its back and trying to work its way out of the heap of manure. It had already reached to within two inches of the surface.

There were many brush-turkeys (Talegalla lathami) in this region. As far as I know, it hasn't been previously understood how the chicks of this bird manage to emerge from the unique mound where the eggs are laid to be hatched using artificial heat, following the megapodidæ tradition. Mr. Barnard believes he has figured this out. His sons once brought home some eggs from such a mound made of soil and decayed plants. Two of the eggs were placed under a hen but ended up rotting. One egg he put in a pile of goat manure near his house. When he checked on the egg a few days later and carefully removed the covering, he immediately found a little bird lying on its back and trying to dig its way out of the manure pile. It had already made it within two inches of the surface.

His sons had also, in digging for talegalla eggs, observed young birds lying on their backs and trying to work their way out with their feet. The material of the mound seems to be more loosely put together at the bottom than at the top, where it is made of coarser stuff.

His sons had also, while searching for talegalla eggs, seen young birds lying on their backs and trying to push their way out with their feet. The material of the mound seems to be packed more loosely at the bottom than at the top, where it’s made of rougher material.

At a station in the neighbourhood there was a tame male talegalla which lived with the hens. It was in the habit of chasing them together into a little grove near the house, and the proprietor of the station was convinced that the 327bird in this manner was trying to compel the hens to build a mound. When the hens, not understanding what was expected of them, ran away, the talegalla would chase them back into the grove, and at last he became so troublesome that it was found necessary to shoot him.

At a nearby station, there was a tame male talegalla that lived with the hens. It often herded them into a small grove near the house, and the owner of the station believed the bird was trying to get the hens to build a mound. When the hens, not knowing what was expected of them, ran away, the talegalla would chase them back into the grove. Eventually, he became so annoying that it was decided he had to be shot.

Near Fairfield, close to the station, my young assistants found, in the month of September, nests belonging to the beautiful Australian parrot Platycercus pulcherrimus. Usually the nests were several miles apart. The eggs were partly hatched. The strange fact about these nests is that they are built in the hills of “the white ants.” There is an irregular entrance about two inches in diameter and about a foot above the ground. In the interior the parrot makes an opening about a foot high and two or three feet in diameter. None of the building material is carried away, but all the cells and canals are trampled down, so that there remains simply a wall one or two inches thick around the whole nest. Here the female lays five white eggs.

Near Fairfield, close to the station, my young assistants found, in September, nests belonging to the beautiful Australian parrot Platycercus pulcherrimus. Usually, the nests were several miles apart. The eggs were partially hatched. What's unusual about these nests is that they are built in the hills of "the white ants." There’s an irregular entrance about two inches in diameter and about a foot above the ground. Inside, the parrot creates an opening about a foot high and two or three feet wide. None of the building materials are removed, but all the cells and tunnels are pressed down, leaving just a wall one or two inches thick around the nest. Here, the female lays five white eggs.

In this locality there were countless kangaroos. Though these animals are really harmless, still the colonists keep at a respectful distance from an old kangaroo which has been driven to a tree by the dogs. This is not surprising, when we learn that in a sitting posture it may attain a height of six to seven feet. A specimen measuring eight feet has been shot. It is said that the male marsupials, particularly kangaroos, continue to grow as long as they live. The kangaroos never make an attack, but I know of instances when this animal has given proof not only of its strength but also of its fearlessness.

In this area, there were countless kangaroos. Although these animals are actually harmless, the colonists still keep a respectful distance from an old kangaroo that has been cornered by dogs. This isn't surprising when we find out that when sitting, it can reach a height of six to seven feet. A specimen measuring eight feet has been shot. It's said that male marsupials, especially kangaroos, keep growing throughout their lives. Kangaroos never attack, but I know of cases where this animal has shown both its strength and its fearlessness.

Mr. Barnard informed me that his dogs were one day chasing an old kangaroo when an ox-driver happened to be passing with his waggon. At the sight of the animal the man ran behind his waggon to avoid the kangaroo, which was advancing toward him, but when it came near the ox-driver it made a jump sideways, seized him, and carried him about twelve paces, until the dogs compelled the powerful animal to let go of its victim.

Mr. Barnard told me that his dogs were once chasing an old kangaroo when an ox-driver happened to be passing by with his wagon. When he saw the kangaroo, the man ran behind his wagon to get out of the way, but as the kangaroo got closer, it jumped to the side, grabbed him, and dragged him about twelve paces until the dogs forced the strong animal to let go of its catch.

A stalwart Highland shepherd was on his way home one evening with his dog, when suddenly he discovered a large object in front of him. Having lately come to Australia 328he had scarcely seen one of these animals before, and being very superstitious, he thought it was the devil himself. Meanwhile his dog attacked the monster, but instead of taking flight it assumed the form of a great kangaroo, came up to the shepherd, put its large arms around him, and hopped away with him. The dog pursued the bold robber until the latter let go of its victim, after having carried him ten to twelve paces.

A sturdy Highland shepherd was heading home one evening with his dog when he suddenly spotted a large creature in front of him. Having recently arrived in Australia, he had hardly ever seen one of these animals before, and being very superstitious, he thought it was the devil himself. Meanwhile, his dog attacked the beast, but instead of fleeing, it transformed into a huge kangaroo, approached the shepherd, wrapped its big arms around him, and hopped away with him. The dog chased the daring thief until it finally released its victim, having carried him ten to twelve paces.

On another occasion, when Mr. Barnard was out riding with some of his friends, he met an “old man kangaroo.” One of the company galloped after it and struck it several times with his whip, so as to compel it to sit down and thus be more easily subdued; but suddenly the kangaroo turned, clasped its arms round the neck of the horse, so that it was hanging with its breast against the head of the horse. In this position the kangaroo made desperate efforts to rip the horse’s belly open with its large claw, while the horse, on the other hand, leapt about frantically to get rid of its unwelcome embraces. That it was difficult for the rider to keep his place in the saddle it is not necessary to state. The scene was so comical that his companions were hardly able to give him the necessary assistance as soon as they ought to have done.

On another occasion, when Mr. Barnard was out riding with some friends, he encountered an "old man kangaroo." One of the group galloped after it and hit it several times with his whip to force it to sit down and make it easier to catch. But suddenly, the kangaroo turned, wrapped its arms around the horse’s neck, and hung there with its chest against the horse's head. In this position, the kangaroo desperately tried to rip open the horse’s belly with its large claw, while the horse, in turn, jumped around frantically to shake off its unwanted grip. It goes without saying that it was hard for the rider to stay in the saddle. The scene was so funny that his companions could hardly provide the help he needed as quickly as they should have.

When a kangaroo with a big young one in its pouch is pursued, it will throw it out of the pouch in order to make its escape easier. This done, the mother runs in a zigzag direction, probably to draw the attention of the pursuer away from the young, which lies perfectly still where it is dropped. A kangaroo never carries different broods in its pouch; but a well-grown one may often be seen following its mother while she is carrying a little one in her pouch.

When a kangaroo with a large joey in its pouch is chased, it will toss it out to make its escape easier. After doing this, the mother hops in a zigzag pattern, likely to distract the pursuer from the baby, which stays completely still where it was dropped. A kangaroo never carries multiple broods in its pouch, but an older joey can often be seen following its mother while she’s carrying a smaller one in her pouch.

I am able to relate, as a most remarkable fact, that a wallaroo, a peculiar kind of kangaroo (Macropus robustus), which was kept tame at a station, showed a marked fondness for animal food, particularly for boiled salt beef. A dove had been its companion, and these two animals were the best of friends for half a year, when the wallaroo one day killed its companion and partly ate it. This wallaroo had been captured while young, and had been brought up on milk, bread, and fresh grass. As an analogous circumstance I may 329mention that rabbits which have been brought up together with chickens have killed the latter and eaten some of their flesh.

I can share an interesting fact that a wallaroo, a unique type of kangaroo (Macropus robustus), which was raised tame at a station, had a strong preference for animal food, especially boiled salted beef. It had a dove as its companion, and they were the best of friends for six months until one day, the wallaroo killed its friend and partially ate it. This wallaroo had been captured when it was young and raised on milk, bread, and fresh grass. As a similar case, I can mention that rabbits raised alongside chickens have also killed and eaten some of them. 329

I brought many interesting things from my sojourn at Coomooboolaroo, among others a fine collection of Buprestidæ. The strange-looking lizard at the beginning of this chapter, Nephrurus asper, and the Bolboceras rhinoceros, given on a separate plate, are also from this locality. In the evenings a number of insects usually came flying into the house, attracted by the light, and in this manner I caught this rare beetle and many other specimens. On the ground near the station there were large flocks of cockatoos. With their powerful beaks they dug up roots of a grass (Panicum semialatum) of which they are very fond. It interested me to observe that among the many kinds of grass, so similar in appearance that a superficial observer would take them to be identical, the cockatoos never failed to find at once the one they wanted. One day the rare hawk variety Astur radiatus was shot near the station while it was consuming a white cockatoo it had caught. The nest, found close by in the top of a high Moreton Bay ash, resembled the nests of other hawks, and contained two eggs, of a dirty white colour, with a few irregular light brown marks (length 2⁵⁄₁₆ inches, breadth 1¹⁵⁄₁₆ inch).

I brought back a lot of interesting stuff from my stay at Coomooboolaroo, including a great collection of Buprestidæ. The unusual-looking lizard at the start of this chapter, Nephrurus asper, and the Bolboceras rhinoceros, shown on a separate plate, also come from this area. In the evenings, a bunch of insects usually flew into the house, drawn by the light, and this is how I caught this rare beetle along with many other specimens. On the ground near the station, there were large groups of cockatoos. With their strong beaks, they dug up the roots of a grass (Panicum semialatum) that they really like. I found it fascinating that among the many types of grass, which looked so similar that a casual observer would think they were the same, the cockatoos could always quickly identify the one they wanted. One day, the rare hawk variety Astur radiatus was shot near the station while it was eating a white cockatoo it had caught. The nest found nearby in the top of a tall Moreton Bay ash looked like other hawk nests and contained two dirty white eggs with a few irregular light brown spots (length 2⁵⁄₁₆ inches, breadth 1¹⁵⁾₁₆ inch).

One of my chief occupations during these days was the study of the spiny ant-eaters’ mode of propagation. One of my young friends at the station and a black man had found a spiny ant-eater (Echidna), from whose pouch they took an egg which, according to their description, was not quite half the size of a hen’s egg, and the shell of which was like leather and resembled that of an “iguana” egg. This egg, however, had been destroyed, and so I resolved to do all in my power to investigate the matter, and had a large number of ant-eaters examined. My investigations extended from the beginning of February to the middle of March, and I made the observation that the ovaries were constantly growing in size during this time. As I had to leave Australia at the end of March, I unfortunately was unable to continue my observations to the end of the development, but still I came to the conclusion that the reports I had received from the blacks corresponded with the facts, as has since 330been demonstrated in other quarters. According to the statements of the blacks, the ant-eaters were to have young in April or May. The nearly mature eggs, lying in the ovaries and taken from a full-grown specimen, in the beginning of March measured about ⅑ of an inch[21] in diameter. The mammæ of the same individual were large and swollen, and contained much milk. The ovaries are very much like those of birds in appearance, but are distinguished from the latter by the fact that the right and left ovary are of the same size, while in birds only one ovary is usually developed.

One of my main activities during this time was studying how spiny ant-eaters reproduce. A young friend at the station and a local man found a spiny ant-eater (Echidna) and took an egg from its pouch that, according to them, was about half the size of a hen's egg. The shell was leathery, resembling that of an iguana egg. Unfortunately, this egg was destroyed, so I decided to do everything I could to investigate further and had many ant-eaters examined. My research lasted from early February to mid-March, and I observed that the ovaries kept growing during that time. Since I had to leave Australia at the end of March, I couldn't continue my observations until the development finished, but I concluded that the information I received from the locals matched with the facts, as has since been confirmed elsewhere. According to the locals, the ant-eaters were supposed to have young in April or May. The nearly mature eggs I found in the ovaries of a fully grown specimen at the beginning of March measured about ⅑ of an inch in diameter. The mammary glands of the same individual were large and swollen, full of milk. The ovaries look very much like those of birds but differ in that both the right and left ovaries are the same size, while in birds, usually only one ovary develops.

21. Prof. G. A. Guldberg: Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Eierstockeier bei Echidna. Jena, 1885.

21. Prof. G. A. Guldberg: Contributions to Understanding Ovarian Eggs in Echidna. Jena, 1885.

NATIVES FROM THE VICINITY OF ROCKHAMPTON.

Natives from the area around Rockhampton.

In August of the same year the English naturalist Mr. Caldwell established the fact that the spiny ant-eater actually lays eggs, and he has shown that the same is the case with the ornithorhynchus. The egg, which was found at the same time by Mr. Haacke in Adelaide, was ¾ of an inch in diameter, 331and had a shell like parchment, which was broken by a slight pressure of the finger. As is well known, turtles and other reptiles have eggs of this kind. By this important discovery it is therefore established that the ant-eater and the ornithorhynchus nurse their young with milk as do other mammals, but that they lay eggs like birds and reptiles.

In August of the same year, the English naturalist Mr. Caldwell confirmed that the spiny anteater actually lays eggs, and he demonstrated that the same is true for the platypus. The egg, which was simultaneously discovered by Mr. Haacke in Adelaide, was ¾ of an inch in diameter and had a shell like parchment that could be broken with a gentle touch. As is well known, turtles and other reptiles have eggs like this. This significant discovery establishes that the anteater and the platypus nurse their young with milk like other mammals, but they lay eggs like birds and reptiles. 331

The natives occasionally came to Gracemere either to fish in the lagoon or to gather the roots of the blue water-lily, which they use as food. It is claimed that the blacks of this part of Australia are familiar with the use of stimulants. If the leaves of Erythroxylon australis, which is common in the scrubs near Rockhampton, possess stimulating qualities similar to those of South America’s Erythroxylon coca (“cocaine”), then we may presume that the blacks are aware of it.

The locals sometimes visited Gracemere to fish in the lagoon or to collect the roots of the blue water-lily, which they eat. It’s said that the Indigenous people in this part of Australia know how to use stimulants. If the leaves of Erythroxylon australis, which can be found in the bushes near Rockhampton, have stimulating properties similar to South America's Erythroxylon coca (“cocaine”), then we can assume that the Indigenous people are aware of this.

At the lower part of Fitzroy river the natives used to catch mullets with their hand-nets in the winter season; they knew by the appearance of a certain star, which they called “Nia,” that the mullet was coming down the river to spawn, and they always caught a great number of this fish that were full of roe.

At the lower part of Fitzroy River, the locals used to catch mullets with their hand nets in the winter. They could tell by the appearance of a certain star, which they called "Nia," that the mullet was coming down the river to spawn, and they always caught a lot of these fish that were full of roe.

BROW-BAND FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (⅓ size).

BROW-BAND FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (⅓ size).

The Australian natives are very skilful in various kinds of handiwork, but their talent manifests itself in different ways. One may excel in making baskets, another in producing the best fishing-nets, a third the best weapons, etc. I purchased a number of articles from the natives of Central Queensland. Near the coast I secured several bands for the forehead, remarkable for their solidity and beauty. The little bags, which they plait with great skill, are also very strong and pretty. Some of these things are made from 332cotton thread, but the most common material is the so-called opossum yarn—that is, hairs pulled out of the opossum skin (Irichosurus vulpecula) and twisted into threads between the flat hand and the thigh. From this yarn the blacks make a little apron, worn about the waist in this part of Australia. Opossum yarn is also worn in bunches on various parts of the body, for instance round the loins or over one shoulder. Sometimes a “band” of this sort is thrown over each shoulder, in such a way that they form a cross on the breast and on the back. I have even seen civilised blacks wearing these bands under their clothes, but their purpose I do not know. The natives are very willing to part with them. Frequently five or six threads of opossum yarn are twisted together to form a plain ornament about the wrist or neck. Opossum skins are also sewed together and used partly as articles of clothing, partly as mats.

The Aboriginal Australians are very skilled in various types of crafts, but their talents show up in different ways. One person might be great at making baskets, another at creating the best fishing nets, and yet another at crafting the finest weapons, and so on. I bought several items from the Aboriginal people of Central Queensland. Near the coast, I got a few headbands that are remarkable for their strength and beauty. The small bags they weave with great skill are also very durable and attractive. Some of these items are made from cotton thread, but the most common material is what’s called opossum yarn—hairs pulled from the opossum skin (Irichosurus vulpecula) and twisted into threads using the flat hand against the thigh. From this yarn, the Indigenous Australians make a small apron worn around the waist in this part of Australia. Opossum yarn is also worn in bunches on different parts of the body, like around the hips or over one shoulder. Sometimes a band like this is draped over each shoulder, crossing over the chest and back. I've even seen some modern Indigenous people wearing these bands underneath their clothes, but I don’t know the reason for that. The locals are very willing to sell them. Often, five or six strands of opossum yarn are twisted together to create a simple ornament for the wrist or neck. Opossum skins are also sewn together and used both as clothing and as mats.

OPOSSUM THREAD (¹⁄₁ size).

OPOSSUM THREAD (1/1 size).

Their shields are small, and as a rule are made of the light cork-tree (Erythrina vespertilio). The front side is rather curved, while the reverse is flat and furnished with a little handle cut out of the shield itself. Like most of the weapons of the natives, the shield is carved and then usually painted with white and red.

Their shields are small and generally made from light cork-tree (Erythrina vespertilio). The front side is somewhat curved, while the back is flat and has a small handle cut from the shield itself. Like most of the native weapons, the shield is carved and typically painted in white and red.

APRON MADE FROM OPOSSUM YARN, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (¼ size).

APRON MADE FROM OPOSSUM YARN, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (¼ size).

Wooden swords are rare, and differ from those of Northern Queensland, being more curved, not so broad, and usually coloured with cross-bars of chalk. A weapon even more rare is the so-called bendi. It resembles a small pickaxe, and is made of the Eucalyptus exserata, called by 333the natives bendo. The bend or curve forms a right angle, and ends in a point, the wood itself giving the weapon this form. Bendi is not a javelin, but a weapon to strike with, and with it the natives try to hit the kidneys of their opponents; for these they regard as the seat of life.

Wooden swords are uncommon and differ from those in Northern Queensland; they are more curved, not as wide, and usually have cross-bars in white chalk. An even rarer weapon is the so-called bendi. It looks like a small pickaxe and is made from Eucalyptus exserata, which the locals call bendo. The bend or curve makes a right angle and ends in a point, with the wood itself giving the weapon this shape. The bendi is not a javelin but a striking weapon, and the locals aim to hit their opponents' kidneys with it, as they believe these are the center of life.

SHIELDS FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (⅐ size).

Showing a part of the inner side with the handle.

SHIELDS FROM CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (⅐ size).

Displaying a section of the inner side with the handle.

The spears of these natives are thrown by the hand alone, without the aid of any other implement. Near the point the spear has two to four enlargements resembling rings, and as the latter are rifled, they form a sort of barb.

The spears of these natives are thrown by hand only, without the help of any other tools. Close to the point, the spear has two to four enlargements that look like rings, and since these are grooved, they create a kind of barb.

334

WOODEN SWORD (⅒ size).

WOODEN SWORD (1/10 size).

BENDI FROM COOMOOBOOLAROO, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (⅐ size).

BENDI FROM COOMOOBOOLAROO, CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (⅐ size).

The most important weapon of the Australian native is the tomahawk, which is made of basalt, greenstone, or some other hard stone, sometimes even of phonolite. The natives have been known to travel great distances in order to secure, by barter from foreign tribes, the best material, and thus trading centres sprang up in some districts. The stone is either cut into the proper shape, or one is used which is naturally of the correct form, and the edge is generally made sharp by whetting. The handle is invariably made by bending a piece of vine stalk round the stone, and then tying the ends of the stalk together with withies as close under the stone as possible; gum is also put on to make the joint more firm. Axes with holes through them have not been found. The Australian makes most of his weapons with the tomahawk, which also serves as his most important weapon for the chase, and which he is never without. All kinds of fine work are performed with the aid of pieces of hard stone, which he usually fastens to a handle and uses as a chisel. For carving he uses implements of stone or of bone.

The most important weapon of the Australian natives is the tomahawk, made from basalt, greenstone, or other hard stones, sometimes even phonolite. The natives have traveled great distances to trade with foreign tribes for the best materials, leading to the development of trading centers in some areas. The stone is either shaped appropriately or naturally has the right form, with the edge sharpened by grinding. The handle is typically created by bending a vine stalk around the stone and tying the ends of the stalk together tightly underneath the stone; gum is also applied to secure the joint. Axes with holes through them have not been discovered. The Australian uses the tomahawk to make most of his weapons, which is also his primary hunting tool that he always carries. Various intricate tasks are performed with pieces of hard stone, which he usually attaches to a handle and uses as a chisel. For carving, he employs tools made of stone or bone.

335

A SPEAR FROM THE COAST OF CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (¼ size).

A SPEAR FROM THE COAST OF CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (¼ size).

CRYSTALLINE AXE FROM PEAK DOWNS IN CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (½ size).

CRYSTALLINE AXE FROM PEAK DOWNS IN CENTRAL QUEENSLAND (½ size).

An idea of the culture of the Australian is easily gained by examining his weapons and implements. They are made mostly of wood, and bows and arrows are unknown. On Herbert river the natives employ javelins almost exclusively for hunting, but when in the dense scrubs they are as a rule unarmed. If they discover an animal they break branches off the trees, and try to kill it with these. They are generally successful, for most of the animals frequent the trees, and escape is therefore difficult when the natives make an attack from all sides and surround them. When an animal has been slain and is to be prepared for food, the belly is opened by the first stone or piece of wood found suitable for the purpose. The game is divided for distribution either with a stone or with the teeth, which are also largely used for breaking off limbs of trees and for making implements. The knives used by the natives of Australia are either pieces of hard stone accidentally found ready for use, or are secured by breaking pieces off the rock, but not much additional labour is bestowed on them, though they are sometimes shaped or fastened with glue to a kind of wooden handle. On the other hand, the natives understand how to polish their tomahawks; and when tribes have been found who had only roughly worked ones, the reason is not ignorance in polishing, but that the hardness of the material made the tomahawks quite sharp enough without it. Still, it will be seen that the aboriginal Australian has not advanced very far in the stone age.

You can get a good sense of Australian culture by looking at their tools and weapons. Most are made of wood, and they don't use bows and arrows. Along the Herbert River, the locals mainly use javelins for hunting, but they usually go unarmed when they're in thick scrubs. If they spot an animal, they break off branches from trees to try to kill it. They’re generally successful since most animals live in the trees, making it hard for them to escape when the locals attack from all directions. When they kill an animal and get it ready for food, they open the belly with the first stone or suitable piece of wood they find. The meat is cut up for sharing either with a stone or by using their teeth, which are also used to break off tree limbs and make tools. The knives used by Aboriginal Australians are either naturally sharp stones they find or pieces they break off from rocks, though not much extra work goes into them. Sometimes they shape them or attach them to wooden handles with glue. However, the locals know how to polish their tomahawks. When they've encountered tribes with only roughly made ones, it's not due to ignorance of polishing, but because the material's hardness makes the tomahawks sharp enough without it. Still, it's evident that Aboriginal Australians haven't progressed very far in the stone age.

When the natives become “civilized” they at once exchange their stone weapons for the white man’s weapons of iron. They are particularly fond of his 336tomahawk. Even on Herbert river the stone axe had given place to the latter tool, which however was so rare in some parts that a whole tribe sometimes had to be satisfied with one or two implements of this kind. Blacks who have never seen a white man occasionally get iron implements by bartering with other tribes. After becoming civilised the Australian native begins to make tomahawks from broken horse-shoes or from some other piece of iron, and to stud his club with nails. There are instances on record where the natives have cut down the telegraph poles and used the wire for spear points and fish-hooks. After becoming acquainted with the use of iron, the black man makes but little use of his wooden weapons and implements, and strange to say, does not make them so nicely as formerly, when his tools were inferior. He also takes less pains with all kinds of carving.

When the natives become “civilized,” they immediately trade their stone weapons for the white man’s iron ones. They especially like his 336tomahawk. Even on Herbert River, the stone axe has been replaced by this tool, which is so scarce in some areas that an entire tribe might have to settle for just one or two. Blacks who have never encountered a white man sometimes get iron tools by trading with other tribes. Once they become civilized, the Australian native starts making tomahawks from broken horseshoes or other pieces of iron, and they even embellish their clubs with nails. There are documented cases where the natives have chopped down telegraph poles and repurposed the wire for spear points and fish hooks. After learning to use iron, the black man rarely uses his wooden weapons or tools, and oddly enough, he doesn’t craft them as well as he used to when his tools were inferior. He also puts in less effort into all types of carving.

The natives of Central Queensland have, as a matter of course, obtained that kind of civilisation which necessarily results from a prolonged intercourse with the white population. They have long since recognised the superiority of Europeans, and the new condition of things is leading them to give up their former occupations. The most capable ones become servants at the stations, partly as cooks, partly as stock-men and shepherds, and they are of considerable use to the white population; but the great mass of them prefer to enjoy their liberty, while at the same time contact with the white man gives their life and habits a new character. The settlers are on account of their flocks obliged to encroach on the hunting-grounds of the black, and the natives, who have no thought of the future or of posterity, are satisfied with the advantages obtained in exchange for the loss of their hunting-grounds—that is, they get the leavings from the kitchen and the slaughter-house, milk, old clothes, tobacco, etc. Sometimes the squatter appoints the best native near his station a “king,” and as a mark of this dignity he gives him a piece of brass containing his civilised name to wear on his breast. In return for food, tobacco, woollen blankets, and similar things, the “king” promises to watch his tribe, and keep them from doing damage to the white man’s property. Every native is anxious to become “king,” for the brass plate, which is considered a great ornament, 337also secures the bearer many a meal. At first, while the natives are more or less dangerous, a chief of this kind may be very valuable to a squatter, who may in this way be warned of attacks from hostile tribes, but after the natives have become quiet and peaceable the institution is of value only to the bearer of the brass plate, who continues to demand his pay.

The Indigenous people of Central Queensland have, as a standard practice, gained a form of civilization that naturally comes from a long interaction with the white population. They have long acknowledged the superiority of Europeans, and this new reality is causing them to abandon their traditional ways of life. The most skilled among them become workers at the stations, taking on roles as cooks, stockmen, and shepherds, and they are quite beneficial to the white community. However, the majority prefer to enjoy their freedom, while their interaction with white people infuses their lives and practices with new influences. Settlers, due to their flocks, are forced to encroach on the hunting grounds of the Indigenous people, who, without a thought for the future or future generations, are content with the benefits they receive in exchange for the loss of their hunting territories—that is, they receive leftovers from kitchens and slaughterhouses, milk, used clothing, tobacco, and so on. Sometimes, the settler designates the best Indigenous person near his station as a “king,” and to signify this status, he gives him a piece of brass with his civilized name to wear around his neck. In exchange for food, tobacco, wool blankets, and similar items, the “king” agrees to watch over his tribe and keep them from causing trouble for the white man’s property. Every Indigenous person aspires to become a “king” since the brass plate, seen as a significant ornament, also secures its wearer many meals. Initially, when the Indigenous people may be somewhat hostile, such a chief can be very valuable to a settler, who can be warned of potential attacks from enemy tribes. However, once the Indigenous people become calm and peaceful, this institution serves only the bearer of the brass plate, who continues to seek his compensation. 337

“KING BILLY OF GRACEMERE” WITH HIS “GIN” (WIFE).

“KING BILLY OF GRACEMERE” WITH HIS “GIN” (WIFE).

The degeneration and demoralisation of the natives, which 338are an inevitable result of the march of civilisation, are already far advanced even in this part of Australia. The natives become more indolent, and they lose their former self-reliance and independence after they acquire the habit of relying on what they can get from the white man. They spend most of their time near the stations and villages, where they are able to obtain liquor and opium, for which the Chinese immigrants soon give them a taste. I cannot conceive a more disgusting sight than a camp of such ragged, impudent blacks marked by all the vices of civilisation. To me, coming from Northern Queensland, where the natives still were in their pristine vigour, the picture was an exceedingly sad one, when I considered the future awaiting the friends I had left there.

The decline and loss of morale among the native people, which are unavoidable consequences of civilization's progress, are already quite advanced even in this part of Australia. The natives are becoming more lazy and are losing their previous self-reliance and independence as they start to depend on what they can get from white people. They spend most of their time near the stations and villages, where they can get alcohol and opium, which the Chinese immigrants quickly introduce to them. I can't imagine a more repulsive sight than a camp of such ragged, disrespectful individuals, marked by all the negative traits of civilization. To me, coming from Northern Queensland, where the natives were still strong and vibrant, this scene was incredibly sad as I thought about the future that awaited the friends I had left behind.

Shortly before my return to Europe I visited a camp of “civilised” blacks near Rockhampton. Even before reaching the camp I felt the smell of opium, and on coming nearer I was the witness of a most disgusting scene. Around the camp fires sat natives pale as death itself. The opium-pipe was constantly in their mouths and their eyes stared out bewildered from their deep hollow sockets. I approached the man whom I wanted to see. He had lost his flesh, and his skin had become yellow and sickly. It was all he could do to stammer forth a request for money to buy more opium. A month ago I had seen him strong and well, now he was a mere skeleton and presumably on the brink of the grave.

Shortly before I returned to Europe, I visited a camp of “civilized” Black people near Rockhampton. Even before I reached the camp, I could smell opium, and as I got closer, I witnessed a truly disturbing scene. Around the campfires sat natives who looked as pale as death itself. The opium pipe was constantly in their mouths, and their eyes stared blankly from their deep, hollow sockets. I approached the man I wanted to see. He had lost weight, and his skin had turned yellow and unhealthy. He could barely stammer out a request for money to buy more opium. Just a month ago, I had seen him strong and healthy, and now he was just a skeleton, likely on the brink of death.

I turned my face away from this horrible scene and mounted my horse, sad to think that this was to be my last impression of the world of the blacks.

I turned my face away from this terrible scene and got on my horse, feeling sad that this would be my last impression of the world of black people.

339

CHAPTER XXIX

Religion—Blacks in the service of the white men—Fickle minds—Settlers and natives on the borders of civilization—Morality—A life and death struggle—The cruelty of the whites—Future prospects of the Australian natives.

Religion—Black people serving white men—Inconsistent beliefs—Settlers and natives at the edge of civilization—Morality—A fight for survival—The brutality of white people—Future outlook for Australian natives.

A native who had been brought up by the white men was visiting the tribes near Peak Downs, where I stopped for a time. He was able to read and write, and on Sundays he sometimes sent word to the station and asked to borrow a Prayer-book, from which he would read passages aloud to the other blacks in the tribe, who looked with wonderment upon his superiority over them. He also frequently read chapters from the Bible to them, but apparently he did not himself understand much of what he read. Once, when an old woman of the tribe died, he asked to borrow the Prayer-book, in order “to read” over the dead as he had seen the whites do. Finally a Prayer-book was presented to him. He read its title, Book of Common Prayer, whereupon he handed it back, saying he did not want anything that was “common.”

A native who had been raised by white people was visiting the tribes near Peak Downs, where I stayed for a while. He could read and write, and on Sundays he sometimes sent a message to the station asking to borrow a Prayer-book, from which he would read passages aloud to the other black members of the tribe, who looked at him in amazement at his superiority. He also often read chapters from the Bible to them, but it seemed like he didn’t fully understand much of what he was reading. One time, when an old woman from the tribe passed away, he asked to borrow the Prayer-book so he could “read” over the dead, just like he had seen the white people do. Eventually, a Prayer-book was given to him. He read its title, Book of Common Prayer, then handed it back, saying he didn’t want anything that was “common.”

It is a well-known fact that the Australian natives are almost wholly devoid of religious susceptibilities, and that missionaries seldom succeed in imparting to them more than the outward appearance of Christianity. Upon the whole, there are but few missionaries in Australia, and the natives come but little in contact with Christianity. Missionary efforts have been made, especially in the southern part of the continent, but with poor success. The lack of the receptive faculty on the part of the blacks and the ill-will of a portion of the white population are great hindrances in the way of missionary work; rough colonists will not abandon the practice of prostitution, from which the blacks derive 340some pecuniary advantage. The fact that the missionaries see but little fruit from their labours does not therefore allow us to draw the conclusion that the Australian race is quite unsusceptible to religious influence.

It’s a well-known fact that the Indigenous Australians are mostly uninterested in religious beliefs, and that missionaries rarely manage to convey more than just the surface level of Christianity to them. Overall, there are very few missionaries in Australia, and the Indigenous people have limited interaction with Christianity. Missionary efforts have been made, particularly in the southern part of the continent, but with little success. The lack of willingness on the part of the Indigenous people and the hostility from some of the white population are significant obstacles to missionary work; rough colonists refuse to stop practices like prostitution, from which the Indigenous people gain some financial benefit. Although the missionaries see little result from their efforts, that doesn’t mean we can conclude that the Indigenous Australians are completely unreceptive to religious influence.

In my opinion, an Australian native cannot be christianised unless he is brought up outside his own tribe from infancy. In such circumstances he has been found to be capable of considerable mental development. Many of the natives have learned reading, writing, arithmetic, singing, etc. It is even claimed that they acquire these accomplishments more rapidly than white children, but that they also more quickly forget them again. They are also able to play cards, even “euchre,” a game requiring considerable thought. A squatter in the far west informed me that when he forgot what day in the week it was he only needed to ask his black boy, who never failed to know.

In my view, an Aboriginal person can't be converted to Christianity unless they're raised away from their own tribe from a young age. Under those conditions, they have shown a capacity for significant mental growth. Many of them have learned to read, write, do math, sing, and more. Some even say they pick up these skills faster than white children, but they also tend to forget them just as quickly. They're capable of playing cards too, including "euchre," a game that requires a good deal of thought. A rancher in the far west told me that when he lost track of what day it was, he just had to ask his black worker, who always knew.

The highest degree of civilisation attainable by the blacks is skill in the work to be done at a station. Women are usually employed in the house, and at each station two or three find work. They make good waiters, but poor cooks. As stock-men and shepherds the blacks are excellent, in this work sometimes even surpassing the whites. They are superb riders, and have a wonderful talent for mastering an unruly horse. On the other hand, they are unable to break a horse properly, and as a rule have very heavy hands.

The highest level of civilization that black people can achieve is being skilled in the work needed at a station. Women typically work in the house, with two or three finding jobs at each station. They make great waitstaff, but are not very good cooks. As stockmen and shepherds, black people are excellent, sometimes even outperforming white people in this work. They are fantastic riders and have a remarkable ability to handle a difficult horse. However, they usually can't train a horse properly and tend to be quite heavy-handed.

Among the sheep and cattle the blacks are wellnigh indispensable at every station. They know every animal, and give it much better care than it can get from a white man. A black boy whom I knew was able to distinguish the footprints of the various horses belonging to the station. Some of them have great skill in making whips and bridles, in carving whip handles, and in doing other handiwork.

Among the sheep and cattle, Indigenous people are almost essential at every station. They know each animal and provide much better care than a white person could. A young Indigenous boy I knew could recognize the footprints of the different horses owned by the station. Some of them are very skilled at making whips and bridles, carving whip handles, and doing other types of handiwork.

These civilised blacks soon try to acquire the white man’s manners; they like to wear clothes, and they like to have their clothes fit nicely. Some even shave and wash themselves, use towels, and are perfect bush dandies. They soon acquire a very high opinion of themselves, of their ability, and of their importance. They look upon themselves not only as equally good, but as better than the white men. No man on earth is more proud than a black man on horseback, 341with good clothes on, his clay pipe lit, and his pocket full of tobacco and matches.

These sophisticated black individuals soon try to adopt the white man's ways; they enjoy wearing clothes and prefer them to fit well. Some even shave and wash themselves, use towels, and are quite the stylish bush people. They quickly develop a very high opinion of themselves, their abilities, and their importance. They see themselves not only as equals to white men but as superior. No one on earth is prouder than a black man on horseback, 341 dressed in nice clothes, with his clay pipe lit, and his pockets full of tobacco and matches.

CIVILISED GIRLS FROM THE VICINITY OF TOWNSVILLE.

CIVILIZED GIRLS FROM THE AREA OF TOWNSVILLE.

This “civilisation,” which is quickly assumed through intercourse with the white man, does not, however, strike deep root, and the good nature which often accompanies their brutal qualities rarely wholly overcomes the latter. However comfortable they may be with the white man, 342they still long to get back to their forests. As a rule they must have an annual vacation, when they visit their tribe and take part in the hunting and in other amusements. There is no use in refusing this, for then they would become sulky and unwilling to work. Their love of change makes them constantly give up one situation for another, though they may have no reason to be dissatisfied with the one they abandon. In some few cases a black man will become very much devoted to his master, and will occasionally serve the same one a long time if he only gets his annual vacation. I may mention that a black boy who had been with his master for many years nursed him during a severe illness, nay, even prevented him from committing suicide in a moment of desperation.

This "civilization," which quickly develops through interaction with white people, doesn't take deep root, and the kind nature that often comes with their harsh traits rarely completely overcomes the latter. No matter how comfortable they feel with white people, they still yearn to return to their forests. Generally, they need an annual break to visit their tribe and participate in hunting and other activities. There's no point in denying them this, as it would make them grumpy and reluctant to work. Their desire for change leads them to constantly switch jobs, even if they have no real reason to be unhappy with the one they leave. In a few cases, a Black man may become very loyal to his employer and might stick with the same one for a long time as long as he gets his yearly vacation. I should mention that a Black boy who had been with his employer for many years cared for him during a serious illness and even stopped him from committing suicide during a moment of despair.

A black man twenty-three years old, who from childhood had been educated at a station in Victoria, where he had lived nearly all his life and had been treated almost as a member of the family, one day suddenly disappeared. He was found in the camp of the blacks as naked as he was born, but later on he returned to the station, where he resumed his former work. Sometimes this kind of civilised native becomes so fond of savage life that he never returns to the stations.

A twenty-three-year-old black man, who had been raised at a station in Victoria where he had lived most of his life and was treated like a family member, suddenly disappeared one day. He was found in the camp of the Indigenous people completely naked, but later he returned to the station and went back to his old job. Sometimes, these so-called civilized natives become so attached to life in the wild that they never come back to the stations.

It frequently happens that a black-fellow makes a journey abroad when the squatter goes to visit his native country. It would be reasonable to suppose that the great cities of the old world would make some, if not a very deep, impression, on this child of nature, but such is not the case. The Australian native is not surprised, because he lacks the faculty of appreciating. A locomotive flying past him for the first time does not astonish him very much. When, after a long journey, he returns to his tribe he sees the difference, but he has no words with which to explain himself, although his fellows get the general impression that their comrade has had wonderful experiences. He is naturally very proud of his achievements, and wears an air of superiority over both white and black men. A colonist who was trying to give a black man a grand impression of Sydney, received the startling answer: “I like London better.”

It often happens that an Aboriginal person travels abroad while the farmer visits his homeland. One might think that the big cities of the old world would leave some kind of impression, even if it’s not a huge one, on this person from nature, but that’s not true. The Australian native isn’t surprised because he doesn’t have the ability to appreciate it. A train speeding by him for the first time doesn’t really amaze him. When he returns to his tribe after a long journey, he notices the differences, but he doesn't have the words to explain it, even though his friends get the general sense that he’s had incredible experiences. He is naturally very proud of what he’s done and carries himself with an air of superiority over both white and black people. A settler who was trying to impress an Aboriginal man with Sydney got a shocking reply: “I like London better.”

Though the language used by the colonists in conversation 343with the blacks, which the latter gradually learn, is a disconnected jargon, still some of the natives learn to speak English very well. These more talented blacks, mostly from Victoria and New South Wales, become literally angry when addressed in the common jabber-jabber English. A white man who was out hunting emus asked a black of the above kind: You been see ’im tshukki-tshukki big fellow? The latter indignantly replied: “I suppose you mean an emu.”

Though the way the colonists talk to the black people, which they gradually pick up, is a jumbled mix of words, some of the locals learn to speak English quite well. These more skilled individuals, mostly from Victoria and New South Wales, get genuinely upset when spoken to in the usual broken English. A white man who was out hunting emus asked one of these individuals: You been see ’im tshukki-tshukki big fellow? The local replied with annoyance, “I assume you mean an emu.”

Though the Australian native is thus able to acquire some of the fruits of civilisation, it still remains a characteristic fact that he never gets so far as to occupy an independent position. As a subordinate he may serve to the complete satisfaction of his master, but he never saves anything, and does not comprehend the value of money. He never learns enough to become a tradesman, and all that he gets he at once spends. In his natural condition he has a decided distaste for agriculture, and this aversion clings to him when he becomes civilised. Cattle-raising is an easy way of making money, but not even this can teach him to make money on his own account.

Though the Australian native can gain some of the benefits of civilization, it's still a fact that he never reaches a point of independence. As a subordinate, he may fully satisfy his master, but he never saves anything and doesn't understand the value of money. He never learns enough to become a tradesman, and everything he gets, he instantly spends. In his natural state, he has a clear dislike for farming, and that aversion stays with him even after he becomes civilized. Raising cattle is an easy way to make money, but even that doesn't teach him how to earn money for himself.

“A living sheep is an impossibility in the camp of the blacks,” most truly writes Mr. Finch-Hatton, and the gold of Australia is nothing but a common stone to him, even when he sees the greedy digger getting rich by seeking the precious metal. A strong tendency to communism hinders social development among the tribes. Natives employed on a farm invariably share their earnings with their relatives and friends, who live in their camp near the station. When a black man has regular employment at a station he frequently gets five shillings a week besides board and tobacco, but all this he divides with his comrades in the camp. The latter do not care to hunt, but live on what he or their women earn from the squatter. No sooner has one of them saved a pound than he and his friends go to town and buy brandy and opium with the money.

“A living sheep is impossible in the camp of the blacks,” Mr. Finch-Hatton accurately notes, and the gold of Australia is just a common stone to him, even when he sees the greedy digger getting rich by searching for the precious metal. A strong tendency toward communism prevents social development among the tribes. Natives working on a farm always share their earnings with relatives and friends living in their camp near the station. When a black man has regular work at a station, he often earns five shillings a week in addition to food and tobacco, but he shares all of it with his friends in the camp. The others don’t want to hunt, but instead live off what he or their women earn from the squatter. As soon as one of them manages to save a pound, he and his friends head to town to buy brandy and opium with the money.

As a rule the relation between the whites and the blacks is not at first a friendly one. It has occasionally happened that the natives have received the whites kindly the first time they met them; they have even given assistance to 344people who have been shipwrecked, but in most instances a war soon breaks out between the two races. Sheep and cattle begin to feed on the grounds that have belonged to the blacks, and the latter are prohibited from going where they please; because the herds are disturbed by the black men’s hunting, nay even by the smell of the savages. As a matter of course, the natives therefore try to resist the strangers who interfere with their inherited rights.

As a general rule, the relationship between white people and black people isn't friendly at first. Sometimes, the locals have welcomed the whites during their first encounters; they have even helped people who were shipwrecked. However, in most cases, a conflict soon arises between the two groups. Sheep and cattle start grazing on land that belongs to the black people, and the latter are restricted from going where they want because the herds are disturbed by the hunting of the black men, even by the scent of the natives. Naturally, the locals try to push back against the newcomers who infringe on their rights.

“THE LONELY OLD PEOPLE,” NATIVES FROM THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF TOWNSVILLE.

“THE LONELY OLD PEOPLE,” LOCALS FROM THE TOWNSVILLE AREA.

The rough settler, who never sees a woman of his own 345race, soon begins to associate with the black women. A friendly relation between the two races is made impossible; the white men shoot the black men, and the black men kill the white men when they can, and spear their sheep and cattle.

The tough settler, who rarely encounters a woman of his own race, quickly starts to engage with the black women. A friendly relationship between the two races becomes impossible; the white men shoot the black men, and the black men retaliate by killing the white men when they can, and they also spear their sheep and cattle. 345

Both parties, however, gradually learn to take advantage of each other. The colonist avails himself of the cheap labour furnished by the blacks, and the natives acquire a taste for what the white man has to offer, though it is of course mainly limited to tobacco, food, and clothes. Of this change of condition the colonist reaps the whole advantage, for the invariable result to the black man is both mental and physical degradation and retrogression. Unfortunately the first white men with whom the blacks on the frontiers of civilisation come in contact are frequently rough and brutal, and hence we cannot expect any marked improvement on the part of the natives from their new acquaintances. Their keen sense of observation enables them to discover quickly the bad qualities in the white man’s character, and these they are not slow to imitate; but they have no eye for the good qualities. There is not much to be said of the morals of the blacks, for I am sorry to say they have none. Still, their moral condition has a somewhat better aspect before they come in contact with the white man. It cannot be denied that the young black women originally had a certain amount of modesty. In some parts of the country they assume the position of a Venus of Milo, or they hide behind the older women to take a peep at the white man, whom they see for the first time. It has been observed that the savages who wear an apron are more modest than those who are naked. I have also heard that the women in some tribes take their baths by themselves. It should also be remarked that the natives never represent obscene ideas in their rude drawings, and though it cannot be denied that the husband, in return for certain advantages, will part with his wife, yet he jealously protects her as his most valuable and dearest possession. On the other hand, as soon as the white man comes, immorality knows no bounds, and the black race hasten on to the inevitable ruin awaiting them. Sometimes the most brutal settlers even 346make use of the revolver to compel the natives to surrender their women; sometimes they actually kill the black man if he makes resistance. At length threats become unnecessary, for the blacks do not need to remain long under the influence of “civilisation” before they offer their wares for a little tobacco, or when the “civilisation” has struck deeper roots, for a shilling. The murder of infants increases, syphilitic diseases become common, and the women having become prostitutes, cease to bear children.

Both sides, however, slowly start to take advantage of each other. The colonist benefits from the cheap labor provided by the black population, while the natives develop a taste for what the white man offers, primarily tobacco, food, and clothing. The colonist gains all the benefits from this change, while the black man suffers both mental and physical deterioration. Unfortunately, the first white men that the blacks on the edges of civilization encounter are often rough and violent, so we can't expect any significant improvement from their interactions with these newcomers. The natives' keen observation skills allow them to quickly identify the negative traits in the white man's character, and they imitate those traits readily, but they don't recognize the positive ones. There's not much to say about the morals of the blacks, as they seem to lack them entirely. However, their moral state appears somewhat better before interacting with the white man. It's undeniable that young black women originally had a degree of modesty. In some areas, they position themselves like a Venus of Milo, or they hide behind older women to sneak a look at the white man for the first time. It's been noted that savages who wear aprons are more modest than those who are naked. I've also heard that women in some tribes bathe alone. It's worth noting that the natives never depict obscene ideas in their crude drawings, and while the husband may trade his wife for certain benefits, he fiercely protects her as his most valued and cherished possession. On the other hand, as soon as the white man arrives, immorality runs rampant, and the black race rushes toward their inevitable downfall. Sometimes the most brutal settlers even use revolvers to force the natives to give up their women; at times, they will kill a black man if he resists. Eventually, threats become unnecessary, as the blacks don’t take long under the influence of “civilization” before they offer their goods for a little tobacco, or when “civilization” takes deeper root, for a shilling. The killing of infants rises, syphilis becomes widespread, and with women turning to prostitution, they stop bearing children.

The settlers also reduce the numbers of the natives in a more direct way, and the latter have often been slaughtered in the most unmerciful manner. At times there may possibly be some excuse for this. The white man’s friendship may be rewarded with ingratitude. The blacks frequently punish the innocent for the guilty, and they spare no white man. I know of instances where the blacks have persisted in killing cattle, in spite of the fact that the owner has been extravagant enough in his friendship to give them cattle for slaughter. In such circumstances the blacks do not care if some of their comrades are shot; but at last their ranks become so reduced that they have to yield. They may dog a white man secretly for days, with no less energy than they exhibit in pursuing their game for food, and on the first favourable opportunity take his life. In North Australia no traveller is safe, and many a lonely wanderer who has disappeared in these remote regions has been slain by the spear of the black man. They rarely attack a man on horseback.[22] Still, they watch him and lie in ambush for him, in case he should dismount to look for water to drink, or to rest for the night. In some instances the blacks have attacked a station and killed all the inhabitants. Thus it is necessary for the white man to defend himself, but there is no doubt that in this respect he has gone further than necessity demanded. The settling of Australia is stained with more than one shocking story of this sort. There are instances where the young men of the station have employed the Sunday in hunting the blacks, not only for some definite purpose, but also for the sake of the sport; the blacks have even been killed with 347poison. A squatter at Long Lagoon, in the interior of Queensland, achieved notoriety by laying strychnine in the way of the blacks, and thus taking the life of a large number of them in a single day.

The settlers also directly reduce the numbers of the natives, who have often been killed in extremely brutal ways. At times, there might be some justification for this. The friendship of white men may be met with ingratitude. The natives often punish innocent people for the actions of the guilty, and they show no mercy towards any white person. I know of cases where the natives kept killing cattle, even though the owner generously provided them cattle to slaughter. In such situations, the natives don't care if some of their own are shot; eventually, their numbers dwindle, and they have to give in. They might secretly track a white man for days, with just as much determination as they show while hunting for food, and when the opportunity arises, they will kill him. In North Australia, no traveler is safe, and many lonely wanderers who have vanished in these remote areas have been killed by the spear of a native. They rarely attack someone on horseback. Still, they watch and lie in wait for him in case he dismounts to search for water or to rest for the night. In some cases, the natives have attacked a station and killed all of its inhabitants. Therefore, it's necessary for white men to defend themselves, but there's no doubt that in this regard, they have gone beyond what was necessary. The colonization of Australia is marked by more than one disturbing story like this. There are cases where the young men at the station have spent Sundays hunting the natives, not just for a specific reason, but also for the thrill of it; some natives have even been killed with poison. A squatter at Long Lagoon in inland Queensland became infamous for laying out strychnine to kill a large number of natives in a single day.

22. A white man on foot is always regarded as a “little” white man.

22. A white man walking is always seen as a “little” white man.

Similar acts of brutality occur even at the present time. A farmer whom I met at Lower Herbert boasted that he had cremated some blacks whom he had shot. He looked upon this as a most excellent precautionary measure, for it made proof against him impossible. The life of a native has but little value, particularly in the northern part of Australia, and once or twice colonists offered to shoot blacks for me so that I might get their skulls. On the borders of civilisation men would think as little of shooting a black man as a dog. The law imposes death by hanging as the penalty for murdering a black man, but people live so far apart in these uncivilised regions that a white man may in fact do what he pleases with the blacks.

Similar acts of brutality still happen today. A farmer I met in Lower Herbert proudly told me he had burned the bodies of some Black people he shot. He saw this as a smart way to avoid any proof against him. The life of a native is hardly valued, especially in northern Australia, and a few times colonists even offered to shoot Black people for me so I could have their skulls. In the outskirts of civilization, men wouldn't think twice about shooting a Black man, just like they would a dog. The law says that killing a Black man is punishable by hanging, but since people live so far apart in these uncivilized areas, a white man can really do whatever he wants with Black people.

In Northern Queensland I often heard this remark: “The only treatment proper for the blacks is to shoot them all.” A squatter in that part of the country acted on this principle. He found it severe, but necessary. He shot all the men he discovered on his run, because they were cattle killers; the women, because they gave birth to cattle killers; and the children, because they would in time become cattle killers. “They are unwilling to work,” I have heard colonists say, “and hence they are not fit to live.”

In Northern Queensland, I often heard people say, “The only solution for the blacks is to shoot them all.” One rancher in that area acted on this belief. He found it harsh, but necessary. He shot all the men he came across on his property, claiming they were cattle killers; he shot the women because they gave birth to cattle killers; and he shot the children because they would eventually become cattle killers. “They don’t want to work,” I’ve heard colonists say, “so they’re not worth keeping alive.”

The result of this is that in the frontier districts there is still being waged a war of extermination between the two races. Any savage discovered by the white men runs the risk of being shot. Poison was laid in the way of the blacks once while I was in Queensland. I also take the liberty of reporting the following shocking event, though without giving the names of any of the parties concerned.

The result is that in the frontier areas, a war of extermination is still being fought between the two races. Any Indigenous person found by white men risks being shot. Poison was set out for the Indigenous people while I was in Queensland. I also feel it's important to report the following shocking event, though I won't share the names of anyone involved.

A cedar-cutter in Northern Queensland had one day left one of his white workmen in charge of the camp, while he and his other labourers went to the woods to work. In districts where the blacks are dangerous it is always necessary to leave a man on guard in the camp. In the course of the day two blacks came to the guard, and as the latter had no ill-will to the natives, he treated them in a friendly manner 348and gave them tobacco. When the master returned in the evening he became very angry on account of what had happened, and the next day he set a Kanaka to watch the camp. The natives of course thought the white man was friendly, as he had given them tobacco, and so they did not hesitate to visit the camp again the next day; but they soon found out their mistake. One of the blacks who tried to make his escape was wounded in the leg, while the other one was captured and tied to a tree. This done, the wounded man was seized and killed with a butcher’s knife. When the Kanaka came back to the camp the master had returned, and the latter at once ordered, in cold blood, that the prisoner who was tied to the tree should also be killed. They did not even waste a bullet on the poor fellow, who was pierced with a knife.

A cedar-cutter in Northern Queensland had left one of his white workers in charge of the camp while he and the other laborers went to work in the woods. In areas where the locals can be dangerous, it’s always necessary to leave someone on guard at the camp. During the day, two locals came to visit the guard, and since the guard had no ill feelings toward them, he treated them kindly and gave them some tobacco. When the boss returned in the evening, he became very angry about what had happened, and the next day he assigned a Kanaka to watch the camp. The locals assumed the white man was friendly since he had given them tobacco, so they didn’t hesitate to come back to the camp the next day, but they soon realized their mistake. One of the locals who tried to escape was shot in the leg, while the other was captured and tied to a tree. After that, the wounded man was caught and killed with a butcher’s knife. When the Kanaka returned to the camp, the boss was back and immediately ordered, without any remorse, that the prisoner tied to the tree should also be killed. They didn’t even waste a bullet on the poor man, who was stabbed to death.

That inhuman institution, the native police, has also been an important factor in the destruction of the natives. They have not only slain a large number of this unhappy people, but also contributed largely to their demoralisation.

That brutal organization, the indigenous police, has also played a significant role in the destruction of the native people. They have not only killed a large number of these unfortunate individuals but have also greatly contributed to their moral decline.

In the courts the blacks are defenceless, for their testimony is not accepted. The jury is not likely to declare a white man guilty of murdering a black man. On the other hand, if a white man happens to be killed by the blacks, a cry is heard throughout the whole colony.

In court, Black people are powerless because their testimony isn’t accepted. The jury is unlikely to find a white man guilty of killing a Black man. Conversely, if a white man is killed by Black people, there's an outrage that spreads throughout the entire colony.

There are, however, persons who look upon the blacks as human beings with a right to live in the land which is in fact their own. “Were I a black man, I would kill all the whites,” an Australian gentleman once said to me. One of these protectors of the blacks writes to me—

There are, however, people who see black individuals as human beings with a right to live in the land that is actually theirs. “If I were a black man, I would kill all the whites,” an Australian man once said to me. One of these advocates for black rights writes to me—

“If I thought that anything I might say on the treatment of the aborigines would in any way tend to ameliorate their present wretched condition, I would not for a moment grudge my lost health, and would plead their cause to my last breath. But alas! it were vain to hope for any improvement in their condition; for it is an immutable law of nature that the strong will prey upon the weak. I always look upon the condition of the lower order of ‘whites’ as a fearful satire on Christianity. The English nation is continually casting stones at other nations for the treatment of conquered races, but nothing could be more barbarous than their own treatment of the aborigines of Australia.”

“If I thought that anything I could say about the treatment of Indigenous people would actually help improve their terrible situation, I wouldn't hesitate to sacrifice my health and would advocate for them until my last breath. But sadly, it's pointless to hope for any change in their circumstances; it's an unchanging law of nature that the strong will take advantage of the weak. I see the situation of the lower class of 'whites' as a stark critique of Christianity. The English constantly criticize other nations for how they treat conquered peoples, but nothing is more barbaric than their own treatment of the Indigenous people of Australia.”

NATIVE POLICE DISPERSING THE BLACKS.

Sketch after a description given to me on the spot.

NATIVE POLICE BREAKING UP THE BLACKS.

Sketch based on a description provided to me right there.

349It must be admitted that the colonists in several places have tried to protect the blacks by giving them reservations and means of existence. In Victoria there are six stations, where the natives raise crops and cattle, and receive instruction.

349It's true that in some areas, the colonists have attempted to protect the Black population by providing reservations and resources for their livelihood. In Victoria, there are six stations where the Indigenous people grow crops, raise livestock, and receive education.

All this, however, is of no avail. It only gives the doomed race a short respite. It is supposed that there were 9000 blacks in Victoria when the colony was founded. There now remain scarcely 800, and many of these are half-castes, who are but little superior to the pure blacks in intelligence, while they have an even less favourable appearance.

All of this, however, is useless. It only provides the doomed race with a brief reprieve. It's estimated that there were 9,000 Black people in Victoria when the colony was established. Now, there are hardly 800 left, and many of them are half-castes, who are only slightly more capable than the full Black population in terms of intelligence, while they often appear even less favorable.

“When civilised nations come into contact with barbarians, the struggle is but short, excepting where a dangerous climate helps the native race,” says Darwin, and history corroborates his statement. In 1872 the last Tasmanian died. His ancestors succumbed, not only because they were weaker than the invading race, but also because they were abused by the invaders. The same fate as that which overtook their brothers in Tasmania is in store for the natives of Australia. They have proved themselves almost incapable of receiving either culture or Christianity, and they have not the power to resist the onward march of civilisation. They are therefore without a future, without a home, without a hope,—a doomed race. The two races cannot exist together. If the Australian attacks the whites or their herds, he is shot; if he tries to secure the friendship of the white men, his ruin is no less certain. He is unwilling to abandon his habits of life, and for this reason the settlement of the country robs him of his means of existence, while European culture at the same time causes his moral and physical degradation.

“When civilized nations come into contact with uncivilized ones, the struggle is usually short, except where a harsh climate favors the native people,” says Darwin, and history supports his claim. In 1872, the last Tasmanian died. His ancestors perished, not only because they were weaker than the invading race but also because they were mistreated by the invaders. The same fate that befell their brothers in Tasmania awaits the natives of Australia. They have shown themselves nearly incapable of adopting either culture or Christianity, and they lack the power to resist the advance of civilization. They are therefore without a future, without a home, without hope—a doomed race. The two races cannot coexist. If an Australian attacks the whites or their livestock, he is shot; if he attempts to befriend the white men, his downfall is just as certain. He is reluctant to give up his way of life, and for this reason, the settlement of the land deprives him of his means of survival, while European culture simultaneously leads to his moral and physical decline.

The philanthropist is filled with sadness when he sees the original inhabitants of this strange land succumbing according to the inexorable law of degeneration. Invading civilisation has not brought development and progress to the Australian native; after a few generations his race will have disappeared from the face of the earth.

The philanthropist feels sad when he sees the original inhabitants of this strange land declining because of the unavoidable law of degeneration. The invading civilization has not brought growth and progress to the Australian native; in a few generations, his race will have vanished from the earth.

351

APPENDIX

353

I
A SUMMARY OF AUSTRALIAN HISTORY

The history of Australia illustrates in broad outlines how a continent inhabited by a most primitive race of men becomes known to the Europeans, how the latter colonise the country and drive the natives before them, and how the new community is organised and developed. Thus the subject may be divided into three chapters—(1) The condition before the discovery; (2) the story of the discovery; and (3) the story of the colonisation.

The history of Australia shows in general terms how a continent populated by a very primitive group of people came to the attention of Europeans, how they colonized the land and displaced the native inhabitants, and how the new community was organized and developed. So, the topic can be broken down into three chapters—(1) The situation before discovery; (2) the account of the discovery; and (3) the account of colonization.

The Situation Before European Discovery

The degree of culture attained by the Australian aborigines when they first came in contact with the Europeans was not a high one. We find a race living in small tribes, without any social organisation, always moving from one place to another, living in huts hurriedly made of leaves or bark; almost naked; destitute of implements of metal, destitute of perforated stone implements, destitute of bows and arrows; having miserable boats, or none at all; having no other domestic animals than the semi-wild dingo, and having no knowledge of agriculture. The development which preceded this stage of civilisation must be looked for in the very infancy of human culture, where we have but little light to show the way. Nor is any special value to be attached to peculiar customs which this people may have in common with other races similarly situated. Circumcision, tattooing, exogamy, and sorcery are found in every part of the globe, but for none of these have we been able to show a common origin. Nor has the science of philology hitherto been able to connect the prehistoric ages of Australia with the culture of the rest of the world, though efforts have been made to show linguistic resemblances both with the Dekkan races and more recently with the negroes of Africa. The archæological investigations are confined to enormous “middens” or refuse heaps. One science remains, viz. comparative anthropology; but even this is not able to give a satisfactory answer, 354for the Australian aborigines form a group by themselves without any marked similarity to any other races. A few anthropological correspondences have led to comparisons with the Papuans, who geographically are their nearest neighbours.

The level of culture that the Australian Aborigines had when they first encountered Europeans wasn’t very advanced. They lived in small tribes without any social organization, constantly moving from place to place, staying in makeshift huts made of leaves or bark; they were almost naked; lacked metal tools, perforated stone tools, or bows and arrows; had poorly made boats, if any; had no domestic animals except for the semi-wild dingo; and had no knowledge of farming. The development leading up to this stage of civilization must be sought in the earliest stages of human culture, where we have little evidence to guide us. There’s no particular value in the unique customs that this people share with other similarly situated races. Practices like circumcision, tattooing, exogamy, and sorcery can be found around the globe, but we haven’t been able to establish a common origin for any of these. The science of philology has not yet connected Australia’s prehistoric periods to the cultures of the rest of the world, despite attempts to demonstrate linguistic similarities with the Deccan races and, more recently, with the African Negroes. Archaeological studies focus mainly on huge “middens” or refuse heaps. One area of study remains, which is comparative anthropology; however, even this doesn’t provide a satisfactory answer, as Australian Aborigines form a distinct group with no significant similarities to other races. A few anthropological comparisons have suggested connections with the Papuans, who are their closest geographic neighbors.

There are in like manner faint traces pointing to the north and north-east, when we seek the source of the earliest culture of Australia. A later current from north-east to south-west has been suggested, but cannot be made to serve as the basis of any reliable hypothesis. It has been shown that weapons (the bow), and boats, and houses, and physical development reveal progress as the York peninsula is approached, and the influence of Malays and Papuans can be definitely pointed out. But all this bears the stamp of modern times, and must be the result of communications in a very recent period. The one thing certain is that the Australian race must have originated ages ago.

There are also faint signs pointing to the north and northeast when we look for the origins of Australia's earliest culture. A later trend from northeast to southwest has been proposed, but it doesn't provide a solid foundation for any trustworthy theory. It's been demonstrated that tools (like the bow), boats, houses, and physical development show advancement as we get closer to the York Peninsula, and the influence of Malays and Papuans can clearly be identified. However, all of this reflects modern times and must be the result of interactions that occurred recently. The one thing we know for sure is that the Australian people must have originated a long time ago.

Investigation, which shows how completely Australia has been cut off from external influence, gives the best answer to the question why the development of the blacks has made so little progress, for the development of the world is found to be dependent on the intercourse between different races, on the conflicts between them, and on the struggle for existence thus caused.

Investigation, which reveals how completely Australia has been separated from outside influence, provides the clearest answer to why the development of the Indigenous people has made so little progress. This is because the development of society is dependent on interactions between different races, on the conflicts that arise between them, and on the struggles for survival that such interactions create.

The very nature of the country has helped to keep the people from making progress. In the first place there are but few inlets of the sea, and in the next place there are two other circumstances which only need to be pointed out to be appreciated. There are no ruminating animals, and grain is very rare. The transition from the most primitive life to that of the herdsman was therefore impossible, and this common door to a higher culture was closed. On the other hand, there was but little inducement to become agricultural, though the wild rice found in the northern part of South Australia has been used as food. Besides the climatic conditions, the long droughts—sometimes lasting for years in the interior of the country—were a decided obstacle to agriculture, even if there had been grain that could bear them better than rice. Finally, it should be added that the natural products are usually so abundant that it is comparatively easy to subsist without labour.

The very nature of the land has kept the people from making progress. First, there are only a few sea inlets, and there are two other factors that, once pointed out, are easy to understand. There are no grazing animals, and grains are very rare. The transition from a primitive lifestyle to that of a herdsman was therefore impossible, which closed off this common path to a higher culture. On the other hand, there was little incentive to pursue agriculture, although the wild rice found in the northern part of South Australia has been used as food. Additionally, the climate, with long droughts—sometimes lasting for years in the interior—was a significant barrier to agriculture, even if there had been grains that could withstand droughts better than rice. Lastly, it should be noted that the natural resources are usually so plentiful that it's relatively easy to survive without much work.

The fact is, at all events, that the great discovery on which all higher civilisation is based, viz. agriculture, had not been made in Australia at the time when it was colonised by Europeans.

The reality is, in any case, that the major discovery that underpins all advanced civilization, namely agriculture, had not been made in Australia when it was colonized by Europeans.

There could be no doubt about the result when the aborigines and the Europeans met. The difference was so great that assimilation was impossible. The only vocations open to the aborigines in the new Australian community were those of the herdsman and policeman. The latter of these was of no advantage to the natives. The first English colonists were mainly banished criminals, reckless people a fact that gave the conflict between the two races the 355character of a war of extermination from the very outset, and in this warfare the native police has contributed much toward the destruction of the aborigines.

There was no doubt about the outcome when the Indigenous people and Europeans came together. The differences were so vast that blending was impossible. The only jobs available to the Indigenous people in the new Australian community were herdsman and policeman. The latter offered no benefit to them. The first English settlers were mostly deported criminals and reckless individuals, which turned the conflict between the two groups into a war of extermination right from the start. In this conflict, the native police played a significant role in the destruction of the Indigenous population.

It is difficult to estimate the number of aborigines in Australia at the time when the European colonisation began. Natives, or traces of them, were met everywhere. Sturt relates that he met about 4000 in the course of a few days. We probably are not wide of the mark when we assume that fifty years ago there were about 200,000 natives in Australia; their number is now estimated at about 60,000.

It’s hard to determine the number of Indigenous people in Australia when European colonization started. Natives, or signs of their presence, were found everywhere. Sturt mentioned that he encountered around 4,000 in just a few days. We’re likely close to the truth when we say that about fifty years ago, there were around 200,000 Indigenous people in Australia; their current estimated population is about 60,000.

The world is familiar with the systematic cruelty with which the Tasmanians were exterminated. In 1872 occurred the death of the last representative of a people which numbered about 5000 souls at the time of the founding of the colony in 1803. Many were killed in wars, many were even hunted out of the woods and destroyed. A large number of them were transported to the islands in Bass Strait, where death and ruin soon overtook them. The regular hunting and shooting of the natives in the early days of Queensland suggests the question, whether the coming of the new settlers deserved the name of the “advent of civilisation.”

The world is aware of the brutal way the Tasmanians were wiped out. In 1872, the last member of a people who numbered around 5,000 at the founding of the colony in 1803 passed away. Many were killed in wars, and many were hunted down and killed. A significant number were sent to the islands in Bass Strait, where death and devastation quickly followed. The regular hunting and shooting of the natives in the early days of Queensland raises the question of whether the arrival of the new settlers can truly be called the “advent of civilization.”

History of the Discovery

Australia was the last continent discovered by the European, a fact easily explained by its situation. In the age of the great discoveries, navigators were seeking a way to India, and whether they chose to go by the way of the Cape of Good Hope or by the Straits of Magellan, in either case the route was far to the north of Australia. The navigators also seem to have kept as far to the north as possible. Still, a very long time cannot have passed ere sailors came in sight of the Australian coast. Strange to say, it is not known with certainty who was the first discoverer of this great continent. Some old maps seem to show that the Portuguese were aware of the existence of a large country south of Java before the year 1545, viz. “Great Java.” On these maps are found coral reefs, rivers, promontories, etc., and a number of names. It is, however, difficult to determine how far these maps may be based on the old purely theoretical assumption that there was a large terra australis incognita, to give equilibrium to the earth and balance the northern hemisphere.

Australia was the last continent discovered by Europeans, a fact easily explained by its location. During the age of great discoveries, navigators were looking for a way to India, and whether they chose to go around the Cape of Good Hope or through the Straits of Magellan, in either case, the route was far north of Australia. The navigators also seemed to keep as far north as possible. Still, it can't have been long before sailors spotted the Australian coast. Strangely, it's not known for sure who was the first to discover this vast continent. Some old maps suggest that the Portuguese were aware of a large landmass south of Java before 1545, referred to as "Great Java." These maps show coral reefs, rivers, promontories, and various names. However, it's challenging to determine how much these maps were based on the old theoretical idea that there was a large terra australis incognita to balance the earth and counter the northern hemisphere.

Ere long the Spanish, the chief rivals of the Portuguese, also presented their claims. By the decision of Pope Alexander II, who acted as arbitrator, the Spanish were permitted to develop their sway only westward of Europe, while all to the east was left to the Portuguese. The conflict which then arose in regard to the Moluccas may explain why both parties were silent in regard to the great country they may have discovered south of the boundary.

Soon after, the Spanish, who were the main competitors of the Portuguese, also put forward their claims. According to the ruling of Pope Alexander II, who acted as a mediator, the Spanish were allowed to expand their influence only to the west of Europe, while everything to the east was reserved for the Portuguese. The dispute that followed over the Moluccas might explain why both sides did not mention the vast land they may have found to the south of the dividing line.

356

COOK’S MONUMENT IN SYDNEY.

Cook's Monument in Sydney.

At all events, the first Australian discoveries of which we have perfectly reliable accounts were not made before the beginning of the seventeenth century. We first come across the Dutch, who during their war of independence attempted to conquer the rich colonies of their enemies—the Spanish and the Portuguese. In connection with this we obtain the following reliable dates: in 1601 the Portuguese De Eridia landed on the north-west coast from the 357west; in 1606 the Spaniard Torres passed from the east through the straits named after him; and subsequently a Dutch ship called Duyfhen sailed along the coast toward Cape York. From this time the Dutch carry on nearly all the explorations. It would take us beyond our present limits to present the details of this gradual discovery, from the Dutch headquarters in Java, or on their route to East India, a route which they had to lay south of that of the Portuguese. In 1627 Peter Nuyts entered the great Australian bay from the west. In 1642 Tasman gained the south point of that country, which he called Van Diemen’s Land. It is not easy now to decide whether his reasons for regarding the latter as the southern point of a large continent were based on old theories or on more recent observations.

At any rate, the first reliable accounts of Australian discoveries didn’t appear until the beginning of the seventeenth century. We first encounter the Dutch, who, during their war for independence, tried to take control of the wealthy colonies belonging to their enemies—the Spanish and the Portuguese. With this in mind, we have the following confirmed dates: in 1601, the Portuguese De Eridia landed on the north-west coast from the west; in 1606, the Spaniard Torres passed from the east through the straits that bear his name; and then a Dutch ship called Duyfhen sailed along the coast toward Cape York. From this point on, the Dutch conducted nearly all the explorations. It would take us beyond our current focus to go through the details of this gradual discovery, from the Dutch base in Java or along their route to East India, which they had to navigate south of the Portuguese route. In 1627, Peter Nuyts entered the great Australian bay from the west. In 1642, Tasman reached the southern tip of that country, which he named Van Diemen’s Land. It's not easy to determine now whether his belief that this was the southern point of a larger continent was based on old theories or more recent observations.

The English, the nation which was destined to control the development of Australia, did not make their appearance before 1688, when the freebooter Dampier explored the west coast. This happened one hundred years before the first colonies—the centenary of which has been recently celebrated—were planted, in 1788.

The English, the nation that was meant to oversee Australia's development, didn't arrive until 1688, when the pirate Dampier explored the west coast. This was a century before the first colonies were established, which has recently celebrated its hundredth anniversary in 1788.

It was a long time before anybody made any decided effort to take possession of the country, and for this delay there were many reasons. The power of the Spanish was exhausted, and so was that of Portugal, while the victorious Dutch were fully occupied with their new rich provinces. To this must be added that all descriptions of Australia represented the continent as barren and without water to drink, and its natives as poor and savage. Nor did the coasts that had been seen present any very inviting aspect. There are but few harbours on the west and south coasts, and on the north-east side are dangerous coral reefs. The wrong side of Australia had been seen, and it was absurd to prefer this country to the Spice Island or America.

It took a long time for anyone to really try to claim the land, and there were many reasons for this delay. The power of Spain was spent, and so was that of Portugal, while the victorious Dutch were busy with their new wealthy territories. Additionally, all accounts of Australia described the continent as barren and lacking drinkable water, and its people as poor and savage. The coasts that had been explored didn't look too appealing either. There are very few harbors on the west and south coasts, and on the north-east side, there are dangerous coral reefs. Only the less desirable parts of Australia had been seen, and it seemed ridiculous to choose this country over the Spice Islands or America.

It is interesting to note that it was a scientific expedition which first led to the colonisation of the country. In 1768 Captain Cook carried an astronomer and one or two other scientists to Tahiti to observe the transit of Venus, and to make some other researches on their home voyage. This was the beginning of the present phase of scientific expeditions. In 1770 he touched Australia at Botany Bay, and made a chart of the coast to the north as far as Torres Straits, the importance of which he was the first to point out.

It’s fascinating to note that it was a scientific expedition that first led to the colonization of the country. In 1768, Captain Cook took an astronomer and a couple of other scientists to Tahiti to observe the transit of Venus and to conduct some other research on their way home. This marked the beginning of the current era of scientific expeditions. In 1770, he arrived in Australia at Botany Bay and created a map of the coastline northward to Torres Straits, the significance of which he was the first to recognize.

At this time England was greatly puzzled as to what it should do with all such criminals as it had heretofore sent to America. The declaration of independence on the part of the United States had put an end to the transportation of criminals to that country, and the favourable report made by Cook in regard to Botany Bay led Sydney to make up his mind to try Australia. The first transportation was made in 1788, but the colony was soon moved to the 358magnificent harbour of Port Jackson, where the city of Sydney was gradually built up.

At this time, England was confused about what to do with all the criminals it had previously sent to America. The United States' declaration of independence had stopped the transportation of criminals to that country, and Cook's positive report about Botany Bay led Sydney to consider Australia as an option. The first transport occurred in 1788, but the colony was quickly relocated to the 358beautiful harbor of Port Jackson, where the city of Sydney began to develop.

The opening up of the continent was continued with this solitary colony as the base of exploration. Flinders and Bass commenced their expeditions in the year 1795 in a small open boat to both sides of the coast. In 1797 Bass called attention to the strait between Tasmania and the continent, and the next year he circumnavigated the island with Flinders. At the expense of the Government Flinders made charts of a large part of the coast of Australia, and this coast survey was continued from time to time almost to the present day.

The exploration of the continent continued with this isolated colony as the starting point. Flinders and Bass began their journeys in 1795 in a small open boat along both sides of the coast. In 1797, Bass noted the strait between Tasmania and the mainland, and the following year, he and Flinders sailed around the island. With government funding, Flinders created maps of a significant portion of the Australian coastline, and this coastal survey has been periodically updated almost to the present day.

During the most recent years attention has been chiefly given to the exploration of the interior.

During recent years, the focus has primarily been on exploring the interior.

How difficult it must have been to penetrate the Blue Mountains separating Sydney from the plains in the interior is evident from the fact that men like Bass attempted it in vain. It took twenty-five years to advance the first fifty miles, and thus to find a way between the steep rocks to the open country beyond. The first passage was effected in 1813, and from that time the explorations have progressed rapidly. Oxley, Cunningham, Mitchell, Sturt, and others explored the whole country along the rivers toward Victoria. The German naturalist Dr. L. Leichhardt began his explorations along the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1835, and made most valuable reports. In 1847 he undertook his last expedition, a bold attempt to penetrate to the west coast. Not a word was heard of him after April 3, 1848.

How challenging it must have been to cross the Blue Mountains that separate Sydney from the interior plains is clear from the fact that men like Bass tried and failed. It took twenty-five years to cover the first fifty miles and find a way through the steep rocks to the open land beyond. The first successful crossing happened in 1813, and since then, explorations have moved quickly. Oxley, Cunningham, Mitchell, Sturt, and others explored the entire region along the rivers towards Victoria. The German naturalist Dr. L. Leichhardt started his explorations along the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1835 and provided valuable reports. In 1847, he launched his final expedition, a daring attempt to reach the west coast. After April 3, 1848, no one heard from him again.

From Adelaide, settled about the same time, a series of attempts were begun in 1839 to penetrate the country from the south to the north. Heroic efforts were made in this direction by Eyre, who afterwards suffered untold hardships in travelling 1200 miles along the coast to King George’s Sound. O’Hara Burke and Wills were the first to reach the north coast in 1861, but both perished from hunger on their way back. The following year M‘Donald Stuart, after having made two abortive attempts, succeeded in getting through, and from that time onwards the route was open. In 1872 a telegraph line was laid, amid great difficulties, across the whole continent. It followed Stuart’s route, and this enterprise became the basis of a series of explorations all the way to the west coast, and thus the main features of the geography of Australia have become established. Prominent names in connection with this are Giles, Forrest, Warburton, and Gregory.

From Adelaide, which was established around the same time, a series of attempts began in 1839 to explore the country from the south to the north. Heroic efforts were made in this direction by Eyre, who later endured unimaginable hardships traveling 1200 miles along the coast to King George’s Sound. O’Hara Burke and Wills were the first to reach the north coast in 1861, but both died from hunger on their way back. The following year, M‘Donald Stuart, after two unsuccessful attempts, managed to get through, and from that point on, the route was open. In 1872, a telegraph line was laid, facing significant challenges, across the entire continent. It followed Stuart’s route, and this venture laid the groundwork for a series of explorations all the way to the west coast, establishing the main features of Australia's geography. Notable names associated with this are Giles, Forrest, Warburton, and Gregory.

Most of these expeditions into the interior have been undertaken amid the greatest privations, such as a constant lack of water and terrible heat, even up to 127° F., so that it has at times been necessary to bury one’s self in the ground in order to endure it. Add to this the almost impassable spinifex-scrubs, the salt lakes, the sand-storms, etc., and we can form some idea of what the explorer 359had to suffer. The bright sunlight destroyed Sturt’s eyes, and many a life has been lost in the conflict with these similar impediments. But a large territory has been opened to civilisation by these martyrs.

Many of these journeys into the interior have been made under extreme hardships, like constant water shortages and intense heat, reaching up to 127° F. At times, it was even necessary to bury oneself in the ground to cope with it. On top of that, there are the nearly impassable spinifex bushes, salt lakes, sandstorms, and more, which gives us an idea of what the explorer 359had to endure. The bright sunlight damaged Sturt’s eyes, and many lives have been lost in the struggle against these challenges. However, a vast territory has been opened to civilization thanks to these pioneers.

Colonial History

On January 26, 1788, Captain Arthur Phillip landed at Sydney with his first company of prisoners, and in a solemn manner took possession of a whole continent in the name of the inhabitants of a small island on the opposite side of the globe. Had the French expedition under La Perouse come earlier than it did to this place, the whole development of Australia might have taken a different direction. As it was, the ruling power of the British nation got an opportunity of expanding, and a new world was added to the dominion of the Anglo-Saxon race.

On January 26, 1788, Captain Arthur Phillip arrived in Sydney with his first group of prisoners and formally claimed an entire continent on behalf of the residents of a small island on the other side of the world. If the French expedition led by La Perouse had arrived sooner, the entire evolution of Australia could have gone in a different direction. Instead, the British Empire had a chance to expand, adding a new world to the territory of the Anglo-Saxon race.

The beginning was made by about 1000 deported criminals, about one-fourth part of these being women. Now, one hundred years later, the population of the Australian colonies, leaving New Zealand out of consideration, is nearly 3,000,000. The first means of subsistence had to be produced by agriculture, but as few of the new settlers had any knowledge of this art, there was much suffering in the beginning, and in order to escape death from starvation, the domestic animals which had been brought had to be slaughtered. One hundred years later Australia contains 80,000,000 sheep and almost 8,000,000 head of cattle, and it sends annually to the mother country beef, mutton, wool, tallow, wheat, and metals to the value of about £40,000,000 sterling. A most remarkable progress!

The journey started with about 1,000 deported criminals, roughly a quarter of whom were women. Now, a century later, the population of the Australian colonies, not including New Zealand, is nearly 3,000,000. The initial means of survival had to come from agriculture, but since few of the new settlers had any skills in this area, there was considerable hardship at first, and to avoid starving, the livestock that had been brought over had to be slaughtered. A hundred years later, Australia has 80,000,000 sheep and nearly 8,000,000 cattle, and it exports beef, mutton, wool, tallow, wheat, and metals worth about £40,000,000 to the mother country each year. Such remarkable progress!

The story of the early days of the colonies is chiefly a history of the deportation of criminals. The first colony received, from 1788 until the importation was stopped in 1839 by the energetic protest of the “free immigrants,” in all 60,000 criminals. The next colony of criminals was Tasmania, or as the island was then called, Van Diemen’s Land (1803). The deportation of criminals to the latter place ceased in 1853, when 68,000 prisoners had been sent there. What the condition was during the early days of these colonies, guarded by rough soldiers, we can judge from the fact that there occurred in 1835 in New South Wales, among 28,000 prisoners, 22,000 disciplinary punishments (3000 floggings) and 100 executions. In Tasmania, with a population of 37,000, about 15,000 were punished in 1834, including one-seventh part of the free citizens arrested for intemperance.

The early days of the colonies mainly tell the story of criminal deportation. From 1788 until the importation was halted in 1839 due to strong opposition from “free immigrants,” the first colony received a total of 60,000 criminals. The next group of criminals was sent to Tasmania, which was then known as Van Diemen’s Land (1803). The deportation of criminals to that area stopped in 1853 after 68,000 prisoners had been sent there. We can get an idea of the conditions during the early days of these colonies, which were protected by rough soldiers, from the fact that in 1835, in New South Wales, there were 22,000 disciplinary actions (including 3,000 flogging incidents) and 100 executions among a population of 28,000 prisoners. In Tasmania, with a population of 37,000, about 15,000 were punished in 1834, which included one-seventh of the free citizens arrested for drinking too much.

The last colony to which convicts were regularly deported was West Australia, founded in 1829. In 1849 this colony sent a petition to the Government asking for criminals to be sent thither, in order to promote the development of the colony. Under pressure from the other colonies, which finally on their own account 360resisted by force the landing of such immigrants, West Australia had to abandon this traffic in 1868, having then received about 10,000.

The last colony where convicts were regularly sent was Western Australia, established in 1829. In 1849, this colony submitted a petition to the Government requesting that criminals be sent there to help develop the colony. Under pressure from the other colonies, which ultimately resisted the arrival of such immigrants by force, Western Australia had to stop this practice in 1868, having received around 10,000 convicts.

Thus it will be seen that this transportation introduced great numbers of people to Australia, and at the same time the voluntary immigration kept increasing. Two of the present colonies were not started as convict settlements. There was an attempt to send convicts to Melbourne in 1803, but the plan was soon abandoned, and the colony of Port Phillip, as Victoria was then called, was founded in 1834 by free citizens from Tasmania. South Australia was colonised directly by an English company, who received the land for nothing on condition that they should encourage immigration. In 1841 this settlement contained 23,000 inhabitants, chiefly freemen.

Thus, it will be seen that this transportation brought many people to Australia, and at the same time, voluntary immigration continued to grow. Two of the current colonies were not established as convict settlements. There was an attempt to send convicts to Melbourne in 1803, but that plan was quickly abandoned, and the colony of Port Phillip, which was known as Victoria back then, was founded in 1834 by free citizens from Tasmania. South Australia was settled directly by an English company, which received the land for free on the condition that they promote immigration. By 1841, this settlement had 23,000 residents, mainly freemen.

The growth of the colonies depended on the development of trade and industries. In the beginning all labour was confined to agriculture, and but little progress was made, till during the first decades of this century MacArthur advocated the raising of sheep with great energy, and after a passage through the Blue Mountains had been found by Macquarie, a new impetus was given to the development of Australia. The manner in which the country became settled may be described as follows—

The growth of the colonies relied on the development of trade and industries. At first, all work was focused on agriculture, and not much progress was made until the early decades of this century when MacArthur passionately promoted sheep farming. After Macquarie discovered a route through the Blue Mountains, Australia experienced a new surge in development. The way the country was settled can be described as follows—

In the first place, an explorer makes his way into unknown regions. Close on his heels follows the squatter or shepherd, and slowly in his track comes the selector, the permanent agricultural settler. The original huntsman, the shepherd, and the farmer follow each other in rapid succession—it is the history of civilisation in a nutshell.

In the beginning, an explorer ventures into uncharted territories. Right behind him comes the squatter or shepherd, and gradually following in his path is the selector, the permanent agricultural settler. The original hunter, the shepherd, and the farmer come one after another—it’s the story of civilization in a nutshell.

The economical politics of Australia have long been wrestling with the question of the proper modus vivendi between the squatter and the selector, whose interests are conflicting. Many experiments have been made in the various colonies, but this troublesome question has not yet been solved.

The economic policies of Australia have been grappling with the issue of finding the right modus vivendi between the squatters and the selectors, whose interests clash. Many trials have been conducted in the different colonies, but this challenging question remains unresolved.

In the midst of the development of sheep-raising and agriculture a third factor, gold, was added, which gave Australia an immense advantage, even though it at the same time interfered with the above-mentioned industries.

In the middle of developing sheep farming and agriculture, a third factor, gold, came into play, which gave Australia a huge advantage, even though it also disrupted those industries.


The year 1851 marks an epoch in the history of Australia. It was literally the beginning of a golden age for the continent, for in that year the great gold mines of Victoria were discovered.

The year 1851 marks a significant moment in Australia's history. It was truly the start of a golden era for the continent, as that year saw the discovery of the major gold mines in Victoria.

It had long been believed that gold must be found in Australia; among the deported criminals there were all sorts of reports about finds said to have been made in the Blue Mountains; but the Government paid no attention to these strange rumours and the result was that the matter was not properly investigated.

It had long been thought that gold could be found in Australia; among the deported criminals, there were all kinds of stories about discoveries said to have been made in the Blue Mountains; however, the Government ignored these strange rumors, and as a result, the issue was not properly investigated.

But in 1851 the greatest excitement was created when the 361Government purchased from a Californian gold digger, for a large sum of money, some rich gold fields which he had discovered in the Blue Mountains. When the Government by this step had given its public sanction to the question, the colony became wild with excitement. The most extravagant reports concerning the immense wealth of the gold fields were circulated, and were accepted as gospel truth. From all quarters people assembled to the new fountains of wealth, where they expected to find the pure gold in such quantities that it was only necessary to stoop down and fill their pockets with the precious ore. The disappointment when they arrived in the promised land and learned from experience that there was need of months—nay, of years—of hard and persistent labour to attain the wealth they were seeking, was as great as the expectation which had previously been formed. The larger part of the army of adventurers who had flocked together to the gold mines to secure all of a sudden a wealth which they had neither the strength nor the endurance to acquire under ordinary circumstances, returned discouraged to Sydney, after having spent a month in idleness in the gold fields. In their wrath on account of the deception, as they called it, they nearly took the life of the Californian who had discovered the fields.

But in 1851, there was huge excitement when the 361Government bought some rich gold fields from a Californian gold digger for a large sum. Once the Government gave its official approval, the colony went wild with excitement. Extravagant stories about the immense wealth of the gold fields spread quickly and were believed as absolute truth. People rushed from all over to these new sources of wealth, expecting to find pure gold in such abundance that all they had to do was bend down and fill their pockets with ore. However, their disappointment upon arriving in the promised land and realizing that it would take months—if not years—of hard, persistent work to achieve the wealth they sought was as great as the expectations they had formed. Most of the adventurers who had gathered at the gold mines hoping to suddenly secure riches that they didn’t have the strength or endurance to earn under normal circumstances returned disheartened to Sydney after spending a month doing nothing in the gold fields. In their anger over what they considered a deception, they nearly took the life of the Californian who had discovered the fields.

A number of gold diggers, however, gradually congregated in the Blue Mountains from the various colonies. When the work proved to be very profitable the rush was so great that one of the earlier colonies, the little Victoria, which had recently been founded, was on the point of being entirely deserted. To prevent the colony from perishing altogether, the leading men in Melbourne offered a large reward to any person who succeeded in discovering gold in Victoria. Before long, specimens of gold were found on the Yarra river, a few miles from Melbourne; in the course of a short time the famous gold mines of Ballarat and Bendigo were discovered.

A group of gold diggers gradually gathered in the Blue Mountains from various colonies. As the work turned out to be very profitable, the rush was so intense that one of the earlier colonies, the small new colony of Victoria, was about to be completely abandoned. To save the colony from disappearing altogether, the prominent figures in Melbourne offered a big reward to anyone who managed to find gold in Victoria. Soon enough, gold samples were discovered along the Yarra River, just a few miles from Melbourne; before long, the famous gold mines of Ballarat and Bendigo were found.

At first gold was found in Ballarat in the usual manner—that is, in the bed of a river; but this was soon exhausted. A thick layer of clay was struck below the sand, and the work was abandoned in order to search for new fields. Fortunately one of the gold diggers, who had made up his mind to stay some time longer, got the idea of working through the clay, and by so doing he reached enormous quantities of gold in the old bed of the river. For centuries the streams had carried gold down from the mountains and deposited it here in “pockets” in the bed of the river. A single “pocket” of this kind would sometimes contain thousands of pounds’ worth of gold. Within a month Ballarat became the richest gold field in the whole world.

At first, gold was discovered in Ballarat in the usual way—meaning, in the riverbed—but this soon ran out. They hit a thick layer of clay beneath the sand, leading them to stop and look for new areas. Luckily, one of the gold diggers, determined to stay a bit longer, thought of digging through the clay, and by doing so, he uncovered huge amounts of gold in the old riverbed. For centuries, the streams had carried gold down from the mountains and deposited it here in "pockets" in the riverbed. A single "pocket" could sometimes contain thousands of pounds worth of gold. Within a month, Ballarat became the richest gold field in the entire world.

The gold fever grew into a perfect rage. Melbourne was almost deserted. People of every class and from every part of the world left their work, their situations, and their homes to seek their fortunes. 362In Melbourne policemen left their posts of duty, officials threw up their offices, and sailors deserted their ships.

The gold rush turned into a complete frenzy. Melbourne was nearly empty. People from all walks of life and all corners of the globe abandoned their jobs, positions, and homes to chase after wealth. 362 In Melbourne, police officers abandoned their duties, officials quit their jobs, and sailors left their ships.

In spite of the fact that everybody rushed to the gold mines, thus preventing a normal development of the country, Australia got full compensation in the new impetus given to immigration. The year after the discovery of gold more than 100,000 immigrants arrived in Victoria. Thus the population was doubled in a single year, and during the following five years it increased fivefold. While in 1830 there were less than 4000 inhabitants, in 1860 their number had increased to 1,300,000. The quantity of gold found was also sufficiently large to explain this increase of population. During the next ten years £100,000,000 were produced in Victoria alone.

Despite everyone rushing to the gold mines, which hindered the normal growth of the country, Australia truly benefited from the significant boost in immigration. The year after gold was discovered, over 100,000 immigrants arrived in Victoria. This meant the population doubled in just one year, and in the next five years, it grew five times. While there were fewer than 4,000 residents in 1830, by 1860 that number had surged to 1,300,000. The amount of gold found was also enough to account for this population boom. Over the next ten years, £100,000,000 worth of gold was mined in Victoria alone.

As a matter of course, money had but little value in such circumstances. During he first years after the discovery of the gold fields sovereigns passed as freely as copper pennies. A barber would get £1 for cutting a gold digger’s hair; the idea of giving change back was never thought of.

As a matter of course, money had little value in those circumstances. In the first years after the discovery of the gold fields, sovereigns passed as freely as copper pennies. A barber would get £1 for cutting a gold digger’s hair; the idea of giving change back was never considered.

Many characteristic stories are told of this golden age of the fortune-seekers. A gold digger took a holiday, and went into a restaurant where he demanded a breakfast for £10. The hostess looked at him, smiled, and answered that she was not able to furnish so expensive a breakfast at present. Her highest price was five shillings. “Well,” said the customer, “give me the best you have.” The hostess did her best, and served every hot and cold dish she could devise. The gold digger seated himself at the table, looked at the various dishes with the air of an epicure, but at length turned up his nose and declared that there was nothing fit for him to eat. Then he took a large roll of bank-notes out of his pocket, selected a £10 note, laid it between two pieces of bread and butter, ate it, and washed it down with champagne. “That’s what I call a ten-pound breakfast,” he added, and paid his bill and walked out.

Many classic stories are told about this golden age of fortune-seekers. A gold digger took a break and went into a restaurant where he demanded a breakfast for £10. The hostess looked at him, smiled, and replied that she couldn’t provide such an expensive breakfast at the moment. Her highest price was five shillings. “Well,” said the customer, “give me the best you have.” The hostess did her best and served every hot and cold dish she could think of. The gold digger sat down at the table, examined the various dishes as if he were a food critic, but eventually turned up his nose and declared that there was nothing fit for him to eat. Then he pulled out a large roll of banknotes from his pocket, picked a £10 note, laid it between two slices of bread and butter, ate it, and washed it down with champagne. “That’s what I call a ten-pound breakfast,” he said, paid his bill, and walked out.

Two Irishmen came into an inn to rest while the coachman was changing horses. The Irishmen were gold diggers who had reaped an abundant harvest, and they were now on their way home to the Emerald Isle with their pockets full of gold.

Two Irishmen walked into an inn to take a break while the coach driver was changing horses. The Irishmen were gold miners who had struck it rich, and they were now heading home to the Emerald Isle with their pockets full of gold.

They learned that the innkeeper also was an Irishman, and this fact aroused their patriotism; so they resolved to drink a toast to old Ireland in champagne. Fifty bottles of this choice beverage were demanded for the honour of Ireland. But no sooner had they paid the £50 and opened the first two bottles than the coachman shouts, “All ready!” The Irishmen climb into their places in the coach and proceed on their journey, leaving the host to finish the remaining forty-eight bottles.

They found out that the innkeeper was also Irish, which sparked their patriotism. So, they decided to toast to old Ireland with champagne. They ordered fifty bottles of this fine drink to honor Ireland. But as soon as they paid the £50 and popped open the first two bottles, the coachman yelled, “All ready!” The Irishmen got into their seats in the coach and continued their journey, leaving the innkeeper to finish the other forty-eight bottles.

The average individual gains were, however, not so large, and the digging for gold was gradually reduced to systematic methods. 363The work by degrees became a link in that mining industry which embraced copper, coal, and tin. Copper and coal were discovered in Australia long before gold—as was also tin, which in its importance to the colonies may in time equal the others. New discoveries of gold have attracted adventurers to the north of Australia, and opened new avenues for immigration; but the continent is, upon the whole, pastoral and agricultural.

The average individual gains weren't that significant, and gold mining gradually turned into a more organized operation. 363 Over time, this work became part of a broader mining industry that included copper, coal, and tin. Copper and coal were found in Australia well before gold, as was tin, which might eventually be as important to the colonies as the others. New gold discoveries have drawn adventurers to northern Australia and created new opportunities for immigration, but overall, the continent is more focused on farming and ranching.

The Chinese have forced their way into all the islands of the Indian Ocean, and this new current of immigration has given the development of Australia, particularly of tropical Queensland, a peculiar character.

The Chinese have pushed their way into all the islands of the Indian Ocean, and this new wave of immigration has given the development of Australia, especially tropical Queensland, a unique character.

Efforts have been made to check in an effective manner this influx of Chinese labourers, who supplant the white workmen. Here, as in America, an “import duty” and similar obstacles have been tried in order to stop the stream, but still the Chinese kept coming. A treaty with China, making immigration therefrom almost impossible, last year failed to be ratified by the Chinese Government. It is still an open question whether there is any way of stopping this influx, or whether the Chinese stream of immigration will continue to form an undercurrent to that from Europe. It does not seem possible that the Chinese will ever become the predominating element.

Efforts have been made to effectively manage the influx of Chinese laborers, who displace white workers. Here, as in America, an "import duty" and similar measures have been attempted to stop the flow, but the Chinese continued to arrive. A treaty with China that would have made immigration nearly impossible was not approved by the Chinese Government last year. It remains uncertain whether there is any way to halt this influx, or if the flow of Chinese immigrants will continue alongside that from Europe. It doesn't seem likely that the Chinese will ever become the dominant group.

The Kanakas being better able to endure the heat than the white population, it is probable that here, as in America, a class of Anglo-Saxon plantation-owners dependent on coloured labour may be developed.

The Kanakas can handle the heat better than the white population, so it’s likely that here, like in America, a group of Anglo-Saxon plantation owners reliant on colored labor may emerge.

The nature of the country has given its industries their peculiar character. The raising of sheep requires immense pastures, and agriculture assumes wide dimensions on the new and fertile soil. The result is that local centres are created with great difficulty in the midst of this industry spread over so large a domain. The points of colonisation first chosen thus obtain a great advantage and monopolise the trade. They become centres of knowledge and of pleasure, and they absorb all that stream of immigrants who are not suited to agriculture and do not acquire land but settle wherever they can earn a bare living. The fact that a population of less than 3,000,000 scattered over an immense territory has two cities, Melbourne and Sydney, of nearly 400,000 inhabitants each, and that one-third of the population of Australia lives in five of the largest cities, is unique and is explained by what has been stated above.

The country's characteristics have given its industries a unique identity. Raising sheep requires vast pastures, and farming expands significantly on the new, fertile land. As a result, it's challenging to establish local centers amid this widespread industry. The initial points of colonization gain a significant advantage and monopolize trade. They become hubs of knowledge and leisure, attracting immigrants who aren't suited for farming and don't own land, settling wherever they can make a basic living. It's noteworthy that a population of under 3,000,000 spread across a vast area has two cities, Melbourne and Sydney, each with nearly 400,000 residents, and that one-third of Australia’s population lives in just five of the largest cities, which is unique and can be explained by the factors mentioned above.

The political separation of the different colonies is intimately connected with the uneven distribution of the population. The independent development of the two chief centres, Melbourne and Sydney, could not fail to break the old New South Wales into two colonies (1851). Tasmania obtained its own seat of government 364in 1825 in Hobart Town. With Brisbane’s development came Queensland’s separation in 1859 as an independent colony, which doubled its population in the subsequent six years. There is a constantly growing desire for emancipation, and at the present time strenuous efforts are being made to make the north part of Queensland into a separate colony.

The political separation of the various colonies is closely linked to the uneven distribution of the population. The independent growth of the two main centers, Melbourne and Sydney, inevitably led to the division of the old New South Wales into two colonies in 1851. Tasmania established its own government seat in Hobart Town in 1825. With the development of Brisbane, Queensland became a separate colony in 1859, which saw its population double in the following six years. There's a growing desire for independence, and currently, there are strong efforts being made to turn the northern part of Queensland into a separate colony. 364

At the same time as this work of separation is progressing there are also centralising elements at work, and the latter will no doubt lead to favourable results in the near future. Efforts are being made to unite the various colonies into a confederation. There also prevails a strong common sentiment in regard to the efforts of all other nations to establish colonies in the neighbouring countries (the Germans in New Guinea and the French in New Caledonia), and an arrangement for a common defence of their interests against these rivals has already been begun. National pride is very marked in Australia.

At the same time that this process of separation is happening, there are also centralizing forces at play, which will likely lead to positive outcomes in the near future. Efforts are underway to unite the different colonies into a confederation. There's also a strong shared sentiment about the attempts of other countries to establish colonies in the neighboring areas (like the Germans in New Guinea and the French in New Caledonia), and a plan for a joint defense of their interests against these rivals has already begun. National pride is very noticeable in Australia.

The bond of union between Australia and the mother country has not been loosened in the midst of this development toward independence. On the contrary, the Australians cling to it with increasing tenacity, and with even more enthusiasm than Englishmen themselves. The best proof of this is the fact that Australia sent a special contingent to take part in England’s last war at Suakim. The form of the proposed imperial federation has, however, not yet been worked out.

The connection between Australia and Britain hasn't weakened during this shift towards independence. On the contrary, Australians are holding onto it more tightly and with even more enthusiasm than the English themselves. The best evidence of this is that Australia sent a special group to participate in Britain’s last war at Suakim. However, the details of the proposed imperial federation are still not finalized.

A similar effort for political emancipation from British control has been going on within the separate colonies. In the first convict settlements of course martial law was administered by their governors, but in the political conflict—carried on chiefly in the mother colony, New South Wales—home rule became fully established. At first the governor chose his own ministers; but in course of time (1824) the ministry became dependent on the general elections, as in England. At length in 1851, the critical year in the annals of Australia, the colonies secured a perfectly independent constitution providing for two legislative houses. In the various colonies members of the upper house were chosen either by the Government or by the wealthy classes of the community. A certain property qualification was also originally necessary for members of the lower house, though this is now merely nominal.

A similar push for political freedom from British control has been happening in the separate colonies. In the early convict settlements, the governors enforced martial law, but in the political struggle—mainly taking place in the main colony, New South Wales—home rule was fully established. Initially, the governor appointed his own ministers; however, over time (1824), the ministry became accountable to general elections, like in England. Finally, in 1851, a pivotal year in Australia's history, the colonies obtained a completely independent constitution that set up two legislative houses. In the various colonies, members of the upper house were selected either by the Government or by the affluent classes in the community. Originally, there was also a property requirement for members of the lower house, although this is now mostly just a formality.

The English system of jurisprudence and of municipal rule prevails everywhere. The schools are free and unsectarian, and attendance is compulsory. The colonies which originally consisted of criminals have developed a remarkable interest in the cause of education. As in the United States, universities and academics are largely the product of private munificence.

The English legal system and local governance are dominant everywhere. Schools are free and non-religious, and attendance is mandatory. The colonies, which started out as places for criminals, have developed a strong interest in education. Just like in the United States, universities and colleges are mainly supported by private donations.

Relying on their rapid development and on their large natural resources, the colonies have been induced to incur an enormous 365public debt, amounting to about £20,000,000, and we must bear in mind that the population is only about 3,000,000. The above debt includes, however, local expenditures, and much of it has been created for building railroads, which were very much needed in this large country. But the Government owns 1,400,000,000 acres of unsold land, and though a part of this is almost worthless, still the revenue which will come in from its sale may justify the incurring of such a debt.

Relying on their rapid growth and vast natural resources, the colonies have taken on a massive public debt of about £20,000,000, with a population of only about 3,000,000. This debt includes local expenses, and a significant portion was used for building railroads, which were essential in this expansive country. However, the Government owns 1,400,000,000 acres of unsold land, and even though some of it is nearly worthless, the revenue from its sale might make such a debt reasonable.

The history of the colonisation reveals a community which still possesses the vigour of youth, and whose culture is wholly European, and these results, wonderful as they are, have been achieved in two generations. If we could visit Australia two generations hence we would probably find a country where not only European flora—grain, grass, etc.—and European fauna—the sheep, horse, cow, rabbit, sparrow, etc.—will have invaded and conquered the large districts which have been cut off from the rest of the world since the tertiary period, but where every trace of the original population will have disappeared. Instead of a stagnation of thousands of years in the first stages of the stone age, we shall have a vigorous development parallel with the culture of Europe and America.

The history of colonization shows a community that still has the energy of youth, with a culture that is entirely European. These impressive results, remarkable as they are, have been achieved in just two generations. If we were to visit Australia two generations from now, we would likely find a country where not only European plants—like grain and grass—and European animals—such as sheep, horses, cows, rabbits, and sparrows—will have taken over the vast areas that have been isolated from the rest of the world since the tertiary period, but where all traces of the original population will have vanished. Rather than remaining in the stagnation of the early stone age for thousands of years, we will see a dynamic development that parallels the cultures of Europe and America.

In the whole history of man’s development a more sudden revolution is not known than that which has happened in Australia during this century.

In all of human history, there hasn’t been a more sudden change than what has occurred in Australia during this century.

At the centennial festival celebrated last year in Australia it was prophesied that one hundred years hence Australia will be a federal republic with 50,000,000 English-speaking inhabitants, who, sprung from the same race as that which gave birth to the Americans, will have developed into a new but easily recognisable type, resembling but yet differing from their Yankee cousins. The motto of the Australians is “Advance Australia!” They have proved that they have been able to carry out this maxim in the past and they will not fail to do so in the future.

At the centennial festival held last year in Australia, it was predicted that one hundred years from now, Australia will be a federal republic with 50 million English-speaking residents, who, coming from the same background as those who created America, will have evolved into a new but easily recognizable type, similar to yet distinct from their American cousins. The motto of the Australians is “Advance Australia!” They have shown that they can live by this motto in the past, and they will continue to do so in the future.

366

II
Earth Science

Australia may be compared to a gigantic plate. The interior part is flat, moderately high (300 to 2150 feet), and the elevation increases toward the edges. The raised edge of this plate is in the south-east, where we find the highest summit in Australia, Mount Townsend, in Kosciuszko Range, which is 7059 feet high. The edge of the plate has a very marked character on the east coast, where a continuous though not very high chain of mountains stretches from Victoria through the eastern part of New South Wales and Queensland to the York peninsula, which bounds on the east the great Gulf of Carpentaria. This whole mountain chain is embraced by the Australian geographers (e.g. G. Sutherland) in the term “The Great Dividing Range,” the separate parts of which have separate names. In the boundary between Victoria and New South Wales it is called the Australian Alps, and west of Sydney the Blue Mountains.

Australia can be likened to a giant plate. The interior is flat and moderately elevated (between 300 and 2150 feet), with the height increasing toward the edges. The raised edge of this plate is located in the southeast, where we find the highest peak in Australia, Mount Townsend, in the Kosciuszko Range, standing at 7059 feet. The edge of the plate is quite distinct along the east coast, where a continuous, though not very high, mountain range stretches from Victoria through the eastern parts of New South Wales and Queensland to the York Peninsula, which borders the great Gulf of Carpentaria to the east. This entire mountain range is referred to by Australian geographers (e.g., G. Sutherland) as “The Great Dividing Range,” with different sections having their own names. In the region between Victoria and New South Wales, it is called the Australian Alps, and to the west of Sydney, it is known as the Blue Mountains.

Round the lower part of the Gulf of Carpentaria and in a part of the south coast of Australia the “plate” has no edge, and low and flat country stretches here from the sea far into the interior. On the other hand an elevation is found in the “bottom of the plate” in Central Australia, but this elevation nowhere reaches 3000 feet.

Round the lower part of the Gulf of Carpentaria and along a section of the southern coast of Australia, the “plate” has no edge, and low, flat land extends from the sea deep into the interior. In contrast, there is an elevation in the “bottom of the plate” in Central Australia, but this elevation never rises above 3000 feet.

Australia has no streams to be compared with the great rivers of other countries, a fact due to the scarcity of rain. The largest stream is Murray river, which empties itself into the sea on the south coast. With its tributaries it drains a country as large as the triangle formed by North Cape, Christiania, and St. Petersburg. During the rainy season the lower part of Murray river is navigable.

Australia has no rivers that can compare to the great rivers of other countries, mainly because of the lack of rainfall. The largest river is the Murray River, which flows into the ocean on the southern coast. With its tributaries, it drains an area as big as the triangle formed by North Cape, Oslo, and St. Petersburg. During the rainy season, the lower part of the Murray River is navigable.

Australia consists of primitive rock, granite, gneiss, and silurian rock—that is to say, very old formations, and nearly identical with those of the Scandinavian peninsula.

Australia is made up of ancient rock, granite, gneiss, and Silurian rock—in other words, very old formations that are almost the same as those found in the Scandinavian peninsula.

There are many coal-bearing strata in Queensland and in the north-eastern part of New South Wales; thus Australia, in addition to its other mineral wealth, also possesses “black diamonds.” In many 367places strata from the mesozoic period of the earth’s history have been found.

There are many coal-bearing layers in Queensland and in the northeastern part of New South Wales; so Australia, along with its other mineral resources, also has “black diamonds.” In many 367 places, layers from the Mesozoic era of the earth’s history have been discovered.

The shell given below, of which I found a large number lying in sandstone near Minnie Downs 400 miles west from Rockhampton, is a gigantic Inoceramus from the cretaceous period. I gave this fossil to the mineralogical cabinet in Christiania University, and it has been described by the Swedish Professor Bernh. Lundgren, who is an authority in this field of science.

The shell shown below, which I found in large quantities in sandstone near Minnie Downs, 400 miles west of Rockhampton, is a huge Inoceramus from the Cretaceous period. I donated this fossil to the mineralogy cabinet at the University of Christiania, and it has been described by the Swedish professor Bernh. Lundgren, who is an expert in this area of science.

A LARGE FOSSIL SEA-SHELL FROM WESTERN QUEENSLAND (Inoceramus maximus)

(length 12¾ inches, breadth 7¼ inches).

A LARGE FOSSIL SEA SHELL FROM WESTERN QUEENSLAND (Inoceramus maximus)

(length 12¾ inches, width 7¼ inches).

The remains of animal and vegetable life found in the older strata agree, as a whole, with those found in other parts of the globe of the same periods. At some time in the mesozoic age the Australian continent must have been separated and have become 368a continent by itself. This plainly appears in the tertiary period, during which the greater part of Australia seems to have remained an independent dry country. This was also the case during the quaternary period.

The remains of animals and plants found in the older layers of rock generally match those found in other parts of the world from the same time periods. At some point during the Mesozoic era, Australia must have broken away and become its own continent. This is clearly evident in the Tertiary period, when most of Australia appears to have stayed a separate dry land. The same was true during the Quaternary period.

Australia has had no ice period. At least but uncertain traces of glacial actions are to be found.

Australia has never experienced an ice age. There are only vague and uncertain signs of glacial activity.

In the tertiary period we must look for the oldest ancestors of the present fauna, in the quaternary for the immediate progenitors, which resemble the present animals, and many of them are remarkable for their size. There has been a kangaroo one-third larger than the present species, there has also been a gigantic animal related to the kangaroo and living on vegetables, the Diprotodon, which was about as large as an elephant. The remains of this animal are so widespread and so numerous as to make it evident that it must have existed wellnigh throughout Australia.

In the Tertiary period, we should look for the earliest ancestors of today's animals, and in the Quaternary, for the immediate predecessors that resemble modern species; many of these are notable for their size. There was a kangaroo that was one-third larger than today's species, and there was also a huge animal related to the kangaroo that was herbivorous, the Diprotodon, which was about the size of an elephant. The remains of this creature are so widespread and abundant that it's clear it must have lived almost all over Australia.

At the time when the country became inhabited by man there still lived one of the great animals of the palæozoic times, namely a bird resembling the ostrich and much larger than the emu. Its bones have been found in the middens of the savages, and the joints show marks of their flint knives.

At the time when humans first settled in the country, there was still one of the great animals from the Paleozoic era living there, specifically a bird similar to an ostrich and much larger than an emu. Its bones have been discovered in the waste heaps of the early people, and the joints display marks from their flint knives.

Among the more recent geological formations is the so-called “desert sandstone,” which is found scattered through a great part of the interior. It contains no sea-shells, and but few remains of plants and of fresh-water shells. There are various opinions in regard to its origin. Some think it was deposited in large lakes, which are supposed to have been very numerous in a remote age. A more probable theory is, however, that the substratum has been disintegrated into sand and stone dust and blown about by the wind.

Among the more recent geological formations is the so-called “desert sandstone,” which is found scattered throughout much of the interior. It contains no sea shells and only a few remains of plants and fresh-water shells. There are different opinions about its origin. Some believe it was formed in large lakes that are thought to have been very common in the distant past. However, a more likely theory is that the underlying material has broken down into sand and stone dust and was carried away by the wind.

Australia has no active volcanoes, but extinct ones are numerous. Some of those found in Victoria are believed to have been active in a late prehistoric age.

Australia has no active volcanoes, but there are many extinct ones. Some of those in Victoria are thought to have been active in a late prehistoric era.

Among the mineral products of Australia gold is the most important. It had its seat originally in veins of quartz in the oldest rocks. By the disintegration of the rocks during the long geological ages much alluvial gold has been deposited among the sand and the gravel. The running water carries stony substances with it more rapidly than gold, which lags behind on account of its weight. The result is that the deposits increase in quantity as we approach the original seat of the gold, and when circumstances are favourable the gold digger may be handsomely rewarded for his labours.

Among Australia's mineral products, gold is the most significant. It originally formed in quartz veins in the oldest rocks. Over long geological periods, the disintegration of these rocks has resulted in substantial alluvial gold being deposited within the sand and gravel. Running water transports heavy materials faster than gold, which lags behind due to its weight. Consequently, the deposits become more plentiful as we get closer to the original source of the gold, and when conditions are right, gold diggers can be greatly rewarded for their efforts.

369

III
PLANTS

Scarcely a flora is to be found with so many peculiarities as the Australian. Still this does not imply that the things which appear so remarkable to the traveller are of equal interest to the botanist, though often they are more so. It is often stated as a curiosity that the Australian “cherry-trees” have the stone outside of the berry, and not inside, as with us in Europe. As a matter of fact this is nothing remarkable, the explanation being simply that what we call the fruit is merely an enlarged berry-like stalk, while the fruit proper is an unsavoury nut, hard as stone, growing at the extreme end of this stalk. Hence the tree is called Exocarpus (“outside fruit”). Similar phenomena are found in other parts of the world.[23] The Australian “pear” grows with the large end nearest the stalk; but it is not a pear, just an inedible fruit, hard as wood, of a Proteacea called Xylomelum pyriforme.

Scarcely a plant species is found with as many oddities as those in Australia. However, this doesn’t mean that what seems so unusual to travelers is equally fascinating to botanists, even if it often is. It's often noted that Australian “cherry trees” have their stone outside of the berry, unlike what we see in Europe. In reality, this isn’t all that special; the reason is that what we refer to as fruit is just an enlarged berry-like stem, while the true fruit is a tasteless nut, as hard as stone, located at the very end of this stem. That’s why the tree is called Exocarpus (“outside fruit”). Similar cases can be found in other parts of the world.[23] The Australian “pear” grows with the larger end close to the stem; but it isn’t a pear, just an inedible fruit, as hard as wood, from a Proteaceae called Xylomelum pyriforme.

23. In the West Indies there is a similar fruit, Anacardium, growing at the extremity of the enlarged stalk.

23. In the West Indies, there's a similar fruit, Anacardium, that grows at the end of the thickened stalk.

This is not uncommon near Port Jackson. Another species of the same genus inhabits Queensland, and two others Western Australia; all bearing similar woody fruits or seed-vessels.

This isn't unusual near Port Jackson. Another species from the same genus lives in Queensland, and two others are found in Western Australia; all of them have similar woody fruits or seed pods.

The arboreous and shrubby vegetation of Australia is almost exclusively evergreen, or rather one might say the leaves are persistent, for the beautiful shades of green characterising the forests and fields of the northern hemisphere are wanting, and are replaced by a monotony of olive-green or bluish-green. On the other hand, brilliantly coloured flowers abound, the natural orders Leguminosæ, Myrtaceæ, and Proteaceæ being especially numerous, diversified, and generally dispersed over the whole country.

The tree and shrub vegetation in Australia is mostly evergreen, or we might say the leaves last a long time, because the beautiful shades of green found in the forests and fields of the northern hemisphere are missing, replaced by a dull palette of olive-green or bluish-green. On the bright side, there's an abundance of brilliantly colored flowers, particularly in the natural families Leguminosæ, Myrtaceæ, and Proteaceæ, which are especially numerous, diverse, and widely spread across the entire country.

Although large areas in the interior have not been botanically explored, the flora of the country is almost as well known as that of Europe, not in its minutest details, but in general character and composition. Robert Brown the eminent English botanist, facile princeps among botanists of his time, was the first real investigator 370of the exceedingly rich Australian flora. He accompanied Flinders on his voyage of discovery in Australian seas during the first years of the present century, and made very extensive collections of dried plants, which he elaborated after his return home. Noteworthy among subsequent botanists who have turned their attention to the vegetation of that part of the world are Sir Joseph Hooker, Sir Ferdinand von Mueller, and the late Mr. George Bentham. Assisted by the extensive collections and notes accumulated by Mueller, combined with the numerous earlier collections preserved in England, Bentham wrote a descriptive account of all the plants known to inhabit Australia. This work is in English, and it is a monument of industry and learning, consisting of seven octavo volumes with an aggregate of 4000 pages.

Although many regions in the interior haven't been thoroughly explored botanically, the plant life of the country is almost as well understood as that of Europe, not in every tiny detail, but in its overall character and makeup. Robert Brown, the renowned English botanist and leading figure among botanists of his time, was the first true researcher of the incredibly rich Australian flora. He joined Flinders on his discovery voyage in Australian waters during the early years of the 21st century and collected a vast array of dried plants, which he studied after returning home. Among the other notable botanists who focused on the vegetation of that region are Sir Joseph Hooker, Sir Ferdinand von Mueller, and the late Mr. George Bentham. With the help of Mueller’s extensive collections and notes, along with numerous earlier collections preserved in England, Bentham produced a descriptive account of all the plants known to grow in Australia. This work is in English and stands as a testament to diligence and scholarship, comprising seven octavo volumes and totaling 4,000 pages.

LEAVES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT OF Eucalyptus amygdalina.

LEAVES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT OF Eucalyptus amygdalina.

Sir Ferdinand von Mueller has since largely supplemented this work, besides publishing a number of highly important, fully illustrated monographs of the more important genera, such as Eucalyptus and Acacia. According to Mueller’s latest census of the flora, the number of species of flowering plants and ferns known to inhabit the country at the end of 1888 was 8909, belonging to 1394 genera and 149 natural orders.

Sir Ferdinand von Mueller has since significantly expanded this work, in addition to releasing several crucial, fully illustrated monographs on key genera, like Eucalyptus and Acacia. According to Mueller’s latest survey of the flora, the number of species of flowering plants and ferns known to exist in the country at the end of 1888 was 8,909, belonging to 1,394 genera and 149 natural orders.

These are large numbers, but, what is more remarkable, something like 7700 of these species are endemic, or peculiar to Australia. The endemic element in a flora is nowhere in the world higher, if even so high, in so large an area, as in Western Australia, where eighty-five per cent of the species are peculiar, and of the remaining fifteen per cent few species extend beyond Australia.

These are large numbers, but what's even more remarkable is that around 7,700 of these species are unique to Australia. The number of endemic plants in the flora is unmatched anywhere else in the world, especially in such a large area, as in Western Australia, where eighty-five percent of the species are unique, and of the remaining fifteen percent, few extend beyond Australia.

Several genera are very numerous in species, notably Acacia, of which there are upwards of 300, and Eucalyptus, of which there are 150; and Grevillea (Proteaceæ) is represented by 150, and Melaleuca (Myrtaceæ) by 100 species.

Several genera have many species, especially Acacia, which has over 300, and Eucalyptus, with 150; Grevillea (Proteaceæ) also has 150 species, while Melaleuca (Myrtaceæ) has 100 species.

Foremost in utility and most prominent in the scenery all over Australia are the species of Eucalyptus, locally named blue gum, green gum, iron-bark, stringy-bark, etc. etc. They vary in stature 371from dwarf bushes to the tallest tree in the world, one species, E. amygdalina (p. 370), considerably overtopping the “big trees” (Wellingtonia) of California. In some parts of Victoria there are groves of this tree averaging upwards of 300 feet in height, and several, as recorded in Mueller’s useful Eucalyptographia, have been found to measure more than 400 feet, and the tallest of all 471 feet.

The most useful and noticeable trees across Australia are the species of Eucalyptus, commonly known as blue gum, green gum, iron-bark, stringy-bark, and so on. They range in size from small bushes to the tallest tree in the world, with one species, E. amygdalina (p. 370), significantly exceeding the “big trees” (Wellingtonia) of California. In certain areas of Victoria, there are groves of this tree that average over 300 feet tall, and several, as noted in Mueller’s helpful Eucalyptographia, have been found to exceed 400 feet, with the tallest reaching 471 feet.

In addition to being the largest and most durable timber of the country, the gum-trees yield a variety of useful products. Most of them exude a valuable gum resin; the bark of others is employed in tanning, and the oil of Eucalyptus is now extracted to the extent of 2000 gallons annually in one factory. Several of them periodically shed their barks in large sheets, after the manner of our planes and birches, but more thoroughly. The leaves, like those of many other Australian trees, are vertical instead of horizontal, so that they afford comparatively little shade. Unlike our forest trees, too, they have more or less conspicuous flowers—some of the western species especially large and highly coloured flowers, followed by woody seed-vessels varying in different species from less than a quarter of an inch to three inches in diameter, and containing numerous very small seeds.

In addition to being the largest and most durable timber in the country, gum trees produce a variety of useful products. Most of them release a valuable gum resin; the bark from others is used in tanning, and oil from Eucalyptus is now extracted at a rate of 2,000 gallons annually in one factory. Several of them periodically shed their bark in large sheets, similar to our planes and birches, but more completely. The leaves, like those of many other Australian trees, grow vertically instead of horizontally, so they provide relatively little shade. Unlike our forest trees, they also have more or less noticeable flowers—some of the western species have especially large and brightly colored flowers, followed by woody seed pods that vary in size from less than a quarter of an inch to three inches in diameter, containing numerous tiny seeds.

The genus Eucalyptus belongs to a tribe of the Myrtaceæ characterised by having a dry instead of a fleshy fruit. To the same group belongs the large genus Melaleuca, which is likewise almost peculiar to Australia and spread all over it. Conspicuous among the species of Melaleuca is M. Leucadendron, which inhabits all except the south-eastern region. It is called tea-tree, paper-bark tree, and milkwood in the different colonies. The wood of this tree is very beautiful and durable, and valuable for shipbuilding and other purposes; and the papery bark is said to be impervious to water and remains sound after the wood has decayed. The accompanying woodcut (p. 373) will give an idea of the aspect of the tree.

The genus Eucalyptus is part of a tribe in the Myrtaceæ family, known for having dry fruits instead of fleshy ones. This group also includes the large genus Melaleuca, which is nearly exclusive to Australia and found throughout the country. Notable among the Melaleuca species is M. Leucadendron, which grows everywhere except the southeastern region. It’s commonly known as tea tree, paper bark tree, and milkwood in various colonies. The wood from this tree is beautiful, durable, and valuable for shipbuilding and other uses; additionally, the papery bark is said to be water-resistant and remains intact after the wood has rotted. The accompanying woodcut (p. 373) will give an idea of what the tree looks like.

Next to the Eucalypti, the Proteaceæ and Acaciæ are almost everywhere prominent features in the landscape. The numerous species of Banksia, honeysuckles of the colonists, are generally dispersed, and easily recognised by their large dense heads of showy flowers, succeeded by large, gaping, woody seed-vessels.

Next to the Eucalypti, the Proteaceæ and Acaciæ are almost always noticeable features in the landscape. The many species of Banksia, known as colonists' honeysuckles, are typically spread out and can be easily identified by their large, dense clusters of bright flowers, followed by large, open, woody seed pods.

With few exceptions, the species of Acacia differ from those of other parts of the world (except two or three in the Mascarene and Sandwich Islands) in the feathery pinnate leaves being reduced to vertically flattened, rounded, and variously shaped organs corresponding to the leaf-stalk, and termed phyllodes. Occasionally, and especially in young seedling-plants, the ordinary pinnate blade is born at the end of the phyllode, thus giving a clue to its true nature.

With a few exceptions, the species of Acacia are different from those found in other parts of the world (except for a couple in the Mascarene and Sandwich Islands) because their feathery pinnate leaves are reduced to vertically flattened, rounded, and differently shaped structures that correspond to the leaf-stalk and are called phyllodes. Sometimes, especially in young seedling plants, the typical pinnate blade can be found at the end of the phyllode, providing a hint about its true nature.

372

AN AUSTRALIAN SPRUCE (Araucaria Bidwillii).

AN AUSTRALIAN SPRUCE (Araucaria Bidwillii).

True cone-bearing trees are rare in Australia, but the allied slender-branched weeping species of Frenela (Callitris) and the very similar Casuarineæ (the she-oak, river oak, forest oak, etc.) are almost inseparable from Australian scenery. In Queensland and northern New South Wales there are, however, two remarkable true cone-bearing trees: namely, the bunya-bunya (Araucaria Bidwillii) and the Moreton Bay pine (A. Cunninghamii). There are other species of Araucaria in Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and South America. The Australian species both afford a valuable timber, but 373it is not permitted to fell the bunya-bunya on the Crown lands, owing to its seeds being a valuable article of food to the aborigines.

True cone-bearing trees are rare in Australia, but the related slender-branched weeping species of Frenela (Callitris) and the very similar Casuarineæ (the she-oak, river oak, forest oak, etc.) are almost inseparable from the Australian landscape. In Queensland and northern New South Wales, however, there are two notable true cone-bearing trees: the bunya-bunya (Araucaria Bidwillii) and the Moreton Bay pine (A. Cunninghamii). Other species of Araucaria can be found in Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and South America. Both Australian species provide valuable timber, but 373 felling of the bunya-bunya on Crown lands is prohibited because its seeds are an important food source for the Aboriginal people.

THE TEA-TREE (Melaleuca Leucadenron).

THE TEA TREE (Melaleuca Leucadenron).

Even so slight a sketch as this of the vegetation of Australia would be singularly imperfect without some reference to the highly peculiar grass-trees (Xanthorrhœa), which form so striking a feature in the scenery, especially in West Australia. The larger species have stout trunks surmounted by a tuft of long narrow recurved 374leaves, from the centre of which rise the tall, slender, shaft-like inflorescences.

Even such a brief overview of the vegetation in Australia would be notably incomplete without mentioning the unique grass-trees (Xanthorrhœa), which are such a striking aspect of the landscape, particularly in Western Australia. The larger species have thick trunks topped with a tuft of long, narrow, curved leaves, from which tall, slender, shaft-like flower spikes emerge.

Few persons knowing anything of botany have not heard of the gigantic African baobab; yet fewer probably have heard of the Australian baobab, found on the sandy plains and stony ridges from the Glenelg river to Arnhem’s Land. It is equally remarkable for the great size of its trunk, which is sometimes as much as eighty feet in circumference.

Few people with any knowledge of botany have not heard of the gigantic African baobab; yet even fewer have heard of the Australian baobab, found on the sandy plains and rocky ridges from the Glenelg River to Arnhem Land. It is equally notable for the massive size of its trunk, which can be as much as eighty feet around.

Tree-ferns are abundant and exceedingly fine in some parts of the eastern side of Australia, and there are some handsome palms in Queensland and New South Wales; but neither of these groups is represented in West Australia, unless it be quite in the north.

Tree ferns are plentiful and really impressive in certain areas on the eastern side of Australia, and there are some beautiful palms in Queensland and New South Wales; however, neither of these groups is found in West Australia, except maybe in the far north.

One more prominent feature in Australian vegetation are the large expanses of the so-called “scrub” of the colonists. This is a dense covering of low bushes, varying in composition in different districts, and named according to the predominating element.

One more notable aspect of Australian vegetation is the vast areas of what the colonists called “scrub.” This is a thick layer of low bushes, which varies in makeup across different regions, and is named based on the dominant plant species.

The nearest botanical affinities of the Australian flora are with that of South Africa, though the characteristic genera, as well as the species, are invariably different in the two countries.

The closest botanical connections of Australian plants are with those of South Africa, although the typical types and species are always different in the two countries.


I am indebted to Dr. F. Kïær for the following brief note on the Australian mosses:—

I owe thanks to Dr. F. Kïær for the following short note on the Australian mosses:—

The moss flora of Queensland has hitherto been comparatively but little studied. The number of varieties of foliaceous mosses known does not reach 200, while there doubtless are three or four times as many. Among those who have collected mosses in Queensland may be mentioned Miss Hellen Scott and Mrs. Amalie Dietrich, and more recently Mr. F. M. Bailey. Some of the mosses found belong to genera scattered throughout the world, e.g., Sphagnum, Dicranum, Barbula, Bryum, Neckera, Thuidium, Hypnum, etc. On the other hand genera are found that are peculiar to Australia, and finally there are forms which are characteristic of the tropical and subtropical zone.

The moss species in Queensland have not been studied much until now. The number of known leafy moss varieties is under 200, but there are likely three or four times that many. Notable collectors of mosses in Queensland include Miss Hellen Scott, Mrs. Amalie Dietrich, and more recently, Mr. F. M. Bailey. Some of the mosses discovered belong to genera found around the world, such as Sphagnum, Dicranum, Barbula, Bryum, Neckera, Thuidium, Hypnum, and others. Conversely, there are genera unique to Australia, and some forms are typical of tropical and subtropical regions.

As peculiar to Australia, we must first mention among the mosses bearing top-fruit the genus Dawsonia, which has not hitherto been found outside of this continent. This genus, of which there are three known species in Queensland, is one of the most beautiful and the largest of all mosses. It resembles a Polytrichum in appearance, and, like the latter, has a hairy cap, but around the opening its fruit is studded with a bunch of threadlike hairs, the latter attaining a number of five hundred and over.

As unique to Australia, we should first highlight the genus Dawsonia among the mosses with top-fruit, which hasn't been found outside this continent. This genus, which has three known species in Queensland, is one of the most beautiful and largest of all mosses. It looks similar to Polytrichum, and like it, has a hairy cap, but around the opening, its fruit is surrounded by a cluster of threadlike hairs, with the number reaching five hundred or more.

Among other genera hitherto found only in Australia we may mention among mosses having side-fruit the Euptychium, remarkable for its leaves, which are folded very compactly, and the short-leaved Bescherellea, which abounds in Queensland. The 375latter genus is known in New Caledonia, and resembles a Cyrtopus, but has only a single row of teeth around the mouth.

Among other genera that have only been found in Australia, we can mention the mosses with lateral fruits, such as Euptychium, notable for its leaves that are folded very tightly, and the short-leaved Bescherellea, which is plentiful in Queensland. The 375latter genus is also known in New Caledonia and resembles a Cyrtopus, but it has only a single row of teeth around its mouth.

The genus Spiridens, found in many species on the Australian islands, and also on the Sunda Isles, on the Moluccas, and on the Philippine Islands, is not represented at all in Queensland.

The genus Spiridens, present in various species on the Australian islands, as well as on the Sunda Isles, the Moluccas, and the Philippine Islands, is completely absent in Queensland.

Among Australian forms we should also mention one or two species of Endotrichella, Orthorrhynchium, the beautiful Braithwaitea, three species of the handsome Thamniella, and a few species of the tree like branched Hypnodendron. The Ptychomnium aciculare (Brid.), common in the southern hemisphere, is also found in Queensland.

Among Australian forms, we should also mention one or two species of Endotrichella, Orthorrhynchium, the beautiful Braithwaitea, three species of the attractive Thamniella, and a few species of the tree-like branched Hypnodendron. The Ptychomnium aciculare (Brid.), which is common in the southern hemisphere, is also found in Queensland.

In addition to Octoblepharum albidum and Rhizogonium spiniforme, found everywhere in the tropics, there are in Queensland several species of the last-named genus.

In addition to Octoblepharum albidum and Rhizogonium spiniforme, which are found all over the tropics, there are several species of the latter genus in Queensland.

The genus Macromitrium has many representatives in Queensland (more than ten species). Furthermore, we may here mention several species of the genera Papillaria, Hypopterygium, and Rhacopilum.

The genus Macromitrium has many representatives in Queensland (over ten species). Additionally, we can mention several species from the genera Papillaria, Hypopterygium, and Rhacopilum.

The moss flora of Queensland, little as it is known, already presents a type widely differing from the European, and the future will doubtless bring forth many interesting discoveries in this extensive colony.

The moss life of Queensland, while not well-known, already shows a type that is quite different from the European version, and the future will surely reveal many interesting discoveries in this vast region.

Of liverworts but few (eighteen) have yet been found in Queensland, but there is a prospect that our knowledge of this interesting group in this country will be supplemented before many years.

Of liverworts, only a few (eighteen) have been discovered in Queensland so far, but there is hope that our understanding of this interesting group in the country will grow in the coming years.

376

IV
WILDLIFE

Chlamydosaurus kingii.

Frilled lizard.

It is evident that Australia is the country which has been least changed in the later geological time, being now in the main as it was in the early part of the tertiary period. It has also been called a land forgotten in the cretaceous period by the development of the earth. This “land of the dawning” reveals to us a corresponding primitive and peculiar animal life, as well as flora with its proteaceæ, leafless casuarinas, and acacias, which remind us of the vanished vegetation of the elder tertiary period. The major part of Australia’s mammals consists of the remarkable marsupials, which belong to 377the very oldest and lowest organisation of all known mammals, and which have, without doubt, survived from an earlier geological period, during which they were also found in Europe. Among birds the country has some remarkable species (Megapodidæ), the only ones in the world that do not hatch their eggs themselves but, like reptiles, bury them in earth-mounds, whose elements of fermentation produce heat and thus hatch the eggs. The two coursers, the emu and the cassowary, when we except the kiwi-kiwi of New Zealand, have more rudimentary wings than any now existing ostrich.

It’s clear that Australia is the country that has changed the least in recent geological times, remaining mostly as it was in the early Tertiary period. It’s also been referred to as a land forgotten during the Cretaceous period by the earth's development. This “land of the dawning” showcases a uniquely primitive and unusual animal life, as well as flora like its proteas, leafless casuarinas, and acacias, which remind us of the extinct vegetation of the earlier Tertiary period. Most of Australia’s mammals are the remarkable marsupials, which belong to the oldest and simplest group of all known mammals and have undoubtedly survived from an earlier geological period when they were also present in Europe. Among birds, the country is home to some unique species (Megapodidæ), the only ones in the world that don’t hatch their eggs themselves but, like reptiles, bury them in earth mounds, where the fermentation produces heat to hatch the eggs. The two coursers, the emu and the cassowary, except for the kiwi-kiwi from New Zealand, have more rudimentary wings than any existing ostrich.

In the tertiary period Australia is supposed to have been much larger than it now is. It is thought to have included New Guinea and Tasmania, and possibly to have extended eastward to the Fiji Islands. According to the celebrated naturalist Mr. A. R. Wallace, this hypothesis is absolutely necessary in order to explain certain facts connected with the Australian fauna. As already stated, remains of remarkable gigantic marsupials have been found. They lived chiefly on grass, and are not supposed to have had a higher organisation than those now existing. Placental[24] beasts of prey that could disturb the existence of these giants not having been found among the fossils, Wallace is of opinion that the latter became extinct on account of physico-geographical, and particularly climatic, changes taking place at the same time as the ice period appeared in the rest of the world. As a remarkable fact it may be mentioned that remains have recently been found of the gigantic moa (Dinornis), a genus hitherto supposed to have been found only in New Zealand.

In the tertiary period, Australia was likely much larger than it is today. It probably included New Guinea and Tasmania, and possibly extended eastward to the Fiji Islands. According to the well-known naturalist Mr. A. R. Wallace, this idea is essential to explain certain facts about Australian wildlife. As mentioned earlier, remains of giant marsupials have been discovered. They primarily fed on grass and are not believed to have had a more developed structure than the species that exist today. Since placental[24] predators that could threaten these giants haven't been found in the fossils, Wallace believes that they went extinct due to physical and geographical changes, particularly climatic shifts, occurring alongside the ice age that affected the rest of the world. Notably, remains of the giant moa (Dinornis), a genus previously thought to be exclusive to New Zealand, have recently been discovered.

24. Placental mammals are those having a placenta to nourish the fœtus, as is the case with all mammals except the marsupials and monotremes.

24. Placental mammals are those that have a placenta to nourish the fetus, which is true for all mammals except marsupials and monotremes.

Among the six zoological regions into which Wallace and Sclater divide the terra firma of the globe, one of the best marked and certainly the most peculiar one is the Australian. Australia and New Guinea are the largest countries in this region, which, in addition to New Zealand and the islands of the Pacific, includes the Indian Archipelago east of Borneo, Java, and Bali. The latter islands, all of which belong to the Indian-Malay region, are separated from the Australian by a belt of very deep water, where Wallace’s well-known line is found on the map. The water is shallow between all the islands south-east of this belt—Celebes, Timor, Amboina, Banda, and New Guinea—which evidently all lie on a submarine bank, and have at one time been united with Australia. There are the most striking differences between the fauna on each side of the belt. Apes, rhinoceroses, tapirs, tigers, leopards, and similar Indian and Malay animals disappear, and we enter an entirely new region, the Australian, the chief characteristic of which is that it lacks nearly all the groups of mammals found elsewhere in the world. Instead we either find the peculiar marsupials, or the mammals are entirely 378wanting, as is the case on most of the South Sea Islands. In ornithology the honey-eaters are especially remarkable, then we have the birds of paradise, the cassowary, and finally the kiwi-kiwi of New Zealand.

Among the six zoological regions that Wallace and Sclater divide the terra firma of the globe into, one of the most distinct and certainly the most unusual is the Australian. Australia and New Guinea are the largest countries in this region, which also includes New Zealand and the Pacific islands, as well as the Indian Archipelago to the east of Borneo, Java, and Bali. The latter islands, all part of the Indian-Malay region, are separated from Australia by a deep-water zone, marked by Wallace’s well-known line on the map. The water is shallow between the islands southeast of this zone—Celebes, Timor, Amboina, Banda, and New Guinea—which clearly lie on a submerged bank and were once connected to Australia. There are significant differences in the fauna on each side of the zone. Animals like apes, rhinoceroses, tapirs, tigers, leopards, and other Indian and Malay species are absent, and we enter a completely new region, the Australian, which is notably characterized by the near absence of nearly all mammal groups found elsewhere in the world. Instead, we mainly find unique marsupials, or the mammals are completely missing, as seen on most South Sea Islands. In ornithology, the honey-eaters stand out, along with the birds of paradise, the cassowary, and finally the kiwi-kiwi of New Zealand.

The zoological character of the region is most marked in Australia, which is rich in peculiar animal forms. As an island-continent extending from 39° to 11° S. lat., and which consequently is several times as large as the islands of the other regions added together, the country naturally has very various climates. In the southern part there is a climate like that of the countries along the Mediterranean; in the northern there is a regular season of rain; while the centre is more hot and more arid than any other part of the earth. Still, strange to say, the climatic differences are not attended by corresponding variations of the fauna, which is strikingly uniform throughout the country. Many important species are found everywhere in the continent. Generally speaking, Australia is a hot and dry country, and its flora and fauna have been developed in harmony with its physico-geographical conditions. This explains, for instance, why the tropical North Australia has not so luxurious and varied vegetations as the adjacent New Guinea, with its more humid climate. Many of the Australian mammals can subsist without water for a long time. Gould is even of opinion that the large kingfishers, whose food consists mainly of lizards and insects, never drink.

The wildlife in Australia is really unique, with many distinct animal species. As an island-continent stretching from 39° to 11° S latitude, it’s several times larger than the islands in other regions combined, which gives it a wide range of climates. The southern part has a Mediterranean-like climate, while the north experiences a regular rainy season, and the center is hotter and drier than anywhere else on Earth. Interestingly, these climatic differences don't lead to significant variations in the animal life, which remains surprisingly uniform across the country. Many key species can be found throughout the continent. Overall, Australia is a hot and dry place, and its plants and animals have adapted to its physical geography. This helps explain why tropical northern Australia doesn’t have the lush and varied vegetation that nearby New Guinea has, which has a wetter climate. Many Australian mammals can go long periods without water. Gould even suggests that the large kingfishers, which mainly eat lizards and insects, might never drink water at all.

The fauna of Australia has many special forms, and occupies a peculiar, isolated position. This is most apparent among the mammals, which give to the Australian fauna its most marked feature. Imagine a continent about the size of Europe with no other mammals than marsupials, a few bats, rats, and mice. There are no apes, no beasts of prey, no hoofed animals. None of those groups are found from which our domestic animals have been developed. The only exception is the dingo, the Australian dog, but although fossil specimens have been found, it is generally supposed that the dingo was introduced by man; it does not differ much from the wild dogs of other lands. The fact that Australia at present has so many large land animals, which at one time were represented by kindred forms in Europe, shows that the country in some way or other has been united with Asia, just as Great Britain must at some time have been connected with the European continent. But the present remarkable isolation of the Australian mammals from the land fauna of the rest of the world is, as Wallace remarks, the best evidence that Australia and Asia were not united throughout the tertiary period, and it is a most characteristic fact that the only mammals which Australia has in common with the rest of the world are the flying-bats and such small mammals as could most easily be carried on floating logs, roots, and similar objects 379to foreign coasts. Marsupials are also found in America; but, with this exception, they now exist only in Australia and in the adjacent islands New Guinea and Tasmania, which is evidence that the latter islands were at one time united with Australia.

The wildlife of Australia features many unique species and holds a distinct, isolated position. This is especially obvious among the mammals, which define Australian wildlife's most notable characteristic. Picture a continent about the size of Europe with no mammals except for marsupials, a few bats, rats, and mice. There are no apes, no predators, no hoofed animals. None of the groups that gave rise to our domestic animals exist there. The only exception is the dingo, which is the Australian dog; however, although fossil remains have been found, it's generally believed that the dingo was introduced by humans and doesn't differ much from wild dogs found elsewhere. The fact that Australia currently has many large land animals, which at one time had similar counterparts in Europe, indicates that the continent must have been somehow connected to Asia, just as Great Britain was likely connected to the European continent at some point. However, the current striking separation of Australian mammals from the land fauna of the rest of the world, as Wallace points out, serves as strong evidence that Australia and Asia were not joined during the tertiary period. It's also significant that the only mammals Australia shares with the rest of the world are flying bats and small mammals that could easily drift on floating logs, roots, and similar objects to other shores. Marsupials are also found in America; but outside of this, they now only exist in Australia and the nearby islands of New Guinea and Tasmania, indicating that the latter islands were once connected to Australia.

The marsupials are so called from their having a pouch (marsupium) for carrying the immature young. The young are born without much development, and they are at once transferred to the pouch, where they continue to grow until they are able to take care of themselves. The pouch is supported by the marsupial bones, which are equally developed in both sexes. There are also many other peculiarities in the structure of these animals, distinguishing them from the higher mammals, e.g. their teeth being quite different from those of other animals.

The marsupials are named for their pouch (marsupium) that they use to carry their underdeveloped young. The young are born in a very immature state and are immediately moved to the pouch, where they continue to grow until they can fend for themselves. The pouch is supported by marsupial bones, which are similarly developed in both males and females. There are also many other unique features in the structure of these animals that set them apart from higher mammals, such as their teeth, which are quite different from those of other animals.

The large kangaroo bears a young “no larger than the little finger of a human baby, and not unlike it in form.” This helpless, naked, blind, and deaf being the mother puts in an almost inexplicable manner into the pouch with her mouth, and places it on one of the long, slender, milk-giving strings found in the pouch. Here the young remains hanging for weeks, and grows very rapidly. The mother possesses a peculiar muscle with which it is able to press milk into the mouth of the helpless little one, and the larynx of the young has a peculiar structure, so that it can breathe while it sucks, and consequently is not choked. Gradually it assumes the form of its parents, and when big enough it begins to make excursions from the pouch, which continues to enlarge with the growth of the young. These excursions become longer as the young grows larger, and thus this pouch serves both as a second womb and as a nest and home. All marsupials are propagated in this manner, but the number of young may vary from one to fourteen.

The large kangaroo carries a baby that is “no bigger than a human baby's little finger, and quite similar in shape.” This tiny, helpless, naked, blind, and deaf creature is placed into the mother’s pouch almost in an inexplicable way, using her mouth, and latched onto one of the long, slender, milk-producing strings inside. The baby stays there for weeks, growing quickly. The mother has a unique muscle that allows her to push milk into the mouth of her helpless little one, and the baby's larynx has a special structure that lets it breathe while it sucks, so it doesn’t choke. Gradually, the baby begins to take on the form of its parents, and when it’s big enough, it starts to venture out of the pouch, which keeps expanding as the baby grows. These outings get longer as the baby gets bigger, making the pouch serve as both a second womb and a nest. All marsupials reproduce this way, but the number of young can range from one to fourteen.

The brain of the marsupial is small and has but few convolutions, indicative of small mental development. They are the most stupid of all mammals, and indifferent in regard to all things save the wants of their stomachs. Brehm calls attention to the fact that no marsupial mother plays with her young or makes any effort to teach them.

The brain of the marsupial is small and has only a few folds, which suggests limited mental development. They are considered the least intelligent of all mammals and are mostly indifferent to everything except for their hunger. Brehm points out that no marsupial mother interacts with her young or tries to teach them anything.

The marsupials may differ widely in appearance, structure, and habits; they may be as large as a stag and as small as a mouse. Some move on the hind-feet alone, others on all fours; some live on the ground, others in trees, others again are able to fly. Most of them feed on grass, but some of them live on fruits, roots, and leaves; others again on meat and insects; while there are also marsupials that eat honey.

The marsupials can vary greatly in appearance, structure, and behavior; they can be as big as a deer and as small as a mouse. Some walk on their hind legs only, while others move around on all fours; some live on the ground, others in trees, and some are capable of flying. Most of them primarily eat grass, but some feed on fruits, roots, and leaves; others consume meat and insects; and there are even marsupials that enjoy honey.

Ever since Captain Cook’s sailors in 1770 came and told him that they had seen the very devil hopping away on his hind legs in the form of an animal, the kangaroo has been inseparably associated with our ideas of Australia, the land of the kangaroo. The kangaroo (Macropus) is also the largest and most remarkable of all marsupials, 380and is represented by many species throughout Australia. The largest one is reddish (Macropus rufus) and is found in the interior. Of the smaller kinds we may mention the wallabies, kangaroo-rats, which are about the size of a rabbit, and the pademelon, which is easily recognised by the fact that when it runs it lets one arm drop as if it were broken. During recent years kangaroos have greatly increased in number, one of the causes being the systematic extermination of the dingoes and the decrease of the number of natives. Thus kangaroos, like their smaller relatives the wallabies and the kangaroo-rats, have become noxious animals that destroy the pastures, and the colonists are making great efforts to exterminate them. In Queensland the Government pays a premium for every such animal killed, and in this way the number of marsupials was reduced in the years 1880–1885 by six millions.

Ever since Captain Cook’s sailors in 1770 reported they saw a creature that looked like the devil hopping on its hind legs, the kangaroo has become closely linked to our idea of Australia, the land of the kangaroo. The kangaroo (Macropus) is the largest and most notable of all marsupials, 380 and can be found in many species across Australia. The biggest one is the reddish kangaroo (Macropus rufus) found in the interior. Among the smaller types are wallabies and kangaroo-rats, which are about the size of a rabbit, and the pademelon, which is easily recognized because it lets one arm drop while it runs, as if it’s injured. In recent years, kangaroo populations have increased significantly, partly due to the systematic eradication of dingoes and the decline in the native population. As a result, kangaroos, along with their smaller relatives like wallabies and kangaroo-rats, have become pests that damage pastures, prompting colonists to make significant efforts to reduce their numbers. In Queensland, the government offers a bounty for each kangaroo killed, leading to a reduction of six million marsupials between 1880 and 1885.

The tree-kangaroos (Dendrolagus), living in the dense scrubs of Northern Queensland, are very remarkable and very different from the other members of the family.

The tree kangaroos (Dendrolagus), found in the thick scrubs of Northern Queensland, are quite extraordinary and really distinct from the other members of their family.

The phalangers (Phalangeridæ) are a large family found everywhere in Australia. They inhabit the trees, and like most of the marsupials, seek their food at night. They are usually called opossums, but are very different from the genuine opossum of America. Just as the latter are the most perfect and most intelligent of all marsupials, so the Australian opossums are the most perfectly organised of all Australian marsupials. They are, so to speak, the apes of the marsupials, in that they feed on fruit, but are able to live on insects and birds’ eggs; have a prehensile tail and a movable thumb, which almost converts their feet into hands.

The phalangers (Phalangeridæ) are a large family found all over Australia. They live in trees and, like most marsupials, look for food at night. They are usually called opossums, but they are quite different from the true opossum found in America. Just as the latter are the most advanced and intelligent of all marsupials, the Australian opossums are the most well-adapted of all Australian marsupials. They are, in a way, the apes of marsupials, as they eat fruit but can also survive on insects and bird eggs; they have a prehensile tail and a flexible thumb, which almost turns their feet into hands.

Closely related to the latter are the flying-squirrels (Petaurus) which are strikingly like those in India. The smallest one of this family, the beautiful Acrobates pygmæus, is a perfect wonder of elegance and graceful movement. Though not larger than a little mouse, still it flies through the air as skilfully as the larger species. It frequently becomes the prey of domestic cats.

Closely related to the latter are the flying squirrels (Petaurus), which closely resemble those in India. The smallest of this family, the beautiful Acrobates pygmæus, is a true marvel of elegance and graceful movement. Although it’s no bigger than a tiny mouse, it glides through the air as skillfully as the larger species. It often falls victim to domestic cats.

A transition between the kangaroos and the phalangers is found in the marsupial bear (Phascolarctus), while the rodents are represented by the large, plump wombat (Phascolomys).

A transition between kangaroos and phalangers is seen in the marsupial bear (Phascolarctus), while the large, chubby wombat (Phascolomys) represents the rodents.

The family Dasyuridæ are carnivorous. The colonist usually names them after animals of the old world, “marsupial cat,” “marsupial tiger,” “marsupial wolf,” etc. All these marsupial beasts of prey are very rapacious, and one or two of them are quite equal to the martens and weasels in this respect. The marsupial wolf (Thylacinus) and the marsupial devil (Sarcophilus) in Tasmania are the most ferocious and most powerful of all the Australian animals, and do great damage among the sheep. The former is, however, wellnigh exterminated. Native cats (Dasyurus geoffroyi) are numerous everywhere, and are hated by the colonists, because they attack the 381poultry. Near Mount Elephant, in Victoria, five hundred of them were killed in one night by two poisoned sheep carcasses. There had long been a drought, so that the animals had congregated in the only place where water was to be found.

The family Dasyuridæ consists of carnivorous animals. Colonists typically name them after Old World animals, calling them “marsupial cat,” “marsupial tiger,” “marsupial wolf,” and so on. All these marsupial predators are quite fierce, and a few of them are on par with martens and weasels in this regard. The marsupial wolf (Thylacinus) and the marsupial devil (Sarcophilus) from Tasmania are the most ferocious and powerful of all Australian animals, causing significant damage to sheep populations. However, the marsupial wolf is nearly extinct. Native cats (Dasyurus geoffroyi) are common everywhere and are despised by colonists because they prey on poultry. Near Mount Elephant in Victoria, five hundred of them were killed in one night using two poisoned sheep carcasses. A long drought had forced the animals to gather in the only available water source.

We now come to the Monotremata, the lowest group of all mammals. They have the marsupial bones, but no pouch, and they are destitute of teeth. Of this remarkable family there are only two genera, the duck-billed platypus and the spiny ant-eater.

We now come to the Monotremata, the most primitive group of all mammals. They have the marsupial bones, but lack a pouch, and they don't have teeth. This unique family includes only two genera: the duck-billed platypus and the spiny anteater.

The duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) is easily recognised by its horny jaws, which have a striking resemblance to the bill of a duck. The animal is about fifteen inches long, and the body, which is covered with close brown hair, is broad, flat, and somewhat like that of a reptile. The feet are short and the toes are webbed. During the daytime the ornithorhynchus sleeps in deep burrows dug in the banks of rivers. It is common in the southern and eastern part of Australia, and is also found in Tasmania.

The duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) is easily recognized by its hard jaws, which look a lot like a duck's bill. The animal is about fifteen inches long, and its body, covered in dense brown fur, is broad, flat, and somewhat resembles that of a reptile. The feet are short, and the toes are webbed. During the day, the platypus sleeps in deep burrows along riverbanks. It is commonly found in the southern and eastern parts of Australia and is also present in Tasmania.

The spiny ant-eater (Echidna) resembles our porcupine in appearance and size, has quills like it, and can roll itself into a ball. The toes are not webbed, but the animal is a very good swimmer. It feeds on ants and insects, and, like other ant-eaters, has a long, slender tongue, which has a secretion of a sticky substance. It is a most powerful animal, and can disappear so rapidly in loose earth or sand that it seems to sink into the ground. Its flesh is very fat, and is considered a great delicacy by the blacks. On Herbert river, where the ant-eater is called gombian, the natives hunt it with the help of tamed dingoes.

The spiny ant-eater (Echidna) looks like a porcupine in both appearance and size, has quills like it, and can curl into a ball. Its toes aren't webbed, but it's a really good swimmer. It primarily eats ants and insects, and like other ant-eaters, it has a long, thin tongue with a sticky secretion. It's a very powerful animal and can disappear quickly into loose dirt or sand, making it seem like it sinks into the ground. Its meat is quite fatty and is considered a great delicacy by Indigenous Australians. Along the Herbert River, where the ant-eater is known as gombian, the locals hunt it with the help of trained dingoes.

These mammals, the two most remarkable ones on the globe, reveal a wonderful relationship to the lower vertebrates, reptiles and birds. Thus we find that the front extremities are fastened to the breast-bone by a highly developed coracoid and an epicoracoid, as in the case of lizards. This does not occur in any other mammal. Their skulls, like those of birds, have no visible sutures whatever.

These mammals, the two most amazing ones on the planet, show a fascinating connection to lower vertebrates like reptiles and birds. We see that their front limbs are attached to the breastbone by a well-developed coracoid and an epicoracoid, similar to lizards. No other mammals have this feature. Their skulls, just like those of birds, have no visible seams at all.

The most remarkable fact, however, is that these animals do not bear living young, but lay eggs. The latter contain a large yolk, and when hatched the young are suckled by the mother.

The most remarkable fact, however, is that these animals do not give birth to live young but lay eggs. These eggs contain a large yolk, and when they hatch, the young are nursed by the mother.

The stages of development of the eggs are different from those of all other mammals, and resemble to a great extent those of reptiles and birds. As the eggs are meroblastic,[25] these animals seem to be even more closely related to birds and reptiles than to the mammals.

The stages of egg development are different from those of all other mammals and are quite similar to those of reptiles and birds. Since the eggs are meroblastic,[25] these animals appear to be even more closely related to birds and reptiles than to mammals.

25. Where only a small part of the yolk goes to form the fœtus, while the greater part is used to nourish it, as is the case with birds, the egg is called meroblastic. With mammals, all the yolk is used to form the fœtus (holoblastic eggs).

25. In cases where only a small portion of the yolk contributes to developing the fetus, while the majority serves as nourishment, similar to birds, the egg is referred to as meroblastic. In mammals, all the yolk is utilized to create the fetus, known as (holoblastic eggs).

The eggs lying in the ovaries are ⅛ of an inch in diameter, possibly even more, and they certainly are the largest eggs produced by mammals. In a human being and in the higher mammals the egg averages ¹⁄₁₂₅ of an inch in diameter.

The eggs in the ovaries are about ⅛ of an inch in diameter, or maybe even larger, making them the biggest eggs produced by mammals. In humans and other higher mammals, the average egg size is ¹⁄₁₂₅ of an inch in diameter.

382The young seem to require a long time to arrive at maturity. They are hatched small, blind, and naked, and their mouths have not at first the form of a beak, but are thick, round, soft, and well adapted to receive the milk, which is strained through the lacteal glands, for there are no nipples. As these animals have no pouch (the ant-eater has a rudimentary one in the form of a crease in the skin while it nurses its young), the young remain in the nest, where the mother suckles them.

382Young ones take a long time to grow up. They hatch small, blind, and hairless, and their mouths don’t initially have the shape of a beak; instead, they're thick, round, soft, and perfect for getting milk, which comes from the lacteal glands because there are no nipples. Since these animals don’t have a pouch (the ant-eater has a very basic one that looks like a fold in the skin while it feeds its young), the babies stay in the nest where the mother nurses them.

Though the ornithology of Australia is not so isolated in its character as the mammals are, still its birds are very remarkable, and have almost as many points of interest. We here find eagles, hawks, thrushes, swallows, fly-catchers, sea-gulls, ducks, etc., though of other species than those to which we are accustomed; but we are astonished that vultures and woodpeckers, which exist in all other parts of the world, are wholly wanting.

Though Australia’s birdlife isn’t as unique as its mammals, its birds are still quite remarkable and have nearly as many interesting features. Here, we find eagles, hawks, thrushes, swallows, flycatchers, seagulls, ducks, and more, but they are different species than the ones we’re used to. However, we are surprised that vultures and woodpeckers, which are found in every other part of the world, are completely absent.

The honey-eaters (Meliphagidæ), so well adapted to the circumstances of the country, are very remarkable. As the trees and bushes of Australia have a great wealth of flowers, but are wanting in juicy fruits, many of its birds find their food in the flowers, inhabiting the trees and bushes, particularly gum-trees and banksias, and rarely coming down on the ground to seek food. These characteristic birds, of which there are no less than 200 species, remind us by their mode of life of the American humming-birds; still they are very different from the latter. The largest are of the size of a small dove, but much more slender. They are strong lively birds, which with their powerful feet cling fast to the branches, almost like titmice, while they suck the flowers, and their tongue ends in a brush, so that they can easily lick up the honey and the honey-eating insects. Even some of the parrots, the so-called brush-tongued (Trichoglossidæ), live on honey and pollen, and are peculiar to Australia.

The honey-eaters (Meliphagidæ) are truly remarkable and well-suited to the environment in Australia. The country is filled with flowering trees and bushes, but lacks juicy fruits, which leads many of its birds to feed on the flowers. They typically live in trees and bushes, especially gum trees and banksias, and almost never come down to the ground for food. There are around 200 species of these unique birds, which, while reminiscent of American hummingbirds in their lifestyle, are quite different. The largest ones are about the size of a small dove but much slimmer. They are energetic birds that cling tightly to branches, almost like titmice, as they suck nectar from flowers. Their tongues have a brush-like tip, making it easy for them to lick up honey and the insects that feed on it. Some parrots, known as brush-tongued (Trichoglossidæ), also feed on honey and pollen and are unique to Australia.

The strange habits of many of the Australian birds have already been described, e.g. the play-houses built by the æsthetic bower-birds, and the three species which do not themselves hatch their eggs, like the reptiles, but leave the hatching to be done by artificial heat. The latter belong to the family of Megapodidæ, a group which receives its name from the fact that their feet and claws are very large and powerful, and consequently well adapted to building the large mounds in which the eggs are laid.

The unusual behaviors of many Australian birds have already been described, e.g. the playhouses created by the artistic bowerbirds, and the three species that don’t hatch their eggs themselves, like reptiles, but rely on artificial heat for incubation. These species belong to the family Megapodidæ, which is named for their large and strong feet and claws, making them well-suited for constructing the large mounds where the eggs are laid.

WILD GEESE FROM NORTH QUEENSLAND (Anseranas melanoleuca). Photograph from nature.

WILD GEESE FROM NORTH QUEENSLAND (Anseranas melanoleuca). Photo taken in the wild.

383It is a strange fact that the kingfishers found everywhere in the world, and the equally cosmopolitan pigeons, should be so numerous in Australia. Among the former are the wonderful laughing jackasses (Dacelo) whose voice is unlike that of any other bird. In Australia the pigeons attain the highest development both as to wealth of species and brilliancy of plumage. Some of them even have a crest on the top of the head, a very rare ornament for this family. The extraordinary development of these defenceless birds indicates that they have but few enemies in Australia. Wallace gives as the reason for their great numbers the total absence of apes, cats, weasels, and other animals that live in trees and that eat the eggs and the young of birds, while the very green colour of these birds conceals them from birds of prey, their only foes. On the plains in the interior of Queensland countless numbers of pigeons are seen, but of modest-coloured plumage, to protect them in this open country.

383It’s interesting that kingfishers, found all over the world, and pigeons, which are also widespread, are so abundant in Australia. Among the kingfishers are the amazing laughing jackasses (Dacelo) whose calls are unlike those of any other bird. In Australia, pigeons reach their peak in both species diversity and vibrant plumage. Some even sport a crest on their heads, a very rare feature for this family. The remarkable development of these defenseless birds shows that they have few enemies in Australia. Wallace suggests that their large numbers are due to the complete absence of apes, cats, weasels, and other tree-dwelling animals that prey on bird eggs and chicks, while the bright green color of these birds helps them hide from their main predators, birds of prey. In the interior plains of Queensland, you can see countless pigeons, but they have more muted coloring to blend into the open landscape.

Many of the Australian birds are distinguished for their brilliant plumage, and in this respect they easily rank with the humming-birds of America and with the trogons and parrots of India. Thus we have the elegant little wrens whose leading colours are azure blue and scarlet-red; the yellow and velvety black regent-bird (Sericulus melinus); and the metallic glittering rifle-bird (Ptilorhis victoriæ); and finally, the finches, that have a combination of colours the like of which is to be found only in butterflies. Among the many parrots, which include such strange forms as the white and the black cockatoos, there are some which are unique in the beauty of their colours. So remarkable a decoration as the tail of the lyre-bird (Menura) is found nowhere else in the world of birds.

Many Australian birds are known for their vibrant plumage and can easily compete with the hummingbirds of America and the trogons and parrots of India. For example, we have the elegant little wrens that showcase striking azure blue and scarlet-red colors; the yellow and velvety black regent-bird (Sericulus melinus); the metallic, shimmering rifle-bird (Ptilorhis victoriæ); and finally, the finches, which exhibit a mix of colors that you can only find in butterflies. Among the various parrots, which include unusual types like the white and black cockatoos, some are particularly unique in their stunning colors. The tail of the lyre-bird (Menura) is a striking feature that is not found anywhere else in the avian world.

The stately emu, which together with the cassowary represents the ostrich family in Australia, is still numerous in the open country. The cassowary, on the other hand, which is found only in the north-eastern tropical part, is rare, and will doubtless soon become extinct as civilisation gradually advances and clears the scrubs.

The impressive emu, which along with the cassowary is part of the ostrich family in Australia, is still plentiful in open areas. In contrast, the cassowary, found only in the northeastern tropical region, is uncommon and will likely face extinction as civilization continues to expand and clear away the forests.

Ducks, geese, and other swimming birds are numerous, and afford excellent sport, but as they are much sought by sportsmen, the colonies have passed laws to protect them during a certain season of the year. Among the geese which have only half-webbed toes, the most common is the “black and white” (Anseranas melanoleuca). These beautiful birds gather in large flocks, but as civilisation advances they are gradually decreasing in number. At present they are numerous only in Northern Queensland, where the flocks are so large and dense that the natives can easily kill them with their spears. They were of great value to Leichhardt on his overland expedition to the Gulf of Carpentaria.

Ducks, geese, and other waterfowl are plentiful and provide great sport, but since they are highly sought after by hunters, local governments have implemented laws to protect them during specific seasons. Among the geese with partially webbed toes, the most common is the “black and white” (Anseranas melanoleuca). These stunning birds form large flocks, but as civilization progresses, their numbers are slowly declining. Currently, they are mostly found in Northern Queensland, where the flocks are so large and dense that locals can easily catch them with their spears. They were extremely valuable to Leichhardt during his overland journey to the Gulf of Carpentaria.

It is a remarkable fact that some species of Australian birds without any apparent reason suddenly leave the district where they have had their habitat for years, and settle somewhere else, to disappear again after a few years. Gould gives several examples of this. A squatter whom I knew told me that the pelicans several years ago quite unexpectedly made their appearance on Darling river in New South Wales, 400 miles from the coast. Neither the whites nor the blacks had ever seen them there before. They settled down near a lake called Dry Lagoon and bred there. Meanwhile 384the lagoon dried up as usual, and the pelicans were obliged to bring fish for their young from a lake two miles away. As soon as the young became large enough they were transferred to the latter lake, the whole colony requiring three weeks for the journey. As a rule the pelicans build their nests on islands near the coast.

It’s surprising that some species of Australian birds suddenly leave the areas they've inhabited for years and move to a different location, only to disappear again after a few years. Gould provides several examples of this. A squatter I knew mentioned that pelicans unexpectedly showed up on the Darling River in New South Wales, 400 miles from the coast, several years ago. Neither the white settlers nor the Indigenous people had ever seen them there before. They settled near a lake called Dry Lagoon and bred there. Meanwhile, 384 the lagoon dried up as usual, forcing the pelicans to fetch fish for their young from a lake two miles away. Once the young were big enough, they were moved to that lake, and the entire colony took three weeks for the journey. Normally, pelicans build their nests on islands close to the coast.

Australia has no less than 700 species of birds; of these probably 600 are found in Queensland alone, and this must be said to be a great wealth of species. Europe, which is somewhat larger and has been incomparably much more thoroughly explored, has only about 500 species.

Australia has at least 700 bird species; of these, probably 600 are found in Queensland alone, which is quite an impressive variety. Europe, which is slightly larger and has been explored in much greater depth, has only around 500 species.

Reptiles, amphibious animals, and fishes are well represented in Australia, and among them are some of great interest.

Reptiles, amphibians, and fish are well represented in Australia, and among them are some that are very interesting.

Lizards are found everywhere, but it is a strange fact that, as in the case of plants, some species are found in West Australia that are peculiar to this district and have never been observed outside of it. That characteristic forms are not wanting is shown by the frilled-lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii) represented at the beginning of this chapter. Around its neck it has a large, loose skin which it is able to raise into a Queen Elizabeth ruff. Unlike all other lizards, this animal assumes in sitting the same posture as a kangaroo, and when startled it makes, like them, long jumps five to six feet high before it begins to run.

Lizards can be found all over the place, but it’s interesting that, similar to plants, some species are unique to Western Australia and have never been seen anywhere else. The presence of distinctive forms is illustrated by the frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingii) shown at the beginning of this chapter. It has a large, loose flap of skin around its neck that it can raise into a collar similar to Queen Elizabeth's ruff. Unlike other lizards, this one sits in a posture like a kangaroo, and when it gets startled, it jumps long distances of five to six feet high before it starts to run.

Although Viperidæ and Crotalidæ, which elsewhere are the most venomous families of snakes, are not found in Australia, still scarcely any other part of the globe has so many venomous serpents in comparison with the number of those that are harmless. Here, as elsewhere, the number of snakes increase with the heat of the climate, so that Tasmania has only three species, while Queensland can show fifty, and among the latter several large harmless pythons, which the natives are fond of eating. Water-snakes abound along the coasts of tropical Australia, and are all venomous.

Although Viperidæ and Crotalidæ, which are the most venomous snake families found elsewhere, aren't present in Australia, very few places in the world have as many venomous snakes compared to non-venomous ones. Here, like in other regions, the number of snakes increases with the temperature, so Tasmania has only three species, while Queensland boasts fifty, including several large, harmless pythons that locals enjoy eating. Water snakes are plentiful along the tropical Australian coasts, and all of them are venomous.

Amphibious animals with tails (salamanders) are not found. On the other hand, frogs are plentiful. They have a remarkable faculty for accommodating themselves to all the dry climatic conditions of the country. In South Australia a drought once lasted for twenty-six months. The country was transformed into a desert, and life was not to be seen. Sheep and cattle had perished, and so had the marsupials. Suddenly rain poured down. The long drought was at an end; and six hours after the storm had begun the rain was welcomed by the powerful voices of the frogs. Flies afterward came in great numbers, and then bats appeared in countless swarms. On my travels in Western Queensland I heard the people on Diamantina river speak of a species of large frog which after rain buried themselves about six inches down in the ground, and remained there during the dry season. These frogs contain much water, a fact known to the natives, who dig them up in the dry 385season and quench their thirst by squeezing the water out of them. The white population also sometimes resort to these frogs for water. They know the little mounds, which resemble mole-hills, under which the frogs lie hid, and dig them out. According to report, such a frog contains about a wine-glassful of “clear, sweet water.”

Amphibious animals with tails (salamanders) are not found. On the other hand, frogs are abundant. They have an incredible ability to adapt to all the dry climates in the country. In South Australia, a drought once lasted for twenty-six months. The land turned into a desert, and life was virtually nonexistent. Sheep and cattle died off, as did the marsupials. Suddenly, rain fell. The long drought ended, and six hours after the storm started, the rain was welcomed by the loud calls of the frogs. Flies soon arrived in large numbers, followed by swarms of bats. During my travels in Western Queensland, I heard people along the Diamantina River talk about a species of large frog that, after it rains, buries itself about six inches underground and stays there during the dry season. These frogs hold a lot of water, which the natives know about, and they dig them up in the dry season to quench their thirst by squeezing the water out. The white population also sometimes relies on these frogs for water. They recognize the small mounds, which look like molehills, where the frogs are hidden, and they dig them out. According to reports, such a frog contains about a wine-glassful of “clear, sweet water.”

The colonists of Australia have a fondness for giving familiar names to Australian animals. Thus they have called a large fish found in some of the rivers of Central Queensland burnett salmon. This fish, which the natives call barramunda, is, however, no salmon, for both salmon and carp are entirely wanting in Australia. But its size and its fat and delicate-tasting flesh reminded the people of the salmon, and it had long been eagerly sought as food both by whites and blacks, when in 1870 the scientific world became acquainted with it, and discovered in it a remarkable survival of the prehistoric past. Fossil teeth of this fish, now known as Ceratodus forsteri, had long ago been found in the Trias and Jura formations in Europe, India, and America, but the animal was of course thought to be extinct, like the Iguanodon or Dinotherium. Like the Protopterus from Africa and the Lepidosiren from the Amazon river, it belongs to the very ancient and remarkable lung-fish (Dipnoi), which, as the name indicates, has both gills and lungs. Ceratodus forsteri has only one lung, and can breathe with it alone, or with the gills alone, or with both at the same time, and therefore it leaves the water in the night and goes ashore, where it eats grass and leaves, while in the daytime it may be seen sunning itself on logs lying out of the water. This “living fossil,” which attains a length of six feet, thus forms a remarkable connecting link between fishes and reptiles.

The colonists of Australia like to give familiar names to Australian animals. They've named a large fish found in some rivers of Central Queensland burnett salmon. This fish, which the locals call barramunda, isn't actually a salmon, since both salmon and carp are completely absent in Australia. However, its size and its rich, delicate-tasting flesh reminded people of salmon, and it had long been a popular food choice for both white settlers and Indigenous Australians. In 1870, the scientific community discovered it and recognized it as a remarkable remnant from prehistoric times. Fossilized teeth of this fish, now known as Ceratodus forsteri, had previously been found in Triassic and Jurassic formations in Europe, India, and America, but it was thought to be extinct, like the Iguanodon or Dinotherium. Similar to the Protopterus from Africa and the Lepidosiren from the Amazon River, it belongs to the ancient and fascinating group of lungfish (Dipnoi), which, as the name suggests, possess both gills and lungs. Ceratodus forsteri has only one lung and can breathe through it alone, through the gills, or both at the same time. This allows it to leave the water at night to go ashore, where it feeds on grass and leaves, while during the day, it can often be seen basking on logs out of the water. This “living fossil,” which can grow up to six feet long, serves as an impressive link between fish and reptiles.

While Australia is poor in regard to butterflies, it has many beautiful beetles, e.g. the family Buprestidæ. The lower animal life is peculiar, but still comparatively little known.

While Australia doesn't have many butterflies, it does feature a lot of beautiful beetles, like those from the family Buprestidae. The lower animal life is unique, yet still relatively unknown.


Professor G. O. Sars, of Christiania, has made some exceedingly interesting experiments, whereby he has succeeded in hatching artificially and domesticating in his aquarium various Australian fresh-water Entomostraca. The materials for these experiments consisted of small quantities of mud taken from the bottom of lakes and small fresh-water ponds near Rockhampton. After being thoroughly dried, I forwarded this mud to Christiania. The specimens sent looked on their arrival like small masses of rock, and were so hard that they could scarcely be broken with a hammer. Nevertheless they contained living germs in the form of eggs, which had been deposited by entomostraca living in the waters in question. In most cases these eggs proved to be encased in peculiar capsules, which frequently bore a startling resemblance to bean-pods, and in some of the specimens they were found in great numbers. By softening the mud and by a suitable preparation in aquaria, 386Professor Sars succeeded not only in producing perfectly developed individuals, but also in getting them to propagate in the aquaria, and thus it became possible to make very exhaustive investigations in regard to a portion of Australia’s fauna hitherto almost entirely unknown. One of the most striking forms hatched in this manner is the little Daphnia called D. lumholtzii.

Professor G. O. Sars from Christiania conducted some very interesting experiments, successfully hatching and domesticating various Australian freshwater Entomostraca in his aquarium. The materials for these experiments included small amounts of mud collected from the bottoms of lakes and small freshwater ponds near Rockhampton. After being thoroughly dried, I sent this mud to Christiania. The specimens looked like small rock formations upon arrival and were so hard that they could barely be broken with a hammer. However, they contained living germs in the form of eggs, which had been laid by entomostraca living in those waters. In most cases, these eggs were encased in peculiar capsules that often resembled bean pods, and in some samples, they were present in large quantities. By softening the mud and using appropriate preparations in the aquaria, 386 Professor Sars managed not only to produce fully developed individuals but also to get them to breed in the aquaria, making it possible to conduct comprehensive investigations into a part of Australia’s fauna that was previously almost entirely unknown. One of the most remarkable forms hatched this way is the small Daphnia known as D. lumholtzii.

EGG OF Daphnia lumholtzii.

Egg of Daphnia lumholtzii.

Daphnia lumholtzii.

Daphnia lumholtzii.

In addition to this, nine others have been described by Professor Sars in two treatises: “On some Australian Cladocera raised from dried mud,” Christiania Videnskabs-selskabs Forhandlinger, 1885; and “Additional Notes on Australian Cladocera,” Christiania Videnskabs-selskabs Forhandlinger, 1888. On the same subject he has recently published a treatise: “On Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird), a new generic type of bivalve Phyllopoda, Christiania Videnskabs-selskabs Forhandlinger, 1887,” in which he has described a most interesting animal form, which the author hatched in the same manner, and observed through several generations. This 387animal has been noted heretofore in specimens from India and Ceylon, but very imperfectly, and hence mistakes have been made in regard to its systematic position, and no knowledge was obtained as to its interesting habits and life. It belongs to the so-called shell-covered phyllopoda, of which only a limited number of species have hitherto been known. One of its chief characteristics is the fact that it is enclosed in a transparent double shell, which has a deceptive likeness to a clam-shell. The anatomical examination of the animal has demonstrated that it cannot be classified with any of the known genera, but forms the type for a new one, to which the name cyclestheria has been affixed. In regard to propagation and development, this form differs widely from all the phyllopoda heretofore known. Contrary to the general rule, the eggs are developed within the shell of the mother animal, and this development is direct, not through any metamorphosis, as is the case with the other known Phyllopoda. In his treatise Professor Sars has given the whole history of the development of this animal, which abounds in interesting facts.

In addition to this, nine others have been described by Professor Sars in two papers: “On some Australian Cladocera raised from dried mud,” Christiania Scientific Society Proceedings, 1885; and “Additional Notes on Australian Cladocera,” Christiania Scientific Society Proceedings, 1888. Recently, he published another paper on the same topic: “On Cyclestheria hislopi (Baird), a new generic type of bivalve Phyllopoda,” Christiania Science Society Proceedings, 1887, where he describes a fascinating animal form that he hatched in the same way and observed over several generations. This 387animal has previously been noted in specimens from India and Ceylon, but only poorly, leading to mistakes about its systematic classification, and no information was obtained regarding its interesting habits and lifestyle. It belongs to the so-called shell-covered phyllopoda, of which only a limited number of species have been known so far. One of its main features is that it is enclosed in a transparent double shell, resembling a clam shell. Anatomical examinations have shown that it cannot be classified with any known genera but instead forms the type for a new one, named cyclestheria. In terms of reproduction and development, this form greatly differs from all previously known phyllopoda. Contrary to the usual pattern, the eggs develop within the shell of the mother animal, and this development is direct, without any metamorphosis, unlike the other known Phyllopoda. In his paper, Professor Sars has provided the complete history of this animal's development, which is full of intriguing facts.

Cyclestheria hislopi.

Cyclestheria hislopi.

388

SHELL OF A Cyclestheria hislopi.

SHELL OF A Cyclestheria hislopi.

Finally, I may add that the results obtained by these hatchings are already so important that they supply materials for many future treatises, and that many lower fresh-water animals, not only entomostraca, but also forms belonging to totally different departments of zoology, e.g. Bryozoæ, have in this way been thoroughly examined and studied in a living condition.

Finally, I want to mention that the results from these hatchings are already so significant that they provide materials for many future studies, and that many lower freshwater animals, not just entomostraca, but also species from completely different areas of zoology, e.g. Bryozoæ, have been thoroughly examined and studied while alive.

C. Lumholtz’ travels.

MAP
of
AUSTRALIA

Charles Scribner’s sons, Broadway, New York.

C. Lumholtz's journeys.

MAP
of
AUSTRALIA

Charles Scribner's Sons, Broadway, New York.

MAP
to illustrate
CARL LUMHOLTZ’ TRAVELS
in
QUEENSLAND.

MAP
to illustrate
CARL LUMHOLTZ'S TRAVELS
in
QUEENSLAND.

389

INDEX

  • Aborigines, two types of, 129;
    • characteristic feature, 130;
    • sight of, 143;
    • appearance, 181;
    • aquiline noses, 130;
    • results of civilisation, 182, 348;
    • class divisions, 199;
    • description, 260, 270;
    • estimate of white man, 292;
    • doomed, 348.
  • Acacia, fragrans, 2;
    • bidwillii 25;
    • salicina, 25;
    • harpophylla, 33;
    • excelsa, 49;
    • pendula (myall), 49, 76.
  • Acrobates pygmæa, 380.
  • Acrocephalus australis, 21.
  • Adelaide, city of, 5.
  • Ælurædus maculosus, 96.
  • Æpyornis maximus, fossil egg of, 6.
  • Alcyone azurea, 150.
  • Alpinia cærulea, 296.
  • Amphibia, 384.
  • Andropogon contortus (spear-grass), 23.
  • Anseranas melanoleuca, 383.
  • Ants, white, 19;
  • Araucaria, bidwillii (bunya-bunya), 21, 372;
    • cunninghamii, 372.
  • Arrowroot, 74.
  • Artamus sordidus (wood-swallow), 28.
  • Artesian wells, 40.
  • Asters, Queensland, 51.
  • A strange household, 81.
  • Astrebla elymoides, 37.
  • Astur radiatus, 329.
  • Australian whites, 29, 315 passim;
  • Bailey, F. M. (on mosses), 374.
  • Ballarat, 8.
  • “Balnglan,” a dingo, 180, 223, 226, 241;
    • death of, 267.
  • Bandicoot (Paramelidæ), 27, 73, 92.
  • Baobab, 374.
  • Barcoo, river, 39;
    • rot, 58.
  • Basaltic table-land, Leichhardt’s, 104.
  • Basket, 193–195 passim.
  • Batatas edulis, 78.
  • Bats, 19.
  • Bauhinia hookerii, 25.
  • Bear, native (Phascolarctus cinereus), 9.
  • Bee, European, 29;
    • Australian, 142.
  • Beef, 36.
  • Beliander, 58.
  • Bellenden Kerr Hills, 102.
  • Bendi, weapon, 332–334.
  • Bird of paradise, 302.
  • Blacks of Herbert river, 72;
    • civilised, 76;
    • appearance of, 77;
    • festival, 84;
    • agility, 89, 96;
    • keen sight, 95;
    • money valueless, 106;
    • only cult, 136;
    • absence of clothing, 169;
    • of medicines, 183;
    • depredations, 221;
    • cruelty (women), 222;
    • greatest delicacy, 271;
    • myths unknown, 282;
    • cannibalism, 287;
    • lazy, 290.
  • Blankets, 264.
  • Bledensbourne, 53.
  • Bolboceras rhinoceros, 329.
  • Boomerang, 49;
    • origin of, 52;
    • Indian, S.E., 52;
    • Assyrian and Egyptian use of, 51.
  • Boongary, 102;
  • Bora ceremonies, 136.
  • Borboby, a meeting for duels, 119, 127.
  • Borrogo, a small marsupial, 207.
  • Bottle-tree, 33, 35.
  • Boundary-rider, 57.
  • Bower-birds, 28, 139.
  • Box-tree (Eucalyptus), 25.
  • Boyma (Bhaiamé), a supreme Being, 283.
  • Bread-fruit tree, 79.
  • Brigalow-scrub, 33, 37, 52.
  • 390Brisbane, 16.
  • Brow-band, 121, 331.
  • Brown, Robert, botanist, 369.
  • Bunjup, an evil spirit, 202.
  • Buprestidæ (beetles), 329, 385.
  • Burial customs, 275.
  • Burnett salmon (barramunda), 385.
  • Bush costume, 19;
    • men, 58–60.
  • Butcher-bird, 94.
  • Butterflies, 151, 385.
  • Cabbage, 79.
  • Cacatua roseicapilla, 35.
  • Cajeput oil, 24.
  • Calamus australis, 89, 103.
  • Calladium, 21.
  • Callistemon lanceolatum, 26.
  • Calliungal, town, 30.
  • Callornis metallica, 96.
  • Camping out, 32.
  • Camps, Herbert river hills, 148;
    • cave, 153;
    • hills in rain, 168 seq.;
    • with unpleasant bedfellow, 185 seq.;
    • no supper, 209–211.
  • Cannibalism, 101, 134, 176, 254, 273;
    • in Burma, 274.
  • Canning meat, Rockhampton, 16.
  • Canoona Diggings, oldest gold mine, 323.
  • Capparis nobilis, 25.
  • Cardamom-tree, 96.
  • Cardwell, town, 66, 250, 263.
  • Carpentaria, Gulf of, natives of, 273.
  • Carrots, 79.
  • Casuarina, 33 passim.
  • Casuarius australis (cassowary), 99.
  • Cat, native, 27;
    • bird, 96.
  • Cattle, alarmed, 84;
    • farmers, 35.
  • Cedar, red (Cedrela), 67.
  • Centropus, 94.
  • Ceratodus forsteri, 385.
  • Ceyx pusilla, 97.
  • Charters Towers, gold beds, 65.
  • Child-birth, 134.
  • Children, black, 192.
  • Chinaman, a native, 147;
    • wife, 163;
    • treachery, 167;
    • greediness, 173;
    • rascality, 185;
    • reappearance, 231.
  • Chinese hated, 36.
  • Chivalry, 170.
  • Chlamydodera maculata, 28.
  • Chlamydosaurus kingii, 376, 384.
  • Christmas in the bush, 207.
  • Cicada aurora, 222.
  • Cicada, evil spirit, 202;
    • humming, 217.
  • Cinchona, 74.
  • Clay pipes, 107.
  • Cleveland Bay, 65.
  • Climate, tropical, 19;
    • cold nights, 56;
    • Christmas hot, 57.
  • Cloncurry, copper, 44.
  • Club (nolla-nolla), 72 seq.
  • Coal, 74, 366.
  • Cockatoo, 27;
    • red-breasted, 35;
    • numerous, 57.
  • Cocoa-nut, 21;
    • palm, 79.
  • Cod, black-fish, 27.
  • Coffee, 73.
  • Coleoptera, 153;
  • Colocasia macrorhiza, 153.
  • Comet river, 33.
  • Conquat, loquat, guava, 79.
  • Coomooboolaroo, 204, 325.
  • Cordilleras, Australian, 102.
  • Cormorants, 22.
  • Costume, 106, 120, 129, 215.
  • Cracticus nigrogularis, 94.
  • Cranes, gray and blue, 22.
  • Crawfish, 151.
  • Crime, only, 126.
  • Curr, E. M., “The Australian Race,” 307 passim.
  • Customs, aboriginal, ornamental scars, 135;
    • making fire, 141;
    • breaking sticks, 141;
    • pomade and glue, 142;
    • honey water, 144;
    • rights of property, 147;
    • eating eggs, 149;
    • marriage, 164;
    • burial, 277;
    • cremation, 279.
  • Cycas media, 164.
  • Cyclestheria hislopi, 387.
  • Cygnus atratus, 1, 22.
  • Dacelo gigas, 26.
  • Dactylopsila trivirgata, 220.
  • Dalrymple Creek, 248;
  • Damper, 32.
  • Dancing, 236 seq.
  • Daphnia lumholtzii, 386.
  • Darling Downs, 21;
    • floods, 61.
  • Dasyurus, 27;
    • maculatus, 174;
    • Dasyuridæ, 80.
  • Date-palms, Queensland, 21.
  • Dawson river, 45.
  • Dee river, 30.
  • Dendrolagus lumholtzii, 102;
  • Devil, 114;
    • description of, 202.
  • Dialects. Vide Language.
  • Diamantina river, native work, heat on, 44–55.
  • Dicæum hirundinaceum, 253.
  • Diemenia, 299.
  • Digitalis purpurea, 14.
  • Dingo, 38;
  • 391Dinornis, 377.
  • Dipnoi, 385.
  • Diprotodon, 368.
  • Dipsas fusca, 62.
  • Dirge, 204.
  • Explorers and Adventure seekers, 355–359.
  • Diseases and epidemics, 181.
  • Doctor, native, 183.
  • Dog and snake, 64.
  • Doves, 96.
  • Dress, mourning, 204.
  • Drought, 37.
  • Drugs, 108.
  • Duboisia hopwoodii, 49.
  • Dugong, 315 seq.;
  • Dungeness, 66.
  • Education of children, 193.
  • Eels, Queensland, 23.
  • Elanus axillaris (kite), 220.
  • Elderslie, 44, 53.
  • Elephant sugar-cane, 63.
  • Elm-tree, 14.
  • Emus, inquisitive, 30.
  • Erysipelas, 181.
  • Erythrina vespertilio (cork), 141.
  • Eucalyptus, amygdalina, 9;
    • tereticornis, brachypoda, 24;
    • terminalis, polyanthemos, robusta. Vide Flora.
  • Eudynamis flindersii (cuckoo), 28.
  • Eurynassa australis, 93, 154.
  • Evaporation in bush, 42.
  • Expedition Range, 33.
  • Falco subniger, 57.
  • Familiarity breeds contempt, 111.
  • Fauna—fossil;
    • Wallace’s line;
    • marsupials; monotremata—why most noteworthy, 376–388 passim;
    • birds, 382–384;
    • reptiles, 384;
    • amphibia, 384;
    • fish, barramunda, 385;
    • butterflies, 385;
    • beetles, 385.
    • Entomostraca, Professor Sars on, 385–388.
  • Feast, 85.
  • Ferns, tree-, 103.
  • Fever, 57.
  • Ficus, elastica, 14;
    • platypoda, cunninghamii, 25.
  • Fig, European, 21;
  • Finch-Hatton, Mr., “Advance Australia,” 278.
  • Fire, producing, 141.
  • Fitzroy river, 16;
    • mountains, 16.
  • Fleas at Elderslie, 45.
  • Flora—peculiar, evergreen, flowering;
    • census of Eucalyptus, Proteaceæ, Acaciæ, Banksia, cone-bearers, and allies; grass-trees, baobab, ferns, mosses, 369–375 passim.
  • Food, 21;
    • eating children, 134;
    • beetles and larvæ, 154 passim;
    • pediculi, 117, 223;
    • fleas, 179;
    • grasshoppers, 187;
    • eel (high), 203;
    • mode of cooking, 296;
    • care of, 297.
  • Frogs, 19.
  • Gar-fish, 23.
  • Geese, Queensland, 22.
  • Gentleman, black, 84.
  • Geology—mountain and river systems, primitive rock, coal-bearing strata, fossils, “desert sandstone,” volcanoes, gold, 366–368.
  • Georgina river, 128;
    • romance of, 213.
  • Gidya-scrub, 37.
  • Gold, passim;
    • annual production, 9;
    • region, 253;
    • mount, 324.
  • Gould, 23, 171.
  • Gracemere, residence in, 17, 20, 21;
    • flora and fauna, 24;
    • landscape, 26;
    • return to, 61;
    • snake story, 61.
  • Grallina picata, 94.
  • Granadilla, and fruit, 79.
  • Grauan, jungle-hen, 149.
  • Great Dividing Range, 34, 102 passim.
  • Greenshank, 56.
  • Grogoragally, son of the Supreme, 283.
  • Guana, 79.
  • Gum-tree. Vide Eucalyptus.
  • Hair, cutter, 108;
    • quality, quantity of, 131.
  • Handicraft, 331.
  • Harpoon, 317.
  • Hawks in Queensland, 62.
  • Heaven and hell, 283.
  • Helix cunninghamii, 27.
  • Hemibelideus, a new sub-genus, 196.
  • Herbert river, passim;
    • nets, 94.
  • Herbert Vale, 65–74;
    • quarters, 76;
    • abandoned for cattle station, 78;
    • keeper and Kanaka at, 80;
    • bill of fare, 81;
    • cook, 80 seq.;
    • farewell, 302.
  • Hinchinbrook Island, 67.
  • Historical Timeline—before discovery, Explorers and Adventurers, colonisation, 353–365.
  • Holloway’s pills, 280.
  • 392Home life among natives, 191.
  • Honey, 194, 195 passim.
  • Hoplocephalus, 62.
  • Hornets, 38.
  • Horse-racing, 7.
  • Houses, North Queensland, 79.
  • Humour, native, 239, 291.
  • Husband, duties of, 161.
  • Hyla cærulea, 18.
  • Hypsiprymnodon moschatus, rare, 114.
  • Idolatry non-existent, 129.
  • Iguana, 53.
  • Imitative faculty, 291.
  • Infant colour, 132.
  • Inoceramus maximus, 367.
  • Irichosurus vulpecula, 11, 19, 221, 232.
  • Irish shepherd, a type, 40.
  • Isis Downs station, 57;
    • liquor-dealer, 60, 61.
  • Itaka, ornamental tufts, 238.
  • Jabiru (yabiru), 96.
  • Jacaranda, Brazil, 21.
  • Jackass, laughing, a kingfisher, 26, 382.
  • Jacky, native attendant, 77, 92;
    • his full dress, 120;
    • at contest, 125;
    • story-teller, 256;
    • inciting to murder, 290.
  • Jimmy, a native, a murderer, 245–251, 254;
    • portrait of, 255;
    • scene of crime, 261.
  • Jungle-hens, 96;
    • mound-builders, 97.
  • Kadjera, poisonous palm, 164.
  • Kāmin, climbing instrument, 89.
  • Kanaka, 64;
  • Kangaroo Island, 2.
  • Kangaroo, larger, 29;
    • hunt, 33;
    • hard to kill, 180;
    • tree-kangaroo, see Dendrolagus lumholtzii;
    • rat, 11, 27, 29;
    • size, 327;
    • nature and nutrition of young, 379;
    • strength and boldness, 327, 328.
  • Kassik, a pack-horse, 74, 138, 289;
  • Kélanmi, native girl, story of, 233 seq.
  • Kidneys, eating the human, 272.
  • Kingfisher, 97;
    • racket-tail, 97;
    • blue and red, 150;
    • all over the world, 382.
  • Kings appointed by squatters, 336 seq.
  • Kissing unknown, 213.
  • Kite, 43;
    • noticeable, 57.
  • Koraddan, a fruit, 165
  • Korroboree, 41, 237.
  • Kusso and kamala, Abyssinian cure for tape-worm, 153.
  • Kvingan, evil spirit, 201, 205.
  • Ladies, white, 8;
    • in the bush, 322 seq.
  • Lagoons, Valley of, 243;
    • origin of name, 253.
  • Lagorchestes conspicillatus (rat), 29.
  • Landscape, Australian, breathes melancholy, 209.
  • Languages, all closely allied, 304;
    • comparative words for eye, 305;
    • numerals, 306, 309;
    • personal pronouns, 306;
    • common peculiarities, 306;
    • grammar, 307;
    • origin, 307;
    • comparative syntax, 307;
    • brevity of expression, 308;
    • suffix go, 308;
    • proper names, 309;
    • named from negatives, one from affirmative, Langue d’oc et oyl, 310;
    • comparative table, 311;
    • words from Herbert river, 312, 313.
  • Larvæ, edible, in acacia, 153, 154 passim.
  • Lathrodectus scelio (spider), 39.
  • Lava, 253.
  • Leaves as toy-boomerangs, 52.
  • Lemons, antidote to tick-bites, 266.
  • Leucopathia acquisita, 99.
  • Liberality of Gongola, 180;
    • of hunter, 198.
  • Livistonia, 103, 150.
  • Lizard, 27, 384.
  • Loquat, 79.
  • Lotus-bird, 22.
  • Love among natives, 213.
  • Lung-fish (Ceratodus forsteri), 385.
  • Mackay river, 63.
  • M‘Leay’s Museum, Sydney, 14.
  • Macropus, dorsalis, 29;
    • giganteus, 29.
  • Magpie, Australian, 33.
  • Mango, 21.
  • Mangola-Maggi, a native, 258, 287.
  • Mangoran, a study, 112;
    • danger from, 288 seq.
  • Marriage ceremonies, 212, 213.
  • Marsilea (nardu), 41.
  • Marsupials, destructive to grass, 29;
    • smallest, 43.
  • Mat as clothing, 169.
  • Matrimony in Queensland, 60.
  • Megaloprepia magnifica, 214.
  • Megapodius tumulus, 149. Vide Fauna.
  • Melaleuca leucadendron, 24.
  • Melbourne, 5;
    • climate, 8;
    • Queen of the South, 12.
  • 393Melodies, native, 41, 156–158.
  • Message sticks, 303, 304.
  • Miasma, 261.
  • Migration of souls, 279, 282.
  • Mika-operation, 47.
  • Miklucho-Maclay, Baron, 47.
  • Milk, rarely used in bush, 36, 57;
    • a luxury, 88.
  • Minnie Downs, 31, 35;
    • farewell to, 61.
  • Mitchell-grass, 37.
  • Mólle-Mólle, a native tragedy, 246.
  • Mongan, a mammal, 172, 215.
  • Monsoons, 102.
  • Moogeegally, half human, half divine, 283.
  • Morbora, a native, 286.
  • “More pork,” 32.
  • Morelia variegata, 294.
  • Moreton Bay, 16.
  • Mosquito-nets, 56.
  • Mosses, note on, 374, 375.
  • Mound-builder, 97.
  • Mount Morgan, gold, 324.
  • Mountains, Blue, 15;
    • Coast; 101, 102, 116, 140;
    • Great Dividing Range, 34, 102;
    • Cordilleras, 102;
    • Sea-View Range, 121, 180;
    • annoyance from leeches, 265.
  • Mourning, signs of, 203.
  • Mueller, Baron F. von, 9. Vide Flora.
  • Mullagan, black giant, 129.
  • Mullet, fresh-water, 23.
  • Mummy, 278.
  • Murder, punishment of, 45.
  • Murrumbidgee, 129.
  • Mūrŭp (revenant), 279.
  • Music, vocal and instrumental, 156, 236.
  • Musical instruments, 157.
  • Myall, savage blacks, or Acacia pendula, 49, 76.
  • Mycteria australis, 96.
  • Mygnimia australasiæ (hornet), 38.
  • Myths, South Australia, 282.
  • Nardu, 41.
  • Natives (Diamantina river), 44;
    • slaughter of, 53;
    • study of, 80;
    • mark of distinction, 84;
    • traits, 100;
    • cannibals, 101;
    • instinct for locality, 108;
    • terror of firearms, 108;
    • insensibility to cold, 111, 114;
    • contest, 119;
    • idea of number, 129;
    • two types of, 129;
    • voices of, 135;
    • comprehension of pictures, 154;
    • disposition of, 158;
    • occupations of, 177;
    • burial customs, 277;
    • keenness of sight, 295;
    • snake cooking, 296.
  • Natives, in original condition, 104;
    • food, 106;
    • terror of darkness and devil, 114;
    • acute sense of smell, 114;
    • agility, 115;
    • morning toilet, 116;
    • height, 129;
    • dread of rain, 140;
    • as woodcutters, 148;
    • friendliness, 180.
  • Nelly, the cook, 80, 178;
    • hunting, 222;
    • change in, 269;
    • bloodthirsty, 290.
  • Nelumbium speciosum, 25.
  • Nephrurus asper, 329.
  • Ngalloa, rare animal, 220.
  • Nilgora, typical savage, 223, 241, 242.
  • Nocuous grasses, 23, 43.
  • Nogoa river, 34.
  • Nolla-nolla, club, 72, 122.
  • Norseman cold in Australia, 30.
  • Norwegian scheme, 8.
  • Nuphar luteum, 14.
  • Opals, 44.
  • Opium, abuse of, 338.
  • Opossum, 11, 91;
  • Orange-groves, Parramatta river, 15;
    • trees, Queensland, 21;
    • moth, 28;
    • orchards, 79.
  • Ornaments, personal, of natives, 135–137, 238.
  • Ornithorhynchus, killed, 214;
    • swimming, 253.
  • Orthonyx spaldingii, 155.
  • Orthoptera, 73, 151.
  • Otĕro, and other relationships, 199;
    • ingratitude of Yanki’s, 209.
  • Palm, lawyer, home of, 152, 172;
  • Pandanus, 95.
  • Pantomime, primitive, 239.
  • Papillæ mammæ cut off, 135.
  • Papyrus, Egyptian, 21.
  • Parasites and epiphytes, 25.
  • Parra gallinacea, 22.
  • Parramatta river, 15.
  • Parrot, affection of, 34;
    • scarce, 94.
  • Pasturage, 37.
  • Peak Downs, 29, 45.
  • Peculiar smell of natives, 135.
  • Pediculi, 117.
  • Pelargonium, Queensland, 21.
  • Pelicans, Queensland, 22.
  • Perch, Queensland, 23.
  • Petauroides, volans, 91, 181;
    • breviceps, 208.
  • Phalanger, flying, 90.
  • Phascolarctus cinereus, 9.
  • 394Phascologale minutissima, 43, 44, 294.
  • Phragmites communis, 23.
  • Phrictis crassipes, 38.
  • Pickle-bottle, a native, 112;
    • obstinacy of, 138.
  • Pigeon, Diamantina river, 43;
    • Torres Strait, 96;
    • rare, North Queensland, 208;
    • king, 214.
  • Pike, gar-fish, 23.
  • Pimelea hæmatostachya, 29.
  • Pine-apple, Queensland, 21.
  • Pipes, 113;
    • holders for, 130.
  • Pitta strepitans, 27.
  • Pituri, 49.
  • Platycercus pulcherrimus, 34;
    • nest of, 327.
  • Platypus, 30.
  • Pleuro-pneumonia, 88.
  • Plotus, 22.
  • Podargus cuvierii, 32.
  • Poisons unknown, 174.
  • Police, native mounted, 46, 49;
    • cruelty of, 54;
    • native sergeant of, 251.
  • Pork, aversion to, 225.
  • Precarious position of author, 289 seq.
  • Preparation of food, 296.
  • Primitive tribe, a, 191.
  • Protector of the blacks, 73;
    • murdered, 262.
  • Pseudechis, black snake, 64.
  • Pseudochirus, archeri, 152, 173, 266;
  • Ptiloris victoriæ, 171.
  • Ptychosperma cunninghamii, 171.
  • Punishment, 126.
  • Python, Australian, 294.
  • Quandang-tree, 70.
  • Queensland, proportion of men to women, 59;
    • dialect of white children, 8;
    • East, 16;
    • precious metals, 44;
    • native mounted police, 46;
    • climate, 19, 57;
    • Central, 21;
    • sugar, 64;
    • natives, 68, 69;
    • Northern, blacks of, 11;
    • Western (dew), 33, 35;
    • farewell to, 61;
    • Queen’s Hotel, Townsville, 65.
  • Quinine, 74.
  • Rain in bush, 169, 312.
  • Rats, plague of, 43;
    • method of catching, 73.
  • Rape of the Sabines, 184.
  • Religion, 339.
  • Respect for old women, 200.
  • Rice, 74.
  • Rifle-bird, 171.
  • Ring-barking, 9.
  • Rivers, Yarra, 9;
    • Parramatta, 15;
    • Fitzroy, 16;
    • Brisbane, 16;
    • Burnett, 21;
    • Dee, 30;
    • Nogoa, 34;
    • Thompson, 40;
    • Dawson, 45;
    • Diamantina, 55;
    • Mackay, 63;
    • Boulya, 128;
    • Murrumbidgee, 129;
    • Murray, tribes on the, 284;
    • Herbert River and Vale, 66 seq.
  • Rockhampton, 16;
    • botanical gardens, 17;
    • flora and fauna, 24;
    • drunkards in, 57;
    • return to, 61.
  • Rock-wallabies, 253.
  • Sacrifices unknown, 284.
  • Sandy blight, 57.
  • Scenery, passim; Herbert river, 74, 315.
  • Scenopæus dentirostris (bower-bird), 139.
  • Screw-palm, 95.
  • Scrub, 37, 96, 102, 289;
    • stillness, 294;
    • clad mountain-tops, 302.
  • Scythrops novæ-hollandiæ, 97.
  • Sequoia wellingtonia, 9.
  • Serpent adventure, 299.
  • Sheep farmers, 35.
  • Silver, 44.
  • Skulls, 259;
    • measurements, 260.
  • Slaughter day, 85.
  • Smell of land, 2.
  • Sminthopsis virginiæ, 252, 294.
  • Snakes, 61, 62, 64;
    • hunting, as food, cooking, sharing, flesh-flavour, 294 seq.
  • Snake-birds, 22.
  • Snake bites, treatment of, 183, 298.
  • Soap, natives fond of, 291.
  • Spear-grass, 23.
  • Spearmen, 92.
  • Specimens, packing and conveying of, 300.
  • Spider paralysed by hornet, 38.
  • Springsure, Kangaroo hunt near, 33.
  • Spruce, Australian, 21.
  • Squatter’s homestead, 59.
  • Squirrel, flying, 90.
  • Starling, glossy, 96.
  • Station, description of a, 36;
    • korroboree at Westlands, 41.
  • Stigmodera (beetle), 220.
  • Stinging-tree, 152.
  • Stock, Queensland, 21;
  • Sugar, 64;
    • a necessary, 264;
    • cane, 75;
    • plantation, 301.
  • 395Suttungo, tobacco, 113.
  • Swamp-pheasant, 94.
  • Sweet-potato, 78.
  • Talegalla, 73, 97;
  • Talgoro, 188, 271.
  • Tallow, 37.
  • Tamarind, 21.
  • Tambo, town, 61.
  • Tanysiptera, 97.
  • Tattooing unknown, 137.
  • Thompson, river, 40;
    • town, 56.
  • Thor’s hammer and the boomerang, 52.
  • Throwing-stick, 93.
  • Ticks, 266.
  • Tiger, marsupial, 101.
  • Tin, 44.
  • Torilla, its host and his family, 315, 322.
  • Treachery of natives, 44, 167, 289.
  • Tree-ferns, Victoria, 11;
    • North Queensland, 151.
  • Trinity, idea and persons of a, 129, 283.
  • Triodia irritans, 43.
  • Tristiana suaveolens, 25.
  • Tobacco, 73;
  • Tobola, 99;
    • unbeaten, 217;
    • preparation of, 230.
  • Toollah, opossum, 152.
  • Topinard, Dr., on the blacks, 129.
  • Torrens, Lake, 129.
  • Totanus glottis, 56.
  • Towdala, a bird, 155.
  • Townsville, 65 passim.
  • Turkey, brush, 73.
  • Uromys, 294.
  • Veera, a fig, 208.
  • Venereal and other diseases, 182.
  • Victoria, working-class influence, 8.
  • Vine-scrub, 26.
  • Vines, Queensland, 21.
  • Vitiligo, white spots, 99.
  • Vitis climatidea, 26.
  • Vondo, a root, 207.
  • Wader, 96.
  • Wallaby, 29;
    • hunting, 91–94;
    • rock, 209;
    • feeding, 209.
  • Wardrobe, author’s, 108.
  • Water-hen, 27;
    • iguana, 155;
    • lilies, blue, 22.
  • Water, precious in bush, 39;
    • bad in the interior, 42.
  • Waverley station, Gracemere, 62.
  • Weapons, 120, 127, 332 seq.
  • Weaver-bird, 70, 96.
  • Western river, 44.
  • Westwood, 27;
    • rats at, 44.
  • Windex station, hospitality at, 43.
  • Winter, 293.
  • Winton, 56, 59.
  • Witchcraft of strangers, 298.
  • Wives, native, 163.
  • Wizards, 279;
    • producing rain, 282.
  • Women, seldom seen, 59;
    • timidity of, 91;
    • condition of, 100;
    • old, at contests, 124;
    • matrimonial changes, 127;
    • beards, 131;
    • personal appearance of, 132;
    • child-birth, 134;
    • ornamental scars improper, 137;
    • occupation of, 160;
    • greatest crime, 162;
    • patience of, 192;
    • destined from birth, 221;
    • infanticide and cannibalism among, 254, 272;
    • rough nurses, 257.
  • Wood exported from Queensland, 67.
  • Wood-swallow, 28.
  • Xanthorrhæa, 373.
  • Xylomelum pyriforme, 369.
  • Yabby, a new phalanger, 196.
  • Yamina, a monster, 201.
  • Yanki, a rare fig, 208;
    • a man’s name, 209.
  • Yarra river, 5.
  • Yarri, tiger, 101, 117, 151, 266.
  • Yokkai, a native attendant, 214;
  • Yopolo, 114.
  • York, Cape, 102.
  • Wildlife biologists, a family of, 323 seq.
FINIS

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
  1. P. 359, changed “West Australia, founded in 1839” to “West Australia, founded in 1829”.
  2. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in spelling.
  3. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed.

Download ePUB

If you like this ebook, consider a donation!